Planning and implementing forest operations to achieve ... - Woodweb

_#i_ _ United States 

__DepartmentOfAgriculture 

Planning and Implementing 

Service Forest Forest Operations to 

_o_h0e0,r_, Achieve Sustainable 

Forest Experiement 

Station 

Forests 

General Technical 

Report NC-186 Proceedings of Papers Presented at the Joint Meeting 

of the Council on Forest Engineering and International 

Union of Forest Research 

Organizations

1996 COFE/IUFRO MEETING SPONSORS 

USDA Forest Service, North Central Station 

University of Minnesota 

SISU-Valmet, 

Inc. 

Mead Paper Company 

Stone Container Corporation 

Champion International Corporation 

USDA Forest Service, Hiawatha National Forest 

Michigan Department of Natural Resources 

Minnesota Department of Natural Resources 

Timberline Equipment, A Division of Lake Shore, Inc. 

Quadco Equipment, Inc. 

T_mbco Hydraulics, Inc. 

Harvest Systems, lnc, 

North Central Forest Experiment Station 

Forest Service--U.S. Department of Agriculture 

1992 Folwell Avenue 

St. Paul, Minnesota 55108 

Manuscript approved for publication June 10, 1996 

1996

PROCEEDINGS 

OF THE MEETING ON 

PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING FOREST 

OPERATIONS TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABLE FORESTS 

Council On Forest Engineering (COFE) 

19th Annual Meeting 

International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) 

Subject Group $3.04-00 Operational planning and control; work study 

July 29-August 1, 1996 

Marquette, Michigan USA 

Hosted 

by 

USDA Forest Service 

Houghton, Michigan, USA 

and 


St. Paul, Minnesota, USA 

Editors 

Charles R. Blinn and Michael A. Thompson

FOREWORD 

The Council On Forest Engineering (COFE) is a professional organization based in North 

America that is interested in matters related to forest engineering. Through an annual meeting 

with technical sessions, field sessions, and publication of a proceedings, and through regional 

activities, COFE encourages the exchange of information and technologies relating to forest 

operations (harvesting, site preparation, road building, wood procurement, etc.). The 

International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) Subject Group $3.04-00 is an 

international network of researchers interested in the development of methods and systems used 

to plan and control forest operations. Subject Group meetings are held somewhere in the world 

on an as-needed basis. 

The theme forthis years joint COFEflUFRO meeting is "Planning and Implementing Forest 

Operations to Achieve Sustainable Forests." The meeting is composed of five half-day technical 

sessions focusing in the implementation of sustainable forest practices, forest operations and the 

environment, improving the efficiency of forest operations, and planning and controlling forest 

operations. The full-day field tour highlights sustainable forest practices under upper midwest 

forest conditions. Other highlights include a keynote speaker from a prominent forest products 

company in the midwest, a COFE International Achievement Awards Ceremony, and COFE and 

IUFRO business meetings. Participants are from all around the world. 

We would like to thank the sponsors of this meeting: USDA Forest Service, North Central 

Station; University of Minnesota; SISU-Valmet, Inc.; Mead Paper Company; Stone Container 

Corporation; Champion International Corporation; USDA Forest Service, Hiawatha National 

Forest; Michigan Department of Natural Resources; Minnesota Department of Natural 

Resources; Timberline Equipment, A Division of Lake Shore, Inc.; Quadco Equipment, Inc.; 

Timbco Equipment, Inc.; and Harvest Systems, Inc. Without their assistance, this meeting 

would not have been possible. We would also like to thank all the many individuals that helped 

set up the meeting, but will not name them due to space limitations (you know who you are). 

Special thanks go to Mary Ann Hellman of the University of Minnesota and Mary Peterson from 

the North Central Forest Experiment Station for their assistance in the production of this 

proceedings. 

Charles R. Blinn 

Michael A. Thompson 



1996 COFE Co-Chair 1996COFE Co-Chair 

DISCLAIMER: The papers in this proceedings have received only a cursory edit by the Editors 

before being published; the content and views expressed are the responsibility of the individual 

authors and their publication should not be construed as official endorsement by the University 

of Minnesota or the USDA Forest service.

Table of Contents 

Welcome a_d Announcements 

Mike Thompson, 1996 COFE Co-Chair and Esko Mikkonen, 1UFRO $3.04 Leader 

Page 

Welcome Address 

State Representative David Anthony, 10th District, Escanaba, MI, USA 

Session 1: Achieving Sustainable Forests in Practice 

Moderator: Peter Grieves, Michigan Association ofTimbermen, Newberry, MI, USA 

The American Forest & Paper Association Sustainable Forestry Initiative: A progress report after six months 

of member company implementation 

John Heissenbuttel .................................................................................................................................................................... 1 

Successes and challenges associated with implementing the Sustainable Forestry Initiative in the Lake States: 

A member company perspective 

Jim Okraszewski ....................................................................................................................................................................... 2 

Successes and challenges associated with implementing the Sustainable Forestry Initiative in the Lake States: 

A contractor perspective 

Earl St. John .............................................................................................................................................................................. 3 

Certification as a tool for monitoring sustainable forestry practices 

Richard Donovan ...................................................................................................................................................................... 4 

Achieving sustainable forests: A Canadian perspective 

Eric L. Kay ............................................................................................................................................................................... 5 

Sustainable forestry: European perspective 

Dr. Pierre F.J. Abeels .............................................................................................................................................................. 14 

Multi-purpose management and biodiversity: The experience of the Office National des Forets (France), 

forest planning of the Romersberg state-owned forest 

Christophe Gallemant and Robin Degron .............................................................................................................................. 22 

State of the art in logger education: Emerging roles and responsibilities 

Dr. John J. Garland ................................................................................................................................................................. 32 

Panel Discussion -Achieving Sustainable Forests 

(with the previous eight presenters) 

Session 2: Forest Operations 

and the Environment 

Moderator: 

Paul Ktocko, American Pulpwood Assoc., Wausau, WI, USA 

Evaluation of harvest planning training 

Dr. Robert Shaffer and Greg Meade ....................................................................................................................................... 39 

Enviromnental concerns affecting forest operations on public lands in the central Appalachians 

Dr. John E. Baumgras ............................................................................................................................................................. 40

Page 

Predicting the operability of South Carolina coastal plain soils for alternative harvesting systems 

J. Steven Carruth and James C. Brown .................................................................................................................................. 47 

Soil compaction and disturbance research on recent timber harvest operations in Oregon 

Dr. Paul Adams, Dr. Loren D. Kellogg, Marganne Allen, and Johan Hogervorst .................................................................. 54 

Timber harvester perceived costs and benefits of applying water quality best management practices in Minnesota 

Dr. Charles R. Blinn and Rick Dahlman ................................................................................................................................ 55 

A new concept and approach to the introduction of mechanized silvicultural operations and 

equipment to rural, timber-based communities 

Dr. Peter Schiess, Dr. Joseph McNeet, and Bart Phillips ....................................................................................................... 61 

Quantifying residual stand damage in partial harvest operations 

Stephen J. Pilkerton ................................................................................................................................................................ 62 

Damage to residual trees during partial harvests: Measurement, analysis, and implications 

Dr. Joseph McNeel, David Briggs, and Brent Peterson ......................................................................................................... 73 

How to manage thinning with low damages of standing trees: Experience from the model 

Bostjan Kosir .......................................................................................................................................................................... 82 

Sustainable forest management in grey alder stands as energy and buffer forests in Estonia 

Dr. Hardi Tullus, Uto Mander, Krista Lohlnus, Krista Keedus, and Veiko Uri ...................................................................... 92 

Session 3: Improving Efficiency of Forest Operations 

Moderator: Tom Snellgrove, USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC, USA 

Cut-to-length harvesting on a small woodlot in New England: A case study 

Nei! K. Huyler and Dr. Chris B. LeDoux ............................................................................................................................. 102 

Cable yarding as a low-impact alternative on sensitive sites in the Lake States 

John A. Sturos and Michael A. Thompson ........................................................................................................................... 109 

Value maximization of fbrest stands through optimal inventory and cross-cutting methodologies 

Dr. Maarten Nieuwenhuis and Liam Malone ....................................................................................................................... 117 

Progress report on the development of an integrated value management system 

Dr. Glen Murphy, David Lane, and Paul Cossens ................................................................................................................ 124 

The cost of product sorting during harvesting 

Jean-Francois Gingras .......................................................................................................................................................... 130 

International standards for forest equipment 

Bob Rummer ........................................................................................................................................................................ 136 

Research and Equipment Manufacturer Poster Session 

Application of geographic information systems in forest engineering 

Dr. Zhao Chen, Dr. Lin Tao, Tiao Jianyue, and Ma Jianxiao ............................................................................................... 141 

A model for predicting net revenue from harvesting operations in coastal second-growth forests 

in British Columbia 

Bjorn Andersson ................................................................................................................................................................... 147

Page 

Commercial aspen thinning: Synthesizing harvesting systems and silviculture needs 

John McCoy .......................................................................................................................................................................... 148 

Wood utilization options for ecosystem management 

Dr. John E. Baumgras and Dr. Kenneth E. Skog .................................................................................................................. 149 

HW-BUCK: A computerized optimal bucking decision simulator for training hardwood 

log buckers to improve value recovery 

Dr. James B. Pickens and Dr. W.E. Frayer ........................................................................................................................... 150 

Temporary stream and wetland crossing options 

Dr. Charles R. Blinn ............................................................................................................................................................. 151 

Mechanical delimbing of northern hardwoods: Results from laboratory tests 

Joseph B. Sturos and Dr. James A. Mattson ......................................................................................................................... 160 

Proposed international standard definitions for time consumption in the study of forest work 

Michael A. Thompson, Rolf Bjorheden, and Dr. Jeremy Rickards ...................................................................................... 161 

Rapid stabilization of thawing soils: A demonstration project 

Maureen A. Kestler, Sally A. Shoop, Karen S. Henry, and Jeffrey A. Stark ........................................................................ 166 

Designing regeneration systems for sustainable management of Lake States forested wetlands 

A.J. Londo, C.J. Pappas, D.D. Reed, R. Aschbacher, J. Chen, M.R. Gale, and G. D. Mroz ............................................... 179 

Stream crossings 

Eric L. Kay ........................................................................................................................................................................... 180 

Forest Industry Safety and Training Alliance (FISTA) 

Don Peterson ........................................................................................................................................................................ 181 

Northeast 

U.S. and Eastern Canada 

COFE Regional Reports 

Dr. David Field and Jean-Francois Gingras ......................................................................................................................... 183 

South 

Tom Reisinger ...................................................................................................................................................................... 186 

Lake States and Central Canada 

Rick Dahlman ....................................................................................................................................................................... 188 

Inland West U.S. 

Lawson Starnes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 194 

Western U.S. and Canada 

Jack Cullen and Bjorn Andersson ......................................................................................................................................... 198 

Europe 

Esko Mikkonen ..................................................................................................................................................................... 200 

Session 4: Planning and Control 

Systems 

Moderator: Dr. Jeremy Rickards, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, Canada

Page 

A mixed-integer programming model for tactical forest operations planning 

Ragnar M.R. Oborn .............................................................................................................................................................. 

201 

Timber harvest planning in the Pacific Northwest: Lessons for Tanzanianplantation forests 

Dunstan T.K. Shemwetta and Dr. John J. GarlandSess ........................................................................................................ 212 

Maximizing financial yields while meeting landowner objectives and ecosystem goals 

Dr. Chris B. LeDoux, B. Gopalakrishnan, and Sheshadri Mudiyanur ................................................................................. 220 

An interactive simulation of partial cutting operations of feller-bunchers 

Jingxin Wang and Dr. W. Dale Greene ................................................................................................................................. 227 

The History of Forest Engineering 

Dr. Jim Fridley ...................................................................................................................................................................... 232 

The genesis of COFE: A populist response to a professional need 

Dr. George Brown ................................................................................................................................................................. 243 

Session 5: Planning and Control Technology 

Moderator: Sheila Helgath, Bayside Limited, Seattle, WA, USA 

Integrated Forest Management Systems (IFMS) designs for North American forest products companies 

Dr. Ted Robak ....................................................................................................................................................................... 246 

Quality-based wood procurement planning and industrial end-use of wood 

Dr. Esko Mikkonen ............................................................................................................................................................... 256 

Business process improvement: The key to satisfied customers and cost reduction 

Sten-Gunnar Skutin .............................................................................................................................................................. 260 

Detecting manmade forest activities and natural disasters using Landsat TM satellite data: 

A method presented for controlling continuously updated forest information in Finland 

Jari Varjo ............................................................................................................................................................................... 269 

A model of timber skidding predicting 

Janez Kr6 ....... 

....................................................................................................................................................................... 277

THE AMERICAN FOREST AND PAPER 

ASSOCIATION SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY 

INITIATIVE" A PROGRESS REPORT AFTER 

SIX MONTHS OF MEMBER COMPANY 

IMPLEMENTATION t 

by 

John Heissenbuttel 

American Forest and Paper Association 

Washington, District of Columbia, USA 

Oral presentation only, abstract not available. 

z_ at the joint meeti_ c4"_e Coencil On Fccmt Engineecin8 

andImamticealUzm ofFccmRewm_ Orlltai_iem Subjea 

Group 83.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29.Aulpmt 1, 1996.

SUCCESSES AND CHAIJ_NGES 

ASSOCIATED WITH-IMPLEMENTING THE 

SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY INITIATIVE IN 

THE LAKE STATES: A CONTRACTOR 

PERSPECTIVE l 

by 

Earl St. John 

St. John Forest Products 

Spalding, Michigan, USA 


1Presented atthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering 

andInternational UnionofForestResearchOrganizations Subject 

Group$3.04-00,Marquette, MI,July29-August1, 1996. 

3

CERTIFICATION AS A TOOL FOR 

MONITORING SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY 

PRACTICES 1 

by 

RichardZ. Donovan 

Rainforest Alliance 

Richmond, Vermont,USA 

ABSTRACT: Methods have been developed for 

monitoring forest management practices (pre-, during-, 

and post-harvest) in temperate, tropical and boreal 

forests. On-site assessments are implemented using 

techniques that provide site-specific monitoring in 

terms of silvicultural, ecological and community, or 

socio-economic impacts. A wide range of field 

conditions have been confronted, ranging from large, 

ecologically diverse single ownerships (e.g., over 1 

million acres) to multiple small ownerships ranging in 

size from 40 to 500 acres. Costs of such monitoring 

can range from as high as US$ l per acre, to as low as 

US$ .01 per acre, depending on the forest size, 

biophysical diversity, land ownership patterns, and 

variations in harvesting and other silvicultural 

treatmonts. Thispresentation describes the techniques 

being used for this type of monitoring, costs and 

benefits of such monitoring, and perspectives on future 

changes in the state-of-the-art of such monitoring. 

Key Word.: certification, monitoring, reducedimpact 

logging, ecological assessment, harvesting practices 

t_ at the joint meeting of the CocCI On Focc_t Eagineedng 

and Intenmficmal Unioe of Forest R___ Oq_ir_!om Subject 

Cramp $3.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1, 1996. 

4

THE INVISIBLE MONUMENT, lodges, wood for fish drying racks, and the use of wood 

ARMOR IN DEACTIVATION _ for survival throughto the changes of the present, and 

consider our "modern day" forest harvesting is just over 

by 

one hundred years old. The infrastructurethat we 

presently use for harvesting will be bypassed by 

Eric L. Kay 

technology of the day just as today's harvesting methods 

Kay and Associates, Training Consultants have totally eclipsed the methods of early this century. 

Black Creek, British Columbia, Canada Long gone are the oxen and the steam train. In today's 

harvesting and transport, the truck and helicopter are 

king. The upcoming 2 l'st century7 What will 

ABSTRACT: Deactivation is a new science but we harvesting and transport systems be like in the future? 

can now learn from the procedures of the last few 

Are our procedures and actions of today going to stand 

comparative years. The problem that has been shown the test of time? 

from past work is that excessive erosion has taken 

place in work that we have done. Erosion and 

subsequent sediment production is what we are trying THE IMPORTANCE OF ARMOR 

to prevent in the deactivation process. The biggest 

area of concern has been where we have placed a cross The forces of erosion need to be combated not with 

ditch or waterbar and their failure due to lack of proper swords of steel, but with a suit of ..... "Rocks"..... The 

Armor. (Minor erosion is classified as a failure as adequate compaction and Armoring of cross ditches, 

much as the failure to direct water in its intended path. water bars and ditchbloeks will be our monument to 

The minor erosion tends to become part of a larger 

face the ravages of time. Preparation by taking time 

problem with time.) 

and care in the gathering process of suitable material 

before the job begins will facilitate environmentally 

By the use of proper materials and proper compaction, sound construction. 

we can prevent failures and subsequent 

environmentally unacceptable siltation. The benefits of In the planning process it is necessary to take the time 

this extra work will be realized by time and nature, 

to assess: 

However, the more we imitate nature's ways in our • will Armor be needed at this site, 

work, the more successful we will be in creating a • is there enough naturally occurring Armor 

work which in time will become invisible, 

material at the site to do the job, 

• is the material of adequate size, 

Key Words: forest, road, deactivation, water, slope • can the operator separate it out, 

stability, armor • can the material be compacted, 

• does the operator have adequate training in 

the deactivation processes, and 

INTRODUCTION • will extra training be part of the plan? 

Test of time 

Deactivation is a process carried out to ensure natural 

water passage, ensure slope stability, and to provide 

enhanced growing sites not just for the immediate 

future but into the next millennium. The deactivation 

If there is not adequate Armor material,it willneedto 

be trucked in for the job. In the planning stage you will 

need to identify a source for this Armor material and 

record that information in the plan. Trucking can then 

be allowed for in the costing. 

process should not be looked upon astearing apartor 

Forest Practices Code 

destroying a road, but as the building of a monument to 

the future. The deactivation process should be just as The Forest Practices Code of British Columbia lays 

enduring as the pyramids, only a little less visible. In 

down a series of responsibilities and penalties for the 

the future our harvesting methods will change to 

planning, construction, modification, maintenance, and 

methods not even thought of today. We look back on deactivation of a forest road. 

the Aboriginal forest harvesting of cedar planks for 

Planning 

_Presented at the joint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering 

and International Union of For_t Research Organizations Subject Roads must be deactivatedaccording to a Deactivation 

Group $3.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1, 1996. Plan previously approved by the District Manager of 

5

that Forest District when they are no longer in regular • Semi-Permanent - All culverts/bridges are to 

use and are not being regularly maintained. At this 

be removed or backed up with a water control 

time, the roadway prism and cleared width must be device. Natural drainage is to be restored. 

stabilized and the drainage restored. 

Unstable side-cast material is pulled back. 

Integrated resource management objectives and • Natural drainage is restored. Over-steepened 

ongoing and future vehicle access requirements as 

side-cast material is pulled back and placed 

identified in the Access Management Plan must be 

against the cut-bank on the outsloped and 

incorporated into deactivation planning. The extent of scarified road surface. Cut-banks are 

deactivation as identified in the Access Management 

stabilized. 

Plan must take into consideration the period of time 

that regular use of the road is to be suspended and the Long-term liabilities 

risk to other resources. 

The completion of the deactivation process does not 

The Forest Development Plan, the Access Management absolve the overall responsibility for the area. Under 

Plan, The Forest Practices Code Regulations, 

the Code provisions, a person responsible must 

Standards, and Road/Cutting/Special use-Permits maintain the stability of that area. This act of 

govern the processes of deactivation. The British maintaining stability could possibly, in the future, 

Columbia Forest Service Guidebooks outline suggested require further remedial action such as seeding, 

practices and procedures, 

planting, water and slope control and remedial action. 

Deactivation 

Deactivation objectives 

Natural drainage/water management 

Thevaunted tools of learning such as a dictionary, or 

anencyclopedia define deactivate as "tomake 

The minimizing of siltation is a priority for the 

inactive". WE NEED TO GO BEYOND THIS 

deactivation process. Water management is 

DEFINITION! Just taking an area and its associated accomplished by ensuring natural passage for a 

roads from an active (in use) state to one of disuse is 

waterway. Remedial measures are to be taken to 

not enough to reverse the impact that that particular 

restore anyinterrupted drainage. Subsurface water, 

roador area has had on our environment. That 

once disturbed is very difficult to re-establish below 

particular piece of the environment belongs not only to ground. Once it has been brought to the surface, it 

you and I, the present people of the province, but 

presents a unique problem. You now have 

belongs also to our children's children! 

concentrated water where previously there was none. 

Reintroduction to subsurface flow is not easily 

By the way........ Logging impacts are not ALL accomplished. Percolation is slow and may not work 

negative! What can you think of as some practical at all in some ground. However, using french drains 

post harvest benefits of a road as well as providing site that reconnect to the underground drainage system can 

access? 

be tried. 

I reflect that the bulk of British Columbia's roads at one 

time or another were the result of access to the timber 

or for the transport of the finished product, 

Deactivation classes 

The Code interestingly says that we must not divert a 

water course. In the case of subsurface water it is 

generally accepted that a cross ditch be installed. But 

cautiouslyl You are now placing a concentrated 

amount of water onto an outside slope thathas never 

historically felt a concentration of water on its surface. 

As laid out in Bill 40 of the Forest Practices Code, 

there are three classes of deactivation: permanent, • We must now ask, is it safe to placethis 

semi-permanent, and temporary (seasonal); each with concentrated water at this point? 

its own 

responsibilities. 

• Will the concentrated water erode a channel 

• Seasonal - Roads, culverts, and bridges to be and transport sediment? 

backed up with a water control device as 

necessary. • Will it over-saturate the ground and in turn 

cause slope instability? 

6

• Will it fail to dissipate into the ground and Fill. Unsafe flU material is not limited to side cast 

continue to travel on the surface? Water has material from the road construction on a hillside but 

shown to travel downslope 2-300 meters and can also apply to fill material used to build up a road, 

finally find a piece of ground to oversaturate 

such as a low spot or a gully. These have the potential 

with a resulting midslope failure, 

to create a dam which could subsequently fail with 

great environmental impact. 

Having decided (in this case) that it is unsafe to place 

this now concentrated flow over the bank we have in 

Enhanced site productivity 

the past transported it in the ditehline (which is prone 

to failure) where it is introduced to the nearest Enhanced site productivity is the last of the ideals on 

watercourse and now could, in an extreme case have a the list. An ideal, because not all sites can be further 

detrimental effect by overloading the stream, enhanced. The aeration of compacted soil from ground 

based yarding, and the specific placing of organics on 

A solution successfully used by Dr. Bob Willington, 

reclaimed roads can return land base to the status of a 

has been to place a large french drain in the old ditch, 

productive site, but it needs to be reconciled that grass 

Excavated up to 1 meter diameter this drain is filled 

and trees do not readily grow on bare rock or raveling 

with well-draining material such as shot rock or 

slopes. 

cobbles, which has been wrapped, sausage-like in filter 

cloth and then covered with the sidecast material, 

Signa 

which probably had to be pulled back also. This 

engineered fi'ench drain transports the water to the 

Before deactivating a road it is necessary under the 

stream, but it now has the added advantage of allowing Code to post information as to the hazards that may be 

a large portion of the water to return sub-surface as its expected. As well as the warning "Road Deactivated" 

movement is restricted by the cobbles, rather than free- it is necessary to note any other hazards such as 

flowing unrestricted down an open ditch, and a portion "Bridges Removed" etc. 

isreintroduced subsurface.The french drain also 

keeps the pullback material placed on it well-drained, Re-establishing natural drainage 

which is an important benefit in fine textured soils. 

On roads of older construction (Pre-eode) it may be 

Restoring drainage on steep ground is comparatively 

necessary to re-establish natural drainage patterns. 

easy as the watercourse is usually obvious due to the 

A stream may have been diverted from the path of its 

accelerated erosion processes such as establishing 

natural course: 

gullies etc. However, on fiat ground the direction and • during the period of road construction, 

course of small waterflows can be very difficult to find • during the maintenance phase, or 

and re-establish. ° intheensuing timewhen maintenance was 

abandonedand 

Slope stability • drainage structures failed, 

• banks sloughed into ditches, 

Slope stability is the second of the requirements under • culverts plugged up. 

the Forest Practices Code and is one of our most 

serious liabilities in its capacity to do irreparable 

However, caution must be takent That diverted 

damage, 

watercourse must be examined closely as it may not be 

safe to plase the diverted water bask into it's old 

Cut Slopes. Unstable cut slopes and unstable fill channel. There may be a number of reasons. 

slopes are the two most visually obvious candidates. 

The easily visible sear of the cut slope earl be unstable ° It may be decided that the new channel has 

if it is not at its natural angle of repose (too steep) or 

been established for long enough to now be 

has stumps or boulders on it that could in time dislodge 

classified as the "natural" course. 

and lead to further slope movement. A rock face is not 

necessarily inherently stable. This rock face could • Rechanneling the water may create an 

possibly be unstable from frasturing during the blasting 

environmental disturbance and/or generate 

process, or incompetent rock overlying aeap. It could excessive sediment. 

be the source for large pieces to break off from the 

fi'eeze thaw effect and have an overall negative safety • Have a negative effect on the environment as 

andenvironmental impact, 

awhole. 

7

• The old stream bed may not be able to handle Fill material placed in a low spot or a gully is at risk as 

the historical flow due to the loss of water 

it can become a water retention barrier (dam) that not 

providing nutrients to streamside foliage or only interrupts and diverts natural water flow, but could 

other effects, 

fail, releasing pent up water in a sudden concentration 

with negative environmental impacts. 

A decision like this, once recognized, under the Forest 

Practices Code, calls for the expert attention of a water Brush/debris concerns and treatments 

specialist. As a note, under the code you personally 

may be held liable for not calling in expert advice when During pullback 

needed. 

Small brush should not be buried but should be 

Slope stabilization 

scattered on top of the material pulled back, and larger 

pieces should be placed perpendicular (up and down) 

Slope stabilization is a priority to ensure the survival of to the slope. These larger pieces should be securely 

the harvest species and to prevent excess sediment flow placeA (1/4 buried) into the slope, as not to move in 

from the processes of erosion on a failed slope. The time. Be sure to leave space to plant trees! 

question needs to be asked, at what degree of slope 

(angle of repose) will the area in question be stable? Other treatments 

Stable over not just the next few immediate years, but 

over the next few thousand years. 

Cutslopestabilization 

Excess brush from harvesting operations (with the goal 

of enhanced site productivity) may be dealt with in a 

numberofways: 

• scattering, 

Trimming back the cut slope to its natural angle of • piling preparatory to burning, 

repose is the ideal. Every material has a natural slope • trenching and burying the compacted brush by 

atwhich it is stable. Sandy material has a very low 

covering with 300+ mm (1 foot+) of soil, or 

slope angle while another compacted material may • by chipping or grinding and creating a mulch 

stand at a very steep angle. Often you not only have to 

which can then be spread thinly over the 

deal with the material but with water problems as well, forest floor. The addition of other traditional 

such as saturation and piping of water, which can entail "wastes" can create an enhanced mulch. (See 

ingenious solutions, 

up-comingLoggingand SawrnillingJournal 

conference. (604- 990-9970) 

However, natural slope stability can sometimes be 

impossible in some materials as you cannot trim back Enhanced site productivity 

all the way to the top of the mountain. It is then that we 

again need to call on the soils and stability experts. 

Enhancing work areas to increase viable planting sites 

Some possible solutions can include: needs to consider both land and road surfaces. 

• buttressing the toe of the slope with the 

previously side cast material or with trucked Land surfaces 

in rock, and 

• engineering a retaining structure at the toe of The treatment of land compacted by grotmd-based 

the slope, 

loggingcanbe accomplishedwithtools such as a 

"Winged subsoiler" pulled through the ground to aerate 

Fillslopestability 

thesoil. 

Fill material placed on a slope can be at risk from: 

Road surfaces 

• instability and movement of the material itself, 

• the fill material placing an undue weight on Road surfaces can be treated with a single or double 

the slope and leading to slope failure, 

tipper on a large cat to: 

• saturation of a slip layer under the fill, • decompact the road surface, 

• decay of organic material, stumps or logs, or • allow water to penetrate, or 

• the fill material can become over-saturated • create a mini-climate by mounding the soil. 

and magnify all the conditions previously 

mentioned. 

8

On pulled-back roads, ideally, material should be 

redefined so as not to restrict their flow with the placed 

placed in the order that it came out, large coarse 

pullback material. 

material on the bottom, mineral soils next, and then 

organics on top. If there are not enough organics to Cross ditches vs. waterbal's 

have a flail 300ram (1 foot) layer, then quantifies of 

good organic material should be placed (dumped) in In the past there has tended to be some confusion as to 

mounds 3 Meters (10 feet) apart to provide the best 

the definition and use ofa crossditch and a waterbar in 

enhanced planting sites, 

the deactivation plan; 

Mounding as a general technique to enhance a planting 

site not only provides shelter from icy winds in the 

juvenile years, but the south facing slope now is 

warmed by the sun and, in effect, creating a miniclimate. 

Seedlings can also now be planted at different 

levels on the mound to suit the varying climatic needs 

of the different species. 

The cross ditch is to drain the ditch line across the road. 

Whereas the waterbar stops and redirects the 

accumulated rain water on the roads surface. 

Cross ditches 

The cross ditch is, as a breakdown of its name implies; 

cros¢, as to cross the road and ditch, as to drain the 

Pullback of over-steepened sidecast material ditch line. It should be as deep as the ditch that it is 

draining. The term "cross ditch" is also generically 

The degree of pullback is commensurate with used when re-establishing a natural stream crossing. 

rendering the hillside stable. Generally, excess For permanent deactivation it is recommended the 

material is removed from as far downslope as the 

original shape of the watercourse be re-established by 

excavator can reach. The operator should aim to removing all fill material from the gully to allow 

remove the excess material down to the original duff 

unrestricted water flow in extreme event situations. 

layer. Provided the area is stable and it is safe to do so, This fill material, if left, could be transported during the 

the pulled-back material is placed against the cut-bank storm event. 

and on the outsloped and scarified road surface. ('Note: 

Natural drainage must be restored and maintained) 

The cross ditch should also be constructed so as not to 

"pond"or retain water at its inlet which could saturate 

When rehabilitating older roads from earlier or place an undue weight on the slope. It should follow 

construction methods when side cast material was the natural, pre-existing grotmdline as closely as 

acceptable, it may be necessary to prescribe that the possible. 

hoe "ramp down" to gain extra reach..But, considering 

that the area that you are working on is probably Skew - "to place at an angle" When draining a 

unstable ground due to water saturation, buried 

ditchline with a cross ditch, and the road is at an uphill 

organics, vegetative slip layers and/or uncompaeted 

or downhill grade or percentage, the cross ditch should 

sideeast, this could be unsafe to recommend. An be "skewed" a certain amount from the 90° angle to the 

answer that I have used is to prescribe the use of a 

road direction. 

cable dragline that can safely reach down the slope for 

long distances and can also place the pulled material As a guide, the skew angle should be a minimum of 

against a high cut bank to help buttress that slope. A 35* and increase 1° of skew for every increase in grade 

large machine of 50 metric tonnes (100,000+ lbs) is percentage. As an example, a road with an 8 percent 

again too heavy for safety, as the machine is placing an grade would have a recommended cross ditch skew of; 

undue weight on a previously identified unstable slope. 35° (skew) + 8% (grade) = 43° (crossditch skew). 

I have usually recommend a smaller machine in the 25 

metric tonne (60,000 lbs) class, that has a 2 cubic A deactivation operator will not have instruments with 

meter (2 yards) bucket capacity for bulking out which to ascertain the basis figures to calculate culvert 

material, yet is light enough on the slope to address the skew. From experience, the operator often will be able 

safety factor, 

to estimate quite accurately percentages and angles. 

However, are you prepared to stand by the chance of a 

Drainage concerns for pulled-back sidecast failure of an incorrect installation? And a subsequent 

material liability in the event of that failure? I suggest, in order 

to eliminate the risk factor, that it should not be left up 

Naturalstreams, bank seepages, seasonal streams, and to theoperator. That extra few minutes taken to 

dry watercourses, must have their drainage channels identify the outfall and hang a ribbon will be well worth 

9

the knowledge that you have taken the "chance" out of If a cross ditch is expected to carry traffic, then it must 

the equation. As an added bonus you will have also be built to withstand the destructive effects of that 

prevented the chance of water being placed on an 

traffic. Any of the features of the cross ditch, 

unsuitable slope as discussed below under "Fill and sides/bottom/berm, must be constructed so that they are 

mid-slope failures' 

not be damaged or deformed by the passage of vehicle 

traffic. Don't forget ATV_sand motorcycles! The 

Whether you are re-establishing a watercourse or rutting caused by motorcycles can be extremely 

draining a ditchline, there is a relationship between 

damaging due to the nature of their use. 

capacity and flow and it is affected by the design of the 

cross ditch. The hydrodynamic principle of mildly When placing a cross ditch, the location of its outfall or 

sloped, rounded bottom, gently sloping sides will give discharge is paramount. Diverting a watercourse into 

the best carrying capacity and erosion control. As the another drainage is not acceptable. Not only do you 

quantity of water increases, it can spread out and deprive water from its natural ecosystem but you 

maintain its slow rate of flow. A steep narrow channel overload the impacted drainage. Damage then occurs 

increases the velocity of the water and consequently it from the extra flow volumes and extra energy now 

will erode the bottom and sides very quickly with the generated. A boulder of say 300ram (1 foot) that was 

now increased force of the water. Actually the more historically stable in that stream bed can now be easily 

"driveable" a cross ditch is (even if it will never see a transported, altering the natural ecosystem of that 

vehicle) the better the hydrodynamic principles, waterway. 

A cross ditch to drain the ditchline must be placed at 

Use a cross ditch above a stream crossing location to 

the uphill end of the pullback section to keep the divert accumulated ditehline water onto vegetation to 

pullback material from becoming saturated with water filter out sediment. (Careful about the discharge 

from the ditchline above. Areas between pullback though, onto a steep gully sidewall or fine-textured 

sections can trap water in the ditchline and attention 

material will probably lead to failure!) 

will be needed to ensure proper drainage and need to 

be drained with a cross ditch. 

Caution must be taken when discharging concentrated 

water onto a rounded outside slope. We must always 

It needs to be remembered that a ditclaline with ask, is it safe to place concentrated water at this 

pullback material placed on top of it will still retain 

location? (See Fill and mid-slope failures section 

water and saturate the pullback material and possibly below.) 

lead to instability. The need here is to ensure the 

ditehline is well-drained with either an open cross ditch Ditehblock 

or a covered french drain. In this case, the covered 

french drain would be a simple cross ditch filled with 

To prevent water continuing down the ditchline, we 

drainable material (such as coarse-grained material, need to install a ditchblock. In road construction and 

cobbles or shot rock) and then covered with the maintenance we needed to construct a ditchblock that 

pullback material. (Filter cloth may need to be placed was lower than the road surface to allow passage of 

to prevent the french drain silting in) excess water down the ditchline (or down the road) in 

the event the crossing structure (culvert) is 

Historically, cross ditch failures have been the result 

overwhelmed. 

oflack of compaction, or the absence of adequate 

Armor. 

To deactivate the ditchblock, direct all the water (even 

during peak events) into the constructed cross ditch. 

The inlet, base, sides, and outflow all must be 

To ensure this, the ditchblock needs to be: 

adequately compacted and armored to resist erosion. • higher than the road, 

The armor material must be of adequate size for the • constructed of suitable non-erodible material, 

expected waterflow. If there is insufficient material at • well-compacted, and 

hand then it will be necessary to have armor material • well-armored with correct size material. 

trucked in. 

To prevent water continuing 

on its past way down the 

ditehline, we need to install a ditchbloek. (For Waterbars In the deactivation plan it may be planned to leave a i 

ditchblock considerations see section on ditchblocks) road surface undisturbed, such as: 

• in semi-permanent deactivation,

• where stability is not a question, and Silvaculture treatments 

• when the road surface is not being reclaimed 

as a planting area. 

In the planning process, before a road is permanently 

deactivated, it must be considered if the cut-block 

When a road is at a grade or slope, rain water builds up ground requires mechanical treatment with equipment 

and travels down the road surface. This concentration 

before planting? Potential treatments include brush 

of flow (usually in the wheel tracks) as it builds up can piling, ground scarification, or tilling. 

now have the capacity to transport sediment which in 

this case is the road surfacing material. The immediate Back spar trail rehabilitation 

eye attention is drawn to the rough eroded road surface. 

It is unacceptable to allow deposition of eroded 

Older pre-eode backspar trails can have many of the 

sediments and road frees into an adjacent watercourse, same concerns as a road. 

The waterbar is used to control water on the road . Alteration of drainage. 

surface. It commonly directs built-up surface flow 

either into the ditchline or out onto the outside slope. • Unstable side cast material. 

Use the same caution as you would when considering 

to install a crossditch and discharge concentrated water • Sidecast material perched on steep gully 

onto an outside fill slope. (See Fill and mid-slope sidewalls. 

failures section below.) 

• In-filled watercourses and gullies (dammed 

As for a cross ditch, the waterbar must be skewed 

up). 

(placed at an angle) across the road. They should be 

constructed wide and shallow. They should be • Compacted ground 

adequately armored on the bottom, sides, berm, and 

outflow area. They should no bet constructed with 

Excavator size 

oversteep sides and an uneompacted bottom, berm and 

discharge apron that will erode with time and 

Deactivating present and older unstable roads calls for 

contribute to the siltation process that we are trying to some thought and care when selecting machine size. 

prevent. 

• A large 50 metric tonne (100,000+ lbs) 

Fill and mid-slope failures 

machine will give you reach and large bucket 

capacity but is hampered by restricted swing 

When we discharge concentrated water onto fill or a and its sheer mass (weight) The reason the 

rounded outside slope, we must always ask, is it safe to 

road edge has been called to be pulled back 

place concentrated water at this location? We are now is that the road edge is failing. For safety the 

placing a concentrated amount of water onto an outside 

operator is forced to place his machine as far 

slope that has never historically felt a concentration of to the inside of the cut bank as possible - 

water, 

nowhisswingisrestrictedbythebankina 

large machine! 


and transport sediment? * A mid-size 30 metric tonne (60,000+lbs) 

machine is the popular size for deactivation. 

• Will it over-saturate the ground and in turn Large enough to have reach and bucket 


capacity, yet light enough to address the 

safety factor. 

• Will it fail to dissipate into the ground and 

continue to travel on the surface? (Water has * A 20 metric tonne (40,000 lbs) machine is 

been known to travel downslope 2 to 300 also extensively used in deactivation. Its 

meters and finally find a piece of ground to advantage is its extremely quick cycle time, 

oversaturate with a resulting midslope smaller size, and comparatively light weight. 

failure). 

• Smaller 12 metric tonne (24,000+ lbs) 

machines have a place in deactivation where 

the value desired is a nimble machine with 

11

• where stability is not a question, and Silvaculture treatments 

• when the road surface is not being reclaimed 

as a planting area. 

In the planning process, before a road is permanently 

deactivated, it must be considered if the cut-block 

When a road is at a grade or slope, rain water builds up ground requires mechanical treatment with equipment 

and travels down the road surface. This concentration before planting? Potential treatments include brush 

of flow (usually in the wheel tracks) as it builds up can piling, ground scarification, or tilling. 

now have the capacity to transport sediment which in 

this case is the road surfacing material. The immediate Back spar trail rehabilitation 

eye attention is drawn to the rough eroded road surface. 

It is unacceptable to allow deposition of eroded 

Older pre-code backspar trails can have many of the 

sediments and road fines into an adjacent watercourse, same concerns as a road. 

The waterbar is used to control water on the road • Alteration of drainage. 

surface. It commonly directs built-up surface flow 

either into the ditchline or out onto the outside slope. • Unstable side cast material. 

Use the same caution as you would when considering 

to install a crossditch and discharge concentrated water • Sidecast material perched on steep gully 

onto an outside fill slope. (See Fill and mid-slope sidewalls. 

failures section below.) 

• In-filled watercourses and gullies (dammed 

As for a cross ditch, the waterbar must be skewed 

up). 

(placed at an angle) across the road. They should be 

constructed wide and shallow. They should be • Compacted ground 

adequately armored on the bottom, sides, berm, and 

outflow area. They should no bet constructed with Excavator size 

oversteep sides and an uncompacted bottom, berm and 

discharge apron that will erode with time and 

Deactivating present and older unstable roads calls for 

contribute to the siltation process that we are trying to some thought and care when selecting machine size. 

prevent. 

• A large 50 metric tonne (100,000+ lbs) 

Fill and mid-slope failures 

machine will give you reach and large bucket 

capacity but is hampered by restricted swing 

When we discharge concentrated water onto fill or a and its sheer mass (weight) The reason the 

rounded outside slope, we must always ask, is it safe to 

road edge has been eaUedto be pulled back 

place concentrated water at this location? We are now 

is thatthe road edge is failing. For safety the 

placing a concentrated amount of water onto an outside 

operator is forced to place his machine as far 

slope that has never historically felt a concentration of to theinside of the cutbank as possible - 

water, 

now his swing is restricted by the bank in a 

large machine l 


and transport sediment? • A mid-size 30 metric tonne (60,O00+lbs) 

machine is the popular size for deactivation. 

• Will it over-saturate the ground and in tuna Large enough to have reach and bucket 


capacity, yet light enough to address the 

safety factor. 

• Will it fail to dissipate into the ground and 

continue to travel on the surface? (Water has • A 20 metric tonne (40,000 lbs) machine is 

been known to travel downslope 2 to 300 also extensively used in deactivation. Its 

meters and finally find a piece of ground to advantage is its extremely quick cycle time, 

oversaturate with a resulting midslope 

smaller size, and comparatively light weight. 

failure). 

• Smaller 12 metric tonne (24,000+ lbs) 

machines have a place in deactivation where 

the value desired is a nimble machine with 

11

fast cycle times. They are excellent for 

of mulch, binder, tackifier, seed mix and 

constructing waterbars, small- to medium- fertilizer. It protects the soil from surface 

sized cross ditches, light pullback work, and 

erosion for up to two years and gives the seed 

rehabilitatingbackspar trails, 

mixture time to establish. It is very effective 

on ungroomed slopes of varying steepness. 

Being sprayed on in liquid form assures 

P_vegetatlon 

positive contact and total protection to the 

Under the Code, grass seed mixture must be applied to 

all exposed soft that will support vegetation in the first 

growing season afterconstruction. These areas 

include; borrow pits, waste areas, road cuts, fill slopes, 

pulled-back fallmaterial, and all other disturbed 

ground. 

Dry seeding 

By hand, machine, or helicopter, dryseeding is most 

effective immediately affix the groundis disturbed as 

the seed is allowed to fall into openings in the soil, 

before the surfacebecomes compactedby the effects of 

weather. 

soil surface, ensuring the complete control of 

siltation. It is recommended where the flow 

of sedimentation would be a detriment to the 

environment. 

Identifying potential heU-sites for future access 

When permanently deactivating a road, it is prudent to 

facilitate future access by identifying and recording 

natural helicopter sites on the plan, ideally with satellite 

navigational coordinates. 

Riparian management areas 

Riparianmanagement areas are areas immediately 

Hydro seeding adjacentto streams, lakes, and wetlands. There is a 

need to ensure that riparian vegetation at stream 

By trtmk-motmted tank and gun unit, or by helicopter, crossings is not damaged and continues to provide 

hydro seeding speeds up and increases the probability streamside habitat. Equipment must not be refueled 

of_l germination by providing the new growth within a riparian management zone. It is important to 

with protection, retained moisture, and nourishment, 

be aware that effects of activities in the upper reaches 

Hydro seeding as a prescription for failing slopes 

or headwaters of a system can impact the values of 

where water and slope stability have not been 

downstream areas. 

addressed is not a suitable glue together fix-all cure. 

(See the slope stabilization section below.) 

Work in and around fish streams 

Slope stabilization 

Steep or unstable slopes may be stabilized with expert 

advicefrom a waterand soils stability expert by some 

of the following methods. 

Environmental 

• Watercontrol, crossings 

Work may not commence until a written plan has been 

approved by the respective agencies, and may only be 

allowed in certain "work windows". If fish are present, 

an approved written fish salvage plan must be in place. 

objectives and procedures for water 

• Wattling,with willow bundles stepped up the A water crossing must be carefully deactivated and 

slope, rice paddy fashion, well-protected. It will minimize adverse impacts on 

fish and the aquatic environment by: 

• Structures -- Engineered retaining walls. • maintaining natural stream conditions, 

• providing fish passage, 

• Erosionmats -Mats of chopped straw or • preventing pollution, 

fibre, containing seed and fertilizer, anchored • avoiding sedimentation, and 


on groomed 

pinned to 

slopes 

the slope. 

where 

They 

the mat 

are 

has 

effective 

an 

• preserving riparian vegetation. 

assured positive contact. 

• Soil guard - A unique thick mat sprayed on 

with a hydro seeding gun or by helicopter 

bucket It is made up of a patent compound 

12

Saturated 

ground 

Saturated ground kas the potential for movement. 

From a safety standpoint, recognizing saturated ground 

from such sources as adjacent bodies of water (lakes, 

swamps, ponded ditchwaters), or extended periods of 

rain is important. Vibration from equipment can 

trigger ground movements. 

FOOTNOTES 

Notes on measurements in this document: All 

measurements are identified as Metric with English 

units in parentheses except where noted. E.g. 

300ram (1 foot), All conversions are approximate. 

This paper should not preclude legislative requirements 

nor replace procedures for agency review or approval, 

but rather it should facilitate the approval and work 

process and ultimately help ensure environmental 

protection. 

13

SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY: 

for board industry are typical demands that influence 

EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVE t tree selection and plantation policies. 

by 

PierreF. J. Abeels 

Universit_ catholique de Louvain 

Louvain la Neuve, Belgium 

Nowadays, new social andecological requirements 

induce other criticisms while economy does not always 

support positively the necessary actions. Forest 

conservation, sustainability and diversity in the 

biological ecosystems lead to systematic innovations. 

More schooling, more equipments or skilled man- 

ABSTRACT: European forestry heritage is very rich power are requested and have heavy economic eonseand 

each country in Europe is very proud of what the 

quences that society is not yet ready to assume. The 

foresters, biologists, silviculturists and production 

past is very rich in experience and the transfer of data 

managers have _ed for the benefit of soeiety, into computers may help the forester of the future. 

Equilibrium between income from the market of 

products and the costs for renewal of the forest has 

Views about the fundamentals of silviculture will 

been reached. New aims are given to the forest by 

certainly not change but the applications must be 

society. Recreation, air purification, protection of 

managed in another way. Managed biodiversity means 

water resource, smoothing of the landscape, and more more know how about plants and trees, about soils and 

ecological contribution to the environment are new 

their dynamics, about the relations between equipment 

requirements or they are presented asnew objectives 

and the environment, and between man and nature. 

while foresters always did their work in accordance 

with the biological requirements of the trees they had to Not only the assessments about the dramatic evolution 

produce for society. However, if the forester must 

of the tropical forests must motivate a renewal or a 

follow the rules of mother nature, he must also adapt drastic change, but the general statements about air - 

the management to "modem"and continuously renewed 

economic and social considerations. In Europe some 

soft - water and life implications must guide our society 

for the next century. Foresters will look forward with a 

new perspectives are established. Let us have a look at highly specialized competency because they are 

those so-called "new views" that prepare the future, 

accustomed to look perspicacious to the far future. 

Key Words: European forestry, silviculture, 

sustaiaability, biodiversity 

EUROPEAN FOREST 

Actual forest areas in the European countries 

INTRODUCTION 

following ELI statistics anddocuments mentioned in the 

literature are: 

The past of European silviculture is very rich in % ha/inhabit 

experience. Mistakes and favorable results with the 

introductionofforeign speciesto improve wood 

North Europe 

Denmark 12 0.09 

production are observed in the course of time. Finland 58 4.19 

However, considering the necessary period to Norway 26 1.59 

recognize the facts over time when we know the growth Sweden 57 2.84 

rate of trees in temperate climatic zones, it is quite 

normal that the selections are slow. 

Western and Central Europe 

Austria 45 0.50 

In other respects, severe censure has been introduced Belgium 21 0.07 

about some silvicultural practices while they were France 25 0.28 

practically induced by society itself due to typical Germany 30 0.12 

demands or constraints from the users of wood. Fuel Ireland 7 0.09 

wood, timber for building or for shipyards, pit-props, Italy 29 0.12 

round woods for paper mills, chunks for energy, chips Luxemburg 32 0.24 

Netherlands 8 0.02 

Switzerland 24 0.13 

'_ 

International 

atfirejoint 

Union 

meaing 

of Forest 

of 

Research 

the Council 

Organizations 

on Forest Engineering 

Subject Group 

and United Kingdom 9,4 0.04 

$3.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1, 1996. 

14

Actual forest areas Continued The ownership is distributed as follows: 

% hafmhabi_ 

South Europe country private state public corp. 

Portugal 30 0.30 %. % % ,% ..... 

Spain 23 0.33 North Europe 

Greece 19 ? Denmark 52 27 7 14 

Sweden 49 27 - 24 

The main tree species are: 

conifers broadleaves Western and Central Europe 

North Europe Austria 85 15 - - 

Denmark 55(s) 27CO) Belgium 53 11 36 - 

Sweden 83 (s,p) 17 (I) France 74 10 - 16 

Germany (W) 46 30 7 17 

WesternandCentralEurope Ireland 25 75 - - 

Austria 81 (f,p,s) 19 (b) Italy 66 7 25 2 

Belgium 42 (s) 56 (b) United 

France 36 (s) 64 (o) Kingdom 47 53 - 

Germany 71(p) 29(o) 

Ireland 95 (k) 5 (var.) South Europe 

Italy 14(f,s) 53(o,b) Greece 23 65 12 

UnitedKingdom 71(k,p) 29(o,b) Spain 66 4 30 - 

South Europe 

% = percent of forest area; - = unknown 

Greece 38 (p) 62 Co) 

Spain 47 (p) 53 (I) The above data show clearly that most ofthe forests in 

Europe are in private ownership except in Greece and 

b = beech; f=-fir; I = birch; k = sitka; o = oak; 

Ireland. The area owned by the privates are known 

p = pine(s); s = spruce; var. = various species for some countries only. The number of owners by 

category of ownership area are shown in Table 1. 

Table 1. Number of owners by category of ownership area. 

Belgium. Denmark France Germany Oldest) Sweden 

1000 ha -- 21 -- 164 -- 

SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES I would suggest to look at forestry from North to South 

and recognize the Scandinavian, German, British and 

The European forests show quite different aspects than French or Latin; basically French, Swiss, Belgian and 

those in the US, especially those of the West coast. 

Italian forestry. They are related with the past history 

However, some similarities still exist with areas in 

of Europe when large and specific Kingdoms were 

central Russia at the limits of the European continent, 

headed by Tsars, Emperors or Empresses, Princes and 

i.e. the Oural mountains and in the East Caucasus. 

Dukes. If most of the regulations were edited to limit 

deforestation or to organize games, in fact there were 

A very long forestry tradition is recognized in most of also tree management rules. 

the countries and various "schools" or tending rules 

make the differences. 

15

In Finland, the basis for the planning of forestry was the Hurtshave achieved ruining the forests. Venetian got 

systematic forest inventories, which started in the 

1920's andwent on continuously since then. The forest 

industries on a rather large scale started in the 1860's - 

1870's. 

the timber for their buildings in the lagoons. Forest 

laws appeared in those areas in the sixteenth century. 

They were protection and tending decrees. Here also 

the most important starting decree came from Empress 

Maria Theresia in 1769. It is considered as the first 

In Norway the first forest officers were engaged by the handbook on forestry for those countries. Modem Laws 

Government in 1857 and they were in charge of State on Forest was edited in the middle of the nineteenth 

and Private forests. A Forest Protection Law was century. The quality of the timber growing in those 

passed in 1932. It organizes the management of the areas did attract many harvesting operators after the 

forests through Parish and CountyForest Boards and French Revolution. Consequently, over-exploitation 

introduces a regeneration tax. 

did very deep and significant damages in some wide 

areas. 

Several royal ordinances were issued in the 17th and 

18th centuries for the protection of the forests in In Belgium, for example, on September 14, 1617 the 

Denmark. A German forester J. G. von Langen was to first ordinance of the Archdukes Albert and Isabelle 

organize the Danish forest from 1762 forward, creating the corps of foresters was published.. A forest 

c,ode was officially introduced in 1854. However the 

The German Forest Service operates since 1795 when forests of Belgium were managed for a long time before 

regulations "establish an administrative body and gain 1830, the year of its independence. Before the 

knowledge about the complex symbiotic relationship 

occupation of what became the Belgian territory by the 

that exist in woods _ (University Ingolstadt, botanist yon Celts; the Roman, Spanish, Austrian, French, and 

Paula Shrank and University of Munich, Professor K. 

Dutch conquerors introduced various management 

Gayer). In Niedersachsen, regulations were officially 

rules or pillages. However, some very positive heritage 

published in the beginning of the 18th century but 

remains from those occupations, like the forest of 

competition remains for long time between agriculture Soignes around Brussels. Apparently it is considered 

and forestry. Forestry starts there in Niedersachsen in by botanists and foresters as the most beautiful beech 

the nineteenth century, 

forest in the world. The regulations were edited by the 

Dukes of Brabant (1300, 1459, 1491 .... ) More 

An Imperial Forest Law establishing strict regulations recently, great families left nice well-managed private 

on the clearing of forest lands was decreed in 1852 in forests, like the Dukes of Arenberg for example. 

Austria. 

It is said that the Europeans were the first to replace the 

In the United Kingdom since 1608 inventories of the 

uncontrolled harvesting of the forest by a patrimonial 

oak trees were organized and J. Evelyn was teaching 

management of the resource that protects against wood 

about tree cultivation, 

overcuts. 

In France, monitoring and conservation of the royal 

During the nineteenth century, the industry and the 

forest patrimony was organized in 1291 by Philippe 

demography were sacking the forest to get fuel wood 

led Bel (Corps of Masters of Water and Forest). They for domestic fires and blast-furnaces. Hopefully coal 

promote the general interest and the protection role of has saved the forest but, then, wood was necessary for 

forested lands. The ordinances of Colbert in the 17th 

the pits and timber production was largely conditioned 

century monitor the continuity of the production of logs to provide pit - props of various sizes. 

for masts and pieces of wood for shipyards. In 1701 

Vauban wrote his treatise on forest cultivation. The European forests have also paid a heavy price for the 

French forest code was edited in 1827. The specialized successive wars in Europe. The troops overcut or 

forest center of Nancy for ENGREF (National School clearcut large areas, while iron or copper alloy 

for Agricultural Water andForest Engineering) 

shrapnels and barbed wires remain in the stems and 

engineers and the Domain des Barres in Nogent sur 

introduce dangerous working conditions when felling 

Vernisson initiates many foresters to forest 

or sawing many years later. 

management, and they apply silviculture science in 

many European countries. 

Have we to underline also the damages introduced by 

the mines and other booby-trap systems of the second 

In Central Europe and the Balkan Peninsula, aRer the 

world war. Stands have been totally ruined and it took 

Roman Empire many other peoples like Goths and 

time to recover healthy timber. 

16

The education programs for forest engineers in the 

Broadleaved forests are mostly mixed and even or 

Belgian Universities include teaching of management 

uneven in age. To a large extend coppices provided 

principles since their foundation, fuelwood and charcoal potential. The demand of large 

and long logs did re-introduce the high forest by mixing 

It is necessary to introduce two main distinctions for the or by conversion of coppices to a large extent. 

purpose of this report: the treatment and the 

management of the forest. A typical and interesting aspect for the actual views on 

the future must consider the silvicultural system called 

The treatment includes all the operations necessary to 

"the gardening method" applied essentially in 

obtaincontinuously thebestyieldofthehighforest, broadleaved stands.Thesearemixingthespeciesand 

mixed forest, coppice and other types of tree stands, 

the age classes following various methods: stem by 

stem, by groups, by lines, by strips, etc. 

Whatever the treatment can be, it is necessary to get the 

best of the possibilities in growth and shape and to 

When natural regeneration is applicable like in climax 

carry out the best fitted operations in each part of the 

forest, the stand offers a very charming outlook but is 

forest following soil and environmental conditions, 

very difficult to keep healthy andharvesting is not easy 

with mechanized devices without severe damages 

The management of the forest involves all the 

sometimes. 

harvesting operations and will give the calendar of the 

fellings in order to guarantee an annual sustained and 

advantageous income. The planning of the type and the 

succession of the harvesting operations is fixed atthe 

New initiatives are promoted by the European 

Commission since 1979. The increase in the pressure 

exerted by the different publics has suggested new 

same time as the quantities delivered. Here comes the aims. Wood production must go with environment 

notions of exploitability of the trees and the different 

conservation, recreation structures, employment and 

types of exploitability, life standard improvement. The forests must become 

multi functional. The richness in the climate diversity, 

The management of the forest defines the cut area, its 

location, the felling directions, the skidding conditions, 

topography, soils and history of the forests in Europe 

will encourage various approaches and different 

the place for the storage of the felled trees or logs, etc. measures corresponding to each of the regions. A main 

The management of the forest requires repeated 

contribution of the forest must remain its social role for 

inventories and identification of the conditions. The 

urban citizens living in large cities and willing to have 

state forest data and those of more and more private easy excursions into the forests. The role of the forest 

forest are now introduced intocomputersfortreatment in the conservation ofwater,vegetation andanimalife 

and analyses, also for administration purpose, is essential and must help for keeping the landscapes. 

Each natural region in Europe must determine the ranking 

given to the many aims of the forest. Some will 

THE SHAPE OF THE EUROPEAN FOREST have to protect against erosions while others will only 

produce timber or different kinds of wood products. 

Right away it is necessary to make a distinction 

between conifer and broadleaved forests. Most of the Environment quality is related to the type of forests and 

spruce, fir, and pine areas were essentially managed in to the diversity in the species existing in the stands. 

regular high forest and mainly as mono-specific stands. Sustainability must consider much more than nature, 

In the past some elearcuts did happen but in most cases i.e. the normal composition of the flora and fauna for 

the thinning system was applied periodically during the the different locations. Re-organizations will be 

life (revolution) of the stand, 

necessary, new structures must be created and 

incitements must be given at least to private owners to 

I really don't know if it is the only case, but very early 

succeed in such fundamental change. 

in the past in Switzerland, they started mixing the 

conifers in their mountain forests. So these forest The instruments of such a forest policy are numerous. 

became uneven in age and species. A specific treatment First of all the forest authority must be managed 

was applied for safety in areas with avalanches andin efficiently and will use highly skilled personal acting 

the hilly parts of the/klps. It was named the "mixing" with competence and perspicacity for the very long 

systems, 

term. It is advised to have a real independent forest 

administration working in coordination with different 

Ministries involved in land management agriculture 

17

and industry or economic affairs. Forest legislation will The use of peat soils for sustained wood production is pl_ 

be adapted in the participating countries. Eventually considered as nonsense. Th 

specific administrative procedures will implement the 

tre 

basic laws. Taxation and financial aids are other tools Peat areas must be kept and even restored for cat 

for the application of the European forest policy, ecological, ae_daetic,ethic and socio-economic reasons, ca 

Biochemical quality of the water in the peat soils is 5 

Research, development and application must increase considered as too important to allow any transformation an 

and should be coordinated at the different levels, 

or plantation. 

Education and vocational training will provide the 

requested personnel while continuing education will 

keep the high level requested. 

Operations will request special and adapted machines. 

Reforestation after harvesting existing stands is not 

more allowed and some areas of scientific interest will 

The permanent consulting of the owners, managers, be totallyprotected. No thinnings in existing stands are Th 

workers, delegates from the processing industry, trade allowed. Natural spontaneous vegetation will be bi 

spheres and greens or positive ecologists will allow to promoted. T 

moderate the conflicts and objectively promote the 

re 

proposed forest policy. Public relations will inform In general wide spacings are advised at the plantation tr 

about the programs and the operations, and thinnings will keep the trees at correct distance at N 

each age. Compartments will be installed to facilitate F 

A detailed project has been compiled already in 1979 the ac,cess to the trees for felling and skidding. Strict 

and implies wood production and conservation of the control is prescribed on mechanization. The harvesting 

nature with protection of the human environment, instructions are given at the sale of the trees. Some 

Sustainability and diversity are the main basis for the 

type of equipment, skidder or tool may be forbidden 

future of the forest, all the forests, state, private, public, while tracks are not more systematically under 

communities, etc. 

interdiction as it was imposed by the forestry code in 

times past, Mixed species is promoted mainly in areas 

An application model is given here for the state and 

planted with conifers. 

under state service control forests in Belgium as 

example. For the private owners, incentives are given by the 

Forest Service of the Walloon Region in Belgium to 

The French speaking Universities were asked to 

promote the fn'st thinnings, if some conditions are 

elaborate special technical instructions for the 

respected. The forest stand must reach less than an 

management of the forest. The forests on slopes, wet 

average 13m height for the hundred thickest standing 

soil 0aydromorphic) and peat are especially involved, 

trees. 

On slopes, erosion must be avoided by keeping the 

canopy closed, by a correct management of the 

The thinning may happen selectively or systematically 

openings due to the harvest of the trees and by doing (compartments to facilitate mechanical operations). 

thinnings at a very young age. The mixing of species is The thinning must left 700 to 2000 trees after the 

advised and even age stands must be managed to come felling following the density of the plantation 

in the very near future to an uneven structure with (proportion figures are specified). Only one subvention 

adapted broadleaves for a large extend. Stumps will is allowed for the life of the stand. The amount allowed 

remain in place on the slopes after felling. Brushes and is 260 dollars per ha with a maximum of 1,290 dollars 

herbaceous vegetation must be sustained underneath 

per request. For grouped demands issued by at least 

the trees. Logging by air using skylines is advised and three owners, an additional 65 dollars is allowed 

road net should offer densities of 15 - 25 m/ha when 

individually. 

the slopes are >30%. The number and the location of 

the log yards will be especially adapted. On wet soils The demands must follow various administrative 

broadleaves mixed stands must be promoted. The 

conditions specified in the decree issued by the 

mixed forest treated as a gardened high forest should be Government of the Walloon Region on November 17, 

seen as an optimum. No clearcut is allowed and the 

1994. Some additional amounts are allowed when the 

keeping of the cover will favor evapotranspiration 

forest area is located in rural areas recognized by the 

permanently. The choice tree species will look at the EU for special assistance. 

root systems and natural drainage is recommended. 

Special hauling strips should be managed in the stands. Financial support is given by the Forest Service of the. 

Humus process will be kept under continuous control. Flanders Region also to private forest owners for the 

18

planting or re-planting operations areas over 0,5 ha. Populus canescens (aspen, cottonwood), 

The amounts are calculated following the categories of Populus tremula (quaking aspen), 

tree species as listed in appendix. The amounts are: Populus euramericana (cottonwood), 

category I = $3225/ha; category 2 = $2530/ha; Populus interamericana (cottonwood), 

category 3 = $1935/ha; category 4 =$1290/ha; category 

Prunus avium (plum), 

5 =$645/ha, and for spontaneous regeneration, where 

and when possible: $645/ha. 

Quereus robur (oak), 

Quereus rubra (northern red oak), 

Quercus petrea (oak spp.), 

Robinia pseudoaeacia (black locust), 

THE BIODIVERSITY IN THE ]FUTURE Salix alba (willow), 

FOREST: THE BELGIAN EXAMPLE Sorbus torminalis (mountain-ash), 

Tilia platyphyllos (basswood), 

The advised forest species for improving the Tilia cordata (basswood) 

biodiversity may vary following the countries. 

The Belgian forest administration for the Walloon 

For the Flemish region of Belgium, the tree species are 

region advises the following species. ('Latinnames are specified accordingly to the level of subvention 

translated into common names as given in "Trees of 

allowed. The species are proposed as follows: 

North America, a guide to field identification" by C. 

Frank Broekman, Collection Golden Press, New York): category 1: Quereus robur (oak spp.), 

Quercuspetrea(oakslap.) 

for conifers(total= 15species): 

Fraxinusexcelsior(ashspp.) 

Pieea abies (spruce), 

Picea sitchensis (sitka spruce), category 2: Fagus sylvatica (European beech) 

Pseudotsuga menziesii (douglas fir), 

Prunus avium (plum spp.) 

Larix decidua (larch spp.), 

Carpinus betulus (European 

Larix Kaempferi (larch spp.), 

hornbeam) 

Larix eurolepis, 

Acer eampestre (English field 

Pinus nigra ssp. nigra var. Koekelare 

maple), 

(Austrian pine vat'. K), 

Acer platanoldes (Norway maple) 

Pinus nigra ssp. Laricio vat. Acer pseudoplatanus (planetree 

Corsican (Austrian pine var. Corsican), 

maple, sycamore), 

Pinus nigra ssp. nigra var. Austriaca (Austrian 

pine), 

Pinus sylvestris (Scotch pine), 

Abies grandis (true fir), 

Abiesproeera(fir), 

Abies alba (fir), 

Thuya plicata ( western red cedar), 

Tilia eordata (basswood spp.), 

Tilia platyphyllos (basswood slap.), 

Tilia vulgaris 0inden, basswood 

spp.) 

Ulmusglabraorscabra(wychelm), 

Ulmus minor or eampestris (English 

elm) 

Tsuga heterophylla (hemlock) 

*when those elms are especially and 

officiallyaccepted 

for broadleaved (total = 26 species): 

Acer pseudoplatanus (planetree maple, category 3: Quercus palustris (oak slap.), 

sycamore), 

Quercus rubra (northern red oak) 

Alnus glutinosa (European alder), 

Castaneasativa (Spanish chestnut) 

Betula pubescens (birch), 

Juglans regia (black walnut) 

Betula pendula (birch), Alnus glutinosa (European alder) 

Caryasp. (hickory spp.), 

Betula pendula (European white 

Carpinus betulus (European hombeam), 

birch), 

Castanea sativa, (Spanish chestnut), 

Betula pubescens (birch spp.) 

Fagus sylvatiea (European beech), 

Salix alba (white willow), 

Fraxinusexcelsior(ash), 

Salixfragilis(crackwillow), 

Juglans regia (English walnut), 

Salix x rubens (willow spp.) 

Juglans intermedia (walnut), 

*all those Salix when accepted 

Juglans nigra, (black walnut), 

Populus nigra ( Lombardy poplar) 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), 

*when and were accepted 

19

Populus alba (white poplar), 

put on theforest areas and the eyes of the general 

Populus tremula (quaking aspen), 

public are very critical. Notwithstanding most of the 

Populus canescens (aspen spp.) 

views are slightly too much romantic and idealized 

Pinus sylvestris (scotch pine) 

pictures or paintings of the past times are often taken as 

model for landscapes, rural areas, agriculture and for 

category 4: Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust), forestry also, of course. 

Taxus baccata(yew) 

Juniper_ communis (common New regulations seem to be influenced by the same 

juniper) 

ideas about "nature" and our era of abundance let us 

Pinus nigra var. Corsican (Austrian think about our environment more than before. 

pine var. Corsican) 

Pseudotsuga menziesii (douglas fir) The recovering of the past configurations forces the 

Larix kaempferi (larch spp.), 

young generation to use more efficiently the computers 

Larix x eurolepis (larch spp.) 

certainly but there is also a necessity to adapt the actual 

Alnusincana (alderspp.) 

meanstothe"next"forests. Thetendingandthe 

Populuspp.orCultivated 

harvesting ofdiversified standsmixedby stemsorby 

cottonwoodsinmixingwith 

groupsisratheraheavytcehnical problemwhen 

indigenous broadleaved species, everythingmustremain untouched and if human 

ergonomic criteria must be considered. 

category 5: Populus spp. (Cultivated 

cottonwoods) 

The future European forests will seemingly look as 

close as Eden is represented in the early times. Have 

When plantation happens with undercover species we to turn back to more manpower, to operations with 

the following are accepted: 

animals and to more expensive equipments to fulfil the 

many tasks? 

Salix spp. (willows spp.), 

Sambucus nigra (elders spp.), Let us stay more realistic for the future. The 

Sorbus aucuparia (European mountain ash), 

silvicultural management will keep the forest more 

Coryllus avellana (hazels spp.), 

close to the nature conditions than before that is evident 

Ilex aquifolium (English holly), 

Frangula alnus (not translated), 

Viburnum opulus (honeysuckle spp.), 

Evonymus europaeus (bittersweet spp.), 

Comus sanguinea (dogwood spp.), 

Prunus padus (cherry/plum spp.). 

CONCLUSIONS 

Europe has a very long forest and silvicultural tradition 

deeply anchored in the minds of the owners and 

managers. The forest structures were largely 

influenced by crown and noble families. Their 

relations and their family connections have had an 

effect on theways of managing their domains. 

and necessary for our well-being. 

If we cannot any more find other forests in the world 

where "brutal" operations are allowed as it is actually, 

what should be done? 

Again new teelmiques, adapted machines must be 

engineered. 

The remainingproblem is: who will have the money for 

the technical development or for buying the wood 

products harvested in accordance with the requirements 

edited for keeping the environment and the ecology? 

This is a very exciting modelization task!!! 

Such facts have introduced several different 

philosophies in the management systems. The 

successional rules and laws have deeply shaped the 

properties, 

LI'I_RATURE 

Abeels, Pierre F. J., 1975 - 1995, personnel reports, 

documentsandtreatise of silviculture 

The breaking up of the estates was and is still 

Anon., 1982, Brief Glimpses of Danish Forestry, ED. 

significantly detrimental to good environmental 

forestry. However, the very long peace time since the 

Danish Forestry Society, 52 p. 

second world war makes that more and more interest is Brochure Finish Ministry of Agriculture, 1985, 

20

Forestry in Finland, 17 p. For_ts, Brussels, 33 p. 

Bulletin des Communaut6s europ6ennes, 1979, x, 1990, Het Bosdeereet, AMINAL, Brussels, 64 p. 

Politique foresti6re dans la Communaut_, 

Luxembourg, 52 p. 

x, 1982, The Norwegian forest owners' association, Ed. 

Norges Skogeierforbund, Oslo, 8 p. 

Clicheroux, Emile, 1978, La for_t, deuxi&ne richesse 

de Wallonie, Ed. Cr&lit G6n&al, Brussels, 30 p. 

x, 1990, Wald- und Forstwirtsehaft in Niedersachsen, 

Ed. Niedersaehsisches Ministerium fOr Emahrung, 

ENGREF brochure, 1977, Lapolitique foresti6re, Landwirtsehaft und Forsten, Hannover, 113 p. 

Euro-impressions, Paris, 52 p. 

FAO, 1995, State of the world's forests, Executive 

Summary, FAO, Rome, 4 p. 

Goblet d'Alviella (Comte), 1974, Histoire des Bois et 

ForSts de Belgique, Ed. Culture et Civilisation, 

Brussels, 4 volumes, 420 p. 

Harms Siedel Foundation, unknown date, The Free 

State of Bavaria, Ed. H. Siedel Found., Mllnchen, 

223p. 

Leroy, Philippe, 1991, Des__forSts et des hommes, 

Press Pocket, 127 p. 

Many contributors, 1991, Lqaomme et sa forSt, 

ENGREF, France, 64 p. 

Michel, Henri, 1964, Aper_u sur les forSts eommunales 

en Belgique, Bull. du Cr6dit Communal de 

Belgique,47p. 

Montagna, Giuseppe; Lassini, Paolo, 1983, Gli Alberi 

e il Boseo; Ed. Azienda regionale delle Foreste 

regione lombardia, 98 p. 

Ostojic, Zarko; Drinic, Pero; and alii, 1986, The 

Forestry in Yugoslavia, Ed. Preradu Drveta 

Jugoslavije, Beograd, 258 p. 

Plattner, Edwin, 1979, Austrian Forestry, Ed. Fed. 

Ministry of Agriculture andForestry, Vienna, 26 

p. 

Skinnemoen, Knut, 1964, An outline of Norwegian 

Forestry, Ed. Det Norske Skogselskap, Oslo, 124 

p. 

x, 1995, Subventions/t la fo_t pfiv6e, Ed. R6gion 

Wallonne, Dir. C_r6n.des Ressourees Naturelles et 

de YEnvironnement, Div. de la Nature et des 

For_ts, Bruxelles, 47 p. 

x, 1979, Eaux et for_ts, Ed. Administration des Eaux et 

21

MULTI-PURPOSE MANAGEMENT AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO FOREST 

BIODIVERSITY: THE EXPERIENCE OF THE MANAGEMENT IN FRANCE 

OFFICE NATIONAL DES FORETS (FRANCE) 

FOREST PLANNING OF THE ROMERSBERG To get a better grasp of the context of the 

STATE-OWNED FOREST t Romersberg forest study, we must first briefly outline 

the already age-old history of forest management in 

by France (I-Iuffel, 1925; Badr_, 1983). 

Christophe Gallemant 

Forests deeply marked by man 

Office National des For_ts 

Lorraine Regional Office 

In France, as in Europe, people have been using 

forests for thousands of years either for their 

and resources, or to turn them into farmland. So there is 

Robin Degron 

Office National des For_ts 

Nancy-Toul Division 

now virtually no virgin forest left, even in highaltitude 

mountainous regions, and forest stands are 

deeply marked by human activities. 

Ever since the Middle Ages, population growth has 

ushered in both a thirst for new lands to feed people 

ABSTRACT: As throughout the world, sustainable and heightened needs for construction timber and 

forest management has been the focus of much lively fuelwood, a principal energy source. This situation 

discussion in France since the early 1990s. The 

duly took the form of largescale land clearing and 

upkeep, not to say reinstatement, ofbiodiversity is excessive logging in the remaining forests. 

the main theme of such discussion. The Office Politicians then became conscious of the need to 

National des For_ts, which manages 4.5 million protect forests from farming pressures, on the one 

hectares of public forests-i.e, or.e third of France's hand, and, on the other, to log these same forests in 

forests- is deeply involved in this area, by 

such a way as to conserve their wood production 

incorporating this new aspect of society's capacity, in the long term. 

requirements in its choices and management 

methods. Many centuries of forest management experience 

To this end, several studies have been undertaken, in In France, one of the earliest official documents on 

orderto better describe the influence of forest 

this topic is 650 years old. In Article IV of the 

management methods on biodiversity, and improve Brunoy Ordinance of May 1346 concerning the royal 

them where necessary, 

forests, king Philippe VI of Valois stated quite 

clearly: "The Masters of the Forests shall visit all the 

forestsandwoodlandsthatarethereandcarryout 

The studies embarked upon in 1991 in the 

Romersberg state-owned forest, in Lorraine, are 

the sales to be held there, so that the said forests and 

among the most comprehensive, where this theme is woodlands may be maintained on a permanent and 

concerned, and have culminated in the formulation sustainable basis". 2 

of a new forest management plan, which pays 

greater heed to biodiversity. 

This law was followed by many other laws and 

regulations, all deriving from the same principle, 

Key Words: sustainable forestry, biodiversity, The Forest Code of 1827, which is still the basis of 

forest planning, multi-purpose management. French forestry rules and regulations, is the 

culmination of this lengthy history. In introducing 

very strict rules about land clearance, including 

privately owned forests, the Code has effectively 

protected the forest and halted the drop in France's 

2"Les _ des Forets enquerrontet visiteront toutes les 

t Presentedat the joint meeting ofthe Council On Forest Engineering 

for£qs et bois qui y sont et feront les ventes qui y sont _tfaire, 

and International Union of Forest Research Organizations Subject 

etaregard _tce clue lesdistes forC_tset bois se puissent 

Group $3.04.00, Marquette, ML July 29-August 1, 1996. perp6_ellement soutenir etabon 6tat". 

22

forestedarea - 8 million hectaresat the beginningof complementaryadvantages,both fortheir adaptation 

the 19th century. The developmentof theuse of 

to developing needsand forthe upkeepof 

charcoal,followedby ruralmigrationtocities, 

biodiversity. 

subsequentlyenabledthe forestto doubleits area,in 

less thantwo hundredyears.It now accounts forone * In the 17thand 18thcenturies, the royal 

quarterof France'sterritory, 

lowland forests wereoften managedas high 

forestto produceconstructiontimberfor the 

The Forest Code has also madeforest planning 

navy, while at the same time giving refuge 

obligatoryfor every state-and community-owned 

to the large game, forthe royal hunt. 

forest,setting the long-termtargets of forest 

managementand drawingup the managementplan * At the same time the community-owned 

for the next 15-30 years, 

forests,from which local people wanted to 

extractboth timber forconstructing their 

A fundamental principle: multi-purpose 

housesand fuelwood, werevery often 

management 

managedas coppices-with- standards. 

When it was time to cutthe coppiceevery 

French forestrypolicy is basedon the principleof 

20-25 years, this involvedkeeping trees (or 

multi-purposemanagement,which has been tested in 

saplings)earmarkedto be retainedto 

the field for atleast three centuries.Thisprincipleis 

backedupby the ForestryLaw of 4 December 1985, 

producelarge trees - the reserves. 

and, as far as state-ownedforestsare concerned, 

When metal replacedtimber in ship construction,the 

detailed in the national managementdirectives 

updatedbythe Ministry of Agricultureon 17 July 

royalforests, which hadbecome state-ownedforests, 

were shifted towardsthe productionof quality 

1990. These directives definethe basic objectiveof timber. Andwhen coal and oil replacedwoodas the 

public forestmanagementas the upkeep, and 

main sourceof energy, coppices-with-standardswere 

wherever possible, the improvementof the forest's gradually turned into high forest,taking advantage 

capacityto acquit,in the best way possible, all of its of the reservetrees. 

ecological, economic and social functions. 

These two managementmethods each had their 

It is not possibleto conceive long-term sustainable advantages for maintaining biodiversity: 

managementby setting targetsforeach individual 

forest in a rigid and definitive way. These targets in 1. The state-ownedforests were the lastrefuge 

fact convey a current state of the balanced nature of 

forlarge lowlandgame, which has now 

society's requirements.The fact is that social 

managedto regain much largerareas. 

requirementsare evolving much quickerthanforests. 

The best way of adapting to the developmentof 2. The coppices-with-standardshelped to 

society and its needs, without compromisingthe 

maintain many secondaryforest species, 

future of forests, thus consists of drawingup 

whoseecological andeconomic advantages 

medium-term managementplans,which take into 

account all the known functions of the forestecological, 

are now recognized. 

economic, and social. So, in management Needless to say, if the principle of multi-purpose 

regulations, a majorgoal of woodand timber 

forestmanagementstill holds good,forest usesare 

production must not exclude environmental 

evolving andbecoming morecomplex. To copewith 

protection and public access. Conversely, experience this situation, the forester must accordingly adapthis 

shows that maintaining a wood productionfunction basic managementtool in an on-going way - and this 

in a forest largely devoted to conservation provides a tool is forest planning. To do this he must: 

better guaranteeagainst destructionthan strict rules 

and regulations. - have more dialogue with people who are 

involvedwith the different factors of social 

Development of forest uses and management 

requirementsand demand:officials, people 

methods 

in the woodand timber industry,scientists, 

associations, tourists... 

Multi-purpose managementhas helped to usherin a 

wide variety of management methods, whichhave 

23

- flesh out his forest analysis methods, and from the dtpartement of Moselle, which owns the 

lake. 

- improve and enhance his silvicultural 

techniques. From confrontation to cooperation 

The case of the Romersbergforest offers a response The principal, and extremely active, Lorraine-based 

to these challenges, nature conservation association - called The Lorraine 

Site Conservancy (LSC) - has its headquarters a few 

km from here. Because the failure of conservation 

FOREST MANAGEMENT AND procedures has had the effect of heightening the 

BIODIVERSITY: vigilance and increasing the mistrust of 

THE EXAMPLE OF THE MANAGEMENT OF environmentalists, these latter reacted actively in 

THE STATE-OWNED 

1991, when a seed trees in one of the forest plots 

ROMERSBERG FOREST (MOSELLE) were felled, 

The geographical and political context 

The regional press was alerted and the ONF was 

accused of being bent on destroying the ecological 

A "pond district" 

wealth of this forest in the name of financial 

profitability. A banner was even unfurled in front of 

The state-owned Romersberg forest, which covers the journalists proclaiming: "Amazonia is in France 

420 hectares, is situated on the Lorrain plateau, in too". 

the dtpartement of Moselle, about 45 km east of 

Nancy. It has been the property of the State since the This attack took foresters by surprise. In fact, 

French Revolution. It has been undergoing although they were aware of the plan to create a 

conversion to high forest for about 100 years, and 

nature reserve, they did not think that they had 

consists essentially of oak and beech. It lies on marly damaged the biodiversity of the area by carrying out 

soils, often covered with silt, which are advantageous felling in a progressive natural regeneration. To 

for forest production. But its main feature stems 

clear the air, the ONF thus approached the LRNP 

from its location at the heart of the small region and the LSC. With the backing of Professor Rameau, 

known as the "pond district" on the eastern shores of Professor of forest ecology at the Forestry School in 

the Lindre lake, known internationally for its Nancy (ENGREF), a study programme on the 

ornithological interest. The "pond district" is part of relationship between forest management and 

the Lorraine Regional Nature Park (LRNP), which is biodiversity was drawn up and spelled out in a threekeen 

to develop tourist activities in this area, which way agreement between the LSC, the LRNP and the 

focus on the discovery and exploration of nature. ONT. Funding from the Ministry of Agriculture and 

the Ministry of the Environment was requested and 

The Lindre lake and its protection 

obtained for this programme. 

The ornithological interest of the Lindre lake has Programme and findings of the studies 

given rise to a project, put foward by nature 

undertaken 

conservation associations, to have it listed as a 

nature reserve. These associations are in fact worried The framework for cooperation 

about seeing its natural wealth whittled away by 

increased fishing and poorly supervised tourist It goes without saying that the study of the 

development. Romersberg natural forest heritage involved bringing 

together many scientific and technical disciplines. 

Several studies have been carried out in this area 

The work of the various specialists was thus 

over the past 20 years, to define the boundaries of incorporated within a steering committee. Because of 

such a future reserve, and they have all concluded this structure, fruilful exchanges have been 

that it is necessary to include the Romersberg forest successfully established between foresters and 

in it (ecolor. drae - 1985). But the project has not naturalists, with a view to drawing up a concerted 

come to anything because of opposition from the forest management plan. 

mayors of the towns and villages concerned and 

24

A detailed and multi-disciplinary analysis of the mammals-bats (Schwaab, 1993) and carnivores 

natural forest heritage (Schweyer, 1994). The various factors of a detailed 

analysis of the natural environment were thus 

In the first instance, this involved a precise 

brought together in a four-year period. At this 

description and inventory of the sites, with a close 

juncture, it became necessary to pool the 

look at the variety of stations and stands, considerable knowledge garnered, so as to turn a 

store of specific but fragmentary information into an 

This preliminary phase to all French forestry 

overview of the animal biodiversity of the range and 

management schemes was, in this case, dealt with in its relationship with forest management. After the 

great detail by ONF foresters, and rounded offby two specialists, the general forester came in (Degron, 

studies by Morhain (1991) and Gaudin (1992). It 

1996). In a schematic sense, it emerged that six 

emerges from these studies that the Romersberg 

major factors underpinned the richness of the 

sessile oak and beech forest is well adapted to the 

Romersberg animal biocoenoses: 

dominant silty sites of the range. On the shores of 

the Lindre lake, the presence of wetlands of the 1. The proximity of the Lindre lake and 

alder-and-ash and elm types, accommodating in 

farmland is a key element in the 

particular one of the rarest tree species in France - 

frequentation of the range by birds of prey, 

the fluttering elm (Ulmus laevis) - represents an area 

bats, and certain carnivores. 

of major botanical interest. These stands cover about 

15 hectares. On the rest of the range we find 185 2. The diversity of the types of stands (open 

hectares of old coppices-with-standards undergoing environments, environments with shrubs 

conversion and 220 hectares of young oak and beech and bushes, closed environments), which 

high forest, showing every stage of development, 

are home to various arrays of insects and 

The histogram below (Figure 1) illustrates the di- birds. 

versty of the stands found in the Romersberg forest. 

3. The old trees, in particular, old oaks, which 

This initial traditional and basic forestry approach form favourite habitats for certain birds 

was then enhanced by an analysis of the different which live in hollows, Chiroptera, and 

animal populations in the range and their certain insects. The ambiguity between the 

relationships with the various environments within importance of old trees and old stands must 

the forest. This original study, part of the preparation be effectively removed - outstanding 

of a management scheme, was carried out for insects hollow-dwelling birds, such as the collared 

-Lepidopterans (Courtois, 1994) and Coleopterans flycatcher (Ficedula albicollis) and the 

(Meyer et HI., 1994) -, the Batrachia (Morhain, middle spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos 

1991), birds (Morhain 1991, and Muller 1993) and medius), do indeed need old trees. 

Histooram of Romersberg forest stand in 1995 

Area 

(ha) 

100- • High forest oak I 

200-150_ 

I r-I •[] HiHh beeehReservesC°ppiee 

foret with standards[jill 

50 

o 

0-30 30-60 60-90 120-150 150-180 180-210 Notin 

any ago 

Age group 

group 

Figure 

1. Histogram of forest stands. 

25

4. Veryoldwoodand deadwood, in different tendency towards abalancedpatchworkof 

stagesof development,housevariousgroups 

stands in the forest legacy, which arealso 

of wood-eatingandsaproxylophagus 

accessible environments.This primary 

insects. In theRomersbergrangethey are 

objectivealso encompassesthe maintenance 

nowadayspoorlyrepresented,because,until 

of ecologically outstandingenvironmentsat 

thebeginning of the 19th century,the forest 

the forestscale (stands of elm, stands of 

wasessentiallylogged for its coppices, 

alder, mixed stands on the edge of ponds, 

withoutany reservebeing set up(Degron, 

forestpools, badger sets), 

1995a).The oldwoodin the rangeis thus 

barely200 yearsold. 2. The maintenanceof the currentlevel - 

recognizedas high - of outstandingbird 

5. On the forest scale,an originalbio-coenosis populationsin the range (collared 

has beenintroducedor might be introduced 

flycatcher,middle spotted woodpecker). 

in the small forestpools - 55 pools coveting 

aboutfourhectaresin all. 3. A comprehensiveenhancementof the 

accessibilitypotential, foranimal life, of the 

6. The sets of badgers(Melesmeles) have a range, associated with old wood and dead 

certainbiologicalimportanceasbreeding 

sites forsome protectedcarnivores, 

specificallythe wild cat (Fells sylvestris), 

Towardsan overallandconcertedmanagementplan 

The preliminarystudieshaveshownthat the 

maintenanceof biodiversitywas compatible,if not 

associated,with a formof silviculture directedat the 

productionof qualitytimber.The conditionsfor 

taking intoaccount the variouselements makingup 

the natural heritagewerethen drawnup. They were 

approvedby the Romersbergsteering committee, 

Using a coherentpooling of data, each specialized 

naturalistmanagedto find a soundingboardforhis 

particularconcerns, 

The forest manager's choices and methods: forest 

planning 

Incorporatingthe ecological function in the 

productionfunction 

Bearing the aboveanalysisin mind, the major 

choices forthe Romersbergforestmanagement 

schemefocus quitelogically on two key points: 

matter(development, in due course, of 

populationsof wood-eatingand 

saproxylophagousinsects). Dead matter, 

poorlyrepresentedtodayin the range,must 

be regardedas a normal,natural component 

of the forestenvironment. 

Integratedmanagementmethods: changesand 

continuity 

To achievethese goals, severalmethods canbe 

envisaged. Someare partand parcel of past 

managementschemes,others representan innovative 

inputforan overallforest managementstructure. 

The generalmanagementframeworkstill involves 

the conversionof coppices-with-standardsto regular 

highforest,with oak as the targetspecies. The 

regenerationprogrammefor old stands must be as 

progressive as possible,to aim forthe best possible 

equilibriumof the forest'smake-up. These old stands 

will be logged overa 90-yearperiod to avoid any 

abruptdropin production.The method of the 

enlargedregenerationgroup mustbe used. A plot 

canthus be very progressivelyregeneratedover30 

years,i.e. twice the applicationperiod of the 

managementplan.Lastly, naturalregenerationis to 

be encouraged. 

1. The productionof qualityoak wood. 

Alongsidethis framework,which is very 

2. A broadconsideration of biodiversity 

factors, 

traditionallyused in the managementOfFrance's 

lowlandforests, severalother measurescan still be : 

takento incorporatespecific restrictionsassociated 

The incorporationof the ecologicalfunctioncan be with the naturalheritage. In the caseof wetlands, a 

specified in terms of threepreciseobjectives: 

conservancy-orientedmanagement schemefor 

outstandingsitesmust be applied, which will makeit 

1. The sustainablemaintenanceof possibleto separatethese environmentsquite 

environmentaldiversity,which entailsa 

26 

distinctly from the general managementof oakand

eech forest. As far as hollow-dwelling animals and The results are as follows: 

wood-eating insects are concerned, two original 

solutions may be introduced. First, it is necessary to 1. For the theoretical approach, 5 possibilities 

select small areas for aging, or 10 percent of the area 

were compared: 

to be regenerated a priori, in the form of large copses 

- artificial silviculture for Douglas fir 

covering about 1 hectare. The old stands thus 

at 70 years 

selected will then be conserved until they have - artificial silviculture of sessile oak 

reached twice the loggable age of the target species 

at 110 years 

(2 x 180 years = 360 years for oak). A priori, these - natural silviculture for sessile oak at 

small management units scattered throughout the 180 years (previous management 

range will be an open door for animal populations 

plan) 

closely associated with very old wood and dead 

- natural silviculture for sessile oak at 

matter. Extra reserves will also be maintained; these 

180 years with ageing plots (new 

will be of ecological importance in regeneration 

management) 

plots. With a density of two old oak trees per hectare - natural silviculture for sessile oak at 

in these management units, hollow-dwelling birds 240 years. 

should thus be able to retain their habitat. These last 

two measures, which are altogether innovative, are The internal rates of profitability [IRP] are given in 

the outcome of experiments. The goals that they Table 1. As was to be expected, it was the most 

represent are still to be achieved, intensive model which obtained the highest IRP. The 

traditional silvicultural systems for oak differ 

The economic consequences of these choices markedly from the more intensive models. On the 

contrary, the difference is hardly noticeable between 

To round off the scientific studies, it was necessary the old and new management schemes. 

to assess the economic implications of the 

management choices. This study was carried out 2. For the pragmatic approach, the difference 

jointly by the ONF and the forestry and farming between the net revenue obtained and the 

laboratory of the National Institute of Agronomic new management plan is more clearly 

Research (INRA) (Siroux, 1996). defined. 

Two approaches have been proposed: For the next 15 years the loss of revenue due to the 

establishment of ageing plots is about 100F/ha/year 

1. A theoretical approach, comparing the (US$20) for a net revenue of about 1000F/ha/year 

profitability of different silvicultural models (US$200), or 10 percent of the revenue. This 

applicable to the Romersberg forest, from 

percentage should be the same after the completion 

the most intensive and artificial to the most of the conversion phase to high forest in 90-100 

extensive and natural, years, and it will then represent about 350F/ha/year 

(US$70) for a planned net revenue of 3500F/ha/year 

2. A pragmatic approach, comparing the net (US$700). But in due course, between now and some 

revenues obtained by the previous 

250 years hence, the impact of the aging plots on 

management system and that proposed in revenue will become very slight; the logging of 360- 

the new management system, 

year-old trees, originating from high forest, and thus, 

a priori, of a much higher quality than trees 

originating from coppices-with-standards, will in 

fact obtain high revenues. 

Table 1: The internal rates of profitability for different silvicultural systems 

Douglas fir Oak Oak Oak Oak 

110 Ws 180 yrs 180 yrs +IV 240 yrs 

IRP 2.97% 1.98% 1.61% 1.60% 1.45% 

27

The maintenance of certain extrareserves after the Conclusions about the Romersberg forest study 

completion of the regeneration phase will, for its 

part, have no more than a very slight influence on As of this writing, several conclusions may be drawn 

the revenue 

from this study. 

Discussion An encouraging outcome from past management 

The economic studies that have just been described Apart from the relative rarity of saproxylophagous 

highlight a cost linked to a better consideration of species of insects, due to the virtual disappearance of 

biodiversity in forest management. In the short term, large trees in the 18th century, the findings of the 

the forest manager's revenues thus drop by 10%. studies on different biodiversity factors can only be a 

How are we to interpret this additional cost? source of comfort to foresters in terms of the 

outcome of their on-going efforts covering the past 

In a first approach, this extra cost can be interpreted 200 years to improve the stands in this range. In fact, 

as a consequence of the choice of extensive and if few rarities have been discovered, which is not 

natural silvicultural methods, resulting for the ONF surprising for a forest situated on a relatively 

from the application of the national management homogeneous and ordinary substratum, the level of 

targets set by the State. This extra cost would thus be biological diversity is high, particularly with regard 

an evaluation of the value of biodiversity and to the birds and insect groups studied. For these 

accordingly a sound estimation of what society-- 

species, there can be no doubt that the forester's 

represented by the State, and with the ONF as its activities, involving the establishment of a relatively 

guardian-is prepared to pay for "ordinary" balanced patchwork of stands of differing ages, has 

biodiversity. In a more general way, it is thus had a positive effect on biodiversity. 

importantto define sustainable funding sources to 

meet this social demand. At the present time, the 

Much needed follow-up 

funding of such operations in state-owned forests is 

guaranteed by the profits made by the ONF's The management measures proposed to take 

activities-mainly from the sale of wood. If this biodiversity more fully into consideration are, in 

source of funding were to be inadequate, other ways some instances, relatively novel. Their experimental 

could be envisaged, such as the payment of nature means that a follow-up study of their impact 

compensation by local authorities, or the on target species must be undertaken. This is why, in 

development of products such as forest "eco- 1996, there will be follow-up studies of bats and 

tourism', badgers. The amphibians in the three test pools will 

also be studied, as will nesting pairs of collared 

In a second approach, the extra cost due to the better flycatchers in four plots that are representative of the 

consideration of biodiversity can be interpreted as an forest. Lastly, a simple and reliable method for 

investment. In fact, the maintenance of a high level following up populations of saproxylophagous 

ofbiodiversity helps to reduce health risks, helps to insects is currently being looked into. 

reduce the vulnerability of stands to climatic 

phenomena, and makes it possible to better stabilize Making use of a geographical information system 

revenues by the diversity of the products supplied 

[GIS] 

(Barthod, 1994; Barthod, 1995). A precise 

estimation of the profitability of this investment is The Romersberg forest has been one of the first 

nevertheless quite difficult to make. forests, in France, to benefit from the use of a GIS 

for the formulation of its management plan, in 

Whatever interpretation may be made, the most particular for the visualization, in map form, of the 

relevant and the most comprehensive measure for findings of the many studies carried out. But the 

encouraging a consideration ofbiodiversity appears advantages of the GIS for the forest manager will 

to be based on sound economic development of come fully to the fore in the annual follow-up of all 

wood produced in an environment-friendly way, forest activities and operations, which will enable 

which leads quite naturally into the current debate him to have a precise and constantly updated 

about coo-certification, which we shall not go into 

overview of the state of the forest. This is why all the 

here. ONFs management departments will be equipped 

with a GIS between 1996 and 1998. 

28

Fruitful exchanges between foresters and naturalists In accordance with the law on nature conservation of 

10 July 1976, the 1990 national directives on state- 

The work carded out since 1991 on the Romersberg owned forest management specify that the forest 

forest, with the cooperation of scientists in various forms the habitat of a large proportion of wild fauna 

disciplines has lead all those foresters concerned to and flora, and that, as such, it must fulfill the role of 

deal openly with these experts and become more safeguarding biotopes and acting as a gene-bank. 

aware of the variety and complexity of the natural 

environments they manage. If certain aspects of the management methods 

proposed are still at the experimental stage, the 

Conversely, by being closely associated with the 

approach adopted in the Romersberg forest to 

formulation of a forest management plan, naturalists introduce a multi-purpose form of management, 

have been able to appreciate the very comprehensive incorporating biodiversity conservation, is now 

nature of this management tool. They have learned a generally adopted for all forest management plans 

; great deal about the forester's role, which is akin to currently under review. 

that of a general practitioner responsible for 

weighing up different demands and requirements, As from November 1993, the ONF head office has 

and coming up with a multi-purpose forest circulated to all its foresters technical instructions 

management scheme, and handbooks dealing with "biodiversity 

considerations in forest development and 

This experience has thus been very formative for all management". These documents explain how to 

those participating. Because of a better mutual grasp assess, conserve, develop, and monitor biodiversity, 

of the situation, it has been possible to introduce a 

using an integrated approach at every stage of forest 

spirit of constructive cooperation in Lorraine management. Their circulation has gone hand in 

between foresters and naturalists, and there have hand with, and been followed up by, numerous 

been no further clashes since the 1991 dispute, training sessions on these topics, which represent a 

major investment. 

Investment fortraining 

Apolicyandcoherentinstruments forthe 

The high cost of the studies carried out in the conservation of forest biodiversity 

Romersberg forest - about 1 million francs 

(US$200,000) - can also be justified as an At the same time, the ONF has also drawn up a 

investment in training. This forest is now used for coherent system for conserving biodiversity based on 

visits and training sessions dealing with forest the value and scarcity of the natural environments 

management and biodiversity. The types of audience and species in question. 

vary a great deal: ONF foresters, cheek by jowl with In a schematic way, we may single out: 

owners and managers of private forests in France, 

foresters from abroad (Germany, Belgium, Poland), 1. A general consideration of "ordinary" 

members of nature conservation associations, etc. biodiversity in all forest development and 

management plans, akin to what is being 

done at Romersberg. 

BIODIVERSITY AND PUBLIC FOREST 

MANAGEMENT BY THE ONF IN FRANCE 2. A definition of "series of special 

environmental and ecological interest" with 

The management of the state-owned Romersberg a specific management plan for outstanding 

forest is exemplary in terms of the scope of the natural environments and species, where 

studies and operations involved in its formulation, priority is given to the protection objective, 

As a result the forest is thoroughly representative, in but not to the exclusion of the various 

terms of management choices, of what the ONF is productive functions of, and public access 

keen to implement in most of the forests it manages, to, the forest. This applies to the outstanding 

wetlands of the Romersberg forest. 

From the Romersberg example in particular to 

ONF-managed forests in general 3. The creation of "biological reserves", for the 

most outstanding "series of environmental 

and ecological interest", by a regional 

29

scientific committee set up by the ONT. 

These reserves, which must be approved by It is in fact one of the ingredients of natural 

the Ministry of Agriculture and by the 

environments, and one of the factors in society's 

Ministry of Environment, are also requirement that foresters should incorporate in their 

supervised by a steering committee made up management choices, along with the production of 

of non-ONF scientists, 

quality timber, the protection of landscapes and 

countryside, land stabilization in mountainous areas 

The ONF is also setting up a network of undeveloped and dunes, and public access. 

nature reserves of a significant size (approximately 

50-200 hectares). These are mainly earmarked for The broadening and ever greater complexity of the 

improving knowledge aboutthe way forest 

factors determining both analyses and choices 

ecosystems work, so as to be able to derive lessons 

for management. One of the basic principles of the 

represent a major challenge for foresters. 

French forest is in fact "Toimitate nature and urge They call for major investment in terms of money 

on her work"5. 

and, above all, human resources. They also make 

foresters look for compromises, and sometimes call 

Forest management and development: a basic tool into question old technical certainties. But a real and 

for sustainable management 

sincere openness to outside elements is vital to the 

forester. That general practitioner, in charge of the 

But whatever the targets may be, they are all part 

forest's health and well-being, is the better to 

and parcel of the forest management and 

safeguard and disseminate information about his 

development approach, which is in turn 

unique role in the overall and sustainable 

encompassed by the national management directives, 

The main stages of forest management are: 

1. Analyses of the environment and of 

management of forest and woodland alike. 

REFERENCES 

economic and social requirements. Badre L., 1983. Histoire de la for_t franfaise - 

Paris. Arthaud. - 312 p 

2. A summary of these analyses and needs and 

the setting of long-term targets. 

Barthod C., 1994. Sylviculture et risques sanitaires 

clans les for_ts temp6r6es, l&e pattie. Revue 

3. The formulation of a medium-term .Foresti_re Fran_aise, 6, 609-628. 

management plan. 

Barthod C., 1995. Sylviculture et risques sanitaires 

4. A follow-up to this plan by way of day-to- dans les for_ts temp_r&s. 2_me partie. Revu__ee 

day pro anunes and operations. Foresti_re Francaise, 1, 39-53. 

In a general way, it would seem possible to apply Courtois J.M., 1994. Contribution/t une _tude 

this approach to the sustainable management of all 

6cologique foresti_re globale • Essai d'inventaire 

naturalareas, thus lending it an across-the-board 

des L6pidopt_res, _tude de la variation de la 

universal value, diversit_ en fonction de divers traitements, choix 

de bio-indieateurs, conseils de gestion. Rapport 

interm&liaire, parc Naturel R6gional de 

CONCLUSION: INTEGRATED FOREST Lorraine. - 84 p. -- 

MANAGEMENT 

Degron R., 1995a. Historique de la for_t du 

A consideration ofbiodiversity as part of forest Romersberg •une for_t de Lorraine sous 

management is very much part of the age-old remprise des salines. Revue Foresti6re 

tradition of multi-purpose management in France's 

forests. 

_ 5, 590-597. - 

3 

Quoted from : Louis Parade - Head of the Fot,esUy School in 

Nancy from 183g to 1864. 

3O

Degron R., 1995b.Synth6sedes6tudes_,ologiques 

de la for_tdomanialeduRomersberg(Moselle- 

Division de Chfiteau-Salins)dansla perspective 

d'unepropositiond'am6nagementglobaldu 

OfficeNational desFor_ts 1993 - Prise en comptede 

la diversit6biologiquedartsl'am6nagementet la 

gestion foresti6re- Instruction - 18 p 

massif. OfficeNational desFor_ts.- 20 p. 

OfficeNational desFor_ts1993 - Prise en compte de 

la diversit6biologique dansl'am6nagementetla 

Ecolor.draedeLorraine.1985. Propositionspourla 

gestion foresti6re.Guide - 32 p 

creation d'une r6servenaturelleet 

conventionnelledartsla r6giondes6tangs de 

SirouxH. 1996. Economie de la gestion de la 

Lindre.Moselle. ECOLOR.- 62 p et annexes 

biodiversit6en for_t. M6moirede troisi6me 

ann6ede I'ENSA de Rennes. Institut National 

Gaudin S., 1992. Contributionfiune 6tude 

de la RechercheAgronomique - 37 p 

&r, ologiqueforesti6reglobale • typologie des 

peuplementsdela for_t domanialedu 

SchwaabF., 1993. Etude despopulations de 

Romersberg (Moselle). M6moirede troisi6me 

Chiropt_resde la for_t du Romersberg, 16re 

annie de I'E.N.I.T.E.F - 89 pet annexes, 

pattie Aofit 1991-Aofit 1993. Rapport 

interm6diaire. Parc Naturel R6gional de 

Huffel G. 1925. Histoire desfor_ts franqaises de 

Lorraine. - 44 p et annexes. 

l'origine jusqu'_tla suppressiondes maitrises 

des Eaux et For6ts - Nancy. Ecole Nationale des Schweyer J.B., 1994. Contribution/t l'6tude des 

Eaux etFor_ts- 178 p 

carnivoresde la for_tdomanialedu Romersberg 

(F.-Moselle). Statut des carnivores et 6tudedes 

Meyer M., Braunert C., Dolisy D. etDrugnumd D., 

populations deblaireaux. Rapport interm6diaire. 

1994. Etude des patrimoines naturels forestiers Parc Naturel R6gional de Lorraine. - 18 p et 

de la for_t domaniale du Romersberg (F- 

annexes. 

Moselle). Partie entomologique. Inventaires 

qualitatifs et quantitatifs desbio-indicateurs de 

milieux forestiers parmi les Col6opt_res• 

Carabidae, Cerambycidae, Lucanidae, 

Staphylinidae.Rapport 

Minist6rede l'Agriculture, 1990. Directives 

nationalesde gestion desfor_tsdomaniales- 23 

p. 

Minist_re de l'Agriculture, 1994. La gestion durable 

des for_ts francraises- 78 p. 

Minist6re de rAgriculture, 1995. Crit6res et 

indicateurs de gestion durable - 49 p. 

Minist6re de l'Agriculture, 1996. La politique 

foresti6re franc,,aise- 20 p. 

Morhain E., 1991. For_,tdomaniale du Romersberg 

(Moselle). Contribution/t r6tude de la valeur 

biologique et 6cosyst6mique.Proposition de 

gestion. M6moirede troisi6me ann6e de 

rE.N.I.T.A, deDijon. Conservatoiredes Sites 

Lorrains - 62p et annexes. 

Muller Y., 1993. Expertise avifaunistique de la for_t 

du Romersberg. Conservatoire des Sites 

Lorrains. - 40 pet annexes. 

31

STATE OF THE ART IN LOGGER TRAINING OR EDUCATION? 

EDUCATION: EMERGING ROLES AND 

RESPONSIBILITIES 1 Some would make a large distinction between the 

terms "education" versus "training"; however, they are 

by typically used interchangeably by most people in the 

forestry sector. Some use the term "training" to 

John J. Garland 

describe the physical training of muscle patterns 

Oregon State University 

needed to perform the manual and control tasks in 

Corvallis, Oregon, USA logging, while reserving the term "education" for 

changes in knowledge or attitudes that are largely 

mental and less visible. The fact that both training and 

ABSTRACT: Describes the current state of the art in education are needed to carry out logging tasks, such as 

logger education and training in the US. The paper 

felling trees, makes the semantic distinctions both 

highlights the increase in activity resulting from the cumbersome and hard to use. A compromise would be 

Sustainable Forestry Initiative of the American Forest to concurrently list such programs as "logger training 

and Paper Association. The differences between and education" programs when practical and 

programs of accreditation, certification and licensing 

emphasize the distinctions when necessary, 

are noted. Describes in brief detail what is being 

taughtand the partnerships engaged in the education 

efforts. Funding arrangements are outlined for unique STATUS OF LOGGER EDUCATION AND 

approaches. Future prospects are outlined for logger 

TRAINING PROGRAMS 

education, 

The author's best estimate of the current status of 

Key Words" loggers, training, education, roles, logger training and education programs are listed in 

responsibilities, and funding 

Table 1. Each program is identified by state, program 

name/type, partial listing of cooperators, whether the 

program can be identified as an accreditation, 

INTRODUCTION 

certification or licensing program, and an abbreviated 

list of topics in the program. Admittedly, there are 

The level of activity in logger education and training 

likely errors in this summary as the rate of change in 

has risen sharply in the last few years compared to the these programs is phenomenal. In addition, where data 

previous twenty that the author has been working with were not available, I simply listed the status as 

this issue. Part of the increase in activity earl be "unknown". For some states where forestry is not a 

attributed to the Cooperative Extension program of large part of the economy it may well be that nothing is 

LEAP: Logger Education to Advance Professionalism happening in the area of logger training. Also, the 

which stimulated activities in various states with grants 

aimed at logger education. More recently, the 

table does not reflect programs well that are in the 

planning stages except where information has come to 

Sustainable Forestry Initiative of the American Forest 

the attention of the author. Finally, Table 1 does not 

and Paper Association (AF&PA) called for landowner 

show national efforts of organizations like the 

and logger education efforts by their member American Pulpwood Association, the AF&PA or its 

companies (AF&PA, 1995). Based on my assessment, individual member companies, or the Cooperative 

some 35 states have logger education efforts now States Research, Education, and Extension Service 

underway. Several of these states have had logger 

(CSREES), all of whom have been actively supporting 

education efforts dating back to the mid sixties, and 

state and local efforts in logger education and training. 

progressive companies and contractors have long 

The abbreviations atthe end of the table are perhaps 

recognized the need to provide education and training 

awkward but they allow quick state by state 

for their employees. This paper mainly addresses the comparisons. The author welcomes suggested changes 

most recent activities and highlights some emerging 

and corrections to the table. 

roles and responsibilities. 

_Presented atthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForest 

EngineeringandInternational UnionofForestResearch 

Organizations SubjectGroup$3.04-00,Marquette, MI, July 

20-August1, 1996. 

32 

ACCREDITATION, CERTIFICATION OR 

LICENSING 

At last year's COFE meeting, I detailed the distinctions 

between accreditation, certification and licensing

(A,C,L) and will only briefly repeat them here. 

thecrew and theentire firm. Owners and managers of 

Accreditation refers to a process where the quality of logging firms might consider that they and their 

the education is meeting some standard. Certification 

individual employees are on a "trajectory of 

attests to the qualifications of individuals or products 

development" over time. The trajectory may be guided 

and often has an expectation of future performance 

and enhanced by education and training or the result of 

associated with it. Licensing is a privilege to perform chaotic responses by the firm and individuals. For 

some function bestowed on individuals by government, example, the firm has needs for topics in logging 

There are more differences that help clarify the 

business management, and individuals need skills as 

distinctions, and to confound us all, there are mixed machine operators (Timber Harvesting, 1996), The 

combinations of these found in logger education and 

forestry sector needs workers who can use principles of 

training programs (Garland, 1995). 

ecology and silviculture so that loggers are in reality 

"APPLIED ECOLOGISTS" as they work in the woods. 

WHAT TOPICS ARE TAUGHT.'? 

Many states and organizations have efforts underway to 

develop curriculttms that encompass more complete 

Table 1 lists some of the topics being taught in the consideration of needed topics (APA, 1995). Other 

logger education and training programs, but of 

approaches recognize thatjob content of forestry jobs 

necessity they are highly abbreviated. Several types of are changing and workforee needs of the future require 

training are needed for the owners and managers of 

different knowledge, skills, and abilities (Garland, 

logging firms and the individual loggers. What is more 1994). The profile of logging jobs in the future will be 

important is who decides what loggers need in the way quite different than those of earlier generations of 

of education. The educational design process should loggers. 

start with the needs of the learners not necessarily what 

some other group thinks the learner ought to know. A 

mixture of views on what loggers need usually INNOVATIVE FUNDING SOURCES 

produces a substantial list of needed education and 

training. Those providing this mixture include loggers Make no mistake about who pays for logger education 

themselves, owners/managers of logging contractor and training. Ultimately the consumer of goods and 

firms, industry purchasers, forest land managers, 

services from the forest will pay for logger education 

university and college educators, landowners, 

and training if the free enterprise system will work as 

associations/organizations, regulatory agencies, and intended. However, during the start-up phase of 

others, 

increased logger education, the transfer mechanisms 

between landowners, loggers, mills, and consumers 

Another way to look at training needs are to categorize appears to be bumpy and inequitable (the playing field 

them along these lines: 

is not level). The costs and benefits of logger education 

and training are not allocated nor distributed well. The 

Entry level training 

individual logging firm is the focus of the education and 

training decisions with a wide variety of organizations 

• JOB SKILL TRAINING (manual/tool skills, "helping" to influence the decisions. 

machine operator skills, etc.) 

Some of thefunding sources used for startinglogger 

• INTEGRATED JOB SEQUENCE education and training programs have been both 

TRAINING (training for next job while in 

necessary and innovative. 

current one, cross training) 

Initial "LEAP" grants totaling $300 thousand dollars 

• CREW PRODUCTIVITY TRA/N1NG spread across many states leveraged more than ten 

times that amount of logger training activities. 

• WHOLE-CONCEPT TRAINING (how the 

workers job fits into the whole firm and 

A partnership of MS loggers, industry, and university 

forestry sector) 

folks convinced the MS legislator to fund an 

Extension position to work in logger education, 

• MANAGEMENT TRAINING plus the industry assessed itself to pay for 

operating expenses. 

For some of them, the emphasis is on the individual 

workers and their development, while others involve 

33

Table 1, Statusof Logger Education and Training Programs by State. 

S_tate Program Name/Type Cooperators A_ C_L Topics 

_AL Professional Logging Managers Ext., Auburn U., AL Log. A S,FA/CPR,E&S,LBM, HS 

(PLM) 

Assoc.,ALFor.Assoc. 

-AK in progress . 

_AR AR Prof. Timber Harvester Prog. AR Foresfi-yAssoc.& AR A S, BMPs, LC, 

Timber Producers Assoc. 

AZ unknown 

CA Illness & InjuryPrevention Prog.; Assoc. California Loggers A, L S, FMCPR, LC, BMPsI' 

LoggerTraining Prog. (CA Div. of Forestry) Other 

CO in progress 

cr CT For. Practitioner Certification Div. of Forestry, Dept. of L Exam for 3 classes of 

Environ. Prot. & Ext. 

employees 

DE unknown ...... 

' FL FL Master Logger Program FL For. Assoc. & SE Wood A S, LC, LBM, E&S, BMPs, 

Producers' Assoc. Others 

,,, 

GA GAProf. Timber Harvester GA For. Assoc., Ext., GA A BMPs, S, LC, LEAP, 

Program For.Comm.,SEWood LBM 

Producers 

,, 

HI' 

unknown 

IB IDLEAP Program ID Assoc. Cont. Loggers & A LEAP, BMPs, S, FMCPR, 

Ext., plus others . Others 

EL Gameof Logging IL C FST 

IN Gameof Logging 1NFor. Ind. Council, DNR, C FST 

IA Gameof Logging IA DNR C FST 

KS unknown 

KY KY Master Logger Program 'KY For. Ind. Assoc., Ext., A S, FAJCPR, LC, E&S, 

Moorehead St. U., USFS, 

BMPs, 

TVA, Bryan Equip. Sales 

LA Logging Safety Awareness LA For. Assoc. & Ext., A OSHA, S, LC, 

OSHA 

MA MA Forest Laws: Timber MA Div. of Forests & Parks, L Exam over LAWS, BMPs, 

HarvesterLicense Ext., Other agencies E&S. Cont. Educ. 

required. 

ME Certified Logging Professional ME Tree Found., ME For. C S, FA, E&S, HS, FST, 

(CLP) prods.Council,APA LBM 

MD Master Logger Pm_;ram MD Forests Assoc. A FMCPR, BMPs, S, E&S, 

MI Logger Education (LEAP) Ext. & Tbr. Prod. Assoc. of A E&S, BMPs, Others 

lVlI & WI, SFI-SIC 

biN Logger Ed. Workshops, MN MN For. Ind. Assoc., MN C/A ? S, FMCPR, _3SHA, LC, 

Targeted Industries, Truck DNR, Ext., & Others BMPs, E&S, LBM, 

Drivers Trainin_ 

Others 

MS MS Logger Education MS Log. Educ. Council, A Curriculum w/S, LC, - 

Ext.,MFA,MLA,SFI-SIC, FMCPR, OSHA, LAWS, 

..... APA F_,&S, LBM,Others, 

_MO LEAP Ext.&MOFor.Div. A "E&S,BMPs,Others _- 

MT MT Accredited Logging Montana Loggers Assoc. & A FMCPR, BMPs, E&S, 

Professional (ALP) Ext. LC, STEW, HS 

I'_NE unknown ..... 

NV unknown 

34

State Program Name/Type Cooperators Ap C_L Topics 

Nit NH Certified Loggers & Forest NH Timber. Own. Assoc., A (C) FA/CPR, FST, LAWS, S, 

Products Truckers UNH Thompson Sch., Ext LBM, LC, E&S, Others 

NJ unknown 

NM unknown 

NY Logger Education New York Logger Training A S, FA/CPR, E&S, Others 

Board, Ext. & Others 

NC PRO-Logger Program NC For. Assoc., Comm. A & C S, FA/CPR, E&S, LC, 

Colleges, Ext., & Others 

LAWS, LBM, Others 

NIl unknown 

OH Game of Logging, Logger GOL, inc; Hocking College C & A FST, BMPs, STEW, 

Education &OHFor.Assoc. Others 

OK Joined with AR program OK SFI-SIC A see AR above 

OR OR PRO-LOgger Prog. & OSU Assoc. OR Loggers, & Ext. A E&S, LC, S, FA/CPR, 

Logger Education (LEAP) 

LBM, LAWS, HS, BMPs, 

Others by credit 

PA Timber Harvester (in Timber Harvesting Council ? Various programs were 

reorganization) of PA offered 

RI unknown 

SC Timber Operations Professional SC For. Assoc. & Teeh. A S, LC, BMPs, LBM, CDL, 

(TOP) Program Educ. System, & Ext. Others 

SD Logger Education to Advance BH Women in Timber, Ext. A S, LC, BMPs, LBM, F_,&S, 

Professionalism (LEAP) & BH Timber Prod. Assoc. & Others 

"IN Master Logger Program Ext., TN For. Assoc., TN A FA/CP1L S, LC, F_,&S, 

Div. of For., TVA, USFS, 

LBM, BMPs, 

Ind. & Others 

TX in progress TX Loggers Council, Ext. & ? ? 

TFA 

tiT unknown 

VT Logger Education to Advance Ext. & Cooperators; VT For. A, C S, FAJCPR, LBM, E&S, 

Professionalism (LEAP): VT Products Assoc. BMPs, PROF., Others; 

SafetyAdvancementPros. 

FST,LAWS,GOL, 

VA Logger Education Ext., VA Dept of For, VA A S, LC, FA/CPR, BMPs, 

For. Assoc. 

OSHA,E&S, LBM,HS, 

Others 

WA WA Accredited Logging WA Cont. Loggers Assoc., A WA S, LC, FA/CPR, 

Professional Ext., Other cooperators BMPs/FPA, E&S, LBM, 

FST, Others 

WV Logger Education & Certification WV Forestry Association,. L FA/CPR, S, OSHA, 

(licensing) WV Div. For., Ext, LAWS, BMPs, CA)L, 

Appalachian Hdwood Ctr. 

Others 

WI Forest Industry Safety & Training FISTA (non-profit org.) & A OSHA, S, LC, FST, GOL 

Alliance (FISTA) Others; SFI-SIC SKIDDER, 

WY LEAP Ext. & Div. of Forestry A E&S, BMPs, S, LBM, 

Others 

ABBREVIATIONS 

A,C,L = Programs of Accreditation (A), Certification (C), or Licensing (L) 

BH 

=BlackHills 

BMPs 

CDL 

DNR 

= Best Management Practices or Forest Practices Regulations 

= Commercial Driver's License 

= Department of Natural Resources 

35

E&S 

Ext. 

FA/CPR 

FST 

GOL 

HS 

LAWS 

LBM 

LC 

OSHA 

S 

SFI-SIC 

USFS 

TVA 

= Ecology andSilviculture 

= State Cooperative Extension Service of the Land Grant Universities 

= First Aid, Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation 

= Failer Skills Training (may be GOL) 

= Game of Logging (private sector program involving falling and skidder operator training) 

= Harvesting Systems Education 

= Laws and Regulations relating to logging operations 

= Logging Business Management 

= Loss Control (education to deal with insurance and safety issues) 

= Occupational Safety and Health Administration (rules) 

= Safety trainingand education (skills and safety program implementation) 

= SustainableForestry Initiative- StateImplementation Committee 

= USForestService,DepartmentofAgriculture 

= Tennessee Valley Authority 

36

A consortium in GA pulled together forestry INDIVIDUAL WORKERS should consider their own 

associations, commissions, university, and loggers trajectory of development and the way logger 

to fund logger education aimed at the entire 

education and training can be investments in their 

logging firm not just individual workers, 

own development. 

The "Game of Logging ''rr_ is a private sector logging 

skills provider 

LOGGING FIRMS may need to rethink education and 

training as strategic investments that contribute as 

much or more than buying equipment. Training is 

The Sustainable Forestry Initiative State not a fringe benefit to cut back when the market 

Implementation Committee in MI helped fund takes a downturn. 

increased logger education through university and 

association partnerships INDUSTRY might well give up its illusion of control 

over logging contractors and welcome them as 

The Certified Logging Professional program in Maine 

is dependent on subscriber fees for much of the 

program costs 

partners whose success in logger education 

contributes to the success of the entire forest 

industry sector. 

A number of logger training program participants are ASSOCIATIONS at the state and national level might 

receiving lower insurance rates as a result of 

recognize they are not expert in education and 

training activities in ME, MN, NC, and elsewhere, 

training and need to cooperate with universities, 

colleges, and various training providers to serve 

Grants from the Tennessee Valley Authority helped their members. Furthermore, real commitment to 

develop "Master Logger" Programs in the region 

logger education takes substantial resources not 

just a title or part-time staff assignment. 

The OR PRO-LOGGER program depends on fees and 

the commitment of Associated Oregon Loggers to EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS need to think of 

fund a training position 

long term staff commitments to logger education 

rather than hiring part-timers to work on the grants 

In MT some of the materials used to develop 

that run out in a few years. 

Extension's Stewardship Education for 

landowners through federal and state grants have 

STATE FORESTRY AGENCIES have recognized the 

helped the NIT Loggers Association in their 

value in logger training and education to 

training 

implement best management practices and forestry 

regulations but may need to support broader 

A more in-depth review of funding shows that start-up 

logger training efforts. 

costs are needed to get the education and training 

efforts started, user fees can contribute part of the EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS AND 

funding from firms and individuals, voluntary efforts 

SUPPLIERS need to support the logger training 

can be extraordinary but are not mgtaeient to sustain 

efforts not just for operator training but their for 

programs, and partnerships that bring resources to the their own employees who need similar education 

effort are highly valued, 

and training to support the entire forestry sector's 

efforts in ecology and silviculture, logging 

business management, etc. 

ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 

LANDOWNERS AND MANAGERS need to seek 

The new era of increased attention to logger education 

loggers who have received education and training 

and training is welcomed from those who have spent for preferential contracts to work on their lands. 

much of their careers emphasizing training investments 

in the logging workforce as means to improve PROFESSIONAL FORESTERS AND 

individuals, firms and the entire forestry sector. I have CONSULTANTS need not fear that loggers will 

some suggested changes and emphasis for the roles and be doing their work but that loggers will be able to 

responsibilities of those involved in the entire area of better implement the forestry practices foresters 

logger training and education, 

have long advocated. 

37

EXTENSION SERVICES in states with little 

commitment to logger education need to recognize 

Garland J.J., 1995. Accreditation, Certification and 

Licensing of the Forestry Workforce. Proceedings 

the potential for the informal adult education that 

of the Council on Forest Engineering. 

will enable loggers to conduct improved Sustainability, Forest Health and Meeting the 

operations on our nation's forest lands. Nation's Need for Wood Products. June 5-8, 

1995. p. 221-227. 

The list might well continue as more and more 

organizations become involved in logger education and Timber Harvesting, 1996. Training for the Future. 

training, but real challenges lie ahead to align the Northwest Report. May, 1996. p. 46-48. 

positive forces and organizations to contribute to 

partnerships to improve logger education. 

SUMMARY 

From my experience over the years with logger training 

and education I have a sense of what has happened in 

the past--successes and failures. The concept of a 

trajectory of development for the forestry sector is still 

hard to see on a state-by-state basis. It is even harder 

to visualize when trying to aggregate all of the state 

efforts into a national picture. There is value in the 

many different approaches underway if the successful 

ones can be sustained. It will take greater commitment 

to sustain many of the logger training and education 

efforts in the future once the current wave of interest 

has crested. I am optimistic and the hazy trajectory of 

development that I see for the nation's loggers is 

headed upwards not downwards. COFE members can 

help contribute to that upward trajectory, 

A 

0 

i 

p 

w 

t 

LITERATURE CITED 

American Forest and Paper Association, 1995. 

Sustainable Forestry: Principles and 

Implementation Guidelines. AF&PA, Washington, 

DC.10p. 

American Pulpwood Association. 1995. An Interim 

Report on the Status of Logger Training and 

Education Programs in Thirty Forested States. 95- 

A-2. APA. Washington, DC. 36 p. 

American Pulpwood Association. 1995. Statewide 

lvfodel Logger Training and Education Program. 

95-A-2. APA. Washington, DC. April, 1995. 16 p. 

Garland, J.J., 1994. Forestry Jobs of the Future: 

Matching Forest Needs with Workforee 

Knowledge, Skills, Abilities and Risks. Forest 

Engineering Dept., Oregon State University, 

Corvallis, OR 204 p. 

38

EVALUATION OF HARVEST PLANNING 

TRAINING _ 

compliance, landowner satisfaction and 

weather-related downtime, even for loggers 

who are already performing well. 

by 

Bob Shaffer 


Greg Meade 

Virginia Tech 

Blacksburg, Virginia, USA 

Key Words: logger education and training, harvest 

planning, water quality Best Management Practices 

(BMPs), BMP compliance 

ABSTRACT: Interest in Best Management Practices 

(BMP)-related logger education and training has 

increased dramatically in recent years. Harvest 

planning is a critical component of forestry water 

quality BMPs. All states' BMP manuals recommend 

written timber harvest plans, and several states require 

them by law. The objective of this study was to 

evaluate the impact of harvest planning training and the 

use of written timber harvest plans on BMP 

compliance, landowner satisfaction and weather-related 

downtime in the Virginia Piedmont. Nine randomly 

chosen loggers (study group) l_om the Virginia 

Piedmont participated in two days of intensive harvest 

planning field training. Nine additional loggers were 

randomly chosen as a control group. Study group 

loggers prepared and followed written timber harvest 

plans for the 29 tracts they harvested during the 9- 

month study period immediately following the training. 

Study group loggers outperformed control group 

loggers (who did not receive harvest planning training 

or prepare written harvest plans) for mean BMP 

compliance (90% vs. 86%), mean landowner 

satisfaction (3.54 vs. 3.27 on a scale where 4.0 ffiwell 

satisfied), andmean percentage ofscheduledoperating 

dayslostduetoweather-related downtime(I0% vs. 

13%).Absolutescoresforallevaluation criteria for 

bothgroupsweregood,andthedifferences, though 

statistically significant, were relatively small, leading to 

conclusions that: 

* Loggers in the Virginia Piedmont are 

generally doing a good job. 

* They are planning their operations, whether a 

written plan is required or not. 

* Harvest planning training and written harvest 

plans earl marginally improve BMP 


andInternational Union ofForvstResearch Organizations Subject 

Group $3.04-00,Marquette,MI,July29-AugustI,1996. 

39 

.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS AFFECTING forest planning processes "did not anticipate the 

FOREST OPERATIONS ON PIJBLIC LANDS magnitude of shifts that would occur in how people 

IN THE CENTRAL APPALACIHANS _ 

value wildlands and natural resources as our society 

moved from rural to increasingly urban settings and 

by lifestyles.., and in general from utilitarian to 

preservation perspectives." To broaden the spectrum of 

John E. Baumgras 

issues included in the planning process and more 

Northeastern Forest Experiment Station effectively address environmental concerns associated 


with the former "multiple use" or ecosystem 

Morgantown, West Virginia, USA 

management paradigms, National Forest staffs now 

include specialists from several natural resourcerelated 

disciplines. 

ABSTRACT: Located in the central Appalachians, the 

Monongahela National Forest contains a variety of 

In this paper I provide a qualitative assessment of the 

forested ecosystems that provide abundant supplies of environmental issues and concerns affecting forest 

high-quality hardwood timber and extensive 

operations on public lands managed for multiple uses, 

recreational opportunities. Efforts to sustain these 

and discuss how forest operations are changing to 

forested ecosystems have created a complex array of 

satisfy changing public values. 

environmental concerns that affect forest operations. 

The 1986 Land and Resource Management Plan for the The Monongahela National Forest, located in eastern 

Monongahela identified several important areas of 

West Virginia, is the general focus of this assessment. 

concern related to wildlife habitat, recreation, and 

Although the Monongahela is but one of several 

water quality. Land-management objectives and National Forests in the Appalachians, its ecological 

prescriptions for addressing these concerns are 

diversity and variety of user demands imposed on the 

discussed with respect to constraints on forest 

Forest provide an opportunity to identify a wide range 

operations and the need to plan forest operations on 

of environmental issues. By giving the public a voice in 

broad spatial and temporal scales, apply conventional 

forest management, the National Forest planning 

harvesting systems carefully, and identify opportunities process helps identify important environmental 

to apply alternative harvesting systems, 

concerns and forest values. Further, the Monongahela 

represents a large block of public land in a region 

Key Words: forest planning, timber harvesting, where most forest land is privately owned and public 

environmental impacts 

concerns related to forest operations often are focused 

on National Forest lands. This was apparent during the 

controversy over clearcutting in the late 1960's and 

INTRODUCTION 

early 1970's. During that time, the Monongahela was a 

focal point in the national debate over management 

On public lands, forest operations that include road 

practices on public lands. 

construction and timber harvesting are increasingly 

being met by a complex array of challenges, many 

The more important categories of public uses and 

resulting from increased public awareness of and 

environmental concerns are identified in the 

concern for the environmental quality of public forests. Monongahela National Forest's 1986 Land and 

During the 1960's and 1970's, some of these concerns Resource Management Plan (USDA Forest Service 

resulted in federal legislation governing land- 

1986). Other important sources of information include 

management planning on National Forests. This 

white papers prepared by resource specialists targeting 

legislation mandated increased public involvement in 

specific environmental issues, and interviews with 

decisions affecting the management of these forests, 

resource specialists at the forest and district level. 

More recently, the planning and conduct of forest 

operations have become even more complex as public 

land-management agencies have embraced the concept 

THE FOREST 

of "ecosystem management." According to Salwasser 

(1994), the laws of the 1960's and 1970's regulating The ecological subregions encompassing the 

Monongahela include the Northern Ridge and Valley 

Section and the Allegheny Mountain Section (McNab 

_PresentedatthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering 

andInternationalUnionofForestResearchOrganizations Subject 

and Avers 1994). With a variety of forest soils, 

Group $3.04-00, Marquette, ML July 29-Aug, 1,1996. elevations ranging from 300 to 4,800 feet, and average 

40

annual precipitation ranging from 30 to 60 inches, the 

THE FOREST PLAN 

composition of tree species and productivity of the 

Monongahela's forests are highlydiverse. Forest types The currentMonongahela National Forest Plan 

include red spruce, white oak-white pine, and northern identifies specific categories of resource uses and 

hardwood types common to the Northern Forest 

environmental concerns expressed by the public and 

Region,aswellastheuplandoakandcentral hardwood National Forestresourcespecialists, anddefines 

types common to the Central Forest Region (Eyre resource-management objectives and goals for 

1980). Collectively, hardwood types account for 90 addressing these concerns and uses. The resulting 

percent of the Monongahela's forested area management prescriptions and guidelines represent the 

(DiGiovanni 1990). Potential growth rates range from link between forest operations and environmental 

20 to 220 ft3/acre/year. Much of the Forest originated concerns and resource uses. Whether amenity or 

following the heavy logging and frequent severe fires 

commodity driven, these management objectives define 

that occurred between 1880 and 1920. The second- the operating environment for forest operations and the 

growth forests now are maturing and sawtimber stands challenges to be met by resource managers in meeting 

account for 76 percent of the Monongahela's 908,000 

these objectives. The Monongahela Forest Plan 

acres. Half of this sawtimber acreage contains more categorizes environmental concerns into several broad 

than 6,000 board feet/acre, 

topical areas. Those with the greatest potential impact 

on forest operations include road construction, 

The demands on the Monongahela's resources are as 

vegetation manipulation, recreation, and wildlife. 

varied as the forest itself. Located relatively close to 

several major metropolitan areas (within a day's drive 

Following is the allocation of the total acreage available 

for one-third of the nation's population) the forest 

when the Forest Plan was developed in 1986, by 

provided 900,000 to 1,100,000 recreation visitor days management prescription: 

annually from 1985 to 1994. Recreation activities 

range from berry picking and picnicking to rock • 78,000 acres of designated wilderness, no timber 

climbing and whitewater boating. A National 

harvesting 

Recreation Area and five wilderness areas contribute to 

the Monongahela's attraction. Recreation resources of • 125,000 acres for semi-primitive/nonmotorized 

particular importance as emphasized by the public in 

recreation, excluding harvesting. 

the Forest Plan include 563 miles of hiking trails, 567 

miles of coldwater streams that provide trout fishing, • 1,000 acres for developed recreation, excluding 

large remote areas that serve as habitat for wild turkey 

harvesting. 

and black bear, and extensive opportunities for semiprimitive 

nonmotorized recreation. • 12,000 acres for research areas, harvesting 

allowed but area not included in timber base. 

The Monongahela is situated in a region with a large 

and growing forest products industry that is becoming 

• 228,000 acres for intensive management, 

increasingly important to the regional economy 

including motorized recreation, with 95,000 acres 

(Greenstreet 1994). In addition to the large number of 

suitable for timber management. 

hardwood sawmills producing factory-grade lumber 

and specialty products, large-capacity plants are being • 387,000 acres managed primarily for remote 

constructed in West Virginia to manufacture oriented- 

wildlife habitat, with 236,000 acres suitable for 

strand board and laminated veneer lumber from an 

timber management. 

abundant supply of soft hardwoods such as 

yellow-poplar and red maple. Demand for these 

This distribution of acreage by management 

structural products is due in part to a reduction in 

prescription demonstrates the priority given by the 

softwood timber supplies linked to environmental 

Forest Plan to maintaining remote habitat for wildlife 

concerns over forest operations on western National 

species intolerant of disturbance, and providing 

Forests (Wiedenbeck and Araman 1993). The growing opportunities for semi-primitive nonmotorized 

demand for the Monongahela's hardwood sawtimber is recreation. A total of 590,000 acres was allocated to 

reflected by stumpage prices that, for several of the these management objectives. For more than 70 

more desired species, increased by 300 to 800 percent percent of the 331,000 acres classified as suitable for 

from 1985 to 1995. 

timber management, the primary goal is providing 

habitat for wildlife species intolerant of disturbance. 

Management objectives also affect forest operations on 

41

theacresavailable fortimberharvesting by limiting the 

frequency andextentofdisturbance, prescribing long 

rotations togrowlargesawtimbertrees, reducinglevels 

andstandards ofroadconstruction, andrequiring 

seasonal orpermanentroadclosures, 

believedthatcutting treescouldresultinthe 

destruction ofwildlife habitat, soilerosion, muddy 

streams, anda lossofrecreation space(Eganetal.,in 

press). Many ofthesesameconcernswere citedby 

nonindustrial private forest-land ownersasreasonsfor 

notharvesting timber.Publiconcernsrelated totimber 

A goalofthe1986ForestPlanwastocontinue timber harvesting andwaterquality alsoresulted intheWest 

harvesting atprc-plan levels. To maintainthislevelof Virginia StateLegislature enacting the1992Logging 

harvesting throughregeneration andimprovement 

SedimentControlAct,whichincludes specific 

cutting required atimberbaseofapproximately 

guidelines forreducingerosionon loggingroads,skid 

331,000 acres. The maximum production from this trails, and log landings (West Virginia Division of 

timber base is estimated at 53 million board feet Forestry 1995). 

(mmbf) per year for the first 10 years of the Forest 

Plan, increasing to 77 mmbf over 60 years as the 

second growth-timber matures. In 1986 there were EFFECTS ON FOREST OPERATIONS 

724,000acreson theMonongahelaclassified as 

tentatively suitable fortimberproduction, landsnot 

Thefollowing sections provideamore detailed 

withdrawnforwilderness orotherpurposes,or 

discussion ofenvironmental concerns, ForestPlan 

classified asunsuitable becauseofsoilorregeneration objectives, andforestoperations. 

concerns. Maximum productionon these724,000acres 

is estimated at 165 mmbfper year. Actual harvest 

Timber management 

levels since 1986 have averaged approximately 36 

mmbf peryear.The difference betweenmaximum and Of the724,000acrestentatively classified assuitable 

actualharvests fromthe331,000-acre timberbasecan fortimbermanagementin1986,331,000acreswere 

be attributed toapoormarketforsmalltreesandthe required tomeettimberproduction goals.The 

timerequired toprocessenvironmental assessments, remaining393,000acreswerenotneededtomaintain 

Changesinpublicvaluesandenvironmental concerns pre-planharvestlevelsbutcouldbe incorporated into 

that developed since the 1986 Forest Plan was 

the timber production base depending on resourcecompleted 

also have constrained harvest levels, 

needs analyses of future revisions to the Forest Plan. 

Several additional environmental issues affecting forest Although much of the public opposes clearcutting, 

operations are identified in the 1986 Forest Plan, and 

even-age management was prescribed for 95 percent of 

others recently were addressed in a series of reports 

the forest land suitable for timber production. When the 

prepared by resource specialists. Given the 

Forest Plan was developed, there was strong public 

Monongahela's rugged terrain, areas of high 

demand to maintain high populations of huntable 

precipitation, and numerous streams supporting native wildlife species such as deer, bear, and turkey. 

brook trout, soil disturbance and water quality are 

Even-age silviculture provides more diverse wildlife 

important issues. Consequently, there is considerable habitat and regenerates shade-intolerant tree species 

concern over the hydrologic and soil productivity 

that produce mast crops required to support large 

impacts of logging steep slopes with conventional 

populations of these game species. Because these same 

ground-based equipment. Developing and sustaining 

tree species are valued highly by the timber industry, 

old-growth or mature forest areas and sustaining 

even-age management satisfies two major categories of 

suitable habitat for neotropical migrant songbirds are 

user demand. However, growing concerns about the 

equally important issues. Awareness of the existence of visual quality and biological diversity of clearcut areas 

threatened, endangered, and sensitive plant and animal is reducing the reliance on elearcutting as an even-age 

species has increased significantly since 1986, and any regeneration tool, and the Chief of the Forest Service 

constraints that result from protecting the integrity of 

has directed that clearcutting meet specific 

these populations affect all forest operations, requirements when applied on National Forests. 

Although this paper is largely concerned with public 

Although uneven-age management addresses concerns 

land issues, many of the environmental issues identified about visual quality, it also requires cutting cycles of 15 

in the Monongahela Forest Plan also are of great 

to 20 years and more frequent disturbance of forest 

interest to private forest-land owners. A survey of 

roads and skid trails. To minimize the soil disturbance 

West Virginia tree farmers found that most agreed that associated with frequent entries, single-tree selection is 

landowners should harvest timber. However, many also prescribed only when it is desirable to maintain a 

42

continuous forest scene in areas with high levels of 

Although longer rotations will produce larger trees, 

public activity, 

information from remnant old-growth stands indicates 

that these large hardwoods can be harvested with 

To meet wildlife and recreation management 

conventional equipment. Results of studies on a variety 

objectives, most silivieultural prescriptions favor the 

of old-growth hardwood sites show several trees 

production of large-diameter sawtimber trees over an 

reaching 40 to 50 inches in diameter at breast height 

entire rotation and seek to minimize the frequency of (dbh), though most trees were less than 30 inches dbh 

site disturbances. Accordingly, prescribed even-age 

(Abrams et al. 1995; McGee 1984). For some of the 

rotations range from 100 to 200 years depending on larger trees grown over long rotations on good sites, 

site quality and the predominant tree species, 

bucking at the stump may be required to keep log 

Management prescriptions that permit intensive 

volumes within the range of payloads observed for 

management apply to 25 percent of the forest under Appalachian skidder and cable-yarding operations. 

even-age management, generally to accelerate 

development of desired future conditions that enhance Barring extensive decay and degrade, harvesting largewildlife 

or recreation values. Prescriptions for the diameter hardwoods with conventional ground-based 

remaining areas under even-age management favor systems should be technically and economically 

remote habitat. On the more productive sites, a 

feasible. However, thinning young stands to accelerate 

maximum of two or three commercial thinnings is desired fiaure conditions, or presalvage and sanitation 

likely over extended rotations. On poorer sites, 

thinnings in immature stands at risk from gypsy moth 

commercial thinnings might not be economically defoliation (Gottschalk 1993) would require more 

feasible. To further reduce the frequency of disturbance efficient harvesting equipment and improved 

in remote habitat areas, only 40 percent of a specific roundwood markets to be considered commercial 

management area may be disturbed in a single entry, 

operations. 

and an interval of 10 years is required between 

successive forest operations. 

Water quality 

Although even-age management predominates as a 

Recent surveys of 70 native brook trout streams on the 

prescription, partial cutting accounts for much of the 

Monongahela National Forest indicate that a majority 

planned harvest. Extending rotations to grow larger 

of the spawning gravels sampled had loads of fine 

trees and reduce the frequency of regeneration cuts 

sediment that exceed levels affecting spawning success 

requires periodic commercial thinnings to maintain (Duffield 1995). Sediment also can reduce pool 

stand vigor and harvest potential mortality, 

volume and winter carrying capacity, as well as 

Accordingly, the Forest Plan indicates that selection macroinvertebrate production and diversity. 

cuts and commercial thinnings acx,ount for 

approximately 70 percent of the acres and 55 percent Research conducted on the Fernow Experimental 

of the volume harvested. Further, to regenerate selected Forest in West Virginia (Koehenderfer and Wendel 

tree species, moderate the adverse visual impact of 

1980), indicates that with properly located and 

clearcuts, deferment and shelterwood cuts that leave 

constructed skid trails, truck roads, and landings, there 

residual sawtimber trees may become more popular as is little increase in sediment export from a watershed 

regeneration options, 

associated with timber harvesting. However, the 

concern voiced by resource specialists is that the 

With this level of partial cutting, one of the more 

cumulative effects of past forest operations and 

important challenges to forest operations will be 

activities on adjacent private lands have resulted in 

minimizing residual stand damage. Given long periods stream sediment levels that are at or above the critical 

between harvest entries, the decay caused by logging 

levels. As a result, harvesting operations that meet 

damage will in time reduce residual stand volume and water-quality standards might contribute to cumulative 

quality. Because hardwood sawtimber values depend 

effects and exceed the threshold level for sediment 

on log quality, decay and degrade can result in associated with sustainable populations of native brook 

significant economic losses. For example, veneer and trout. Although there is not concensus as to all aspects 

grade 1 sawlogs of select species can be worth 5 to 10 of the relationship between forest operations and the 

times more than low-grade logs. Potential stand 

sustainability of brook trout, there is sufficient concern 

decadence resulting from extended rotations and 

to increase research and stream monitoring to better 

logging damage also could pose problems related to 

understand this relationship. 

wood utilization and logging safety when stands are 

regenerated. 

43

Changes in forest operations related to water quality 

yarding to avoid the construction of skid trails and soil 

include increased applications of cable yarding, 

disturbance in the upper reaches of small drainages 

particularly on highly erodible soils which ot_en 

could prove a costly alternative. The distances from the 

support some of the more valuable timber stands, 

spur ridges to the ephemeral streams in these small 

Helicopter logging is being planned in stands adjacent drainages may be only 200 to 300 feet. Yarding short 

to streams with current high levels of sedimentation, distances reduces the volume yarded per corridor and 

and in stands that are not accessible with existing 

yarder productivity due to the high proportion of time 

roads. A case study of helicopter logging in Appalachia spent moving the yarder and rigging the skyline. 

showed that the relatively high costs will limit 

application of this technology to harvests that remove 

Forest roads 

at least 2.5 to 3.0 mbf/acre of high-value sawtimber 

(Sloan et al. 1994). These authors also suggest that 

To comply with the wildlife and recreation 

local market prices guide decisions on locating harvest- management objectives of the Forest Plan, many 

unit boundaries, marking cut trees, and levels of wood logging roads are closed and seeded following timber 

utilization, 

harvesting so that they "generally appear as a grassy 

path through the woods." Closing roads to public travel 

Because ground-based logging is common on slopes up also reduces both maintenance costs and the potential 

to 40 percent, and economics and locally available 

for stream sedimentation assoeiated with road rutting 

technology encourage the continued use of this 

and maintenance activities. 

technology, cable yarding has not been used widely on 

the Monongahela. Contacts with district timber In keeping with the planned levels of road use and to 

managers indicate that I0 to 20 percent of the forest 

reduce costs, the Forest Plan generally recommended 

land suitable for timber production will not be logged construction of low-standard roads. These roads had an 

with ground-based systems; thus, there is ample 

insloped 12-foot travel surface and vertical cut slopes 

opportunity for the use of alternative harvesting 

when cuts were less than 6 feet. Except at perennial 

systems. Soil surveys of three counties that encompass stream crossings, roads were drained with broad-based 

much of the Forest indicate that 31 to 54 percent of the dips. Problems encountered with low-standard roads 

land area has slopes of 35 percent or greater. To 

related to cut bank sloughing, nan'owing travel surface, 

expand the timber base by reclassifying additional and difficult maintenance often resulted in excessive 

lands as suitable for timber production will require erosion and degradation of 

economically viable and environmentally sound 

water quality. 

alternatives for harvesting on steep slopes. 

To protect water quality, road standards have been 

Recommended measures for protecting water quality raised to include a 14-foot travel surface and seeded cut 

include leaving filter strips to trap sediment and shade banks with side slopes of 1 1/4 to 1. Culvert 

strips to maintain water temperature for fish. Recently installations also were increased and now include road 

implemented guidelines for managing riparian areas 

sections with grades greater than 10 percent and wet 

further limit vegetation management in riparian zones 

sites with erodible soils. Highly erodible sites also 

to protect plant communities. These constraints can 

require immediate seeding of cut slopes and graveling 

have a significant impact on the planning and layout of of the travel surface. Erosion of the fill slope below 

harvest units and the selection of appropriate 

broad-based dips has been controlled by coveting the 

harvesting systems and system applications. Although 

entire fill slope below the dip outlet with ½- to 3-inch 

stream crossings are permitted within filter strips, rock containing no fine sediment. To control 

careful planning is required to minimize the number of sedimentation related to the installation of large 

crossings and to construct crossings to minimtz"e the 

culverts, check dams constructed with logs, hay bales, 

possibility of erosion, 

and logging slash are installed in culvert drainages. 

Depending on slope and soil type, filter strips may 

Wildlife 

extend up to 250 feet on each side of perennial or 

ephemeral streams. Avoiding soil disturbance in these Although limiting forest operations in remote habitat 

large areas requires cable yarding or long winching favors selected wildlife species, such operations can 

distances for rubber-tired skidders. It has been play an active role in wildlife management. Timber 

suggested that on convex slopes, backing the skidder to harvesting can benefit many wildlife species by 

the log rather than winching long distances might creating more diverse habitat. However, due to 

reduce soil disturbance (I-Iombeek et al. 1994). Cable concerns with increasing harvesting revenue and the 

44

need to avoid no-bid or below-cost timber sales, timber Plan, are similar to those expressed by tree farmers in 

harvesting often is concentrated on the bettersites with West Virginia. Concerns with the greatest impacts on 

high-value tree species. Improving habitat on poorer 

the planning and conduct of forest operations relate to 

sites might require packaging timber sales to include 

forest recreation, wildlife habitat, and water quality. 

poor and good sites, more efficient harvesting, or 

Important attributesof management prescriptions 

increasing revenue through improved utilization and 

favoring remote habitat for wildlife and semi-primitive 

roundwood marketing. Improving the economic 

nonmotorized recreation include growing larger trees 

feasibility of treating immature stands, such as 

over extended rotations, reducing the frequency of 

thinnings or crop-tree release to favor mast-bearing harvest-related disturbances, and reducing levels of 

trees, also would benefit wildlife. At higher elevations road construction. Concern about water quality are 

on the Monongahela, overstory removals that release 

addressed through improved road standards, guidelines 

the red spruce understory could help restore the habitat for managing riparian areas, and the use of alternative 

of the endangered Virginia northern flying squirrel, 

harvesting methods. 

Maintaining viable populations ofneotropical migrant The management objectives and goals linked to 

birds is a concern of land managers throughout the 

specific environmental concerns can affect forest 

eastern hardwood region and one that could affect the 

operations at all levels, from long-range planning of 

planning and scheduling of forest operations on broad harvesting activities to site specific applications of 

scales. An estimated 106 species of neotropical migrant harvesting technology. Issues affecting old-growth 

birds use the Monongahela National Forest, and 89 

forests, neotropieal migrant birds, and remote habitat 

species breed there C0/argo et al. 1995). Many of for bear and turkey clearly define the need to maintain 

these species require interior forest habitat, which, in 

appropriate spatial relationships between forest types 

turn, requires maintaining large areas of closed canopy or habitat conditions. Effective planning of forest 

or mature forests to avoid excessive forest operations on broad spatial and temporal scales will 

fragmentation. Edge habitat resulting from 

require the use of GIS technology and computerized 

fragmentation contributes to nest parasitism by 

tools that allow spatial analysis. 

cowbirds and predation by other birds or animals that 

use edge habitat. Other management recommendations Efficiently controlling residual stand damage and soil 

with potential impacts on forest operations include 

disturbance will be among the most important 

minimizing area in roads and landings, not cutting trees performance criteria for timber-harvesting operations. 

that overtop forest roads or clearing only one side, and Management prescriptions thatlimit the need to treat 

seeding these roads to shade-tolerant plant species, 

young stands and that focus most of the allowable cut 

on large diameter sawtimber stands generally favor the 

Old-growth forests 

economicviability of harvesting operations. However, 

making periodic partial cuts over extended rotations 

Effectively addressing concerns related to maintaining will require careful logging to minimize decay-related 

old growth or mature forest components, much like 

losses of timber volume and value. Also, controlling 

providing habitat for neotropical migrant birds, 

soil disturbance and implementing riparian area 

requires long-range planning and scheduling of forest 

guidelines will require careful planning and layout of 

operations atthe landscape level. To provide habitat 

truck roads, skid trails, and harvest units. With respect 

diversity, the Forest Plan provides for the maintenance to harvesting economics, perhaps the greatest 

and development of mature or old-growth conditions, 

challenges will be harvesting poor sites to enhance 

Specific concerns related to old-growth management 

wildlife habitat or cable yarding and helicopter logging 

include maintaining stands large enough to create 

on sensitive sites, and balancing increased costs and 

desired future conditions, spatial relationships between reduced stumpage payments against expected 

old-growth stands and other forest conditions, and 

environmental benefits. 

fragmentation of potential old-growth areas by road 

construction or timber harvesting (DeMeo et al. 1995). 


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Abrams, M.D.; Orwig, D.A.; DeMeo, T.E. I995 

Dendroecological analysis of successional 

Environmental concerns regarding forest-land dynamics for a presettlement-origin white-pine 

management that were identified in the Monongahela 

mixed-oak forest in the Southern Appalachians, 

National Forest's Land and Resource Management LISA. Journal of Ecology. 83:123-133. 

45

DeMeo, T.; Concannon, J.; Pawelczyk, H. 1995. 

McGee, C.E. 1984. Heavy mortality and succession in a 

Clarification of the Forest Plan intent for designated 

virgin mixed mesophytic forest. Res. Pap. SO-209. 

old-growth areas on the Monongahela National 

New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest. Report on file with the Monongahela 

Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment 

National Forest, Elkins, WV. Station. 6 p. 

Duffield, D.J. 1995. Briefing paper on fine sediment McNab, H.W.; Avers, P.E. 1994 Ecological subregions 

effects on brook trout (Salvelinusfontinalis) in of the United States: section descriptions. Admin. 

selected streams of the Monongahela National 

Pub. WO-WSA-5. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Forest. Report on file with the Monongahela Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 267 p. 

National Forest, Elkins, WV. 

Salwasser, H. 1994. Ecosystem management: can it 

DiGiovanni, D.M. 1990. Forest statistics for West sustain diversity and productivity. Journal of 

Virginia--1978 and 1989. Resour. Bull. NE-114. Forestry. 92(8):6-10. 

Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Northeastem Forest Experiment Sloan, H.; Tollenaere, J.; Croft, C. 1994. Technology 

Station. 172 p. 

advances in helilogging: a case study of the 

K-MAX in Appalachian hardwoods. In: Advanced 

Egan, A.; Rowe, J.; Peterson, D.; Philippi, G. On technology in forest operations: applied ecology in , 

press). West Virginia Tree Farmers and consulting action: proceedings of the meeting; 1994 July 

foresters: views on timber harvesting. Northern 

24-29; Corvallis, OR. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State 

Journal of AppliedForestry. University: 237-245. 

Eyre, F.H. 1980. Forest cover types in the United U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1986. 

States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of 

Land and resource management plan, Monongahela 

American Foresters. 148 p. 

National Forest. Elkins, WV: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Eastern Region. 265 p. 

Gottschalk, Kurt W. 1993. Silvicultural guidelines for 

forest stands threatened by the gypsy moth. Gen. Wargo, J.; DeMeo, T.; Kipley, R.; Pawelezyk, H.; 

Tech. Rep. NE-171. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department 

Santiago, J. 1995. Summary ofneotropical 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest 

migratory bird status on the Monongahela National 

Experiment Station. 49 p. 

Forest. Report on file with Monongahela National 

Forest, Elkins, WV. 

Greenstrect, D. 1994. Economic impact of the wood 

products industry: West Virginia 1992. West Virginia Division of Forestry. 1995. Guidelines 

Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University, for controlling soil erosion and water siltation from : 

Center for Economies Research. 74 p. 

logging operations in West Virginia. Publ. 

WVDOF-TR-95-2. Charleston, WV: West Virginia 

Hombeck, J.W.; Verry, E.S.; Dollof, C.A. 1994. Division of Forestry. 28 p. 

Managing riparian areas in Northeastern forests: a 

quest for desired future conditions. In: Proceedings, Wiedenbeek, J.W.; Araman, P.A. 1993. Possible 

1994 Society of American Foresters/Canadian demands for eastern hardwoods resulting from 

Institute of Forestry Convention; 1994 September 

harvest restrictions in the Pacific Northwest. Forest 

18-22; Anchorage, AK. Bethesda, MD: Society of Products Journal. 43(10): 51-57. 

American Foresters: 299-304. 

Kochenderfer, J.N.; Wendel, G.W. 1980. Costs and 

Environmental impacts of harvesting timber in 

Appalachia with a truck-mounted crane. Res. Pap. 

NE-456. Broomall, PA. U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest 

Experiment Station. 9p. 

46

PREDICTING THE OPERABILITY OF SOUTH important. Furthermore, it is recognized that while 

CAROLINA COASTAL PLAIN SOILS FOR operability estimates may provide a good guide as to 

ALTERNATIVE HARVESTING SYSTEMS _ the potential operability of alternative sites, additional 

information is needed when making day-to-day harvest 

by 

planning decisions. Finally, it is alreadyaccepted that 

some alternative approaches to logging may be needed 

J. Steven Carruth to deal with the operability problem. Measuring the 


relative benefits and limitations of harvesting system 

James C. Brown 

alternatives is crucial to determining the type and 

number of them to deploy. 

Westvaco Harvesting Research 

Summerville, South Carolina, USA 

The goal of Westvaco's Operability Calibration 

endeavor is threefold: 

ABSTRACT: Predicting the operability of timber 1. to verify operability predictions for Westvaco 

sales (their relative ability to supportthe machine 

soil types, 

traffic of a logging system) is important to both long 

and short range wood supply planning. A system has 2. to develop additional tools for predicting the 

been developed by Westvaco's Harvesting Research 

operability of different sites under different 

Project in South Carolina to measure the relative 

conditions with different logging systems, and 

impact of alternative logging systems on a range of 

soils under different moisture conditions. This paper 3. to document and quantify the site disturbance 

presents information from a database containing 

associated with alternative logging systems. 

observations fi'om over 200 operability plots. The data 

document the relative site disturbance associated with 

several alternative low impact logging systems. They BACKGROUND 

also suggest that Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) 2 

technology may be a useful tool for predicting the 

Logging studies conducted by Westvaco as early as 

operability of a site prior to moving equipment in. 

1990 began to shape operability calibration. An 

inhouse study conducted between 1990 and 1992 

Key Words: harvesting systems, site disturbance, clearly documented the limitations of standard rubberoperability, 

time domain reflectometry 

tired equipment on a wet site. It also documented some 

of the limitations of operability estimates. While the 

soil map unit in question was rated to be of average 

INTRODUCTION 

operability, weather patterns between the period of 

June 1990 and February 1992 kept the logging site 

With current standard technology and under current "inoperable" for over 450 consecutive days. This and 

environmental and aesthetic constraints, it is difficult to other concerns sparked debate about how operability 

find sites which can support year-round logging in the was defined, how harvest planning was done, and the 

lower Coastal Plain. The amount of relief logging sites need for low impact logging systems. 

available in a given year varies greatly due to volatile 

regional weather patterns and the location of annual 

The study also focused attention on TDR (Time 

timber sales. 

Domain Reflectometry) as a tool for predicting site 

operability. During the study, measurements were 

As Westvaco moves to higher levels of self sufficiency taken with a device called Trace (Soil Moisture 

from its landbase, the ability to operate year round on 

Equipment Corporation), which relies on TDR to 

this land becomes more critical. Because operability determine the volumetric moisture of a soil profile. It 

estimates figure heavily in most harvest planning 

established that on two study sites operability improved 

systems, verifying the information they provide is when Trace moisture readings dropped below 40 

percent. The speed and accuracy of TDR gave us the 

potentialto capture a critical piece of information 

' Presented at the joint meeting of the Coundl On Forest Engimua'ing related to operability and test the value of that informaand 

Group 

International 

S3.04-00, 

Union 

Marquette, 

of Forest 

ML July 

Research 

29-August 

Organizations 

1, 1996. 

Subject tion on a range of soil types. By combining TDR moisture 

data with a measure of soil strength from a cone 

' TDR measures soil moisture. 

/47

penetrometer we obtained quantifiable data related to equipment without rutting.) Once these readings are 

operability, 

taken,the researcherobservesthe progressionof 

logging activities through the plot and records the 

In 1994, three important dimensions of an operability 

disturbance level after each phase. 

calibration effort were addressed. First, a consistent 

scale for rating the visible disturbance to a site was 

To establish a "B" plot the researcher finds an uncut 

established by Harvesting Research with input from portion of the sale immediately adjacent to a harvested 

soil scientists and members of Operations. Next, area and establishes a tenth-acre plot. The uncut 

logging system codes that classify the important 

portion must be on the same soil type as the harvested 

components of alternative systems were developed, 

portion. The harvested area must have been cut and/or 

Finally, operability estimates and sale prioritization yarded within the previous 24 hours. No significant 

based on operability became a key part of the harvest 

weather events can have occurred during that period. 

planning process. 

The same procedure described for "A" plots is used to 

characterize the moisture and soil strength of the plot. 

The researcher then evaluates the disturbance level on 

PROCEDURES 

the cut portion. Unlike the "A"plot where disturbance 

on the plot itself is monitored, the "B" plot assumes that 

A calibration effort of this type requires a large number disturbance adjacent to the plot is what would occur on 

of observations. The three major factors alone (soil the plot. This assumption is valid when the selection 

type, logging system, and moisture condition) create a and timing constraints are adhered to. "B" plots have 

large number of combinations. We needed a nimble the advantage of generating results faster than "A" 

data collection procedure that would allow us to estab- plots. 

lish disturbance plots on active sales, categorize the site 

condition, evaluate site disturbance, and record all 

Plot disturbance is evaluated in the following manner. 

pertinent data within 24 hours of initiating each plot. 

The procedure uses four traffic intensity categories 

We also needed the capability to complete several plots (1"I1through 4) and five site disturbance categories 

in a day. (SD 1 through 5). 

Rather than target specific soil types, we allow the 

The TI categories are defined as follows: 

routine progression of harvesting operations to dictate 

where we take plots. When an active operation is 

TII Trees on the plot have been felled. 

identified, we pull a copy of the sale map along with the 

soil information. Plot locations are chosen based on TI2 Trees which stood on the plot have been removed. 

the planned logging activity for that day. Two types of 

No other traffic has passed through the plot. 

plots may be established: "A"plots and/or "B" plots. 

TI3 Trees which stood on the plot have been removed 

To establish an "A" plot the researcher finds an uncut 

and trees outside the plot have been yarded 

portion of the sale where the felling machine will be 

through the plot. Passes with a loaded machine 

working within the next hour. A square tenth-acre plot 

are between three and ten. 

is established by pacing. Ten TDR and ten cone 

penetrometer measurements are taken atrandom 

TI4 More than ten loaded machine passes have been 

locations within the plot. Volumetric moisture percent 

made through the plot. 

is recorded at each point. From the penetrometer, we 

record the depth from the surface (in inches) where the The SD categories are defined as follows: 

soil strength generates a reading of 250 psi. If 250 psi 

is not reached before 30 inches are penetrated, a value SDI Little or no disturbance. Little evidence of 

of 31 inches is recorded. (250 psi was chosen based on 

machine traffic. Forest floor surface layer 

field experience. It is believed that this reading from generally undisturbed. Compaction unlikely. 

the penetrometer we are using 3is a reliable indication 

Needles, limbs, and other forest floor debris 

that the soil strength is high enough to support standard 

intact. 

SD2 Compaction likely. Machine traffic obvious 

Specifications ofthe penetromaer include: 30 &gr_ cone of Y_ 

square-inch base _ a shall 31 inches long and %-inch diameter, a 

but little or no disturbed earth. Limbs, tops, 

proving ring, a micrometer dial, and a handle, 

and other forest floor debris may be scraped 

off. Stumps may appear to have "grown" 

48

since the tree was cut. In addition to these _ of SD3 is assigned to the higher TI 

visual signs, soil moisture content may be 

levels to indicate that observed disturbance 

high enough to suspect compaction on this 

would have been at least that high. 

map unit. 

- if a site disturbance level of 4 is observed for 

SD3 Area is rotted. Ruts are less than eight inches a given TI level, a minimum di_trbance 

deep. (BMP compliance becomes 

rating of SD4 is assigned to the higher TI 

questionable at this level of disturbance. SD3 

levels to indicate that observed disturbance 

is generally out of compliance with Westvaco 

would have been at least that high. 

guidelines.) 

These derivations are important becausethey allow 

SD4 Area is rotted. Ruts are eight inches deep or calculations on the extent of rutting to more accurately 

deeper, 

reflect what the observed data actually indicate. 

Derived data are coded separately from observed data 

SD5 Area is churned. The soil has been in the database. 

puddled. 

Logging system codes document the logging system 

The percent of the plot which is impacted can affect the that was used to harvest the plot. These codes create a 

disturbance category assigned to the plot. (Table 1.) 

unique description of each logging system, which 

Up to twenty percent of a plot's area can be disturbed to includes its product, its in-woods machine mix, its 

the next highest category and the plot still be assessed 

loading and trucking strategy, its truck mix, its capital 

at the lower value. Up to five percent of a plot's area 

investment level and its manpower level. Unique fields 

can be disturbed to a degree two categories higher and in the operability database focus on the felling and 

the plot still be assessed at the lower value. This is an yarding system since those two elements have the 

"either/or" qualifier; there cannot be combinations of 

greatest impact on site disturbance. 

higher disturbance in a plot that receives a lower rating. 

The lower trattic intensity categories in our dataset Table 1. Categorization of Site Disturbance, SD1 

have more observations than the higher ones. Two key 

through SD5. 

reasons for this include time constraints in the 

observation process and the fact that jobs operating on SD Allowable Area 

wet ground are often shut down before the higher levels Ratimz SD1 SD2 SD3 SD4 SD5 

of traffic intensity are reached. Although it is not 

always possible to observe the site disturbance level at SD1 *** or 20% or 5% 

every traffic intensity level on every plot, it is fair to SD2 *** or 20% or 5% 

assume that the site disturbance level reached on a plot SD3 *** or 20% or 5% 

for a given traffic intensity level will either stay the SD4 *** or 20% 

same or increase with additional trafficking. For SD5 *** 

example, site disturbance cannot be less at TI3 than it 

was at TI2 nor can it be higher at TI2 than it is at TI3. 

Data recorded for each plot include: 

The SD by TI information presented in the results - date 

section includes data which was logically derived as - person who established the plot 

follows: - rainfall history (past 24 hours, 15 days, and 

30 days as recorded at the closest Southern 

if a site disturbance level of 5 is observed for 

Woodlands raingauge) 

a given TI level, SD5 is assumed for all - location of the rain gauge 

higher TI levels. - timber stand information (district, map ID, 

stand number) 

- if a site disturbance level of 1 is observed for - logging system information (logger name, 

a given TI level, SD 1 is assumed for all lower 

logger number, logging system code, feller 

TI levels, 

type code, yarding type code) 

- if a site disturbance level of 3 is observed for 

a given TI level, a minimum disturbance 

49

- soil information (wvsoil number, soil type Tables 2 through 7 stratify the data by moisture 

name, operability code, microsite verification condition and logging system.ND indicates that there 

- Y or N) are no data in that category. ID indicates inconclusive 

- presence or absence of standingwater data. 

- TDR device soft probe length 

- target psi for the penetrometer The data also suggest that while the penetrometer is of 

- 10 TDR and 10 penetrometer readings and value when assessing operability, as a stand-alone tool 

their averages the information it yields is far fi'om conclusive. There 

- SD ratings by TI category are correlations between penetrometer readings, 

- plot type, A or B. moisture condition, and soil type, which can be shown 

when large numbers of observations are considered on 

average. However, there is too much variability among 

RESULTS individual readings. If the penetrometer coosistently 

yields 250 psi within a few inches of the surface it is 

Regarding logging systems and moisture conditions the probably a good indication that operability is good. 

data collected thus far indicate three things: 

Failure to do so, however, is not necessarily an 

indication that operability is poor. 

I. Thereisadramaticreduction intheoperability 

ofmostsoilmap unitsinour 

lowerCoastalPlainlandbascwhen the 

CONCLUSIONS 

averagesoilmoistureinthesurface12 inches 

reaches40 percent.At thismoisturecontent, Basedon thetrendsexposedby thisdatabase, we have 

the only logging systems in the current local 

begun to use TDR to help us do three things: 

logging force that can predictably operate 

within current site disturbance guidelines are 

- find operable sites sooner, 

tracked feller bunchers combined with 

- avoid unnecessary equipment moves, 

shovels or wide-tired skidders running on 

- match logging systems to site conditions. 

trees and treetop mats. 

Within the next year, the database will be analyzed to 

2. There is a transitional moisture range between determine ffthe current operability estimates for soil 

35 and 40 percent where operability may types can be verified or improved based on soil 

depend heavily on the soil type as well as the moisure and disturbance observations. 

logging system. Logging under these 

conditions is likely to require low ground 

pressure equipment (at least rubber-tired 

equipment with tires or duals wider than 43 

inches). 

3. Operability is generally not a problem 

regardless of soil type or logging system when 

moisture in the surface 12 inches falls below 

35 percent. 

Figure 1 illustrates the dramatic difference in 

disturbance dooumented by our plots when moisture 

was below and above the 40 percent mark. It 

summarizes the entire dataset, including the plots 

logged with low ground pressure systems. Figure 2 

breaks moisture into three categories and drops the 

ultra-LGP logging systems (i.e. - shovel system and 

systems running on limb mats). The graphs showing 

the percent of observations which were above SD3 and 

SD4 are intended to complement the graphs which 

show the average disturbance for all plots. 

5O

_i 

5 

PLOT AVERAGE DISTURBANCE 

ALL PLOTS - ALL SYSTEMS 

t@SC_L.O,STURE LT4o.,• SOIL.O.STU.E _E.0_( 

/.j4 ............................ 

3 .......... 

e 

0 

TI1 TI2 TI3 TI4 

TRAFFIC INTENSITY LEVEL 

DISTURBANCE GE SD3 

ALL PLOTS- ALL SYSTEMS 

100%1 _]_ _iL MOISTURE LT 40% • SOILMO_'llJRE GE _------J-1 

:l 

i1_ 

O 40%.......... 

_ 3_. 

0 

_ 

TI1 TI2 TI3 114 

TRAFFICINTENSITYLEVEL 

DISTURBANCE 

GE SD4 

ALL PLOTS - ALL SYSTEMS 

o':.t .......... 

>_7o_ []SOULm,4OmSTURE LT40%m _,L.o._ o,_ I 

0 

10%. 

TI1 112 TI3 T14 

TRAFFICINTENSITYLEVEL 

Figure 1. Disturbanceresults- soilmoistureaboveandbelow 40percent. 

51

AVG. DISTURBANCE- 3 MOISTURE RANGES 

NO SHOVELS - NO LIMB MATS 

w4 

uJ 

5 

[] 

SOIL MOISTURE LT 35% 

SOILMOISTURE 35%- 39% 

SOILMOISTURE GE40% 

I1o 

m 

0 



DISTURBANCEGE SD3 -3 MOISTURERANGES 


100%, 

I 

8OILMOISTURE 35%-39% 

SOILMOISTURE 

801L MOISTURE 

LT 

GE 40% 

0 50% 

1 

"' 

TI1 TI2 

I 

TI3 

I 

TI4 


DISTURBANCE GE SD4 - 3 MOISTURE RANGES 


100%1 , , 

oo_ [] .............. 

+ .............. 

I,L 

0 40%................ 

_ _. ......... 

10%- 



Figure 2. Disturbanceresults- soil moistureLT 35 percent,35 to 39%,and 

GE40 percent.No ultra-lowgroundpressuresystems. 

52

Table2. Percentofobservations inDisturbance Class 

Table3. Percentofobservations inDisturbance Class 

3 (SD3)orhigher,surfacesoilmoistureless 4 (SD4)orhigher,surfacesoilmoistureless 

than40 percent, 

than40 percent. 

Standard Ground Pressure 

TII TI TI3 TI4 TII TI2 TI3 TI4 


Rubber-TiredEquipment 9% 19% 24% 42% Rubber-TiredEquipment 4% 9% 12% 19% 

LGP Rubber-Tired Fellers, LGP Rubber-Tired Fellers, 

LGP Rubber-Tired Skidders 0% 0% 0% 0% LGP Rubber-Tired Skidders 0% 0% 0% 0% 

Tracked Fellers, LGP 


Rubber-Tired Skidders 0% 0% 6% 18% Rubber-Tired Skidders 0% 0% 0% 0% 



RT Skidders on Limb Mat ND ND ND ND RT Skidders on Limb Mat ND ND ND ND 

Tracked Fellers, Shovel ND ND ND ND Tracked Fellers, Shovel ND ND ND ND 

Table 4. Percent of observations in Disturbance Class Table 5. Percent of observations in Disturbance Class 

3 (SD3) or higher, surface soil moisture 4 (SD4) or higher, surface soil moisture 

greater than or Equal to 40 Percent 

greater than or equal to 40 percent. 


TI1 TI2 TI3 TI4 TI1 TI2 TI3 TI4 


Rubber-TiredEquipment 69% 76% 95% 100% Rubber-TiredEquipment 31% ID ID ID 

LGP Rubber-Tired Fellers, LGP Rubber-Tired Fellers, 


TrackedFellers,LGP 

TrackedFellers, LGP 

Rubber-Tired Skidders 0% 71% 91% 100% Rubber-Tired Skidders 0% 14% 64% 70% 



RT Skidders on Limb Mat 0% 0% 50% 100% RT Skidders on Limb Mat 0% 0% 0% 0% 

Tracked Fellers, Shovel 0% 20% 20% 20% Tracked Fellers, Shovel 0% 0% 0% 0% 

Table 6. Percent of observations in Disturbance Class 3 Table 7. Percent of observations in Disturbance Class 

(SD3) or higher, surface soil moisture 35 

4 (SD4) or higher, surface soil moisture 35 to 

to 40 percent. 

40 percent. 

TI1 TI2 TI3 TI4 TI1 TI2 TI3 TI4 



Rubber-TiredEquipment 33% 42% 67% 100% Rubber-TiredEquipment 17% 17% 25% ID 

LGP Fellers (RT or Tracked), 

LGP Fellers (RT or Tracked), 


53

SOIL COMPACTION AND DISTURBANCE 

RESEARCH ON RECENT TIMBER HARVEST 

OPERATIONS IN OREGON ! 

by 

Paul W. Adams 

Marganne Allen 

Johan Hogervorst 


Corvallis, Oregon, USA 

ABSTRACT: The Oregon State University Forest 

Engineering Department has conducted research on the 

effects of timber harvesting operations on forest soil 

compaction and disturbance for over 20 years. Building 

on this knowledge base, studies in recent years have 

focused on effortsto betterunderstandthe effects of 

equipment and treatmentsthat are becoming increasingly 

common, including highly mechanized, ground-based 

systems, andcommercial thinning andfuel reduction 

treatments. This presentation will provide an overview 

of the results of these diverse studies from throughout 

Oregon, and some important patterns that appear to be 

emerging among key site, equipment, and treatment 

variables. 

Key Words: ground-based logging, mechanized 

harvesting, site productivity, skid trails, soil bulk density 

IPresented atthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOn ForestEngineering 

andIn-temational UnionofForestResearvhOrganizations Subject 

Group $3.04.00,Marquette,/vii, July29-AugustI,1996. 

54

TIMBER HARVESTER PERCEIVED COSTS Minnesota's voluntary forestry water quality BMP 

AND BENEFITS OF APPLYING program was implemented in 1990. A total of 97 

WATER QUALITY BEST MANAGEMENT recommended BMPs were developed by a committee 

PRACTICES IN MINNESOTA _ composed of representatives from both the public and 

the private sector. Since 1990, more than 50 

by 

workshops have been conducted across the state, 

introducing timber harvesters and natural resource 

Charles R. Blirm 

professionals to the program. In addition, a guidebook 


entitled "Water Quality in Forest Management: Best 


Management Practices in Minnesota" (Minnesota 

Department of Natural Resources, 1989) has been 


widely distributed. 

water quality, Best Management Practices, timber 

harvester 

analytical focus on quantifying the financial benefits of 

BMPs to a timber harvester. Financial benefits could 

come in the form of factors such as increased 

Rick Dahlman From 1991-1993, compliance monitoring qualitative 


surveys were conducted on 261 harvested sites. 


Persons involved in compliance monitoring site visits 

included individuals from public agencies, wood-based 

industry, timber harvesters, non-industrial private 

ABSTRACT: As Best Management Practices landowners, and members of environmental and 

(BMPs) become implemented, it is important to conservation groups. The average compliance rate 

consider the net financial effect to timber harvesters, across all ownerships in Minnesota between 1991- 

The few studies reported in the literature have focused 

1993 was approximately 84 percent (Phillips et al. 

on evaluating operational costs without assessingthe 1994). 

extent of any benefits that may accrue to the timber 

harvester. A mailed survey of some Minnesota timber Some timber harvesters believe that the application of 

harvesters found that they are generally well-acquainted BMPs increases harvesting costs without any benefit to 

and willing to comply with Minnesota's water quality their operation. They also believe that BMPs result in 

BMP program. While the BMP program was officially benefits that are only received by the public or the 

implemented in 1990, it appears that some practices 

landowner and that the costs incurred by timber 

were widely applied prior to program initiation, 

harvesters to produce these benefits should be 

Practices applied before 1990 were probably those that reimbursed by some entity. Whether this perception is 

provided obvious financial benefits to timber harvesters accurate is open to debate. 

and/or landowners. Loggers who attended BMP 

continuing education workshops had higher BMP use In spite of actions taken to implement BMP programs, 

rates than non-attendees. FiReen percent of the there has been little research directed towards 

respondents indicated that their operational benefits 

assessment of their net financial consequences (total 

derived from applying water quality BMPs were at costs minus total benefits) to a logging business. The 

least equal to their application costs, 

focus of any studies which have evaluated financial 

aspects of BMPs has been on analyzing the cost of 

Key Words: costs, benefits, net financial effects, applying those practices. There has been only limited 

productivity per day, an increased number of operable 

INTRODUCTION 

days on-site, or a reduced cost of maintaining 

equipment, roads, landings, and skid trails. This lack 

Water quality Best Management Practices (BMPs) 

of information makes it difficult to accurately assess the 

have been defined as a practice or combination of 

.netfinancial consequences of BMPs to a timber 

practices for preventing or reducing nonpoint source harvester. This paper reports the results of a study that 

pollution to a level compatible with water quality goals, assessed the change in application rate of selected 

water quality BMPs in Minnesota since 1990, the role 

of continuing education programming in changing 

tPret_ntedat th©jointmeetingof the CounoilOnForest 

BMP application rates, and the net financial effect to 

EngineeringandInternational 

Organizations SubjectGroupS3.04-00,Marquette,MI,July29- 

UnionofForestResearch 

Minnesota timber harvesters of implementing water 

August1, 1996. quality BMPs since 1990. 

55

APPROACH 

(e.g.; culverts, seeds), 3) increased cost of road, skid 

trail, or landing construction, 4) increased cost of road, 

A questionnaire was mailed to logging-related business skid trail, or landing maintenance, and 5) increased cost 

owner members of the Minnesota Timber Producers of maintaining equipment. Also listed were potential 

(rPA) and the Assoeiated Contract Loggers (ACL). 

sources of increased benefits, namely: 1) increased 

The questionnaire collected demographic information, productivity per day, 2) increased number of operable 

evaluated changes in BMP use since the program's 

days on-site, 3) reduced cost of road, skid trail, or 

inception in 1990, and assessed the respondents' 

landing construction, 4) reduced cost of road, skid trail, 

perceptions of the costs and benefits assoeiated with 

or landing maintenance, and 5) reduced cost of 

water quality BMP use. It also asked whether they had maintaining equipment. An "other" source was also 

attended a logger informational workshop in which the provided for both costs and benefits. Respondents 

state water quality BMP voluntary program was the 

were also provided with an opportunity to write openprimary 

focus of the program, 

ended comments at the end of the survey. 

The general practices and specific BMPs included in 

A total of 523 questionnaires were mailed by TPA and 

the questionnaire were taken from Phillips et al. 

ACL. For a variety of reasons (e.g., some individuals 

(1994). Certain practices were excluded, namely are members in both TPA and ACL, there may have 

practices that did not directly pertain to timber 

been some retired members on both mailing lists, the 

harvesting (e.g., mechanical site preparation, pesticide ACL list contained truckers) it was not possible to 

use, prescribed burnings), practices where respondents determine how many individual timber harvesters were 

might infrequently report that they were improperly 

actually senta survey. 

applying a practice (e.g., the practice "proper 

placement of clearing debris" might have few 

This study is one of the fast attempts to quantify the 

respondents indicate that they nimproperly" applied the costs and attendant benefits associated with timber 

practice), and practices infrequently rated during the harvester BMP use. It should be recognized however, 

BMP audit process (e.g., _install silt fences where 

that the data compiled here represents the self-reported 

needed'), perceptions of a select group of timber harvesters, 

rather than objective data reporting of the actual 

Respondents were asked to rate their use of forty financial effects of these practices. While respondents 

specific practices. They were asked to indicate whether may sincerely attempt to estimate the effect of BMP 

their operation: a) never applied the practice, b) used 

compliance on their net revenue, the information that 

the practice less today than it did before 1990, e) hadn't they report generally represents a best estimate, as their 

changed its use of the practice since before 1990, or d) business records do not usually collect data at the level 

used the practice more today than it did before 1990. of detail required for an in-depth analysis. In addition, 

The response rates to these questions were tabulated in a timber harvester disgruntled with BMP standards, 

percentage form and were compared to the results of 

regulations in general, or reduced profit margins, may 

Minnesota's BMP compliance monitoring program bring bias into the surveying process. It should also be 

(Phillips et al. 1994). The role of continuing education noted that the study made no attempt to evaluate 

in changing the application rate of the forty practices 

whether practices are being better applied today than 

was assessed by cross tabulating responses to they were prior to 1990. 

participation in BMP workshops. 

In assessing the results of the study, it is also important 

Respondents were also asked to specify whether their to consider that individuals who join timber harvester 

operations had experienced changes in costs and 

associations like the TPA and the ACL may be the 

revenues since BMPs were implemented in 1990. 

more progressive members of the timber harvesting 

Focusing on 14 BMP categories, respondents were industry. They may also be larger scale operators. As 

asked to note the approximate percent increase as a result, the views expressed may be representative of a 

either one to five percent, six to 10 percent, 11 to 15 

specific type of timber harvester rather than of the 

percent, greater than 15 percent, or _don'tknow. n The industry as a whole. Timber harvesters who are not 

response rates to these questions were tabulated and 

members of these organizations may, for example, have 

recorded in percentage form. Respondents were also 

different operating constraints, cash flows, or 

asked to identify the sources of any changes in BMP 

motivations. Also, they may be smaller businesses or 

applications. Five potential sources of increased costs more part-time operators as compared to association 

were listed, namely: 1) increased number of days 

members. As the size and demographics of the timber 

needed to complete harvest, 2) increased capital costs harvesting community in Minnesota are largely 

56

unknown, it is not possible to tell how accurately the as being at least "fairly knowledgeable" about BMP 

respondents in the survey population represent the practices. In fact, only about 20 percent of the 

entire timber harvesting industry within the state, 

respondents indicated that they referred to Minnesota's 

water quality BMP guidebook either "very often" (one 

percent) or "quite often" (18 percent). The relatively 

RESULTS 

low rate of use of the guidebook may be due to a 

number of factors, including their reported high level of 

A total of 200 questionnaires were returned of which 

knowledge of the practices contained in the guidebook, 

126 were completed. The majority of the responding judgement that the guidebook is technically inadequate 

timber harvesters were owner/operators of fairly small in demonstrating the application of the various forestry 

timber harvesting operations who work throughout practices, or a perception that the information 

most of the year in northern Minnesota. A majority of contained in the guidebook is not different from forestry 

these individuals had been exposed to state water 

practices that are already being applied. Also a factor 

quality BMP information in the form of the BMP 

in the low rate of use of the guidebook is that 

guidebook and/or an informational workshop (Table 1). respondents harvested a high percentage of timber on 

nonindustrial private forests where the voluntary BMP 

Eighty-five percent of the respondents indicated that program had lower compliance levels than was noted 

they were either "very willing" or "fairly willing" to on other ownerships (Phillips et al. 1994) 

comply with the BMPs (Table 2). Most ratedthernself 

Table 1. Knowledge of Minnesota's water quality BMP guidebook and attendance at BMP informational workshops by 

responding timber harvesters. (The number of respondents [n] is noted for each item.) 

IIII 

Response 

(percent) 

Item Yes No 

Do you have a copy of the publication entitled "Water Quality in Forest Management: 80 20 

BestManagementPractices in Minnesota"?(n = 126) 

Have you ever attended a logger informational workshop in which the state water 67 33 

quality BMP voluntary program was the primary focus of the workshop? (N = 125 ) 

Table 2. Perceptions of respondents to their knowledge of Minnesota's water quality BMP program and of their 

willingness to comply. (The number of respondents [n] is noted for each item.) 

........ Response (percent) 

Item Very Fairly Somewhat Not very Not at all 

Knowledge: How knowledgeable are 19 53 22 3 3 

you about water quality BMPs and the 

voluntar_ BMP progam? (n = 125) 

Willingness: How willing are you to 40 45 12 2 1 

comply with water quality BMP 

requirements? (n = 125) 

57

Change in BMP application rate 

example, for the practice "adequate storage and 

disposal for fuel, debris, lubricants, fluids and rinsate 

Overall, relatively few respondents indicated that they from equipment cleanup," which was rated 243 times 

never apply any of the forty specific water quality BMP and had a departure rate of 22 percent, 78 percent of 

practices included in the questionnaire or use them less the respondents indicated that they used the practice 

today than prior to 1990. An average of seven percent more after 1990. Similarly, for the practice "keep 

of the respondents indicated that they never apply any streams, lakes, and wetlands free of logging debris," 

of the practices, while one percent indicated the "use which was rated 199 times and had a departure rate of 

less" category, ascompared to pre-1990. Low 37 percent, 73 percent of the respondents indicated that 

frequencies for "never apply" and "use less" categories they used the practice more after 1990. 

might be expected given that practices selected for 

inclusion in the questionnaire were those that tended to In addition to the formal responses timber harvesters 

be most frequently rated during the compliance 

made to inquiries specified in the questionnaire, many 

monitoring field audit (Phillips et al. 1994). An provided written comments about their BMP use. 

average of 42 percent of the respondents indicated "no Some examples of those responses are shown below. 

change" and 51 percent indicated "use more" in their 

use of specific water quality BMP practices since 1990. 

"I have been logging for 50years 

The "no change" category was selected most frequently 

and during that time I have always 

for 14 practices and the "use more" category was 

tried to do what is best for the land 

selected most frequently for 25 practices. There was and water. I do what the landowner 

one practice where the "nochange" category equaled 

wants." 

the "use more" category. 

"Common sense equals most BMP 

It was interesting to compare the above results to the practices. Therefore, we haven't 

corresponding compliance monitoring field audit data 

done anything different since 

(Phillips et al. 1994). Some of the practices which 1990." 

were rated frequently during the field audits had 

relatively low departure rates. Survey respondents "We have always done most of this - 

frequently indicated that these were the practices for 

- before BMPs were ever around." 

which they had not changed their operation. 

Widespread use of these practices before the Role of continuing education 

introduction of the water quality BMP program in 1990 

suggests that these particular BMPs provide obvious 

For each of the 40 BMP practices listed, those 

financial benefits to timber harvesters and/or 

responding timber harvesters who had attended a 

landowners. As an example, the practice "minimize workshop selected the "use more" category more 

total road mileage required" was rated 166 times during frequently than those individuals who had not attended 

the audit process and was not properly applied on only a workshop. Seventy-two percent of the time, the 

three percent of the sites. Correspondingly, 60 percent difference in the "use more" column between those who 

of the respondents indicated that there was "no change" had attended a workshop and those who had not was 15 

in their rate of application of this practice after 1990. percent or greater. Forty-five percent of the time, the 

Similarly, the BMP practice "minimize total skid trail 

difference between these groups was 20 percent or 

mileage required," which was rated 195 times, had a greater. Timber harvesters who had not attended a 

departure rate of only seven percent while 54 percent 

BMP workshop selected the "never apply" category 

of the respondents indicated that there was "no change" more frequently than those respondents who had 

in their rate of application. Although these results do 

attended a workshop for 25 out of the 40 practices 

suggest that some practices were widely used before presented. For four practices, there was no difference 

1990, it is not possible to tell whether or not the in the "never apply" category response between 

practices were implemented in the same way during the workshop attendees vs. non-attendees. For the other 11 

two time periods, 

practices, the difference between the two groups did 

not exceed seven percent. An assessment of those 

In contrast, there were several practices where 

respondents who answered "never apply" was unable to 

respondents indicated that they used the practice more identify any consistent pattern in their demographic 

after the BMP program was implemented in 1990. 

information. 

These practices tended to be those which apparently 

did not provide direct benefits to loggers. As an 

58

Net fmancial effects of applying BMPs 

percent, and 34 percent reported costs exceeding 

benefits by more than 10 percent. 

Respondents separately noted their perceived amount 

and source of additional costs and benefits of applying 

water quality BMPs. An average of 78 percent of the Table 3. Perceived net financial effects to 

respondents perceived that they had experienced responding timber harvester operations 

additional costs to apply one or more of the fourteen 

of applying water quality BMPs in 

categories of water quality BMPs recommended in Minnesota from 1990 through 1994. 

1990. In descending order of priority, the most (The number of respondents In] is noted.) 

frequently cited sources of additional costs are noted 

below. 

Type of effect (n = 100) Response _ereent) 

1. Increased cost of road, skid trail, and 

Returns exceed costs by: 

landingconstruction. 1to4percent 1 

6to 10percent 3 

2. Increase in number of days needed to 11 to 15 percent 3 

completetheharvest. Morethan 15percent 1 

3. Increased cost of road, skid trail, and Returns equal costs 7 

landing maintenance. 

Costs exceed returns by: 

4. Increase in capitalcosts (e.g., culverts). 1 to 5percent 21 

6to 10percent 30 

5. Increased cost of maintaining equipment. 11 to 15 percent 16 

More than 15 percent 18 

An average of 36 percent of the respondents perceived 

that they had experienced additional benefits from 

applying one or more of the fourteen categories of 

Further insight to the net financial effects on timber 

water quality BMPs. The most frequently cited sources harvesting operations of using water quality BMPs 

of additional benefits, in decreasing order of priority, 

since 1990 can also be gained from respondent written 

are noted below, 

comments. Examplesare noted below. 

1. Increased number of operable days on-site. "BMPs are good for theforest and water 

quality, but they have been an extra cost 

2. Increased productivity per day. because of longer skidding distance. They 

also require more extensive road systems 

3. Reduced cost of road, skid trail, and landing and wider tires that use more fuel and cost 

maintenance, more to operate. There have been no 

benefits to a logger with implementing 

4. Reduced cost of road, skid trail, and landing BMPs, only extra costs." 

construction. 

"lt is probable that sale design and size have 

5. Reduced cost of maintaining equipment, a greater impact on cost than actual 

practices. It is difficult to assign cost to a 

When asked to consider the net financial effect that specific action, but average production per 

implementing water quality BMPs had on the financial 

day is down. It may be unfair to assign all 

condition of their harvesting operations since 1990, 

loss to BMPs." 

eight percent of the responding timber harvesters 

indicated that benefits had exceeded costs (Table 3). 

"It is good to improve logging practices for 

Seven percent of the respondents indicated that benefits both loggers and the environment, but costs 

and costs were equal. The majority (85 percent) need to be met byforest agencies and 

indicated that costs exceeded benefits. Of that 

majority, 21 percent reported that costs exceeded 

benefits by I to 5 percent, over half (51 percent) 

indicated that costs exoeeded benefits by 6 to 10 

59 

companies."

SUMMARY AND OBSERVATIONS often exceed any benefits (returns) that they might 

receive from their use. However, fifteen percent of the 

It is importantto reiterate the limitations of this study, respondents indicated that their operational benefits 

First, the data represents perceptions rather than actual derived from applying water quality BMPs were at 

data fi'om the financial records of timber harvesters, least equal to their application costs. An increased 

There has been increasing discussion within number of operable days on-site and increased 

Minnesota's logging community about the out-of- productivity per day were the most frequently cited 

pocket costs of applying BMPs so some responses may benefits derived from applying water quality BMPs. 

include some respondent bias. Also, because the 

Since so many timber harvesters suggest that they are 

survey was only sent to members of Minnesota's two 

applying BMPs today at rates that are similar to what 

logging associations, the results may not be 

occurred prior to 1990, there may in fact be little net 

representative of all logging businesses within the state, financial effect on many logging operations that can be 

Regardless, the information gathered by the study is a attributed to BMP application. 

major step toward understanding both the benefits and 

costs to timber harvesters of applying water quality 

best management practices. Within this context, the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

study provides a number of useful insights 

This contribution was supported by the University of 

Timber harvesters are generally well-acquainted and Minnesota's Department of Forest Resources, the 

willing to comply with water quality BMPs in 

Graduate School, the Minnesota Extension Service, and 

Minnesota, although only a very modest portion of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station under 

them refer to the Minnesota water quality BMP Project MN 42-42. Contributed as Paper No. 22,384 

guidebook. While respondents indicated their use of of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. The 

25 of the 40 practices has increased since 1990 when authors express their appreciation to the Minnesota 

the BMP program was initiated, there was "nochange" Associated Contract Loggers and the Minnesota 

in their use of 14 practices. For many of the practices Timber Producers Association for cooperating in the 

where the "use more" category was favored, there were conduct of the study. 

relatively large departures reported by the field 

compliance monitoring program (Phillips et al. 1994). 

In contrast, departure rates were much lower for LITERATURE CITED 

practices where the "nochange" category was favored. 

: Many timber harvesters apparently feel (and have Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. 1989. 

always felt) that water quality BMP practices make 

Water quality in forest management: Best 

sense from either a financial or an environmental point Management Practices in Minnesota. St. Paul, 

of view. Respondent open-ended comments support MN: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 

thisfinding. 

DivisionofForestry.104p. 

Timber harvesters attending BMP continuing education Phillips, M. J.; Rossman, R.; and Dahlman, R. 1994. 

workshops have increased their application of BMP 

Best management practices for water quality 

practices more than those who did not attend any 

evaluating BMP compliance on forest lands in 

workshops. Workshops appear to be an appropriate Minnesota: A three-year study. St. Paul, MN: 

mechanism to increase application rates. This 

Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 

influence would probably be most noticeable where the Division of Forestry. 50 p. 

workshops present information about why it is 

important to apply specific practices, especially those 

where large departures might be anticipated. Field 

exercises demonstrating proper application may be the 

best way to show how to construct some of the 

practices. 

Timber harvesters generally perceive that they incur 

additional costs when applying recommended water 

quality BMPs in Minnesota, and thatthese costs most 

6O

A NEW CONCEPT AND APPROACH TO THE ecological values, new approaches to the introduction 

INTRODUCTION OF MECHANIZED, of technology, knowledge and training are required. 

SILVICULTURAL OPERATIONS AND 

EQUIPMENT TO RURAL, TIMBER-BASED A ForestryTraining Center has been created to 

COMMUNITIES' 

facilitate the introduction of advanced, technology and 

operational procedures from Scandinavian countries 

by where such methods have proved successful. The 

Forestry Training Center provides operator training for 

Peter Selfless 

new and developing equipment designed to make forest 

University of Washington 

operations more efficient. Providing local contractors 

Seattle, Washington, USA 

access to training operators reduces the risk of possible 

failures brought about by a general lack of an existing 

Bart Phillips knowledge and trairting base. It also will provide for 

Clallam County Economic Development Council new opportunities of resource utilization without 

Port Angeles, Washington, USA 

damaging ecological values. 


The Center is being developed in four phases: 

organization, planning, staff-up, and operations. The 

Joseph McNeel 

Center hascompleted planning and development of its 

USDA Forest Service curriculum and operations plan and has initiated 

Pacific Northwest Forest Experiment Station instruction of basic short courses. Operations of the 

Seattle, Washington, USA Center will be supported by earned income. Significant 

capital equipment has been pledged to the Center. The 

Center is in the process of raising the remaining 

ABSTRACT: Heightened awareness about the $525,000 it will take to capitalize operations. 

ecological fragility ofthe Pacific Northwest's forest 

systems resulted in significant curtailmentof Key Words: logger training, mechanized systems 

commercial timber harvesting and general forest 

training, failer training in thinnings 

management activities. The resulting withdrawal of 

huge timber volumes from wood markets resulted in 

significant economic losses for timber-based, rural 

communities. The socially- andpolitically-imposed 

reduction in timber and forest management activities is, 

in part, a result of neglected development of an 

appropriate knowledge and technology base in forest 

operations that addresses the ecological need of the 

forest sytems and at the same time is economically 

viable. 

For ecological and silvicultural methods to _ in 

the utilization, restoration and/or maintenance of forest 

systems, efforts in the arena of harvest technology 

development and transfer/training are desperately 

needed. Without it, rural communities will continue to 

deteriorate or resort to other, less desirable resources 

such as tourism development. Such development will 

ultimately destroy the fabric of those communities and 

with it the appeal of the landscape. With the increased 

complexities in equipment, combinedwith increased 

complexities in silvicultural prescriptions and 

tPr_mted at thejointmeetingoftheCoundlOn Fcn-e_Engineering 

and International Union of Forest R__e___n_hOrganizations Subject 

Group $3.04-00,Marquette,MI, July29-AugustI,1996. 

61

QUANTIFYING RESIDUAL STAND concentration of growth on higher quality trees 

DAMAGE IN PARTIAL HARVEST (Tappeiner et al. 1982). 

OPERATIONS 1 

However, partialharvest entries produce residual stand 

by damage. This damage may adversely affect timber 

growth and value. The effects of harvesting practices 

Stephen J. Pilkerton on residual stands are well-documented for many forest 

Han-Sup Hart 

types (Nyland and Gabriel 1977, Benson and Gonsior 


1981, Aho et al. 1983, Kellogg et al. 1986, Fairweather 

Loren D. Kellogg 

1991, Bennett 1993, Baumgras et al. 1995, Lanford 

and Stokes 1995). 



Stand damage and resulting decay in young coastal 

Douglas-fir has not been intensively studied. Shea 

(1961) studied decay from 10-year-old logging sears in 

ABSTRACT: Stand thinning and alternative 114-year-old stands. Eighty-one percent of the wounds 

silvicultural systems to clearcutting are increasingly were within 1.4 meters (4.5 feet) from groundline. The 

important to Pacific Northwest forest managers. Stand average size was 1580 centimeters 2(1.7 feet2). Decay 

damage studies were conducted on two cable thinning was found in 57 percent of the wounds. Ten-year 

operations in 33-year-old Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga 

volume loss on a tree basis was only 1.4 percent, but 

menziesii) stands having residual stockings of 74, 148, was 86 percent of the butt log volume increment. 

and 247 trees per hectare (30, 60, and 100 trees per 

acre). The percent of residual stems damaged Later Shea (1967) simulated logging wounds in a 

increased with decreasing residual density. Average 

controlled experiment. From mature Douglas-fir trees, 

sear sizes were significant, but lower than levels cited he removed bark squares having sides equal to 10, 20, 

as major. Observed thinning damage from helicopter and 40 percent of the circumference at 1.4 meters (4.5 

logging was smaller and higher on the stem, 

feet). Unfortunately the planned 10 year study was 

characteristics associated with lower incidence of shortened due to typhoon Freda (12 October 1962). 

decay. This paper reports and reviews four methods 

He noted that during the first year considerable pitch 

used in sampling stand damage, was exuded, glazing over the exposed xylem. This 

effect was not consistent among trees. The smallest 

Key Words: stand damage, thinning, Douglas-fir, scars were frequently callused over after five years. 

skyline yarding, helicopter logging 

In another study, Hunt and Krueger (1962) also report 

low decay ineidenee and associated volume loss. Each 

INTRODUCTION 

of the previous three studies also evaluated western 

hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla). That species 

Forest managers in the Pacific Northwest United States consistently had larger wounds and substantially more 

and British Columbia, Canada are increasing the use of decay, with volume losses approaching or exceeding 

partial harvest silviculture to meet management 

incremental volume growth. 

objectives associated with ecosystem management, 

sustainable forestry, and social-political policies. 

Until now, the reported low incidence of stand decay 

Ecosystem maintenance goals can be addressed 

associated with Douglas-fir partial harvests studies and 

through partialharvests and thinning (DeBell and 

the extensive use of clearcut harvesting for Douglas-fir 

Curtis 1993, McComb et al. 1993). 

stands over the past thirty years has made residual 

stand damage an insignificant concern. However, many 

Additionally, fiber supply and demand have increased 

of these clearcut stands are now of thinning age. 

small log utilization from thinnings. Thinning harvests Oswald et al. (1986) estimates there are 1.5 million 

of second-growth timber are principle among these 

hectares (3.7 million acres) of 20 to 60 year-old 

partial cut silvicultural regimes. Thinning allows for Douglas-fir type in the U.S. Pacific Northwest 

mortality capture, an early return on investment, and Douglas-In" subregion. They estimate an additional 

257,000 hectares (635,000 acres) of this type in 


western British Columbia. The 0-20 age class adds an 


Group$3.04-00,Marquette,MI,July29-August1,1996. 

additional 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres) and 

62

205,000 hectares (506,000 acres) in each region, King site index (50 year) of 35.3 meters (116 feet), 

respectively, 

whichislowsiteII. 

Silvicultural treatments are changing to address the 

Three different commercial thinning treatments were 

new management objectives and to meet fiber tested at each site, each leaving a prescribed number of 

requirements. One management objective on public residual trees per hectare (TPH) (trees per acre 

lands is to accelerate the development of late 

[TPA]): 

successional stand characteristics. It is hypothesized 

that rapid growth of the dominants, after commercial 1. conventional -- 247 TPH (100 TPA) 

thinning from below to low residual densities, coupled 

with underplanting of shade tolerant species will create 2. wide -- 148 TPH (60 TPA) 

multistoried stands (Tucker et al. 1993). 

3. very wide -- 74 TPH (30 TPA). 

This hypothesis became an integrated research project 

in the Oregon coastal mountains during 1992. The helicopter units at Hebo were inconsistently 

Harvesting studies to determine felling and yarding spaced between 197 and 296 TPH (80 and 120 TPA). 

production and costs were conducted for three 

commercial thinning treatments on two sites in 1994. Site and stand characteristics before thinning are shown 

The results are reported by Kellogg et al. (1996). in Table 1. 

Stand damage was measured following cable logging 

on these sites. Additionally, a helicopter logging unit The healthy dominant and co-dominant trees were 

was evaluated for stand damage, marked to be left within each stand. The removed 

trees were selected from the mid-size diameter classes 

Objectives (18-41 centimeters [7-16 inches]). All trees less than 

18 centimeters (7 inches) were cut as part of the 

The objectives of the overall study were: 

silvicultural treatment 

1. Characterize stand damage sustained. Harvest systems 

2. Quantitatively contrast damage between Harvesting was performed by two cable logging 

logging systems and treatments, 

contractors and a helicopter logging contractor during 

the period December 1993 to April 1994. Yarding 

3. Identify the harvesting variables which affect equipment and operational differences are summarized 

residual damage, in Tables 2 and 3. Stems at Hebo were limbed on 

three sides with tops bucked off. At Yachats, only the 

4. Recommend practices to reduce damage top side was limbed and the tree top was attached to the 

duringharvesting, 

lastlog. 

5. Investigate and identify sampling methods for The helicopter used was a Sikorsky S-58T, having 

quantifying damage. 

2,272 kilograms (5,000 pounds) maximum external 

load capacity. 

This paper will summarize some of the preliminary 

results of objectives 1, 2, and 5. Final results for all 

objectives will be completed later in more detailed 

reports. 

METHODS 

Study sites and treatments 

Two cable yarding sites were selected in the Coast 

Range of Oregon, near the towns of Hebo and Yaehats 

on Siuslaw National Forest land. Both sites have a 

63

Table 1. Study site and stand characteristics before thinning. 

Characteristic Hebo Yaehats 

Total size in ha (acres) 10.9 (26.9) 9.2 (22.6) 

Treatment size in ha (acres) 

74tph(30tpa) 2.0(4.9) 4.5(11.I) 

148tph(60tpa) 3.6(9.0) 2.4(5.9) 

247tph(100tpa) 5.3(13.0) 2.3(5.6) 

Aspect Northwest,Northeast Southwest 

Percentslope 15-60 15-70 

Species composition 99% Douglas-fir 93%Douglas-fir 

6% Western hemlock 

Stand age in years 33 33 

Trees/ha (trees/acre) 588 (238) 791 (320) 

Average dbh in em (in.) 29.5 (11.6) 26.9 (10.6) 

Volume in m3/ha (it3/acre) 506 (7226) 514 (7343) 

Basal area, m2/ha (ft2/acre) 44.3 (193. l) 48.4 (210.6) 

Table 2. Summary of cable logging equipment and crew used at Hebo and Yachats. 

Tower Operating lines 

Sites Yarder height (diameter/length) Carriage 

Hebo Thunderbird 12.2 m Skyline: Maki Mini Mak II 

TMY 40 (40 It) 20 nun / 610 m Mechanical Slackpulling 

(0.75 in / 2000 It) 

Mainline: 

12mm/610m 

(0.5 in / 2000 it) 

Yaehats Koller 10,1 m Skyline: Koller SKA 2.5 

K501 (33 it) 20 mm/ 500 m Manual Slackpulling 

(0.75 in/164011) 

Mainline: 

12mm/600m 

(0.5 in/1965 it) 

Table 3. Comparison of thinning operations at both sites. 

Tail-trees Intermediate Log Yarding distance 

Sites Felling used supports Yarding height ,suspension (AEYD) 

Hebo Manual 1, rest none above, within partial, often 260 m (660 it) 

mobile canopy full 

Yachats Manual 26 10 under canopy partial 250 m (820 ft) 

64

Procedure 

At the cable sites, every tree was evaluated for damage 

(100 percent cruise). Four additional sampling 

Residual tree damage was measured one year alter 

methods were performed at the Yachats site. The four 

harvest (summer 1995). The following characteristics methods evaluated were: 

were recorded for each damaged tree: 

1. Line-circular 0.04 ha (0.1 acre) plots 

1. Diameter at breast height (DBH) 2. Random circular plots 

2. Scarwidth 3.Striptransects 

3. Scarlength 4. Blockscenteredoncorridors. 

4. Scar area 

5. Height to scar base All four methods were developed the same initially to 

6. Bole quadrant location determine the number of damaged trees to sample. 

Bole quadrants were: 

First, an estimate of the percent damaged residual trees 

1. towards landing was obtained. Second, an estimate of the number of 

2. towards corridor total residual trees was obtained. Third, we selected an 

3. away from landing appropriate allowable sampling error. The larger the 

4 away from corridor acceptable error, the lower the required sampling in- 

7. Gouge damage, depth penetrating sapwood tensity. An allowable error of 10 percent was selected 

8. Gouge area as an appropriate level to balance accuracy and effort. 

9. Distance from skyline corridor centerline Then the number of damage trees to be sampled was 

10. Distance from landing determined using equation (1) (Dilworth 1981): 

11. Number of scars 

N,p* ( 1 -p) 

12 Broken top defined as removal of the apical no= 

leader (N-I) * (de z 2) +p* (l-p) 

13. Flag injury defined as half or more of the 

crown removed from the base of the live 

crown to the top on one side of the stem, 

where: 

causing the tree to resemble a flag on a N = total number of trees in the unit, 

pole. 

no= number of damaged trees required in sample, 

p = estimate of percent damaged trees in unit, 

Intermediate support trees and tailtrees were inspected 

(decimal) 

for rigging related damage. Windfall trees were d = allowable sampling error, decimal percent, 

recorded. Root damage and branch damage were not z = upper alpha/2 point on a normal distribution, 

evaluated, 

wherealphaistheprobabilityofatypeI 

All damaged trees (presence of a scar, any bark 

removedwithexposedcambialayer) werenumbered Plot methods 

withpaintinthecableunitstoavoiddoublecounting 

and for testing the sampling methods. Each scar was For the line-plot or random plot methods, an 

measured for area. Small scars were traced onto loose appropriate plot size was selected to yield a manageleaf 

paper. Larger scars were traced onto several able yet representative sample (six trees per plot) as a 

sheets and summed. The tracings were measn'ed using function of the residual stocking. Then the number of 

a planirneter in the office. Scars which could not be plots required was calculated using equation (2): 

reached were measured by Bettinger and Kellogg's 

n 

(1993) method using a camera equipped with a 70-210 

mm zoom lens. A scale was mounted to a 7.62 meter 

pl 0 t s = o 

t a *p * s 

(25 It) telescoping rod, placed near the scar, and a 

photo taken of the scar and scale for later analysis. 

where: 

Sampling methods 

Theobjective ofthesamplingmethodwastoobtainan 

estimate of the percentage of total residual trees which 

are damaged as defined by some criteria in an efficient 

yet statistically sound manner for the entire stand, 

65 

error. 

no= numberofdamagedtreesrequired insample, 

p = estimate ofpercentdamagedtreesinunit, 

(decimal) 

ta = residual stocking density in unit, trees per unit 

area 

s = plot size in area

Line-plots 

The helicopter sites were systematically sampled as the 

total unit size was 33 hectares (82 acres). A line-plot 

With the known number of plots and unit size, an 

method using 62, 0.04 hectare (0.1 acre) circular plots 

appropriate line spacing and plot center spacing was 

gave a 7.5 percent sampling intensity. 

selected to fit the required plots to the unit. In the 74 

TPH (30 TPA) unit, a plot size of 0.08 hectare (0.2 

acre) was used to achieve the representative sample per RESULTS and DISCUSSION 

plot. 

Cable logging damage 

Random plots 

Many of the scars less than 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) in 

A spreadsheet was created to generate random x,y 

width completely healed over in the year following 

coordinate pairs within the unit boundaries. Plots were harvesting. The summary of the attributes sampled is 

selected until the number of plots required were shown in Table 4. 

located. Plots which overlapped each other or unit 

boundaries were dropped. Plots were then ordered into Damage incidence and _car size 

a continuous traverse. A traverse program was used to 

generate bearings anddistances for each leg from the 

As the thinning intensity increased, (residual density 

starting point to the end-point, 

decreased) stand damage increased, on a percentage 

basis. However, damaged trees per unit area increased 

Strip transects 

with increasing residual density, from 18 TPH (7 TPA) 

in the very wide treatment unit to 35 TPH (14 TPA) in 

We divided the number of damage trees required for the conventional treatment unit at Hebo. A similar, but 

sampling from equation (1) by the estimated decimal 

higher, trend occun'ed at Yachats as there was a greater 

damage rate to obtain the total number of trees to 

percentage of damaged trees by treatment than at Hebo. 

investigate. This number was then divided by the 

residual stocking density to determine the total strip 

Trees at both sites averaged approximately 2.5 scars 

area to be sampled by the cruise. With the known 

per tree, with a slight increase in the very wide 

sample area and unit size, an appropriate line spacing treatment at Yachats. Sear size by frequency follows 

and strip width was selected to fit the required total an inverse J shape distribution. Average scar size 

strip area to the unit. 

increased with increasing thinning intensity. Additionally, 

the average scar at Yachats by treatment (240-490 

Blocks on corridors 

em2[37- 76 in2]) was larger than the scar of corresponding 

treatment (150-195 cm 2 [23-30 inS]) at Hebo. 

As with the strip method, we divided the number of 

damage trees required for sampling from equation (1) Under the commercial thinning standards documented 

by the estimated decimal damage rate to obtain the total by the British Columbia Ministry of Forests (1983), 

number of trees to investigate. This number was then trees with cumulative scar area less than 450 

divided by the residual stocking density to determine 

centimeters 2(70 inches2) do not incur a financial 

the total block area to be sampled by the method. Then penalty. Greater damage incurs increasing penalties. 

each skyline road was divided into four equal sections Under these guidelines, depending on the treatment, 8- 

with a line at 25, 50, and 75 quartile points of the total 13 percent of the residual trees would be penalty trees 

skyline corridor length. A block width was selected. A at Hebo, while 18-39 percent of the residual trees 

block was drawn extending from the midpoints with the would be penalty trees at Yachats. 

adjacent corridors of the chosen width (one-half width 

above and below quartile points). The total block area, The trend at Yachats to have more damage and larger 

was summed and compared with the required total scars is puzzling. The smaller yarding equipment and 

sample area. The block width was adjusted, as 

required, to achieve the sample area needed, 

When sampling cruises were performed, only the 

damaged tree numbers were recorded because the data 

the rigging configuration used are conventionally 

associated with lower levels of damage. The inability 

to readily reposition the Koller carriage, as contrasted 

with the better carriage control at Hebo, is felt to be 

one important factor. The factors of crew incentive or 

were previously collected. However, the time to diligence in minimizing stand damage must also be 

perform (establish, locate, traverse) the various cruises considered. It was not apparent if the timber sale 

was recorded. 

66

#of 

LoggingDamages Scars Scar Scar Scar Scar SearArea 

Study #oftrees DBH per Height Width Length Area perTree Scar 

Sites Unit (%) (in) Tree (feet) (in) (in) (ins) (ins) Area 

(Logging (TP (fl_ 

System) A) Total Broke n Flag Wind Throw Average Ave Min Max Ave Min Max Ave Min Max Ave Min Max 

/ae) 

Top 

Yachats 30 49 1 0 1 15.1 3.2 7.5 5.8 1.5 44.4 16.6 1.2 253 76 2.8 864 257 5.2 1678 16.8 

(Cable) _36.6) (2.0) (0.0) 

H,, 

60 142 2 0 19 14.2 2.3 4.8 5.5 1.2 20 12.3 1.2 _130 59 2.8 829 134 4 1103 14.3 

(32.2) (l.4) (0.0) 

Hebo 30 75 18 3 0 13.8 2.5 7.7 4.1 0.5 18 7.8 0.8 44 30.4 2.6 367 75.1 7 822 2.7 

(Cable) (25.0) (24.0) (4.0) 

60 59 7 12 1 13.7 2.4 7 5.3 1 i32 7.6 1.5 56 28.4 3 317 64.5 3.8 357 3.3 

(17.3) (11.7) (20.3) 

100 81 3 1 0 12.7 2.8 7.1 3.7 0.5 11 7.0 0.8 78 22.8 2 234 63.2 4 578 5.9 

(15.8) (3.7) (1.2) 

I 

Hebo 100 69 10 6 1 13.3 1.7 17.7 4.6 0.8 56 7.4 2 36 23.9 4 155 41.4 4 291 2.4 

(Helicopte (11.1) (14.5) (8.7) 

0 

- The data in cable units were collected by 100% sampling, but data for the helicopter units were collected by using line-plot sampling method. 

Table 4. Descriptive statistics of residual stand damage from commercial thinning at Yachats and Hebo 

O_ 

100 227 2 0 3 14.2 1.9 5.5 4.9 0.8 31 8.7 0.9 111 36.6 3 588 70.1 3 717 8.1 

_22.9) (0.9) (0.0) 

Notes: - DBH are only for the damaged trees 

- The pereentages for Broken top and Flag are calculated based on the total number of damaged trees.

officers at either site were evaluating the operations for 

residual stand damage 

units. These scar conditions may have a lower risk of 

infection. 

Corridor proximRy_ height, and quadrant location Broken tops and flag injuries accounted for 23 percent 

of thetotal stand damage in the helicopter units at 

The majority of the gouge damage occurred along the Hebo. While decay potential is minimized, stem 

corridors at both sites. The appearance of the gouged 

mortality may increase due to the loss of the live crown. 

sears suggests multiple impacts. More than 60 percent 

of the damaged trees at Yachats and approximately 70 Sampling methods 

percent at Hebo were located within 6.1 meters (20 

feet) of the corridor centerline. 

Sampling intensity of the residual trees was 55, 20, and 

10 percent respectively for the 74, 148, and 247 TPH 

(30, 60, 100 TPA) units. With a few exceptions, the 

The average height of the sears at Yachats varied from 

1.5 - 2.3 meters (4.8 - 7.5 feet). At Hebo, scar height four sampling methods evaluated performed acceptably 

was more uniform around 2.2 meters (7.2 feet). 

(within the acceptable error rate) in estimating stand 

damage for the various attributes measured (Table 5). 

More than 50 percent of the scars where located in the With this unreplicated case study (n=l), it is not 

quadrant facing the corridor at both Yachats and Hebo. possible to determine whether methodology alone 

Including the quadrant away from the landing, 75 

caused an inaccurate attribute estimate. 

percent of all scars occur in these 2 quadrants. 

Upon review of Table 5, the block method appears 

Non-scar damage 

most variable among the methods, especially in 

estimating total sear area per tree. The line-plot 

Both broken top and flag injuries were more prevalent method appears most consistent across the attributes 

at Hebo than Yaehats, where they were almost non- estimated. All methods are highly variable in the 74 

existent This is directly attributable to the rigging TPH unit (30 TPA) as a result of the high variability in 

configuration and procedures used at Hebo. This was stand damage. Likewise, all methods have more 

the first thinning operation by the operator with this 

variability in estimating a highly variable attribute like 

equipment. They chose not to rig tailtrees in favor of 

scar size. All methods have higher accuracy with a 

rigging across the draw to a roadside mobile tailhold, 

more consistent attribute like percent damaged trees. 

As the skyline was raised and tightened, the resulting 

rubbing and siwash of the skyline on the trees removed Ease of implementation is highest with the line-plot and 

live limbs and severed tree tops. On several occasions, lowest with the block and random plot methods (Table 

the mobile tailhold had to be repositioned to bring the 6). Statistically, the random circular plots is the most 

skyline into the yarding corridor, 

robust (least potential bias), but the least efficient for 

forest sampling. The line-plot and transect require 

At Yaehats, the choice not to use tree plates or ballistic coverage of the entire unit for unbiased statistical 

fiber rigging straps caused the rigging cables on the 

inference to the entire stand, particularly when the 

tailtrees and intermediate support trees to partially or 

stand lacks homogeneity. 

completely crush or remove the cambial layer, resulting 

in girdling of the stem. One-third of the tailtrees and 

The block on corridor method concentrates coverage in 

one-half of the intermediate support trees were dead 

the area where damage occurrence and severity is the 

one year after thinning, 

highest as evidenced in the damage study results. 

However, field implementation was difficult and the 

Helicopter logging damage 

amount of area surveyed must be known to create an 

estimate for scar area per unit land area. 

Only 11. I percent (95 percent CI, 8.5-13.5 percent) of 

the residual trees were damaged in the helicopter unit The line-plot method appears to be the most efficient in 

(Table 4). The average scar size was comparable to the establishing, traversing, and implementing a stand 

lowest average cable yarding sear. The maximum sear damage survey while providing an acceptable estimate 

area sampled was the smallest maximum seen in the 

of residual damage. 

entire study. More than 80 percent of the sears 

sampled were smaller than 195 centimeters _ (30 

inches:). The average scar height was 5.4 meters (17.7 

feet), 3 meters (10 feet) higher than in the cable yarded 

68

Table 6. Advantages anddisadvantages of the sampling methods. 

Sampling Designs Advantages Disadvantages 

Systematic Circular Plots - Easy to find plots on the site. - Difficult to precisely layout 

(Line-Plot) 

a circular plot on the slope. 

- The checker is certain to take 

exactly the same trees as the 

original cruiser ff a stake is 

set to designate the center of 

the plot. 

- One person can collect data. 

- Easy to collect data 

- Takes the least time to 

establish and traverse. 

Systematic Line Transects - Easier to estimate a distance - Diifieult to check unless the 

on either side of the center 

center line is definitely 

line than a radius circular 

marked. 

plots. => easy to do layout 

- Requires at least a two-person 

crew. 

Blocks along the Skyline Roads - Samples damages along the - More difl%ult to set the 

skyline roads where occurrence blocks on the site than any of 

and severity is highest, 

the other methods. 

- Hard to apply it to ground 

based systems. 

- Takes the most time for 

_ 

data collection. 

- Difficult to calculate the area 

sampled. 

Random Circular Plots - Eliminate bias - Difficult to locate plots on 

the site. 

- Every situation has the same 

probability to be selected. 

- Works well for both cable and 

ground based logging systems. 

- The most difficult to do layout 

of plots on the map. 

- More difficult data collection 

than Systematic circular plots. 

7O

Management implications Proceedings of the 18th annual meeting of the 

Council on Forest Engineering; 1995 June 5-8; 

Quantifying stand damage may provide information 

Cashiers, NC. Corvallis, OR: Council on Forest 

useful in managing for both fiber and non-fiber Engineering: 87-96. 

resources. Stand damage has negative fiber volume 

and value impacts. With current ecosystem Bennett, Doug M. 1993. Partial cutting in a secondmanagement 

and sustainable forestry goals, stand growth Douglas-fir stand in coastal British 

damage may contribute positive impacts through Columbia: Productivity, costs, and soil impacts. 

immediate and progressive snag creation, roosting and Technical Note TN- 199. Vancouver, British 

nesting sites in broken topped trees, and diversity in Columbia: Forest Engineering Research Institute 

micro-flora and fauna species associated with decay of Canada, Western Division. 12 p. 

processes. 

Benson, Robert E.; Gonsior, M.J. 1981. Tree damage 

Conducting stand damage surveys for in-progress 

from skyline logging in a western larch/Douglasharvest 

operations would provide forest managers with fir stand. Res. Paper INT-268. Ogden, UT: 

the information needed to take corrective action to USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and 

minirmz"e impacts. The manager may also use the Range Experiment Station. 15 p. 

information in selecting habitat reserve trees. Growth 

and yield projections may be updated. Operationally, Bettinger, P.; Kellogg, L.D. 1993. Residual stand 

the manager can insure feasibility of future harvest damage from cut-to-length thinning of secondentries 

through protection of tail and intermediate 

growth timber in the Cascade Range of Western 

support trees. Oregon. Forest Products Journal 43(11/12): 59- 

64. 

Forest engineers, through harvest planning, earl provide 

the best starting conditions to minirmz"e damage during British Columbia Ministry of Forests. (Updated 

operations. The thinning operator ultimately controls periodically). "Appendix 9-10B, Commercial 

stand damage occurrence. 

Thinning, Summary of Standards, Schedule B 

(F.S. 763B)". In: Silviculture Manual, Volume 2. 

Victoria, BC, Canada. 

SUMMARY 

DeBell, Dean S.; Curtis, R.O. 1993. Silviculture and 

This study reported levels of cable thinning caused new forestry in the Pacific Northwest. Journal of 

damage for a conventional thinning intensity and two Forestry 91 (12): 25-30. 

higher intensities implemented for accelerating 

development ofmultistoried stands. Evaluation of Dilworth, John R. 1981. Log scaling and timber 

recorded damage patterns suggest a matching of cruising. Corvallis, OR: OSU Book Stores, Inc. 

harvest equipment, techniques, and diligent operators 468 p. 

can reduce damage. The line-plot cruise method can 

efficiently provide an acceptable estimate of stand Fairweather, Stephen E. 1991. Damage to residual 

damage, 

trees after cable logging in northern hardwoods. 

Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 8(I): 15-17. 

LITERATURE CITED Hunt, John; Krueger, K.W. 1962. Decay associated 

with thinning wounds in young-growth western 

Aho, Paul E.; Fiddler, G.; Srago, M. 1983. Logging hemlock and Douglas-fir. J.For.60(5): 336-340. 

damageinthinned, young-growth true fir standsin 

California andrecommendations forprevention. Kellogg, LorcnD.;Olsen,E.D.;Hargrave,M.A. 1986. 

ResearchPaperPNW-304. Portland, OR: U.S. 

Skylinethinning a westernhemlock-Sitka spruce 

DepartmentofAgriculture, ForestService, Pacific 

stand:Harvesting costsandstan damage. 

NorthwestForestandRangeExperimentStation. 8 ResearchBulletin 53.Corvallis, OR: Oregon 

p. StateUniversity, CollegeofForestry, Forest 

ResearchLaboratory. 21 p, 

Baumgras,JohnE.;Sherar,J.R.;LcDoux,C.B. 1995. 

Environmental impactsfromskyline yardinginan Kellogg, LorenD.;Milota,G.V.;MillerJr,M. 1996. 

Appalachian hardwood stand: A case study. In: 

A comparison of skyline harvesting costs for 

71

alternative commercial thinning prescriptions. 

Journal of Forest Engineering 8(1): in press. 

Lanford, Bobby L.; Stokes, B.J. 1995. Comparison of 

two thinning systems. Part 1. Stand and site 

impacts. Forest Prod. J. 45(5): 74-79. 

McComb, William C.; Spies, T.A.; Emmingham, W.H. 

1993. Douglas-fir forests: Managing timber and 

mature-forest habitat. J.For.91 (12): 31-42. 

Nyland, Ralph D.; Gabriel, W.J. 1977. Logging and 

its effects in northern hardwoods. Applied Forest 

Research Institute Research Report No. 31. 

Syracuse, New York: New York State University, 

College of Forestry, AFRI. 18 p. 

Oswald, Daniel D.; Hegyi, F.; Beeker, A. 1986. In: 

Douglas-fir: Stand management for the future. 

Contribution No. 55. Seattle, WA: University of 

Washington, College of Forest Resources, Institute 

of Forest Resources: 26-31. 

Shea, Keith R. 196 I. Deterioration resulting from 

logging injury in Douglas-fir and western hemlock. 

Forestry Research Note No. 36. Centralia, WA: 

Weyerhaeuser Company, Forestry Research 

Center. 5 p. 

Shea, Keith R. 1967. Effect of artificial root and bole 

injuries on diameter increment of Douglas-fir. 

Weyerhaeuser Forestry paper No. 11. Centralia, 

WA: Weyerhaeuser Company, Forestry Research 

Center. 11 p. 

Tappeiner, John C.; Bell, J.F.; Brodie, J.D. 1982. 

Response of young Douglas-fir to 16 years of 

intensive thinning. Res. Bull. 38. Corvallis, OR: 

Oregon State University, College of Forestry, FRL. 

17p. 

Tucker, Gabe; Emmingham, W.; Johnston, S. 1993. 

Commercial thinning and underplanting to 

enhance structural diversity of young Douglas-fir 

stands in the Oregon Coast Range. Newport, OR: 

COPE Report 6(2): 2-4. 

72

DAMAGE TO RESIDUAL TREES DURING Why should the forest industry be concerned about 

PARTIAL HARVESTS - the question of damage? A recent survey of forest 

MEASUREMENT, ANALYSIS, AND land managers in western Washington state indicates 

IMPLICATIONS 1 that public land managers have increased the 

acreage thinned on their managed lands by almost 

by 200 percent in the past five years. Private land 

managers increased the acreage thinned on their 

Joseph McNeel 

lands by 232 percent in the same period. When 

David Briggs 

asked to predict the level of increase or decrease in 

Brent Petersen 

acreage thinned over the next five years, both public 

and private land managers estimated moderate to 


substantial increases in thinning levels (McNeel and 

Seattle, Washington, USA Dodd, 1996). 


In addition, land managers were asked if they 

subjected contractor thinning crews to financial 

Michael Holmes 

penalties to control site disturbance or stand damage. 

Champion International Corporation Government respondents indicated that over 80 

Jacksonville, Horida, USA 

percent of their thinning contractors were subject to 

penalties if thinning damage or soil disturbance 

exceeded pre-defined limits. Industry land managers 

ABSTRACT: The use of thinning as a management also used financial penalties 55 percent of the time. 

tool is becoming significantly more popular in the 

Pacific Northwest and other regions of the United 

A five percent level of stand damage was considered 

States. Thinning operations typically leave some acceptable after thinning by most industry and 

portion of the residual stand in a damaged condition, government land managers, when using either cable 

This paper reviews the techniques for measuring that or gronnd-based systems. The question of what 

damage in a systematic manner, presents preferred constitutes damage was not addressed in the survey. 

measurement techniques based on past research However, the responses to the questionnaire suggest 

studies, and presents current models for predicting that there is no agreement on a standard definition as 

volume losses based on scar size and scar age. to what constitutes damage from thinning. 

Key Words: thinning, stand damage, decay, This survey identifies several concerns associated 

thinning losses with thinning and stand damage. First, acceptable 

forest practices in the West are changing and, as a 

result, thinning is becoming much more popular as a 

INTRODUCTION 

management tool. Clearcutting, based on even-aged 

forest management, is far less acceptable now than 

Thinning is an integral part of forest management five years ago on most federal lands. State lands 

for both public and private forest landowners in the have also reduced the amount of timber harvested 

Pacific Northwest. One of the most significant using clearcuts. In contrast, thinning is widely 

questions facing managers who use thinning accepted by many federal and state land management 

treatments in their management is how residual agencies in the region, as suggested by the reported 

stand damage affects the final harvest value of increases in thinned acreage. 

thinned stands. While a number of scientific studies 

have evolved to address these concerns, no specific Another concern brought out by the survey is what 

techniques have been adopted by the forest industry constitutes damage to a tree during a thinning 

to measure this damage, quantify the impact on harvest. As indicated earlier, informal discussions 

yield, or predict the financial effects of harvest with different industry and government land 

related stand damage, 

managers in the region suggest that consensus has 

not been reached on this question. 

1Presented at the joint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering 

and International Union of Forest Research Organizations Subject This paper presents an overview of current thinning 

Group S3.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29.August 1, 1996. related research dealing with stand damage. It 

73

includesa reviewof standdamagerelatedto 

andDouglas-fir in westernOregon. Their study 

thinning or partial harvest operations and discusses measured total damage levels of 12.85 R2per acre. 

the effectof thinning damage on the residual stand. Average scar size was reportedto be 18.4 inch2 per 

Finally, techniques for measuringthinning related treefor Douglas-firand 9.3 inch2in western 

damageare discussed, with emphasis on projecting hemlock. Height measurementsindicated that over 

measureddamageto estimatepotential lossesprior 82 percent of the damageoccurredwithin seven feet 

to the final harvest, 

of the groundlineforthis system. The authors 

suggest that the location and type of damage 

(primarily scarfing) occurredas a result of the 

MEASURING STANDDAMAGE 

processing associatedwith cut-to-lengthoperations. 

A number of studies havebeen conducted in the 

Wiley(1968) smnmarizesthe findings of several 

western United Statesto evaluate standdamageafter authors relative to reducing losses from injuryand 

thinning. Aho andothers (1983) examineddamage disease, primarilyin westernhemlock (Tsuga 

in truefir (Abies concolor and,4, magnifica), 

heterophilia). Theseinclude: 

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and ponderosa 

pine (Pinusponderosa) standsthree to 25 years after 1. Minimizeyarding, skidding, and 

thinning. They foundthat conventionalharvest 

forwarding injuries, especially those located 

systemsusingcableor grappleskiddersand, in one 

near the groundline wheredecay has a 

case, a cableyardercauseddamagelevels ranging 

greaterchanceto enterthe tree. 

from 22 to 50 percent of the residualstand. Wound 

locationin these standswas consistent, being located 2. Use of equipmentspecificallydesigned for 

primarilyat the base of the treein contactwith the 

thinning and careful planning in skid trails 

ground, 

is advised,as is the use of carefullylaid out 

trails oryarding corridors. 

In anotherstudyby Ostrofskyetal. (1986), 

mechanicalharvestingsystemswere evaluatedto 3. Treeswith wounds greaterthan 366 cm2(1 

determinewheredamageoriginated in the thinning 

f12) should be removedduringthe thinning 

processwhenusing conventionalmechanized 

harvest. 

systems. Mostdamage was reportedlyfrom felling 

and bunchingoperations, averaging62 percentof all 4. Openings in the standshouldbe keptsmall 

damageobservedin the study. Skidding produced 

to avoidthe occurrence of sunscald. 

29 percentof the damageon average. 

Similar findings havebeen reported in case studies 

As partof their analysis,Ostrofskyet al. (1986), 

in northernforests. Cline et al. (1991) found that 

used regressionanalysisto determinehowtrail the most significantfactor affectingthe amountof 

spacing affecteddamagelevels. A general 

residualstanddamagein partialharvestswas the 

conclusion supportedby theirstudywas that, as 

amount of pre-harvestplanning and the level of skill 

distance fromthe trail increasesand as tree size 

possessedby operatorsof the harvestingequipment. 

decreases, the probabilityof damage decreases. As The study examined 18 different harvest operations 

with other studies, trees located closestto the trail in partial cuts within northern hardwoods. The 

had the highest probability of being damaged, systems used during these harvests included a fellerbuncher 

and either a cable or grapple skidder. 

McNeel and Ballard (1992) examined residual stand 

damagein a youngDouglas-fir plantation thinned 

with a harvester-forwardersystem. Their study 

EFFECTS OF FUNGAL DECAY AND INSECTS 

indicated thatdamagefromusing the cut-to-length 

system was minimal, that most of the scars created Decay and insect infestation are the two most 

during the harvest were 40 cm2 (16 inch2),and that prevalent post-harvest problems for damaged 

damage was substantially less than that observed 

residual trees. One study of a western hemlock stand 

with conventional thinning systems, 

that had been thinned at three year intervals overa 

ten year period, starting at age 47, found decay 

Bettinger and Kellogg (1993) also evaluated a cut-to- present in 61 percent of the trees with wounds 

length systemin a natural stand of western hemlock created through thinning (Hunt and Krueger, 1962). 

74

The surface area for the wounds with decay present 

Wright and Isaac (1956) present regression 

averaged 0.97 ft2 in size, while the average size of estimators with associated graphs for predicting 

those trees with wounds but without decay was 0.19 volume losses relative to age after wounding and 

ft:. Heterobasidion annosum was the predominant initial or present scar surface area for old growth 

decay causing fungus present in those trees with 

western hemlock (Table 1). These prediction 

wounds. The findings were similar to those equations were partially verified in other studies, 

presented by Wright and Isaac (1956) in old growth conducted predominantly in younger (30 to 90 yearwestern 

hemlock, and the authors concluded that old) stands of western hemlock, by Shea (1967), 

there was little difference in susceptibility based on Hunt and Krueger (1962), and Wiley (1968). 

stand age in western hemlock. 

Insects are also a problem after thinning. Wounds 

Hunt and Krueger (1962) also examined two release organic compounds that often attract boring 

Douglas-fir stands of similar age subjected to similar or tunneling insects to the tree. In one study 

thinning regimes to determine the effect of thinning conducted by Blanche et al. (1985), thinning damage 

damage relative to subsequent decay for this species, was simulated in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) to 

Their findings indicate that Douglas-fir is less determine the effect of different types of damage on 

susceptible to decay following thinning damage, insect infestation. Two damage treatments, root 

Comparison of losses in the Douglas-fir stands with pruning and scarring, were imposed individually and 

that measured in the one western hemlock stand in in combination to determine their effect on resin 

the study indicated that, on a per-tree basis, Douglas- flow from the trees. Measurements were also taken 

fir trees lost about 33 percent of the volume lost in on monoterpene components in the produced resin, 

western hemlock trees with similar types of wound, since it was hypothesized that monoterpene increases 

tree susceptibility to insect (bark beetle) infestation. 

Projected losses of volume also indicated more loss 

The study concluded that bole scarring provides 

in the western hemlock. Hunt and Krueger found more resistance to insect attack than root pruning (or 

that the western hemlock stand had lost about 5.5 root damage). 

percent of the net annual periodic increment of 185 

t3 through decay. In contrast, the stands of A second study relative to insect attack after 

Douglas-fir lost between 0.1 and 2.7 percent of the thinning operations was reported by Nebeker and 

net periodic annual increment for the two stands Hodges (1985). They emphasize that a number of 

under study, 

biologicalfactors shouldbe included when 

developing a thinning strategy. The paper points out 

If. annosum was also found to be a problem in stands that lps engraver beetles typically colonize in the 

subjected to pre-commercial thinning. A study by slash created during thinning operations and infest 

Chavez et al. (1980) compared the level and extent standing residual trees after the thinning is 

of decay associated with plots of trees that had been completed. Natural enemies of the engraver beetle 

thinned to those that had not been thinned. Infection are thought to keep these attacks in check, however. 

levels for the thinned plots taken 11 years after The study further suggests that, in the South, 

thinning were very high, with decay present in about thinning should be conducted in the winter months 

85 percent of the residual stand. In contrast, the to reduce the potential for beetle infestation. This 

trees left unthinned had infection levels of only 12 suggestion, however, runs contrary to the suggested 

percent, 

time to thin when concerned If. annosus root rot. 

Decay columns, the distance that decay was A last study on insect infestation after thinning is 

measured vertically in the trees, averaged between provided by Witcosky et al. (1986). In this case, 

3.4 and 4.1 meters for the thinned plots. The control however, the concern is over the black stain root rot 

plots averaged much smaller values, between 1.0 and (Verticicladiella wagneneri) which is sometimes 

2.3 meters. The study concludes that western spread in Douglas-fir via the root bark beetle 

hemlock is very susceptible to H. annosum infection, (Hylastes macer). The study demonstrated that 

that the stands can be significantly affected by this thinning increased the abundance of insects carrying 

infection, that decay caused through infection can root rot, and that root damage in the residual trees 

have a significant effect on potential products, and provided an adequate infestation point for the 

that effective treatment for H.annosum is necessary fungus. Spring was considered to be a better time to 

to minimize potential losses to decay. 

75

conductthinning operationsdue to low insect 

thinning damagefromskyline andtractorthinning 

presence, 

in young Douglas-fir stands. Sidle and Laurent 

(1986) classed only those wounds above a one-foot 

stump height in their study of spruce stands 

DAMAGE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES mechanicallythinnedin southeastAlaska. Wright 

and Isaac (1956) classed wounds based on two 

Researchers have developed a variety of approaches categories, either aboveDBH (whereDBH = 4.5 feet 

for measuring standdamage. For practical 

from groundline) or below DBH. 

application, however, selected measurement 

techniques should provide an accurate representation Ostrofskyct al. (1986) specified location of the 

of the extent of damagein a residualstandafter 

wound,but only with respectto the roots, bole, or 

thinning, whilealso providingthe foresterwith 

crown in their studyof thinning damagein northern 

enoughdatato developprojectionsof potential losses hardwoods. Cline et al. (1991) used a similar 

fromdecayand/ormortality. Using standardcruise approachin their studyof whole tree partial harvests 

basedplots allows theforesterto projectmeasured in northernhardwoods. 

damagewithin plotsto providea representative 

measureforthe entirestand. 

Siren(1982) studieddamageduring a thinning in a 

Swedishforestcaused by a grappleprocessorand 

A variety of methodsfor measuringdamageare 

classed the damage aseither root, rootcollar, or bole 

reportedby researchers.However,common data damage. Bndm (1986) and Meyeret al. (1966) 

collection themesare present in manyof the reported classified damagebasedon whether the damage 

studies. Typically,these includethe following 

occurredat the rootor on the bolein a study of 

damagerelatedfactors: 

partialharvestsin northernhardwoods. A number 

of other studies haveexamined stem damage almost 

Height of wound 

exclusively,but did not considerheight of the scaras 

a classification criteria. 

Heightof the woundis usuallya definingfactor in 

predictingthe probabilityof subsequentdecay. 

Heightof scarshouldbe considered when collecting 

Differentapproacheshave beentakento classify 

standdamageinformation,since the buttlog usually 

damagerelativeto height. The most simplistic is the containsthe mostvaluable woodproducts. Damage 

approachtakenby Stoneand Coulter (1975) who 

shouldbe consideredmore severe, for wounds of 

definedtwo classes;butt - from 0.5 metersabove 

similar size, as heightof wound decreases. The 

groundlineto groundline, andupperstem - from 0.5 probabilityof infectionby differentfungi is evidently 

metersto the topof the tree. McNeelandBallard muchgreater for wounds low to the ground. As 

(1992) reportedthe general locationof stem damage notedby Wallis and Morrison(1975) who studied 

on thebole, but didnotprovideexact measurements decayin westernhemlockstandsthathad been 

or define height-of-woundcategoriesin their study thinned between five and 25 years prior to the study, 

of cut-to-length thinning related damage in a 

most decay found during their study was located in 

Douglas-fir plantation. Nichols et al. (1994) used the butt log (

estimate currentvalue of the tree. However,when the treecircmnference. The utility of this approach 

projectingpotential losses and/ordecayspreadover is not readilyapparent,since most, if not all, of the 

time for damagedtrees, diameter is not reallya 

ratios in the Ostrofsky studyfell into a rangeof 19 to 

criticalfactor in the predictionprocess (Wright and 23 percent. The Stone and Coulterstudyclassed67 

Isaac, 1956, Wiley, 1968). percentof the damagedtrees into the 0.25 

circumference category, also suggesting little 

Scar size 

sensitivity to damage severity. 

Scarsize, as discussedlaterin this paper,has a 

The damagethat occurs to a given tree may be 

strongcorrelationwith subsequentdecayand volume located in two or morewounds. For mostof the 

losses. Undoubtedly,scarsize also has a significant studieswhere this factorwas considered -- manydid 

relationshipwith valueloss as well, althoughfew 

not mention this fairly commonsituation -- the 

studieshave been conductedto directlysupportthis woundareaswere addedtogether as if a single 

hypothesis, 

woundexisted. Whilethisisanexpeditious manner 

tohandlemultiple wounds,theremaybesomebias 

Mostresearchers haveusedscarsizetoquantify toexaggeration insomecases.Location-based 

thinning related damage.Frochlich (1976)classed weightsapplied towoundsizestimates couldbe 

woundsintotwoeatcgories; thosewithscarsofa size usedtofactor outthisbias,althoughnostudies 

greator than9 inch2,andthosewithscarsgreater reviewedinthispaperhaveconsidered sucha 

than 27 inch2. Bnflm (1986) separated scar sizes 

weighting system. 

intofour categories, basedon width in two cases, 

where the woundwas greaterthan eitherfour or 

The importanceof scarsize measurescannotbe 

seveninches in width. The woundwas classed 

overemphasized. In westernhemlock, studies 

differentlyif the woundarea exceeded 50 inch 2. A suggest that initial scarsize is strongly correlatedto 

last categorywas gougewounds, wherethewound potential decaylosses overtime (Wrightand Isaac, 

extended into the cambiummoredeeplythan could 1956). Correlationsof this type are currently 

be explainedby a scrapingtype wound. Gouge 

availablefor only a few other species, however, 

wounds were consideredtobe the most critical type leaving foresterswith little informationbeyondthe 

of wound with respectto potential decay. In a 

extent of scarringwithin a stand. 

similarmanner,Bettinger and Kellogg (1993) 

measuredwounddepthandclassed woundsintotwo Some rulesofthumbcanbedeveloped, however, by 

categories, thoselessthanorequalto0.25inches reviewing paststudies ofotherspecies. Forexample, 

andthosegreater than0.25inchesindepth. 

HuntandKrueger(1962)foundthatscarring 

Woundswith the greater depth wereconsideredtobe Douglas-fir, although of similarseverityto that in 

less resistant to decay, 

westernhemlock, producedsignificantlylowerlevels 

of decay, aboutone thirdof that producedin thinned 

McNeeland Ballard (1992) simply computeda mean westernhemlock. 

woundsize in squareinches to describedamage. 

Boththemeanandthemode(mostcommon 

Rootdamage 

observation) wereprovided. SidleandLaurent 

(1986)classed stemscarsbasedonwoundsize, Rootdamagecausedbythinning operations isthe 

providing percentestimates ofwoundsizeby0.5f12 leastmeasuredvariable associated Withstand 

classes, uptowoundsoverIf12.A meanwoundsize damagemeasurements. Two concernsareaddressed 

wasalsoprovidedintheresults, 

inthisection; measuringrootrelated damage,and 

quantifying theeffect ofrootdamageontreegrowth. 

Ostrofsky etal.(1986)provided themeanwidthand 

lengthforwoundsondifferent thinning sites, anda SidleandLaurent(1986)presentmeasurements for 

measure of the ratio of woundwidth to tree 

rootdamagecaused during thinning harvestsin 

circumferencein percent. Stone and Coulter (1975) Sitka spruceand westernhemlock standsin 

also used tree circumferenceas a means of 

Southeast Alaska. Rootdamage was classified into 

classifying wound significance. Butt damage, for 

several categoriescomprisedof root collar scars 

any point 0.5 meters from the ground and below, was (unmeasured), root scars of different sizes (ranging 

classedinto 0.25 of the tree circumference,0.25 to from 0.1 ft2,0.1 to 0.5 fie,0.5 to 1.0 fl:, and scars 

0.50 of the circumference,and greaterthan 0.5 of greater than 1.0 ft2), and split or severed scars. 

77

Nilsson and Hyppel (1968) found, during their study Wound width/circumference ratios 

of root damage in Norway spruce in Finland, that 

only five percent of all damaged roots over 1 meter This approach wasused twice, with little added 

away from the bole produced decay. Based on these information obtained for the effort. This may be of 

results, Siren (1989) suggests that damage 

little value in most data collection schemes. 

evaluations of root systems should be limited to 

distances equal to or less than one meterfrom the 

Rootwounds 

bole. 

While not adequately researched in North America, 

Wasterlund (1983) studied the effect of thinning root damage has been shown to be a significant 

damage to root systems caused by trail rutting, 

factor to the introduction of decay in some 

although these studies were limited exclusively to Scandinavian species. Limiting damage assessments 

Scandinavia. Siren (1989) summarizes these 

to a distance of one meter or less around the tree is 

findings and presents a formula developed by 

suggested in one study. Another study classed root 

Wasterlund to predict root area of a single tree based damage as either root scars (of various sizes), or split 

on tree age. He further provides estimates developed and/or severed roots. 

by Wasterlund predicting the increment losses 

caused by root damage (as a percent of theroot 

Species 

system damaged) for Norway spruce (on good and 

bad sites) and for Scots pine. Increment loss An obvious concern when trying to predict decay 

projectionswere small, ranging to 0.7 percent loss losses. Species such as western hemlock, Sitka 

(per annum?) for spruceon a poor site. On good 

spruce, and most eastern hardwoods have received a 

sites, increment loss tends tobe less, ranging toonly large amount of attention from researchers because 

0.3 percent (per annum?) for damage occurring to 70 they are much more sensitive to damage and 

percentof the root system, 

subsequent decay. Other species, such as Douglas-fir 

and the southern pines, are relatively robust and 

Measurement factors 

exhibit fewdamagerelated problems after thinning. 

The followingsummarizes what has been considered 

important in different studiesfor measuring damage 

in thinned stands: 

Height of wound 

More weightshouldbe placed on wounds lowerto 

the ground, than placed on those located 1.5 to 2.0 

metersabovegroundline. Several studies specified a 

strongcorrelationbetweenheight of damageandthe 

eventualpresenceof decay. 

Size of wound 

Based on the reviewed papers, fieldtechniques 

collecting damage information for later analysis to 

predict volume losses should probably consider 

wound location, wound size, species, and percent of 

root damage when collecting damage information. 

Some studies, not cited here, suggest that bent trees 

also shouldbe measured aspotentially damaged, 

although this seems more of a problem in eastern 

hardwood forests. 

ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR 

ESTIMATING DECAY LOSSES 

Size of wound can oftenbe correlated to subsequent At least two studies have addressed questions 

decay rates in certain species. To facilitate 

regarding decay at_era thinning wound has been 

measurement, wounds can be classed into size created. Wright and Isaac (1956), examined the 

categories. Some researchers have separated 

growth of decay over time in western hemlock and 

categories every0.5 ft2with some success. Other 

Sitka spruce. While the studyresults have been cited 

studies suggest that wound width may be the most in several papers as being suitable for use in 

significant factor in determining the probability of measuring decay levels in young stands (less than 50 

decay losses. The majority of studies reviewed years old), most of the study data was collected from 

indicate that both width and length of the scar are old growth stands of hemlock and spruce. Their 

required for adequate estimates of decay losses, results are provided in graphical form in Figures 1 

(western hemlock) and 2 (Sitka spruce) for changing 

wound size and age. 

78

m 

6 were required in either study to generally predict 

5 _ s,s_ volume losses. 

4 ¢ I 

3 _ 2 

.... z 

From an economic perspective, volume and quality 

lossesafter thinning, but before final harvest, are the 

2 -,_4 mostcritical concerns. These volume loss prediction 

_ ,x s equationsprovideeconomists with thebasic tools to 

o _ , _ _ estimateproduct loss and the subsequentdollar 

10 is 2o _ 3o lossesincurred through thinning damage. Currently, 

k,_ Age(y,) 

no economic-based tool exists in the Pacific 

Figure 1. Volume losses from thinning scars in 

western hemlock (From Wright and Isaac, 1956). 

12 ........................................................ kw _ (ftz) 

Northwest to provide these estimates. They are, 

however, desperately needed to assist foresters in 

determining the appropriate rules and strategies for 

implementing thinning based management. 

lo _ -.-- 1 As noted previously, Wasterlund (1986) developed 

e :._ .... _ 2 predictors for estimating increment losses caused 

6 3 

•--:-::'" 

throughroot damage. Measurement of the percent 

_ 42 ..._....4 _5 of predictions. root area damaged Shea (1967) are necessary examinedto scarred develop andthese 

> o severed root damage in Douglas-fir three and five 

6 10 1_ 20 25 30 years after thinning damage had occurredand found 

sc=rAae(yrs) 

decay fungi present, but little rot. Shea observed that 

Figure 2. Volume lossesfrom thinning scars in 

the most significant problem after severing of the 

Sitka spruce (From Wright and Isaac, 1956). 

root system was windthrow. No studies were 

obtained that estimated decay lossescaused by root 

damage from thinning harvests. 

A second study by Aho et al. (1983) examined decay 

in second-growth white and red fir in northern 

Estimates of volume loss from decayalone can be 

California. They also provide estimates of decay, 

developed for some speciesbased on scar 

based on wound size and age of the wound (Figure measurements. Estimates of value loss through stain 

3). and decay are not as easily obtained. Further 

research is neededthat evaluates damage froman 

zo _ _.._, economicperspective to provide a better 

_8 ......xJ i understanding of the potential benefits associated 

l.e _ ......... ......."_ _,s_ with different thinning strategies. A limited model 

_.41, ...I-- ...... ", 4 (_a) predicting volume lossesover time after thinning 

1.2 ..'_..... ......... .."•........ -.m...2 could probablybe constructed using results presented 

t 1.0 ..:.' --" ' 3 in current and past literature. 

i • • • .....,; ' " " " """ _,,,,,4r,,_ ''' _''_'_ """;" """ 

..- 

O.e ,.. ,,.¢...,.,- .--¢. ....4 

oe ......,,-'- _-" 

-.-w-- s 

Bettingerand Kellogg (1993) conductedan analysis 

0.4 _,_ 

0.2 

of volume loss based on equations developed by 

Wright and Isaac (1956) to predict the potential 

30 

o.o 5 10 

' 

15 

' 

20 

' 

25 

' ..... cubicfoot volume losses associated with cut-tolengththinningin 

second-growthDouglas-firand 

ScarAge_m} 

westernhemlock. However, the analysis did not 

Figure 3. Volume losses from thinning scars in red examine the potential economic losses associated 

and white firs (From Aho et al., 1983). 

with decay caused by thinning. The report does 

providereaders with a general approach to 

determining volume and, potentially, value losses 

The two studies have interesting similarities. First, 

data requirements for estimating volume losses were 

from thinning damage. 

limited in both studies to size of wound (typically 

present size) and age of wound. No other variables 

79

CONCLUSIONS 

Chavez,T.D., jr., R.L. Edmonds, and C.H.Driver. 

1980. Young-growthwestern hemlock stand 

As notedby Froehiich (1976), "While most of us are 

infection by Hetrobasidionannosum 11 years 

interested in keeping any [thinning related] impact 

aRer precommercialthinning. Can. J. For. Res. 

as low as possible, it appears that most efforts in this eel. 10: 389-394. 

directionwill increase thinningcosts. We must be 

certain that any added costs will produce a true 

Cline, M.L., B. Hoffman, M. Cyr,and Wm. Bragg. 

reduction in damage to soil and trees, notjust a 

1991. Stand damage following whole-tree 

reductionin the visible impact." partial cuttingin northern forests. NJAF 8: 72- 

76. 

Information is provided in the cited studies to help 

forestersdeveloptheir own thinning strategies. 

Froehlich, H.A. 1976. The influence of different 

Damage can be alleviated in our forestswhen 

thinning systems on damage to soil and trees. 

thinning, if we are wiUing to take on the added costs. For. Comm. Bull. London. 55: 102-5. 

If, however, we preferto reacha balance between 

value gains from improved growingconditions and Hunt, L, and K.W. Krueger. 1962. Decay 

value losses from thinning damage, we must 

associated with thinning wounds in youngcontinue 

to exploredifferent management options growth westernhemlock and Douglas-fir. J. 

and promotethe researchneededto help direct our For. 60:336-340. 

management efforts. 

McNeel, J.F.and K. Dodd. 1996. Surveyof 

commercialthinning practicesin the coastal 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

region of Washington state. For. Prod. Jrnl.(In 

Press). 

This researchwas fundedthroughthe FORSYS 

Cooperative,a cooperative between the USDA Forest McNeel, J. and T. Ballard. 1992. Site and stand 

ServicePacificNorthwest Forest Science Laboratory 

impacts of harvester-forwarderthinning 

andthe Universityof Washington College of Forest 

operationsin a Douglas-fir plantation. Jrnl.For. 

Resources,Seattle, Washington, USA. Engr. 4(1):23-29. 

Meyer,G., J.H.Ohman, and R. Oettel. 1966. 


Skiddinghardwoods- articulatedrubber-fired 

skiddersversus crawler tractors.J. For., 64:191- 

Aho,P.E., G. Fiddler,and M. Srago. 1983. Logging 196. 

damage in thinned,young-growth truefir stands 

in Californiaand recommendationsfor 

Nebeker,T.E. and J.D. Hedges. 1985. Thinning and 

prevention. USFS ResearchPaper, PNW-304. 

harvestingpracticesto minimize site and stand 

disturbanceand susceptibilitytobark beetle and 

Bettinger,P. and L. Kellogg. 1993. Residual stand 

disease attacks.USFS Gen.Tech.Rpt. New 

damagefromcut-to-lengththinning of second- Orleans, LA. Aug 1985. (56): 263-271. 

growthtimber in the CascadeRange of western 

Oregon. For.Prod. Jrnl.43(11/12): 59-64. 

Nichols, M.T., 1LC.Lemin,jr., and W.D. Ostrofsky. 

1993. The impactof two harvestingsystems on 

Blanche, C.A., T.E. Nebeker, J.D.Hodges, B.L. 

residualstems in a patiaUycut stand of northern 

Karr, and J.J.Schmitt. 1985. Effect of thinning hardwoods. Can. J. For. Res. 24: 350-357. 

damage on bark beetle susceptibility indicators 

in loblolly pine. USFS Gen.Tech.Rpt. No. 54. Nilsson, P.O. andA. Hyppel. 1968. Studier over 

New Orleans,LA. (54): 471-79. 

rotangreppi sarskadorhos gran. Svergies 

SkogsvardforbundstidskriR66. pp. 675-713. 

Bruhn, J.N. 1986. Damage to the residual stand 

resultingfrom mechanized thinning of northern Ostrofsky,W.D., R.S. Seymor,and R.C. Lemin,jr.. 

hardwoods. USFS Gen.Tech.Rpt. No. 113. St. 

1986. Damageto northernhardwoodsfrom 

Paul, Minn.(113): 74-84. 

thinning using whole- tree harvesting 

technology. Can. J. Res. 16:1238-1244. 

80

Shea, K.R. 1967. Effect of artificial root and bole 

injuries on diameter increment of Douglas-fir. 

Weyerhaeuser Forestry Paper No. 11. 11 p. 

Sidle, R.C. and T.H. Laurent. 1986. Site damage 

from mechanized thinning in southeast Alaska. 

NJAF 3(3):94-97. 

Siren, M. 1982. Stand damage in thinning operation 

with a grapple loader processor. (English 

Summary) Folia For. Helsinki (528). 

Siren, M. 1989. Cost of thinning to the stand - How 

to evaluate. IN Machine design and working 

methods in thinnings. Proceedings of IUFRO 

P4.02.01 Conf. in Hyytiala, Finland, Sept. 17- 

22, 1989. pp. 23-40. 

Stone, R.J.C., and I.M. Coulter. 1975. Mechanical 

damage to retained Pinus radiata in a first 

thinning operation - a comparison of two 

extraction methods. For.Tech. Ppr., Brit. Col. 

For. Serv., Victoria, BC. Dec 1975.23:11-13. 

WaUis, G.W., and D.J. Morrison. 1975. Root rot and 

stem decay following commercial thinning in 

western hemlock an guidelines for reducing 

losses. The Forestry Chronicle, Oct.:203-207. 

Wasterlund, I. 1983. KanttradenstiUvaxtforluster 

vid gallring p.g.a, jordpackning och rotskador i 

stickvag. [Growth losses in border trees caused 

by soil compaction and root damage along main 

trails during thinning.] Sveriges 

Skogvardforbunds tidskfitt 2. pp. 95-107. 

Wiley, K.N. 1968. Thinning of western hemlock: A 

literature review. Weyerhaeuser Forestry Paper 

No. 12. 12 p. 

Witcosky, J., T.D. Schowalter, and E.M. Hansen. 

1986. The influence of time of precommercial 

thinning on the colonization of Douglas-fir by 

three species of root-colonizing insects. Can-J- 

For-Res. 16(4):745-49 

Wright, E. and L. Isaac. 1956. Decay following 

logging injury to western hemlock, Sitka spruce, 

and true firs. USDA Tech. Bull. 1148. 33 p. 

81

HOW TO MANAGE THINNING WITH LOW biodiversity. These discussions touch conatural forest 

DAMAGES OF STANDING TREES - management in which a variety of human interest 

EXPER_NCE FROM THE MODEL 1 will also find harmony with natural resources and 

their limits. 

by 

Duringthe rotation periodof the stand we normally 

Bo_tjan Ko_ir 

perform thinnings to improve growing conditions 

University of Ljubljana, and tree quality to maintain stability and forest 

Slovenia health, and to improve other non-market forest 

functions. Every treatment in certain stands brings 

costs and, beside first thinnings ,also some timber 

ABSTRACT: With the new Forest Act (1993), the volume. 

Public Forest Service of Slovenia was founded, and at 

the same time the forest enterprises started to work 

The comparison of the timber prices and costs of the 

as companies with mixed capital. The traditional 

production is so obvious that we often forget the 

connections between the silvicultural part of forest 

forest damage (in the stand and on the forest soil) 

management and forest operations were broken due which is the third serious consequence of every 

to different interest and positions of foresters treatment. If we look at the problem with the eyes of 

employed in public or private domain. This could be an average woodowner, it is normal to expect that the 

a thread also to the quality of forest work, especially benefit from better forest condition (i.e., growth, 

to the damage of the standing trees in forests where 

stability and health) must prevail over the loss 

clearcuts are forbidden. This paper deals with a 

because of the lower quality of damaged trees and 

problem of how to avoid increasing damages despite overall poor nonrationality. In this context the 

the fact that present silvicultural practice and present benefits represent the complex of different 

technology of logging are not very well connected, 

commodities that we can get from the proper forest 

management, including nonmeasurable benefits from 

Key words: models, forest damage, thinning, forest a healthy multifimctional forest. We shall limit 

operations, silviculture 

ourselves on the possibilities of how to decrease 

logging damages of the remaining trees in the stand. 

In this paper we shall not discuss damages to forest 

INTRODUCTION 

soils. 

The demand for a really - not only declaratively - Damages in forest stands accumulate during the 

conatural and sustainable forest management is 

rotation period (Kogir/Cedilnik, 1996), but at the 

gaining strength in Slovenia as well as in other parts same time, some disappear because of the natural 

of the world. It is only a matter of time before the 

vitality of the trees. Some of the damaged trees are 

products from very well managed forests will prevail removed in the next thinning but the majority of the 

on the market. The products will carry special mark wounds remain in the stand and cause wood decay, 

(certificate) which will prove the ecologically and as a consequence of this, resistance against 

acceptable forest technology and silvicultural different biotic and abiotic factors diminish and tree 

treatment. In auditing the suitability of certain value is lowered. This problem is not new as Ivanek 

practices, the silvicultural treatments as well as (1976) in his study has already calculated for the 

ecologically sound technology will play the most pure spruce stand the level of 76 percent damaged 

important role. The market will value only the trees in the stand at the end of the rotation period. 

complete (joint) result from silvicultural and The theoretical model described in the paper by 

technical production process. There are long debates Ko[ir/Cedilnik (1996) has revealed an even more 

about how to improve the intensive forest pessimistic picture that has not been proven by 

management based on the principles of actual field observations. It is obvious that the great 

sustainability, multifuncionality stability, and vitality of trees and the variability of the forest 

ecosystem erase many of the visible damages. Yet 

t Presented at the joint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering many of them start the hidden processes of 

and International Union of Forest Research Organizations Subject destruction with different negative consequences for 

Group 83.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1, 1996. 

the life of the tree and the stand. 

82

PRESENT TECHNOLOGY In everyday life we use many different forest 

technologies of logging but many of them are 

The technological model that dominates in moderate important only on a local level, and therefore in this 

terrains in Slovenian forests is not optimal but it is 

paper we have not paid attention to them. 

adapted to typical conditions and the technological 

level of development in Slovenia. For the purpose of 

this paper, we assume the technology has not ACCUMULATION OF THE DAMAGES ON 

changed during the whole rotation period or - and TREES DEPENDS ON THE NUMBER OF 

this is essential - the logging damages from different THINNINGS 

technologies are comparable. As an example, we can 

assume motor-manual felling with a power saw, There is a number of studies dealing with damages in 

partial bucking at the stump, bunching and skidding stands after logging and the ways to prevent them. 

with a tractor on a temporarily designated and The first authors in Slovenia were Krivec (1975), 

permanent skidding tracks to the forest road. Final Ivanek (1976) and many others. Looking at the 

bucking is performed along the forest road. Wood problem from present time, we have to consider great 

hauling is done with a truck equipped with grapple differences in research results, which can not be 

loader and semitrailer, explained with different observations only but are 

also caused by different approaches and measuring 

This kind of model demands a high level of forest scales of the researchers. All authors have put a 

roads and skidding tracks network density if we great stress on prevention against damages in stands 

assume a tractor is working alone planned skidding but they rarely mentioned the upper limit of- the so 

tracks only. Necessary density of forest skidding 

called - tolerable share of damaged trees. 

tracks is between 120 and 200m/ha and it depends 

upon the form of relief and the type of network in the For conditions similar to Slovenian, Butora and 

cutting unit. The length of the timber extracted is Schwager (1986) estimate the level of tolerable 

12m at most. In the early stages of stand develop- damages to be 15 percent (intensity of thinning 25 

ment we can talk about the stem or half-stem method percent). This level is still very high from the point 

(age of 40 to 50 years). In the late phases we buck the of view of the new and old damages. Majority of 

stem on shorter lengths because the danger of high studies deals with new damages, connected with 

share of damaged remaining trees; but at the end of observed working processes, and ignore the problem 

the rotation period we can again buck longer timber of damages caused by past forest operations. 

as the density of the stand is lower. In this case we Description of theoretical increase of damages in 

have to do final bucking along the forest road. stands was done by Ko_ir and Cedilnik (1996). They 

have included some assumptions that limit the 

On steep terrain the forest cable systems are in use - practical use of the model. However, these assumpmostly 

skidding uphill with different types of mobile tions do not eliminate the warning of consequences 

tower yarders but in the alpine areas the long- 

because of the bad present forest practice. 

distance gravity cable cranes are popular as well. The 

cable crane corridors are planned in advance in The intensity of thinning was defined as a proportion 

parallel or fan shaped system of forest opening, 

between the number of marked and the total number 

of trees in the stand. In the model the share of 

In the early development phases of the stand we damaged trees after i thinning depends on the 

think about the small adapted agricultural tractors probabilities that the tree has been chosen for felling, 

and/or small cable cranes. When logging in late and that the tree has been damaged in any of the past 

phases, the forest steering frame skidders and heavy thinnings. The damage on the tree was understood as 

cable cranes dominate, 

a wound or a broken part of a tree or a sum of many 

small wounds that exceed 10 cm2, as it was the 

Operational planning has its role in careful and standard for field research. They also assumed the 

professional work preparation where different 

damaged trees could not have some greater 

restrictions and directions (time and season of forest probability to be chosen for cutting in the next 

operations, method of bucking the trees, etc.) because thinning. This assumption was however examined 

of possible impacts on environment are also a part of through computer simulation program to check its 

it (Ko_ir, 1992, 1994). 

influence on the final result. They also assumed the 

new damages were equally distributed among the 

83

trees in the standand were notin anyconnection to as well as the shareof the damagedtrees in relation 

the old damages.It is obviousthey also supposedthe to the original standwhich is: 

technologydid notchange in the rotationage or 

better- thattheshare of damagedtreesin the stand n n 

in single thinningdepended onlyon the intensityof di = Fl(1 - ei)[1 - (1- A0). 17(1 - 5/)] . 

/=1 i=l 

thimfing, where: n = 1, 2, 3.... 

In the calculationstheyusedthe following 

definitions: 

We can also calculate the increment of the share of 

the damagedtrees between two thinnings: 

N O numberof trees in the standat the n-] 

beginning (beforefirstthinning), Pi = 8n .(1- AO).H(1- 8/) . 

Ni numberof treesafter i thinning andbefore i=l 

(i+1) thinning(i = 1, 2, 3, ...), 

P0 numberof damagedtreesbeforethe The use of these equationshas some restrictions, 

beginningwith thinnings (original stand), havetheir origin in acceptedassumptions.Among 

Pi numberof damagedtreesafter i thinning the most seriousis the assumptionof the relation 

andbefore(1+1)thinning (/= 1, 2, 3,... ), between si and 8/which could betrue in limited 

Mi numberin I thinning damagedstanding rangeof both parameters.We alreadyknow from 

trees, experiencethat ei dependson the state of the stand - 

Si numberin i thinning removedtrees, the numberand distributionof the function carriers 

A0 share of the damaged trees before the and acceptedsilvicultural goals. On the other hand, 

thinningsbegan (original stand), 

the 8/depends also on the standdensity, technology, 

Ai share of the damaged trees after i thinning, season of the year etc. The observations show that 5i 

thinning intensity in i thinning, 

changes in dependenceon the developmentphase of 

6/ shareof the damagedtreesin i thinning, the stand.In practicewe can therefore expect the 

ri shareof the undamagedtreesin original correlationbetween these two parameters because 

stand, 

both are partially influenced by the same factors. 

di shareof the damagedtrees in original 

stand, 

We must also supposethat before the first thinning 

Pi incrementof the share of the damaged in the stand we do not have damages caused by 

trees betweentwo thinnings, 

humanactivity (P0 = 0 and A0 =0), while in this 

stagewe have not fell the trees in the young forest or 

The share of damaged trees after n thiunings (the end make other logging activities that couldcause the 

of rotationperiod)is therefore: 

damages. Assumptionthat the pastwoundson the 

trees do not influence criteria for present selection for 

n 

cutting is also important. Normally, this is true for 

An = 1 - (1- A0). H(I - 8/). 

majorityof cases, as many characteristics of the tree 

l= 1 (vitality, quality and form, functions, etc.) and its 

position in a stand influence much more on this 

If the sharesof the damagedtrees _ have their 

selection than wounds. 

positive lowerlimit a (8/ > a > 0), the value ofA n 

after numerous thinnings approaches 1, which means The problem of the model was also the estimation of 

100% of damaged remaining trees in the stand: the parameter _. The observation of different authors 

proved that the shares of damaged trees in the stand 

An > 1 - (1- A0)(I - cOn _ 1. due to present technology often fall beyond 20 

n--*oo 

percent. In the model the 8/was putin dependence 

on the intensity of thirming (8/= 26i/3), which was 

Theoretically, the share of the undamaged trees is 

lowerthan normally expected, but very close to the 

also important in relation to the original stand which tolerablelevel suggestedby Butora and Schwager 

is: (6/= 0.15 when si = 0.25). 

11 

ri = (1- A0). l-I(1- si) (1 - 6/). 

i"=1 

84

However,the resultsfromour studiesshow some • the incrementof the share of damagedtrees 

lowerintensitiesof the thinnings andsome higher 

is the greatestin the firstthinningswhen we 

sharesof damaged trees in the remainingstands, 

perform logging in more or less untouched 

mostlydue to skidtracksbuilding on difficultterrain 

stand,and it approaches0 whenwe thin in 

(Papac, 1992, _,olar,1994). 

later stages of standdevelopment. 

The results of the model arebased on normalstand The resultsof model analysisof all fourstands are 

developmentwith normalthinning intensities 

shownin Figure2 whereonly the total shareof 

throughthe whole rotationage of beech and spruce damagesin the remaining standis included.The 

stands on very good and very Ix)orsites. As an 

following conclusions can be made: 

example we show the case of beech forest on a very 

goodsite in Figure 1. • The sharesof damagedtrees increasewith 

the greatest angle in young development 

The observation of Figure 1shows us the following 

phases. Later the growth of these shares is 

hints: 

lower but on veryhigh level. The reason lies 

in the fact that in the late thinnings more 

• the chance the tree remains undamaged in and more wounded trees are damaged again. 

relation to the original forest decreases very 

rapidly and approaches 0; • Damages increase very rapidly in stands 

where the intensity of thinnings is the 

• the total share of damaged trees (new and highest (very good sites), and at the end of 

old damages) afteri thinningincreases, and 

rotationperiod - which is longer - they 

aftereach thinninggets closerto 1 (100% of 

reacha higher final level as well. 

damaged trees); 

-!!!!--!!!::-_: :::!_!!!! !_ii_--!!i_ ii!i-!::!!_!!!!-!!!!-!!!!_::!:: !L---!I !_i!!_::i!!-iiii-!!!--!!!::_::!!::_!!! 

.-T_--! !i_!!i!-___!!!!-i::!!!::!-!!::!!!! 

!!!!!!::!::-_-!::!!- 

,oooi-iiii_iiii._ ---- No.ofthetrees -:IISIII_IIII:-_:IIII-_I:IIII:S:III:I:IIIII::I_IIII_IIII-_ 

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ====================================================================== 

,,,,,l,- 6i .................................................................... 

-_!!!!.-:i-:-:i!!--_!-::_!_--:-_!!!!::.:.:!!:::::-- 

....!!! ...... -!-!-!:.-:::::---- q _::!!::-!!::-!!!!_!!!!-?!_.-!!!!_-!!!![.-..-::!!!!_-_::!!:-.:_ 

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ........... ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::,',-,,-- • - .............. :....:-::.::::-:::: ................... :T-: 

I0 

(-i:i?:::: 

percentage(- 

r-::::::::::::: 

Figure 1. The shares of damaged and undamaged trees andthe increment of the damaged trees share in beech 

forest on a very good site. 

85

10°.°° I 

90.00 _.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 

,._....-a......_-_. _.._......TT 

Dama_e % 

80.001 

70.00' 

60.00" 8' 

m 

J 

till 

44 44 

J 

50.00 

e 

.,e 

40.00 . . " ° "Beech,goodsite 

- .1= " " "Beech,poorsite 

30.00- ""'-Spruce, goodsite 

." ,,m _Spruce, poor site 

20.00' , ,,I 

10.00 

Age 

Figure 2. Thesharesof damagedtreesin themodelstands. 

• In stands on very good sites we reached50 lower than it couldbe expected on the basis of the 

percent of damagedtrees alreadyafter3 to 6 model prediction.However,it is obviouswe haveto 

thinnings; in stands on the sites of low 

pay a veryhigh price forpoorlycoordinatedpractice 

productivitythis level of damagesis reached of silvicultureandforest operations. 

after7 thinnings. 

• Morethan 75 percentof damagedtrees in SILVICULTURAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECT 

the stand is reachedon very good sitesafter 

9 to 10thinnings, while on poorersites this Different damagesof the tree have an impact on tree 

level is overjumpedafterthe 13th thinning vitality andlowermarketvalue of the timber when 

or not at all. 

the tree is cut. This is not true only for maturestands 

but even muchmoreforthinnings (Ivanek 1976) 

• Thatmeans at the half of rotationperiod we Wherewe removesignificant shareof wood biomass 

haveon very good sites around three 

(in the model stands about65 percent of the woodis 

quartersof damagedtrees. At the same time removedduringthe thinnings). 

on the poor sitesthere is only one quarterof 

damagedtreesin the stand. 

If we understandthe majorfactorwhich influences 

the total shareof damages- beside parameters6i and 

• On average, thinnings in the last quarterof 8i - is the length of rotation period - and with this 

the rotation period do not contribute 

connected numberof thinnings, than we can 

significantly to a higherlevel of damagesin concludethe decreasedvalue of the intermediate 

the stand as it is evident that the majorityof yields as well as the impact on the average age and 

damageshappened in the early stages of 

annualvalue increment(Kotar, 1979) is greaterwith 

standdevelopment, 

those tree speciesthat reachculmination of the 

averageage incrementlater (e.g., beech) thanwith 

The presentobservationson actual researchplots can the specieswhere the culminationbegins earlier 

not find damages that happeneddecadesago. Those (e.g., spruce). 

woundshave alreadydisappeareddue to the process 

of natural reaction of the trees or they have resulted This consideration holds trueeven if the relative 

in wooddecay, which is often hidden in the stem. 

The observedfrequencyof tree damagesis therefore 

86 

value lost dueto decay (proportionbetween more 

valuable andlow price assortments)wouldbe the 

same with includedtree species, which depends -

eside the tree species - upon the place and type of problem with damages. Many silvicultural 

wound, season, and the site. If we talk about beech, plans are quite good until we do not take a 

the lose in value of timber in a tree is greater than closer look at the structure of selected trees. 

with spruce, and this is why the impact of the We can often find unprofessional marking 

damages on the average value increment and its of thin undergrowth and already eliminated 

culmination is greater than with spruce, trees while the function carriers are not free 

of their competitors. There is also another 

If we continue with considerations in the same practice - too strong intensity where the 

course, we could find that the culmination of the main target of selection is just function 

value increment in damaged stands is obviously carriers. Silvicultural plans have also the 

lower, and it begins at the earlier stage of the stand possibility to put on forest operations 

development. This has serious silvicultural specified restrictions - like the maximum 

consequences. Accumulation of the damages in length of the bucked timber, about the 

stands with longer rotation period with later season of logging, protection of certain 

culmination of the average value increment is function carriers, etc.). This is also the 

greater bex,ause of higher number of thinnings. This reason why we can not rely on old 

is obvious - in the middle aged stands where we have silvicultural plans. Before every logging we 

already caused at least half of damaged trees - we have to update old plans and adapt them to 

can not count on extraordinary quality of timber. The the new situation. 

consequence of damages in stands is therefore also a 

pressure to shorten the rotation age in such forests. • Calculation of the ecological work 

preparation. The ecological view of the 

operational planning of forest operations 

POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENTS has its roots in silvicultural planning. Here 

we have to take into account the costs of 

We could ask ourselves what the possibilities of prevention or later sanation of the caused 

improvement of the present forest practice axe. We damage. This is also the way to define 

counted a number of choices among which many of financial consequences of improper work as 

them are well known, and yet we do not perform 

well as the way to clearly point out who is 

them from different reasons, 

responsible for what. 

• Close connection of the silviculture and • ]Professional layout of skidtracks and 

forest operations: The basic demand of cable crane corridors of necessary 

rational forest management is a very tight 

density. When marking trees, we must 

connection of silviculture and forestry think of the transportation border, which is 

technique, especially on the operational possible only when we know the position of 

level. When we decide about the long term the skidtracks or cable crane corridors. This 

silvicultural goals, we should also think especially holds true for gentle terrain 

about the operational aspects of the where the skidtracks building is 

measures. Necessary conditions for their unnecessary. On such terrain the skidtracks 

realization must be provided. Otherwise, should be designed in advance and clearly 

this is just wishful thinking. Forest visible on the terrain. If we leave the 

infrastructure is a basic condition for forest operator to find the best way to the felled 

operations. The question of moving timber timber, any attempts to avoid unnecessary 

from stump to roadside is the most complex damages will not be successful. The only 

problem despite the troubles which could 

way to insist on the proper direction of 

begin with felling the trees, if we have not felling trees is the workers who know the 

thought of practical consequences when position of tractor when bunching trees. The 

marking the trees. When the tree hangs we analysis of the dynamics how the damages 

do not have unlimited choices how to fell it appear during felling and skidding in time 

to the ground. In most cases, a tractor with showed (Kr_, 1993) the majority of 

a winch tries to come closer to the tree just damages appear at the beginning of the 

to help the worker, and this is enough for a 

work when a worker does not have enough 

87

oom. Later - aRera couple of hours- the 

damagesappearrandomlyon muchlower 

but quite stabilizedlevel. Low density of 

skidtracks means the operator will leave 

the existing skidtracksto make his work 

easier, more efficientand/or even possible, 

When work is finished it is too late for 

analyzingparticularcases if we know the 

basic planningwas not good. On the other 

hand - in high densityof designated 

skidtracks- we havechancesto make 

pressureon the operatorwho drovethrough 

the standto the stump, 

forsmall and dispersevolume of timber 

causedamages without touchable 

silviculturaland economic results. The 

allowable ten years cut could be reached in 

one ormany cuttings. If we admit that every 

presenceof forest operationsin the stand is 

connected to damages, we shall try tokeep a 

time distancebetween two thinnings close 

to the silvicultural and forestprotection 

demands.In the middleaged stand 

thinnings are 6 to 8 or even 10 years apart. 

Morefrequentthinnings can make an 

impressionon intensive and carefulforest 

management,but they arereally badforthe 

• Winter season. It is alreadywell known forestand are economicallyinefficient. 

that the damages duringthe winterseason 

aremuch lowerthanin the summer • Trees beside the skidtracks and forest 

(proportionon the basisof the numberof 

roads. In manycases, a forest offers 

damagedtrees are between 1 : 1.5to 1 : 2; ff 

chancesof natural protectionof function 

we take the surfaceof the woundsfor the 

carriersagainst the damage.Many authors 

basis, the proportionis significantly 

havealreadysuggested the function 

higher). The suggestionfor winter logging 

carriers that must remain undamaged 

is therefore very popular among the people 

should be marked in a special way. This 

from Public Forest Service. However, it is 

measure is reasonable in the stands of high 

impossible to expectthe forestenterprises or 

quality.When function carrier has several 

woodowners to do all work during the 

competitors,we can choose a tree for 

winter season only. The best season for 

cutting which will probably cause no 

forest operationsis influencedalso by 

damage. We can also think of bunching and 

timber prices on the market - demandand 

leave one or more trees between function 

supply of certain quality and volume. The 

carrier and skidtrack despite this tree being 

stands of best quality on best sites that have a competitor. This is reasonable if we could 

also some other conditions as location and 

protect a function carrier not to be 

terrain characteristics, axenormally the 

damaged. When it is necessary to cut down 

most suitable for winter season, 

such a tree, we can cut it on high stump 

which will protect its neighbors also after 

• Shorter timber bucking in middle-aged removingthe tree. It is the same matter 

stands. The problemof the bucking and its 

with the trees along the skidtracks and 

influence on the share of damages start in 

forest roads that have been, until now, 

transition of stand in the middle age. At this 

damaged many times, and are obviously of 

time the tree lengths exceed some 15m and 

low quality.They maystayjust of the same 

the stands are very dense. Long timber 

reason - they axeexcellent protectors of the 

causes many more damages despite very 

remaining stand. In special cases we can 

careful work preparation. It is wise to 

protect selected remaining trees with some 

extract shorter timber but it is also good to 

of the artificial bumpers but this is normally 

look at the economyof skidding, and to 

more an exception to the rule. For this type 

select on the same compartmentcutting 

of protection piles of branches could suit as 

units where - becauseof specific conditions 

well if they are noton the skidding lines. 

- we couldbuck longerassortments. 

• Cure of woundson the damaged trees. In 

• Less thinnings that are better prepared, veryqualitative stands we can think of the 

It is betterto go to the forest forlogging as 

protectionof the wounds with special 

little as possible.Continuousdriving 

chemicals to prevent the tree against fungi. 

through the forest with tractorand hunting 

88

This is also economically reasonable 

workers to take care of everyaspect of their 

(Ljubec, 1993). 

activities. During the working process, in 

most cases, the mistakes can be corrected 

• Choice of technology. There is a number of prettyeasily while after the work is finished 

discussion of the environmentally friendly 

this could be done with many more troubles. 

logging technologies. In this place, we 

The final control after finishing a cutting 

should stress that the future is in modern, 

unit is necessary not only to estimate the 

technically perfectworking machineswith 

real state of the stand and economic 

proper additional equipment adapted for 

situation but also to get experience and 

hard-working conditions suchas in the 

learn for the future. 

natural environment. It is important we do 

not tryto use the same technology in every • Incentives and discouragements. Both are 

stand and to realize that significantdetails 

primitive but very strong factorsof 

are important too. Tractor chains, for 

motivation as forthe enterprise and the 

example, are goodbecause they decrease the 

workers. Punishment comes after the 

use of tires and make skidding more 

damage has been already done while award 

efficient, but they also cause heavywounds 

for qualitative work could prevent the forest 

on roots and lower parts of the stump, 

against the bad treatment. There are also 

Remote control of the winches and tractor is many possibilities for discouragement of 

also good because the worker can be closer 

worker as well as the whole enterprise to do 

to the timber and can avoid different bad logging. The value of damaged 

obstacles and standing trees, whichcould 

function carrier could be calculated in 

cause delay and wounds as well. Sometimes 

money or in volume units, which is later 

it is also wise to think about the use of cable 

included in the final balance according to 

skidding, which is - truly more expensive - the contract between the woodowner and 

but on a long term much friendlier to the 

enterprise that has done the logging. In fact, 

forest. The worker as an individual human every damage of the function carriers has 

being with his social surroundings is among 

also its valuein money,which couldbe 

the most important targets when we want to 

subtracted from the earnings of the loggers. 

improve the quality of work. There are 

However, it is normal to expect a certain 

numerous ways how to increase his 

share of the so called normal damage that 

motivation and efforts for better quality of 

occurs due to many reasons and despite 

work, where the care for environment is high professionality of workers. On the 

becoming a part of it. 

other hand, if we say that 5 percent of 

function carriers is the upper limit of 

• Operational control. Operationalcontrol normal damage, every better work must be 

is a part of total quality management system 

stimulated with betterwages. 

of modern forestenterprise. It also has to 

be a partof the informationsystemof the 

organizationandit means proper and 

DISCUSSION 

sufficient documentationof visits, 

documented comparisonwith operational The procedure describedin the paper is aimed at the 

plans, especially with the statements 

problem of accumulation of damageson the 

dealing with ecological aspect of work 

remaining trees in the stand after many successive 

preparation. Control is in the hands of thinnings. This kind of practice is becoming a rule 

production managers of the forest today, though it is not ecologically and economically 

enterprise, but it must be performed through proven. The model is adapted to an even-aged forest. 

activities of the Public Forest Service as For selection forest the results will certainly be 

well. Operational control must be frequent different. 

enough to maintain the proper level of work 

quality. In successful work organization it The reasons for this kindof practice are partially 

could be a matter of working group if there objective(removing the trees attacked by bark beetles 

are mechanisms to trigger the motivation of and other causes such as snowfall, windfall, etc.), but 

89

there is also a philosophy to work in the forest found in field observation. And yet we find that after 

intensively in time but with less intensity of several thinnings in model stands the damaged trees 

thinning. It is not the matter of this article to discuss prevail with the tendency to reach after many 

this practice, which could be proven by examining thinnings 100 percent. If the intensity of thinning is 

the marking over several past years. We intended to in a certain period prescribed by the forest 

make a warning and to point to the important management plan, we can expect more damages of 

interdependence between silvicultural and logging the remaining trees in the stand if we take allowable 

practice, and to stress the necessity of improving the cut in more cuttings than if we respect rationality 

professional approach in operational planning and and pure silvicultural aspects. It is necessary to 

control on every level, think of a better connection between silviculture and 

forestry techniques, especially on the operational 

Present practice of forest operation working level - planning and control. 

processes is under permanent critics, and it is good 

to know that many exits to better work are opened 

through a permanent development of techniques and REFERENCES 

organization. It is evident that this development 

should suit not only the economy but also ecology as Butora, A./Schwager, G. 1986. Holzernteschaden in 

only both together can mean sustainable forest Durrchforstungsbestanden. Berichte 288, 

management. 

EidgenossischeAnstaltfur das forstliche 

Versuchwesen, Birmensdorf, 5 lp. 

The use of model is limited with many assumptions. 

This proves our limited knowledge of many very Ivanek, F. 1976. Vrednotenje pogkodb pri spravilu 

important processes in practical work in the forest, lesa v gozdovih na Pohorju. IGLG, 

The influence of the forest work to the environment Strokovna in znanstvena dela 51, Ljubljana, 

is a complex problem where damages of standing p. 142-147. 

trees are only a part of it. 

Ko_ir, B. 1992. Ekolo_ki vidik priprave dela. 

The results of the model should be understood Gozdarski vestnik, 50, 4, Ljubljana, p.207- 

primarily as a warning. Careful and professional 215. 

selection of trees for marking has an important 

influence on final success. But at the same time, if Kogir, B. 1994. Na6ini in pogoji pridobivanja lesa, 

we make thinnings too often the share of damaged dolo_eni z gozdnogojitvenim na6rtom. In: 

trees will rise to an unwished proportion. This Strokovna izhodi_a za pripravo pravilnikov 

tendency was proved by many field observations, o gozdnogospo-darskem, gozdnogojitvenem 

though the found shares were of different reasons in lovskogojitvenem na_rtovanju, Zbornik 

lower than it was predicted from the model, posvetovanja ZGD, Ljubljana, p.83 - 94. 

The possibilities of prevention against the damages Ko_ir, B./Cedilnik, T. 1996. Model _ja 

of standing trees have already been discussed 

po_kodb drevja pri red6enjih sestojev. 

(Kogir, 1992, 1994) but there is still a lot of space for Zbornik gozd. in les., 48, Ljubljana, p. - 

invention and fresh ideas. 

SUMMARY 

Kotar, M. 1979. Prirastoslovje. UL, BF, Odd. za 

gozdarstvo, Ljubljana, 196p. 

Kr_, J. 1993. Analiza nastanka ran v sestoju pri 

During logging in thinnings the damages of procesu pridobivanja lesa. UL, BF, 

remaining trees are accumulating in dependence on seminarska naloga, Ljubljana, 20p. 

the intensity of thinning, the share of damaged trees 

in each thinning and the number of thinnings in Krivec, A. 1975. Racionalizacija delovnih procesov 

rotation age. In this paper the theoretical increasing pri se6nji in izdelavi ter spravilu lesa glede 

of damages for four model forests is calculated by na delovne razmere in pogkodbe. IGLG, 

use of simple equations and several assumptions. In 

Zbornik gozd. in les., 13/2, Ljubljana, 

the model we calculated some lower shares of p. 145-193. 

damaged trees in the remaining stand, which were 

9O

Ljubec,M. 1993. Sanacijapogkodbgozdnega drevja 

z za_itnimi premazi. UL, BF, Odd. za 

gozdarstvo,Ljubljana,dipl. naloga,88p. 

Papac1992. Prostorskain 6asovnapredstavitev 

nastankapo_kodbpri se6njiin spravilulesa 

s traktorjem.UL, BF, Odd. za gozdarstvo, 

Ljubljana,dipl. naloga, 79p. 

golar, S. 1994. Nastanekpogkodbv sestojupo 

miniranjuter se6njiin spravilulesa. UL, 

BF, Odd. za gozAarstvo,Ljubljana,dipl. 

naloga, 75p. 

91

SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT IN INTRODUCTION 

GREY ALDER STANDS AS ENERGY AND 

BUFFER FORESTS IN ESTONIA 1 Estonia is in transition from a centrally-planned 

political and economic system to a system oriented to 

by 

political democracy with a market economy. Further 

structural reforms and investments are required to 

Hardi Tullus ensure environmentally sound economic 

Krista Keedus 

development. The energy sector is, in this respect, a 

Veiko Uri 

priority area in Estonia. 

Estonian Agricultural University Although the environmental impact from using 

Tartu, Estonia alternative fuels is mainly favorable, domestic 

biofuels are still utilized to a very limited extent. 


Substitution of fossil fuels is largely limited to the 

production of wood for heating. 

01o Mander 

Krista Lfhmus Estonia is situated in an intermediate zone between 

the boreal coniferous forest and the deciduous, 

University of Tartu 

broad-leaved forest. More than 47 percent of the 

Tartu, Estonia 

total area of Estonia is covered by forests. Grey alder 

(Alnus incana) forests present interest as potential 

biomass energy sources. Grey alder occurred in 

ABSTRACT: For sustainable management of grey Estonia along watercourses flowing off the melting 

alder (Alnus incana) stands their silvicultural, 

ice sheet. It is a strong pioneer species, especially on 

economic and ecological aspects were analysed, 

abandoned agricultural lands and is common in all 

Alder forests present interest as biomass energy Baltic States, Poland and Scandinavia. Grey alder as 

sources. Grey alder stands form 4.4 percent of closed a short-rotation species has many biological and 

and 11 percent of private forests in Estonia. Due to economic advantages: it grows rapidly, is 

_ lands, increase the share in theofarea greyof alder abandoned is growing. agricultural Annual symbiotically and has only N2-fixing a few pestsbyand thediseases. actinomycete StormFrankia, 

volume increment of grey alder stands is higher than damage in grey alder stands is of relatively little 

that of other domestic tree species. Riparian grey importance compared to other tree species. Under 

alder stands are evaluated as buffer zones to protect normal conditions the wind mainly fells over-aged 

waterbodies against pollution. Grey alder stands trees with a rot weakened trunk. Decomposition of 

serve as perspective energy forest stands with the alder litter enhances soil properties. 

maximum productivity at an age of 10 to 20 years. 

From the point of view of both productivity and After cutting, a new alder generation emerges by 

nutrient retention, their optimal harvesting age is 12 coppicing from the root system, thus artificial 

to 15 years. No additional N and P leaching was reforestation is not needed. Stands of grey alder 

found from heavily loaded riparian grey alder stands; produced by sprouts are usually so dense, that 

thus fast growing young grey alder stands do not 

seedlings of other tree species cannot grow under 

represent an additional source of nutrients, and they them. Grey alder seedlings withstand direct sunlight 

can act as effective buffers on stream banks and lake and frost. In young developing stands, grey alder 

shores, grows faster than the other tree species. However, 

growth slows down earlier than in other tree species; 

Key Words: grey alder (Alnus incana), energy maturity is reached at an age of 40 to 50 years. 

forestry, short-rotation forestry, buffeting capacity Harvesting can be performed with ordinary 

equipment (e.g. power-saw). 

In recent years the area of abandoned agricultural 

lands has increased. Various authors estimate this 

l Prosent_latthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering area to be in the range of 70,000 to 300,000 hectares 

and International Union of Forest R_.,areh Organizatiom Subject in 1994 (Tullus et al. 1995). Recently, grey alder 

Group 83.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1, 1996. forest resources were estimated in state forests in 

92

Estonia, and a forest inventory is in process on MATERIAL AND METHODS 

private lands. Due to an increase in the area of 

abandoned agricultural lands, the real area of grey 

Estimation of grey alder forest resources in 

alder stands may be larger than presented in this 

Estonia 

paper. 

Data ofthe EstonianForestSurveyCentreare 

For sustainable management of grey alder stands an 

analysed for the area, total standing volume, mean 

analysis of their silvicultural, economic and annual increment (MAI), current annual increment 

ecological aspects is needed. In the present study the (CAI), age distribution and cutting of grey alder 

dynamics of annual volume increment in grey alder forests (Estonian Forest Survey Centre, 1995). MAI 

forests was investigated with the aim to create yield and CAI of grey alder are compared to those of 

tables and to determine the rotation period. Also, other principle and main tree species. 

grey alder was compared with two main tree species 

of high productivity - Norway spruce (Picea abies) The area of a grey alder stand is mostly small, on an 

and silver birch (Betula pendula) in different site average of I hectare in Estonia. The distribution of 

types. One of the aims was elucidation of maximal different site types of grey alder forests (2,224 

productivity of natural grey alder stands. For the stands) was analysed in private forests in Harju 

development of rational methods of afforestation of (North-Estonia), Rapla (West-Estonia), V_iru and 

Valga (South-Estonia) counties. The share of grey 

abandoned agricultural lands by grey alder, an 

experimental plantation was established where alder is bigger in Filipendula, Aegopodium, Oxalis 

various planting material was used. and Hepatica site types. 

Alder forests are typical riparian ecosystems in Study area and test sites for assessment of the 

Europe which can retain and transform nutrient 

buffering capacity 

fluxes from adjacent intensively exploited territories. Two different riparian grey alder stands were 

Therefore, riparian alder stands are commonly selected: one (14 years) in the unpolluted PorijSgi 

evaluated as buffer zones to protect waterbodies River catchment (for area description see Mander et 

against pollution. Pollution by nutrients, causing al. 1995), the other (40 years), in the vicinity of the 

several problems in relation to waterbodies and Viiratsi pig farm (32000 pigs), Viljandi County. The 

groundwater quality, is the most important physio-geographical conditions of the Viiratsi study 

environmental issue in rural areas of Estonia. site are similar to those of the PorijSgi River 

However, only a few thorough studies have been catchment. In both study areas, transects were 

carried out to investigate the buffering capacity of established along topo-edaphic gradients in autumn 

alder forests, with the results indicating 

1993. In the less polluted Porij5gi test site, the 

contradictory findings (Knauer and Mander 1989; following spectrum of communities, in the order of 

Binkley et al. 1992; Vought et al. 1994). Due to the going downhill, were analyzed: abandoned (formerly 

fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by root nodules, cultivated) grassland - wet meadow (dominated by 

alders have been expected to act as an additional Filipendula ulmaria, Aegopodium podagraria, 

source of nitrogen pollution of waterbodies. To Cirsium oleraceum, and Urtica dioica) - grey alder 

clarify the influence of both internal and external stand. In the heavily polluted Viiratsi test site, the 

loading in riparian alder forests, a study was carried transect was established through the following 

out in two grey alder stands of different loadings in communities: arable land (fertilized by pig slurry) - 

southern Estonia: one (14 years) in the natural eutrophic grassland strip (Elytrigia repens, Urtica 

conditions without any significant nutrient input via dioica) - young grey alder stand with wet meadow 

groundwater/over-land flow, the other (40 years) pattern (Filipendula ulmaria) - old grey alder forest. 

downhill from an intensively fertilized arable land in In landscape profiles, piezometers (3 rows in the 

the vicinity of a large pig farm. The main hypothesis PorijSgi transect and 5 rows in the Viiratsi study site, 

was that significantly more nutrients would be 3 replicates in each row) and study plots were 

leached from riparian grey alder stands with a established on the boundaries between the plant 

considerable external nutrient load (manure communities. Main nitrogen (N) and phosphorus 

application in upland field, ammonium deposition) (P) cycles and budgets were assessed. In this paper 

than from the unloaded stands. The hypothesis was some preliminary results of the soil water quality, 

tested in 1994-1995. Some preliminary results of this tree biomass, production and nutrient uptake, 

comprehensive study are presented in this paper. 

93

;' 

nitrogen fixation and denitrification axe presented, of 50 cm was marked, and divided into four equal 

segments. From each of these segments all nodules 

Productivity and uptake estimation down to a depth of 10 centimeters were sampled and 

stored in a freezer; DBHand the tree perimeter on 

Dimension-analysis techniques (Bormann, Gordon the ground level were measured for all trees. For the 

1984) were used to estimate the above-ground remaining study plot area 15 cores of 147 

biomass and productivity of grey alder forests. In all millimeters in diameter down to 15 centimeters 

test sites (ages 10, 14, 18 and 40 years) we first depth were taken. However, nodules were not found 

measured diameter at breast height (DBH) on 50 to deeper than 10 centimeters. Immediately after 

100 trees. Using a random procedure based on DBH sampling the core samples were washed (tree nodule 

distribution,5 to 17 model trees per plot were felled, samples after thawing) and living and dead fractions 

The height and crown length of all model trees was of nodules collected. For estimating the belowmeasured. 

Three to five model branches per model 

ground production, it was assumed that shoot/root 

tree were randomly sampled (at intervals equal to the 

crown length divided by 4-6) to collect data on the 

ratios for tree biomass and production were equal. 

following branch components: generative organs, For the analysis of N, P, energy and ash contents, 

buds, leaves, primary branch growth, and secondary subsamples from all tree compartments were 

branch growth. In 10-yeax-old and 18-year-old 

collected. The age of a stand was estimated on the 

stands the model trees were felled in March and 

basis of model trees except for the oldest stand 

April of 1996, respectively, with the stem and 

where 30 cores were taken with an increment borer 

branches being collected. All model branches were at DBH; 40 percent of trees in the 40-year-old stand 

divided into 3 diameter (d) fractions: d < 5 nun, 5 were infected with stem rot. 

mm < d < 10 nun and d > 10 ram; all current year 

shoots constituted an additional fraction. From each Regression equations for tree compartments had the 

fraction a subsample was taken to estimate the dry 

weight percentage. Dead branches were collected 

following form: 

and weighed. All mass data axe on an oven-dry (70 ° In y = a + b In DBH (1) 

C) basis. Production of branches consisted of 

where y is the oven-dry mass of tree compartment 

primary and secondary growth. The secondary 

(kilogram) and DBH - diameter at breast height 

growth was estimated by dividing branch overbaxk (centimeter); all equations had very high correlation 

mass (without primary growth) by branch age. coefficients and low levels of significance (p< 0.0001 in all 

Each bole was cut into 50 cm sections. Disks from cases), the parameters a and b are presented in Table 1. 

Stand characteristics axe presented in Table 2. 

the base of each section and at height of 1.3 meters 

were taken and the diameter outside bark and fresh 

mass of each section were determined. The discs 

Field experiments and laboratory analysis 

were measured for bark thickness and width of the 

last 3 to 5 annual rings, and number of annual rings 

and mean annual increments were calculated. Subsamples 

for estimating bark and wood proportions 

and their dry weight percentages were obtained. 

In riparian grey alder study sites, water samples were 

collected and groundwater depth was measured once 

to twice a month by piezometers. Filtered soil water 

samples were analyzed for NI-h-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, 

total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), PO4-P, total Kjeldahl 

The relative increments of the wood and bark of an phosphorus (TKP), SO4, Fe, and Ca (APHA 1981) in 

the laboratory of the Estonian Agricultural 

overbaxk fraction were assumed to be equal. In University. Soil bulk density, texture class, and field 

riparian buffer stands (14 years and 40 years), root 

capacity were determined for each 20 centimeters of 

systems for 6 and 3 out of the sampled 17 and 5 

trees, respectively, were excavated and divided into soil profile (up to 1.5 meters in depth). Hydraulic 

conductivity was estimated by using tracer (chloride) 

five fractions: stump, coarse roots: d > 20 ram, 5 mm and pumping experiments (Freeze and Cherry 1979). 

< d < 20 mm, and fine roots (d < 2 mm). In case Groundwater discharge was estimated on the basis of 

root craflings occurred between trees, the length of both Darcy's law and by gauging with weirs installed 

the connecting root was divided into parts 

proportional to tree diameter. Nodule mass was 

in groundwater seeping sites. TKN and TKP of plant 

estimated separately in June and July 1995. Around 

samples were estimated. 

randomly selected 10 alders, a ring layer of the width 

94

Table 1. 

Parameters of regression equations (1) used in dimension analysis for estimating the mass of tree 

compartments (kg); r2 - coefficient of determination, s.e.e. - standard error of estimate. 

Age 

Tree compartment 

(years) overbark (kg) a b r2 s.e.e. 

10 Stem -2.939 2.369 0.993 0.08 

Branches -6.506 3.305 0.993 0.09 

14 Stem -2.492 2.399 0.992 0.07 

Branches -6.064 3.123 0.925 0.31 

18 Stem -3.179 2.680 0.994 0.14 

Branches -4.412 2.281 0.960 0.32 

40 Stem -2.406 2.354 0.984 0.14 

Branches -3.891 2.353 0.947 0.33 

Table 2. Stand characteristics of test sites. Mean age, dbh, height, basal area, above-ground overbark biomass 

and production are given for alders. 

Age Trees Alders DBH Height Basal area Biomass Production 

(years) per ha per ha (cm) (m) , (m2ha"1) (t ha "1) (t ha_ yr1) 

10 15900 15900 3.7 8.3 29.8 65.1 9.6 

14 6110 5240 8.9 11.0 33.4 89.6 9.5 

18 3530 3530 10.1 15.0 28.0 83.2 7.5 

40 1810 1390 16.4 16.7 35.1 128.4 5.5 

Experimental plantation RESULTS 

An experimental plantation was established on 

Grey alder resources in Estonia 

abandoned agricultural land in Spring 1995. 

Naturally regenerated seedlings, root coppices and 

Managed forests occupy 47 percent of the total area 

stem cuttings were used as planting material, of Estonia or 2.0 million hectares (Estonian Forest 

Spacing was rectangular with 70 centimeters Survey Centre 1995). 4.4 percent of closed forest 

between plants in rows and 100 centimeters between area (1.845 million hectares) is covered by grey alder 

rows, the stand size was 0.08 hectare. After the first stands. Grey alder timber forms 4.0 percent of the 

growing season all survived plants were measured 

total standing volume in closed forests, accounting 

for the diameter at stem base, height and height for 6.7 percent (619,500 m3) in the total volume 

increment. Leaf, bark, wood and soil samples Coy10- increment. The mean annual volume increment of 

centimeter layers down to a depth of 50 centimeters) grey alder stands is higher compared to that of other 

were collected in August 1995 and estimated for tree species (Figure 1). 

nitrogen, phosphorus, and potssium. 

95

Pim _'-__--_¢_'_ 4.33 50 

sm,_ ............ _ 402 

__ 2,.3 40 3L7 

ABpm_-:--:::--::- .............................. f_3 20 14 

................................................ " R m 

r 0 _ I ! I I --- 

0 1 2 $ 4 $ 6 7 8 

.3_'_ 

_) 

Figure 1. Meanannual increment(m3stem overbark)per 

hectareby pmcipal tree species, 

Figure 3. Distribution of greyalder stands by age 

classes. 

_ 

When consideringheating energies equivalentto the Accordingto mean figures, 11percent of standing 

mean annualincrementof the main tree speciesin volume and26 percentof annualtimber production 

closed stands,the productionof grey alderstands is areformedby grey alder in privateforests. However, 

the highest (Figure2). To calculateheating energies, the situationvaries in districts dependingon 

the effectiveheating value of a grey alderstemwith landscapestructureand soils. The share of greyalder 

bark (moisturecontent40 percent)was taken1.737 is bigger in Filipendula, Aegopodium, Oxalis and 

Mwh solidm"3(Nurmi 1993);the corresponding Hepatica site types. In these site types it reachesthe 

heatingvalues of other treesare given in (Hakkila maximal CA] at a much youngerage and it is 

1989). In Estonia, grey alder grows on relatively definitelyhigher than in the caseof Norway spruce 

fertile soils,butits growth is inhibitedbythe high and silver birch(Figure4). Growthis the highestat 

meanage of stands (29 years)considering the age the age of 10to 20 years. At this age also MAI of 

distributionof grey alder stands (Figure3). 

greyalder is higherthan thatof spruce and birch 

(Figure 5). Fluctuationsin the curvesof CAIand 

MAI arecausedby variabilityin stand density.After 

20 yearsthe growth of greyalder slows down,thus 

naturalalder stands shouldbe harvestedearlier. 

11.7 12 

12, 1o.1 Cultivation of grey alder 

10 8.3 

s, 

4 

_ Propagationof 

season.The survival 

greyalderby 

of plants 

stem 

of both 

cuttings 

generativeand 

failed, 

2 vegetativeoriginwas high; 94.1 and 93.5 percent, 

6 _ andthere respectively.The was no survivalafterthe height increments± first standard growing 

o .... deviations of planted seedlings and root coppices 

1_ Spmee _ Aspm Grey 

alder 

afterthe first growing seasonwere 52.0 + 23.2 cm 

....... and 35.0 + 21.3 cm, respectively.Thus planting 

Figure 2. Mean annualincrementof maintree 

materialof generative origin shouldbe preferred. 

species in closedstands by heating 

energy. 

96

F_pendula 

Oxalis 

4,o 4,0 

¢o 2,o 2,0 ¢o 

12,0 14,0I 

Q,O 0,0 t t t t t t t , t t 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 l0 15 _0 25 30 35 40 45 50 

Age(yeazs) 

Age(years) 

Aegopodium 

Hepatica 

6,0 

4,0 

¢o 

4,0 

2,0 2.0 

0,0 t t 0,0 ........... 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 lO 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 

Age(yeass) 

Age(yearn) 

Figure 4. Current annual incrementof silver birch, grey alderandNorwaysprucestands. 

Filipendula 

6,0 6,0 

: 

4,0 . :. 4,0 

3,0 

2,0 

3,o 1,0 gzo _ I0 

0,0 {3,0 I ' I I t ' I I t I I I 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 I0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 

Age (years) 

Age (years) 

I-.,-_d_ _G_ "_I [ -_ = '_'_ _sp_ ] 

Oxalis 

Aegopodium 

Hepatica 

50 = _, 

,0 

_2,o4 / 

_r 

_'o::_/.,, , ,,,,,, ... 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 

Age (years) 

3.0 

Age (years) 

] .....__. Birch ----Ii---Greyaider _ Spl_ ] [ ---4---Birch _ Greyaider =_. Spruce ] 

Figure 5. 

Meanannual incrementof silver birch,greyalderandNorwaysprucestands. 

97

Biomass production and nutrient uptake Nutrient retention 

The percent increment of stem biomass (AB) of a Retention of N and P was calculated according to 

stand in the Aegopodium site type is described by the Equation 3. In PorijiSgi, groundwater filtration was 

following equation: calculated for 200 m2 plots, in Viiratsi the 

calculation area was 800 m2. Nutrient removal 

/d3 = 101.9 A"°s69 (2) efficiency (difference between inflow and outflow 

]'2=0.99, s.e.e. = 0.06, p< 0.005, values; percent) and retention capacity (gm 2 d_) are 

where A - stand age (years), r2 - coefficient of 

determination, s.e.e. - standard error of estimate and 

presented in Fig. 6. The retention value (R) was 

calculated as follows: 

p - level ofsigniticance. R = [(Qm*Cm)- (Qout *Co_t)]/A (3) 

Biomass, net production and nutrient uptake values where Q_ and Qo_t- inflow and outflow values (m3 

in riparian grey alder stands are presented in d"1),respectively; Cm and Cout- concentration values 

/.x3hmus et al. 1996). The total biomass value in the (mg ll), respectively; A - plantation area treated 

less polluted Porijeigi stand was 115.5 t ha 1. In the 

with wastewater (m2). 

40-yearr old Viiratsi stand, the toal biomass value 

was 158 t ha "1due to the larger diameter and height 

Nitrogen 

of stems and larger amount of branches. On the 

contrary, due to intensive growth, the net production Despite the significantly higher nitrogen load in the 

was higher in the Porij_igi test site (17.3 and 10.6 t Viiratsi riparian buffer zone (eutrophic grassland - 

ha "1yr "_, respectively). Nitrogen and phosphorus young alder stand - wet meadow - old alder stand) as 

uptake by grey alders was relatively high in both compared to the Porij6gi site (set-aside grassland - 

study sites. Owing to higher productivity, total N and wet meadow - alder forest complex (0.4-4.3 and 2.0- 

P accumulation in both above-ground and below- 62.1 mg N 1"!,respectively), the output 

ground biomass was significantly higher in the concentrations were at comparable levels (0.4-2.1 

Porij_igi stand (204.8 kg N ha "1yr"] and 15.1 kg P ha" and 0.5-3.0 mg N 1"1,correspondingly). Atmospheric 

1yr-I in PorijSgi, and 140.2 kg N ha"1yr"land 10.8 

N deposition in PorijSgi and Viiratsi was estimated 

kg P ha"Iyr"Iin Viiratsi). Nitrogen content in wood to be 10 and 15 kg N ha"1yr"1.The extremely high 

and leaves was approximately the same in both test 

TKN content in Viiratsi soil water was caused by pig 

sites. However, P concentration in the total biomass 

slurry application in the adjacent field in July and 

of the older and heavily-loaded Viiratsi grey alder August 1994. Due to intensive fertilization over 

stand was 13.5 percent higher than in the younger 

many years, soil in this field is compacted and the 

and less polluted Porij6gi stand. In the older stand, a soil microfauna disturbed. That is why the N content 

half of the assimilated P was allocated into leaves, in in the upland soil water was always high during the 

younger stand this share is only one-third, 

first part of the study period (from June 1994 to July 

1995). In the Porij_igi catchment, however, N input 

Porij6gi test site 

1S]42, 

Viiratsi test site 

Figure 6. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) and total Kjeldahl phosphorus (TKN) retention in the less polluted 

Podj_igi test site and the heavily-polluted Viiratsi test site (g m"2d"_). 

98

decreased during the last three years since 

Phosphorus 

agricultural activities ceased in the upland field (see 

Kuusemets et al. 1996). According to high loading, Similarly to N relations in ground water, P 

the retention value in Viiratsi was relatively high: concentration in the output from the intensively 

0.48-42.8 kg N ha"_yr _ (Figure 6). In Porij_igi, it loaded Viiratsi test plot was not significantly higher 

was 0.24-4.6 kg N ha1 yr "_.High buffering capacity than in Porijfgi, varying from 0.2 to 0.55 nag P 1"l 

in the Viiratsi study site can be explained by the and 0.08 to 0.65 mg P 1"_,respectively. However, P 

following factors: (1) a relatively high denitrification input values on the border of arable land and 

value which is, however, lower than that measured eutrophic grassland in Viiratsi are significantly 

in Porij6gi; (2) a relatively high plant uptake which 

higher than on the border of the Filipendulais 

also lower than the corresponding value of Aegopodium wetland and alder forest and in 

Podj6gi; (3) lower N2 fixation. Podjfgi, 0.6-7.09 and 0.42-1.05 mg P 1"l, 

accordingly (Mander et al. 1996). Again, high P 

The denitrification value varied between 12 and 21 values in Viiratsi are caused by slurry application in 

lag N m"2hr "_in the Porij6gi test site. In Viiratsi, the adjacent field. According to high loading, the 

this value was 3-14 lag N m "2 hr _. Still, in the retention value in Viiratsi was high (0.12-5.2 kg P 

adjacent wet meadow and set-aside grassland uphill ha "_yr_; (Figure 6). In Porijfgi, it was 0.13-1.3 kg P 

from the forest, this rate was higher (4-57 and 5-41 ha l yr _ with a slight P leaching in winter (0.13 kg P 

lag N m 2 hr "_, in Porij_igi and Viiratsi, respectively), ha "_yr'_). The high P retention rate in the Viiratsi 

Despite the relatively small number of analyses, 

study site can be explained by the following 

main tendencies in denitrification intensity are processes: (1) uptake by alders, and (2) accumulation 

comparable with the results of other investigations: in the soil. 

(1) main denitrifying activity was observed in spring 

and late summer (Struwe and Kjeller 1990; Weller et Considering the relatively low plant uptake and low 

al. 1994); and (2) higher denitrification activity was leaching values, we suggest that the main portion of 

found in the upper part of the slope (see also Duff retained P accumulates in the soil. In the long-term 

and Triska 1990; Pinay et al. 1993; Jordan et al. perspective this very high load cannot be 

1993; Weller et al. 1994). The latter tendency can be compensated by Fe, Al and Ca phosphate 

explained by significantly higher nitrate precipitation. This is, evidently, the key process in P 

concentration in soil water. Struwe and Kjoller retention in Viiratsi. Also, some investigations 

(1991) found up to 100 times higher denitrifying suggest that permanently high N concentration in 

activity in slurry incubations than in the black alder soil can cause P leaching (Andrusch et al. 1992). On 

forest. Most probably, due to the application of pig the other hand, our earlier investigations 

slurry in Viiratsi the real denitrification values can demonstrate that riparian alder forests are effective 

be higher than those revealed by our observations, buffers for phosphorus (Mander et al. 1995). Even in 

since our measurements were not carried out riparian wetlands P can be retained due to microimmediately 

after the slurry application, scale oxygenation variability within the wetland and, 

probably, owing to phosphorus inactivation by 

Atmospheric N2 fixation in the soil of the alder stand nitrate (Andersen 1982). 

in Viiratsi was significantly lower than in the 

PorijiSgitest site (0.2-2.8 and 0.6-15 lagN m"2hr"1, Our results suggest that due to lower uptake in older 

respectively). The highest values were recorded in 

Alnus incana stands (> 20 years), it is important to 

July. Surprisingly, the highest N2 fixation values (up harvest these stands earlier. From the point of view 

to 21.3 lag N m"2hr"lin Porijfgi and 17.9lag N m"2 of both productivity and nutrient uptake, the optimal 

hr"_in Viiratsi) were observed in May in wet 

harvest age is 12 to 15 years. 

meadows and grassland communities without 

symbiotic N2 fixers. Lower N2 fixation in the loaded 

Viiratsi test area can be accounted for by the 

predomination of N assimilation over N2 fixation in 

the presence of high mineral N concentrations in the 

root medium of actinorhizal plants (Troelstra et al. 

1992). However, our investigations show that N2 

fixation in soil forms an insignificant part of the 

whole N budget in both study plots. 

99

CONCLUSIONS Bonnmm, B.T.; Gordon, J.C. 1984. Stand density 

effects in young red alder plantations: 

(1) Grey alder stands serve as perspective productivity, photosynthate partitioning and 

energy forest stands, with the maximum nitrogen fixation. Ecology, 2: 394-402. 

productivity at the age of 10 - 20 years, 

which is higher than for other tree species. Duff', J.H.; Triska, F.J. 1990. Denitrification in 

sediments from the hyporheic zone adjacent to a 

(2) From the point of view of both productivity small forested stream. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 

and nutrient retention, their optimal 47:1140-1147. 

harvesting age is 12-15 years. 

Estonian Forest Resources. Estonian Forest Survey 

(3) No additional N and P leaching was found Centre. 1995, 42 pp. (In Estonian). 

within heavily loaded (application of pig 

slurry on upland soils, atmospheric NH4 

Freeze, R.A.; Cherry, J.A. 1979. Groundwater. 

deposition) riparian grey alder stands. 

Prentice Hall. 

Thus, fast growing young grey alder stands 

do not represent an additional source of 

Hakkila, P. 1989. Utilization of residual forest 

nutrients and they can act as effective biomass. Spdnger-Verlag, Berlin, 568 p. 

buffers on stream banks and lake shores. 

Jordan, T.E.; Correll, D.L.; Weller, D.E. 1992. 

Nutrient interception by riparian forest receiving 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

inputs from adjacent cropland. J. Environ. Qual. 

22: 467-473. 

We appreciate the Estonian Forest Survey Centre for 

help in data management. This study was supported Knauer, N.; Mander, O. 1989. Studies on the 

by the International Science Foundation grants Nos filtration effect of differently vegetated buffer 

LCU 100 (1994) and LLLI00 (1995), and Estonian 

stripes along inland waters in Schleswig- 

Science Foundation grants Nos 1603 and 2471. Holstein. 1. Information:Filtration of nitrogen 

and phosphorus. Z. f. Kulturtechnik und 

Landentwicklung 30, 6: 365-376. (In German, 

LITERATURE CITED with smnnm_ in English). 

Andersen, J.M. 1982. Effects of nitrate concentration Kuusemets, V.; Ivask, M.; Mander, O. 1996. 

in lake water on phosphate release from the Phytomass, caloricity and nutrient variation in 

sediment. Wat. Res. 16:1119-1126. riparian ecotones of agricultural landscapes in 

Estonia. Landscape and Urban Planning. (In 

Andrusch, T.; Hupfer, M.; Luther, D. 1992. 

press). 

Chemical and microbial binding forms of 

phosphorus considering the availability of I2ihmus, K.; Mander, O.; Tullus, H; Keedus, K. 

nitrate in sediment-water systems. Int. Revue 1996. Productivity, buffering capacity and 

ges. Hydrobiol. 77: 109-120. 

resources of grey alder forests in Estonia. (In 

press). 

APHA 1981. Standard Method for the Examination 

of Water and Waste Water, 15th edition, Mander, U.; Kuusemets, V.; Ivask, M. 1995. 

American Public Health Organization, 

Nutrient dynamics of riparian ecotones: A case 

Washington, 1134 pp. study from the PorijiSgi River catchment, 

Estonia. Landscape and Urban Planning 31, 

Binkley, D.; Sollins, P.; Bell, tL; Sachs, D.; Myrold, 333-348. 

D. 1992. Biogeochemistry of adjacent conifer 

and alder-conifer stands. Ecology 73, 6, 2022- 

Nurmi, J. 1993. Heating values of the above ground 

2033. biomass of small-sized trees. Acta Forestalia 

Fennica 236: 1-30. 

I00

Pinay, G.; Roques, L.; Fabre, A. 1993. Spatial and 

temporal patterns of denitrification in a riparian 

forest. Journal of Applied Ecology 30: 581-591. 

Struwe, S.; Kj_ller, A. 1990. Seasonality of 

denitrification in water-logged alder stands. 

Plant and Soil 128:109-113. 

Struwe, S.; Kj_ller, A. 1991. Denitrification in wet 

forest soil systems in-situ and in slurry 

experiments.- For. Ecol. Manage. 44 (1): 41-52. 

Troelstra, S.1L; Wagenaar, IL; Smant, W. 1992. 

Growth of actinorhizal plants as influenced by 

the form of nitrogen with special reference to 

Myrica gale andAlnus glutinosa. J. Exp. Bot. 

43: 1349-1359. 

Tullus, H., Uri; V.; Keedus, K. 1995. Grey alder as 

an energy resource on abandoned agricultural 

lands. In: Land Use Changes and Nature 

Conservation in Central and Eastern Europe. 

Abstracts of the International Conference. 

Palanga, Lithuania, June 5-8. 55-56. 

Vought, L.B.-M.; Dahl, J.; Pedersen, C.L.; 

Lacoursi_re, J.O. 1994. Nutrient retention in 

riparian ecotones. Ambio 23: 342-348. 

Weller, D.E.; Correll, D.L.; Jordan, T.E. 1994. 

Denitrification in riparian forests receiving 

agricultural discharges. Mitsch, W.J. 

(Ed.).Global Wetlands: Old World and New. 

Elsevier Science B.V.p. 117-131. 

101

CUT-TO-I_NGTH HARVESTING the chopper and chain-saw interaction, particularly in 

ON A SMALL WOODLOT IN NEW ENGLAND: dense stands where one would expect an increasing 

A CASE STUDY _ number ofhangups. The CTL system can be used to 

more efficiently remove and pile the trees, eliminating 

by 

the danger and difficulty in fellingtrees in dense stands. 

The forwarding/skidding operation is also improved 

Neil K. Huyler 

because the trees are neatly piled allowing for larger, 


Burlington, Vermont, USA 


safer payloads to be transported and avoiding or 

minimizing the challenges that go with skidding 

manually felled trees. 

Cut-to-length systems also allow for increased tree 

Chris B. LeDoux 

utilization resulting in precise uniform log lengths; less 

USDA Forest Service log end splitting and breakage; and cleaner, well- 

Morgantown, West Virginia, USA limbed logs (Gingras 1994). Cut-to-length systems 

when used with forwarders also can serve to reduce 

some of the soil disturbance and compaction that goes 

ABSTRACT: This paper presents results from a ease with manual felling and conventional skidder logging 

study of a cut-to-length (CTL) harvester with a 

(Seixas et al. 1995). Application of CTL systems 

forwarding system used on a small suburban woodlot, 

results in less residual stand damage because trees and 

It was a cooperative effort between the Northeastern 

logs are not being pulled through the stand and the CTL 

Forest Experiment Station; the Vermont Department of system can directionally fell trees (Leech 1989, Tufts 

Forest, Parks and Recreation; and the Colchester 199 I). Another advantage to CTL systems is that the 

School District, Colchester, Vermont, to demonstrate 

delimbing takes place in front of the machine, and the 

that using a CTL harvester with forwarding to thin 

limbs and slash can be used as a mat for the machine to 

small suburban woodlots, municipal parks, and 

travel on, thus reducing soil disturbance and compaeenvironmentally 

sensitive areas is feasible. The average tion (Meyer 1984, Pawlett 1985, Seixas et al. 1995). 

productivity of the harvester was about 49.88 m3/8- 

hour day, within the range that the operator had 

Cut-to-length systems have some disadvantages, the 

experienced on similar sites and on larger commercial principal one being the high initial cost of purchasing 

operations. If we assign two product value levels of such machines. Cut-to-length systems also may not be 

$12.95/m 3and $17.88/m 3,the break-even tree size was able to delimb large hardwoods and forwarding on 

0.176 m3 and 0.136 m 3,respectively. Other steep slopes has limitations. In addition, fuel loading is 

considerations in using the CTL system on small 

increased in the CTL systems creating forest fire hazard 

suburban woodlots, such as profitable tree size, conditions (l-Iartsough et al. 1994). 

ecosystem sustainability, and environmental concerns 

are discussed. 

This article is a report on a case study of a small CTL 

system with forwarding used on a small woodlot in 

Key Words: cut-to-length, harvesting, thinning, small New England. The study was a cooperative effort 

woodlot, ecosystem wildlife, logging between the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, 

the Colchester School District, and the Vermont 

Department of Forest, Parks and Recreation. 

INTRODUCTION 

The principal objective of the study was to evaluate the 

Fully mechanized cut-to-length (CTL) harvesting 

productivity of CTL harvesting with a forwarding 

systems are becoming more popular as an alternative to system in thinning a small woodlot where minimizing 

manual felling, bucking, and limbing (Araki 1994, the environmental impact was a high priority. Also it 

Brinker and Tufts 1990, Harrison 1995, Meek 1995, 

provided the opportunity for the high school students to 

Kellogg and Brown 1995). Mechanized CTL systems participate in a class project in their environmental 

offer several advantages, one of which is safer working studies program. 

conditions (Greene et al. 1984). The system eliminates 


andInternational Unionof ForestResearchOrganizations Subject 


102

STUDY AREA It was mounted on a modified 988 John Deere 70 

tracked excavator platform. The hydraulic system on 

The study area is located on the Colchester School the 55-hp excavator was modified to include a 48- 

District properties in the town of Colchester, Vermont. gallons/minute hydraulic pump system. The hydraulic 

The test site is a 31-acre tract and is identified as stand system on most excavators is not specifically designed 

No. 4 on the school's map. It is a typical small woodlot for harvester heads and, therefore, requires higher 

that is characteristic of the suburban area along Lake gallons/minute pumps as was the case for this machine. 

Champlain. 

The woodlot timber volume to be removed was 

The stand was primarily white pine and red oak. The 

estimated from a 100 percent cruise. Each tree was 

timber quality was classed as good. The topography of marked, measured, and tallied separately. There were 

the site is nearly flat except for a small area in the back 256 trees marked with yellow paint spots below stump 

section of the lot where the side slope was about 3 height and tallied as sawlogs. In addition, 63 trees 

percent. The soil on the site is dry and sandy and is an were marked with blue paint spots and tallied for 

Adams-Windsor soil classification. Main skid trails pulpwood, and 402 trees marked for firewood. 

were located and marked by a district forester from the Topwood in the sawlog trees was included in the total 

Vermont State Forest, Parks and Recreation 

pulpwood volume at the conversion rate of 1.27 m3of 

Department and averaged about 365.76 m in length, pulpwood/3.48 m3 of sawlog volume. Also, 62 trees 

were marked with a blue "G" and were girdled by two 

The long-range management objective is to grow high- parallel chain-saw cuts and left standing for wildlife 

quality, large-diameter white pine and red oak, provide habitat improvement. Volume removals by species and 

a wildlife area in a suburban environment, and provide product are shown in Tables 1 and 2. 

a forested area for the high school students to apply 

knowledge gained from their environmental studies As stated earlier, the stand was marked for a heavy 

program, 

thinningto bring the densityback tothe B-line or about 

100 square feet of basal area. This was primarily 

The stand prescription was primarily a thinning to accomplished by removing the white pine, red oak, and 

reduce the basal area to the B-level, as prescribed by 

hemlock sawlogs generally across all diameter at breast 

Lancaster and Leak (1978) for white pine and Sampson height (DBI--I) classes in the sawlog category. Because 

et al. (1980) for northern red oak in New England. the stand had several m 3of white pine, hemlock, and 

hardwood sawlogs with stump diameters that were 

beyond the capabilities of the harvester, a majority of 

EQUIPMENT 

the sawlog volume was cut using the conventional 

chain-saw and rubber-tired skidder method. In 

Cut-to-length harvester or feller processors as they are addition, a small area was logged for demonstration 

sometimes called usually perform three basic functions: purposes using a team of horses and chain saw. No 

(I) felling the stem, (2) delimbing, and (3) bucking the time or motion data were taken on the chain saw and 

stem into predetermined length in the stand. Most CTL rubber-tired skidder system or the horse operation. 

harvesters located in the Northeast are the single-grip 

type rather than the heavier more expensive double- 

The CLTsystem was divided into two phases for time 

grip type. The single-grip harvester is normally faster study purposes. Phase 1 included the cutting and 

and more versatile and, therefore, more adaptable to 

processing of individual trees, and phase 2 was 

smaller woodlots that are prevalent in the Northeastern forwarding the material to a landing. The sequence of 

region, 

eventsinphase 1was asfollows:The operator 

positioned the processing head on the tree to be cut, 

The single-grip harvester that was used in this study 

the accumulator arms were used to grip the tree while 

was a Peninsula design roller processing saw head 

severing the tree from the stump with the chain-saw 

model number RP 16002 (Figure 1). The maximum type cutter head. Spiked feed rollers pulled the tree 

cutting diameter is 35.56 em and the min-max limbing through the delimbing knives to remove the limbs. The 

diameter is about 1.27 cm and 22.86 cm, respectively, operator selected the cutting length, usually 2.44 m or 

4.88 m with the on-board computer, and then cuts-to- 

2Theuseoftrade,firmorcorporationamesinthispaperisforthe length the tree into individual products. The process 

informationandconvenienceofthereader. Suchusedoesnot 

continued, creating bunches of six to eight cut-to-length 

constitutean officialendorsementorapprovalbytheU.S. 

Departmentof Agricultureorthe ForestServiceofanyproductor 

stems/bunch. The bunches were then picked up and 

servicetotheexclusionofothersthatmaybesuitable, 

forwarded to the landing. 

103

•f 

" • 

Figure 

1, The modified 1988 John Deere tracked harvester with a Peninsula design roller processor saw head. 

Table 1. Sawlog and pulpwood volume by species 

number of trees, and average DBH. 

Table 2. Hardwood fuelwood volume, number of 

trees, and mean DBH. 

Volume 

Number 

of 

Average 

DBH 

DBH (cm) Number of trees Volume (m _) 

Species product (mz) trees (cm) 15.2 

15.2-20.3 

119 

248 

18.35 

42.05 

Sawlogs 25.4 128 32.62 

Whitepine 112.75 157 38.20 

Redoak 13.78 44 38.86 

30.5 29 18.35 

Beech 1.25 5 32.00 

35.6 18 15.29 

40.6 5 6.37 

Paper/birch .21 1 30.48 

45.7 1 2.55 

Whiteoak .21 1 30.48 

Total 548 135.58 

Hemlock .49 1 35.56 

Redmaple 12.18 47 33.27 

Total 140.87 256 34.21 Time and motion data were taken on the harvester and 

Pine-pulpwood 12.74 63 21.08 forwarder machine over a 5-day period. The goal was 

Pine topwood- 40.78 .... to estimate the time required to create a bunch with the 

pulpwood 

harvesterwithina standarderror of 10percent or less 

Total 53.52 .... 

at the 95 percent confidence interval. The bunch time 

is based on the total time to create a bunch, which 

includes the cycle time elements of cutting, felling, 

delimbing, bucking, and travel time between bunches. 

Timing began when the first stem was cut to create a 

104

unch and ended when a new bunch was created. The the bunches to the landing with the Valmet 524 

number of trees were recorded for each bunch 

forwarding machine (Figure 2). The total turn time for 

including the length, large-and small-end diameter for the forwarder included the cycle time elements of 

each piece in the bunch. The total t_3volume for each outhaul (travel empty), load time, inhaul (travel 

individual bunch was calculated by the formula for R3 loaded), unload time, and travel distance from bunch to 

content of poles, piling, and small round wood products landing. Times were recorded to the nearest 1/10 

as described in the "Forestry Handbook" (Wenger 

minute and delay times were recorded as to the cause of 

1983). This has the form: delay. The volume/turn (load) was estimated by "stick 

Where: 

V= 0.2618L (D 2+d2+Dd) measuring" 

length, and height) 

(a 2.44-m 

the 

stick, 

pile at 

measuring 

the end of 

the 

the 

width, 

day. The 

144 ' volume/turn was estimated by simply dividing the total 

volume at the landing by the number of turns. The 

timing for each forwarding element was as follows: 

V = Volume in feet3, 1. Outhaul--Time begins when operator damps 

D = Large-end diameter in in., 

the back of the forwarder with the clambucket 

d = Small-end diameter in in., 

after unloading. 

L = Length,and 2. Loading--Timebegins whenthe operator 

144 = Constant. moves the loader (clambucket) and loading of 

stem begins. 

Stems less than 5.08 cm in diameter were classed as 3. Inhaul--Time begins when the forwarder 

being unmerchantable, but were included in the total moves toward the landing site after loading. 

cycle time. Delays were recorded to the nearest 1/10 4. Unload--Time begins when the clam picks the 

minute and the cause of delay was noted. The effect of 

first stemfrom the forwarder bunks and contree 

size in terms ofm 3 and productivity of the 

tinues until the bunk is empty and the operator 

harvester was evaluated with regression analysis. We clamps the back of the forwarder with the 

also recorded turn time and the total volume to forward 

clam bucket, starting the cycle over again. 

Figure 2. The Valmet 524 forwarder with 2.44-m log bunks. 

105

RESULTS 

Tree size was analyzed to determine its effect on CTL 

machine productivity. The study data indicated a 

Harvester productivity significant relationship with an R2of 68 percent. 

Figure 3 demonstratesthe affect of tree size on machine 

Table 3 shows the productivity of the CTL harvester for productivity in PMH. Tree size was the most 

the study period. The CTL harvester produced 8.31 signitieant variable for the harvester's productivity that 

m3/produetive machine hour (PMH). The average we observed during the study. 

number of trees processed was approximately 51.5 

trees/PM_ which created about 16.5 bunehes/PMl-I. 

The machine utilization rate (MUR) during the study 

la.?.......... 

period was 75 percent. Applying the 75 percent MUR 11.7- 

over the 8 hour scheduled work day, the CTL system 

produced about 49.88 m3. This fell within the range 10.?- 

productionthat 

average the operatorcapability.had 

bunch volume. estimated The bunches for thecreated machine' during s _,.__s.?- 7.? 

_,_///"/j 

the study period contained an average of 0.505 m3 of 

material. The average piece size contained within the s.7 

bunches was about 12.70 em at the small end, and 

Table 4 shows the characteristics of product size and i 6.7 o.?t_ J 

16.51 em on the large end. The average length ofthe .1_ .lh .l'r .lh _'0 

pieces was 4.53 m3, and each bunch contained about ^_' "_ _ (_) 

6.0 pieces. The average tree volume was 0.165 m3, Figure 3. Effect of tree size in m3 on harvester 

and the average piece volume was 0.076 m3. 

productivity. 

Table 3. Production data for single-grip harvester 

We estimated the daily and annual production 

, CTL system, capability oftheCTL harvester overseveraltree 

Production factors Volume volume scenarios using datafrom Table 5. If we use 

0.169 m3 for the average tree volume, which is only 

mVSMH 6.24 slightly higher than we found in the study, the average 

mVPMH 8.31 daily production is 51.65 m3,which again is well within 

No. bunches/PMH 16.47 the range that the operator had estimated. The annual 

production for the same averagetreevolume shows an 

Trees processed/PMI-I 51.53 average yearly production of 12,913.90 mVyear, 

mVSeheduled 8-hour day 49.88 assuming 250 scheduled days/year. 

MUR 75% 

Figure 4 shows the break-even point (BEP) tree size 

for two levels of product value. At the fn-st product 

price level (BEP 1) of $12.95/m _, the logger could 

Table 4, Characteristics of product size and bunch 

operate in stands with tree size of 0.175 m3 and larger. 

Stated another way, at the $12.95/m 3product value 

volume, 

rate, trees of 0.175 m_and larger will begin to show a 

Average 

profit and stands with tree sizes smaller than 0.175 m3 

Variable volume/unit would show a loss; therefore, it would not be a 

Volume/bunch (ms) 0.500 profitable stand for the logger to harvest. At the second 

Small end diameter (em) 12.700 product price level (BEP2) of $17.66/m 3,the logger 

Large end diameter (em) 16.500 

could operate at a profit in stands with tree size of 

0.136 m3 and larger. Stands with tree size less than 

Length (m) 4.530 0.136 ms would not be a profitable stand to harvest. 

Volume/piece (m3) 0.076 Tree size is an important variable and is a critical factor 

Number of pieces/bunch 6.00 in stands with tree size less than 0.169 m3. I.fwe look 

Volume/tree (ms) 0.155 at the cost curve segment in Figure 4, from tree size of 

about 0.113 ms to 0.198 m3you can see that it 

106

Table 5. Estimated daily and annual production Unload required 6.40 minutes/turn or about 13.29 

capability for the cut-to-length system in 

percent of the productive time. The average total 

thinning hardwood stands, productive cycle time was 48.15 minutes over an 

Average tree volume (1113) 

average haul distance of 597.41 m. The average delay 

Production 0.11 0.14 0.17 0.2 time was 9.6 minutes/cycle, which gives a MUR of 

Daily (m3)" 29.44 40.54 51.66 62.77 83.8 percent. The average volume transported by the 

forwarder to the landing was 12.74 m3. Like most 

Annual (m3)b7355.00 1013.5:70 12913.91 5689.30 forwarding activities, the fixed time or terminal time 

"8Scheduled-hour day. accounts for the major proportion of the total turn time; 

b250 Scheduled days/year, 

in this case it accounted for 72.4 percent of the total 

turn time. 

25 

20 

for the Valmet 524 forwarder. 

v._o_v,,,.,,,._ Average % of Total 

-- _N_ Table 6. Average total time andTime cycle time Productive by element 

_15 _,. BEP 1 . 

_ -_.... P,o_u_ _.. ,,2._ Cycle Time Elements (min) Time 

_10 ! _,_ Outhaul 5.95 12.4 

:-_"---_: _ Loading 28.5 59.2 

5 : i | 

Inhaul 7.3 15.2 

: t 

Unload 6.4 13.3 

t 

00 .;, .,, "' .,, '" ./o ._3 ._ .2, 

Total cycle time 48.15 100.0 

Average tree size (m 3) Delay time 9.3 

Figure 4. Break-even points (BEP) for CTL harvester 

Total cycle time with delay 57.45 

Average volume/turn (m3) 12.74 m3 

Machine utilization 0.838 

decreases at a decreasing rate (steeper slope) and then Averal_edistance 597.4 m 

begins to flatten out beyond tree size of 0.283 m 3 and 

larger. This suggests that loggers generally would 

make a profit if they bid on stands when tree size is 

greater than 0.169 m 3. This of course will change as 

DISCUSSION 

the market price of the product fluctuates. The case study demonstrates that a small CTL system 

can operate in small woodlots in a suburban setting 

Forwarding productivity 

while maintaining the environmental and aesthetic 

advantages. The productivity of 49.88 m3/dayin this 

The Valmet model 524 forwarder, which is a 

small woodlot was well within the range of productivity 

bidirectional 4-wheel machine that was equipped with 

a small clam loader and 2.44 m log bunk, was used to 

that the operator had experienced in larger operations. 

transport the bunches created by the harvester to a 

Many small municipal parks and public woodlots in the 

roadside landing. Although the productivity of the Northeast suburban area need some form of forest 

forwarder was not a primary objective of the study, we 

management to increase tree growth and meet 

were able to time 15 tunas of the machine. The cycle 

sustainable ecosystem goals. These sites must be 

time elements observed were inhaul, loading, outhaul, harvested in such a way as to minimize the 

unload, and delay time. The average time for each 

environmental impact and maintain a high degree of 

element is shown in Table 6. The average outhaul time aesthetic value to the public. It seems that CTL 

over the average distance of 5.97.44 m was 5.95 or 

systems within the size range of the equipment used in 

12.36 percent of the total productive time. Loading this study meet these requirements and should be 

time required the most time and averaged 28.5 minutes considered as an economically feasible harvesting 

or 59.19 percent of the total productive turn time. The method for such woodlots. We also observed a higher 

inhaul required an average time of 7.3 minutes/turn or than usual lvflJR on both the harvester and the 

about 15.16 percent of the total productive time. forwarder, 75 percent and 83.8 percent, respectively. 

107

However, we feel that these are not out of the range to and mixed conifer stands. Pap. No. 94-7513. 

be expected on sites that are fiat with little or no terrain 1994 International Winter Meeting sponsered by 

obstacles thataretypical ofsmallsuburbanwoodlots 

ASAE. 

especially alongtheChamplainValleyofNew York 

andVermont.Cut-to-length systemsusuallyhavea 

Kellogg, LorenD.;Brown,CameronG. 1995.Usinga 

high machine rate cost, and side slope and tree size 

single-grip harvester and skyline yarding system in 

limitations; however, they will operate at a profit over 

a forest health improvement application. 

a wide range of woodlots that require thinning as long 

Proceedings of the Council of Forest Engineering, 

as the woodlot contains multi-products such as 18th Annual Meeting, June 5-8, 1995, Cashiers, 

pulpwood, fuelwood, and some medium- to high-grade NC. p. 130-142. 

sawlogs. 

Lancaster, Kenneth F.; Leak William B. 1978. A 

We revisited the post-harvest site and noted that very silvicultural guide for white pine in the Northeast. 

little residual stand damage resulted from the 

Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-41. BroomaU, PA: U.S. 

harvesting activity. The study gave students at the high 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

school a chance to observe a commercial harvesting 

Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 

operation and to be involved in a post-harvest 

evaluation of the soil and site disturbance resulting 

Leech, Peter E. 1989. Rottne Log-Length Logging 

from the harvest activity. 

System. Proceedings of the Southern Regional 

Council on Forest Engineering. 1st Annual 

Meeting, May 3-4, 1989. Auburn, AL. p. 125-132. 


Meek, Philippe. 1995. Concentrating on a slash 

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Engineering Research Institute of Canada, Western Meyer, Robert L. 1984. Rottne Forwarder and 

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Washington, DC: American Pulpwood 

Brinker, Richard W.; Tufts, Robert A. 1990. Economics Association. 2 p. 

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Gingras, J.F. 1994. A comparison of full-tree versus Seixas, Femando; McDonald, Timothy P.; Raper, Randy 

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L. 1995. Effect of slash on forwarder on soil 

Forest. FERIC Spec. Rep. SR-92. Quebec, Pointe- compaction. Proceedings of the Council of Forest 

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Canada Canada.16 p. 1995, Cashiers,NC. p. 77-86. 

Greene, Dale W.; Lanford, Bobby L.; Stokes, Bryce J. Sampson, T.L.; Barrett, J.P.; Leak, W.B. 1980. A 

1984. Productivity of the Valmet 940 Gp Grapple Stocking Chart for Northern Red Oak in New 

processor in southern pine plantation thinning. England. Institute of Natural and Environmental 

Proceedings of the Council on Forest Resources, University of New Hampshire, 

Engineering/IUFRO, University of Maine, Orono. Durham, NH. 

August 11-18,1984. p.105-108. 

Tufts, Robert A. 1991. Productivity and cost of the 

Harrison, Bob. 1995. Mechanized CTL is part of the Norcar 600 Harvester. Proceedings of the ASAE 

answer. Canadian Forest Industries, July - August. Forestry and Environment Conference, June 5-6, 

p. 40-44. 1991. NewOrleans,LA.p. 85-92.Forest 

Engineering. 1st Annual Meeting, May 3 - 4, 

Hartsough, Bruce R.; McNeel, Joseph F.; Durston, "1989. Auburn, Alabama. p.125-132. 

Thomas A.; Stokes, Bryce J. 1994. Comparison of 

mechanized systems for thinning ponderosa pine 

108

CABLE YARDING AS A LOW-IMPACT 

opportunities. These impacts are becoming less 

ALTERNATIVE ON SENSITIVE SITES acceptable toa growingsuburbanpopulation that 

IN THE LAKE STATES 1 

places a greater value on the forest for recreation and 

other noncommodity values than as a source of wood 

by 

products. 

John A. Sturos 

In response to these concerns, a number of states have 


developed Best Management Practices (BMPs) or have 


passed forest practices legislation that specify suitable 


practices to lower site impacts from forestry operations. 

Satisfying the stipulations of these BMPs will require 

Charles R. Blirm 

the development and use of new, "light on the land" 

University of Minnesota technologies. This may help convince a skeptical 


public that timber harvesting can be compatible with 

other forest values. 


Harvesting systems that have less impact will also find 

Richard A. Dahlrnan 

application on difficult sites. There are many sites in 


the midwest where operability is severely limited using 


conventional logging techniques due to either steep or 

wet ground. Building roads and operating conventional 

ground-based equipment in these areas is very 

ABSTRACT: Ground-based forest operations can unproductive, costly, and normally results in 

cause adverse impacts to the soil andresidual stand, undesirable environmental impacts. Systems that are 

Skyline cable yarding is a harvesting technology that 

economical and environmentally viable on steep slopes 

can lessen impacts on steep slopes and fiat, wet sites, and unstable soils are needed. This will reduce the 

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the yarding 

negative impacts associated with harvesting, permit 

productivity, cost, residual stand impacts, and site 

better use of forest resources, and help maintain 

impacts associated with a Christy cable yarder 

sustainable ecosystems. 

operating on steep slopes in the midwest. The Christy 

yarded an average of 4112 board feet per scheduled 

Skyline cable yarding is an extraction system uniquely 

hour at a cost of about US$26 per thousand board feet. suited to harvesting timber on steep slopes and unstable 

Felling and limbing productivity and costs were not 

soils. In its' simplest form, this method consists of a 

evaluated in this study. Damage to the residual stand 

yarder with two large powered winch drums, one 

was approximately equivalent under the cable yarding carrying the skyline and one carrying the mainline. 

and conventional cable skidding systems. Skyline 

Also part of the yarder is a tall, guyed spar through 

cable yarding did result in substantially less damage to which these winch lines are strung to provide liR. The 

the soil. 

skyline is pulled out and fastened to a tailhold, which is 

usually a large tree at the end of the yarding corridor. 

Key Words: cable yarding, cost, productivity, site A carriage runs along the skyline canning the mainline 

impacts, residual stand damage, forest harvesting 

with chokers out to the logs. Logs are pulled to the 

yarder by powering the mainline winch drum. 

INTRODUCTION 

The main advantage of this system is that heavy 

machines do not traverse the site, typically reducing 

Timber harvesting is becoming highly controversial in soil impacts. Also, the log is usually transported to the 

some areas of the United States due to the negative 

landing with at least one end off the ground, further 

effects it can have on the forest. Potential impacts lowering soil impacts. Cable yarding can also reduce 

include soil compaction and displacement, residual tree the total length of haul road needed to harvest the tract, 

damage, sedimentation of water courses, and changes 

which lowers the costs and impacts associated with 

to wildlife habitat, aesthetics, and recreational road building. 

1Presentedat thejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering 

andInternational UnionofForestResearchOrganizationsSubject 

Group$3.04-00,Marquette,MI,July29-August1, 1996 

109

LITERATURE REVIEW METHODS 

The skyline cable yarding system is commonly used on Several study sites of various sizes were selected on 

steep slopes in the western mountain regions, but has 

Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (MN 

not been used extensively in the east since the early DNR) land in southeastern Minnesota. The stands 

1900s (Peters 1984). It was discontinued in the east contained mostly oak on steep terrain carved out by 

atter most of the old growth timber was harvested, tributaries of the Mississippi River. The stands were 

Increasing log sizes and environmental concerns have marked for either partial or clearcutting as prescribed 

brought renewed interest in cable yarding in the east for by MN DNR foresters. Marked trees on each site were 

harvesting difficult sites, 

chainsaw-felled prior to yarding by the local 

cooperating logger. The felled trees were yarded uphill 

Maties (1980; 1982), Keesee (1982), and Norton 

to a landing using a Christy SWY3 _double-drum cable 

(1982) report the use of cable yarding by the forest yarder owned by the U.S. Forest Service (Figure 1). 

industry in the southeast. Research by the Forest Yarded stems were extracted from the corridor with a 

Service and others shows the level of interest in cable 

crawler tractor. 

yarding in the southeast (Fisher and Peters 1982). 

Cable yarders studied include the Ecologger (Fisher et The performance of the yarding operation was 

al. 1980a), the Urus yarder (Fisher et al. 1980b), the evaluated using continuous time study techniques over 

Clearwater yarder (Koten and Peters 1985; Sherar and a two-week period for both a Forest Service and a local 

Tillman 1984), the Koller K-300 yarder (Stuart and 

logging contractor crew. In addition to the detailed 

Rossi 1984), the Appalachian Thinner (Biller and 

timing data collected, the corridor distance to stop, 

Fisher 1984), and the Bitten'cot Miniyarder (Cubbage height of stop, lateral ground distance to stop, lateral 

and Gorse 1984; Baumgras and Peters 1985). All of 

yarding angle, number of stems per turn, and individual 

these studies were done in steep slope applications, 

log measurements were collected. 

Very little work has been done on skyline cable yarding Pre-harvest stand and site data and post-harvest 

systems in the Lake States. Conditions closest to that 

disturbance data was collected by University of 

found in the Lake States were found in a study in Minnesota personnel. It was done both on 

Upstate New York (Koten and Peters 1985). It is 

cable-logged sites and similar sites that were logged 

gener-ally believed that the Lake States has very few with conventional ground-based equipment. 

sites that justify the use of cable yarding systems. 

Pre-harvest information was collected on the overstory, 

However, Ziemer (1980) estimates that the potential ground cover, and physical attributes of the site. 

area available for cable yarding is about 4.4 million Sample plots were located using a systematic, random 

acres, which includes both steep terrain and flat, wet 

sampling pattern. 

sites. Cable yarding could help ensure compliance with 

BMPs and promote ecosystem management on these 

Overstory trees greater than 4.5 inches diameter at 

problem sites, 

breast height (dbh) were sampled using one-tenth acre 

circular plots. Information recorded included dbh 

(nearest inch), species, merchantable height, and 

OBJECTIVE 

canopy class. Using the same plot centers, ground 

cover was sampled using 10 square meter circular 

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the 

plots. Ground cover was classified as litter, mineral 

productivity, cost, and site impacts associated with soil, downed woody material, and rock. The aspect, 

cable yarding on steep slopes in the Lake States and 

slope, and slope position were also recorded for each 

determine the extent to which this type of harvesting 

plot. 

assists landowners and operators in meeting BMP 

requirements. A similar study of cable yarding on flat, Post-harvest disturbance data was collected using 40 

wet aspen sites is currently being conducted, but will meter line transects at random azimuth orientations 

not be reported here because the results are still being from the pre-harvest sample plot centers discussed 

analyzed. 

2Theuseoftrade,firm,orcorporationamesinthispublicationis 

fortheinformationandconvenienceofthereader.It doesnot 

constituteanofficialendorsement orapproval ofanyproductor 

servicebytheUnitedSlatesDepartmentofAgriculture, 

Universityof Minnesota,ortheMinnesotaDepartmentofNatural 

Resourcestotheexclusionofotherswhichmaybe suitable. 

110

Figure 1. The Christydouble-drumskylinecableyarder usedin this study. 

above. The typesof disturbancepresent alongeach 

Standattributesmeasuredduringthepreharvest 

transectthat resultedfromlogging operationswere 

assessmentof the four study sites are presented in 

measuredto assist in the assessment of vegetation 

Table 2. Red oak accountedfor the majorityof the 

changesafter harvest. Soil disturbanceseverity was volumeon all foursites,rangingfrom66 to 96 percent 

noted as low, moderate, high or none. The cause of 

of the total(average for four sites is 83 percent). 

disturbancewas noted as winching, skiddingor felling. Eighteen other specieswere identified(treesgreater 

The soil layer exposed was classified as organic or than 4.5 inches dbh) on at least one of the four sites. 

mineralandrut depth(if rutted) was measured. The 

understorydisturbancewas classifiedas low, moderate, Productivity and cost 

or high and the slashcover rated as light,moderate,or 

heavy. 

The amountof time spent onvarious activitieswhile 

cable yarding steep slopes in southeastern Minnesota is 

Residualstand damagewas determinedbyconducting a presented inTable 3 for theForest Servicecrew, the 

100percent surveyin the partially-cutcable-yarded local loggingcrew, and for the two combined. 

andconventionally-skiddedareas. Information 

AncillaryWork Timeincluded supportivework 

collectedincludes the following: locationonthe slope, activitiesthat allowthe work to continue, such as 

distanceto the skid trail or yarding corridor,tree dbh, re-chokingstuck logs,clearing brush, re-settingthe 

species,cause of the damage, location onthe tree, scuff carriagestop, etc. PreparatoryTime includedsetting 

size,height and diameter of brokenbranches, potential up and riggingthe yarder,clearing the new corridor, 

croptree or not, and other types of tree damage 

riggingthe tail tree, etc. Alltimes were observed 

(uprooted,pinned, broken, leaning), 

exceptRest and Meal Timeand Service Time,which 

were assumedin order to accountfor expected 

long-term variability and provide for data 

RESULTS 

comparability. 

Fourstudy sites were selectedin southeastern 

Minnesota(Table 1). Slopes acrossthe four sites 

averaged46 percent with a slope lengthof 300 feet. 

The soils are generallya silt loamand are considered 

highly erosive. 

Overallaverage cycletimefor both crewscombined 

was about9 minutes per cyclewith an equipment 

utilizationrate of about47 percent. Averagecycle time 

for theForest Servicecrew (9.66 minutes)was more 

iii

Table 1. Attributes of the four study sites in southeastern Minnesota. 

Site Attribute Bri_,htsdale Caledonia-1 Caledonia-2 Diamond Crk Overall 

Area-acres 12.0 5.5 6.0 5.6 29.1 

SlopeRange-% 40-60 20-40 45-70 30-52 20-70 

SlopeLength-ft 200 300 450 350 300 

SoilType Fayette Lamoille LaCrescent Fayette 

siltloam ElbaviUe eobbly silt loam 

silt loam silty clay 

loam 

Type of Cut elearcut cleareut some of both partial cut 

SystemUsed cable cable someofboth cable 

Crew FScrew FScrew localcrew localcrew 

Table 2. Attributes of the deciduous overstory prior to harvesting on the four study sites. 

Site Attributes Bril_htsdale Caledonia-1 Caledonia-2 Diamond Crk Overall 

Trees-#/ac 160 137 161 150 154 

Basal Area-fl2/ac 115 102 100 122 111 

DBH-inches 10.3 10.5 9.7 11.1 10.4 

Volume-bd.fl/ae 9518 6186 5773 9233 8061 

Table 3. Average times for cable yarding steep slopes in southeastern Minnesota. 

Forest Service Crew Local Crew Combined 

Time Element Minutes Percent Minutes Percent Minutes Percent 

Productive: 

Clearandraiseskyline 0.17 1.8 0.27 3.2 0.22 2.5 

Carriagetostop 0.29 3.0 0.30 3.6 0.30 3.3 

Walktoline 0.12 1.2 0.15 1.8 0.13 1.4 

Outhaul and hook 1.36 14.1 1.11 13.1 1.23 13.7 

Clear and signal 0.27 2.8 0.09 1.1 0.17 1.9 

Lateralyard 0.69 7.1 0.61 7.2 0.65 7.2 

Carriageto landing 1.08 11.2 1.10 13.0 1.09 12.1 

Walkandunhook 0.40 4.1 0.53 6.3 0.47 5.2 

Total Productive Time 4.38 45.3 4.16 49.3 4.26 47.3 

Other: 

AncillaryWorkTime 1.03 10.7 0.57 6.7 0.78 8.7 

PreparatoryTime 1.78 18.4 1.55 18.4 1.66 18.4 

RestandMealTime 1.50 15.6 1.32 15.6 1.40 15.6 

ServiceTime 0.97 10.0 0.85 10.0 0.90 10.0 

TotalOtherTime 5.28 54.7 4.29 50.7 4.74 52.7 

Total Cycle Time 9.66 100.0 8.45 100.0 9.00 100.0 

i12

than a minute longer than for the local logging crew 

larger piece size. Overall average yarding cost was 

(8.45 minutes). This can be attributed mainly to a about US$26 per thousand board feet, also comparable 

slightly larger lateral yarding distance and smaller piece to previous results (Koten and Peters 1985). 

size, which increased Outhaul and Hook and Ancillary 

Work Times because more cycles required multiple 

Regression analysis was used to evaluate the effect 

stems to acheive the optimum payload, 

piece size, number of pieces per turn, corridor yarding 

distance, and lateral yarding distance had on the 

The productivity, cost, and other attributes n_soeiated 

productive time per cycle. The coefficients developed 

with cable yarding are presented in Table 4 for the 

from this regression are presented in Table 5, along 

Forest Service crew, local logging crew, and both with the associated correlation coefficients. The four 

crews combined. The combined average yarding variables explained from 29 to 49 percent of the 

productivity was about 4112 board feet per scheduled variation in the cycle times. Most of this was explained 

hour (SH), which is similar to that observed in other by corridor and lateral yarding distances. These 

studies of this equipment (Koten and Peters 1985). 

coefficients madregression constants can be used to 

The local logging crew outproduced the Forest Service estimate productive yarding time for different values of 

crew by about 660 board feet per SH, due mainly to these variables, or in sensitivity analyses. 

Table4. Yardingproductivity, costandotherattributes. 

Attribute ForestServiceCrew LocalCrew Combined 

TotalVolume-mbf 86 108.4 194.4 

TotalCycles 142 173 315 

Ave.VolumeperCycle-bd.it. 606 627 617 

TotalPieces 203 202 405 

Volume per Piece-bd.it. 424 536 480 

Ave.YardingDistance-It 280 310 298 

Ave.CorridorDistance-It 218 253 238 

Ave.LateralDistance-It 62 57 60 

Productivity-bd.ft. perSH 3764 4448 4112 

Hourly System Cost-US$/SH t 106.48 106.48 106.48 

YardingCost-US$permbf 28.29 23.94 25.89 

lIncludes yarder, bulldozer, and three operators. 

Table 5. Regression coefficients and other statistical attributes associated with the observed productive yarding times. 

Attribute Forest Service Crew Local Crew Combined 

Coefficients for: 

CorridorDistance 0.00546 0.00578 0.00529 

LateralDistance 0.01237 0.01917 0.01496 

PiecesperCycle 0.20610 0.77207 0.45832 

VolumeperPiece 0.00299 0.00706 0.00419 

RegressionConstant 1.96 0.36 1.31 

Standard Error 1.16 0.87 1.03 

Correlation (r2) 0.29 0.49 0.37 

NumberofObservations 142 173 315 

Sl13

Residual stand damages 

amount of organic soil exposed was only slightly more 

for the cable skidder sites (average of 3.7 percent) than 

Partial cutoperations were conducted with both a 

for the cable yarded sites (average of 1.8 percent). 

skyline cable yarding system and a conventional cable However, conventional cable skidding on these steep 

skidder system. A primary consideration in partial cut slopes caused significantly more mineral soil to be 

harvests is the amount of residual stand damage caused exposed (average of 15.8 percent) than cable yarding 

by the logging system. Both felling and (average of 6.0 percent). This difference can be 

yarding/skidding damages were assessed (Table 6). In attributed to the impact of the cable skidder as it 

each case, the number of potential crop trees that were climbed the slope. The difference is significant relative 

damaged was also noted, to the impact soil disturbance has on sedimentation and : 

water quality on these highly erosive slopes of 

No significant difference in residual tree damage was 

southeastern Minnesota. 

noted between cable yarding and ground skidding (14 

vs 16 boles damaged, respectively). The major 

difference between the damage caused by the two 

DISCUSSION 

systems was in the "other bole damages" category 

caused by felling. The felling crew for the conventional Although steep terrain is not usually associated with 

cable skidding system caused 22 other bole damages 

Lake States forests, Ziemer (1980) estimates that as 

compared to only 4 for the cable yarding system. The much as 100,000 acres may be in steep ground. The 

crews performing the felling were not necessarily the 

conventional method of harvesting these steep sites is 

same crew for both operations; therefore, the only 

with ground-based cable skidders or crawler tractors. 

explanation for this difference is the expertise among 

The weight distribution of crawler tractors allows 

the sawyers, 

operation without prepared trails, while rubber-tired 

skidders require trails cut into the hillside. The yarding 

Site disturbance 

productivity of ground-based cable skidders on these 

steep sites may be greater than that observed in this 

Af_ harvesting was completed, the degree of soil study for skyline cable yarding (4112 board feet per 

disturbance was assessed using the line intersect 

SH). Likewise, the usual yarding cost for cable 

method. Five cable-logged sites and two skidding is less than that observed for cable yarding 

conventionally-logged (cable skidded) sites were 

(US$26 per mbf). The cost of felling and limbing, 

assessed. In this study, the total amount of soil 

which were not included in this study, are assumed to 

disturbance by cable yarding was about 25 percent of 

be the same for both cable yarding and conventional 

that caused by conventional skidding. Soil disturbance harvest systems. 

on the five cable yarded sites occurred on 1.5 to 10.5 

percent of the total area and was mainly a function of 

These costs, however, do not include the costs 

landform (i.e., greater log suspension results in less soil associated with excessive soil disturbance, which 

disturbance). Soil disturbance on the two cable skidder results in sedimentation, site degradation, and negative 

sites, on the other hand, was consistent and ranged aesthetic effects. Skyline cable yarding systems 

from 18.5 to 20.5 percent of the area. 

produce similar levels of residual stand damage in 

Table 6, Residual stand damage from cable yarding and conventional cable skidding in partial cut stands on steep 

ground of southeastern Minnesota. 

C_bl¢ Y_rded 

Conventional Skidded 

Scuffed Broken Other _ Scuffed Broken Other 

Cause of Damage Boles Branches Damages Boles Branches Damat_es 

Felling 1 6 4 3 5 22 

#CropTrees 0 0 0 0 3 9 

Yarding/Skidding 13 0 1 14 0 2 

# Crop Trees 0 0 0 4 0 0 

Total 14 6 5 17 5 24 

i'Other damages include uprooted, leaning, broken, and pinned trees. 

114

partial cuts as ground-based cable skidding systems, Fisher, Edward L., Harry G. Gibson, and Cleveland J. 

but cause significantly less soil disturbance (5 vs 20 Biller. 1980a. Production and cost of a live 

percent of the area in this study). The level of soil 

skyline cable yarder tested in Appalachia. 

disturbance caused by a particular extraction system Research Paper NE-465. Broomall, PA: 

rather than the direct operational cost is likely to be the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, USDA 

limiting factor on these steep, erosive sites in the future. Forest Service. 

This is also true for forested wetlands in the Lake Fisher, Edward L., Donald L. Gochenour, and 

States, of which Ziemer (1980) estimates there are 4.3 Cleveland J. Biller. 1980b. Significant factors 

million acres. Ground-based harvesting in these wet affecting performance of a Urus cable yarder. 

areas can cause serious soil displacement due to the ASAE Paper No. 80-1547. St. Joseph, MI: 

low beating capacity of the soils. Some areas are American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 

inaccessible by equipment except in winter. Cable 

yarding systems can reduce soil impacts in these areas Fisher, Edward L. and Penn A. Peters. 1982. Analysis 

and extend the harvest season. Research is currently of eastern United States cable harvesting 

underway to compare cable yarding with ground-based operations. ASAE Paper No. 82-1602. St. 

technology on fiat, wet sites in Minnesota. Both wet Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural 

aspen and swamp conifer sites are being considered for 

Engineers.The amount of organic soil exposed was 

evaluation, 

onlyslightlymoreforthecable skiddersites 

(average of 3.7 percent) than for the cable yarded 

Although the skyline cable yarding system is not the 

sites (average of 1.8 percent). 

most economic system available to harvest difficult 

sites at present, it may be in the future as the 

Keesee, Kenneth C. 1982. Small tree steep slope 

application of other more intrusive systems is harvesting. In Proc. Harvesting Small Timber: 

constrained by BMPs or through regulation. Even Waste Not, Want Not, Syracuse, NY, 28-30 April 

now, some landowners are not allowing ground- based 1981. Prec. P-81-32. Madison, WI: Forest 

cable skidder operations on their land, but would allow Products Society; p. 86-88. 

a cable yarding operation due to differences in soil and 

aesthetic impacts. Koten, Donald E. and Penn A. Peters. 1985. Cable 

yarding on environmentally sensitive areas in New 

York State. In Proe. 8th Annual Council On Forest 

LITERATURE CITED Engineering Meeting, 18-22 August 1985, Tahoe 

City, California; p. 79-83. 

Baumgras, John E. and Penn A. Peters. 1985. Cost 

and production analysis of the Bitterroot 

Matics, H.E. 1980. Why Westvaco uses cable yarders 

mim'yarder on an Appalachian hardwood site. in the Appalachians. In Proe. Cable Yarding 

Research Paper NE-557. Radnor, PA; Conference, Asheville, NC: Tennessee Valley 

Northeastern Forest Experirnent Station, USDA Authority; p. 84-87. 

Forest Service. 

Matics, H.E. 1982. Westvaco cable logging program, 

Biller, Cleveland J. and Edward L. Fisher. 1984. the future situation. In Proe. Appalachian Cable 

Whole-tree harvesting with a medium capacity Logging Symposium, Blacksburg, VA: 

yarder. ASAE Paper No. 82-1591. St. Joseph, Polytechnic Institute; p. 15-24. 

MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 

Norton, David. 1982. Owens-Illinois cable logging 

Cubbage, Frederick W. and August H. Gorse IV. 

program. In Proc. Cable Logging Symposium, 

1984. Mountain logging with the Bitterroot Blacksburg, VA: Polytechnic Institute; p. 25-32. 

miniyarder. In Proe. Mountain Logging 

Symposium, Morgantown, WV: West Virginia Peters, P.A. 1984. Steep slope cleareut harvesting 

University; p. 80-91. 

withcable yarders. In Proe. Harvesting the 

South's Small Trees, Biloxi, MS, 18-20 April 

1983. Proe. 7340. Madison, WI: Forest Products 

Society; p. 69-78. 

115

Sherar, James R. and David A. Tillman. 1984. The 

Clearwater Yardcr. In Proc. Mountain Logging 

Symposium, Morgantown, WV: West Virginia 

University, p. 337-349. 

Stuart, William B. and Michael K. Rossi. 1984. 

Production study of the Koller K-300 cable yarder 

operating in the mountains of Virginia. In Proc. 

Mountain Logging Symposium, Morgantown, 

WV: West Virginia University; p. 350-362. 

Ziemer, I. 1980. Preliminary study to establish the 

feasibility of cable yarding in the Lake States. 

Final report for Cooperative Agreement 13-564 

(FS-NC-3701-77-03) 42p. On file with: USDA 

Forest Service, 410 Maelrmes Drive, Houghton, 

M149931-1199. 

116

VALUE MAXIMIZATION OF FOREST private sector. An afforestation target of 30,000 ha per 

STANDS THROUGH OPTIMAL INVENTORY annum is expected to be achieved by and maintained 

AND CROSS-CUTrING METHODOLOGIES 1 beyond the turn of the century. 

by 

The current annual timber harvest of over 2.1 million 

m3 is projected to rise by 33 percent to 2.8 million m' 

Maarten Nieuwenhuis by the year 2001, and by a further 32 percent, to 3.7 


million m', within a decade of that date, at which time 

Liam Malone 

University College Dublin 

Belfield, Dublin, Ireland 

output from the forest products industry will be valued 

at over IR£400m annually (Coford, 1994). 

Most of the harvesting is undertaken using the 

shortwood system. The felling, delimbing, and crosscutting 

actions are performed either by harvesting 

ABSTRACT: The Irish sawmilling industry is machine or by motor manual means, with extraction 

experiencing a phase of extremely tight profit margins, invariably by forwarder. The level of mechanization 

caused by a temporary over-capacity in production, 

continues to rise rapidly; harvesters are now employed 

leading to high stumpage prices, and by the need to in almost 50 percent of all clearfelling operations. 

penetrate intemational markets. Emphasis has 

consequently been placed upon maximizing value 

Saw-milling industry 

recovery from harvested stands. This paper outlines the 

research undertaken in the development of a decision 

Coillte Teoranta, the Irish Forestry Board, is currently 

support system for a medium-size mill. The work has the principal supplier of round wood to the 100 

focussed, initially, on the development of cost-effective sawmills spread throughout Ireland. The company 

inventory methods and data analysis software. Future 

routinely advertises stands available for purchase. The 

efforts will concentrate on the integration of these 

advertisements include estimates of important stand 

modules with existing mill monitoring software and 

parameters, on the basis of which competing mills 

with the computerized data collection systems of tender for the lots. Final payment for timber purchased 

harvesting machinery. The initial phase of the project 

from Coillte is calculated based upon a weight-volume 

has already shown potential for achieving significant 

ratio specific to each sale. The weight of all log 

increases in value recovery, 

shipments are recorded at millgate and sample logs are 

removed from a portion of consignments. The weight of 

Key Words: value recovery, pre-harvest inventory, each log is determined and its volume calculated based 

cross-cutting strategy, log-product yield, 

upon diameter and length measurements. Division of 

the volume by weight produces a correlation speeitie to 

each log. These values are subsequently averaged to 

INTRODUCTION 

provide a volume-weight ratio applicable to an entire 

sale. 

The total forest area of the Republic of Ireland has 

increased from a mere 100,000 ha in 1922 to 565,000 The Irish sawmilling industry remains in the 

ha in 1995, which equates to 8 percent of the land 

development stage. The availability of grant aid for the 

surface. Exotic, even-aged monoeultures, comprised 

purchase of machinery in the 1980's encouraged the 

predominantly of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis 

expansion of existing mills and led to significant rise in 

(Bong.) Carr.) (62 percent) and Lodgepole pine (Pinus the number of new mills. The resultant increase in 

contorta Dougl.) (21 percent), dominate commercial 

processing capacity created the current, temporary, 

forestry in Ireland. Afforestation, initiated in 1923, imbalance between supply and demand. The continual 

remained on a modest scale for six decades until the 

increases in timber production will alleviate, and 

mid 1980's when, for the first time, attractive financial eventually bridge, this gap, although Coillte's recent 

incentives encouraged significant non-state 

adoption of shorter, financial rotations has further 

involvement. Total new planting for 1995 stood at 

restricted the supply of large sawlog grade material. 

23,700 ha, 73 percent of which was undertaken bythe 

By comparison with international competitors, Irish 

tPresentedatthejointmeetingoftheCoundlOnForestEngineering 

mills are limited in size. Only the country's two largest 

andInternational Unionof ForestResearchOrganizations Subject mills produce more than 100,000 m, of sawn timber 

Group$3.04-00,Marquette,MI,July29-August1, 1996. 

per annum. Mills also experience high stmnpage 

117

prices, over-capacity in processing, frequently BACKGROUND TO THE PROJECT 

operating on asingleshiftbasis, anda depressed 

marketforresidues. Themillsdo not,therefore, share Sawmillsrequiredetailed informationon thevolume, 

theadvantages ofa lowcostposition andlarge 

grade,numberandsizedistribution oflogs,whichthe 

production anddistribution scalesenjoyedbythosein felling ofaforeststandcould,givenvariousproduct 

competitor nations, 

specifications and cross-cutting strategies, potentially 

yield. 

Given projected future inereases in timber production, 

it is estimated that the volume of exports will need to 

At present, the information available to sawmills on 

rise si_ificantly in order to avoid over-supply of standing timber lots is considered rather crude and 

sawngoods on the domestic market. Demand for sawn inappropriate for the emerging needs of the industry. 

timber is expected to increase only gradually in Europe. Coillte provides estimates of mean diameter at breast 

However, Irish sawmills have penetrated foreign 

height, mean volume and total volume for timber lots 

markets, especially Britain, as demonstrated by the 

available for purchase, in addition to a breakdown of 

increase in annual exports of construction timber, 

volume into assortment categories derived from generic 

fencing timber and pallets, from 17,000m' to 250,000 stand assortment tables (Table 1). The absence of 

m', in the decade 1982-1992. 

relevant inventory data restricts the scope for 

comprehensive analysis of stands with regard to the 

Recent trends in international exchange rates, however, quantity, quality and dimensional properties of 

in which the value of the Punt has strengthened with 

potential product assortments, and also limits the mill 

respect to Sterling, have reduced the competitiveness of manager's capacity to determine the optimal methods 

Irish exporters in the principal market for their 

for manufacturing these products. In addition, the 

products. This has forced many to reduce margins still planning of forest operations is frequently undertaken 

fin'ther, 

inthe absenceofanydetailed knowledge ofindustrial 

demand, acombination of circumstances that leads, 

In the long-term, when a greater balance exists between inevitably, to sub-optimal utilization of the timber 

timber supply and processing capacity, the scope will resource. 

arise for reducing unit costs. In the interim, 

however, alternative means of improving In order, therefore, to optimize the exploitation of the 

competitiveness and profitability must be sought, 

raw material, a system must be developed that provides 

Interest in maximizing value recovery from harvesting a means of obtaining, relaying and manipulating 

operations stems directly from the challenge now faced information on standing timber to yield predictions of 

by Irish sawmills, to actively compete in the export 

the dimensions and value of potential log assortments. 

market. 

The reliance of timber producers upon even-aged 

The project described in this paper aims at the monocultures, coupled with the adoption of intensive 

development of a decision support system for the management regimes involving short rotations and 

sawmilling industry, linking standing timber to mill 

standardized spacing and thinning practices, conspire 

specifications and demands, with the ultimate aim of to limit the variation in stem size and quality within 

maximizing value recovery, 

individual management units. Ireland's plantation 

forests, therefore, yield uniform logs which lie in the 

lower size categories of commercial softwoods. 

Table 1. 

Sales details: an example of the parameters provided by Coillte Teoranta for timber lots available 

for purchase. 

Sub Harv. Species Plant Yield Mean Trees Volume Total 7-14 14-20 20+ 

Compt Area Year Class DBH (/ha) (/ha) Volume 

33071Q 3 1.6 DF 1962 18 22 143 50 80 16 33 31 

2.0 SS 1962 24 24 144 67 134 12 

Sale Totals 3.6 23 144 59 214 28 75 I 11 

118

The range of log sizes and grades that are cut from 

inventory and subsequent computer analysis. The 

stems is comparatively limited. Fixed log former entails the recording of the breast height 

specifications are frequently adopted for a given stand, diameter and total height of sample trees and the 

reducing the flexibility of and increasing the danger of partitioning of their stems into intervals of uniform 

serious wastage in the cross-cutting action. However, 

quality, independent of potential log specifications. The 

this practice, combined with the uniform logs produced analysis stage simulates the consequences, for each 

from intensively managed plantation forests, also 

stem, of felling, breakage and cross-cutting in 

reduces the complexity of the decision-making process acx,ordance with a user-defined cutting strategy, which 

and simplifies the task of developing a model that will details the permissible sizes, grades, and the value for 

predict potential log dimensions, each log-type. A dynamic programming optimization 

algorithm maximizes the value of the logs derived from 

Research and development has provided numerous new the latter action. Compatible volume-taper equations 

technologies that will, increasingly, contribute toward (Goulding & Murray, 1976) are employed for the 

more efficient exploitation of the forest stand through estimation of log diameter and volume. 

improvements in the collection, transfer and processing 

of data, and in the monitoring of operations. Eng et al. (1986) also addressed this challenge of 

prescribing, subject to constraints, an appropriate 

At present, for example, the majority of harvesting cross-cutting strategy for an entire forest stand. They 

machines are equipped with computerized 

developed a Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition procedure 

measurement and cross-cutting systems. The inclusion with a principle linear program and dynamic 

of such devices gives rise to an enormous potential for programming subproblems to link data on stem 

achieving more accurate and optimal bucking, and for frequency, size and quality to projected demand for a 

continuous monitoring of product volumes and series of log types. The dynamic programming 

critically, dimensions. Once collected, such information algorithm, as in the MicroMARVL system, determines 

can be employed to determine recovery and product the bucking strategy that maximizes the value of each 

mix and, in so doing, to test the accuracy of inventory sample stem. The linear program selects one of a 

predictions and, if deemed necessary, to allow number of potential cross-cutting patterns for the 

management to intervene to alter cutting strategy, 

various stem classes so that financial return is 

maximized given constraints on the supply of raw 

The electronic calliper, an increasingly widespread and material and end-product demands. Mendoza and Bare 

valued management tool, provides for the rapid 

(1986) adopted a similar approach, while Sessions et 

collection, the storage and the downloading of data. If al. (1989) developed an heuristic procedure for 

employed correctly, the instrument can provide determining a series of log prices which, when 

accurate diameter measurements in a variety of mill and employed for optimizing the bucking of single trees, 

stand situations, 

achievesnear maximumstand value subject to log 

length constraints. 

LYrERATURE REVIEW Other computer-based models include the Purdue 

Forest Data Processing System (Moser, 1970 & 1972), 

The linear programming model developed by Smith STX (Grosenbaugh, 1974) and the North-eastern 

and Harrell (1961) represents an early attempt at Forest Data Processing System (Wilson & Peters, 

determining the optimum bucking strategy to be 1967). 

adopted for a stand. Their approach, however, failed to 

include the effect of log supply and end-product Demaerschalk (1971, 1972) developed the theory of 

demand constraints on the value of each cross-cutting 

compatible taper equations, which he defined as those 

strategy. This became a key component of later 

which, when integrated, produce an estimate of total 

procedures, 

volume equal to that derived from an existing volume 

equation. The equations, which are normally used to 

MicroMARVL, the Method for the Assessment of 

predict stem diameter as a function of breast height 

Recoverable Volume by Log-types (Deadman & diameter, distance from tip and total height, are 

Goulding, 1979; Deadman, 1990), was developed in 

especially valuable in cross-cutting optimization 

New Zealand, where it now receives widespread use as models and in estimating potential recovery by log-type 

ameans of predicting the volume and dimensions of log based upon pre-harvest inventory data. Gordon (1983) 

grades that a stand could potentially yield. The system compared compatible polynomial taper equations in the 

involves a two-stage process consisting of a field cruise first, second, third, fourth and fifth powers for accuracy 

119

andprecision with other models that included a higher of 70,000 In'. It operates on a double shift basis. 

power term. The latter provided more accurate 

Construction timber, produced with the MEM 

estimates ofmerchantable volume,buttlogvolumeand "Teletwin" systemand"Cobra"multisaw,isthe 

inside bark diameter, although bias, which varied with principal commodity. In addition, approximately 20 

height, remained associated with predictions of 

percent of incoming logs are sawn as palletwood with 

diameter. Cao et al. (1980) assessed two methods, the MEM "Quad" system. The company currently 

volume ratio models and taper equations, of estimating serves a mainly Irish customer base. 

merchantable volume to specified top diameter or 

heightlimits. The non-compatible taperequation 

Palfab, throughacontracted firm,mechanically 

developed by Max and Burkhart (1976) emerged as the harvests over 90 percent of the logs it processes from 

most appropriate for representing stem profile. A 

standing timber lots. The balance are purchased at 

segmented polynomial model, similar to the Max and forest roadside. Coillte Teoranta supplies almost 95 

Burkhart equation and containing elements of Goulding percent of all timber. Standard practice involves cutting 

and Murray's (1976) equation, was found to be a just one predetemxined sawlog length per stand, with 

valuable multipurpose taper equation, providing sound occasional recourse to an alternative length (Table 2). 

diameter and volume predictions. 

Objectives 

Table 2. Palfab's log specifications: the minimum 

PROJECT DESCRIWrION permissible smallend diameters(s.e.d.) and 

loglengths forPulp,PalletandSawlog. 

In order to maximize the value offorest stands, it is 

first necessary to perform the following tasks: 

Product Minimum Lengths (In) 

s.e.d. (cm) 

Pulpwood 7 3.1 

1. Design an efficient field procedure, employing Palletwood 12 2.5, 3.1 

modern tools, to collect data on the Sawlog 16 3.1, 3.7, 4.3, 4.9, 5.5 

dimensional properties of a standing timber 18 3.1, 3.7, 4.3, 4.9, 5.5 

lot prior to harvesting. 

2. Develop a computer model to analyse 

inventory data and so forecast the dimensions 

of potential log assortments, to which values, 

based upon production and market 

constraints, can be assigned, 

3. Design a control method that provides 

Inventory procedure 

The initial period of research centred on the evaluation 

and development of appropriate inventory procedures. 

feedback information during the actual 

In order to investigate the potential for eliminating the 

harvesting operation, allowing for the 

need to fell and measure sample trees, required for the 

monitoring and, if necessary, the adjustment 

development of true local volume tables, an attempt 

of the production process, 

was made to relate lower stem taper to that of the entire 

stem. The establishment of such a relationship would 

The outcome of completing these steps will be an 

facilitate the prediction of total volume and volume 

integrated decision-support system that will allow assortments based upon a limited number of diameter 

management to determine the optimal approach to 

measurements on the lower bole. 

harvesting individual stands and to reveal, also, the 

consequences of adopting alternative approaches. 

A site within a partially harvested Sitka spruce (Picea 

sitchensis (Bong.) Can'.) stand was selected for the 

Palfab Ltd. 

study.Withtheaid of a calibrated poleand an 

electronic calliper, diameter measurements were taken 

This research project is undertaken in conjunction with on 20 randomly selected trees at heights above ground 

Palfab Ltd, a privately owned softwood sawmill. The 

of 1.0, 1.3, 1.5 and 2.0 m. These trees were 

direction of the work is, therefore, governed by the 

immediately felled and partially delimbed to facilitate 

practices of Palfab and toward finding solutions to the the measurement of diameter at 1.0, 1.3, 1.5, 2.0, 5.0, 

problems it encounters and toward developing a system 7.5, 10.0, 15.0 and, provided stems were of sufficient 

specific to the needs of the mill. Palfab Ltd is a 

medium-size mill with an annual throughput in excess 

120

length, 17.5 m. In addition, the total length of the stem assortment, and an average stump height for the stand, 

was also recorded for all trees felled, 

the software allows one to determine volume recovery 

per product. The programme also averages the volume 

The data were submitted to a dynamic programming 

and small end and mid diameters of all pallet and 

model compiled in FORTRAN (Nieuwenhuis, 1989) to sawlogs. The logs are then assigned to one of a number 

determine optimal cross-cutting strategy based upon 

of size categories based upon their small end or mid 

stem dimensions and user-defined assortment values, diameters. This package represents thefirst stage in the 

This analysis would reveal how similar, in terms of the development of a decision support system that will 

products yielded, the stem predicted from the lower eventually allow management to maximize the value of 

bole measurements was to the actual stem, as measured a forest stand, given the properties of that stand and the 

when felled, 

desired log specifications. 

Focus subsequently moved towards determining the 

most appropriate means of representing stem profile, as 

RESULTS 

regards accuracy and parsimony, and on the subsequent 

development of "in place" local volume tables. The Employing the dynamic programming optimisation 

inventory methodology by which this information is to model, a comparison between the optimal product 

be obtained is under development, 

assortment, the resultant value of the stem, and the 

extent to which that stem was utilized, for the felled 

An area containing trees representative of the 

stem data and the data of the lower bole measurements, 

surrounding stand was selected for the purpose of revealed no similarities, the latter grossly overcollecting 

stem profile data. The diameter atbreast 

estimating product recovery and stem value. These 

height was measured, in millimetres, for all trees with results would appear to support the expectation that, 

the aid of an electronic calliper. The point at which this due to the prominent buttress, predicting the profile of 

measurement was taken was marked on the standing 

Sitka spruce stems from the accessible lower bole is 

tree so as to provide a means of determining stump 

extremely difficult. 

height and all trees received a unique number to allow 

for future identification. The area was subsequently 

Utilizing the sample tree data from the second trial, the 

felled and the stems delimbed to facilitate the 

initial linear regression approach modeled diameter, the 

measurement of diameter. Measurements were taken at dependent variable, as a function of DBH and stem 

0.5 m intervals to 6.0 m and at 1.0 m intervals height. Both DBH and stem height were found to be 

thereafter to an approximate top diameter of 7 era. This highly significant. The model was found to account for 

latter is the normal limit of merchantability in Irish over 91percent of the variation occurring in diameter. 

forestry. The total height to tip was also recorded. 

Sixty-eight trees were measured, of which fourteen The polynomial model introduced an additional 

suffered crown breakage during felling, 

independent variable, the square of stem height, to the 

two included originally. This curve, with an R-square 

The data were submitted to the SAS system (SAS, value of 0.93, described more accurately the profile of 

1985) for statistical analysis. Linear, non-linear and the basal and uppermost portions of the stems than the 

segmented regression analyses were performed. The 

linear model. 

non-linear approach was taken to achieve a greater fit 

at the upper and lower extremes of the stem. The Determining, initially by trial and error, the most 

segmented model was then developed in an attempt to appropriate break-point for a segmented polynomial 

accommodate a change in profile occurring at quite 

model is curently underway. Although the lines more 

consistent junctures on the stems of many of the sample accurately reflect the profiles of the sample stems, the 

trees, 

reduction in the size of the data set for each line has 

reduced the associated R-square values. Figures 

Data analysis system obtained to-date are in the range 0.81-0.88. 

A computer spreadsheet has been designed in 

Microsoti Excel using the Visual Basic programming FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 

language to provide a framework for applying a rate of 

taper to a stand of trees of known diameter at breast 

It is envisaged that further studies will be required 

height (DBH). Combined with a single length and a 

before the most appropriate means of representing stem 

minimum permissible small end diameter per 

profile can be confirmed. Segmented regression would 

121

appear to more accurately describe stem shape, though size categories. Utilizing fully the mensuration and 

its adoption will depend greatly on the consistency of 

communications capabilities of the harvesting 

any established break-point and on the ease of its use. machines employed by Palfab will allow for the 

The inventory methodology by which the relevant data continuous exchange of up-to-date information between 

are to be collected may then be designed and tested. It forest and mill. The harvester can provide feedback on 

is of paramount importance that any proposed 

volume recovery and product mix, to which 

inventory procedure strikes the correct balance 

management can respond, by altering mill set-up or 

between the cost of its implementation and the value of perhaps redefining the cross-cutting strategy for the 

the information it generates. The possibility may exist stand. The final product, an integrated decision support 

for the development of a robust equation to define the system, should provide management with a reliable and 

profile of Sitka spruce stems, applicable to all stands of dynamic tool for extracting maximum value from a 

that species, though the application required to achieve forest stand (Figure 1). 

this may be beyond the scope of this study. 

The existing sottware package will continue to be 

CONCLUSIONS 

refined and expanded to incorporate the selected taper 

equation(s) and multiple log length and diameter 

The prototype cross-cutting software is already 

specifications, and to include an appropriate down- 

receiving widespread use from Palfab and yielding 

grade factor. The system must ultimately identify the promising results. The inclusion of multiple log 

most appropriate log type, from those currently in use, specifications, a down-grade factor and a statistically 

to be cut fi'om a forest stand. The introduction of sound representation of stem profile, whether site 

greater flexibility to the cross-cutting strategy will also specific or generic, should improve its value further. 

be investigated. Allowing recourse to an alternative, 

_fall-back' log-type would doubtless improve recovery, The relative uniformity of Irish plantations and crossalthough 

the necessity for greater organisation and cutting practices provides an ideal context for the 

monitoring, and the need to sort merchandise, may development of systems for maximizing the value of 

increase operational costs. The current paucity of 

standing timber lots. The potential for increasing 

bucking patterns employed by Palfab will be addressed volume recovery and improving profitability is very 

with the system by examining the ambit for altering 

real, and with mills facing the prospect of competition 

current log specifications or for adopting new log-types in a "slow growing, highly competitive, price-sensitive 

to futher optimize utilization of the resource, 

commodity market _(Simons, 1991), very necessary 

too. 

Establishing a link between the dimensions of a log 

and the products that it yields is of critical importance if 

mill-yard stock levels and market demand for sawn 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

timber are to be accommodated when determining log 

specifications. Recognizing this, Palfab have already 

This research is co-funded by the Council for Forest 

begun to monitor lumber recovery from the various log Research and Development and Palfab Ltd. 

Figure 1. A schematic representation of the components of the decision support system 

122

LITERATURE CITED Mendoza, G. and Bare, B. 1986. A Two-stage Decision 

Model for Bucking and Allocation. Forest 

Cao, Q.V., Burkhart, H.E. and Max, T.A. 1980. Products Journal 36(10): 70-74. 

Evaluation of Two Methods for Cubic-volume 

Prediction of Loblolly Pine to any Merchantable 

Limit. Forest Science 26(1): 71-80. 

Moser, J.W. 1970. A Forest Data Processing Service 

for Indiana Landowners. Purdue University 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Research 

COFORD. 1994. Pathway to Progress: A Programme Bulletin No. 864. 28pp. 

for Forest Research and Development. Council for 

Forest Research and Development. Dublin, Moser, J.W. 1972. Purdue Data Processing Program 

Ireland. 132pp. 

Documentation. Purdue University Agricultural 

Experiment Station, Research Bulletin No. 891. 

Demaerschalk, J.P. 1971. Taper Equations can be 44pp. 

Converted to Volume Equations and Point 

Sampling Factors. Forestry Chronicle 47(6): 352- Nieuwenhuis, M. 1989. Operations Research in 

354. Forestry.IrishForestry46(1): 51-58. 

Demaerschalk, J.P. 1972. Converting Volume SAS Institute Inc., 1985. SAS User's Guide, SAS 

Equations to Compatible Taper Equations. Forest 

Institute Inc. Cary, North Carolina, USA. 

Science 18(3): 241-245. 

Sessions, J., Olsen, E. and Garland, J. 1989. Tree 

Deadrnan, M.W. and Goulding, C.J. 1979. A Method 

Bucking for Optimal Stand Value with Log 

for Assessment of Recoverable Volume by Log Allocation Constraints. Forest Science 35(1): 271 

Types. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science -276. 

8(2): 225-239. 

Simons. 1991. The Irish Timber Industry - An Export 

Deadrnan, M.W. 1990. MieroMARVL Preharvest Development Plan for the 1990's. Prepared for 

Inventory - User Guide. N.Z. Forest Research Coillte Teoranta, Irish Timber Council, Industrial 

Institute, Software series No. 7. Rotorua, New 

Development Authority and Coras Trachtala. 

Zealand. 

Simons Strategic Services Division, Vancouver, 

British Columbia, Canada. 

Eng, G., Daellenbaeh, H. and Whyte, A.G.D. 1986. 

Bucking Tree Lengths Optimally. Canadian 

Smith, G.W. and Harrel, C. 1961. Linear Programming 

Journal of Forest Research 16: 1030-1035. in Log Production. Forest Products Journal 11(1): 

8-11. 

Gordon, A.D. 1983. Comparison of Compatible 

Polynomial Taper Equations. New Zealand 

Wilson, R.W. and Peters, R.C. 1967. The North- 

Journal of Forestry Science. 13(2): 146-155. eastern Forest Inventory Data Processing System. 

USDA Forest Service, Research Papers NE-61 

Goulding, C.J. and Murray, J.C. 1976. Polynomial 

and NE-70 to NE-80. 

Taper Equations that are Compatible with Tree 

Volume Equations. New Zealand Journal of 

Forestry Science 5:313-322. 

G-rosenbaugh, L.R. 1974. STX 3-3-73. Tree Content 

and Value Estimation using Various Sample 

Designs, Dendrometry Methods and V-S-L 

Conversion Co-etfieients. USDA Forest Service, 

Research Paper SE- 117.117pp. 

Max, T.A. and Burkhart, H.E. 1976. Segmented 

Polynomial Regression Applied to Taper 

Equations. Forest Science 22(3): 283-289. 

123

PROGRESS REPORT ON THE between 1985 and 1990 and up to eighteen log types 

DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTEGRATED VALUE being manufactured on the landing at anyone time 

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 1 (Duggan 1993). 

by 

A representative from one of New Zealand's larger 

forest companies recently stated that up to US$1.5 

G. E. Murphy million improvement in his management region's 

D. C. Lane annual revenue could be gained if they were able to 


capture an additional one per cent in value recovery 

G. P. Cossens (Duggan 1993). Nationally, it is estimated that value 

recovered could be improved by over US$50 million 

NZ Forest Research Institute Ltd. 

per year. 

Lincoln University 

Lincoln, New Zealand 

To ensure that the forest industry achieves the highest 

return on investment possible, the New Zealand Forest 

Research Institute (NZFRI) began research into 

ABSTRACT: Research carried out during the 1980's improving value recovery in the early 1970s. The 

and early 1990's by NZFRI identified that the New 

AVIS (Assessment of Value by Individual Stems) 

Zealand forest industry can potentially improve the 

optimal bucking software system was one of the early 

value recovered during its log-making operations by products of this research effort (_ and Twaddle 

over US$50 million per year. In 1994 research began 1984). In the intervening years since the development 

on the development of a computer vision system which of AVIS, NZFRI has seen the growth of a strong 

could be used to automatically describe the geometry 

commitment from the forest industry to improving 

and quality characteristics of felled tree stems. The tree value recovery, including a significant investment in 

characteristics can then be analysed by NZFR/'s log- research and development (Murphy et al. 1991). 

making optimisation software, AVIS, to determine the 

most valuable way to cut up each tree while still 

Improved value recovery will give the forest owner 

meeting marketing and operational constraints. This 

more return from each hectare, thereby, allowing more 

paper provides a report on NZFRI's Integrated Value expenditure on techniques that will help ensure long 

Management System and describes the current status of term sustainability of the forest. 

its prototype computer vision system. 

The development of tools for improving optimal 

Key Words: bucking, image processing, plantation bucking is one ofNZFRI's R&D goals. This paper 

forests, allocation 

provides a report on the current status of our prototype 

computer vision system and how it will fit within 

NZFRI's Integrated Value Management System. It also 

INTRODUCTION 

briefly describes our research on allocation of cutting 

patterns to stands and logging crews. 

There has been rapid growth in harvest in New Zealand 

plantation forests since 1985, as well as a large 

increase in the number of domestic and international NZFRI'S INTEGRATED VALUE 

customers purchasing wood. This in turnhas led to a MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 

proliferation of log grades with different specifications 

and values. 

AVIS has been the primary tool for monitoring and 

measuring value recovery from single stems since the 

Log production management has become increasingly 

early 1980s. Use of the AVIS dynamic programming 

complex and sophisticated. For example, some forest algorithm as a key part of a larger system for 

companies have to match markets, logging crews, and optimising log production in real time was proposed by 

forest stands for over fit_ log types. One company Murphy (1987) who suggested that "one could 

reports a four-fold increase in the number of log types envisage a value control system with a market feedback 

mechanism whereby the prices driving the decisions 

about individual trees are influenced by the aggregate 

1Presented at lh¢ joint mvcting of the Council On For_t Engin_a_g supply and demand of logs... The log-makers would 


Group 

International 

83.04-00, 

Union 

Marquette, 

of Forest 

MI, July 

R_.aroh 

29-August 

Organisations 

1, 1996. 

Subject [periodically] transfer the log product information they 

had gathered on their hand-held micro-computers onto 

124

a mini-computer or mainframe computer .... [and] 

century, our development process stresses modularity 

summarised information would then be combined with with the intention of producing some components that 

current market information to calculate updated 

can also stand alone. 

product [relative] prices". In the late 1980s NZFRI 

began to develop such an integrated value management 

system. COMPUTER VISION SYSTEM 

A feature of NZFRI's Integrated Value Management Research into the application of computer vision 

System was that every stem would have to be assessed systems to the optimal log-making problem was begun 

and optimally made into logs. R was, therefore, 

in late 1993. This work is still in its early stages. 

considered necessary that stem data be automatically 

captured. Murphy and Cossens (1995) describe three The geometric information (eg., diameter, sweep, 

types of electronic callipers, developed by NZFRI and ovality and length) will be captured through the use of 

other companies, which automate data capture of stem stereo images, obtained with digital photography, as the 

geometry. However, stem quality still needs to be 

log-maker walks the length of the stem. It is intended 

subjectively determined and manually entered in 

that the series of images will be used to generate a 

conjunction with these callipers. This has led to the complete stem model, based on images of at least 50% 

development of a prototype computer vision system 

of the stem circumference, using modified image 

which will handle both stem geometry and stem quality analysis procedures developed by Lane (1994). 

data capture. 

The same images will be used to assess externally 

visible qualities (eg. pruned zone, knot size, scarring, 

l Ptchervest [ I splitting, etc.) along the length of the stem. Although 

] invmtcay [ this is likely tobe a more ditticult task than simply 

capturing geometric information it was thought to be a 

inf_ _,_*,_,f_ti_ [ vital capability for two reasons: 1) assessment of 

quality could be speeded up, and 2) consistency of 

/___-_ 

quality assessment could be improved. 

R.po_ ofo_,. I N.w_. Design and implementation 

bylos.type Optimization _iti_tiom 

t...._,, r.ma, ] The software structure of the computer vision system 

_wr_..__ - _-Cil_liq, .......___:.-___ _J has reflect been thedivided different into tasks three it performs. operationalAsmodules a sequence that of 

i I_V_ s_ overlapping images is entered into the computer, each 

I 

image will be processed sequentially by the correlation 

imma,,,_ipti,, _ [[qCdm_ r,_,_,i_ I module of these and two the operations quality assessment will then bemodule. passed tothe The results 

description, which can be fed into the AVIS optimiser 

_._._-_ _--_s_- .... mensuration to compute the module optimal to construct bucking pattern the geometric for that stem. 

,_--_ 

Figure 1. NZFRI's Integrated Value Management 

System. 

Correlation module 

The correlation module will use image processing 

techniques to remove the background from each image. 

It will then segmenthe image in order to isolate and 

classify stem features, such as bark fissures, that fall 

In addition, the need to feed back updated product 

specifications and prices to each of the computer vision into the region of the image that overlaps with the 

units in the forest has led to the exploration of several previous image. These features can then be matched to 

approaches to optimising curing pattern and stand their complements found in the previous image. 

allocation for logging crews. 

The matching algorithm is an extension of an earlier 

Since the development path for NZFRI's Value algorithm developed by Lane (1994). Each individual 

Management System may extend into the early 21st 

stem feature will be classified paramelrieally as a 

125

collection of geometric nodes connected by vectors 

edges of each suspected knot will be determined in the 

forming a description of the feature that is insensitive to same process. Each suspected knot signature will be 

variations in scale and rotation. Each feature is confirmed by checking the adjacent image for a similar 

represented by a node in a graph structure that contains signature. Some heuristic knot recognition criteria 

all the features for a particular image. The feature based on knot position, orientation, size, and color will 

graphs of two adjacent, overlapping images are then 

be applied as well. 

roughly correlated and the matches refined by 

comparisons of the individual feature descriptions. Mensuration module 

This approach takes advantage of both the consistent 

spatial distribution of the stem features between images Once gathered, the correlation and knot location data 

as well as the individual feature characteristics, 

will be passed to the mensuration module which 

transformsthe images into a single coordinate flame 

and generates a three dimensional map of the stem 

surface. This process is carried out as follows: the 

image coordinate pairs that correspond to the locations 

of matched stem or knot features will be processed 

photogrammetrieally by a relative orientation 

algorithm. This provides the orientation information 

used to transform all of the images into a single 

reference frame, and given approximate parameters for 

the camera positions for each image, a rough scale 

estimate for the three dimensional locations of the 

matched features is computed. 

m 

The relative orientation results are used as the initial 

conditions for a bundle adjustment algorithm, currently 

under development, which refines the computed feature 

locations using the image signatures of a few 

calibration targets (see Figure 2.) of known size to 

compute an exact scale. Note that the calibration 

targets are distributed at rough intervals along the 

length of the stem before the images are acquired and 

appear in several adjacent pairs of images. 

The cluster of spatial coordinates computed by the 

bundle adjustment will be used to determine stem 

geometry as well as stem cross sections at regular 

intervals along the stem. In keeping with industry 

Figure 2, Image processing will reduce the image standards, each eross section will be approximated by 

information to individual matchable 

best fit ellipses which indicate the orientation and 

dimensions of the major and minor diameters of the 

features such as knots (left inset) and bark 

stem at that location. 

fissures (fight inset). Note the calibration 

target. 

Quality assessment module 

The quality assessment module will perform an active 

filtering operation on each image to detect image 

signatures indicating the presence of knots or other 

stem features that have a bearing on stem quality. In 

general, knots appear as roughly elliptical marks in the 

image, which can be detected, for instance, through a 

sequence of image processing transformations. The 

126 

Workto datehas concentratedonthe mensuration 

module as its reliability and accuracy are paramount if 

the system is to perform as required. Current 

development and testing of this module is being done 

using synthetic image sequences rendered from a 

generic stem description with texture mapped bark and 

knots, and stem features. Features are being matched 

manually with the aid of a graphical user interface, 

shown in Figure 3, which runs under XWindows on a 

486dx2-66 PC running the Linux operating system.

Figure 3, Screen capture oft he XWindows interface showing stem images with matched feature 

points and zoom windows. 

INTEGRATED PRODUCT OPTIMISATION best set of products and prices (cutting pattern) for a 

logging crew's cut. In an earlier study, Fen'ow and 

Although much of the research to date has focused on McKewen (1980) found that over a third of the 

automating the data capture, some research has begun potential value of a sample of trees was unrealised by 

on constrained market optimisation and how to another New Zealand company due to failure in plangenerate 

new prices and allocate log grades to ning to match cutting patterns with stands and markets. 

individual logging crews. 

Two approaches to allocating cutting patterns to stands 

As mentioned above AVIS optimises the value have been explored; iterative linear programming/ 

recovery from single trees, but what is "optimal" for 

dynamic programming and tabu search heuristics. 

the single tree is seldom "optimal" for the forest Each of the approaches has slightly different features 

company, which must satisfy market demand and and advantages. In particular, the LP/DP approach 

operational constraints. Many forest owners in New generates it own sets of cutting patterns from an initial 

Zealand have negotiated log sales that require a given cutting plan, whereas the tabu search heuristic requires 

percentage of the volume be delivered in logs of a user-supplied cutting patterns from which it selects an 

specified length and that average small end diameters 

"optimal" solution. 

must be greater than a given value. Constraints on the 

minimum or maximum amount of volume of a given 

Linear programming 

log-type are also common. 

Cossens (1996) has recently developed an iterative 

The importance of developing a value management LP/DP model, which is capable of selecting cutting 

systemwhich can optimise the combined value 

patterns to be used in each stand and provides values 

recovery performance for a forest company's logging for log products that would result in efficient forest 

crews was demonstrated in a recent pilot study by one resource allocation during harvesting. The model also 

of the authors when he found that value recovery could considers demand requirements over multiple time 

be improved by between 14 and 22% by choosing the periods. 

127

A dynamic programming algorithm in the MARVL 

A limited set of market and operational constraints 

(Method for the Assessment of Recoverable Volume by have been included. These include constraints on: 

Log-type) inventory system (Deadman and Goulding, 

volume production (minimum and maximum); 

1979) is used to generate new columns for a Dantzig percentage requirements for given log lengths; 

Wolfe (DW) linear programming decomposition minimum average small end diameter targets; and 

formulation (Dantzig and Wolfe, 1961). 

"preferred" and "no-go" stands for individual logging 

crews. 

The DW algorithm has been successfully implemented, 

using the C programming language and has been tested The algorithm has been implemented on an 8Mb 

on two small problems. The program generates new 486dx2-80 CPU in Visual Basic (Version 1) as the 

cutting patterns and values as well as demonstrates TABU program. Tests have been carried out on up to 

iterative progress towards a maximum solution. 

60 stands, 12 logging crews and 5 cutting patterns 

Output from the model includes the proportion of time (each with 5 log-types). The user can specify the 

that generated cutting patterns should be used. Two of number of iterations over which improvements in value 

the useful features of decomposition are that (1) near 

are searched for. The "best" solutions have usually 

optimal solutions can be easily evaluated, allowing a 

been found within one or two minutes. An example of 

manager the option of selecting a solution that requires the output from a simple 10 stand, 5 crew, 5 cutting 

fewer changes in cutting patterns, and (2) the algorithm pattern problem is shown in Figure 4. 

can be terminated if convergence is too slow. 

LOGGING CREW AND 

Further development is underway to turn the model into 

ctyrn_G PATrERNALLOCATION 

a production tool. Improvements include the 

development of a matrix generator, modifications to 

03-25-1996 05:46:04 

allow automatic interaction with MARVL, restriction Number ofltcratiom i._ 10 

of product combinations and strategies and crew Number of Tabu Moves is 5 

allocation to stands. Numberof Logging Cre_ is 5 

Name of Stand File is o:_aative.std 

Name of Crew Productivity File is oAnative.prd 

Tabu search heuristics NameofCrzw Przfz_-noesFile is o:\nativ©.prf 

Name of Initial Fzuible Solution File is o:\native.ini 

Whereas the LP/DP formulation should "guarantee" an 

Name of Constraint File is o:_aafive.oon 

Name of OutputFile is o:\native.ont 

optimal solution to the problem, a heuristic may only 

provide a "good" solution. However, heuristics are 

*******BESTSOLUTIONREPORT******* 

being applied to an ever widening range of forestry crew Name Stand Location CuttingPattern 

problems today because of their abilityto solve difficult l_m. s65 3 

problems in a reasonable amount of time (Sessions gahikat_ $72 4 

1985, Guignard et al. 1993, Laroze and Oreber 1993, Mini R69 2 

Mendoza et al. 1993, Ogweno 1995). Totara Kauri M866 $64 51 

Glover (1989) presents the fundamental principles 

Objective function = $ 495610 

underlying tabu search as a strategy for combinatorial 

optimisation problems. He presents tabu search in a Peeler 

Export 

Volume 

long % = 74 

1074 

% totmea 

simple form that discloses two of its key elements: that Avmse SED for dom_tios is 31.7 em 

of constraining the search by classifying certain of its 

moves as forbidden (ie, tabu), and that of freeing the 

search by a short term memory function that provides 

Figure 4. Example output from Tabu Search Heuristic. 

"strategic forgetting". 

An algorithm that combines tabu search principles with 

a simple improvement-swapping heuristic has been 

developed for allocating logging crews and usersupplied 

cutting patterns to stands for a single time 

period. Individual logging crew productivity is taken 

into account. 

SUMMARY 

Development of a computer vision system for 

automatically assessing tree stem geometry and 

qualities is at an early stage. 

The data captured by the computer vision system will 

be used by the AVIS dynamic programming algorithm, 

128

which has had over a decade of testing and application, Lane, D.C. 1994. A prototype system for automated 

to optimise single stems, 

step-wise close-range digital image matching and 

three dimensional terrain reconstruction. Seattle, 

To ensure that the single stem optimisation also meets WA: University of Washington. 140p. MS(ME) 

market and operational constraints new procedures are 

thesis. 

being developed to allocate the best cutting patterns 

and stands to each logging crew. Computer vision, Laroze, A.; Greber, B. 1993. Using Monte-Carlo 

single stem "optimisation" of all stems, and a market simulation to generate rule-based bucking 

feed-back mechanism will be three of the key 

patterns. In: Proceedings of an international 

components of NZFRI's Integrated ValueManagement symposium on system analysis and management 

System. 

decisionsin forestry.Valdivia,Chile;March, 

1993: 153-165. 

LITERATURE CITED Mendoza, G.; Camieri, C.; Luppold, W. 1993. 

Heuristic and analytical solution procedures for 

Cossens, G.P. 1996. Optimisation of short term log optimal cutting of lumber: an overview. In: 

allocation. Lincoln, New Zealand: Lincoln Proceedings of an international symposium on 

University. 124 p. M. Applied Science thesis, system analysis and management decisions in 

(submitted March 1996). forestry. Valdivia, Chile; March, 1993: 343-349. 

Dantzig, G.B.; Wolfe, P. 1961. The decomposition Murphy, G.E. 1987. An economic analysis of final log 

algorithm for linear programs. Econometrica manufacturing locations in the steep terrain radiata 

29:767-778. pineplantationsof NewZealand. Corvallis,OR: 

Oregon State University. 420p. Ph.D. thesis. 

Deadman, M.W.; Goulding, C.J. 1979. A method of 

assessment of recoverable volume by log types. Murphy, G.E.; Twaddle, A.; Cossens, G.P. 1991. 

New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science 9(2): 

How to improve value recovery from plantation 

225-239. forests:researchandpractical experiencein New 

Zealand. In: Forestry operations in the 1990s: 

Duggan, M. 1993. Value materialisation opportunities challenges and solutions. Proceedings of the 14th 

in harvesting. In: Quality issues in processing and annual meeting of the Council on Forest 

harvesting. Proceedings of a seminar held in Engineering; Nanaimo, British Columbia; July 

Rotorua, June 1993. New Zealand Logging 1991: 30-38. 

Industry Research Organisation. Rotorua. 

Murphy, G.E.; Cossens, G.P. 1995. New tools for 

Ferrow, G.; MeKewen, B.J. 1980. The determination maximising value recovery from plantation forests. 

of the profit sacrificed in felling, extraction and log In: Applications of new technologies in forestry. 

allocation processes. Hamilton, New Zealand: Proceedings of the Institute of Foresters of 

University of Waikato. 91 p. Bachelor of 

Australia Sixteenth Biennial Conference, Ballarat, 

Management Studies dissertation. Victoria, April 1995:185-190. 

Creerts,J.M.P.; Twaddle, A. 1984. A methodto assess Ogweno, D.C.O. 1995. Integrated optimisation of 

log value loss caused by cross-cutting practice on operational and tactical planning of log production. 

the skidsite. New Zealand Journal of Forestry 

Clxristchureh, New Zealand: University of 

29(2):173-184. Canterbury.PhD.thesis. 

Glover, F. 1989. Tabu Search - Part I. ORSA Journal Sessions, J. 1985. Network analysis using 

in Computing 1(3): 190-206. 

microcomputers for logging planning. In: 

Improving mountain logging planning, techniques 

(3uignard, M.; Chajalds, E.; Ryu, C. 1993. Lagrangian and hardware. Proceedings of a joint symposium 

bounds and heuristics for integrated resources 

of the IUFRO Mountain Logging Section and the 

planning in forestry. In: Proceedings of an Sixth Pacific Northwest Skyline Logging 

international symposium on system analysis and 

Symposium, Vancouver, British Columbia, May 

management decisions in forestry. Valdivia, 1985:87-91. 

Chile; March, 1993: 350-363. 

129

THE COST OF PRODUCT SORTING DURING The goal of this paper is to describe the magnitude of 

HARVESTING' 

the costs related to multiproduct harvesting. The data in 

this report come from published and unpublished 

by 

studies conducted by the Forest Engineering Research 

Institute of Canada (FERIC), as well as studies 

Jean-Franfois Gingras, F.E. produced by other research organizations. The last part 

Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada of this report presents a cost simulation that compares 

Eastern Division 

the separation of six products using three harvesting 

Pointe-Claire, Quebec, Canada systems. 

ABSTRACT: Integratingharvesting with the sorting SORTING OPTIONS 

of multiple products is a realitythat many companies 

and their contractors must adapt to. This separation of Product separation can be carried out in several places, 

products can be performed at several stages during 

including at the stump, atroadside or in a satellite mill, 

harvesting. This reports combines the results of depending on the operational context. Figure 1 

published and unpublished studies to describe the 

illustrates the in-woods sorting possibilities for the 

advantages and disadvantages of separating two or 

most common harvesting systems in eastern Canada 

more products using the various machines in full-tree, 

tree-length and cut-to-length harvesting systems. The 

The separation of stems into two or more products can 

cost of separating six products is simulated with three 

be done based on several criteria, which depend on the 

different harvesting systems, specific requirements of the mills. Stems can be sorted: 

Key Words: harvesting system, integrated harvesting, 1. by species or species group; 

sorting, economic analysis, costs, value-added, fiber 2. by quality criteria (e.g., form, defect, decay,, 

quality 

etc.); 

3. by size criteria (e.g., diameter, length); and 

4. by end-product (e.g., lumber, pulp, veneer, 

INTRODUCTION 

other). 

Today, integrated harvesting of multiple forest products Choosing the best method of carrying out the sort is 

is a reality that many industrial wood users, notably 

constrained by (1) the harvesting system used, (2) the 

harvesting contractors, must adapt to. This multiprod- 

configuration of the haul trailers, (3) the structure of the 

uet harvesting implies the sorting of various products to forest, and (4) the number of products to separate. 

maximize the value and quality of the raw material and 

to satisfy the requirements of different users. 

PRODUCT SEPARATION INTEGRATED 

Separating stems into different products in the forest WITHIN FULL-TREE OR TREE-LENGTH 

during harvesting operations entails a cost for whoever 

SYSTEMS 

must perform this work. This additional cost arises in 

part from potential decreases in the productivity of the The phases in full-tree or tree-length harvesting that 

machines that must now include a product separation 

lend themselves to sorting are mechanized felling, 

phase in their work cycles and from the creation of 

cable skidding, mechanized delimbing, and truck 

piles that will permit loading and hauling of the 

loading. 

separated products. The value added by producing 

separate products does not generally provide any direct Sorting with feiler-bunchers 

benefits to the person responsible for the sorting. 

Therefore, it is important to accurately quantify the Feller-bunchers can sort full-trees simply by creating 

related costs to equitably reward the person who 

separate bunches. The usual method involves forward 

assumes this responsibility and to evaluate the or backward carrier travel just before placing a tree in a 

economics of carrying out a specific type of sorting, 

bunch. Since feller-bunchers work rapidly, they cannot 

be expected to perform anything more than a coarse 

tProsmtedatthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering 

separation of species or sizes (Figure 2). Also, the 

International UnionofForestResearchOrganizations Subject creation of separate bunches increases carrier 

GroupS3.04-00,Marquette,MI,July29-August1, 1996. 

movement, and this could reslt in more rapid wear of 

130

legend 

{x} = number of possible sorts 

Forest 

Manualfelling Feller-buncher Harveste_ 

{0} {2-3} {2-6} 

Cable skidder 

{no limit} 

o,.o 

o,mun 1 

J' __;_ _. grappleskidder {0} skidder {1-2) Processor {2-s} Forwarder {2-3} 

[ I 

Slasher Delimber I I _ Delimber- 

12-3} 

, Loader 

{2-3} 

Figure 1. Options for multiproduct sorting using current harvesting systems in eastern Canada. 

Sorting during skidding 

In the context of mechanized felling, it is not realistic to 

separateproducts using grapple skiddcrs or cable 

skiddcrs because of the amount of work involved. 

Although a clambunk skiddcr could use its loading 

boom to separate species, this would bc unproductive 

and thus expensive because few stems would bc loaded 

simultaneously into the bunk. 

Inmanual felling, cable skidders can be used to 

separate stems by species into distinct piles at roadside, 

simply by unhooking the chokers holding the stems in 

front of the appropriate piles (Figure 3). 

Figure 2. Size sort with a fcllcr-bunchcr 

the drive components, and more pronounced rutting in 

soit ground. Based on FERIC studies, the productivity 

reductions resulting from the sort of two or three 

products amount to about 5 and 10%respectively. 

Several factors can affect the t;_ncrequired to create 

sorted piles. The most important arc the number of 

piles, the distance separating the piles and the space 

available for maneuvering around the piles. 

131

The separation of logs with similar characteristics can 

"... :_.. ::.:i_i_/:_!... . occur during the slashing phase. In effect, the slasher 

• ' '_": " __": " _ "_" can process each bolt according to particular 

specifications and can create distinct piles. In practice, 

the limited mobility of the slasher's carrier limits to two 

or three the number of distinct piles that can be created. 

In addition, it is often tempting to process several stems 

simultaneously to increase productivity, but this has the 

............................... effect of reducing the proportion of the higher-value 

products.FERICestimatesthatthe reductions associated with the creation productivity 

of two products 

: --;...... : .... ---'- __.Z _ with a slasher are in the order of 30 percent when 

°_--'_ ---- comparedtothe production of pulpwood only. 

................................ 

Figure 3, Unchoking stems into separate piles by 

species using a cable skidder. SEPARATION OF PRODUCTS INTEGRATED 

WITH CUT-TO-LENGTH HARVESTING 

SYSTEMS 

Sorting with stroke denmbers 

Cut-to-length harvesting systems lend themselves well 

Stroke delimbers are often used for separating two, 

to product separation, whether at the stump ('bythe 

three or even four products. Since the stems are harvester or the processor) or at roadside (with the 

typically handled one at a time, it is easy to lay them in forwarder or processor). 

different locations. Roadside processing permits sorting 

that would more heavily penalize the productivity of Sorting with single-grip harvesters 

multi-stem machines working on the cutover like a 

feller-buncher. 

As with a delimber, a single-grip harvester can easily 

separate its products because it usually handles only a 

The main problem posed by separation of stems into single stem at a time. While processing the felled 

different products using a delimber is the crowding of stems, it is easy to move the harvesting head slightly to 

the landing by the separate piles of tree-lengths. In create two, three or four distinct piles, with no 

effect, since the species are randomly distributed in the detectable loss of productivity. This has been 

undelimbed piles of stems, it is difficult to plan the best demonstrated in several studies in the Nordic countries 

position of the stems other than those of the primary (Mikkonen 1977, Kuitto 1980, Bjurulf 1992). 

product, which typically occupies a position perpendicular 

to the road. Depending on the available space, on Sorting with a processor 

the configuration of the road and ditches, and on the 

number of products, the secondary products can be A processor can operate at roadside, but typically 

placed: 

worksonthecutoverbehinda feller-buncherora 

manual failer. In eastern Canada, there are two main 

1. in separate piles, parallel to the primary pile; processor configurations: a single-grip processor 

2. on top of the primary pile, but positioned whose processing head is mounted at the end of an 

some distance back from the edge of the pile, articulated boom and a two-grip processor whose 

overhanging the edge of the pile, or diagonally processing unit is mounted on the carrier. 

atop the pile; 

3. in the ditch, parallel to the road and in front of The ease of separating products with single-grip 

the primary pile; and 

processors is comparable to that with a single-grip 

4. on the opposite side of the road. harvester. The creation of different piles is more 

difficult with two-grip processors, since this requires 

FERIC studies have found that the productivity losses 

back and forth movements of the machine or rotation of 

associated with sortting two and three products with 

the processing unit. Moreover, the slashed logs fall 

stroke delimbers are in the order of 10 and 15 percent from relatively high above the ground, and tend to 

respectively, 

bounce. It is thusmore ditiicultto control the exact 

132

position of each log. Bjurulf (1992) measured a very COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 

slight 2 percent productivity loss during the separation OF THREE SORTING SCENARIOS 

of four products with a two-grip machine. 

This section presents a simulation of three different 

Sorting with a forwarder 

product-separation scenarios that a manager can 

choose among to supply six products to six different 

Thanks to its articulated boom, a forwarder can also be mills. This type of situation is common in eastern 

used to carry out some sorting of products. Three 

Canada. 

scenarios are possible. In order of increasing cost, these 

are: 

For this simulation, it is assumed that the harvest 

occurs in a mixedwood forest containing 30 percent 

1. separately transporting products that have trembling aspen (0.30 m3/stem), 20 percent jack pine 

been entirely sorted beforehand by the (0.20 m3/stem) and 50 percent spruce-fir (0.15 

processor or the harvester; 

m3/stem). The six products to be separated are: 

2. carrying out an additional separation working 

from piles already partially sorted by the 1. 2.5-m aspen logs for waferboard; 

harvester; or 2. 5.0-m aspen logs for veneer; 

3. conducting product separation entirely atthe 3. 5.0-m spruce-fir sawlogs; 

time of loading or unloading. 4. 2.5-m spruce-fir pulpwood; 

5. 5.0-m jack pine sawlogs; and 

The results obtained by Bjurulf (1992) show an 6. 2.5-m jack pine pulpwood. 

increase in time caused by product separation of 15 and 

20 percent for sorting two and three products The three production options include one full-tree 

respectively, al_er partial sorting by a harvester. This is system and two cut-to-length systems: 

aresult of increased loading and unloading times, but 

a feller-buncher and grapple skidder, with a delimber 

also of the increased number of trips per trail when the and a slasher; 

volume of a single product is insufficient to provide a 

full load. 1. a feUer-buneher and a two-grip processor 

with a forwarder; and 

The feasibility of transporting more than one product in 2. a single-grip harvester with aforwarder. 

a single trip depends greatly on the operator's skill, as 

well as on the log length and the distribution (volume 

The results of the simulation appear in Tables 1,2 and 

andposition) of the various products. Several scenarios 3. The costs for each product (SCAN/m3) reflect the 

for product separation are possible. In order of 

effect of separating the products and of the average 

decreasing feasibility: 

volume per species or product. 

1. One product can be loaded while the The net cost at roadside is lowest with the full-tree 

forwarder moves to the back of the block, and system. The simulation gives an additional cost of 

the second during the return to roadside. 

SCAN 1.77/m3 for the separation of six products, 

Thus, the products are separately along a 

which is 14.5% more than the baseline cost of SCAN 

horizontal plane in the load bunk during 

12.20/m3 if all the volume is transformed into 

loading, 

pulpwood.The separationinto sawlog and pulpwood 

piles at the time of slashing is the factor that contributes 

2. One product can be placed to the let_ of the most to this increase. 

bunk and another to the right; that is, the 

products are separated along a vertical plane The cut-to-length system that uses a feller-buncher and 

within the bunk. The forwarder's load bunk 

a processor sees a cost increase of SCAN 1.33/m3 for 

can also be modified (e.g., with the addition of separating six products, an increase of 8% over the 

pickets) to help keep the products separate, baseline cost without product separation. The use of a 

single-grip processor, which is less expensive than the 

3. For short logs (less than 3 m), one product two-grip machine in the simulation, would reduce the 

can be placed at the front of the load bunk and overall cost of this system. 

one at the rear. 

133

Table 1. The costs of sorting products in the simulated full-tree harvesting system 

Cost ($CAN/mJ) 

Without Aspen Jack pine Spruce-fir 

sorting products products products 

Feller-buncher, separation of aspen and softwoods 

(baseproductivity- 5%) 3.97 3.73 4.47 4.47 

Grappleskidder" 2.68 2.12 2.96 2.96 

Delimber, separation of jack pine/spruce-fir 

(baseproductivity- 10%) 2.91 2.46 3.27 3.72 

Slasher, separation of pulpwood and sawlogs 

(baseproductivity-30%) 2.64 3.45 3.77 3.96 

Total cost 12.20 11.74 14.47 15.11 

Weighted totalcost --- 13.97 

Additional (sorting)cost --- 1.77(+14.5%) 

• At a 100-m skidding distance. 

Table 2. The costs of sorting products in the simulated cut-to-length harvesting system with a feller-buncher 

and a processor 

Cost ($CAN/mJ) 


sorting products products... products 

Feller-I_'uncher, separation of aspen and softwoods 

(base productivity - 5%) 3.97 3.73 4.47 4.47 

Processor, separation of softwoods and two aspen products 

(base productivity - 2%) 7.24 6.13 7.48 8.61 

Forwarder, separation of softwood pulpwood and sawlogs 

(base productivity - 15%)• 5.29 5.29 6.22 6.22 

Total cost 16.50 15.15 18.17 19.30 

Weighted totalcost --- 17.83 

Additional (sorting) cost --- 1.33 (+8.0 %) 

• At a 150-m forwarding distance. 

Table 3. 

The costs of sorting products in the simulated cut-to-length harvesting system with a single-grip harvester 

Cost (SCAN/m3) 


sorting products products products 

Single-grip harvester, separation of sott'wood species 

andtwoaspenproducts 10.57 7.79 10.22 12.39 

Forwarder, separation of soltwood pulpwood and sawlogs 

_ (base productivity - 15%)• 5.29 5.29 6.22 6.22 

Totalcost 15.86 13.08 16.44 18.61 

Weighted totalcost --- 16.52 - 

Additional (sorting) cost --- 0.66 (+4.2 %) 

"At a 150-m forwarding distance. '.... " - 

134

Of the three systems that were simulated using the 

REFERENCES 

study's assumptions, the cut-to-length system with a 

single-grip harvester was the least affected by the Bjurulf, A. 1992. Sorteringldossen. [Sorting costs 

product separation, with a cost increase of SCAN 

during harvesting.] SkogsForsk, Uppsala, Su&ie. 

0.66/m3, which amounts to 4.2% of the baseline cost Rapport 1992-10-07.30 p. 

(without product separation). This result is attributable 

to the fact that the harvester's productivity is almost 

Kuitto, P.J. 1980. Puutavaran lajittelun tuotos -ja 

unaffected by the creation of distinct product piles kustannussvaikutukset. [Output and cost effect of 

duringprocessing, 

the sorting of timber.] Metsateho, Helsinki, 

Finlande. Rep. 362. 18 p. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Mikkonen, E. 1977. Puutavaran ljittelu monitoimikoneilla. 

[Timber sorting with multi-purpose 

In this report, the results of several studies were machines.] Metsateho, Helsinki, Finlande. Rep. 

combined to determine the costs and feasibility of 344. 26 p. 

various options for sorting products at the stump or at 

roadside using machinery commonly used in the main 

full-tree and cut-to-length harvesting systems in eastern 

Canada. Table 4 summarizes the productivity 

correction factors for each machine in terms of the 

number of products to sort. 

Table 4. Correction factors for sorting" 

Umber of products tOsort 

2 3 4 

Machine 

Feller-buncher -5% -10% n.a. 

Delimber -10% -15% n.a. 

Slasher -30% n.a. n.a. 

Single-grip harvester 0% 0% 0% 

Processor (two grip) -2% -2% -2% 

Forwarder -15% -20% n.a. 

" n.a. = not available. 

Cut-to-length harvesting systems, particularly those 

that use single-grip harvesters or single-grip 

processors, are the best adapted for carrying out 

multiple-product sorting at the lowest additional cost. It 

is thus not surprising that the popularity of these 

systems is increasing in the current context of 

integrated multiproduct harvesting. In contrast, full-tree 

harvesting systems remain the least expensive and can 

also be modified to permit the separation of different 

products, particularly if there are relatively few 

products to separate. In this ease, the feller-buncher or 

the delimber can be used effectively. 

135

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR FOREST requires common terminology and specification 

EQUIPMENT t definitions. New technologies and new applications of 

existing machines require consideration of acceptable 

by 

safety standards. The proliferation of third-party 

attachments such as harvester heads would benefit from 

Bob Rummer 


Auburn, Alabama, USA 

standardized connections to the primary machine. 

Comparison of equipment performance and evaluation 

of environmental effects requires standardized methods 

and tests. 

ABSTRACT: There are many currentstandards and People in the forest engineering community need to 

standards activities which affect the design and 

understand the benefits of using standards as well as 

application of forest equipment. Within the standards- participate in the development of useful documents for 

setting community there are also efforts to achieve 

furthering the industry. The objective of this report is 

greater harmonization and utilization of standards 

to provide some background information on the 

products. This paper reviews how standards for forest standards process and to illuminate the potential 

equipment are developed and maintained, and identifies application of standards for forest operations. 

importantcommittees and advisory groups. Standards 

affecting forest equipment are described with 

discussion of the impact of standardson designers and STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT 

users. Finally, currentcoverage of standards is 

analyzed to identify key areas for future standards 

Organizations 

development which will benefit the forest engineering 

community. 

In more specific terms, "Standards are documented 

agreements containing technical specifications or other 

Key Words: forest equipment, terminology, machine precise criteria to be used consistently as rules, 

design guidelines, or definitions of characteristics, to ensure 

that materials, products, processes and services are fit 

for their purpose." (ISO, 1996). There are basically 

INTRODUCTION 

two types of standards--voluntary consensus documents 

and regulatory documents. Voluntary consensus 

What would the world be like without standards? 

standards are generally developed by the parties that 

Standards affect every aspect of our daily lives fi'om the will be affected such as a committee of industry 

foods we eat to the things that we use. Standards give representatives. Through the standard document, the 

consumers confidence in the products they purchase, 

committee defines generally accepted practice or 

insure compatibility between products from different 

design. After the document is published users are free 

manufacturers, define minimum acceptable levels of 

to conform or not as they choose. 

product performance or safety, and promote a growing 

economy through more unrestricted trade. Consider the A regulatory standard, on the other hand, is associated 

benefits of standard weights and measures, standard with some penalty for non-compliance. An employer 

symbols for signs and operating controls, standard 

who violates the OSHA logging safety standard, for 

dimensions for connectors, and standard conventions 

example, can be fined. A manufacturer who does not 

for coding electrical signals. Standards make life meet European Community (EC) requirements is 

simpler and increase the capabilities of the goods and 

unable to import products into the European 

services we use. 

Community. Regulatory standards, rather than defining 

eotmnonly accepted practices, try to set minimally 

While forestry is affected by general standards such as acceptable performance limits. 

oil viscosity (SAE weight), hydraulic fittings 

specifications, or bolt dimensions , there is a growing 

Standards are constantly being developed by many 

need for the development of specific standards with the organizations around the world (Table 1). Specific 

forest industry. Global marketing of forest equipment documents are usually produced by a focused 

standards-developing-organization (SDO). The 

American Society ofAgricultural Engineers (ASAE), 

'Prcs_t_latthe joint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering 

and International Union of Forest Research Organizations Subject for example, is an SDO that concentrates on documents 

Group $3.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1, 1996. affecting agricultural operations. The Society of 

136

Table 1. Some standards developing organizations engaged in forestry standards work. 

Organization 

Webaddress 

American Society of Agricultural Engineers, http//www.asae.org 

FE-01 Forest Engineering Executive Committee 

American National Standards Institute 

http//www.ansi.org 

Society of Automotive Engineers, 

http//www.sae.org 

Machine Technical Committee, SC4 

Occupational Safety and Health Administration http//www.osha-sle.gov 

International Standards Organization (ISO) http//www.iso.ch 

Technical Committee 23, Tractors and machinery for agriculture and forestry 

Automotive Engineers (SAE) works on standards 

affecting the mobility industries. Individual SDO's are (fm_ti_ POJoJtlrdl md-'_ 

represented by national standards groups such as the 

_ fir-trodI_din_fourtilm 

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the ...... 

Deutsches Institut fllr Normung (DIN). At the 

.............. i..................... 

J I J 

internationallevel, consensus standards are developed 0pm'_ Ill _ll_h&01_r_ UI_timEU___!__! 

through Standardization the International (ISO), a worldwide Organization federation for of 

&_ _ Pnm_ li m - ........... m In 

national standards bodies. ._ ,_ 

SocietyofAutomotiveEngineers ._ir_ml ._ 

Historically, SAE has been the primary organization for _ wl_ -!_ 

standards affecting mobile machinery in the U.S.. .Sr/_ L_,_,-g_$_ "S_nlm 

Through various committees, SAE develops and 

maintains documents which affect passenger vehicles, 

__ 

trucks, buses, off-highway mobile equipment, and 

aerospace vehicles. These standards include topics Figure 1. Organizational structure of the CONAG 

such as common symbols, dimensioning, test methods, Council of the Society of Automotive 

and terminology. Most of the standards which affect Engineers (SAE). 

forestry are developed under the guidance of the 

Construction and Agriculture (CONAG) Council 

(Figure 1). 

("behindthe hitch"). ASAE standardscovertopics 

specific to agriculture such as irrigation systems, 

CONAG is made up of seven Technical Committees tractor performance testing, food processing and 

which cover specific functional areas. Each Technical handling, and design of structures. Like SAE, there is a 

Committee is turn composed of several Subcommittees. hierarchial structure of committees. Specific standards 

For example, the Machine and Operator Protection documents are generated by subcommittees within 

Technical Committee coordinates documents relating 

divisions. A Committee on Standards (T-1) 

to general operator protection. This Technical cax_rdinates and reviews the standards activity of the 

Committee has nine subcommittees which generate 

Society. Forestry documents are developed in the 

documents. Standards specific to forestry machinery Forest Engineering Group of the Emerging 

are generated by Subcommittee 4 of the Machine Technologies Division. 

Technical Committee. 

International Organization for Standardization 

American Society of Agricultural Engineers 

ISO was established in 1947 to facilitate the 

While SAE has worked on machine-specific standards, international exchange of goods and services. 

ASAE has taken the lead on standards for implements Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, ISO 

137

coordinates the work of 2700 technical committees, 

differentiate between documents which are simply good 

subcommittees, andworking groups. ISO standards 

information and those which identify generally accepted 

cover a wide range of topics including quality engineering practice. ASAE has designations for Data 

management systems (/SO 9000), paper sizes (ISO Documents, Standards, and Tentative Standards. A 

216), symbols for road signs and automotive controls, document may start out as an information report and be 

and the SI measurement system. Each country is 

elevated in the next review cycle to a standard. 

represented by one member body on ISO document 

work. ANSI, for example, is the official representative While all of the organizations discussed in this report 

for the United States. 

follow similar processes, international standards add an 

additional level of review and balloting. A national 

Like SAE and ASAE, ISO has a hierarchial structure of standard, such as an ASAE document, can be proposed 

subject-specific Technical Committees and as the basis for an ISO document. In this situation, a 

Subcommittees. Technical Committee 23(TC23) new subcommittee begins to review and redraR and 

maintains nearly 250 standards for tractors, machines 

ultimately publish the document. When the final ISO 

and equipment used in agriculture and forestry. There document and the original are reasonably similar, the 

are 13 subcommittees operating under TC23. While document may be dual-numbered by both ISO and the 

forest machines are included in the scope of many of 

originating society. 

these subcommittees, most forest equipment documents 

are developed in Subcommittee 15 "Machinery for 

The consensus standard development process depends 

forestry", Subcommittee 17 "Manually portable heavily on appropriate representation and involvement 

forestry machinery", or Subcommittee 14 "Operator in the subcommittees. These groups must have the 

controls, operator symbols and other displays, operator technical expertise to address issues that arise. At 

manuals." 

times standards development is also negotiation, as 

committee members compromise on accepted 

Document development 

definitions or design criteria. The final product is only 

useful if companies and customers are willing to apply 

Consensus standards are developed in an iterative the document. Thus a standard must meet a practical 

process of drafting, balloting, and review. A standard need in an effective manner. 

originates in a group such as SAE as a new work item. 

There may be a formal process to assign the work item 

to an appropriate subcommittee for development. At EXISTING FORESTRY STANDARDS 

the subcommittee level, a document sponsor assumes 

direction for developing an initial draR. The dratt is 

Table 2 lists representative documents that apply to 

circulated, discussed, and redraRed until the forest machines. Terminology and specification 

subcommittee feels that a consensus has been reached, standards are important to manufacturers and 

The document then starts a process of balloting through customers for describing forest equipment. SAE J1209 

the organizational levels. After each ballot stage the 

and ISO 6814 define basic names for forest machines. 

document may be referred back tothe originating Individual components of particular machines are 

committee for rewriting. Finally, the successful defined in other nomenclature and specification 

document is approved by the executive committee and documents. Common dimensioning and specifications 

published, 

ensure that customers can compare machines between 

manufacturers. Forexample,skiddergrappleopening 

Publication isnottheendoftheprocess, however, 

isdefinedinSAE Jll12. 

Everystandards documentismaintained throughout its 

lifetime. Requestsforrevision ofdocumentscanbe 

Safetystandards, suchasSAE JI084andISO 8084, 

prompted at any time by changes in technology, 

define minimum performance requirements for forest 

Periodically, standards documents must be reviewed by equipment. Manufacturers can test and certify their 

the originating committees and revised or reaffirmed, 

products to meet these criteria andcustomers are 

Eventually, some documents become obsolete and are assured that some level of protection is provided, 

eliminated. 

Safety standards cover glazing and cab enclosure, rollover 

protective structures, and falling-object protective 

In the development and revision process documents structures. The SAE standards are also specifically 

may evolve through several classifications. SAE, for incorporated in the OSHA logging safety standard. 

example, designates documents as Information Reports 

or Standards. This type of classification is intended to 

138

Table 2. Some standards for forest machines. 

Sponsor Document Title 

SAE J1209 Identification Terminology of Mobile Forestry Machines 

J1109 Component Nomenclature-Articulated Log Skidder, Rubber-Tired 

Jl 110 Specification Definitions-Articulated, Rubber-tired Log Skidder 

Jl 111 Component Nomenclature-Skidder-Grapple 

Jl112 Specification Defirfitions-Skidder-Grapple 

J1353 Nomenclature-Clam Bunk Skidder 

J1824 Specification Definitions-Clam Bunk Skidder 

J1354 Nomenclature-Forwarder 

J1823 Specification Definitions-Articulated Rubber-tired Forwarder 

J1254 Component Nomenclature-Feller/Buneher 

J1255 Specification Definitions-Feller/Buncher 

,12055 Identification Terminology and Component Nomenclature-Knuckleboom Log Loader 

J1158 Specification Defirfitions-Winches for Crawler Tractors and Skidders 

J1440 Off-Road Tire and Rim Classification-Forestry Machines 

J1084 Operator Protective Structure Performance Criteria for Certain Forestry Equipment 

J1040 Performance Criteria for Rollover Protective Structures for Construction, Earthmoving, 

Forestry and Mining Machines 

J185 Access systems for Off-Road Machines 

J1178 Braking Performance-Rubber-Tired Skidders 

J1212 Fire Prevention onForestry Equipment 

ISO 6687 Machinery for forestry--winches--performance requirements 

6814 Machinery for forestry--mobile and self-propelled machinery--identification vocabulary 

6815 Machinery for forestry--hitches--dimensions 

6816 Machinery for forestry--winches--classification and nomenclature 

8082 Self-propelled machinery for forestry--roll-over protective structures--laboratory tests and 

performance requirements 

8083 Machinery for forestry--falling-object protective structures--laboratory tests and 

performance requirements 

9518 Forestry machinery--portable chain saws--kickback test 

11169 Machinery for forestry--wheeled special machines--vocabulary, performance test methods 

and criteria for brake systems 

11850 Machinery for forestry--mobile and self-propelled machinery--safety 

3789-4 Location and method of operation of operator controls--Part 4. Controls for log loaders 

3767-4 Symbols for operator controls and other displays--Part 4. Symbols for forestry machinery 

Standards also provide data for forest equipment 

describes a method and required equipment to quantify 

designers. SAE J185 identifies design practices for the performance of air-conditioning systems in off-road 

access systems. Minimum, maximum, and pre-ferred machines. Standard test methods are available for 

dimensions of steps, door openings, hand-holds, and drawbar pull, braking performance, machine slope 

platforms are provided. SAE J1212 out-lines design operation, gradeability, vibration measurement, etc. 

practices that can minimize the risk of fire on forest 

machines. ISO 3789 identifies stan-dard control By being aware of existing standards affecting forestry 

functions and layout for log loaders, equipment, manufacturers can reduce design time and 

ensure compatibility with generally reco_ized 

Standards can also define common test methods for engineering practice. Alert consumers can utilize 

evaluating equipment performance. SAE J1503 existing standards by checking product specifications 

139

carefully and comparing products on the basis of 

achieve consensus on issues such as terminology and 

accepted definitions. The OSHA Logging Safety performance requirements. Since each country only 

Standard, for example, puts the burden on the employer has one vote, it is also more ditticult to define the 

of ensuring that equipment access systems meet the process. North American skidder manufacturers, for 

specifications of SAE J185. 

example, may supply a majority of the global market, 

yet they only have two votes on the ISO Subcommittee. 

For equipment manufacturers, compliance with global 

NEED FOR FUTURE STANDARDS standards can be a requirement for exporting. 

Changing technology, increased emphasis on safety, 

and concern about environmental effects of forest 

CONCLUSION 

operations will continue to drive the production of 

futurestandards. 

Standardsfor forest operations have the potential to 

improve the safety and efficiency of the forest industry. 

The development of harvesting heads and cut-to-length However, in order to fully realize this potential, 

equipment has led to a need for standard nomenclature equipment manufacturers and customers must be aware 

and specifications for these devices. As third-party of standards and how they are developed. There are 

manufacturers produce heads and attachments for 

also opportunities to become involved in the standards 

forestry prime movers, there may also be a need for 

development process--draft documents and revisions 

standards defining attachment points and dimensions, 

are constantly circulating for comment and review. 

The conversion of excavators to forestry use, for New standards to meet recognized needs can also be 

example, would be considerably simpler if a common 

proposed to standards developing organizations. 

attachment point could be defined similar to the threepoint 

hitch for farm tractors. 

There will be an expanding interest in standards 

development as a part of international trade. National 

Safety issues are also increasingly important. Falls standards groups are developing consensus documents 

from forest machines are a common cause of acoidents that earlbe elevated to ISO standards. Hopefully a 

and the access system is typically involved. SAE J185, dynamic standards-developing community will be a 

mentioned previously, is currently being revised and positive contribution to the forest industry. 

elevated to a standard. Standards relating to operator 

enclosures are also being reviewed to keep up with the 

growing use of glazing materials. The review of LITERATURE CITED 

operator protection standards is critical as new hazards 

are being introduced into the forest workplace. Current ISO. 1996. Introduction to ISO. International 

standards were not intended to protect against flying 

Organization for Standardization. 

debris from sawheads, for example, http://www.iso.ch/infoe/intro.html. (Access 

4/10/96). 

Assessment of the environmental effects of forest 

operations is also a growing trend. Manufacturers 

describe ground pressure and weight distribution as 

selling points for equipment. However, a common 

standard for defining the ground pressure of a rubbertired 

forest machine is not available. Standards are also 

needed to define commonly accepted methods of 

assessing the environmental effects of forest operations. 

Studies of soil compaction and disturbance and residual 

stand damage use a variety of methods making 

comparison of different systems difficult. 

Finally, covering all of the areas of standards 

development, is the issue of global harmonization. 

There is a drive to promote national standards to the 

ISO level. Currently, four SAE forest equipment 

standards are being revised as draft ISO documents. At 

the international level it becomes even more difficult to 

140 

¢

APPLICATION OF GEOGRAPHIC information system. It functioned to determine 

INFORMATION SYSTEMS harvesting and skiddingregion, to analyze logging 

IN FOREST ENGINEERING' 

possibility, to choose the skidding and hauling system, 

to set up an operation time table, to evaluate the 

by 

economies of logging techniques, and to work out the 

optimal production combination. 

Zhao,Chcn 

Lin,Tao 

Heinimann(I994)studied thebuildingofa spatial 

Tao,Jianyue 

decision supportsystembasedon OIS to helpthe 

Ma, Jianxiao 

selection of an adequate harvesting system in planning. 

Nanjing Forestry University 

Tueek (1994) used an IDRISI GIS package in the 

Nanjing, People's Republic of China opening up of forest stands, utilizing the digital terrain 

model (DTM) to plan forest access and forest roads. 

Epstein (1994) developed a PLANEX soRware 

ABSTRACT: The current application of geographic program, applying the data and the digital terrain model 

information systems (GIS) in forest engineering is 

of the ARC/Info system. The soRware determined the 

presented. Proposed in this paper is the objective of optimal road and landing locations to access scheduled 

the research needed on GIS applications in forest harvest areas, arriving at a minimum cost sum of road 

engineering in China. The research should focus on construction, landing construction, equipment setup, 

data design of forest engineering GIS, methods of yarding and skidding operations. 

data collection and data input, spatial and attribute data 

base design, and application projects of forest 

Pan (1989) introduced an analysis method for 

engineering GIS. As an example of the application developing digital terrain models. By quantitatively 

projects, the function of the GIS application system is evaluating the factors affecting terrain features such as 

analyzed in accordance with the requirement of a 

ground elevation, slope, relief energy, and valley 

skyline yarding design. The method of system 

density, a specific computational method was given for 

development is presented. Finally, the application the exploitation of forests and for planning the road 

perspective of forest engineering GIS is discussed and network. 

the existing problem is raised. 

Zhou (1992) studied the application technique of GIS 

Key Words: forest engineering planning, geographic in forest logging planning. Some methods of computer 

information system (GIS), computer-aided design 

aided map analysis were put forward for planning 

(CAD), skyline yarding forest utilization, selecting the annual logging area, and 

forest road planning. In western countries, the research 

on geographic information systems for forest 

ilACKGROUND 

engineering has achieved initial results with some 

practical systems developed (Cullen 1992, Epstein 

Research on the application of geographic information 1994, Tucek 1994). In China, study in this field has 

systems (GIS) in forest engineering started over 10 been initialized. However, a practical forest 

years ago. Reisinger and Davis (1985) utilized a engineering (}IS and its application system are still 

computerized GIS to classify terrain in a forested area, lacking. 

establishing a terrain classification system with the 

criteria of ground strength, surface roughness, and 

Looking forward to the future of forest engineering 

slope. The terrain classification system was applied to GIS, we can expect its application will focus on the 

the evaluation of traffieability of a logging area. Liu 

simulation and optimization of logging systems, 

and Sessions (1993) applied digital terrain models to computer-aided design in forest engineering, decision 

forest road planning. By identifying all feasible road 

support to forest engineering planning and 

segments and evaluating their variable and fixed costs, management, and on the area of comprehensive system 

the optimal road path was determined. The computer- 

analysis. 

aided harvesting planning system developed by Cullen 

(1992) was based on an ARC/Info geographic 

1PresentedatthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering 


Group$3.04-00,Marquette, MI, July29-August1, 1996. 

141

STUDY OBJECTIVE AND CONTENTS microcomputers. The result from field work is then 

transferred to the permanent GIS data base in the. 

The objective of this study is to develop the geographic 

information system and its application in accordance 

Input from field records 

with the requirement of forest engineering planning 

and design. Through the efficient connection of GIS Data earl be input to the GIS data base directly from 

and forest engineering computer-aided design (CAD), manual field records when limited by working 

the GIS and CAD techniques can reach a practical 

conditions in the field. 

level, improving forest engineering planning and 

design. 

Mapdigitization 

Forest engineering planning and design demands 

Existing topographic maps and forest maps of special 

detailed spatial and attribute data in the area of 

subjects can be input to the GIS data base through 

interest. The geographic information in large scales digitizers. 

(up to 1:500) is required to be practical, which differs 

largely from the GIS used in ordinary management of 

GIS data base 

forest resources. The major issues to be considered are 

noted below: 

The data of points, lines, and areas are stored in spatial 

vector files. The attribute data are stored in a relational 

Design of GIS spatial and attribute data 

data base. The data searching, inquiring, retrieving, 

and processing routines are conducted by built-in 

The map scale required by forest engineering is 

linkages between thevector and attribute data bases. 

generally between 1:500 and 1:10,000, which can be 

The PC version of the XMGIS package by Nanjing 

separated into two categories for different purposes: University is being used in the project. The package 

large scale of 1:500 to 1:2,000 and smaller scale of 

offers the function of map digitizing, map editing, data 

1:5,000 to 1:10,000. conversion, raster and vector spatial analysis, digital 

terrain analysis, and map output. The GIS data are 

Data are classified into survey data and investigation 

stored in vector data files of points, lines and areas. 

data to suit the needs of forest engineering planning and dBASE type data bases facilitate the development of 

design. Survey data include seven categories: 

application software of specific subjects and functions 

boundary, road, water system, natural landforms, 

requested by users. 

vegetation, pipe and electric line, and survey control 

points. There are six categories of investigation data: Application projects 

unit centers, man-made independent features, soil, 

condition of vegetation, stands, and notes. 

As required by the forest engineering planning and 

design, the study is focused on following projects. 

The specific data items relate to points, lines, and areas. 

They should be seleeted in accordance with the 

Logging area division 

requirement of forest engineering, production, 

managemnent, planning and design. The data items can Divide a forest farm into compartments, subbe 

increased or deleted as long as the data structure is compartments and cutting units successively. Schedule 

flexible and universal. The data items are numbercoded 

to suit data input, processing, and output, 

Data collection and digitized input 

Three methods are used to collect and input data of 

logging areas. 

the harvest area and draw up their spatial and temporal 

distribution. With resources data calculated and natural 

environment analyzed, predict the variation of 

resources, environmental factors, and economics during 

a working plan period. 

Investigation and design of harvesting and regeneration 

On-the-spot collection and input 

Based on the spatial and attribute data from the forest 

engineering GIS, work out the resource statistics, 

In the logging region, survey and investigation data are technique scheme, technological design, and 

gathered and initially stored in portable preparation of an operational design. Finally, compile 

all required files of investigation and design the plan. 

142

HaulingDesign SKYLINE YARDING DESIGN 

On the basis of the (}IS, the following work should be The cutting unit in a specific year is shown in Figure 2 

completed: road network planning, route selection of fi'omthe logging area division. A detailed design is 

roads, landing setting, development of an engineering 

required when skyline yarding system is employed. 

budgetary estimate, selection of hauling route and 

hauling vehicle, calculation of hauling productivity, and Setting yarding operation unit 

aneconomicsanalysis. 

Determine theboundary of the yarding operation units 

Yarding and chuting design 

in accordance with the requirement from the logging 

area division. Calculate the unit area and the timber 

Draw up yarding operation areas. Select landings, 

skyline corridors, and chute routes. Analyze terrain 

and simulate the running of skylineyarding and 

chuting.Fulfill theengineering designof the skyline 

and chute system. 

The scheme of the GIS application system is shown in 

Figure 1. 

volume. 

Setting landing 

According to the distribution of existing roads and 

operation units, determine the landing location with the 

whole yarding operation unit within the yarding extent 

of the skyline. 

I. Loggingareadivision 

2. Inve,atigation anddesign of the 

harvesting andregeneration 

3. Haulingdesign 

4. Yardingandchutingdesign 

TI 

survey and inves- , , map and table 

tigation data , portable ] , , of design 

of logging area microcomputer [ OIS 

data . , inquiring 

special subject : digitizer • , , statistics 

topographic 

map 

map, I ...... ] base 

Figure 

1. (}IS system diagram for forest engineering. 

& 

Figure 2. Skyline yarding area. 

1/43

Slopecalculation 

Technicaleconomicsanalysis 

Retrieve the topographic map of the yarding operation 

Based on the selected system and the resources 

unit. Calculate the ground slope within the unit. condition, compute yarding trips, inhauled timber 

Calculate the extreme slope and average slope, volume, and yarding productivity for each skyline 

Analyze the variation of slope in the unit. corridor. Furthermore, the average productivity and 

yarding cost over the whole yarding operation unit are 

Drawing skyline corridor 

computed. 

Draw the skyline corridors fi'om the landing chosen 

Output of design 

based on the extent of skyline and a given lateral 

yarding distance. Determine the position of alternate 1. Topographic map and stereo perspective view 

tailholds, 

oftheoperationarea. 

Analyze skyline profile 2. Map of roads, landings, and skyline corridors 

in the area. 

Compute skyline span, slope, and ground undulation 

for selected yarding corridors. 3. Profiles of skyline corridors in the yarding 

operation unit. 

Skyline yarding simulation 

4. Simulation (Table 1) and animation display 

The inhaul simulation of skyline is emphasized. By 

(Figure 3) for inhaul operation of the skyline. 

selecting different skyline systems and system 

parameters, the optimal equipment model and running 5. Summary of skyline yarding design for the 

parameters earlbe determined through analysis in operation unit (Table 2). 

accordance with the skyline yarding strategy(full 

suspension, partialsuspension, etc.) (Zhao 1991). 

Table 1. Inhaul simulation of the skyline. 

D He tz 13 Tc Tm Tsla Tsll Tsl2 Vm 

(m) (In) (o) (o) (kN) _3ff) (k/if) (klff) (k2¢) (m/s) 

325 1.0 88.5 0.0 19.84 28.87 9.20 18.41 18.44 0.0 

325 4.3 68.5 0.0 15.54 37.89 22.39 46.27 46.32 -0.5 

300 5.1 67.9 0.0 14.54 35.52 21.02 43.42 43.46 1.3 

275 4.7 62.1 0.0 14.57 36.70 22.17 46.29 46.34 1.4 

250 7.3 56.2 0.0 13.10 35.01 21.93 46.26 46.30 1.4 

225 10.9 39.2 9.0 11.51 33.23 21.73 47.82 47.86 1.5 

200 14.3 32.1 0.5 12.43 33.55 21.14 48.10 48.14 1.6 

175 14.8 30.3 24.7 14.49 35.61 21.14 49.28 49.31 1.6 

150 10.5 33.7 16.8 16.11 34.63 18.53 43.72 43.76 1.6 

125 6.6 42.9 3.3 17.99 36.88 18.90 42.82 42.85 1.4 

100 7.6 43.6 5.1 16.23 36.67 20.45 45.19 45.22 1.3 

75 9.4 41.5 7.9 15.65 37.52 21.87 48.20 48.23 1.3 

Min. 1.0 30.3 0.0 11.51 28.87 9.20 18.41 18.44 -0.5 

Max. 14.8 88.5 24.7 19.84 37.89 22.39 49.28 49.31 1.6 

Inhaul time = 173.9 seconds (2.90minutes) 

Ave. speed of mainline = 1.4meters/second (85meters/minute) 

144

_ • o,, 

Figure3. Animationdisplay of the inhauloperation. 

Table2.Summary ofskyline yardingdcsisn. 

Yarding SkylineSkylineYarding Ave.Yarding Ave. Ave.Round Total 

Corridor Span Slope Area Volume Distance Payload TripTime Time 

(m) (%) (ha) (m') (m) Trip (m3) (rain) (h) 

1 350 -6 1.75 167 181 90 1.85 30.5 45.8 

2 395 -5 2.07 197 207 113 1.74 33.6 63.3 

3 395 -5 2.03 194 203 127 1.53 31.3 66.3 

4 380 -10 1.85 176 195 94 1.87 31.0 48.6 

5 340 -9 1.71 163 179 99 1.64 29.5 48.7 

6 270 -6 1.30 124 144 78 1.58 24.7 32.1 

Sum .... 10.71 1021 -- 601 .... 304.8 

Average 361 -7 1.79 170 188 100 1.71 30.5 50.8 

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY Sinceforestengineering planninganddesignrequires a 

large number of data of various types, the acquisition 

The analysis and implement of a skyline yarding design and renewal of forest data is still the key to the success 

in the study has shown feasibility of the GIS 

of GIS application. In order to increase the efficiency of 

application in forest engineering planning and design, 

data acquisition, data must be transfered fi-om small- 

The method developed can be directly applied to the 

scale to large-scale, which makes full use of the 

engineering design in practice. The geographic 

existing small-scale map in forestry. It is also of great 

information system is able to provide necessary 

benefit to explore new methods for efficient and 

information for engineering planning and design, 

reliable investigation and survey in the logging area. 

including the terrain, topography, resources, road and 

water system. Thus, the data required for computeraided 

design in forest engineering are guaranteed. LITERATURE CITED 

The computer-aided design based on (}IS can provide Cullen, J. 1992. Computer-aided harvesting planning 

detailed analysis for the operation system in changing 

system: an integrated forest engineering tool kit. 

conditions, which is specially suitable for the forest In: Proceedings of the 15th Annual Council on 

engineering design with diversity and complexity. The Forest Engineering Meeting; 1992; Oregon, 

GIS technique sets a practical basis for simulation and 

USA:81-98. 

optimization in forest engineering. 

145

Epstein, R.; Weintraub, A.; Sapunar, P.; Sessions, J.; 

Sessions, J.B. 1994. PLANEX-soRavare for 

operational planning. In: Proceedings of 

International Seminar on Forest Operations Under 

Mountainous Condition; 1994 July 24-27, Harbin, 

P. R. China:52-57. 

Heinimann, H.R. 1994. Conceptual design of a spatial 

decision support system for harvesting planning. 

In: Proceedings of International Seminar on Forest 

Operations Under Mountainous Condition; 1994 

July 24-27; Harbin, P. R. China:19-27. 

Liu, K.; Sessions, J. 1993. Preliminaryplanning of 

road systems using digital terrainmodels. Journal 

of Forest Engineering 4(2):27-32. 

Pan, X.D. 1989. Forest terrain model and terrain 

feature analysis. Journal of Northeast Forestry 

University 17(4):87-91. (in Chinese) 

Reisinger, T.W.; Davis, C.J. 1985. Using a 

geographic information system to determine 

operableare_-atrafficability approach. In: 

Proceedings ofthe8thAnnualCouncilonForest 

Engineering Meeting;1985 August 18-22; Tahoe 

City, California, USA. 

Tueek, J. 1994. Using the (}IS environment for 

opening- up of forests. In: Proceedings of 

International Seminaron ForestOperations Under 

Mountainous Condition; 1994 July 24-27; 

Harbin, P.R. China:58-65. 

Zhao, C. 1991. Simulation for inhaul operation of a 

cable yarding system. Journal of Nanjing Forestry 

University 15(3):66-70. (in Chinese) 

Zhou, H.Z. 1992. Forest logging planning and 

geographic information system. Journal of Forest 

Engineering (Harbin, China) 29(3): 1-5.(in 

Chinese) 

146

A MODEL FOR PREDICTING NET REVENUE Key Words: timber revenue, cost, Harvest System 

FROM HARVESTING OPERATIONS IN Evaluator, productivity, modeling. 

COASTAL SECOND-GROWTH FORESTS IN 

BRITISH COLUMBIA' 

by 

BjOm Andersson 

Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada 

Western Division 

Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada 


Glen Young 

Mihai Pavel 

University of British Columbia 

Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada 

ABSTRACT: The Forest Engineering Research 

Institute of Canada and the University of British 

Columbia are currently developing an interactive 

model, written in Microsoft Visual Basic, to predict the 

net revenue of harvesting Coastal second-growth 

forests in British Columbia. The model is intendedto 

provide harvest planners with a tool to conduct 

economical analyses of various harvesting scenarios in 

Coastal second-growth stands. 

Timber revenue is determined from cruise data, log sort 

description, information and log values input by the 

user. Based on these data, the model determines the 

combination of log sorts that will result in maximum 

revenue from each sampled (cruised) Wee, and then 

projects the results to the entire setting. 

A number of harvesting productivity functions, relating 

the productivity of harvesting equipment to the stand 

characteristics, reside in the model. The user selects 

the desired components of the harvesting system, and 

the model then determines productivity and costs for 

each phase. The user has the option to override the 

model's productivity and cost estimates, should he/she 

find that these estimates are not appropriate for the 

particular setting being analyzed. 

The model is currently being tested on two different 

harvesting sites in British Columbia, Canada. 

'PresentedatthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEn0neering 



147

COMMERCIAL ASPEN THINNING: 

SYNTHESIZING HARVESTING SYSTEMS 

AND SILVICULTURE NEEDS l 

by 

John McCoy 

Blandin Paper Company 

Grand Rapids, Minnesota, USA 

ABSTRACT: Across northern North America, 

includingthe Lake States, aspen is a commercially 

importanttree species. Despite relatively fast growth, 

merchantable yields are sub-optimized due to extreme 

competition in early stages of development and by 

merchantable tree mortality as stands reach 25 to 40 

years of age. Thinning strategies to improve 

productivity have not been practical due to low 

stumpage values and harvest equipment that was not 

suited to the task. This poster presentation reports on 

trial remits of commercially thinned 30-year-old aspen. 

The trials demonstrate that quality results at marginally 

economical ratesarepossible by usinga combination 

of proper harvest equipment and silviculture design. A 

harvest of 7 cords per acre underscores the potential to 

increase total fiber yields by salvaging anticipated 

mortality, increasing future merchantable volumes, and 

developing value-added products sooner. Applied only 

to the best aspen sites, commercial aspen thinning 

could add significantly to aspen supplies. Pulp quality, 

potential for genetic improvement, and impacts to nontimber 

values are also discussed. 

Key Words: 

aspen thinning, aspen management. 

'Presentedat the ioint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering 

andIntemationai'Union of Forest Research Ovganiz_ons Subject 

Group $3.04-00, Marquette, NIL July 29-August 1, 1996. 

.148

WOOD UTILIZATION OPTIONS operations for removing woody material, and (4) 

FOR ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT 1 estimating the economic feasibility of alternative 

treatments. 

By 

Key Words: wood utilization, ecosystem 

John E. Baumgras management, silviculture 




Kenneth Skog 


Madison, Wisconsin, USA 

ABSTRACT: The shiftto ecosystem management is 

changing silvicultural objectives and practices on 

National Forests. Landmanagers are seeking 

silvicultural solutions to a variety of issues that include 

restoring wildlife habitat, maintaining healthy and 

aesthetically pleasing forests, reducing the risk of 

catastrophicfires, and restoringecological diversity. 

These changing management objectives are also 

affecting the species composition, quality,and quantity 

of woody material available for removal. To develop 

the information and methods requiredto evaluate 

currentand future utilization opportunitiesfor woody 

materials thatmay be removed underecosystem 

management regimes, a national research project was 

initiated in 1994. This research is being conducted by 

multidisciplinary teams with members fromthe USDA 

Forest Service Forest ProductsLaboratory and the 

Pacific Northwest, Southern, and Northeastern 

Research Stations in cooperation with National Forests 

in Regions 6, 8, and 9. 

Regional research teams have identified specific 

ecosystem conditions, desired future conditions, and 

alternative silvicultural treatments to attainthe desired 

conditions. This research is currently focused on dense 

small-diameter softwood stands in the West, unevenaged 

pine/mixed hardwood stands in thePiedmont 

region, and mixed hardwood forests in the Central 

Appalachian region. To evaluate wood utilization 

options under alternative ecosystem management 

regimes, these teams are now: (1) collecting 

information to link silvicultural trealments to the 

characteristics of the wood removed, (2) identifying 

opportunities for allocating wood removed to higher 

valued products, (3) investigating alternative forest 

tPresented at the joint meeting ofthe Council On Forest Engineering 


Group $3.04-00, Marquette, MI., July 29-August l, 1996. 

149

HW-BUCK: A COMPUTERIZED OPTIMAL 

BUCKING DECISION SIMULATOR FOR 

TRAINING HARDWOOD LOG BUCKERS TO 

IMPROVE VALUE RECOVERY _ 

by 

James B. Pickens 

Michigan Technological University 


ABSTRACT: Itiswidely recognized thathevalueof 

theproductsproducedwhen hardwoodstands are 

harvested is critically dependent on the quality of 

decisions made when bucking the logs. Unfortunately, 

maximizing the value of the logs produced is extremely 

dflticult becauseof the complexity of the hardwood log 

grading rules. This difficulty is compounded by the 

irregular shapeandwidespread occurrence ofdefects in 

hardwood stems. The underachievement of field 

bucking practice, relative to the optimal stem 

conversion selected using operations research 

techniques, was recently estimated to be between 28 

and 35 percent. This poster will present a 

computerized decision support system to help train 

field log buokers to make better decisions. This 

"bucking game" presents the trainee with a log to be 

bucked. The picture of the log includes stem shape and 

defect location, size, and type. The log can be rotated 

to view the entire stem. The trainee selects cuts to 

buck the log, after which the results of the bucker's 

cuts are presented along with the optimal bucking 

pattern. 

Key Worda: optimalhardwoodbucking, 

computerized decision simulator 

'Presented at thejoint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering 

and International Union of Forest Research (kganizafiom Subject 

Cna)upS3.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1, 1996. 

150

TEMPORARY STREAM AND WETLAND 

includebothcommercial andhome-made devicesthat 

CROSSING OPTIONS _ 

are either transportedto or built on-site. Increased 

awarenessof these options for reducing nonpoint 

by 

source pollutionand damageto streams and wetlands 

can help minimize the cost of protecting these valuable 

CharlesR.Blinn 

resources. 

University ofMinnesota 

St.Paul,Minnesota,USA 

When planningforestoperations, the fu'stpriorityfor 

protecting streams and wetlands is to avoid crossings. 


When crossings areneeded, theirnumber shouldbe 

minimized. Appropriate strategiesmust be used to 

Rick Dahlman 

mitigate impacts from crossings. Some of the criteria 

Minnesota Department of Natural Resources to consider when evaluating which crossing option to 

St.Paul, Minnesota,USA 

select include siteconditions,effectivenessfor reducing 

impacts, avoidanceof the use offill, maintenance 

requirements for both the option itself and for the 

ABSTRACT: As forestmanagementactivities 

crossing,rehabilitationrequirements when thecrossing 

intensify,there is an increasingpotentialtonegatively is removed, safety,season of use, length oftimethe 

impact streams and wetlands and to increasenonpoint crossing will be in place, fluctuationsin water levels 

source pollution. Thispaper summarizesinformation during use, frequencyof use, cost to purchase, install, 

about manyof the options for temporarystreamand 

and removethe option, the ease of installation and 

wetland crossings and reviews some of the reported removal, and applicable regulations. 

impacts associatedwith using someof thoseoptions. 

The purposeof thispaper is: (1) to summarize 

Key Words: Temporary,portable,streamcrossings, informationaboutmany of the temporary streamand 

wetlandcrossings, impacts, 

wetland crossingsoptions, and (2) to review someof 

the reported impacts associatedwith using these 

options. It attempts to provide a broad overview of the 

INTRODUCTION 

temporarystreamandwetland crossing options. There 

are likely several additional excellent options that are 

Forest managementactivitiesare intensifyinginmany not included inthis paper. Arnold (1994) andMason 

areas to meet a variety ofdemands. Theseincreasing (1990) provide excellentdescriptions of many specific 

demandshave the potential tonegativelyimpact 

products, includingdesign specifications, drawings, 

streams and wetlands2and to increase nonpointsource and photographs. The authors recommendthat you 

pollution. Road and skid trail crossingsof streamsand contact localvendors and logging contractors for more 

wetlands have the greatestpotentialto impactthese 

complete information,includingprice, for specific 

waterresources, 

productstheymayutilizeormarket. 

There are avarietyof temporary3or portablestream 

and wetland crossingoptionsfor use duringtimber 

TEMPORARY STREAM CROSSING OPTIONS 

harvestingandhaulingoperationsthatcanhelpmeet 

the increasingdemands in an environmentallyand 

Stream crossing options includefords, culverts, 

economically acceptable manner. These options bridges, and pipe fascine (bundled pipe). A brief 

description of each option is presented below. The 

Logging and SawmillingJournal has established a 

lpresonted at the joint meeting of the Council On Forest World Wide Webhomepage (http://www.forestnet. 

Engineering and International Union of Forest Research corn) that containsinformationabout stream crossings, 

Organizations Subject Group $3.04-00, Marquette, MI, Iuly 29- including sections on planning, protecting aquatic 

August 1, 1996. 

resources, crossing structureoptions, revegetation,and 

2For the purposes of this paper, wetlands are areas that contain soil removal. All portable stream crossing options may 

with poor load-bearing capacity madhigh moisture content or need to be cabled to a nearby tree or be able to pivot on 

standing water. These areas are frequently effected by seasonal one side to prevent floodwaters from moving them 

fluctuations in water levels, downstream. 

3For purposes of this paper, a temporary crossing is one that is used 

for a maximum ofthree (3) years before it is removed. 

151

Fords 

Culverts have been the mainstay in stream crossings 

because of their portability, availability, and relatively 

A ford is a stream crossing which utilizes the stream 

low-cost. Low-cost culvert transportation systems have 

bed asthe roadway without significantly altering the been developed (Ewing 1992). Installation and 

shape of the stream channel. They are formed by removal of small culverts can be accomplished with a 

lowering the road grade to the stream level from bank bulldozer or backhoe. An excavator may be needed to 

to bank. They are best suited to locations where the 

install or remove larger culverts. 

stream bank approaches are low, the bottom is solid (or 

can be made solid), the channel is straight, and the 

A single large diameter culvert is preferable to several 

normal flow is low. While many potential fords have a smaller ones. Some jurisdictions may permit logs or 

stable natural base of bedrock or coarse gravel, 

brush to be placed around the culvert to avoid the use 

imported rock, concrete pads/panels, tire mats, or other of fill and to make it easier to remove. Corrugated steel 

stabilizing systems may be needed to reinforce other culverts are used most frequently. Corrugated 

crossings, 

polyethylene pipes, hollow piling, well casings, gas 

pipeline, and hollow logs may be acceptable 

Some jurisdictions may permit the use of pole fords in alternatives in some eases. Stjernberg (1987) 

small streams. They are constructed by placing poles, discusses some of the problems associated with plastic 

brush, or small logs parallel to the stream channel, 

culverts and how those problems can be reduced or 

avoided by following proper installation procedures. 

A vented ford is formed by partially lowering the road 

grades for passing floods and providing culverts for 

Culverts come in a variety of diameters and lengths and 

day-to-day flow (Adamson and Raeey 1989). They are are generally available from a number of local 

suitable where the flow may exoeed a fordable depth suppliers. Used culverts may be available from 

either seasonally or following storm events, 

highway and local road authorities or construction 

companies. A local pipeline, drilling, or construction 

Tufts et al. (1994) describe a plastic ford which was 

company may have used well casings, piling, and gas 

constructed over poor load-bearing soils using 

pipeline available. The diameter of those products may 

geotextiles and cellular confinement systems.' The ford be too small to avoid repeated clogging or to 

included nonwoven geotextile, GEOWEB® panels, a accommodate expected water flow. 

well-graded rock that was less than 0.75-inch diameter 

to fill in and around the GEOWEB®, and larger 

Bridges 

diameter rock that was 4 to 8 inches in diameter in the 

bottom of the creek to increase the strength of the 

Bridges can be constructed from ice or fabricated from 

crusher run rock layer. Tufts et al. (1994) also include timber, steel, concrete, or rubber. Some designs use 

steps for installing a plastic ford. 

two of those materials (e.g., a steel superstructure with 

a wood running surface) and may be in modular panels 

Culverts 

or 

installation/removal. 

hingedto facilitate handling, 

Bridges usually 

transport, 

disturb 


streams 

A culvert is a metal, concrete, or polyethylene pipe, a less than culverts. However, they may be 

wooden box, or ahollow log. It may be round, oblong, uneconomical or impractical on low-volume forest 

or arched. An arch culvert has concrete footing walls 

roads. 

along each side, into which the steel arch is fitted. A 

culvert must be sized to pass anticipated maximum 

Little site preparation is normally required when 

flow levels. Temporary installations that are removed installing a temporary bridge crossing. Abutments on 

seasonally may only need to accommodate estimated 

both sides of the stream crossing are needed when the 

seasonal peak flows. Year-round installations will 

stream bank is unstable and/or when required by local 

need to consider speeitied storm event frequency 

statutes. 

requirements (e.g., 10-, 25-, 50-, or 100-year peak 

flows). Consultation with an engineer or hydrologist is Some bridge crossings consist of two side-by-side 

advised, 

tracks made of logs, beams, or panels, often with a leR 

between them. This design may be less expensive as 

............... compared to a crossing that is continuous across its 

4A cellular confinement system is an expandable honeyoomb plastic 

panel into which different types offdl nml_al (e.g., soil, gravel, 

entire width. However, it may result in degraded water 

stone) can be ___added._ The panels confine the fill into small quality if debris falls through the gap when logs are 

¢xanpa:lmen_ holding them in place, skidded or trucks cross the bridge. 

152

Ice bridges 

especially if the species does not have a high decay 

resistance. 

During the winter, an ice bridge offers a low-cost 

bridging alternative. It may be created across a stream Engineered timber bridges have been constructed using 

when the ice is thick enough or the stream bed is frozen treated panels of either stress-laminated or glueenough 

to protect the stream bed. An ice bridge is laminated (glulam) materials. Stress-laminated bridge 

constructed by packing snow into the crossing area and panels consist of lumber placed edgewise and held 

adding water to create a thick layer of ice. This process together with high-strength steel rods which are 

may need to be repeated over a period of several days stressed in tension, up to 100,000 pounds/square inch 

to create an adequate width and depth of ice for safe (PSI). The bridge is generally re-stressed at least twice 

use. It is easiest to create an ice bridge across a stream during the first 1 to 2 months after being placed in 

that has a low flow velocity, service. Glue-laminated bridge panels consist of 

dimension lumber glued together on the wide face. The 

In some jurisdictions, it may be permissible to place 

resulting stress-laminated or glulam panels are then 

brush down before creating the ice bridge. This is placed side by side across a stream. An advantage of 

generally undesirable because the brush is often not both of these engineered panel products is that they 

removed. If brush is used as a base, it should be have known strength characteristics. 

securely cabled to a tree or other nearby secure 

structure to avoid its being washed downstream and to Through its National Timber Bridge Initiative, the US 

facilitate removal when the bridge melts. Forest Service has established a World Wide Web 

homepage (http://gypsy.fsl.wvnet. edu/ffm/ 

The following formula has been developed to estimate timber_bridge/wit.html) on the Internet that describes 

the minimum ice thickness required to support a load 

the program and provides an on-line order form to 

for an ice bridge above a flowing river or stream or on obtain free publications. The US Forest Service has 

a lake ('Haynes and Carey 1996): 

also published an excellent reference on timber bridge 

design, construction, inspection, and maintenance 

h=4(P) '_ (Ritter 1992). 

Where: h = ice thickness in inches, Steel bridges 

P = the load or gross weight, in tons. 

Steel bridges include hinged portable bridges, modular 

Timberbridges 

bridges, andrail ears that are convertedfor use at 

temporary crossings. Where permitted, two or more 

Timber bridges can be classified as being non- bridge spans or bridge panels (multi-spans) may be 

engineered or engineered. Non-engineered bridges connected across a pier to span wide crossings. Hinged 

include log or roundwood stringer bridges and plank bridges fold-up for transport. Modular steel bridges 

bridges. Log stringer bridges can be built from trees are designed as a series of individual panels that 

felled in the area of construction, railroad ties, or from interlock, forming a bridge of variable length and 

demolition materials. Plank bridges use log stringers width. Rail cars tend to be very heavy and require 

or cants for the superstructure and lumber for the reinforcement before they are safe to use as a bridge. 

running surface. Crossing a narrow stream can In some areas, used rail cars may be available through 

sometimes be accomplished by bundling log stringers your local railroad company. In other areas, used rail 

together with chains or cable. If care is used during cars may be purchased from third-party vendors who 

installation, removal, and transport, timber bridges can purchase old rail cars from railroads. Contact your 

be used several times, 

local railroad company or rail car repair facility to 

obtain a used rail car or to fred out how to obtain one. 

Care should be exercised when using logs or other It may be possible to locally fabricate a steel bridge to 

native materials, hardwood beams, or planks to cross a span shorter than about 50-feet using I-beams. 

construct a bridge because they have not been 

evaluated by engineers to determine their structural Concrete bridges 

strength. It is not possible to accurately estimate their 

load ratings. Rot, decay, knots, and grain can greatly 

Precast, prestressed concrete panels can be locally 

affect their strength properties. Some of these factors fabricated. Although the initial cost of this bridge may 

become more important the longer a bridge is in use, 

be low, they are usually heavy and require larger 

153

equipment to install and remove. Be sure that the a bridge deck or lumber placed over a geotextile or 

panels are engineered to handle the anticipated loads, 

used paper machine felt, tire mats, tire chips, pipe 

fascine, chunkwood, low ground pressure equipment, 

Rubber mat bridge (dam bridge) 

and pole rails. Some of these options are best suited to 

be used in conjunction with hauling activities and not 

A dam bridge can be constructed from strips of rubber for use during skidding. As with stream crossings, 

conveyer belting joined side by side (Arnold 1994, there are several ways to accomplish each of the 

Looney 1981). Looney (1981) tested a dam bridge that various options. A brief description of each option is 

was constructed from half-inch thick strips of used 

presented below. 

rubber conveyor belting laid side by side that were 

cemented and bolted together. Support cables hold the Corduroy 

sides upright so that the mat floats on the water to form 

a "U"shaped, trough-like structure, through which 

Corduroy is made of brush, small logs cut from lowskidders 

can pass. When a load enters the bridge, the value and noncommercial trees on-site, or mill slabs 

mat is pressed down to the stream bottom by the 

laid parallel or perpendicular to the direction of travel. 

vehicle's weight, momentarily damming the stream. 

The effect of corduroy is to spread the load over the 

ARer the load has passed, the bridge floats to the 

whole length of the log or slab, effectively increasing 

water's surface, allowing the stream to flow again 

the load-bearing area. Brush corduroy will provide less 

unobstructed. This action allows the vehicle to be reinforcement than small logs or mill slabs. Temporary 

supported by the stream bottom while the rubber mat 

corduroy normally is not covered with fill. 

protects the bottom from rutting and abrasion. The mat 

must be anchored to a nearby tree or other nearby 

Wood waste 

structure. Skidders equipped with tire chains may have 

trouble climbing out of a dam bridge. Looney (1981) Sawmill residue, such as bark, sawdust, and planer 

recommends placing a layer of rock along each 

shavings can be used. Maintenance will be needed to 

shoreline from the water's edge to the end of the repair any rutting and low-frequency washboarding. 

bridge. 

Wood pallets 

Pipe fascine (bundled pipe) 

Wood pallets for use in wetland crossings are a sturdy 

Within the context of this paper, a faseine is a series of multiple-layered variation of a wood pallet specially 

parallel pipes used to fill a drainage to allow water to designed for use as a traffic surface. They are generally 

flow and vehicles to cross. A pipe faseine crossing is made from hardwood planks which are nailed together. 

constructed using polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes that They are specially designed so that they can 

are cabled together to form mats of varying length. The interconnect, are reversible, so that individual pallets 

fascine is then layered in the stream channel, parallel to can be easily replaced, and so that nail points won't 

the stream, so that it adjusts to the shape of the channel, surface. 

Streams with a U-shaped channel are most appropriate 

for this option. Covering the pipe or utilizing an 

Wood mats 

ultraviolet-resistant type of pipe may extend life 

expectancy. Placement of a geotextile fabric under the Wood mats are single-layer platforms where the 

crossing is recommended to ensure separation from the individual wooden pieces are made of larger, closely 

stream bottom andto facilitate the removal. Typically, spaced hardwood (usually oak) sawn material. In some 

a tractive surface such as deck span safety grating, tire cases, the individual pieces which comprise the wood 

mats, wood pallets, or wood mats should be laid over 

mat may be cabled together. During installation, it is 

the top mat to reduce impact to the pipe, to keep the 

important to tuck the ends of all wire loops under the 

pipes in place, and to provide a good running surface, mats to avoid their being caught by a vehicle. 

WETLAND CROSSING OPTIONS 

Temporary wetland crossing options include corduroy, 

wood waste, wood pallets, wood mats, geotextile with 

metal grating, geomatrices/cellular confinement system, 

154 

Geotextile with metal grating 

Machine weight can be distributed over a broader area 

by placing a commercially available deck span metal 

safety grating on top of the geotextile, perpendicular to 

the direction of travel. By connecting the pieces of 

metal grating together, the amount of cold pressing

(slow deformation or bowing of the sheet metal) will be the crossing are needed as well as a running surface. 

reduced. While cold pressing does not harm the The US Forest Service is currently testing this option 

grating, it does necessitate flipping the grating over 

and hopes to be able to summarize their results in lateoccasionally. 

1996. Coveringthe pipe or utilizingan ultravioletresistant 

type of pipe may extend life expectancy. 

Geomatrices/ceHular confinement system Placement of a geotextile fabric under the crossing can 

facilitate separation of the pipe and soil. No published 

A cellular confinement system (see footnote 4), with a studies have evaluated the use of pipe fascine for 

geotextile below it, can provide support for wetland wetland crossings during winter months in an 

crossings, 

environmentwheretemperatures are consistently 

below freezing. 

Bridge deck or lumber placed over a geotextile or 

usedpapermachinefelt 

Chunkwood 

The decking of a timber bridge could be used to cross a Chunkwood roads can be constructed from low-value 

small wetland area. Bridge panel options that do not and noncommercial trees using a chunkwood chipper 

have an associated superstructure, such as glue- that produces fist-sized chunks. Unfortunately, there 

laminated and stress-laminated bridges, maybe most 

are very few chunkwood machines available around the 

appropriate. Also, a temporary decking could be world. 

constructed by laying down parallel runners on each 

side where the truck tires would pass and then nailing Low ground pressure equipment 

down hardwood lumber to serve as the running surface. 

By reducing ground pressure, equipment flotation is 

Tire mats 

enhanced, traction is usually improved, and road 

maintenance requirements such as grading can be 

A mat or panel of tires can be created by reduced. Low ground pressure equipment can reduce 

interconnecting tire sidewalls with corrosion resistant rut depth and compaction. Ground pressures of less 

fasteners. Mats of varying length and width earl be than 5 or 6 PSI are often considered high flotation. 

developed. Some designs incorporate the tire tread into Ground pressures lower than 4 PSI may be needed to 

the product. No running surface is needed over the operate on wetland soils without difficulty. 

mat. Anchoring may be needed to prevent lateral 

movement during use, especially in areas with a grade For skidding equipment, options to achieve low ground 

over about 5 percent, 

pressure include reduced loads, use of high flotation 

tires, dual tires, tracks, bogeys, small equipment, or 

Tire chips forwarders. High flotation tires are wider than 

conventional equipment, usually wider than 34 inches. 

Tire chips are produced by shredding ear and truck 

Dual tires consist of two adjacent conventional width 

tires until they pass a two-inch screen. The resulting tires. Track machines distribute the machine's weight 

chips can be spread across the crossing area. In 

over steel tracks. It is possible to add wrap-around 

addition to providing flotation, traction, and tracks to existing, individual, conventional width 

permeability, they also can serve to insulate the rubber tires. A bogey system connects tires on adjacent 

underlying soil and to reduce the capillary rise of axles with a track. While building smaller loads for 

subsurface water in the spring. Some jurisdictions may skidders is also an option, they frequently experience 

prohibit use of tire chips where they come in contact poor productivity and high production costs under 

withwater, 

those scenarios. Forwarders arebetter able to maintain 

Pipe fascine (bundled pipe) 

acceptable productivity and costs under situations 

where a reduced load is needed. 

As noted in the temporary stream crossing options 

Clambunk skidders and tree-length forwarders can 

section, a pipe faseine crossing is constructed using 

move large loads while exerting a low ground pressure. 

PVC pipes that are cabled together to form mats of Cable yarding systems, which can either partially or 

varying length. While the length of the mats is fully lift logs off the ground, are another option. 

generally short for stream crossings, longer lengths can 

be built for wetland crossings. In effect, a corduroy Central tire inflation (CTI) technology is a low ground 

crossing is established. Ramps up to and down from pressure option for hauling. It allows a driver to 

-155

automatically and uniformly vary the inflation pressure and water quality impacts (Brynn and Clausen 1991). 

of a truck's tires while the vehicle is moving. With a 

The crossings were accomplished with either a metal or 

CTI system, the pressure on radial tires can be lowered wooden culvert, ford, bridge, or brush. Over 60 

to yield a tire with a larger footprint area. That larger percent of the crossings were made by a ford. Stream 

footprint translates into better flotation, enhanced crossing sedimentation and debris were above 

traction, and reduced rutting in wet areas, background levels on 57 and 55 percent of the sites, 

respectively. 

Pole rails 

Brynn and Clausen (1991) recommended that stream 

When attempting to support skidding or forwarding crossings over brush or pole fords should not be 

machinery equipped with high flotation or dual tires, allowed because the brush was infrequently removed 

one or more straight hardwood poles produced from and restoration may result in increased sedimentation. 

on-site trees can be laid in the direction of travel below Newton et al. (1990) recommended that fords of 

each wheel. The poles can either be with or without permanent streams should not be allowed under 

limbs. If the poles are not delimbed, more flotation will unusual circumstances. 

be provided at the top of the tree where the diameter is 

smallest. The diameter of the pole should not exceed Tomatore (1995) evaluated suspended solids and 

around 10 inches so that it will penetrate the wet area turbidity for haul roads and skid trails associated with 

to a sufficient depth such that the tires come in contact different stream crossing options at two locations in 

with the soil. Two or more poles may need to be laid Pennsylvania. Installation of all skidder crossings 

parallel to each other below each wheel if only small caused significant increases in suspended solids and 

diameter material is available or if sufficient flotation is turbidity. The level of impact to the stream was less 

not provided. For a longer crossing, two or more poles severe during the installation of the portable bridge 

may be needed lengthwise. The larger end of the stem versus culvert installation. Installation impacts were 

should be placed on the softer ground to maximize reduced to insignificant levels within 24 hours 

flotation. After placing the poles, it is important to following bridge installation versus 96 hours following 

drive across them a few times without carrying a load installation of the culvert with a log fill. 

to get them properly seated in the soil. Remove the 

poles when there is no additional need to cross the wet Increases in suspended solids occurred downstream 

area. This option will not work well if the machinery is from all skidder crossings (Tornatore 1995). Increases 

equipped with conventional width tires because they below the portable bridge appeared to be a result of 

are too narrow and are operated at too high a pressure debris (leaves, twigs, and bark) falling through gaps in 

to stay on top of the poles, 

the bridge planking. Despite this, the portable steel 

bridge still outperformed both culverts. The culvert 

with shale fill performed better than the culvert with 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ASSOCIATED log fill. Suspended solids below the culvert with log 

WITH CROSSINGS 

fill resulted primarily from increased inorganic 

sediment which may be related to the stability of the 

Unfortunately, little information exists which focuses 

approach area and stream bank. Two skidder passes 

specifically on impacts associated with temporary 

made within 15 minutes of each other at the 

stream or wetland crossings. Most of the literature unmitigated ford crossing increased sediment solids by 

relates to the use of culverts. Few studies have 350 times. 

examined impacts associated with the removal of the 

temporary crossings or compared the long-term 

Hassler et al. (1990) reported that there were no 

impacts associated with using a ford versus a statistically significant differences between turbidity, 

temporary bridge. Information presented below 

pH, and conductivity samples taken above and below a 

summarizes some of the studies which have reported stress-laminated timber bridge crossing. Thompson et 

impacts resulting from crossings, 

al. (1994) reported that culverts contributed more 

sediment to the stream during installation and removal 

Studies of stream crossings 

than the bridge crossings which did not contribute any 

sediment. 

A series of oneMay post-harvest assessments of 78 

recently completed timber harvesting sites was A survey of 70 forest road stream crossings in 

conducted in Vermont to evaluate Acceptable 

Pennsylvania was conducted to describe the crossing 

Management Practice compliance, soft erosion extent, characteristics and to evaluate the long-term impacts of 

156

the crossings on habitat quality, channel stability, concluded that this option would be an acceptable 

vegetation, and channel sediment embeddedness above mitigation from observational evidence of active and 

and below the crossings (Miller 1993). Only crossings inactive harvesting sites 

two years old or older were evaluated. Culvert (57 

percent), bridge (30 percent), and ford (13 percent) 

Looney (1981) compared the use of a rubber mat dam 

crossings were evaluated. Overall, relatively few bridge to a ford and a culvert crossing. While wholedetectable 

long-term impacts due to permanent forest 

tree skidding, the rubber mat dam bridge yielded a 

road crossings were identified. Only 35 of the 814 significant reduction in the amount of suspended solids 

comparisons of environmental conditions studied above being carried downstream, as compared to a ford 

and below the crossings were found to be significant at crossing. During 1.33 hours of use at one site (5 onean 

alpha level of .05. Significant differences that did way crossings with the first, third, arid fifth crossings 

occur suggested that stream bed fine sediment levels being loaded), the ford crossing resulted in 52,707 

were higher, basal area lower, and herbaceous cover 

grams of sediment as compared to 31,239 grams of 

higher in the immediate vicinity (less than 33 feet sediment for the dam bridge. During two hours of use 

upstream and downstream) of some crossings, at a second site (8 one-way crossings, every other one 

being loaded), the ford crossing resulted in 208,455 

Thompson and Kyker-Snowrnan (1989) evaluated both grams of sediment as compared to 82,326 grams for the 

short- and long-term impacts at an "unmitigated" dam bridge. The author also noted that the dam bridge 

stream crossing as well as "mitigated" crossings 

provided considerable flotation to the skidder as 

constructed with a portable bridge, a poled ford with a compared to the ford crossing. Installation and 

ductile iron culvert 5, and concrete slabs with hay bales, removal of a culvert crossing resulted in 198,075 

The unmitigated crossings provided no protection from grams of sediment being added to the stream. 

disturbance of the stream or its banks. No clear effect 

of season (flow level) or equipment type (rubber-tire 

Mason and Greenfield (1995) provide observational 

cable skidder vs. dual rear axle forwarder) on turbidity information about potential impacts due to pipe fascine 

levels was documented. The effect of mitigation was crossings. They indicate that soil may be picked up and 

dramatic. Unmitigated crossings generally caused later deposited into the stream if the crossing has been 

large increases in turbidity at 15 and 1O0 feet stored on the ground prior to installation. Also, small 

downstream of the crossing. No significant differences fragments of pipe from cutting and drilling may remain 

between before- and after-crossing values were found inside the pipes and be deposited in the stream. During 

for pH, specific conductivity, or nitrate levels. Nitrate removal of a pipe fascine crossing, sediment that had 

levels were negligible and in no case did they come settles on the surface of the geotextile dan enter the 

near the allowable drinking water limit. For both 

stream mainly from disturbance when the fabric is 

unmitigated and mitigated crossings, there were no 

dragged out. 

significant differences between turbidity values 

measured at 1,000; 2,200; 2,640; or 5,280 feet below 

Studies of wetland crossings 

the crossings from samples taken at upstream locations. 

Mason and Greenfield (1995) compared impacts in an 

Of the mitigated crossings, Thompson and Kyker- 

area where pallets were used versus another area 

Snowman (1989) reported that the bridge was the most without pallets. The soil moisture content within the 

effective and the concrete slabs with hay bales the least area that did not have pallets was typically 5 to 10 

effective at reducing crossing impacts. Measurable percent less than the area that contained the pallets. 

impacts with a portable bridge extended less than 100 The rutting which occurred at the non-pallet crossing 

feet downstream. Measurable effects with other was 6 to 10 inches. At the pallet crossing, settlement 

mitigations rarely extended as far as 1,000 feet was only about 0.5 inches. They reported that the use 

downstream. Although a natural ford was not included of wood pallets left no specific areas to hold and 

as a mitigated crossing in the study, the authors channelize water or specific areas of high compaction 

or rutting. 

5The poled ford consisted of filling the stream with logs or poles 

which were somewhat longer than the width of the equipment Goudey and Taylor (1992) and Taylor (1994) 

which used the crossing. (This crossing is sometimes known as examined the toxicity of aspen wood leachate to aquatic 

corduroy.) The poles were laid parallel with the flow of the organisms. They reported that leaching from aspen 

stream. To improve the streamflow through the ford, two ten- wood chips and wood piles was very toxic to aquatic 

foot long sections of 16-inch wide ductile iron pipe, a highcarbon 

pipe designed to withstand pressurized gas, were added, animal life. Aspen wood leachate can be produced in 

It was placed in the poled ford without backfill, any season when the wood is exposed to water and the 

157

temperature is above freezing. Karsky (1993) Brynn, D. J., and J. C. Clausen. 1991. Postharvest 

mentions that the short-term potential leaching of 

assessment of Vermont's Acceptable Management 

tannic acid from cedar and some other species must be Practices and water quality impacts. Northern 

considered when constructing a chunkwood road close Journal of Applied Forestry 8(4):140-144. 

to a stream. No studies have reported leachate in 

wetland road building using chunkwood. Ewing, R.H. 1992. Low-cost culvert transportation 

systems. Field Note No.: Roads and Bridges-31. 

Wolanek (1995) monitored downslope water quality Quebec, Canada: Forest Engineering Research 

over a 25-month period following construction of a Institute of Canada. 2 p. 

mad segment which used mill-generated bark and 

wood fiber as primary fill material on the Tongass Goudey, J. S., and B. R. Taylor. 1992. Toxicity of 

National Forest in Alaska. Overall, the study reported aspen wood leachate to aquatic life. Part I: 

minimal effects on stream water quality. The 

Laboratory studies. Prepared for Environmental 

parameter most effected was pH, increasing 

Protection Division, Northern Interior Region, 

significantly by 0.2 to 1.5 pH units in the naturally 

British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands 

acidic streams. Dissolved oxygen in the streams and Parks. 49 p. (plus appendices). 

rem_ned unaffected. 

Hassler, C. C., M. P. Wolcott, B. Dickson, R. E. 

Bradley (1995) reported that Central Tire Inflation can Driscole, and W. B. Perry. 1990. A modular 

reduce sediment runoffl_om unpaved roads. Sediment timber bridge for stream crossings. In: Managing 

nmoffwas reduced by as much as 84 percent on road 

Forest Operations in a Changing Environment 

sections that were used by CTI-equipped vehicles, as Proceedings, Council on Forest Engineering 

compared to vehicles using 90 PSI tires. Annual Meeting, Nags Head, NC.: 190-201. 

Haynes, F. D., and K. L. Carey. 1996. Safe loads on 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ice sheets. U.S. Army Cold Regions Researeh and 

Engineering Laboratory, Ice Engineering Number 

This contribution was supported by the Great Lakes 13. 4 p. 

Protection Fund and the University of Minnesota's 

Department of Forest Resources, the Minnesota 

Karsk'y,D. 1993. Chunkwood roads. Engineering 

Extension Service, and the University of Mirmesota Field Notes 26:39-42. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Agricultural Experiment Station under Project MN 42- 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 

42. Contributed as Paper No. 22,385 of the Minnesota 

Agricultural Experiment Station. Looney, T.E. 1981. A comparison of the dam bridge 

with current methods of crossing streams with 

skidders. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic 

LITERATURE CITED Instituteand State University. 58 p. MS Thesis. 

Adamson, R. B., andG. Racey. 1989. Low water Mason, L. 1990. Portable wetland and stream 

crossings: An inexpensive alternative for low 

crossings. Publication 9024 1203. San Dimas, 

volume roads in Northern Ontario. Ontario 

CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Ministry of Natural Resources, Northwestern 

Service, San Dimas Technology and Development 

Ontario Boreal Forest Management Technical Center. 110 p. 

Notes TN-02. 4 p. 

Mason, L. E., and P. H. Greenfield. 1995. Portable 

Arnold, G. 1994. Portable and low cost bridges, 

crossings for weak soil areas and streams. In: 

Rotorua: New Zealand: Logging Industry Research Transportation Research Record 1504; 

Organisation. Report Volume 19,Number 14. 12 

Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board, 

p. National Research Council: 118-124. 

Bradley, A.H. 1995. Lower tire pressures lessen Miller, R. L., Jr. 1993. The long-term environmental 

sedimentation from roads. Field Note No.: Roads impacts and the costs associated with forest road 

and Bridges-47. Quebec, Canada: Forest crossings of wetlands in Pennsylvania. State 

Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 2 p. College, PA: Pennsylvania State University. 133 

p. MS Thesis. 

158

Newton, C. M., D. J. Brynn, D. E. Capen, J.C. Tomatore, T.A. 1995. Short-term impacts of forest 

Clausen, J. R. Dormelly, J. B. Shane, Jr., P.A. 

road and skid trail system crossings on suspended 

Thomas, T. L. Turner, and J. E. Vissering. 1990. solids and turbidity. State College, PA: 

Executive summary. In: Impact assessment of Pennsylvania State University. 160 p. MS Thesis. 

timber harvesting activity in Vermont. Burlington, 

VT: University of Vermont, School of Natural Tutts, R., S. Taylor, M. Weatherford, and H. 

Resources: 1-10. 

Boatwright. 1994. Stream crossings using manmade 

fords. In: Proceedings of the winter meeting 

Ritter, M. A. 1992. Timber bridges: Design, 

of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers; 

construction, inspection, and maintenance. LI.S. 1994 December 13-16; Atlanta, GA; Paper No. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service EM 94-7509. 10 p. 

7700-8. 

Wolanek, M.D. 1995. Wood fiber road construction 

Stjernberg, E. 1987. Plastic culverts in forest road influences on stream water quality in Southeast 

construction. Technical Note TN-110. Forest Alaska. In: Proceedings of the sixth international 

Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 8 p. conference on low-volume roads; 1995 June 25- 

26; Minneapolis, MN: Washington, DC: National 

Taylor, B.R. 1994. Toxicity of aspen wood leachate Academy Press: 1(58-66). 

to aquatic life. Part I: Field study. Prepared for 

Environmental Protection Division, Northern 

Interior Region, British Columbia Ministry of 

Environment, Lands and Parks. 59 p. (plus 

appendices). 

Thompson, J. D., S. E. Taylor, K. H. Yoo, R. W. 

Brinker, and R. A. Tufts. 1994. Water quality 

impacts from different forest road stream 

crossings. In: Proceedings of the winter meeting 

of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers; 

1994 December 13-16; Atlanta, GA: Paper No. 

94-7510. 12 p. 

Thompson, C. H., and T. D. Kyker-Snowman. 1989. 

Evaluation of non-point source pollution problems 

from crossing streams with logging equipment and 

of-road vehicles in Massachusetts: 1987-1988. 

Amherst, MA: Department of Forestry and 

Wildlife Management, University of 

Massachusetts. 78 p. 

t59

MECHANICAL DELIMBING OF NORTHERN 

HARDWOODS: RESULTS FROM 

LABORATORY TESTS l 

by 

Joseph B. Sturos 


James A. Mattson 


Houghton,Michigan,USA 

ABSTRACT: The objective of thistudywas to 

determine whichmachine parameters can be variedto 

reducetheforcerequired todelimbhardwoodsby 

knife. 

Fiveindependent variables werechosenfor 

investigation: bladethickness, bladecutting edgeangle, 

oblique cutting angle, cutting speed, and branch 

diameter. For all tests the branch angle was held 

constant. Sugarmaple was used for all tests. Sapling 

bolewood held at a fixed angle was used to simulate 

branches. A total of 68 tests were conducted. 

Analysis of Variancerevealed that only blade cutting 

edge angle, oblique cutting angle, and branch diameter 

were foundto significantly affect average cutting force. 

Cuttingedge angle was the most importantfactor 

influencing the cutting force.Reducing the cutting edge 

angle can significantly reduce the average cutting force. 

Results indicate potential for improvement in the 

efficiency, productivity, and design of knife type 

delimbing mechanisms. 

Key Words: hardwood delimbing, force reduction, 

cutting angle, &limbers 

_Presented atthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering 

andInternational UnionofFocestRear.archOtgm6z_onsSubject 

GroupS3.04-00,Marquette, Nil,July29-August1, 1996. 

160

PROPOSED INTERNATIONAL STANDARD made in machine systems and as environmentally- 

DEFINITIONS FOR TIME CONSUMPTION IN friendly approaches are developed. Along with the 

THE STUDY OF FOREST WORK _ 

expectations of high productivity and low cost placed 

on forest equipment, low site and stand impact is also 

by 

critical. Proper operational planning is essential to 

attaining these goals. 


USDA Forest Service Because of the complexity associated with operating in 

Houghton, Michigan, USA this environment, serious study is required to determine 

the most efficient, economic, and environmentally- 

Roll Bjorheden 

acceptable machine systems and operating methods for 

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences a given set of operating conditions. The purpose of 

Garpenberg, Sweden forest work study is to provide this knowledge using 

commonly-accepted, unbiased, and repeatable 

Jeremy Rickards 

evaluation methods. 

University of New Brunswick 

Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada Using standard work study methods is important to the 

usefulness of the information generated. Information 

collected using different formats and procedures is 

ABSTRACT: There are many different time often incompatible, making it necessary to duplicate 

classification and recording systems being used around studies. This is time-consuming, costly, and would be 

the world to evaluate forest work. Differences between unnecessary if standard evaluation methods were 

these systems create difficulties in comparing and using developed and applied. 

the information generated. Standard definitions for 

classifying time consumption in forest work is needed The first step in the process of developing a standard 

to make information collected in different parts of the 

forest work study methodology is to develop a 

world comparable and compatible. A subcommittee of recognized standard forest work study nomenclature. In 

the International Union of Forest Research other words, a common understanding of the terms 

Organizations' (IUFRO) Working Party $3.04-02 being used in forest work study must precede 

(Work study; payment, labour productivity) has 

development of common evaluation methods. 

completed a test edition nomenclature for classifying 

time in forest work. This report outlines the details of This is especially true for the method used to classify 

the classification system proposed by this time consumption because the method used will 

subcommittee. Of particular interest in this discussion determine how the collected information earl be used. 

is the relationship between observed time and standard Developing standard definitions for time consumption 

time. The nomenclature in this document is used to 

in forest work is especially challenging to achieve on 

develop unbiased estimates through direct observation, an international basis because of the many languages 

The observed times that result can then be used to and work study methods that exist around the world. 

develop standard times. This process does not destroy 

observed information; therefore, this nomenclature is 

The purpose of this paper is to report on the 

considered compatible with both the observed and development of a proposed internationally-recognized 

standard time systems, 

nomenclature for classifying time consumption in forest 

work in the English language. English was chosen 

Key Words: time classification, standards, 

because it is the most common second language in the 

nomenclature, work study, forest operations world. The nomenclature was developed by a 

subcommittee of the International Union of Forest 

INTRODUCTION 

Research Organizations' (IUFRO) Subject Area 

$3.04-02 (members listed in the Appendix). 

Forest machines and methods have become more 

complex in recent years as technological advances are 


andInternational Unionof ForestResearchOrganizations Subject 


From this common understanding of nomenclature, it is 

hoped that widely-accepted evaluation methods will be 

developed and used throughout the world. This will 

serve to increase the value of performance information 

for forest equipment and methods in countries with 

similar operating conditions. 

.361,

CLASSIFYING TIME Non-Workplace Time (NW): The portion of the 

total time that is not used for the completion of a 

Work can be classified into individual work elements in 

specific work task. 

many different ways which will ultimately affect the Unutilized Time (UN): The portion of the 

compatibility and usefulness of the observed times, 

non-workplace time that the worker is away 

The purpose of a time classification nomenclature is to from the job; such as time off, etc. 

define commonly-occurring work elements in most Travel Time (TR): The portion of the 

types of forest work. Evaluation personnel can then non-workplace time that the worker is 

use this classification framework to classify specific 

traveling to and from the job site before and 

work elements in the work they are studying, 

after the work period; such as travel to the job 

site, travel away from the job site, etc. 

Many different systems for classifying observed time Workplace Time 0,VP): The portion of the total 

have been developed around the world. North time that a production system or part of a 

American researchers generally use the system outlined 

production system is engaged in a specific work 

by Berard et al. (1968), whereas Scandinavian 

task (also scheduled time). 

researchers generally use the system outlined by the Non-Work Time (NT): The portion of the 

NSR (1978). Significant variation exists both between workplace time that no work is being 

these systems and between the application of these 

accomplished on the work task. 

systems by individual researchers. Disturbance Time (DT): The portion 

of the non-work time that is considered 

The Scandinavian system (NSR 1978) provides a good 

an interruption in the work with no direct 

basic framework for time classification in forest work. 

or indirect connection to the completion 

However, it has a few problems. Forexample, it 

of the work task; such as gathering 

includes provisions for including individual delays of 

information, inclement weather, visitors, 

less than fifteen minutes into gross effective time. This 

injuries, etc. 

could result in serious inaccuracy when estimating Work-Related Delay Time (WD): The 

effective time. This system also allows for a subjective 

portion of the non-work time that can be 

delineation of delay times into either avoidable or 

related back to the organization of the 

unavoidable, 

work. 

Meal Time 0VIE): The portion of 

The North American system (Berard et al. 1968) the work-related delay time used to 

classifies the same work dement differently depending 

refuel the workers or animals in the 

on whether it occurs within the scheduled shiRor out of 

production system; such as 

the scheduled shiR. This system also provides an 

breakfast, lunch, dinner, etc. 

in_lequate rendering of work elements not considered 

Rest and Personal Time (liP): 

productive to the work task. It is hoped that the 

The portion of the work-related 

inadequacies of these two systems have been corrected 

delay time used to sustain the workin 

the current proposed time classification system, 

ing capacity of workers or animals in 

the production system; such as 

breaks, rests, personal needs, etc. 

THE PROPOSED SYSTEM 

Interference Time (IT): The 

portion of the work-related delay 

Thenomenclature proposedby thisIUFRO sub- 

timeinwhichno work activity is 

committee for classifying time consumption in forest 

occurring due to the interference of a 

work is presented in Table I and Figure 1. The terms 

necessary operation within the proand 

definitions presented were taken from the following 

duction system; such as waiting for 

published sources (Berard et al. 1968; BSI 1979; NSR 

the completion of other tasks upon 

1978; SAE 1990) or developed by the subcommittee, which this task is dependent, etc. 

Work Time (W1): The portion of the workplace 

time that a production system or part of 

Table 1. The proposed time classification syst_, 

a production system is directly or indirectly 

involved in completing a specific work task. 

Total Time (TT): The total elapsed time of the period Productive Work Time (PW): The 

under consideration (also calendaric or control time), 

portion of the work time that is spent 

162

contributing directly to the completion of 

Set-Up Time (SLY): The 

a specific work task, typically occurring 

portion of the change-over 

on a cyclic basis (also direct work time), 

time used to ready the 

Main Work Time (blW): The production system for 

portion of the productive work time 

operating at the new site; 

used to change the work object with 

such as stationing and 

regard to form, position, or state 

stabilizing portable equipwithin 

the definition of the work 

ment, setting up rigging for 

task; such as felling, delimbing, 

cable systems, etc. 

bucking, skidding, loading, etc. 

Take-Down Time (TD): 

Complementary Work Time The portion of the ehange- 

(CNV): The portion of the produc- 

over time used to readythe 

tive work time that does not change 

productionsystem for movthe 

work object with regardto form, 

ing to a new site; such as 

position, or state but is needed to 

mobilizing portable equipcomplete 

the work task and is an in- 

ment, taking down the rigtegral 

part of thework cycle; such as 

ging for cable systems, etc. 

positioning the machine or worker, 

Service Time (ST): The portion of 

clearing the work area, assessing the 

the supportive work time used to 

situation, dragging cable, etc. 

sustain the working capacity of 

Supportive Work Time (SW): The machines in the production system. 

portion of the work time that does not Repair Time (RT): The 

directly add to the completion of the work 

portion of the service time used 

task, but is performed to support it (also 

to repair damagedcomponents, 

indirect work time), 

occurring as principally 

Preparatory Time (PT): The non-cyclic interruptions; such as 

portion of the supportive work time 

repairing; waiting for repair 

used to prepare the machines and 

parts, mechanics, or facilities; 

conditions of the work place at a 

transporting for repair; etc. 

single work site or landing location. Maintenance Time (MT): 

Relocation Time (RL): The 

The portion of the service time 

portion of the preparatory time 

used to compensate for the 

used to transport machines, 

successive degradation of tools 

workers, etc. to a new work site. 

and machinery occurring as 

Planning Time 0PL): The 

principally cyclic interruptions; 

portion of the preparatory time 

such as maintaining; waiting for 

used to develop the operational 

parts, mechanics, or facilities; 

strategy; such as cruising and 

transporting for maintenance; 

planning a harvest area, 

warming up equipment, checkmarking 

off skid trails and 

ing equipmentfunction, etc. 

sensitive areas, etc. Refuel Time (RF): The 

Operational Preparatory 

portion of the service time used 

Time (OP): The portion of the to refuel the machine; such as 

preparatory time used to ready 

transporting to refuel, refueling, 

the harvest system to continue 

etc. 

operating at a particular site; Ancillary Work Time (AW): The 

such as changing operators, 

portion of the supportive work time 

moving into the stand, changing 

used to perform ancillary work 

the rigging (same landing 

functions that allow the work to 

location) for cable systems, etc. 

continue in the production system; 

Change-Over Time (CO): such as assisting another machine or 

The portion of the preparatory 

worker, blading skid trails, laying 

time used to set-up and take- 

boughs in wet spots, etc. 

down the production system. 

_63

DISCUSSION 

1UFRO members will either use this nomenclature in 

technical reports or communicate to this subcommittee 

Observing and recording time consumption in forest 

why they cannot. It is envisioned that 

work using the classification system outlined in Table 1 internationally-accepted practices for collecting, 

and Figure 1 is considered the "observed time" system, analyzing, and reporting results of forest work studies 

Of particular interest is the relationship between this 

will be the next logical development in this initiative. 

system and the "standard time" system used regularly in Anyone interested in working in this area is encouraged 

Germany and the United Kingdom. The standard time to discuss this interest with the leader of IUFRO 

system is a work measurement system used to $3.04-02, RolfBjorheden. The development and use 

determine the average time it should take for a qualified of internationally-accepted nomenclature and work 

worker to perform a defined amount of work when 

study practices is critical to the compatibility and 

performing at an expected level of performance (BSI 

ultimate usefulness of forest work study information. 

1979). 

One purpose of the standard time system is to allow for 

REFERENCES 

direct comparison of performance by %orrecting"for 

differences in working conditions and workpiece 

Berard, Jean A., D.H.W. Dibble, C.D. Homcastle. 

variables. This is accomplished by rating the 

1968. Standard definitions for machine 

performance of the worker (performance rating) 

availability and utilization. Pulp and Paper 

relative to an expected or standard rate of working and Magazine of Canada 69(1):94,96. 

providing allowances for rest and meals. 

Bjorheden, Roll. 1992. Introductory remarks 

A strong case exists against using performance rating 

concerning an international time study 

to "correct" observed data due to the subjective nature nomenclature. Unpublished paper presented at the 

of this method (Bjorheden 1992, Samset 1988). IUFRO WP $3.04.02 symposium "Work Study - 

However, this practice need not be debated when Measurement and Terminology," 10-12 June 

developing nomenclature for observed times. 

1992, Gottingen, Germany. 

Developing standard times l_om observed data is an 

analysis procedure applied to observed data. Applying British StandardsInstitute (BSI). 1979. BS 3138: 

a performance rating correction and assuming rest and 

Glossary of terms used in work study and 

other times does not destroy the observed data. organization and methods. 32 p. 

Therefore, as long as all the information needed to 

develop standard times (such as operator performance NSR. 1978. Forestry work study nomenclature. 

rating) is eotlected during observation, these basic The Nordic Forest Study Council. 130p. 

observations can be statistically analyzed or used to 

develop standard times. 

Samset, Ivar. 1988. Some observations on time 

and performance studies of forest operations. In 

The question whether or not to collect performance 

"Developments on Work Studies in Forestry," 

rating during observation of the work need not be 

22-24 June 1988, Thessaloniki, Greece; IUFRO 

addressed when debating this nomenclature. This is a WP $3.04.02, p. 171-197. 

question that should be addressed during the next step 

of this initiative to develop standard forest work study Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). 1990. SAE 

methods (which should consist of developing specific J817a: Engineering design serviceability 

internationally-accepted procedures for collecting, guidelines - construction and industrial machinery. 

analyzing, and reporting forest work study results). A 

In 1990 SAE Handbook, 400 Commonwealth 

standard forest work study system is considered critical 

to the international compatibility and usefulness of 

Drive, Warrendale, PA USA; p. 40.422-40.428. 

forest work study information. 

CONCLUSIONS 

This report proposes an internationally-accepted 

nomenclature for time classification in forest work in 

the english language (Appendix 1). It is hoped that 

164

I 

IITOTALTIME (TT)I 

J 

li Non-Workplace,Time _w)11 [] Workplace Time, (WP) ]] 

I 

.... i , ..... 

I 

Travel Time (TR) 

Disturbance time (DT) Productive Work Time (PW) 

Work-Related Delay Time (WD) 

u Main Work Time (MW) 

Meal time (ME) Complementary Work Time (CW) 

Ii RestInterference and personaltime Time (IT)(RP) ] Supportive Work Time (SW) 

' ' --_ Preparatory (PT),, Time 

[ 

-I Relocation Time (RL) 

. . 

t Planning Time (PT) 

--[ Operational Prepara to ry Time (OP) [ 

-I _,o_oOv_T,m_(_o, J 

Take-Down Time!TD_ l 

--_ Service Time (ST) ] 

I 

Repair Time (RT) 

Maintenance Time (MT) 

Refuel Time (RF) 

"-t Ancillary W°rk Time J, (AW) ,, 

Figure 1. Time concept's structure. 

165

RAPID STABILIZATION OF THAWING SOILS: travel. In addition, trafficking may cause damage by 

A DEMONSTRATION PROJECT _ rutting, tearing of smTace vegetation, and subsequent 

erosion. In fi'ost-susceptible soils, fi-eezing 

by 

temperatures draw soil moisture upward, forming ice 

lenses. Later, as surface temperatures rise, water from 

Maureen A. Kestler 

melting ice is trapped in the thawing layer by the 

Sally A. Shoop 

impermeable frozen layers below. Additional moisture 

Karen S. Henry from snowmelt or precipitation can worsen conditions, 


as can low nightlytemperatures that continue to draw 

Jeffrey A. Stark soil moisture toward the surface. These conditions 

were evident as "muddy roads" during the deployment 

US Army Cold Regions Research 

of US forces in Bosnia, where rapid stabilization of 

and Engineering Laboratory thawing soils was critical for the safe and timely 

Hanover, New Hampshire, USA 

movement of troops. 

Vehicle mobility can be enhanced and environmental 

ABSTRACT: The US Army Cold Regions Research damage prevented by appropriate stabilization of 

and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) conducted a 

thawing ground. Phase I, an initial review of rapid 

field demonstration project in which a variety of 

stabilization techniques, is provided in Kestler et al. 

expedient surfaces were constructed and trafficked to (1994). The objective of the field demonstration, Phase 

test stabilization techniques for thawing soils. The II, was to evaluate the construction and performance of 

project was conducted at Fort McCoy, Wisconsin, the most promising methods of stabilization suitable for 

during the 1995 spring thaw. Cooperating partners 

military use on thawing ground. The test program was 

included the Wisconsin National Guard, the US Army conducted during March 1995 at Fort McCoy, 

Engineer School, the USDA Forest Service (USFS), Wisconsin. The date was selected based on the 

Terramat, and Uni-Mat International, Inc. As part of 

available historical weather data indicating this as the 

the overall project, the stabilizing techniques were typical time of spring thaw. Although the test and 

evaluated for expediency, ease of construction, 

evaluation program was performed with military 

performance during trafficking, and vehicle mobility 

vehicles, the techniques are suitable for many civilian 

enhancement. The test and evaluation program 

applications, such as for construction, mining, oil and 

generated recommendations for construction of forestry, where the ability to travel on thawing ground 

expedient roads under thawing conditions to be is desirable. 

incorporated into military engineering decision aids and 

simulations. The information is also applicable for non- Stabilization techniques were tested on each of three 

military purposes such as timber- and pipeline-access 

trails---a thawing wooded trail, a 16 to 18% sloped 

in the logging, oil and gas industries. This paper trail, and a pentagonal-shaped loop trail (to test 

provides a general description of the techniques tested cornering). The techniques were chosen for field 

and installation methods used as well as some 

evaluation based on their applicability to military use, 

difficulties associated with each. It also briefly 

expediency, and mechanical interaction with thawing 

describes the tests performed and types of data 

ground to distribute loads and provide both vehicle 

gathered. Greater detail and results are provided in flotation and traction. The USDA Forest Service has 

Kestler et al. (in prep), 

been testing and evaluating many of these techniques as 

portable crossings for unstable soil, primarily for 

Key Words: expedient surfaces, stabilization, thaw 

wheeled vehicles, for the past several years (Mason 

weakening, wetland crossings 

1990). Mechanical stabilization techniques evaluated at 

Fort McCoy include chunkwood, tire chips, wood mats, 

tire mats, faseines, tree slash, and geosynthetics. 

INTRODUCTION / BACKGROUND Materials were used both separately and in 

combination with each other. Most test sections were 

Thawing soils earl reduce vehicle mobility on 

30 m (100 It) in length. Trail preparation prior to 

unsuraced roads or trails and severely restrict off-road placing the materials was minimal. Details including 

labor and equipment needs, time, and amount of 

material for construction of each surface were carefully 


_Presented 

International 

at the joint 

Union 

meeting 

of Forest 

of the 

Research 

Council On 

Organizations 

Forest Engineering 

Subject observed and noted. Prior to construction, the terrain 

Group $3.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1, 1996. and soil were characterized. After construction, 

166

surfacing materials were subjected to 50 passes each of Center (MTDC) in Montana. Whole trees are 

a wheeled military vehicle (Heavy Expanded Mobility "chunked" and individual chunkwood particles range in 

Tactical truck [HEMTT]) and a tracked tank (M60A3) size from that of a conventional wood chip to the 

(Figure 1). During trafficking, vehicle and test surface diameter of the parent tree. Initial uses of ehunkwood 

performance were monitored for test surface damage 

included biomass fuel and a material for manufacturing 

through rutting and lateral expansion, material flakeboard. However, since 1987, the USFS has used 

interference with vehicles, vehicle traction and chunkwood in the construction of several low volume 

handling problems, and ride quality (Kestler et al. in forest roads (Arola et al. 1991). Two major objectives 

prep) (Shoop and Stark 1996). 

in roadbuilding are to minimize the water accumulation 

on the surface, and to elevate the roadway to maximize 

This field program was made possible through subbase drainage. While this can be done with 

collaborative efforts of several government conventional borrow material, chunkwood provides a 

organizations and private industry. The USDA Forest 

viable alternative when suitable gravel is unavailable 

Service (USFS) worked closely with us based on their within a reasonable haul distance. Additionally, high 

interests in environmentally-friendly forest operations, permeability makes chunkwood a good replacement for 

They assisted in the production of chunkwood, 

gravel in wet areas. 

developed by the USFS as an alternative road-building 

material, and in fabrication of both wood pallets and The USFS has shown that a few inches of aggregate 

PVC fascine mats. The US Army Engineer School surfacing atop a chunkwood base course improves 

helped plan and execute the test and evaluation performance considerably. However, for expediency, 

program to assess various techniques for military use. no cover was placed on the chunkwood at Fort McCoy 

The WI National Guard 229 thEngineers CSE Co. 

(Figure 2b), and it was evaluated as a wear surface. In 

constructed the trails and performed the trattlcking and most instances, chunkwood was mixed with sand (three 

evaluation as part of their annual training exercise. Two parts ch nkwood to one part sand) to increase the grain 

private companies (Terramat and Uni-Mat size range and improve interlocking. Thickness of the 

International) donated their time and materials to chunkwood test sections ranged from 20 to 40 cm (8 to 

evaluate their products for military use. Finally, the 16 in.). In addition to the ehunkwood test sections, 

tests were conducted at Fort McCoy, WI, specitically ch kwood served as the mainstay of the trail 

for testing chunkwood roads for long-term trail improvement program, replacing gravel wherever 

improvement and for resource management by thinning additional fill was required. 

trees in selected areas to enhance an endangered 

species habitat. 

Because Fort McCoy had planned to construct 

additional chunkwood roads on base after completion 

of the stabilization demonstration project, and because 

STABILIZATION MATERIALS of the uncertainty of continuous operation of the USFS' 

CONSTRUCTION 

prototype woodehunker throughout the demonstration 

project, chunking operations commenced a few weeks 

Gravel 

prior to the start of the demonstration project. This 

provided a sizable stockpile for the start of the 

Gravel, typically used for Fort McCoy's gravel roads, demonstration project. 

was obtained from an on-base stockpile. The material 

was loaded into dump trucks, delivered to the test sites, The material was loaded into dump trucks, delivered to 

and spread with a D7 bulldozer. It had a density of 

the site, and spread with a D7 bulldozer. Construction 

approximately 1920 kg/m- (120 per), compacted easily vehicle tralfie provided adequate compaction and a 

with construction traffic, and provided a good traffic 

smooth wear surface. 

surface. 

The use of ehtmkwood was ideal for the Fort McCoy 

Chunkwood 

site. Thinning was desired to enhance the habitat for an 

endangered species, and the timber used for chunking 

Woodehunker machines were initially developed to was mostly unmerchantable. 

improve the utilization of unmerchantable timber 

(Figure 2a). Two experimental prototype chunkers 

Tire chips 

were built by the USFS, one at the North Central 

Experiment Station in Houghton, Michigan, and the 

Tire chips are produced by shredding old tires into 

other at the Missoula Technology and Development pieces passing a 5-cm (2 in.) sieve. Like chunkwood, 

167

Figure la_ Trafficking vehicle -- HEMTT on a slop_l trail. 

Figure 1b. Tratt]cking vehicle -- tank on a sloped trail, 

,168

Figure 2b. Chunkwood road -- wooded trail. 

169

tire chips can replace granular flUmaterial and are very Geosynthetics (Figure 4) 

permeable. In recent years, tire chips have been used in 

road bases because of their high permeability, good 

Before the main test program, several types of 

insulating properties (to reduce detrimental effects of geosynthetics were tested and ranked according to 

frost action) and to efficiently recycle old tires 

resistance to damage from M60 tank trafficking. 

(Humphrey and Eaton 1993). Commercially available 

Products that sustained the least amount of damage in 

tire chips can be obtained throughout the US. The 

the pretests (double-sided geonet and polyrock ) were 

chips used in this project were purchased in Wisconsin. used to stabilize test sections without any cover. The 

The tire chip test sections were approximately 30 cm ST1000 geotextile was used with less than 10 cm (4 

(12 in.) thick (Figure 3). Traffic was applied directly on in.) of gravel cover on the wooded trail and with 30 cm 

the tire chip surface. 

(12 in.) of gravel cover on the pentagonal loop trail test 

section. 

Tire chips were loaded into dump trucks, delivered to 

the site, and spread with a D7 bulldozer. Like It was also used beneath sections of tire chips, 

chunkwood, the tire chips were lightweight (640 kg/m3 chunkwood, and slash on the wooded trail. The LGT 

[40 pcf]). However, in contrast to chunkwood, the tire 300 was used to wrap ch kwood, making a "pillow" 

chips did not appear to compact significantly. The 

to successfully repair the wooded trail when a section 

surface remained springy even after several passes of a had slumped into an adjacent ponded area during tank 

D7 dozer, 

trafficking. Table 1lists geosyntheticspecifications. 

Although the tire chips were ordered to be cut with 

fresh blades, metal pieces protruded from many chips, 

and the bead steel caused fiat tires on ajeep and grader. 

Figure 3. Tire chips -- wooded trail. 

170

Figure 4. Geosynthetics -- wooded trail. 

Table 1: Geosynthetics used atFort McCoy for rapid stabilization of thawing soils. 

Product/construction_)nass AOS Typical WW tensile strength Puncture Burst kPA 

per unit area (g/m (ram) uses kN/m (lb./in.) kN (lb.) (psi) 

ST1000/NW PP/540 0.15/#100 R, P, S 24.5 (140)/same in both 0.71 (160) 3795 (550) 

LGT 300/W PP (slit film)/200 0.60/#30 S/S 31.5 (180) 0.80 (1t5) 4139 (600) 

PR1 NW (PPwith PET to be R notyet available notyet notyet 

reinforcement)aHIGH obtained available available 

STRENGTH material 

Double-sided geonet (NW PP not D not available 

geotextile on geonet core) 2000 applicable 

NW--nonwoven, W--woven, PP=polypropylene, PET=polyester, P=protection, R--reinforcement, S=separation, 

SIS=separation and stabilization, D=drainage 

Tree slash 

wear surface for timber access roads in the Tongass 

National Forest in Alaska (Burnette 1993). The slash 

One of the simplest, most natural, and, excluding labor, used for the Fort McCoy demonstration project 

economic methods of stabilization is to incorporate consisted of trees branches laid at angles to the 

slash and tree limbs into a debris mat. This method is direction of travel. The best method of placing the slash 

often used for construction on peat (Phukan 1982), and was to use the thinks to fill in ruts and hollows and to 

is typically used as a lightweight fill/base with a soil 

lay branches no bigger than 8 cm (3 in.) in diameter in 

17 1

a herringbone pattern at 45 ° angles to the direction of Mats were placed along the wheeltracks. Placement 

travel (Figure 5). More slash was added during methods were tested and modified throughout the 

trafficking to replenish the existing surface. Although demonstration. On the sloped trail, the first six mats 

not demonstrated at Fort McCoy, slash can also be used were moved to the test section using an all-terrain 

in combination with other mechanical stabilization forklift. However, the forklift could not be used to place 

methods in instances when large quantities of fill the mats because of poor brakes and the steep grade, so 

material are not available within a reasonable haul a bucket loader was used for placement. The next 

distance, 

placementtechniqueinvolvedpulling andplacing two 

mats at a time with the HEMTT and winch. Finally, tire 

Tire mats 

mats were delivered to the pentagonal loop trail on a 

lowboy, and were off-loaded and roughly positioned 

Terra Mat, a commercial product specifically designed with a bucket loader. A D7 dozer was used to move the 

for the purpose of assisting logging trucks across mats into their final positions. 

sections of unstable soil, consists of tire sidewalls 

lashed together to form portable road mats (Figure 6). Small wood pallets 

The product is successfully used by logging, 

construction, oil, gas, and pipeline industries. When Wood pallets were fabricated on site by the 229 th 

used for timber access roads across wet and thawing Engineers (Figure 7a). These were constructed 

soils, the mats provide added benefits of 1) reducing primarily of soft wood, and could be placed manually 

mud tracked onto paved roads, 2) miAfimizing 

with a seven- to nine-person crew or by using a forklit_. 

compaction of the forest floor, and 3) utilizing scrap 

truck tires. 

Large wood mats 

The tire mats are manufactured in a variety of sizes and Shown in Figure 7b is a pre-assembled commercial 

weights. Terra Mat Corp. provided its heavy duty woodmat on loan from Uni-Mat International. The Unimodel 

TMC 410-12 mat for use with tracked vehicles. Mats, made of oak, were substantially larger (2.44 x 

Each mat is 3 m (10 ft) long x 1.5 m (5 It) wide and 4.27 m [8 x 14 ft]) and heavier (approximately 6300 

weighs approximately 9800 kN (2200 lb.). Mats kN [1400 lb.]) than the pallets. They were placed using 

consist of a layer of interconnected tire treads with a loaders or the HEMTT crane. 

top layer of tire sidewalls and end lifting chains. 

Figure 5, Slash - pentagonal loop trail. 

172

Figure 6, Tire mats -- sloped trail. 

Figure 

7a, Wood pallet -- wooded trail.

Figure 7b. Uni-mat TM wood mat -- wooded trail. 

PVC fascine 

the soil. Table 2 summarizes soil tests conducted and 

terrain properties measured. 

A fascine (Figure 8) was built from schedule 80 PVC 

pipes by linking the pipes together with 1.6-cm- Statistical analyses were conducted on site 

diameter (5/8 in.) steel cable. However, schedule 40 

characterization and performance data to both quantify 

PVC pipes and 0.95-cm-diarneter (3/8 in.) cable are 

site variability and investigate the influence of site 

adequate. To conserve material, pipes were not variability on test section performance (Kestler 1996). 

continuous across the entire width of the trail. The Variability analysis results statistically demonstrated 

fascine was constructed on site, and was used to fill that performance of stabilizing materials, as measured 

low-lying areas while still maintaining drainage though by rut depth on the stabil_ing surface, could be 

the pipes. It was covered with tire mats in an area compared between adjacent sections; however, test 

where it filled a small stream, and with geotextile and sections separated by over approximately 300 ft could 

chunkwood where the trail turned a corner adjacent to a not be as "directly" compared because they were 

swamp, 

constructedon virtuallydifferentsubgrades. 

Control 

Each test area had one or more control sections of bare 

ground with no stabilization treatment. 

SITE CHARACTERIZATION 

The subgrade soil and surface features of test sites were 

characterized prior to construction. Native material 

consisted primarily of a silty sand. For the wooded trail, 

where construction and testing spanned several days, 

additional soil moisture and thaw depth were measured 

on an interim basis to document changing conditions in 

174

Figure 8. pVC fascine -- woodedtrail. ].75

Table 2. Site character_ation 

activities. 

Activity or Test Device ............ To Determine or Measure: 

Clegg Impact Tester (CIT) 

California Bearing Ration (CBR)--(Hardness) 

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) 

CBR 

Static Cone 

Stiffness - Cone Index 

Laboratory CBR Test 

CBR 

Vitel Radio Frequency Moisture Sensors Volumetric Moisture Contents 

Gravimetric Moisture samples 

Gravimetric Moisture Contents 

Nuclear Moisture Density Gauge - Densimeter 

Density and Gravimetric Moisture 

Thaw Depth Probe and Soil Temperature Depth to Resistance & Corresponding Temperature 

DriveCylinders 

Density 

Preconstruction Rut Depth Measurements Rut Depths 

Surface Elevation Survey 

Centerline Survey 

Bagged Samples for Laboratory Testing 

CBR, Resilient Modulus, Gradation, etc. 

General Site Characterization Evaluations General Characterization of Site (e.g., % surface water, 

draina_etation, etc.) 

SUMMARY OF OVERALL PERFORMANCE timber. However, chunkwood's success relies on the 

OF TEST SECTIONS 

development of a commercial chunker. Availability of 

trees is also critical for chtmkwood road building. 

Gravel 

Tire chips 

Placing "conventional" gravel is unquestionably one of 

the most common and expedient techniques. Dump As was the case for conventional roads and 

trucks, loaders, and dozers are standard equipment, 

chunkwood, construction requires no special 

One problem, of course, is availability of material. It is equipment or training. Tire chips can be supported by 

possible that aggregate sources are simply unavailable, weak subgrades not capable of supporting a gravel 

It is also possible that borrow sources may still be embankment. The quantity of gravel that can be hauled 

frozen, or inaccessible. Finally, the bearing capacity of at any one time is restricted by weight. In contrast, 

the subgrade may be inadequate to support the weight because tire chips are lightweight, they can be hauled 

of an aggregate roadway embankment, in loaded trucks pulling loaded trailers. As with 

chunkwood, a gravel wear surface can easily be added 

Chunk'wood 

if the chips are to be used for the base of a permanent 

road. The tire chips provide an excellent insulating 

Chunkwood proved to be an excellent substitute for layer to reduce detrimental effects of frost action in 

gravel for the Fort McCoy demonstration project. Not areas of seasonal freezing. Another advantage of tire 

only was it successfully used in test sections as chips is utilization of a waste product. However, it is 

planned, but it also served as the mainstay for the entire imperative that no steel bead or foreign steel pieces be 

project. When access roads to test sites became contained in the tire chips if they are to be used as a 

impassable, chunkwood was used to reconstruct and trafficking surface for small rubber-tired vehicles (or 

allow passage. Because its density is less than half that foot travel). Other issues including environmental 

of conventional aggregate fill, it can be supported by concerns (when placed below the seasonal high water 

very weak subgrades (such as muskeg and thawing table) and "flammability" need to be addressed. 

soils) that might not be capable of supporting an 

aggregate layer of required thickness. A gravel wear Geosyntheties 

surface can be added for use as a permanent road. The 

chunkwood base reduces frost penetration into the 

All geosynthetics were placed quickly and with 

subgrade, therefore reducing detrimental effects of frost minimal labor. They are lightweight and easy to handle 

action in areas of seasonal freezing. Additionally, in a compared to other stabilizing surfaces. Cover is 

forested environment, it can complement any forest necessary wherever severe trafficking will occur. As is 

management program by utilizing tmmerchantable 

the case with all materials other than slash, chunkwood, 

176

and gravel (which may be native to the site), 

Techniques used in combination 

geosynthetics must be delivered to the site. 

Geosynthetics and other techniques complement each Each of the above techniques serves some portion of 

other when used in combination, the design function, and combinations of methods often 

proved to be more effective than any individual 

Tree slash 

method. 

Tree slash is inexpensive, and placement requires no 

special equipment or training. Its availability is slightly 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

broader than that of chunkwood simply because scrub 

brush, old corn husks, or any vegetative material may 

The authors thank all who contributed toward the 

be used. A disadvantage is that placement is labor 

success of the 1995 Expedient Surfacing Stabilization 

intensive and, for certain military purposes, may expose Techniques demonstration at Fort McCoy, Wisconsin. 

construction personnel to potential enemy fire for a This demonstration project was the culmination of a 2- 

longer period than for placement of other materials. 

1/2-year rapid stabilization study conducted largely in 

Like tire chips, it is not a desirable surface for small 

conjunction with, and as the US Army's continuation 

rubber-tired vehicle passage or foot traffic; walking is of, the USDA Forest Service's Study on portable 

extremely difficult. Tree slash can also puncture and crossings for unstable soil. We particularly thank Lola 

damage hydraulic hoses on the underside of equipment. Hislop whose extensive work in portable crossings 

provided a solid foundation for CRREL's Rapid 

Small wood pallets 

Stabilization project to build upon and extend to tank 

trafficking. We thank Jim Kerkman and Candy 

Constructing these on site requires time and labor. 

Thornton (Fort McCoy), LT Paul Liethen and the 229 th 

However, ease of placement (for the effectiveness of Engineer CSE Co. of Wisconsin National Guard, Rosa 

performance) is a plus. Lumber is typically available Affleck, Dave L'Heureux and MAJ Randy Hill 

almost anywhere. Mats were broken during trafficking. (CRREL), SFC Don Purinton (US Army Engineer 

However, they continued to perform very well School), Bob Radcliffe, Joe Sturos, and Jim Mattson 

(stabilizing a weak thawing soil to adequately support 

(Forestry Products Lab, North Central Experiment 

trafficking). Mats can be re-used if constructed with a Station, USDA Forest Service), Bill Foster (Osceola 

strong hardwood. 

National Forest, USDA Forest Service), Gary SchuLze 

(Chippewa National Forest), Rodger Arola and John 

Large wood mats 

Bowman CLISDAForest Service retirees), Steve 

Webster (Waterways Experiment Station), Jerry 

Although tank cornering was not tested on Uni-Mats 

Goldberg (Terra Mat Corp.), and Joe Pouyer (Uni-Mat 

during this demonstration project, its success for International, Inc.) for their many contributions to the 

horizontal tunas has been documented. Uni-Mats seem cooperative demonstration project. We also thank 

to be the only surface tested that can withstand the 

CRREL's editing staff and technical reviewers. 

trauma of tank tracks undergoing cornering. Uni-Mats 

performed very well on relatively level terrain, but 

were slippery on slopes. They are not designed for LITERATURE CITED 

bridging large ruts, consequently blading the trail 

surface may be necessary prior to mat placement. 

Arola, R.; Hodek, R.J.; Bowman, J.K.; Schulze, G.B. 

Because Uni-mats are constructed of oak, they earlbe 

1991. Forest Roads Built with Chunkwood, 

re-used. 

Chunkwood: Production, Characterization and 

Utilization, North Central Experiment Station, 

PVC fascine 

USDA Forest Service General Technical Report 

NC-145, St. Paul, MN, June. 

No special equipment was required, and the fascine 

mats could be constructed on site. If not adequately Burnette, Brace. 1993. Personal Communication. 

supported at a site with flowing water, they can be Tongass National Forest, Alaska. 

pushed into the subgrade material causing the pipes to 

become blocked with sediment (as occurred at Fort 

McCoy). However, they can still perform well as a 

supporting mat even though water may not readily pass 

through the pipes. 

177

Humphrey,D.N., Eaton, R.A. 1993. Tire chips as 

subgrade insulation - a field trial. Symposium on 

recycling and effective reuse of discarded materials 

and by-products for consideration of highway 

facilities. Denver, CO. 

Kestler, Maureen A. 1996. Assessing the significance 

of subgrade variability on test section 

performance. In: Proceedings of the ASCE 

Specialty Conference on Uncertainty in the 

Geologic Environment, Madison, WI, August. 

Kestler, Maureen A.; Henry, Karen S.; Shoop, Sally A. 

1994. Rapid stabilization of thawing softs. In : 

Proceedings of the 17" Annual Meeting, Council 

on Forest Engineering. Applied Fx,ology in Action. 

Corvallis, OR, August. 

Kestler, Maureen A.; Shoop, Sally A.; Henry, Karen S., 

Stark, Jeffrey A.; Aflleck, Rosa T. (in prep). Rapid 

stabilization of thawing soils for enhanced vehicle 

mobility: A field demonstration project, US Army 

Cold Regions Research and Engineering 

Laboratory Report, Hanover, NH. 

Mason, Lola. 1990. Portable wetland area and stream 

crossings. USDA Forest Service. 

Phukan, Arvind. 1982. Design methods for muskeg 

area roads. State of Alaska Department of 

Transportation and Public Facilities. 

Shoop, Sally A.; Stark, Jeffrey A. 1996. Stabilizing 

thawing soils for Improved vehicle mobility, 

T96011 (video). US Army Cold Regions Research 

and Engineering Laboratory Report, Hanover, NH. 

178

DESIGNING REGENERATION SYSTEMS FOR 

SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT TO FLAKE 

STATES FORESTED WETLANDS 1 

by 

A. J. Londo 

C. J. Pappas 

D.D. Real 

R. Aschback= 

J. Chert 

M. R. Gale 

G. D. Mroz 

MichiganTechnological University 

Houghton,Michigan,USA 

ABSTRACT: Moundingsitepreparation hasbeen 

usedextensively inCanadaandScandinavia forthe 

regeneration ofdifficult sites.Moundingiscominginto 

useintheLakeStatcsforplantation establishment on 

recently clearedwetlands.However,ourknowledgeof 

it'seffects on wetlandprocessesandfunctions is 

incomplete. 

Thisresearch was undertakentodetermine theeffects 

ofmoundingon severalkeywetlandprocesses, 

including soilcarbonstorageandrecovery, 

decomposition, microclimate, andhydrology. 

Ultimately, ourevaluation ofwetlandresponses to 

moundingwillsupportresourcemanagement 

prescriptions andpolicies thatsustain productivity, 

speciesdiversity, habitat, andwaterquality while 

accommodatingtheutilization ofwetlandresources. 

Key Words: wetlandprocesses, soilcarbonstorage 

andrecovery, mounding,regeneration systems 

tPresented a thejointmeeting oftheCouncil onForest En0neering 

andInternational UnionofForest Research Organizations Subject 

Group$3.04-00, Marquette, MI,July29-August I,1996. 

179

STREAM CROSSINGS l 

by 

Eric L. Kay 

Kay and Associates, Training Consultants 

Black Creek, British Columbia, Canada 


tPresented at the joint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering 


Group $3.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1, 1996. 

180

FOREST INDUSTRY SAFETY Tra_nbag program outllh_e 

AND T1L&_G ALLIANCE, INC? 

1. Initial meeting 

by a. Trainer will meet with the crew 

supervisor to address their specific 

Don Peterson 

training needs 

Forest Industry Safety and Training Alliance 

Rhinelander, Wisconsin, USA 2. Training will address hazards observed as that 

individual entered the job site 

a. Address how the job is laid out for 

ABSTRACT: The Forest Industry Safety and Training efficiency and safety 

Alliance (FISTA) is a non-profit organization that 

originated in 1991 to address the occupational injuries 3. Introduction about FISTA 

and deaths in the logging industry. FISTA is a. Purpose of the organization and services 

comprised of a 15 member Board of Directors, 3 Field 

available 

Trainers, a full time Office Manager, and an Executive b. Run-down of the day's agenda 

Director. FISTA conducts a majority of its training in 

Wisconsin. FISTA training is free of charge to 4. Occupational and Safety Health 

Wisconsin loggers; a reasonable fee is charged for Administration (OSHA) discussion 

other groups. Training is not classroom oriented but is a. Regulations and requirements and how 

brought to the job site and consists of outdoor 

they pertain to the logging industry 

demonstrations. In November of 199l, FISTA went b. Employer's responsibility 

into operation with seed money from the Occupational 

and Safety Health Administration (OSHA), the U.S. 5. Proper body mechanics 

Forest Service, and private donations. 

6. Personal protective equipment (PPE) 

Key Words: safety, chain saw, logging a. What is requh-ed and available 

b. PPE's importance and function 

c. First-aid kit 

OPERATION 

7. Tools necessary to aid in safely felling trees 

Goal a. Introduction to wedges 

b. Felling levers (when appropriate) 

To assist in the prevention of occupational injuries and c. Files, gauges, etc. to properly maintain 

deaths in the logging industry through training that 

saws 

emphasizes safety and proper technique. 

8. Saws 

FISTA serves the logging industry through hands-on, a. Safety features 

on-site training sessions conducted by Logging Safety b. Reactive forces 

Trainers. FISTA currently employs three full-time c. Reduced down time maintenance 

trainers, an office manager, and an Executive Director. (1) Cutter--how it works, its importance 

Each trainer is designated to train in a specific area and 

(2) Proper sharpening 

to conduct training on a request basis. (3) Carburetor adjustment 

(4) How to maintain the saw, bar, and 

The initial in-woods training session lasts about four to 

chain 

six hours. Follow-up sessions are also conducted at the 

logger's request. Training groups may range from as 9. Tree felling (demonstration) 

large as one hundred to as small as two. A typical a. Information before felling begins (plan) 

training session will cover the following: 


andInternationalUnionof ForestResearchOrganizationsSubject 

Group$3.04-00,Marquette,MI,July29.August1, 1996. 

181 

(1) Hazards 

(2) Escape route 

(3) Proper notch 

(4) Hinge and back cut 

b. Executing the plan

10. Limbing, buck and topping (demonstration) 

a. Technique for releasing limbs and sp_qg 

poles trader pressure 

11. Question and answer period 

12. Material distributed 

a. Certificates of Participation distributed 

b. Three-ring informational binder given to 

contractor/supervisor (contains OSHA 

information, Training Guide, Company 

Safety Policy, etc.) 

GENERAL SERVICES 

FISTA also conducts a four-day advanced logger 

training program that qualifies participants to 

participate in Soren Eriksson's "Game of Logging" 

competitions on a regional and national level. This 

advanced program focuses on safety, accuracy, 

efficiency, and productivity. 

Another way that FISTA reaches the industry is 

through a monthly newsletter - FISTA UPDATE. This 

newsletter covers a variety of topics such as In'st-aid, 

general safety, accident prevention, and anything 

relative to FISTA's accomplishments and goals. 

One of FISTA's services is to provide quality safety 

and training videos for a reasonable cost. A list of 

these videos can be obtained by calling FISTA's main 

office. 

FISTA has an 800 number which can be utilized to setup 

training programs as well as to answer frequently 

asked questions. That number is listed below. 

APPLICATION 

FISTA is having an impact. Logger awareness is rising 

and accidents are declining. Some Workers' 

Compensation providers offer incentives to loggers 

who receive FISTA training and demonstrate clean 

safety records. FISTA has earned national recognition 

as a model for other safety programs. 

Anyone interested in FISTA training, the FISTA 

UPDATE newsletter, or FISTA's training videos, can 

call the main office at 1-800-551-2656 or fax us at 

715-282-4975. 

182

EASTERN CANADA REGIONAL REPORT _ and paper products, and 15 percent is hardwood fiber 

used mainly for lumber, composite board (e.g., oriented 

by 

strandboard (OSB), medium density fiberboard (MDF), 

a variety of value-added solid wood products, and, 

J.-F. Gingras 

increasingly, as pulp furnish. Several new MDF and 

FERIC, Eastern Division 

OSB mills using aspen and birch as raw material 

Pointe-Claire, Quebec, Canada started operating in Ontario and Quebec during 1995. 

Buoyed by high product prices, the demand for 

ABSTRACT: Buoyed by high product prices, the sottwood fiber remains strong and sawmills and pulp 

demand for softwood fiber remains strong as both 

mills both operated at high capacity levels throughout 

sawmills and pulp mills operated at high capacity 

1995 and in early 1996. Competition for fiber became 

levels throughout 1995 and in early 1996. Competition evident in several regions. Corporate takeovers were 

for fiber became evident in several regions. The 

common throughout 1995, as several pulp and paper 

shortwood harvesting method (also called companies acquired sawmills and their associated fiber 

cut-to-length) is gaining in popularity for reasons of supply. 

fiber quality, reduced impact on the environment and 

greater operational flexibility. The responsibility for In March 1996, the Canadian government decided to 

implementing sustainable _brest management on Crown charge an export tax on a portion of the softwood 

land is being transferred to the industry, with careful lumber destined for the U.S. in an attempt to solve the 

monitoring by the provincial agencies through renewed trade dispute between both countries on this issue. 

forest management and supply agreements. 

Key Words: eastern Canada, harvesting, silviculture, HARVESTING SYSTEMS 

transportation, legislation 

Figure 1 illustrates the current and forecast future 

distribution of harvesting systems in eastern Canada 

INTRODUCTION (adapted from Gingras and Ryans 1992). 

Forestry has a long history in eastern Canada, where 

some of the oldest pulp and paper mills in North 

America were established at the turn of the century to 10o 

take advantage of the plentiful, high-quality fiber of 

[ _,,_.t 

northern boreal softwood stands. This region spans the 80 

variable terrain of no,hem Manitoba, the rough Lake -'- ........... -_,,_ ............. 

clay belt area of northeastern Ontario and northwestem 80 

Quebec, the mixedwood and rich tolerant hardwood 

stands of southern Ontario and southern Quebec, the g,, 40 

rugged Superiorelief topography and harshofweather 

northwestern of central Ontario, and eastern the flat i i im i_.i___..__. _ / i i i i "__i I 

Quebec, the densely forested landscape of New 

S 

Brunswick, the New England look of Nova Scotia _g 20 ......_,_._.__._,,._____._, -=-- 

fields and private woodlots, and the adverse ground and _ /_,__,,_,er..t_. .... 

weather conditions of Newfoundland. 

0 

INDUSTRY STATUS Ye= 

1 o......... 1990 ' 1995 ' ...... 

2001 ' 

Full tree Tree-length ,_ shortwood 

Currently, about 70 million m 3 of timber are harvested f- _ ' ..... I 

annually in eastern Canada, of which 85 percent is 

softwood fiber destined mainly for sawmilling and pulp 

Figure 1. Current and forecast distribution of 

1Presented at the joint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering harvesting systems in eastern Canada 

and International Union of Forest Research Organizations Subject (1980-2001). 


183

Full-tree to roadside harvesting systems have been 

provincial agencies through renewed forest 

declining in popularity since the late 1980s and are management and supply agreements. 

expected to represent less than 50 percent of the wood 

harvested in the region by the turn of the century. These Faced with increasingly complex resourcesystems 

typically involve felling using tracked 

management analysis, planning and monitoring, several 

knuckleboom-type feller-bunchers equipped with companies are now using Geographic Information 

sawheads, followed by skidding with grapple skidders Systems/Global Position Systems (GIS/GPS) 

on good ground, with clambunk skidders over long technology to assist m their mapping mid inventory 

distances, and with cable skidders on rough or very wet management activities. Develope d in co-operation with 

ground. Felling heads with greater abilities to tilt the Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada 

sideways are becoming popular with contractors. (I_RIC), GPS-based navigation systems for forestry 

machines have just now reached the point of 

The shortwood method (also called cut-to-length commercial availability. These systems allow operators 

harvesting) is gaining in popularity for reasons of fiber to travel within the boundaries of a cut block without 

quality, reduced impact on the environment and greater having to flag the boundaries ahem of time. 

operational flexibility. This system typically uses 

single-grip harvesters and forwarders and should 

Many companies are looking at commercial thinning to 

account for more than one-third of the harvest by the 

provide additional fiber in the short- term and to 

year 2000. Increasingly, domestic cut-to-length 

improve the growing stock for future harvests. This 

equipment is becoming available and is being util_ed interest in partial cuts is also spurred by the needs to 

by operations because it is a cost-effective alternative fred lower-cost and better stand renewal techrfiques and 

to Nordic machines. Often, harvesting heads are 

to maintain ecosystem biodiversity, as well as by public 

mounted on tracked excavator-type carriers or pressure to limit the use of clearcuts. Operational 

converted feUer-bunchers. Six-wheel and eight-wheel commercial thinning is now conducted in most eastern 

forwarders are favored by contractors because of their provinces, albeit on a limited scale at this time. A 

bigger payloads, 

recent FERIC survey revealed that 25 percent of 

FERIC's member companies are actively involved in 

About 15 percent of the harvest is conducted using the commercial thinning, and an additional 34 percent are 

tree-length system, in which trees are felled and 

expected to become involved over the next 5 years. 

delimbed at the stump, but brought in full-length to 

roadside. This method is usually conducted with Some development efforts have also been directed at 

manual felling and cable skidding and is often finding a mechanized system for selection harvesting of. 

encountered in private land forestry, small-scale large tolerant hardwoods in uneven-aged stands in the 

operations and selection logging of tolerant hardwood southern part of the region. Modified work techniques 

species. Some development efforts are currently for feller-bunchers and the use of feller-directors are 

underway to develop a viable mechanized tree-length being studied by FERIC. 

harvesting method for boreal stands. 

In some provinces, such as Quebec, herbicides will no 

longer be allowed on Crown land within a few years. 

FOREST MANAGEMENT This means that mechanical plantation- cleaning 

methods must be developed and expanded rapidly. 

While harvest levels are currently at about 87 percent Alternatives such as the use of extra-large seedlings, 

of the annual allowable cut (AAC) in softwood and 35 mulch mats and tractor-mounted cleaning heads are 

percent of the AAC in hardwoods, several provinces being explored. 

are re-examining their AAC levels in light of (for 

example) new areas taken out of commercial 

The summer of 1995 was extremely dry in most parts 

production and more restrictive regulations on cutover of eastern Canada and several large fu'es occurred. As a 

size and buffers. At the same time, provincial 

result, a major salvage operation was conducted in 

governments, who have been the traditional stewards of Quebec and Ontario. In New Brunswick, salvage 

the forest, are facing severe budgetary restrictions, efforts were directed mainly at recovering about 2 

Because of this, the responsibility for implementing 

million m3of timber that had been flattened during a 

sustainable forest management on Crown land is being late-fall 1994 windstorm. 

transferred to the industry, with monitoring by the 

184

REGULATORY 

ENVIRONMENT 

The Canadian Standards Association, in co-operation 

with the Canadian Pulp and Paper Association, is 

spearheading the development of a sustainable forest 

management standard, which has also been submitted 

to the International Organization for Standardization 

(ISO) as a potential procedure upon which an ISO 

14000-series certification could be based. Several test 

audits have already been done with forest companies 

and official certification applications are expected to 

start in 1996. 

From a transportation perspective, the various 

ministries of Transport have started a zero-tolerance 

policy on overweight vehicles. In Quebec, the industry 

agreed to pay truckers only up to the maximum 

allowable weight in efforts to curb overweight payloads 

on highway hauls. As a result, interest in on-board 

weigh scales has increased rapidly, with several 

commercial products now available. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Forest operations in eastern Canada are going through 

significant changes in response to the influence of 

several driving factors, including a high demand for 

fiber, a more restrictive regulatory context, 

technological changes in harvesting machinery, the 

onset of certification, new information technologies and 

evolving workforce demands. 

REFERENCES 

Gingras, J.-F.; Ryans, M. 1992. Future Woodlands 

Equipment Needs in Eastern Canada: 1992-2001. 

For. Eng. Res. Inst. Can. (FERIC), Pointe-Claire, 

Que. Tech. Note TN-193.8 p. 

185

THE WESTERN GREAT LAKES REGION: 1. timber availability and markets; 

ISSUES AND TRENDS IN TIMBER 2. ecosystem-based management, regulation, and 

HARVESTING AND FOREST MANAGEMENT 1 public involvement; and 

3. increased mechanization. 

by 

Rick Dahlman 

Several issues are common throughout the region. 

Minnesota Department of Natural Resources Industry: global competition, increased 


regulation, reduced timber availability from 

and more restrictive timber sale contracts on 

public lands, steep increases in the cost of 

ABSTRACT: The states and provinces of the stumpage, shortage of skilled workers, 

Western Great Lakes Region share many similar 

increased wages and insurance costs, 

problems, but have adopted a wide variety of 

endangered species, old-growth set asides, 

approaches to the issues they face. Fiber demand and 

excessive political influence impacting forest 

timber harvest levels have increased dramatically over 

planning, and changes are coming too fast. 

the last five years. Reduced availability of stumpage on 

federal lands, and to a lesser degree on state lands in Government: shrinking budgets, more 

the US, and more restrictive license terms on Crown 

confrontations with clientele, more 

lands in Ontario have all effected the competition for 

complicated procedures, constantly changing 

stumpage. The dramatic growth in the volume of 

organizational structures, and increased 

timber harvested has created a great deal of public 

political pressures. 

concern over the long-term sustainability and impacts 

of these increases. Adjusting to the call for increased Private land owners: happy about increased 

stakeholder participation in planning efforts on public 

sturnpage values, but increasingly worried 

lands is a significant feature throughout the region, 

about erosion of private property rights. 

Greater competition and higher prices for stumpage, 

increased regulation, increased operating costs, and Environmental groups: Sierra Club voted for 

greater public scrutiny have all moved loggers and 

cessation of all timber harvest on federal 

some timber companies toward light-on-the-land 

lands; distrust of industry, government, and 

harvest systems. Region-wide collaboration is voluntary programs such as Best Management 

evolving as a means of speeding up the transfer of 

Practices (BMPs); want greater input into 

information and extending limited financial resources, 

forest management planning, forest land 

conversion to plantation forestry or to non- 

Key Words: sustainable forestry, timber availability, forest uses, loss of biodiversity, protection of 

stakeholder involvement, regulation, logger education, 

riparian areas and wetlands; and change is too 

mechanization 

slow. 

Differing cultural and social environments across the 

INTRODUCTION 

region have resulted in a number of different 

approaches to these issues and the resulting direction of 

The words most frequently heard in the Western Great trends surrounding "sustainable forestry". However, 

Lakes Region (Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, 

each approach is aimed at the same objective; 

Ontario), and probably throughout Canada and the 

United States, are "sustainable forestry". Unfortunately 

to ensure the enhancement of both timber and nonthere 

is little public discussion of what "sustainable timber values through the ethical application of 

forestry" means, or what the desired future forest 

effective, affordable land stewardship practices. 

conditions might be. Tied to these words are a number 

of important issues and trends which fall into three 

The following is a summary of the diversity of 

broad categories: 

approaches to these issues and trends. The results were 

obtained through an informal survey of public agencies, 

forest industries, loggers, and environmental 

tPrtsoatedatthejointmeetingofth¢CouncilOnForestEngineering organizations from throughout the Western Great Lakes 

andInternational 

GroupS3.04-00,Marquette,MI,July29-August1, UnionofForestResearchOrganizationsSubject 

1996. 

Region. 

.188

TIMBER AVAILABILITY AND MARKETS increased harvest would come primarily from selective 

harvesting ofnorthernhardwoods.The MichiganDNR 

Thoughthepaperandlumbermarketsarecurrently recently received bondingauthority toraisefundsto 

soft,fiberdemandandtimberharvestlevelshave 

hiremore staffandtocontract withconsultants tosetincreased 

dramatically throughout the Western Great 

up these additional timber sales. 

Lakes Region over the last five years. Reduced 

availability of stumpage on federal lands, and to a 

Minnesota 

lesser degree on state lands in the US, andmore 

restrictive license terms on Crown lands in Ontario 

Minnesota has had significant new and expanded mill 

have all effeeted the competition for stumpage. Further capacity due to the abundant volumes of aspen and 

reductions in the availability of timber from public 

birch available. Since 1990, mill expansions have 

lands is a distinct possibility, creating significant pushed Minnesota harvest levels up by over 700,000 

uncertainty for industry, cords, to 4.2 million (1995) (Figure 1). 

Publicly-owned forest lands (provincial, 

federal, state, 

in most of the Western Great Lakes Region. The _ 4.ee 

increased competition for the limited volume of public 

and county) have been the primary source of stumpage _ it 

3as 4.104._ 

, LoreTeenSuatainad yield 1_ .iliionCorda/yaar (1}. 

prices, and stimulated a dramaticshift topurchasing i 3_ 

stumpage from Non-Industrial Private Forest (NIPF) 

lands in many areas. Species that had been 

unmerchantable in the past are now in demand as well. 

timber has resulted in substantial increases in stumpage i :U3-'iiiiiiii_l _ 

Wisconsin m u es ee s7 ee m m ,i _ o_ u 200o 

YEAR 

(esenaed) 

S01eree:1)Tal_ 6.25,(3_IS, MediumLev_, Dee 92. 8/95 

Wisconsin has historically had the most intensive forest 

2)H.N.__. e,_.d WNCFV.S ..d t_R. 

industry base in the region, but has little capacity for Figure I. Actual and projected timber harvest in 

new primary industrial expansion. In fact, two pulp Minnesota - from MN timberland, all 

mills will likely have to close in the near future and 

ownerships, all species. 

another is changing its species mix due in part to 

increased competition for wood. A few mills have also 

expanded their procurement areas to southern Stumpage prices have more than doubled over that 

Wisconsin and southeastern Minnesota. A mill in same time-span (Figures 2 and 3). Additional 

Green Bay has switched entirely to recycled fiber for 

permitted mill expansions are likely to increase harvest 

feed-stock, levelsto nearly4.7millioncordsby the year 2000. 

Ontario and Michigan 

l_s 

_ Imulpwood I 

OntarioandMichiganhavethegreatest capacity for l i , _BlackSpruce 

continued forest industry growth. Until recently, uo j 

Ontario had very limited markets for aspen. Expanding _ / 

markets for Oriented Strand Board (OSB) has __ $1s 

stimulated the construction of several OSB plants in ]I 

Canada, including Ontario. Canadian industries are 

$10 

also implementing wood product certification based on 

ISO 14001 to better position themselves in world 

IS 

markets. 

" ie ir is io io 11 12 i_ 14 

At least one new pulp mill is under construction in 

Michigan, and the state could support additional Figure 2. Average prices received for pulpwood 

growth. The Michigan Department of Natural stumpage sold by public land agencies in 

Resources (DNR) would like to increase the volume Minnesota: 1986-1994. 

offered for sale from state lands by approximately 30 

percent to accomplish their management goals. The 

189

m,. __,_,_, I fiber and additional species into their manufacturing 

i....... ' .:../_ _ process. Lake Superior Paper, recently acquired by 

/ Consolidated Paper, operates a deinking plant for 

HN t/ 

xlh ......." , .._//_ _,, recycled office paper which supplies fiber to many 

..... -_.......... ,,. O.k" paper mills. Unfortunately, competition for recycled 

a,-" paper more 

virgin 

i ,m ..." -_.... /..f_ ..dr 

is intense than for fiber. 

_-...... .- Northwood Panelboard has installed a new high speed 

_'_" 

drier to accommodate the different drying requirements 

U 

r - -- of aspen and birch. Other OSB plants are utilizing 

. n # m u N , n ,4 maple, birch, and pine. The Potlatch paper mill 

* _,_,,m-,,_**_ p,_,,d, _M,_,_uN.,_. ON_,,,,_ expansion in Cloquet is based on incorporating maple, 

birch, and basswood. 

Figure 3. Average prices received for sawtimber 

stumpage sold by public land agencies in Short-rotation woody crops (SRWC), hybrid varieties 

Minnesota: 1986-194 of cottonwood, will provide additional fiber in the near 

future. Champion International is currently purchasing 

30,000 acres of farmland in central Minnesota to plant 

Public agencies, which control approximately 55 

SRWC varieties. Efforts are underway to encourage 

percent of the timberlands in Minnesota (Figure 4) are farmers in the Minnesota River valley to convert flood 

nearing, or have reached their allowable harvest levels, plain fields to trees, including hybrid cottonwood. 

Some additional timber volume (200,000 cords/year) is Boise Cascade is testing several new hybrid varieties, 

being made available from state-owned lands as the 

and will likely develop leases with landowners to grow 

result of industry-supported legislation to fund several them on a commercial scale. A SRWC landowner 

new forester and technician positions. These positions coop is also being formed. Within the next five years 

will allow the state to prepare selective harvest timber Minnesota may have 100,000 acres of SRWC growing 

sales and sales of previously unmerehantable species, on a ten- to twelve-year rotation. 

Mills that produce shavings for poultry bedding and 

- 14.8 Million Acme - hardboard are having difficulty competing for wood. 

Urban wood waste may be an option for some of these 

__ Federal17% companies. 

State21% 

i 1. 

2.4 

'l.e 

2: t 

@.8/ _----- . 

e.e 

Forest & 0.4 Indu_Ury ,, _ 

Industry5% Municipal17% o.2 _ .... ,, _. 

0 

18 II11 00 II1 9Z 113 291NI 

Figure 4. Minnesota timberland by ownership. _ (.t) 

Pubic Land : State,Chlppe_ & SuperiorNat'lForest,BLA,and 15Counties. 

Souroe: Volumeoftimbersoldby publiclandagencies,DNR survey, 

NCFESpu_d useqmrvey,MFIindustrysurvey. 

E.qtknated2000basedo_announcedindus_ryexpansions. DNR 12/94 

Because public agencies in Minnesota are approaching 

the limits of their allowable harvests, harvest pressure 

has increased on NIPF lands. The shitt has been Figure 5. Volume of timber sold by ownership - 

dramatic (Figure 5). For the first time the harvest from 

NIPF lands exceeds that from public lands. 

Industry within Minnesota is adjusting to the 

competition for virgin wood by incorporating recycled 

190 

Minnesota (excludes fuelwood).

ECOSYSTEM-BASED MANAGEMENT, industry and the government. The resulting 

REGULATION, AND PUBUC INVOLVEMENT revised Forest Management Agreements 

created trust funds, funded by industry 

The dramatic growth in the volume of timber harvested 

payment of forest renewal charges as part of a 

in the Western Great Lakes Region has created a great 

revised stumpage pricing system. The trust 

deal of public concern over the long-term sustainability 

funds ensure the availability of funds for 

and impacts of these increases. The universal reforestation of harvested or severely 

questionsare: 

damagedareasdespiteshrinkingprovincial 

budgets. The new stumpage pricing system 

1. Are the expanded harvest levels sustainable? also attempts to more accurately reflect 

changing market conditions, which was a 

2. Will the harvest levels safely maintain primary concern to industry (Kaiser 1996). 

biodiversity and functional ecosystems at the 

landscape-level? 3. In 1994, Ontario passed the Crown Forest 

Sustainability Act. The purpose of the Act is 

3. Who will pay the cost of new guidelines and to ensure the sustainability of Crown forests 

regulations? 

so that theycan "meetthe social,economic, 

and environmental needs of present and future 

Each state and province has responded in their own generations" (Kaiser 1996). The Act gives 

way to the resulting pressure for increased public the government significantly more power and 

participation in forest management. One early enforcement authority. This has created 

response was the formation of the Lake States Forestry 

greater uncertainty and concern among some 

Alliance, involving a variety of stakeholders from industry people (Kaiser 1996). 

Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. The alliance 

members work collaboratively to identify issues of 

Michigan 

mutual concern and share resources to address them. 

An example of this cooperation is the assistance 

An issue unique to Michigan is concern over the 

provided by the Minnesota DNR to both Michigan and impacts on forest management of the more than 5,000 

Wisconsin in development of their BMP programs, oil wells (and associated pipelines) that were been 

drilled in northern Michigan in the last six years. 

More commonly, public hearings are held, agreements 

are negotiated, or legislation is passed to address public Industry has formed a Forest Resource Alliance (FRA) 

concerns. Ontario has done all three, to facilitate implementation of the American Forest and 

Paper Association's (AF&PA) Sustainable Forestry 

Ontario Initiative (SFI). They funded an enhanced logger 

training and education program that will be coordinated 

1. The Ontario Environmental Assessment through the Michigan State University Extension 

Board (EA Board) held hearings on the Class Service. Logger participation is voluntary, but some 

Timber Environmental Assessment for individual companies are providing incentives. For 

Timber Management on Crown Lands from example, Weyerhauser is paying a $.50/ton bonus to 

1988 through 1992. The hearings generated loggers that have participated in approved training 

70,000 pages of testimony from over 500 programs. 

individuals, with more than 2,300 supporting 

exhibits. The EA Board's ruling in April There is commitment within the companies as well. 

1994 approved timber management planning Consolidated Paper has hired two people for SFI work 

under the Environmental Assessment Act, within the company, including monitoring of BMPs. 

subject to the implementation of I 15 terms 

and conditions. The EA Board gave primary Two years ago the Michigan DNR began to promote 

consideration in its ruling to the public's right the application and monitoring of BMPs to protect 

to be a partner in the decision-making process water quality on all forest lands. Lack of extensive 

for managing public lands (Kaiser 1996). stakeholder involvement in the development of the 

BMPs has been a factor in the continuing controversy 

2. In 1993, Ontario appointed a provincial between the DNR, industry, and the public, and 

facilitator to negotiate a more effective particularly between governmental agencies. 

financial working relationship between 

191

Wisconsin 

stakeholder Forest Resource Council (FRC) to advise 

the Governor, legislature, and public forestry agencies 

Wisconsin recently amended their state forest statutes on forest management policy. A companion organizato 

provide greater opportunity for public participation tion, named the Partnership, was also created though 

in the management of state-owned forest lands. The not required by the SFRA. The Partnership is made up 

amendment also requires forest plans to incorporate the of loggers, forest industries, public forest land agencies, 

concepts of sustainable forestry and biodiversity, and private landowners. Membership is not limited. 

The Partnership's purpose is to facilitate implementa- 

Increased public participation was a significant feature tion of the guidelines and policies developed by or as a 

of Wisconsin's recently completed, lengthy, multi- result of recommendations from the FRC. 

stakeholder process to develop expanded water quality 

BMPs. The new guidebook was published in early To assist the FRC in carrying out its responsibilities, 

1995 and distributed statewide to loggers and foresters funding was legislatively provided to hire an executive 

through a series of workshops, 

director and limited support staff. Beyond advising the 

Governor, legislature, and public land management 

Broad stakeholder participation was a feature of the 

agencies, the FRC is required to; 

first round of BMP auditing which was completed 

during 1995. Compliance was very good (87 percent). 1. establish a forest research advisory 

The audit teams were made up of people from the full- 

committee, with limited funding to initiate 

range of stakeholders. Feedback has been very positive 

studies on critical issues, 

from all participants. 

2. appoint four broadly based committees to 

Forest industry is building on the BMP and logger develop additional voluntary forest 

safety programs to meet their commitments to the 

management guidelines, 

AF&PA SFI. Forest Industry Safety and Training 

Alliance (FISTA), the logger safety program, is leading 3. initiate statewide landscape level forest 

the new combined logger training and education effort, 

planning, 

Training will include safety, BMPs, and business 

management. 4. design and implement monitoring procedures 

to evaluate the application and effectiveness 

Up-to-date forest inventorydata is an urgent need cited 

of the guidelines, and 

by all stakeholders in the state. Wisconsin's statewide 

forest inventory is nearly twenty years old. While new 5. to facilitate the efforts of professional 

inventorydatawillbe available soon, a system to 

organizationsto establish voluntary 

i update 

planning 

the 


data 

management 

annually is very 

decisions, 

desirable to improve certification/continuing 

for loggers and foresters. 

education programs 

Minnesota The research committee is now functional. The four 

guideline committees, which will address riparian 

Perhaps the most dramatic response to the increased 

management zones, site-specific wildlife concerns, soil 

desire for broad stakeholder involvement in forest 

productivity, and cultural and historic resources, have 

management has been Minnesota's Generic all been formed and have initiated work. The work of 

Environmental Impact Statement on Timber Harvest 

these groups will be integrated with the state's existing 

and Forest Management (GEIS). Minnesota's 

BMPs for water quality, wetlands, and visual quality. 

Environmental Quality Board commissioned the GEIS Development of monitoring systems will follow shortly 

in 1989 atthe request of a group of private citizens to thereafter. 

study the potential environmental, social, and economic 

impacts of increased timber harvesting on all The Minnesota DNR has also created an Ecosystem 

ownerships throughout the state. It was also to 

Classification System (ECS) position in anticipation of 

recommend mitigating practices to minimize the the FRC landscape-level planning efforts. In addition, 

anticipated negative impacts, 

efforts are well underway to implement an annual forest 

inventory system to permit management plans to 

The GEIS was released in 1994 and has resulted in the respond more quickly to changes. If the system being 

passage of the Minnesota Sustainable Forest Resources developed works well, it will likely be adapted 

Act (SFRA). The SFRA established a multi- nationwide. 

192

Loggers have anticipated FRC efforts as well by 

Forest management and forest industries in the Western 

organizing the Minnesota Logger Education Program 

Great Lakes Region are among the leaders in the world. 

(MLEP). The larger forest industries have provided the The logging andindustrial teelmologies are adapting 

start up funding and have set targets ranging fi'om 80 to rapidly to new societal and market demands. 

100 percent for participation of their suppliers. Also, 

the Minnesota Society of American Foresters (SAF) is 

developing a state-level forester certification program IATERATURE CITED 

that builds on the national SAF program. 

Kaiser, Martin. 1996. Ontario's new reality: The timber 

Addressing environmental issues and public concerns 

E.A. and the Crown Forest Act. Canadian Forest 

is also occurring cooperatively across the Western Industries; March issue: 33, 34, 36, and 39. 

Great Lakes Region. A meeting of logger education 

leaders from Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan took 

place in mid-May, 1996 to explore ways of sharing 

resources and addressing issues. The Minnesota DNR 

has made staff available to Michigan and Wisconsin to 

assist with the development of their BMP programs. A 

Region-wide advisory committee, involving individuals 

from public agencies, industry, loggers, and 

environmental groups has been established by the 

University of Minnesota and the Minnesota DNR. 

They identified and summarized options for temporary 

water and wetland crossing, compiled known 

information concerning the potential environmental 

impacts, and are conducting demonstrations of selected 

alternatives. 

INCREASED 

MECHANIZATION 

Greater competition and higher prices for stumpage, 

increased regulation, increased operating costs, and 

greater public scrutiny have all moved loggers and 

some timber companies toward light-on-the-land 

harvest systems. Everyone is talking about cut-tolength 

systems. Scandinavian models have led the way. 

Now several similar, but more rugged, lower-cost 

systems are being manufactured in the region. 

High flotation tires and replacement of skidders with 

forwarders have both been recent changes in 

Minnesota. In the woods chip production is increasing 

with the development of chain flail processors. Cable 

yarding, portable water and, wetland crossing 

structures, and modifications of existing machinery are 

all being evaluated through research and demonstration 

projects. 

Boise Cascade and the University of Minnesota, 

NaturalResource Research Institute are studying the 

practicality of noncommercial thinnings of ten-year-old 

aspen. Blandin Paper is experimenting with 

commercial thinning of thirty-year-old aspen.Wood 

ash, sewage sludge, and other materials are being 

evaluated for fertilizing forest stands. 

193

INLAND WEST REGIONAL REPORT _ Prices were also depressed by large quantifies of 

lumber imported to the United States from Canada. 

by 

Lumber mill profits were further squeezed in 1995, by 

a significant drop in paper chip prices, which began in 

Lawson W. Starnes the 3rd quarter of 1995 (Wood Resources International 

USDA ForestService Ltd. 1996). 

Lakewood, Colorado, USA 

White wood lumber prices may have bottomed out late 

in 1995 at about 70 percent of the 1994 price level, 

ABSTRACT: The current status of forest industry with some upward movement beginning in March, 

conditions, timber availability, logging systems mix, 1996. 

forest health, forest engineering schools, and logger 

certification programs is briefly described for the inland United States/Canada Trade Pact 

western United States. 

An agreement between the U.S. and Canada will cap 

Key Words: logging, timber, forest, harvesting, forest exports of Canadian softwood lumber to the U.S. from 

indust_j, forest engineering 

the provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Ontario, 

and Quebec at 14.7 billion board feet. This is about 1.5 

billion board feet less than was exported by the four 

INTRODUCTION 

provinces in 1995. Exports in excess of that total will 

be subject to an escalating export tax. (Random 

The "Inland West" referred to in this paper refers to the Lengths, April 5, 1996). The agreement may improve 

intermountain states of Montana, Idaho, Utah, 

prices for U.S. producers. 

Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and 

Nevada, and a great plains state, South Dakota. The 

Timber availability 

current status of issues and trends pertinent to forest 

industry, forest landmanagement,andforest 

Timberavailability on federal landshasdeclined. Net 

engineering is included, growth after removals is positive (Powell etal. 1994). 

Sixty percent of the timberland in the intermountaln 

states is managed by the U. S. Forest Service (Table 1). 

ECONOMIC 

Major factors affecting timber availability on federal 

lands currently include: timber sale appeals and 

Mill closures and consolidations of primary litigation, the Endangered Species Act, and 

manufactures of boards and dimension lumber continue Congressional funding levels for timber and road 

to occur in the Inland West. Decreased volumes of 

construction. The current Congress is placing renewed 

federal timber being offered for sale continue to 

emphasis on commodity production from federal lands. 

adversely affect dependent mills. Forest Service 

i volume under contract dropped 50 percent from 1991 

to 1994 in the intermountain states (Powell etal. 

Table 1. Timberland* area (thousands of acres) in the 

1994). There is an increasing dependence on non- intermountain states by ownership group 

federal land ownerships for stumpage. (Powell etal., 1994). 

Prlca Ownership _m-oup thousandsofacres 

Stumpage prices increased as volume under contract National Forest 35,459 

decreased with highs reached early in 1994. Lumber Other Public 5,789 

prices sharply declined during 1994. Significant Forest Industry 2,894 

volumes of non-industrial private timber was offered Non-industrial Private 14,959 

for sale by land owners who wanted to take advantage *Timberland is defined as forest.land capable of " 

of good prices and who were anxious over increasing 

producing more than 20 cubic feet per acre per year 

federal and state forestland regulation, 

and not withdrawn from timber production. 

_Prcscnted atthejoint mc_ting oftheCouncilOnFottstEnginccdng 

andIn(majoredUnionof For_ ResearchOrganizationsSubject 

Group$3.04-00,Marquette, MI,July29-August1,1996. 

194

Which states have most of the wood7 Idaho and 

efforts, which began over 100 years ago, have altered 

Montana (all ownerships) account for 56 percent of the forest conditions (Thomas 1994). 

softwood and hardwood growing stock in the Inland 

West (Table 2). 

For example, where there has been a lack of shortinterval 

low-intensity ground fires in historically open 

ponderosa pine forests, we now have densely stocked 

Table 2. Net volume (million cubic fee0 of softwood stands including mixed species. The additional trees 

and hardwood growing stock on timberland 

compete for moisture on dry sites, and provide l_der 

(all ownerships) in the intermountain states 

fuels for high intensity crown fires, which can be very 

and South Dakota, 1992 (PoweU et al. difficult to control. 

1994). 

The 1994 fires on the Boise National Forest in Idaho 

State Millions of cubic feet burned 168,000 acres of ponderosa pine mad other 

forest types. 

Arizona 7,028 

Colorado 19,448* The 1994 fires on the Payette National Forest in Idaho 

Idaho 33,001 burned 300,000 acres of mostly lodgepole pine and 

Montana 28,195 alpine fir forest types. Lodgepole pine stands become 

Nevada 456 susceptible to mountain pine beetle epidemics with 

New Mexico 6,768 age. If not managed, vast areas of heavy fuel loading 

Utah 4,794* and large stand replacement fires can result. 

Wyoming 6,892* 

South Dakota 1,796 Emergency Salvage Timber Sale Program 

*Not updated since 1987. 

The Emergency SalvageTimber Sale Program (Section 

2001, PL104-19) was signed July 27, 1995 to expedite 

In 1991, Idaho and Montana, accounted for 76 percent salvagesales on federal land. Non-appealable NEPA 

of removals from all ownerships in the intermountain decisions are permitted under the act. Approximately 4 

states (Powell et al. 1994). 

billion board feet of salvage timber is available for 

salvage nation-wide under provisions of the law. As of 

Timber harvest projections 

March 27, 1996, the salvage program was on schedule 

and meeting goals. Compliance with all applicable 

Harvest levels in Idaho (all ownerships) are expected to laws is being met. 

decline 14.6 percent in the 1997-2000 time period 

from the 1991-1993 base period (Hamanishi et al. 

Timber salvage operations on the Boise and Payette 

1996). Harvest levels in Montana (all ownerships) are National Forests from the 1994 fires are continuing into 

projected to decline 2 percent in the 1996-2000 time 

1996 with much of the volume being helicopter yarded. 

period from the 1991 -1995 period (Flowers et al, 

1987). Recent comparisons of actual harvest to Environmental regulation 

projected harvest in Montana have indicated that 

aggregate projections for the 1991-1994 period were 

The Endangered Species Act has impacted the forest 

close, however, there was a greater shift from Forest 

industry to differing degrees in the Inland West. 

Service to private ownerships than projected (Schuster Concern over chinook salmon and gri_!y bear habitat 

et al. 1996). 

has impacted Montana and Idaho. Concern over the 

Mexican spored owl and goshawk has greatly 

impacted Arizona and New Mexico. 

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 

Forest Health 

Current forest conditions in much of the inland west are 

favorable for high intensity stand replacement fires and 

large-scale forest pest outbreaks. Fire exclusion 

EDUCATION/TRAINING 

Forest engineering curriculum 

There are currentlyno SAF accredited forest 

engineering degree programs offered by universities in 

the inland west. The University of Idaho does offer a 

195

timberharvesting optionwiththeforest products 

bachelorofsciencedegree, 

andbuckingatthestumpby a mechanical 

harvester head;logsthenskiddedtothe 

landingby agrappleskidderortractor) 

Logger accreditation 

G. SHOVEL (tracked log loader walked into 

Montana is currently the only state in the inland west 

the cutting unit to swing logs to a skid road 

that has a program for logger accreditation. The or to a truck landing) 

program is administered by the Montana Loggers 

Association. This program includes practically all of H. OFF-ROAD JAMMER (tracked log loader 

the elements recommended by the American Forest and 

or feller equipped to throw tongs from skid 

Paper Association's Sustainable Forestry Initiative for roads or truck roads. May work in 

the logger training. The accreditation covers five areas 

conjunction with a grapple skidder or 

including water quality, silviculture and ecology, safety, 

tractor) 

first aid, and business management. 

I. JAMMER (lightweight ground lead yarder 

The water quality, silviculture, and ecology modules 

using tongs and usually mounted on a truck 

incorporate curriculum developed under the Logger 

with a spar and boom (Mifflin and Lysons 

Education for Advanced Professionalism (LEAP) 1979)) 

programs by the University of Idaho. In Montana, the 

LEAP modules are taught by University of Montana J. HIGHLEAD (ground lead cable system. The 

Cooperative Extension. 

mainline is rove through a fairlead mounted 

on a tower, spar, or boom for liR. The 

mainline and butt rigging with chokers are 

LOGGING SYSTEMS 

hauled back into the cutting unit by a 

haulback line.) 

A variety of ground-based, skyline, and helicopter 

logging systems are used in the Inland West. Familiar K. SKYLINE (slack-pulling or non-slack 

logging systems include the following: 

pulling carriage rides on a live, standing, or 

running skyline) 

A. HORSE 

L. HELICOPTER 

B. CONVENTIONAL TRACTOR (line 

skiddcrs and tractors - motor manual felling, M. OTHER 

delimbing, and bucking) 

The mix of logging systems varies greatly from state to 

C MECHANI7F.D WHOLE TREE state (Table 3). 

(mechanized felling and bunching of whole 

trees by a feller-buncher; then grapple 

The logging systems mix on other ownerships may be 

skidded to the landing for fin'ther processing different. 

(Kellogg et al. 1993). 

D. MECHANIZED TREE LENGTH 

(mechanized felling, delimbing, and topping 

at the stump by a mechanical harvester (not 

feller-buncher); then tree-length skidded to 

the landing) 

E. MEC_D CUT-TO-LENGTH/ 

FORWARDER (mechanized felling, 

delimbing, andbucking at the stump by a 

mechanical harvester; logs then forwarded to 

the landing by a log forwarder (not skidded) 

F. MECHANIZED CUT-TO-LENGTH/ 

SFdDDER (mechanized felling, delimbing, 

196

Table 3. Logging system mix by state expressed as Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 

percent of commercial volume harvested in Research Contribution 1.12p. 

1995 from U.S. Forest Service lands. 

Mifflin, Ronald F.; Lysons, H.H. 1979. Glossary of 

S 

forest engineering terms. USDA Forest Service, 

Y State PacificNorthwestForestandRangeExperiment 

S 

,,, 

Station. 23p. 

T 

PoweU,Douglas; Faulkner, J.L.; Dan', D.; Zhu, Z.; 

E MT I D LIT WY CO SD NM AZ MacCleary, D. 1993. Forest Resources of the 

M 

United States, 1992. Gen. Teeh. Rpt. RM-234. Ft 

A

COFE REGIONAL REPORT - WESTERN To meet the Code, the forest companies must provide 

CANADA t 

the Ministry of Forests with several layers of detailed 

plans before a permit to conduct a forest operation of 

by 

any kind is issued. As a result, planning costs have 

increased dramatically since the Code was 

BjOmAndersson 

implemented, as has the time between permit 

Forest Engineering Research Instituteof Canada 

application and the time of approval. Any changes or 

Western Division 

amendments to the original plan must be approved by 

Vancouver, British Columbia., Canada 

the Ministry, a process that could take as long as the 

approval of the original plan. Therefore companies are 

reluctant to make changes to the approved plans. 

ABSTRACT: The majorityof forest landin Western 

Canada (British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan) The implementation of the Code has also meant 

is publicly owned. The provincial governments set the changes for the Ministry of Forests; it has increased its 

policies under which the forests are managed, and 

staff. Government foresters have also had to learn the 

allocate timber to private forest companies through 

new guidelines and how to implement them, a process 

various types of temporary tenure agreements. The contributing to the delay in approving permit 

policies set by the governments often reflect the 

applications. 

public's perception of how forest companies manage 

their tenures. 

Clearcuttingis still the most common harvesting 

practice in British Columbia, but the average size of 

Besides environmental issues, forest companies in cutblocks is decreasing. Partial cutting is also 

Western Canada are working to improve wood quality becoming more common both on the Coast and in the 

and upgrade their mill output to higher-value products. Interior, primarily to achieve visual quality objectives, 

The industry is also exploring ways to recover non- 

protect water quality, or preserve slope stability. 

traditional fibre from, for example, sort yard debris and Different harvesting systems, ground-based, cable and 

overmature stands. However, the current down turn in aerial, are being tried to achieve the desired objective 

the pulp market will likely have a dampening affect on at a reasonable cost. For example, the Forest 

these activities. 

Engineering Research Institute of Canada (FERIC) in 

cooperation with member companies, tested a cable 

While the US is still the major export market for the 

system in partial cutting in a Coastal old-growth stand 

forest industry in Western Canada, many companies are on very steep terrain. The operation proved very 

looking at expanding their sales, especially of higher- 

successful, primarily because ofth_ amount of planning 

value products, into the Asian and European markets, 

that involved railers, yarding crew, foresters and 

engineers that preceded the operation. Other forest 

Key Words: Forest Practices Code, ForestCare, companies are testing long-line systems yarding up to 

British Columbia, Alberta, partial cutting. 

1000 m to reduce the amount of roads required. 

On Coastal British Columbia, harvesting of naturally 

BRITISH COLUMBIA regenerated second-growth stands is increasing as 

areas with old-growth forests are being protected. The 

In 1995, the government of British Columbia 

change to second-growth stands provides the 

implemented the British Columbia Forest Practices 

opportunity to mechanize harvesting operations. 

Code, which governs all aspect of forest operations on Feller-bunchers, harvesters and excavator-forwarders 

public land in the province. The Code establishes strict are becoming more common in ground-based 

standards for protection of forest productivity, streams operations for both clear-cutting and partial cutting. 

and water quality, visual aspects, wildlife habitat, and 

biodiversity along with heavy financial penalties (up to In the Interior of British Columbia, full-tree to roadside 

$1,000,000) and imprisonment for code violations, harvesting operations are most common, but cut-to- 

The sentences can be levied on both forest companies length systems are increasing in numbers. At 

and individuals. 

MacKenzie in Northern British Columbia, TimberWest 

recently converted a significant part of its operation to 

tPresentedatthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering 

andInternational UnionofForestResearchOrganizationsSubject 

Group$3.044)0,Marquette,MI,July29-August1, 1996. 

198 

cut-to-length to provide its sawmill with just-in-time 

delivery of logs, and to reduce hauling costs. Several 

Other companies have also expressed interest in cut-to-

length harvesting, but will more likely convert only a 

portion of their harvesting operations to cut-to-length 

systems. 

ALBERTA 

Alberta's situation is quite different fxom that of British 

Columbia.DuringthelastI0years,therehasbeena 

tremendous expansion of the forest industry with new 

pulp mills and board mills being built. As a result, all 

conifer and about 85% of the deciduous timber supply 

have now been allocated. 

In Alberta, the forest industry established its own forest 

practices code, ForestCare. The Alberta Code is also 

different fi'om the British Columbia Code in that the 

former is more' goal oriented', and relies on industry 

auditing and enforcement. The Alberta government has 

also significantly reduced its forestry staff. 

Most harvesting operations in Alberta are mechanized 

ground-based systems employing feUer-bunchers, 

grapple skidders, and roadside delirnbers or processors. 

However, a number of companies harvest aportion of 

their wood with cut-to-length systems, or use in-wood 

chippers to supplement their woodroom capacity. Atthe-stump 

processing is also being tried in pine stands 

by moving conventional roadside delimbers into the 

stump-area. Grapple skidders are then extracting the 

tree-length stems to roadside for subsequent loading 

and hauling. 

The expansion of the forest industry in Alberta 

provided the opportunity for many companies to begin 

theirnew operations usingthelatest harvesting and 

transportation technology. As an example, Albert- 

Pacific Ltd. requires all of its trucking contractors to 

haveCentralTireInflation (CTI)systemsontheirlog 

trucks. The company also uses Global Positioning 

Systems (GPS) tedmology to monitor the log haul and 

to supply its hauling contractors with information on 

truck performance. 

SASKATC]_WAN 

Saskatchewan is developing a new strategy of forest 

management focusing on sustainable management. 

While there has been some expansion of pulp and 

board mills in this province, there is still room for 

further expansion as not all of the Province's timber 

supply has been allocated. 

199 

v

COFE REGIONAL REPORT: 

EUROPE I 

by 

Esko M/kkoncn 

University of Helsinki 

Helsinki, Finland 


| . . 

PresentedatthejomtmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestF.ngineetJng 

andIntematiomlUnionofForestResearchOrgmizatiomSubject 

Group83.04-00,Marquette,MI,July29-AugustI, 1996. 

200

A MIXED-INTEGER PROGRAMMING operating costs. To help planners meet this 

MODEL FOR TACTICAL FOREST 

challenge, researchers over the last 20 years have 

OPERATIONS PLANNING 1 developed increasingly sophisticated computer-based 

planning models. The most common approach 

by 

adopted in these models has been to implement a 

mathematical programming methodology to 

Ragnar M. P,. Oborn determine the theoretical 'optimum' plan based upon 

University of New Brunswick 

the objectives and constraints that are specified in a 

Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada series of linear equations. TOPM (Tactical 

Operations Planning Model), the latest such model 

developed at the University of New Brunswick, 

ABSTRACT: A Windows-based, mixed-integer represents a significant advancement in this field. 

programming model for the development of This paper details the formulations used in TOPM, 

integrated forest operations plans was created at the describes its use in a case study, and evaluates its 

University of New Bnmswick. This model allocates potential for use in operational planning. 

harvesting systems to available cut blocks, plans 

multi-mill wood deliveries and wood purchases, 

while integrating road (tertiary, access, secondary), 

PRIOR ADVANCES IN OPERATIONAL PLANNING 

stumpage, and silviculture costs into the plan. 

E,qnipment (trucks, harvesting machines) purchase Walker and Preiss (1988) developed a Mixed Integer 

decisions can be included in the model. This model Programming (MIP) model which produced art 

was tested in the UNB 1995-96 senior undergraduate integrated harvesting and wood delivery plan for 

forest operations planning case study. This paper E.B. Eddy in Northern Ontario. The parameters of 

summarizes the model's ability to develop a multi- this plan included 228 harvest blocks, 4 products, 5 

year operating plan in an industrial-strength case mills, and 2 harvest systems over a 5-year period. 

study. The structure of the formulated matrix is Walker and Preiss (1988) designated the blockexplained, 

detailing the decision variables and harvest decisions to be binary variables, so that if a 

constraints of the model. The case study is then block was harvested it had to be completely 

described and illustrated with some results from the harvested. Wightman (1990) developed a model that 

optimal solution. Finally, the model's potential for determined a minimum cost wood transport plan 

use as a planning tool in other contexts is discussed, from harvest blocks to a multi-mill destination set. 

LOGPLAN II (Newnham 1991) allowed for multiple 

Key Words: forest operations, mathematical operating seasons to be defined within multiple 

programming, mixed-integer programming, forest operating years. LOGPLAN II minimized the total 

planning, timber harvesting cost of a harvesting operation while including 

associated regeneration costs. Zundel (1993) 

developed a 5-year optimization model, TO-PLAN, 

INTRODUCTION that minimized the combined costs of harvesting, 

transportation, tertiary road construction, and 

Planning of forest harvesting operations is a complex silvicultural requirements. Zundel used TO-PLAN 

enterprise that involves the allocation of resources 

in a case study for Kruger Inc. to develop a 5-year 

across a wide diversity of forest blocks over a period operating plan. Davis (1987) developed a multi-year 

of up to several years. Forest operation planners axe operational planning model, which he used to 

typically required to satisfy the wood requirements of develop a 5-year plan for Great Northern Paper in 

several mills, using particular harvest systems Maine. This model used integer programming to 

operating on a large number of possible cut blocks, minimize risk of wood fiber loss. 

Usually they axe also responsible for the planning of 

road construction and the transportation of wood 

These models have demonstrated that mathematical 

products to the mills. This is all done in a context of programming can be used successfully in the 

mounting environmental constraints and high development of forest operating plans. Walker and 

Preiss (1988), Wightman (1990), and Zundel (1993) 

all found that their optimization models produced 

_rPresented at the joint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering solutions that were 4-7 percent better than 


Group $3.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1, 1996. heuristically produced plans. However, the 

201

effectiveness and use of these models have generally 6. What primary wood products should be 

been limited to one or two situations. There are purchased by the mills throughout all seasons 

probably many reaons for this. Inertia in adopting and years. 

new "high-tech" methods for developing operating 

plans, and a lack of reliable field data to input into TOPM uses mixed-integer programming to 

the models certainly accounts for some of this formulate and produce the optimum operating plan. 

restraint. However, the structure and limited 'user- In the matrix, block availability for harvesting can be 

friendliness' of the models themselves have also constrained by access roads or other infrastructure 

contributed to their limited applicability. Most of the (e.g., bridges). As well, minimum and maximum 

above models were designed for one specific harvest cut sizes can be specified. TOPM will 

situation. For example, the model by Walker and produce either a plan with a minimized total 

Preiss (1988) was designed to develop a cost- discounted cost or a plan with a maximized Net 

minimized 5-year plan for the specific blocks, mills Present Value - subject to all constraints. 

and products in question. TO-PLAN was designed 

to handle only one mill destination. Since the TOPM partitions different plans into scenarios. An 

parameters and constraints of each forest operation unlimited number of planning scenarios can be 

situation varies, it is difficult to make a model 'hard- entered into TOPM. New scenarios can be copied 

wired' for one specific situation fit readily into automatically from existing scenarios, so that the 

another situation, user can quickly develop several versions of an 

operating plan. Each scenario can have different 

dimension sizes associated with it (e.g., one scenario 

TOPM OVERVIEW can have a 3-season operating year with 15 products 

and 2 mills, wheras the next scenario can have a 

TOPM was designed with these advances and single season operating year with 1 product and 5 

limitations in mind. The objective behind the mills). Once the user has configuredthe planning 

development of TOPM was a forest operations 

situation as desired, the matrix and all its 

planning model flexible and comprehensive enough coefficients are developed automatically by TOPM. 

so that it could be used in a wide range of multi-year 

and multi-season forest operations planning 

situations. TOPM was intended to handle the TOPM MATRIX STRUCTURE 

following kinds of decisions: 

1. What harvesting systems should be used in 

which given that blocks different in which systems seasons haveof different which years, 

Objective 

function 

The objective function in TOPM is either, 

costs, production capabilities, block access minimize: z = BLOCKCOSTS + TRANSCOSTS + 

abilities, silviculture and road requirements. PURCHASECOSTS + EQUIPMENTCOSTS + ROADCOSTS 

2. What primary products should be transported or 

by which transportation systems to which 

mills or buyers, maximize: z =WOODVALUE- BLOCKCOSTS- 

TRANSCOSTS- PURCHASECOSTS-EQUIPMENTCOSTS- 

3 What equipment should be purchased or ROADCOSTS 

contracted in which years. 

where: 

4. Where should tertiary, access and main roads 

be built, and in which years should they be The PURCHASECOSTS, EQUIPMENTCOSTS, 

built. ROADCOSTS and WOODVALUE terms are all 

optional. 

5. What silvicultural activities should be 

undertaken in which years and in which 

blocks. 

202

B H g N TCb,m_, = transport cost coefficient in $/m 3for 

B_KC_ -- XEEE_ • _ truck- t, in block- b, year- y, season-n, 

b h y n transporting species - s, product - p to mill - m. 

TVb_b_p ---decision variable in m3 for truck - t, in 

B r _ r M S P block - b, year - y, season - n, transporting species - 

TRY= > _) "_'>_ff_ _> __. 7Vt,m_ s, product- p tomill- m. It is an unbounded, 

continuous decision variable. 

b y n t m s p PPmymp = purchasewood cost coefficient in $/m 3at 

u r _, s P mill - m, in year - y, season - n, for species - s, 

PURCHASECOSTS = E E E E E PP,,,m," pl'rmm'e product- p. 

= y n s p PVmymp = purchasewood decision variable in ma at 

mill - m, in year - y, season - n, for species - s, 

Y E product - p. This variable is bounded in the matrix 

EQ UIPA/'IENTCOSTS = E E Efye* NEye to remain between the minimum required and 

y e 

maximum allowed purchase levels. 

ECy, = discounted purchase cost in $ of equipment 

R (harvesting machine or truck) - e in year - y 

R OAD C0 S TS = R Cr *BRr NE. = decision variable of number of equipmente 

to purchase in year - y. This is a general integer 

r variable (NE=0,1,2,3..) 

M r N S P RCr = road cost in $ to build road - r 

WOODVALUE = ]_"___E_"_UWV,,v_* DV,,v_ rBl_ornot. = binary decision variable (0,1)to build roadm 

y n • t' UWV,_, = unit wood value in $/m 3at mill - m, 

and in year - y, season - n, for species - s, product - p. 

b - denotes a harvest block out of a total of B blocks This coefficient is currently equal to PPmy_,p. 

h - denotes a harvest system out of a total of H DV=,#_ = total delivered volume in m3 at mill - m, 

systems in year - y, season - n, for species - s, product - p. 

n - denotes an operating season out of a total of N 

This is equal to the amount of wood purchased 

seasons in a year (PPmymp)and all wood transported to the mill ( _b_,t 

y - denotes an operating year out of a total of Y 

TVbty,,_) 

years 

t - denotes a truck-type out of a total of T truck- 

Constraints 

types 

s - denotes a species out of a total of S species 

The constraints can be grouped into different 

p - denotes a species-product out of a total of P 

categories, some of which are optional. 

products for a species 

rn - denotes a mill out of a total of M mills 

Harvest cut size 

e - denotes an equipment type (harvest machine or 

truck-type) out of a total of E types of TOPM optionally defines the decision variables 

equipment 

I-IAbhy_in the objective function to be semi-continous 

r - denotes an access or secondary road out of a total variables. Semi-continuous variables differ from 

of R roads 

continous variables in that they have a discrete jump 

in their allowed values. 

BCbh_= block cost coefficient in S/hectare for HA = 0, or HA >= c, c > 0 

system - h, in block - b, year - y and season - n. 

HAbhy_ = decision variable in ha for system - 1Lin Thus, HA cannot take on a value in the range: 0 < 

block - b, year - y and season - n. This is a semi- HA < c, where c is specified by the user. This 

• continuousvariable, feature is included to accountfor the overhead that 

203 

occurs in harvesting when starting a new cut. At 

the very least the harvesting machinery must be 

-- i llll , I

moved to the block. Thus, the cost of the first m3 Harvest volume transfer 

cut in a new block is not equal to the cost coefficient 

of the continuous variable. To deal rigorously with This large set of constraints is required to convert 

this extra start-up cost, binary variables would need the area harvested in each block into product 

to be included in the objective function similarly to volumes available for transport. 

what has been done with access and secondary roads 

(see below). However, the prohibitively large BYNSP H. T M 

number of binary variables involved would make the XX X Z X (E(,.-qPbsn_ * HAb@n) - EEWbyamsp >--0) 

model difficult, if not impossible, to solve. In 

b y n s p 

addition, the magnitude of this overhead cost does h t m 

not usually warrant such a rigorous treatment. As a 

compromise, this option puts discrete bounds on the where: 

allowable harvest cut sizes, so that if a harvest cut is 

made (i.e., HA > 0), the cut must be greater than a SPb,_wh = species-product volume per ha (m3/ha). 

required minimum size (i.e., HA >= c). This will This is calculated in TOPM by assuming a uniform 

constrain TOPM from producing a solution with distribution of the species-product mix across the 

unrealistically small cut sizes. The fixed cost of the block. The product volume in the block is divided by 

harvest start-up is thus assumed to be absorbed as 

the block area to get a product m3/ha coefficient. 

part of the larger variable cost. The semi-continuous 

variables do increase the computational effort 

These equations can either be specified as equalities 

required to solve the problem, but not to the extent 

(i.e., =0) or as inequalities (i.e., > 0). The first case 

that would occur if binary variables were used for 

forces transport of all cut wood, whereas using 

every HA decision variable, inequalities allows cut wood to be left at the block. 

An upper bound can also be specified so that the HA 

variables must remain less than a maximum 

Mill constraints 

allowable cut size. These constraints are written in one of two ways. 

The first routine assumes that in each season there is 

Harvest block area a rigid maximum and minimum demand that must 

be met for all products at all mills. The equations 

This is a required set of constraints to ensure that the for this approach are: 

total area of a block cutover the course of the plan is 

T B 

MY NS P/ 

less than or equal to the area of the block (so the 

+ PV,,r, 

block area cannot be cut more than once). 

,ny n s p 

t b 

B H ]" N 

where: 

E ( I*HA0 < BAREAb) MMIN.y,_s, = minimum mill inventory for mill - m, 

in year - y, season - n, for species - s, product -p. 

b h y n MMAXmyr_p= maximum mill inventory for mill - m, 

in year - y, season - n, for species - s, product -p. 

where: 

These constraints ensure a minimum and maximum 

BAREAb = the area of block b in ha. wood intake level for each product at all mills for 

every season. In addition, TOPM also has the option 

TOPM also allows the user to constrain the total to constrain total wood intake. Setting a large 

harvested area to a minimum percentage of the total minimum and maximum range for each product, and 

area of all blocks. This ensures that a minimum including these total wood volume constraints will 

percentage of land area will be harvested over the allow TOPM to choose the optimum product 

course of the plan. combination for each mill. The set of constraints for 

total wood volumes are: 

204

_N TBSP SP MYN $ P y n 

my n 

t b _ p s p s p I I 

where: 

It should be noted that if the wood purchase option is 

TMINm_ = total (all products) minimum mill 

not used, the PV terms are not included as part of the 

inventory for mill - rn, in year - y, season - n 

DV variables. 

TMA_ = total (all products) maximum mill 

inventory for mill - m, in year - y, season - n 

Equipment constraints 

These constraints specify that the sum of the product This set of constraints is optional, and if activated, 

volumes must remain between a minimum and can also be put to use in one of two ways. The first 

maximum range for all seasons. It should be noted approach sets seasonal constraints on the 

that use is made of Right Hand Side ranging in the 

availability of the equipment (harvest machines and 

matrix to model both the maximum and the trucks). Based on the number of available machines 

minimum limit in one equation. If this were not the or trucks, number of operating days per season, 

case, two equations would need to be written - one 

number of scheduled hours per operating day, and 

for the maximum and the other for the minimum 

the utilization of each machine or truck,the 

constraint, 

available productive machine hours (PMH) for each 

piece of equipment in every season is calculated (i.e., 

The second approach explicitly incorporates mill 

PMH = operating days/season * scheduled machine 

consumption of wood. Mills are assumed to have a hours/day [SMH/day] * PMH/SMH * number of 

consumption level in each season and maximum and machines). This is considered the maximum mount 

minimum allowable inventory levels. Wood not of time that an equipment type is available for 

consumed by the mill (and thus in inventory) at the 

productive work in any season and thus becomes the 

end of one season is available the subsequent season fight hand side in this set of constraints: 

for consumption, along with the delivered wood of 

that season. Thus mills can be modelled to build and Y N HM B 

deplete inventory levels for times when wood _ _ _ (_-'_ (HAbynh * HHbynhm) _ HMAXynh,n) 

delivery is expensive or impossible. This approach y n hm b 

is modelled by: 

for harvest machines, and for tracks: 

MYNSP, 

y n 

ZZ ZZ__ 

mynsp 

s,T__(DV,,v_-CV,,_)£:- ll,lt44X,,v_) Y N T B M S P 

where: 

_l 

ynt 

where: 

bmsp 

CVm_ = mill consumption in m3 

DV_ = delivered volume, which is the sum of l_ = harvest machine m in harvest system h 

purchased wood (PV) and transported wood (TV) HM= total number of harvest machines in all harvest 

systems 

In each season, the CV and DV terms are summed 

HHby_h,= PMH/ha required for machine - m, in 

for all previous seasons and years. Thus, these harvest system - h, block - b, year - y, season - n. 

constraints force the difference of the cumulative 

This is calculated from the machine productivity 

delivered volume and cumulative consumed volume equation (m3/pmh) and block volume (m3/ha) 

to remain between the minimum and maximum HMAXyr_= Maximum number of available 

limits. Including the total wood constraint option machine hours (PMH) for machine - m, of system - 

would add the following equations to the matrix: h, in year - y, season - n. 

THby_ = coefficient for truck time for hauling 

wood (PMH/m3). This is a function of truck speeds, 

road TMAX_t= distances maximum and loadnumber size. of available truck 

hours (PMH) for truck - t, in year - y, season - n. 

205 

Ill

Minimumrequiredhoursof use, HMIN andTMIN, calculated. If the first method is employed 

for each seasoncan also bespecified. Theseforce (equipmentpurchaseis notconsidered), the 

TOPMto workthese machinesto at least these 

depreciationrate ($/PMH) foreach machine is 

minimum levels in each season, 

includedas part of the cost coefficient in both 

harvesting and transportation. The second method 

The other way of constraining equipment availability (equipment purchase is considered) does not include 

is to include equipment life and the purchase of new the depreciation in these cost coefficients. This cost 

equipment into the decision-making process. Not is captured in the purchase cost. 

only is equipment constrained by seasonal capacity, 

but also by economic life. 

Access and secondary road constraints 

E II N TOPM distinguishes between three different types of 

en-/ 'Mggn > 

__. _Y roads. A harvest or tertiary road is one wherethe 

--_ v/ length of the road to be built is proportional to the 

e y n area of the block that is to be cut. Since this cost is 

proportional to the amount of wood cut, this road 

E Y _vN cost is bundledin as part of the block operating cost 

_./__Y 

-- 

In 

>0)w 

coefficient. 

e y The other road types in TOPMare those where the 

entire road must be built (and hence the entire road 

where: 

cost incurred) before any harvest operations can 

commence. Typically, this occurs when a road 

ECAP_,= seasonalcapacity(PMH)per piece of 

providesaccessto a block, or to several blocks. In 

equipment- e, in season - n. This is the product of this situation, the assumption of proportionality 

operating days/season * scheduled hours/day * 

between length of road built and area of a blockcut 

utilization rate. 

is untenable, and this situation is better modelledas 

EPMIt,_ = PMH used byequipment type - e, in year a binary (0,1) decision. Either the road is not built 

- y, season - n. This is calculated by transfer rows (the variable takes on the value 0), or the entire road 

which sum the PMH forthat equipmentby season is built (the variable takes on the value 1). If the 

and year. 

roadis notbuilt, no harvesting can occur in that 

ELIFEo= economic life in PMH of equipment - e. block. In TOPM, roads which provide this kind of 

NE.y = General integer decision variable (i.e. 

access to one block are called block access roads, 

0,1,2,3...) to determine how many pieces of whereas roads which providethis type of access to 

equipment type- e, to purchase in year - y. 

more than one block are considered secondary or 

ELIFE = expected economiclife in years based on primary roads. TOPM has a special window in its 

scheduled hoursand utilization, 

interface to allow blocks to be picked and 'attached' 

to the secondary road in question. The access and 

The first set of constraints ensures that an 

secondary roads are included in the matrix in the 

equipment's seasonal level of use (total PMH)cannot following manner: 

exceedthe totalseasonal capacity of the equipment. R b H r N 

The seasonal capacity is the product of the total E HA ,,,. - M * B R. < 0) 

numberof pieces of equipmentin service (those 

purchasedin currentand previousyears) multiplied r b h y n 

by the seasonalcapacityper piece of equipment, 

where: 

Totalseasonalcapacity can be increasedby the 

purchase of new equipment. The second set of 

BI_ - binary decision variable (0,1) to build road r 

constraintsensuresthat the cumulativelevel of use or not. 

of the equipmentdoes notexceed total acquired 

M = any large number (greater than the total area of 

economic life. 

the blocks in question) 

It shouldbe noted that these differentequipment For secondary/primary roads, the HAbhy n variables 

constraints affect the way that cost coefficients are include those from several blocks, whereas for block 

206

access roads they only include those from the one constraints. The number of variables is limited only 

block in question. In this formulation, if variable BR by the RAM of the computer. Thus large and 

is 0 (i.e., no road built), all the HA variables must 

complex planning scenarios can be solved by TOPM. 

also remain 0 (i.e., no harvesting activities) to avoid 

violating the inequality (i.e., so the left hand side 

remains zero or below). In order to allow any of the OBJECTIVE FUNCTION COEFFICIENTS 

HA variables to take on a non-zero value (i.e., do 

some harvesting), the BR variable must equal 1 (i.e., Block operating costs 

build the road). The coefficient 'M' is simply a 

number that is large enough to ensure that the left 

The decision variables (HAbhy_)are semi-continuous 

hand side of the equation remains negative even if 

and are in units of hectares. This set of decision 

all the HA variables take on positive values, thus variables represent all the harvest system-block 

satisfying the inequality. The value of M is currently alternatives over the course of the plan. The 

set at 99,999. 

coefficients of the HA variables are therefore in units 

of S/hectare. These are composite coefficients, 

User specified constraints 

composed of the following components: 

Through its interface, TOPM allows the user to 1. Harvest cost is the base component, and is the 

constrain the generation of decision variables. This product of system cost per m3 and block 

keeps TOPM from generating variables that are volume per ha (i.e. $/m3 * m3/ha). Since 

nonsensical. For example, suppose that there are TOPM allows for multi-year planning, the 

four different harvest systems being considered in a 

block volume can optionally be grown each 

plan. However, two of the systems will only work in year according to a user-specified formula. 

softwood blocks. Thus, decision variables for these Thus, the m3/haterm can 'grow' or 'die' as 

, two systems in hardwood blocks are meaningless - desired. This is useful in situations where 

they will not work in such blocks. TOPM will allow volume change is significant, as in high 

the user to quickly locate all blocks of a certain trait 

growth rate zones, in regions undergoing 

(in this case it is softwood/hardwood type) and will excessive dieback as in a spruce budworm 

allow the user to set these two systems to be 

'outbreak, or with longer planning time 

'unavailable' for this group of blocks. When TOPM frames. The harvest system cost is the sum of 

generates the matrix, no decision variables will be the $/m3 costs of all machines that are in the 

generated for these two systems in the hardwood 

system. The $/m 3 cost for each machine is 

blocks. The effect is to constrain the model without calculated either as the multiple of the rental 

adding more constraint rows (which increases model rate and a productivity equation ($/pmh * 

size and required computational effort) by decreasing 

pmh/m3), or is calculated directly from a cost 

the number of variables which decreases model size. equation. Cost equations are useful in 

TOPM allows the user to constrain all block-system, situations where harvesting is contracted out 

block-season, block-year, block-mill and truck- at a negotiated rate. The cost and productivity 

product combinations, equations are completely user-definable and 

accept block parameters (e.g., m3/tree, slope, 

m3/ha etc.) as input variables. As well, 

MODEL SIZE RESTRICTIONS constants can be used in place of the 

equations. TOPM calculates machine rental 

TOPM will produce all coefficients and generate the 

rates from input cost data or allows the user to 

matrix as an ASCII file in Mathematical 

specify a rental rate. 

Programming System (MPS) format. TOPM allows 

up to 125,000 blocks, and has a maximum of 50 for 2. Stumpage or royalty costs. This is an optional 

all other dimensions (e.g., number of species, mills, component where the stumpage costs are 

systems, years etc.). MIPIII 2 is the MIP solver that inputted as $/m 3 for each type of wood 

is currently being used to solve the matrix produced product. Based on the species-product 

by TOPM. MIPIII allows a maximum of 32K composition of each block, and the m3/ha 

value for each year of the plan, TOPM 

2 MIPIII is a commercial product from Ketron Management Science, calculates a weighted average stumpage cost 

a division of Bionetics Inc. 

207

in S/ha. This is then added to the harvest cost Purchase costs 

to give a combined S/ha coefficient. 

The purchase decision variables are in units of m3. 

3. Silviculture costs. This is also an optional This optional set of decision variables represent the 

component. Blocks in TOPM can be grouped purchase alternatives from outside sources for all the 

into forest classes or strata, based on user- 

mills over the course of the plan. These variables 

defined silvicultural criteria. Harvest systems can have upper and lower bounds set, representing 

can also be grouped into classes based on minimum purchase obligations and maximum 

silvicultural criteria. A silvicultural transition purchase supply levels. The coefficients are in units 

matrix (forest strata * harvest system classes) of $/m 3, representing the delivered wood cost. 

can then be developed. Each element of this 

matrix contains the the expected silvicultural Equipment costs 

activities for that particular forest class and 

harvest system class to bring the harvested 

These variables are general integer variables 

block back to a 'free-to-grow' state. The sum (0,1,2,3...) and represent the quantity of each 

of the discounted costs of these activities is thus equipment (harvest machine or truck) to buy in each 

the expected present cost of silviculture in S/ha. year. The coefficient is the discounted purchase 

price for that piece of equipment. 

4. Tertiary road costs. A tertiary or harvest road is 

defined in TOPM as a road systemin a block 

Road costs 

where the total length of the road to be built is 

proportional to the area of the block cut. TOPM This is a binary (0,1) set of decision variables. The 

uses an inputted default road cost (S/kin) coefficients for these road decisions represent the 

multiplied by a block specific road spacing ratio total cost to build each complete road, and are thus 

(km/ha) to obtain a tertiary road component in in units of $. For block access roads the total cost is 

S/ha which can optionally be added to the block simply the product of the standard tertiary road cost 

cost coefficient. The road spacing ratio is rate ($/km) and the required length (km). For a 

calculated by the optimum road spacing secondary or primary road, the user inputs a unit 

formula. Alternatively the user can input a road road cost ($/km) as well as the required length (km) 

spacing ratio to override the optimum value, to arrive at a total cost for the road. 

These components are summed to produce a 

Wood value 

combined block operating cost coefficient in S/ha 

(i.e., cost of wood at roadside before loading or These variables represent the amount of wood 

transport). This coefficient is then discounted to arriving at the mills through the course of the plan. 

produce a present value block operating cost. If the objective is set to minimize costs these 

variables are not generated, and all the above cost 

Transport costs coefficients are given positive values. The model 

will then find the least expensive way to get the 

The transport decision variables are in units of m3. required wood to the mills. If the objective is to 

This set of decision variables represent all the maximize profits, these wood value variables are 

product-block-mill transport alternatives over the generated to track the amount of wood arriving at 

course of the plan. The cost coefficients are in units the mills. The coefficients for these variables are in 

of $/m3. These coefficients are the product of truck units of $/m 3 and represent the discounted value to 

rental rate and trip time and loadsize ($/PMH * the organization of having a m3of wood on-hand at 

PMH/block-mill trip * block-mill trip/m3). The trip the mill. Currently this coefficient is equal to the 

time between all mills and blocks is calculated by purchase price of the wood (see purchase costs 

using average empty and loaded travel speeds above) to approximate the market value of wood. 

multiplied by distances for the different road classes. When the model maximizes profit, it sets all cost 

TOPM allows the user to vary load size by product coefficients to negative values and finds the 

and season, to account for possible weight combination of activities that results in the greatest 

restrictions and varying species densities, discounted wood value less total discounted costs. 

2O8

THE CASE STUDY 

stumpage, tertiary road construction, and silviculture 

costs. Finally, access and secondary roads were 

At the Univeristy of New Bnmswick, the graduating defined for all blocks that were not currently 

class of the faculty of forestry, as part of the core 

accessed. 

curriculum, is required to develop an integrated 

forest management and forest operations plan. In These constraints were incrementally added over a 

the context of a fictitious company, a woodlands two month period. Students would generate optimal 

division (which includes the whole class) is assem- 

solutions and scan them for unrealistic outputs. 

bled to develop and present these plans to the board Constraints were then added to ensure validity of 

of directors (a team of professors) by year-end, 

the scenario. Each iteration of the plan produced a 

Though the company is fictitious, the mills 

matrix size averaging 20,000 rows and 40,000 to 

correspond to actual mills of the surrounding area, 50,000 variables. A pentium 133 MHz DELL 

and all forest resource and map data is obtained from computer with 32 MB RAM was used to run TOPM 

the New Bnmswick Department of Natural and the MIP solver. Each solution took 

Resources and Energy. 

approximately 5 to 6 hours to generate. 

For the 1995-1996 year, the forest operations plan 

was developed, for the first time, by using TOPM. 

RESULTS 

The dimensions of this operations plan included 650 

harvest blocks, 5 harvest systems, 7 species groups, 2 The following tables have been taken from the 

product classes, 4 mills, and several woodlot TOPM report files for this case study. These reports 

marketing boards. Normally, in New Brunswick, are generated automatically when TOPM reads the 

such plans are developed for a 5-year period, but due optimum solution. The actual report files are 

to blocking problems inherited from the 1994-1995 extremely large as they report on all the non-zero 

case study, the planning horizon was reduced to 3 decision variables. Other reports from TOPM show 

years. 

Right-HandSide slack, shadowprices, reduced costs, 

and pest-optimal ranging 3 results. If the solution is 

The operations managers chose to divide the years infeasible, TOPM will detect the infeasibility and 

into 3 operating seasons - summer, winter and spring report on what is causing it. 

break-up, to reflect the differing operating conditions 

throughout the year. The wood from the marketing 

boards was treated as purchase wood options, with 

Table 1. Harvesting schedule for the case study. 

the maximum supply from the marketing boards 

being the upper bounds of the decision variables, and YR &.oN SYSTEM BLOCK HA COST 

the contractual obligations to the marketing boards 1 W S_V_D_I 3o41-o5 i7.00 946_ 

being the lower bounds. Minimum harvest cut sizes 2 SLI _1 2941-05 6.013 

were set at 6 hectares. Of the five harvest systems, 2 sO _1 3941-0s 6.00 55-7,_ 

two were constrained to be available only in 3 so _1 3041-06 leo.oo 84et_ 

softwood blocks, one was available only in hardwood 

blocks, one was available in both hardwood and 

softwood blocks, while the fifth system (a thinning 

system) was available only in blocks which were Table 2. Transport schedule for the case study. 

designated for thinning. All harvesting and 

trucking activities were specified as being YR 1 Wl SSN _4947-10 BLOCK TRUC MACK SOUTH!PINE MILL SPECIES PROD LOGS M31OO 

unavailable in the spring break-up season. Thus, 1 Wl 4947-10 MACKSOUTH!E!EM/TAMLOGS 1036 

mills could only rely on purchased wood and 1 Wl 4947-10 MACKSOUTHCEDAR SHIN 750 

miUyard inventories to satisfy their demands during 3 su 4948-01 MACK ANNE MIXDHR PULP 748 

this season. Certain blocks, identified from a 

geographic information system (GIS) as being 

swampy, were designated as being available only in 

the winter season. The objective was set to 

maximize net present value, while the block 

operatingcoefficients includedharvestcost, 

209 

3This is a procedure to determine values beyond the current iteration 

of the LP solution. This provides information useful in sensitivity 

analysis.

Table 3. Mill purchase and delivery schedule for the 

case study, 

cost sources including harvesting, silviculture, 

stumpage, road construction, transportation, and 

wood purchases can be included in the objective 

JUNIPER wl ISPFILOGS98771lS10731 _7_0I 

JUNIPER SP ISPF ]LOGS 01 0l 662501 includes woodpurchasedecisionsand incorporates 

ASHLEY SU ]SPF ILOGS 14721 447281 385O01 millyard inventory levels when the plan is 

ASHLEY MILL ]iR ISSN Wl [SPECI ISPF [PROD ILOGS 3UY[CO.OPICONSUM] 11441 335061 224.58! function formulated. to produce Thus, integration a truly integrated has beenplan. extended TOPM 

beyond the traditional forest activities (harvesting, 

trucking, road construction and silviculture) to 

Table 4. Road construction schedule for the case study, include wood purchases and mill consumption 

levels. The use of integer variables for equipment 

BLOCK ROADTYPE YEAR KM COST purchase decisions,secondaryand block accessroad 

4950-03 HARVEST 0.37 2150 constructiondecisions,and harvest cut size 

4951-01 HARVEST 3 0.09 529 

394005 ACCESS 1 0.25 175"/ restrictions allow for a closer approximation to real- 

3941-05 ACCESS 1 0.50 3515 life situations than can be done using standard linear 

programming. TOPM can produce and solve 

extremely large planning problems. The Windows- 

Table 5. Silviculture schedule for the case study, based graphical user interface (GUI) is a powerful 

interface to enter, analyze and validate the large 

YEAR BLOCK HA ACTIVITY COST amountsof input data. The flexible structureof 

2 

3 3940-05 SITE 8.00 PLANTQUAL 

13 

17 

TOPM allows it to handleproblems of varying sizes, 

6 3940-05 8.00 5YR ASSESS 8 thus making it quite versatile. In fact, TOPM was 

15 3940-07 95.48PCT 11338 usedto solve four other different operational 

planning problemsat the sametime it wasusedto 

work on thiscasestudy. 

Table 6. Equipment acquisition schedule for the case 

study. 

One aspect of the ability to handle multiple 

scenarios, each with different dimension sizes, that 

!;_'EAR'"iS'Y'S_'_/I" .........._MAC'HiJqE .....i'iq'Ci:'"i .....COS'l"" may prove extremely useful is when re-planning is 

i;i.............. !S_l"_/l""iiqOi_'EiS_ ...........;ii'"_3_'0i required. Once a plan has been developed and 

i2 ISFWD-FT#1 iHOODSLA 2i 360909i implementation of the plan has progressed to some 

_ ............. i_'__(_/_'"iliqi56_i_i_"_"........ _ia_a9_1 degree, re-planning based on thecurrent 'as-is' 

13 - ................ !S/HRWD-FT1!TJ380GS :.............................. ........................... : ........... 2i:................... 299961i .. statusof the implementationcouldbe quickly done. 

A new scenario could be copied from the existing 

plan. Blocks already harvested could be removed 

The costs in the tables are discounted. TOPM also from the block list, the number of operating days in 

reports future value cost reports. From these reports the season could be reduced accordingly, future mill 

other more specific reports(such as averages by year, demand adjusted to current estimates, and any other 

season or mill etc.) can be developed. In addition, required modifications could be entered. The new 

solutions from TOPM can be exported to a GIS so 

revised plan, based on the current status of the 

that the spatial dimension of the operating plan can implementation would then be produced. In fact 

be studied. This would allow managers, for rolling plans could conceivably be developed at 

example, to see year-by-year and season-by-season periodic intervals, so adjustments to changing 

where the harvesting, trucking, road building and operating and market conditions could be regularly 

silvicuture operations are scheduled to occur, incorporated. 

The ability of TOPM to handle problems with 

CONCLUSION basically unlimited dimension sizes allows the users 

to adjust each particular problem so that limits of the 

TOPM has good potential to be an effective forest LP solver are not exceeded. For example, in this 

operations research and planning tool. This is true case study, the students initially adopted a four 

for several reasons. Its matrix structure is very season operating year. Some initial calculations 

flexible, with many options. All major activities and showed that the problem would exceed the 32K row 

limit of MIPIII. Rather than reduce the number of 

210

locks, or the number of mills, the students decided LITERATURE CITED 

that the summer and fall season were similar enough 

to collapse into one season. Other situations may Davis, C. J. 1987. Planning Timber Harvest 

have led to reducing other dimensions of the Activities with Geographic 

problem. TOPM can accomodate the situation no InformationDecision Support Systems. 250 pp. 

matter how the user decides to delineate the problem. Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Ph.D. Thesis. 

Though TOPM has the potential to be an important Newnham, tLM. 1991. "LOGPLAN II - Model for 

tool in the planning process, reliance on it demands Planning Logging and Regeneration Activities." 

that the planners understand what the model is For. Canada Into. Report FMR-X-102 

doing, know the assumptions behind it, and develop 

a trained ability to analyze and interpret the output Walker, H.D. and S.W. Preiss. 1988. "Operational 

reports. Indeed, the greatest danger in relying on Planning using Mixed Integer Programming." 

this kind of model is that inadequate and The Forestry Chronicle. pp. 485-488. 

incompetent screening of the large amounts of input 

data will allow undetected errors to skew the plan. Wightnmn, R.A. 1990. An annual harvest 

This risk is increased if users blindly accept non- distribution model 82 pp. University of New 

intuitive solutions. Though mathematical Brunswick. M.Sc.F. Thesis. 

optimization can and does lead to non-intuitive 

solutions, such solutions can also come about due to Zundel, P. 1993. Planification des Choix et 

faulty input data, and the user must be aware of this. l'affectation de Systemes d'Exploitation 

TOPM does check for unusual or invalid input data, Forestiere a Moyen Terme. Universite de Laval. 

but not all cases can be completely anticipated 

Ph.D. Thesis. 

beforehand. This was particularly obvious at the 

beginning of the case study, when the students 

studied the 'optimal' outputs and did not recognize 

that some solutions did not really make sense. 

However, towards the end of the planning process 

students were much more adept at detecting and 

recognizing invalid or inconsistent results. The 

formal structure of the model allowed students to 

understand the major causes and effects in their 

operations (e.g., "if costs are low, check the 

productivity equations"). This is because TOPM, as 

a model of the real world, provides an ideal 

framework in which to understand and study the 

factors that govern the outcomes in an operational 

situation. 

If the potential that TOPM offers in multi-year 

planning is to be realized, then further 

enhancements and development will be needed. 

Issues such as linkages to GIS and other planning 

models (longer term harvest scheduling, blocking 

and operational scheduling and budgeting) will need 

to be addressed. This, however, is best done based 

on evaluations and experience gained from applying 

the model to a wide range of forestry problems. 

Industrial groups are being contacted to find partners 

interested in further research and development work 

on TOPM. 

211 

J

TIMBER HARVEST PLANNING IN THE A recently noticed problem is the existence of 

PACIFIC NORTHWEST: LESSONS FOR appreciably large areas and volumes that were 

TANZANIAN FOREST PLANTATIONS 1 declared inaccessible to harvesting due to unproven 

difficult terrain. Timber harvesting needs to be 

by 

carried out according to a pre-determined scheme to 

ensure an overall achievement of expected results. 

Dunstan T. 


K. Shemwetta Traditionally, timber harvesting was dictated solely 

John J. Garland by economic requirements; hence, it was possible to 

harvest according to simple planning, written or not. 

Oregon State University The necessity for harvesting depended on the size of 

Corvallis, Oregon, USA area, volume, length of project period, and the 

magnitude of economic gains at stake. Of late, the 

requirement for environmental protection and long 

ABSTRACT: Plantation forests in Tanzania, East term economic forecasts have made timber harvest 

Africa, are situated on mountainous areas of variable planning a necessity, with increasing complexity 

terrain. After successful plantation establishment in brought in by more stringent, and at times 

the 1950's, harvesting started in the 1970's well in conflicting economic, environmental and regulatory 

time to meet an increased national timber demand, constraints. 

Current problems facing timber harvesting in the 

form of a volume surplus and signs of environmental Harvesting of plantation forests in Tanzania, which 

degradation are associated with uncontrolled are situated on mountainous areas of variable terrain, 

harvests, mismatch of harvest systems to site needs, started in the 1970's in time to absorb an increased 

and post-harvest practices. Comprehensive harvest national timber demand. Presently there is an 

planning is the needed solution. Protocols and estimated surplus of about 800,000 m 3 of plantation 

effectiveness of timber harvest planning in the wood (Abeli and Ole-Meiludie, 1991); however, 

Pacific Northwest (PNW) provide some valuable some areas have been over-harvested and there are 

lessons. Planning is an expensive undertaking, signs of potential environmental degradation. 

raising a concern for implementable harvesting Tanzanian environmental protection policy is still in 

plans. The accomplishments of plan objectives, the making (MTNRE 1994). Currently, plantation 

planning tools, harvesting systems options, forest management objectives are broad statements of 

implementation requirements and monitoring management for sustained yield and protection of 

criteria are explored in different settings. A planning natural resources. Harvesting is performed under 

procedure intended for the technical, economical, voluntary guidelines interpreted from the Forest 

and institutional timber harvesting situations of Division Standing Orders, which lack the present- 

Tanzania and other similar circumstances is day technical, economical and environmental 

advanced for review and consideration, implications. Apart from brief statements of 

volumes to be harvested and areas involved, no 

Key Words: timber harvest planning, protocol, efforts are made to make well documented 

harvesting systems, environment, harvesting plans. Harvesting methods applied are 

geared to suit available technique rather than 

seeking techniques which meet appropriate criteria. 

INTRODUCTION In general, the plans are too simplistic for practical 

purposes. The force behind timber harvesting is 

Lack of appropriately planned and mismatched mostly driven by volume with disregard for 

harvesting systems will likely lead to economic, harvesting efficiency and environmental 

technical and environmental problems. Obvious conservation. 

problems include uncontrolled harvests; waste of 

resources; site degradation; and adverse impacts on The effectiveness of a forest harvest planning 

the soils, water and other non-timber forest benefits, protocol is determined by the success of its 

implementation and the achievement of the 

tPresentedatthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering envisaged objectives. The protocol must be complete 

andInternational Unionof ForestResearchOrganizations Subject and practical by including compatible objectives, 

Group $3.04--00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August, 1996. efficient planning tools, a set of harvesting options, 

212

implementation requirements and monitoring The lowest level is operational planning which 

criteria. Overall, the protocol should safeguard covers small single units or compartments of up to 

decision making with specific relationships to 

20 acres in one season, synonymously known as sale 

appropriate technology and protection of the 

planning or sale layout. Each of these planning 

environment. Harvesting plans which follow the procedures yield a strategic plan, a tactical plan or a 

above protocol tend to be effective. This calls for unit plan (Figure 1). This paper concentrates on 

examination of a harvesting planning protocol to 

tactical and operational level of timber harvesting. 

identify critical steps in order to make harvesting 

plans efficient and implementable. Assessments of 

planning protocols practiced in the PNW provides 

some basis for effective planning procedures for 

Tanzanian timber harvesting situations and other ,, STRATEGIC PLAN 

similar circumstances. There are many forms of _______ 

timber harvest planning to go with the broad 

institutional and technical spectrum and their 

associated problems. Proven effective planning 

procedures as well as failed attempts present a rich 

base to learn more effective harvesting planning. 

TIMBER 

HARVEST PLANNING 

Scope 

There are three levels of planning commonly used in 

timber harvest according to length of planning 

Figure 1. Levels of harvest plans 

period and size of project area. The broadest is 

strategic planning, also known as chance area 

planning, refers to broad statements of intent for 

From a broad perspective, timber harvesting 

very large areas over long periods (up to 10,000 

activities in Pacific Northwest (PNW) can be 

acres, 20 years). Tactical planning, also known as presented in a spectrum according to area. ownership 

mid-term planning, refers to planning periods of 3 to and management intensity (Figure 2). 

5 years, coveting areas of up to I000 acres. 

SMALL PRIVATE PRIVATE LARGE U.S. FOREST 

LAND OWNERS COMPANIES CORPORATIONS SERVICE 

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

ii!_ili!_i_i_ii_!!i!!_!!_!i_i_i!!_!i!ilil 

!'::_'.-'i!ii!i!i_ii_!i!"..'.-ii_ii_i_i_ili_ii_iii_i!iii_::!i'::_i_i!!_i_ 

i_i_i_.._!_iiiii!::_..'..'!i_i_'._i_i'::i_!_i!i_!::.:.."ii_::_ 

_ 

-_._-=-- 

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

::iiiii::!::!:: i:: 

li,li!::!!iii!ii!i!ii!i::i! 

i!i!i!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii:: ii'::i ,i,i::i::i! i::ii ::i!iiiii:: iL:_ii!ii_iiiii::iiiii_i, ii}iiiiii!iiiiii 

ili_iiiii::iiiii! iiiiiiii_iIi_i_iiiiii_ iiiiiiiiiii_ii! iiiiiii!iiiil i_ili 

i!_iiiiiiii 

INCREASINGAREA 

,_ 

INCREASING LEGAL CONSTRAINTS ._ 

1 GREATER OPERATOR CONTROL 

INCREASING PAPERWORK _. 

GREATER CHOICE OF HARVESTING 

SYSTEMS 

.. GREATER PLAN IMPLEMENTATION 

..... ? HIGHER PLAN EFFECTIVENESS ? 

Figure 2. Spectnun of forest management ranks 

213

On one extreme is the small private forest owners of of an owl nest in an area planned for harvesting. 

small areas from 5 to 100 acres, while the other 

Failure of harvest plans of large scale area, time and 

extreme is large forests of up to millions of acres 

objectives has always been laid on the intricacies of 

owned by big companies, State or National agencies, resources involved, uncertainty and changing 

Harvest planning approach, implementation and parameters with time. However, the secret behind 

effectiveness vary along the spectrum, the success of small scale timber harvesting could be 

used to make an improvement. Schiess et al. 1988 

Forest harvesting planning protocol 

pointed out the inadequacy of planning methods at 

tactical level to capture the financial gains 

Protocol is defined in this context as a code envisioned through complex strategic planning. It 

prescribing strict adherence to correct etiquette or was recommended to shift efforts towards site 

precedence (as in diplomatic exchange or military or specific level planning where the realistic 

the plan of a scientific or medical experiment or information results in effective plans. 

treatment) (Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 

1979). Forest harvesting planning protocol is the Planning tools 

sequence of proprieties necessary for a complete 

timber harvesting plan. A literature survey and Harvest planning tools include those aids used to 

observations made on current timber harvest make a harvesting plan. These include: maps; 

planning in the Pacific Northwest revealed the photos; inventory data sets; devices and programs for 

following sequence of steps as the most common: data recording, analysis and display; and the 

expertise to use the tool for decision making. There 

1. Objectives are various approaches for use of these tools, from a 

2. Area description simple "pick and choose approach" to comprehensive 

3. Action planning planning incorporating many tools in a systematic 

4.Salelayout 

process. 

5. Implementation 

Information is becoming increasingly easy to obtain 

Most of the small land owners have complete control and accuracy is increased in the current information 

of all five steps because of the scale of their revolution. Tedious traditional timber harvesting 

operations, which is not the case for large land planning methods which made use of contour maps, 

owners and public forests (especially with objectives aerial photographs and timber cruise data are being 

and implementation steps). The need for replaced by fast and more accurate computer based 

environmental protection and consideration of analytical and display tools from GIS-based to 

endangered introduced aspecies necessity have forgreatly more information modified objectives, in area 

simple softwaretailor-made programs available programs. toThere fit the are level many of 

description, and increased constraints toaction planning and amountof detail needed (Table 1). 

planning. There is a legal need for small forest 

owners to observe regulatory requirements when 

Pick and choose approach 

making decisions on timber harvesting in the PNW. 

Those using this approach either use a model as 

In large scale timber harvesting, objectives are shown in Table 1 or a selection of them to form a 

outlined according to the strategic plan, in most heuristic procedure. This is the common practice of 

cases some time and distance away from the material many harvest planners; however, there is increased 

project. The regional office receives volume quotas use of more comprehensive computer-based choices 

to fulfill in a given period and binding regulatory because of efficiency and increased availability of 

requirements under given resource capability. It is computer technology. 

in this part of the spectrum where more steps are 

necessary: To identify environmental values in the Comprehensive planning approach 

area description; to identify feasible harvesting ._ 

systems and determine their environmental Large ownerships in the management spectrum 

acceptability in action planning. Implementation practice more comprehensive planning. The 

becomes a problem in most cases because of either regulatory requirements, especially with regard to 

an obsolete plan due to a long planning period, or environment protection and endangered species, 

conflicting objectives, such as last minute discovery make harvest planning nearly impossible for 

214

medium to large areas using traditional methods, which provide professional harvest planning. Using 

For example national and state forests plus large 

a good selection of the available planning tools helps 

companies have their plans completely 

ensure efficient harvest planning. 

computerized. There are also consultant companies 

Table 1: Some Harvest Planning Computer-based Analytical and Display Tools 

Software Name Problem Bein8 Solved Approach Hardware/Software Requirements 

FOCAS Logging equipment cost Lotus spreadsheet IBM compatible; Lotus 

Ver 1.1& 2.1 on cashflows, template Compatible:Quattro 

FOREST Forest roads planning longitudinal profile, grade PC, math coprocessor, color monitor, 

Ver 2.1 & 2.2 line and cross sections, mouse; printer or plotter optional 

FRP.-Harvest Alternativeharvesting Harvestingsystemscosts Undetertnined 

1992 plans based on GIS and estimated timber Compatible: TerraSot_,Pamap 

volume. 

FOROPERA Total skidding cost Interval changes of IBM PC XT/AT; dBASE 111+;SPSS. 

(1989) variables; statistical Compatible: dBASE 111+ 

evaluations 

HELIPACE Helicopterlogging Spreadsheetwith on-line IBM PC, VGA graphics,MS WINDOWS. 

Vet 1.3 (1992); productionrates and costs help Compatible:NETWORKII 

Ver 2.0 (1993) 

LOGGERPC Profileanalysis for Solution of catenary 386 math coprocessor, mouse, VGA 

Vet 3.2 (1995) skyline planning:load equations, graphics, WINDOWS 

path and allowable load 

Compatible: WINIX)WS 

NETWORK H Network analysis for road Heuristics and dynamic PC with 640 K, MS-DOS 

(1988.) andharvesting choices, programming Spreadsheets 

OFFTRACK Calculation of wheel Algebraic solutionof IBM 286, math coprocessor, MS-DOS 

Ver 1.0 (1989) paths aroundcurves tractrix equations Compatibility: None 

PACE Machinecost, roadcost, Spreadsheet PC, MS-DOS 

Ver 1.0 (1986) roadspacingoptimization Compatibility:None 

PLANS Developmentof timber Use of digital terrain IBM PC, EGA or VGA color graphics, 

Vet"1.12 (1992) harvest plans for large model (DTM) and Digitizer 

areas computer-aideddesign Compatibility:Several GIS packages 

(CAD) 

PLANEX Layoutof harvest units Use of DTM and GIS IBM compatible 386/486, Intel compatible 

Vet" 1.0 and roads together with harvesting mathcoprocessor, mouse, VGA and4MB 

(1995) system specifications in RAM 

heuristicalgorithm 

ROADENG Database management Use of manualand digital MS-Windows 3.1 orhigher, 4MB RAM, 

Ver 2.0 (1995) analysis and Display: terrainmodel (DTM)to Graphics monitor,mouse, Digitizer 

Cablelayoutand Roads supportcomputer-aided recommended. 

(include 3-D) design (CAD) Compatibility: 

SNAP II Harvest scheduling, route Heuristics and network 386 math coprocessor, 

Ver 2.03 (1992) location, evaluation of 

cumulative effects 

analysis Mouse, EGA color, 2MB RAM, MS-DOS 

Compatibility: ASCIIfiles 

STRATIS Digital terrain models; Calculationof project IBMPC AT or PSI2 or compatible. 

Vex 3.4; CAD different route-locations data,drawingof plans GraphicscardIBM 8514/A 

,,, Vex 4.0 (1992) interactivel]¢_CAD) Compatibility:ASCII, DXF, SICAD,REB 

215

Harvesting options should first be refined to state specific ranges and 

standards, which in turn act as screens of 

The selection of a logging systems2 to use in a acceptability to all possible harvesting systems. For 

harvesting operation is one of the critical decisions 

example timber type and size category should be 

of a planner. A competent planner should have 

refined to state the species, size class, and other 

appreciable knowledge in timber harvesting 

possible subsequent conversion ff sawlogs or pulp 

technology and its application based on scientific 

wood; likewise terrain should be stated in terms of 

and engineering principles. It refers broadly to constraining slope class. Category refinement forms 

equipment and techniques, planning and control 

an important reference by setting ranges and 

methodologies, scientific knowledge and engineering standards relevant to the planning area as well as 

principles, education, training and relevant practices ranking dominance of the categories as specified by 

(Dykstra 1994). 

the planning objectives. 

The approach practiced in the PNW is to match a The concern for environmental protection has 

logging system to fit the situation. In essence the pushed for preference of cable systems on steep slope 

prevailing physical, technical and socio-economic timber harvesting. Though cable systems stand out 

conditions act as screens to all possible logging 

as trade-marks of PNW logging, ground based 

systems to achieve the most suitable (Figure 3). The systems are used as well where slopes and soils 

best approach to handleharvestingsystem selection permit.Forest practices regulations, developed by 

requires in-depth knowledge of performance state and federal agencies, help foresters and forestry 

categories of different harvesting systems (Garland, 

enterprises select practices to be followed in carrying 

1984), as well as clear description of the prevailing out forest management and utilization operations 

conditions of the harvest area. These conditions (Berg et al. 1993). 

CATEGORY REFINED HARVESTING SYSTEMS AND THEIR PERFORMANCE 

':::i:i:i:iii:ii_ii:_:i:i:i!ii!iii!!!:!_:_:!ii!!i!!:!: 

..... :::iii_iii!ii!ii! iii! ii!iii::::" "'::iiiiii!ii!iii!iiiii!i_i_iiii!iiii!iiiiii!ii!iii!!:_:: '::i:iiiii_iiiiiiiiiii!i!iiiii_iiiii!iiiii_iiiii!!ii!i'-i::' "::i!!ii!iiiii!iiiiiiii_i!ii[_i_i_iiiiii_iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii:i:: 

__ii_i',i!i'i'i'i'i',iiiii:: I } I......... } { } l...... 1 C 1 

,_i_i_ - { } { } { } { _ {..... } 

i___ii'i {..........} { } { } { 1 { } 

___!iiiiiiii!iiiiiii!_i_ { } c } { } { 1 { } 

!_iiii!iiii iiiiiiiii, i!ii!ii{.... } ( } { } {...... _ { 1 

__ il _iii!ii,{............. } { I { } _i........1 { 1 

__!ili!iliJ { } { } {.... } _ 1 _ } 

,+ 

.:!::'::!:!:!::: _,:,:::.,,:_,:._:::::::::::::::::::: :::: , , 

Figure 3. Flowschart demonstrating the decision process involved in matching logging systems to the situtation. 

2Hasvesting systemisthelargertermdescribing the_w_moiogies to 

mov_treesfromthestumptoaprocessingfacilityormill. Logging 

sYstm__ primmly_ bytheyardmgsystemuse_ 

216 

ii 

. .._

Environment protection issues 

assumptionsand dataused in planning were 

realistic. 

The impact of environmental protection 

requirements on timber harvestingpractices cannot Assessment of harvest plans 

be over-emphasized. Not even the adoption of the 

computer cancompare to the impact of 

A plan is said to be successfulif it was effective in 

environmentalregulations and court ordersaffecting attaining the goals sought. Evaluationof harvesting 

timber harvestplanning. In NorthAmerica, a code plansis a complex undertakingdue to the number 

of forest practiceis mandatoryin morethan a dozen and diverseissues involved. Wang Lihai (1992) 

states. The National forestplanningin the US today suggestedfive factors as a criteria for evaluating 

is a convolutedprocess to meetthe intentof the 

harvestingoperation plans: operationcost, degreeof 

many lawsgoverning naturalresources,particularly working safety,ratioof forest resources inputto 

the NationalForest ManagementAct (NFMA)and timber productionoutput,degreeof soil disturbance 

the NationalEnvironment Policy Act (NEPA) 

and damageto vegetation. In a larger sense, a 

(Cubbageet al. 1993). It is throughthese 

harvestplancan be judged successful if it meets 

regulations that comprehensive harvest planning 

criteriathat are technical, economic and institutional 

becomes a necessity, 

in nature. Plans that can be implementedwithout 

violating the laws of physics or operational 

Comprehensiveharvest planning, which emphasizes characteristicsof harvest systemscan be termed 

environmentprotection,has produced manyconflicts technicallyfeasible. Plans that achieve financial 

of interestbetween loggers and environmentalists, objectivesare economicallyfeasible. Finally, plans 

More often planswere madewhich could notbe 

that staywithin legal boundariesand producesocial 

implemented due to eitherappealsagainst cuttingor goals of employment, efficiency of administration,or 

incompatible to the latest environmentalact. The other amenities canbe seen as institutionally 

results of the US Forest Servicesponsoredevaluation feasible. Comparingone plan or planning process to 

of its planning process in 1989 recommended 

another canbe seen as a matterofvarious formsof 

adjustmentsin the planningprocess. Observations numericalassessments, completeness measures, 

of the General Accounting Office(GAO) (1-Iill, 

subjectiverankingsor comparisons,expertreview 

1996) reportedthat Forest Servicespendsan average processes, performanceon optimalitymeasures, 

of $13 millionper yearto developforest plans which capacityto incorporaterisk anduncertainty,and 

may be obsoleteby the time they are complete;and other comparativeschemes to determine better or 

that $250 million, 20% of the National Forest 

best. 

SystemBudget, are spentperyearto conductproject 

level environmental analyses. There is an 

Thebest plan could be the one with an overallhigher 

appreciablenumberof forestharvestingissues in 

score. Other factorscould be addedprovidedthey 

American courts today which seemto indicate 

areindependent,authoritative in illustrating the 

inconsistent andconflicting laws, makingharvesting action or system understudy,qualitatively 

planning nearlyimpossible and federalharvest 

observableand qualitatively measurable. 

operationsin the PNW a rare event. 

Monitoring 

Monitoring is an integral partof anyplanningand 

has a significant role in comprehensivetimber 

harvesting planning. Impactson the environment 

from soil disturbance, habitat degradation and 

adverse effects on hydrologic regimes need tobe 

monitored for immediate rectification or as a 

feedback to future planning. There axe three levels 

of monitoring: implementation monitoring, where 

answers are sought as to whether the plan is being 

implemented or not; effectivemonitoring, to check 

whether the goals envisaged are being achieved; and, 

validation monitoring, to check whether the 

LESSONS FOR TANZANIA PLANTATION 

FORESTS 

There is a big contrast in the institutional and 

economical conditions between the Pacific Northwest 

and Tanzania, and some differences in the physical 

conditions with respect to climate. However, much 

could be learned to improve the harvesting phase of 

the successfullyestablished plantations. Tanzania 

plantations fit in the middle part of the management 

intensity spectrum. 

At the tactical and operational planning levels, 

objective statements should provide measurable 

217

ealistic and environmental sensitive goals from the We need to be careful in selecting planning tools for 

broad Forest policy and Forest Division directives. 

Tanzania since some are either too site-specific or 

We hope to develop and adopt a planning protocol as require specific infrastructure unavailable in the 

practiced in PNW with expectation to its being Tanzanian situation. However, some GIS software 

incorporated in the routine management practices, and computer programs that operate well in standalone 

computers are good candidates. We need to 

At the time of this writing, some developments have improve our knowledge of climatic and hydrologic 

been made on a planning protocol. On the regimes, timber, terrain, soils, wildlife and social 

background of this PNW context, a harvest planning concerns as necessary components for selection of 

protocol potential to Tanzania plantation forests is harvesting system options and formulation of an 

shown below. For presentation purposes, the general environmental assessment protocol. As a doctoral 

statements are selectively illustrated to show what is research project, a comprehensive timber harvesting 

meant by comprehensive harvest planning protocol, planning protocol, including an environmental 

assessment procedure, is being developed for an 

1. Refine objectives: [Involves compilation of identified area in Northern Tanzania, which has 

all objectives and goals concerning the been classified as heretofore "inaccessible" due to its 

harvest area, identification of decision terrain characteristics. 

makers and their expectations and, more 

important, to resolve conflicting goals and 

objectives so as to have streamlined, 

SUMMARY 

acceptable and workable objectives] 

Timber harvest planning and environmental 

2. Describe harvesting area assessment is urgently needed by Tanzanian 

sottwood plantations to ensure satisfaction of forest 

3. Identify economic values: [Identify the demands without environmental degradation. 

economic values involved with the Findings of studies and assessment of timber harvest 

harvesting operation at the local, regional planning in PNW will be adopted to challenge the 

and national levels, and variation of these formulation of a comprehensive planning and 

values and economic opportunities with environment assessment procedure for timber 

time. The consideration should be harvesting in Tanzania plantations. 

comprehensive to include economic values 

directly related to timber, non-timber and 

human resources involved]. LITERATURE CITED 

4. Identify environmental values: [High level Abeli, W.S.; Ole-Meiludie, R.E.L. 1991. Future 

of consideration of environmental issues harvesting strategies in Tanzania forests, ln: 

pertaining to timber harvesting in the PNW Proceedings of a Symposium on Forest 

have been recognized. Rationale will be Harvesting in Southeast Asia; 1991 June 17-20, 

exercised to choose what practices are Singapore. Forest Engineering Inc., and Oregon 

adaptable and workable on the Tanzanian State University, Corvallis, Oregon: 123-130. 

physical, climatic and social settings]. 

Berg, Scott; Gustafson, E; Halvorsen, K; Miley, E. 

5. Identify feasible harvesting system 1993. State forest practices throughout the 

United States: A Review of Forest Laws, 

6. Determine environmental acceptability Practices Acts and Best Management Practices. 

Report. American Forest & Paper Association 

7. Determine economic performance and Wisconsin Paper Council. 74 p. 

8. Formulate and schedule harvest units Cubbage, Frederick W.; O'Laughling, J; Bullock III, 

C.S. 1993. Forest resource policy. New York, 

9. Implement plan NY: John Wiley and Sons Inc.: 342-347. 

10. Monitor plan. 

218

Dykstra, D.P. 1994. FAO model code of forest 

harvesting practice. FO:Misc/94/6 Working 

Paper: Food and Agriculture Organization of the 

United Nations. Rome. 104 p. 

Garland, J.J. 1984. Timber harvesting 

options. Extension Woodland Notebook, 

Circular No. 858. Oregon State University 

Extension Service. Corvallis: Oregon State 

University. 2 p. 

Hill, B.T. 1996. Forest Service: Issues relating to its 

decision-making process. Testimony before the 

Subcommittee on Forest and Public Land 

Management, Committee on Energy and 

Natural Resources, United State Senate. January 

25, 1996. General Accounting Office, GAO/T- 

RCED-96-66. 15 p. 

Lihai, W. 1992. Methods for comprehensively 

evaluating forest harvesting operation plans. In: 

Proceedings of the International Seminar On 

Forest Operations Under Mountainous 

Conditions. 1994 July 24-27; Harbin, P.1L of 

China. Department of Forest Engineering, 

Oregon State University: 301-323. 

MTNRE (Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources 

and Environment), 1994. National 

Environment Action Plan: First Step. MTNRE, 

Dares-Salaam, Tanzania. 60 p. 

Schiess, P.; Cullen, J.; Brown, S. 1988. Long-term 

timber sales planning. In: Proceedings of the 

International skyline symposium. 1988 Dec 12- 

14; Portland: Department of Forest Engineering, 

Oregon State University: 82-86. 

--- 1979. Webster s new collegiate dictionary. 

Springfield, MA: G&C Merrian Publishing Co.: 

2532 p. 

219

MAXIMIZING FINANCIAL YIELDS WHILE The production of wood products is a natural process in 

MEETING LANDOWNER OBJECTIVES forested ecosystems, which undergo a series of seral 

AND ECOSYSTEM GOALS _ states that lead to a climax state over time (Odum 

1969; Hunter 1990). For example, many ecosystems 

by 

left undisturbed undergo a series of states because 

system changes are constant over time. The vegetation 

Chris B. LeDoux 

at each state in the process suits different creatures and 

USDA Forest Service different people at different times. A forest stand may 


be in the pole timber class for 40 to 50 years as part of 

its 100- to 200-year rotation age. In this state, trees of 

B. Gopalakrishnan the same species kill each other in competition for 

and light, nutrients, and water (Odum 1969). During this 

Sheshadri Mudiyanur 

phase, many different species of wildlife occupy and 

use the site (DeGraaf et al. 1992), and also kill each 

West Virginia University other in a natural struggle for survival (Dasmann 1964; 

Morgantown, West Virginia, USA Odum 1969; Black 1994). In this 40- to 50-year 

period, many plants and trees as well as wildlife can be 

harvested without stopping the process. As the forest 

ABSTRACT: Managers, planners, loggers, and moves through various seral states, wildlife comes and 

landowners are being challenged to consider all aspects goes: a thicket-like stand that is a good area for 

of the forested ecosystem when proposing harvesting 

hunting ruffed grouse at age 30 will have few grouse by 

treatments. Of particular interest to all is how specific age 50. 

management activities affect the suitability of wildlife 

habitat. With the use of an integrated expert system 

At some point in this natural process, forests become 

called FOREX, landowners can evaluate personal larger with fewer trees. These larger woods seem to be 

management objectives while meeting ecosystem or 

the ones that many people want to protect and/or keep 

landscape-level goals. Results from this research constant. But man cannot force nature to stand still. In 

suggest that there are at least six economically feasible fact, the same process of timber production and 

alternatives for this set of landowner and ecosystem 

ecosystem management can be aided by us. For 

objectives. Most of these options also will enhance 

example, researchers have demonstrated that thinning 

habitat suitability for selected wildlife species. Thus, stands can produce trees that are more valuable and 

landowners can select the alternative that maximizes 

faster growing than many unmanaged stands. 

financial yields while meeting ecosystem goals. 

A second major challenge to owners is bringing 

Key Words: thinnings, expert systems, economies, together the volumes of research information on 

wildlife, harvesting 

wildlife habitat, stand management, logging 

technology, economic and market factors, and the 

impact of time when deciding how to manage their 

INTRODUCTION 

forest land. This challenge is complicated in that the 

vegetation and various organisms that make up a forest 

The hardwood region in the Northeast and Appalachian ecosystem survive and reproduce on a site because they 

region is a world-class, wood-growing area, and world have adapted to their physical environment and are able 

demand for hardwood products from this resource to coexist with one another. When humans disturb this 

continues to grow. This demand is not only for wood 

balance by removing vegetation from the site or 

products but also for suitable habitat for game and 

changing its species composition, certain species of 

nongame wildlife, visual and aesthetic quality, clean 

wildlife may no longer find the site suitable as habitat. 

water, recreation, and social values. A major challenge Land managers earl avoid much of this potential 

to owners of forested land is meeting both financial and disruption to wildlife by maintaining the 

personal objectives while achieving goals at the natural/original species composition of the site/stand. 

ecosystem or landscape level. 

This may best be achieved by the use of natural 

regeneration following disturbance/regeneration versus 

regenerating the site with artificial methods that favor 

one 

tPresented at the joint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering 

species of vegetation over another (Hunter 1990). 



220

This challenge is further complicated by a lack of 

The landowner desires periodic positive cash flows 

decisionmaking tools for integrated analysis. In the 

from thinnings and does not want to clearcut the stand 

absence of decisionmaking software/tools that allow for until final harvest. The specific objective is to have a 

integration across disciplines, land owners usually are stand on the site until final harvest for wildlife habitat, 

constrained to manage their land on the basis of 

aesthetics, and for the property to serve as a temporary 

personal experience. Often, the result is the continued travel corridor for wildlife and vegetation until recently 

implementation of a handful of silviculture practices regenerated surrounding forests grow back. The 

that may not meet all of a landowner's personal and landowner also desires suitable habitat for a variety of 

ecosystem objectives, 

wildlife species, particularly white-tailed deer, turkey, 

gray squirrel, red fox, ruffed grouse, and timber 

We have developed an expert system called FOREX 

rattlesnake, and plans to leave as much woody debris as 

that allows for integrated decisionmaking in the possible on the site following harvests. Tops, limbs, 

management of hardwoods forests (LeDoux et al. and unmerchantable parts of trees would be retained for 

1995). FOREX considers the potential growth and use by wildlife and to return organic matter/nutrients to 

yield, products, and development of a stand over time, the site for future crops. 

economic and market factors, and impacts on wildlife 

habitat. This system can be applied to all forest types 

FOREX rum/options 

in the Northeast, and currently considers impacts on 

wildlife habitat for New England forest types. As After our landowner's property attributes and 

wildlife data on other forest types and regions become 

objectives were incorporated into FOREX, the 

available, they will be incorporated into the FOREX 

program returned results for six economically feasible 

database. In this article we apply FOREX to a hypo- options that will meet the desired conditions (Table 1). 

thetical situation that a landowner might encounter. 

Options available to the landowner ranged fi'om one 

thinning and final harvest to two thinnings and final 

Description of FOREX harvest. Initial commercial thinning entries occur at 

ages 40 (Option 3) and 50 (Options 1, 2, 4, 5, 6) with 

FOREX uses data from simulation runs from 

optimal rotations ranging from 90 to 110 years. 

MANAGE (LeDoux 1986; LeDoux et al. 1995). The Options 1, 2, and 3, are for average slope yarding 

user can obtain information on present net worth distances of 60.96 meters. Options 4, 5, 6 are for 

(PNW), optimal thinning entry timing, optimal stand average yarding distances of 121.92 meters. Option 1 

rotation age, diameter at breast height, volume by grade calls for one 30-percent thinning at age 50 with an 

and value of the trees harvested, and, based on the optimal rotation length of 100 years, providing 406.12 

cable yarder used, average slope yarding distance, truck m3of merchantable wood/hectare with a cumulative 

class, road class, log-bucking methods, and number of PN-W of $1022.99/hectare. Option 3 calls for the 

thinnings desired. FOREX also provides information initial 50-percent thinning at age 40 with an optimal 

on the effect of harvesting treatments on wildlife 

rotation age of 90 years, producing 369.74 m3of wood 

habitat. The user can obtain information on the PNW, products/hectare with a cumulative PNW of 

DBH, and volume required for a specific set of $1326.93/hectare. A heavier thinning allows the first 

management objectives, and perform a sensitivity entry to be scheduled 10 years earlier than Option 1. 

analysis which eliminates the need to sort through 

numerous simulations, options 2 and 5 call for thinnings at ages 50 and 60 

with optimal rotation ages of 110 years. Options 2 and 

Landowner objectives 5 are identical except that Option 2 is for 60.96 meters 

yarding distances and Option 5 is for 121.92 meter 

In our example, the landowner holds 544 hectares of 

distances. The difference in yarding distance reduces 

forested land in the northern red oak forest cover type. the cumulative PNW by 8.20percent with Option 2 

The species mix includes red oak, red maple, hickories, versus Option 5. Option 2 represents an increase in 

black oak, scarlet oak, and chestnut oak. The average cumulative PNW of 6.04percent over Option 1 yet 

site index of the stand is about 80. The stand is 30 

years old and contains 823 trees per hectare that are 

provides a longer rotation period (110 years versus 

100) and about 22.75 m3more merchantable wood 

more than 12.7 centimeters DBH. The average stand 

DBH is 16.18 centimeters. The land is located on 

products/hectare. 

moderate to steep slopes and requires cable logging for 

harvests.

Table 1. FOREX results by option. 

Option1 Option2 Option3 ' 

Attribute T30" Fir* T30 T30 FH TS0° FI-I 

Yarding distance (meters) ' 60.96 60.96 60.96 60.96 60.96 60.96 6().96 

Bucktype 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Road class 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Truck class 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Age(years) 50 100 50 60 110 40 90 

Trees(no.) 227 393 227 151 274 393 324 

DBH (centimeters) 21.79 36.75 21.79 25.88 40.69 18.72 37.26 

Volume(m3) 61.15 344.97 61.15 60.24 307.48 74.16 295.58 

G1 (m3) 0 38.98 0 0 53.69 0 40.95 

G2(m3) 0 0 0 0 4.62 0 0 

G3 (m3) 0 1.74 0 0.47 3.58 0 1.99 

G4 (m3)d 61.15 241.85 61.15 58.56 157.62 74.16 182.11 

PNW (dollars) 51.89 971.10 51.89 64.25 968.63 24.71 1302.22 

Cash flow _dollars_ , 93.90 7689.75 93.90 155.67 10306.54 32.12 7672.46 

Option 4 Option 5 Option 6 

Attribute T30 FH T30 T30 FH T50 FH 

"Yardingdistance (meters) 121.92 121.92 121.92 121.92 121.92' 121.92 121.92 

Bucktype 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Roadclass 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Truck class 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Age (years) 50 100 50 60 110 50 110 

Trees (no.) 227 393 227 151 274 378 292 

DBH (centimeters) 21.79 36.75 21.79 25.88 40.69 21.79 40.87 

Volume(m3) 61.15 344.97 61.15 60.24 307.48 102.21 295.02 

(11 (ms) 0 38.98 0 0 53.69 0 56.47 

G2(m3) 0 0 0 0 4.62 0 0.45 

(13(m3) 0 1.74 0 0.47 3.60 0 8.57 

134(m3) 61.15 241.85 61.15 58.56 157.62 102.21 159.79 

PNW (dollars) 17.30 924.15 17.30 39.54 938.98 29.65 938.98 

Cash flow (dollars) 32.12 7316.63 32.12 96.37 9992.72 54.36 9992.72 

"T30 = 30 percent thinning. 

ben = _ins] harvest. 

¢r50 = 50 percent thinning. 

aG4 = pulpwood. 

Integrating wildlife habitat objectives 

Forest wildlife populations and their habitats are 

products of the land and how it is managed for wood 

fiber (DeGraafet al. 1991, DeGraaf et al. 1992) or in 

unmanaged stands from events that occur naturally. 

DeGraafet al. (1992) developed species/habitat 

matrices that forest managers, planners, silviculturists, 

forested habitat and forest type by life history activities 

and seasons. These species/habitat matrices, which are 

tied to the seral states present in the development of a 

given forest type, have been incorporated into the 

FOREX database. 

With the FOREX program, actual stand attributes such 

as DBH, volume per hectare, number of trees per 

I loggers, and wildlife biologists can use to increase hectare, and species mix are matched with DeGraaf et 

potential numbers of bird, amphibian, and mammal al. (1992) guidelines for the wildlife species chosen. In 

species in New England forest types. Information is our example, each of the six options provides a forested 

provided for species occurrence and utilization by 

area for a long period that will be in balance with stated 

222

wildlife goals, yet provide wood products from periodic The proposed management options show that for the 

thinnings (Table 2). Reported needs for the selected 

red fox, the final stand is used for breeding habitat, 

wildlife species are listed in Table 3. breeding-season feeding, winter habitat, and winter 

feedings (Table 2) 

Table 2 lists habitat suitability by species and option 

for final harvest before and alter conditions. The Final harvest changes the suitability for the red fox 

scheduled thinnings do not alter habitat suitability fi'om habitat that is used to one that is preferred. Final 

because the residual stand conditions remain much the harvest conditions affect the gray squirrel, wild turkey, 

same as the initial stand with respect to the site 

and timber rattlesnake the most. For example, the gray 

attributes used in the guidelines (DeGraaf et al. 1992). squirrel preferred the final stand for all activities and 

Table 2. FOREX habitat/utilization results by option for selected species. 

i 

i 

White-tailed 

Timber 

Turke), CJra)'squirrel Red fox Ruffed grouse deer rattlesnake 

UP PREF UP PREF UP PREF UP PREF UP PREF UP PREF 

OPTION 1 

Before Before Before Before Before Before 

BH U BH P BH U BH U BH U 

BSF U BSF P BSF U BSF U WH U 

%VII P WH P WH U WH U 

WF P WF P WF U WF U 

After After After After After After 

BH U NS NS BH P BH U BSF U NS NS 

BSF U BSF P BSF U _ U 

WH P 

WF P 

OPTION 2 




WH P WH P WH U WH U 




BSF U BSF P BSF U WF U 

WH P 

WF P 

OPTION 3 









WH P 

WF P 

ii 

223

Table 2. FOREX habitat/utilization results by option for selectod species (continued). 

White-tailed 

Timber 

nH| 

Turkey Gra), stluirrel Red fox Ruffed _ouse deer rattlesnake , 

UP PREF UP PREF UP PREF UP PREF UP PREF LIP PREF 

OPTION 4 


BH U BH P BH O BH U BH U 







WH P 

WF P 

OPTION 5 


BH U BH P BH U 

BH U BH U 







WH P 

WF P 

OPTION 6 




'ArH P WH P WH U X_-I U 




BSF U BSF P BSF U WT U 

WH P 

illi 

UP = usage pattern. 

PREF = preference. 

BH = breeding habitat. 

BSF = breeding-season feeding. 

WH = winter habitat. 

WF = winter feeding. 

U = utilized. 

P = preferred. 

NS = not suitable for this species. 

WF 

P 

,i,i 

l 

224

i 

Table 3. Habitat needs for white-tailed deer, turkey, gray squirrel, red fox, ruffed grouse, and timber rattlesnake 

(DeGraaf et al. 1992). 

Species 

HabitatNeeds" 

White-tailed deer 31 to > 70% canopy, deciduous seedlings, saplings, shrub layer in .61-3.05 meter zone, 

ericaceous shrub layer in .61-3.05 meter zone, > 75% coverage in 0-.61 meter zone for ground 

vegetation, coniferous overstory, mast and fruit. 

Turkey 

16-70% canopy, ericaceous shrub layer in .61-3.05 meter zone, > 75% coverage in 0-.61 meter 

zone for ground vegetation, deciduous overstory inclusion, seeps, mast and fruit. 

Gray squirrel > 70% canopy, live, broken top or large limb > 45.72 centimeters DBH, and live, hollow > 60.96 

centimeter DBH trees, deciduous overstory, mast and fruit. 

Red fox 

Ruffed grouse 

Timber rattlesnake 

< 15%canopy, mixed deciduous, coniferous vegetation in .61-3.05 meter zone in the shrub layer, 

ericaceous shrub layer in .61-3.05 meter zone, loose mils, mast and fruit. 

16-70% canopy, > 75% coverage in 0-.61 meter zone for ground vegetation, dead and down 

material in duff/ground layer, deciduous and coniferous overstory, mast and fruit. 

forest litter and moss in the duff/ground layer, rock ledges, and forested hillsides. 

"breeding season, breeding-season feeding, winter use, and winter feeding needs combined. 

would find the site unsuitable for any activity following hectares with Option 3 or use Option 3 on 123.55 

final harvest. The wild turkey preferred the final stand hectares and a mix of the other options on other 

for winter habitat and winter feedings. Final harvest 

portions of the land to achieve additional objectives. 

changes the site so that the turkey no longer would use 

this site for winter habitat and winter feeding. Before 

Ecosystems are constantly changing and while future 

the final harvest, the rattlesnake used the site for 

conditions cannot be predicted with certainty, each 

breeding and winter habitat. Now it would find the site ecosystem offers many options for uses, values, 

unsuitable, products, and services. With tools such as FOREX, 

landowners can maximize financial yields by growing 

The most important finding from Table 2 is that each 

quality wood products while still meeting wildlife and 

option affects the wildlife species chosen similarly, 

ecosystem goals. If several economically feasible 

Although not considered here, many species of wildlife alternatives exist for meeting a set of objectives, 

have adapted to humans. Foxes, opossums, raeea_ns, landowners would be prudent to select the ones that 

and a variety of birds have learned to coexist with 

also maximize their financial returns. 

humans, for example, by living in drains and/or using 

bird feeders. 


CONCLUSION 

Black, H. C., tech. ed. 1994. Animal damage 

management handbook. Gen. Teeh. Rep. 

The use of expert systems such as FOREX to studythe PNW-GTR-332. Portland, OR: U.S. Department 

impact of landowners and ecosystem objectives on 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest 

wildlife, economic cash flows, wood flows, and optimal Research Station. 236 p. 

rotation lengths will not solve all the problems facing 

managers, but they can help them understand the Dasmann, R.F. 1964. Wildlife biology. New York: 

tradeoffs required for a specific set of objectives. For John Wiley and Sons. 231 p. 

example, the landowner could treat the entire 544 

225

_aaf, R. M.; Scott, V. E.; Hamre, R. H.; Ernst, L.; 

Anderson, S. H. 1991. Forest and rangeland birds 

of the United States-natural history and habitat 

use. Agric. Handb. 688. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture. 625 p. 

DeGraaf, R. M.; Yamasaki, M.; Leak, W. B., Lanier, 

J.W. 1992. New England wildlife: management 

of forested habitats. Gen. Te_h. Rep. NE- 144. 

Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment 


Hunter, M. L., Jr. 1990. Wildlife, forests, and 

forestry-principles of managing forests for 

biological diversity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 

Prentice-Hall. 370 p. 

LeDoux, C.B. 1986. MANAGE: A computer 

program to estimate costs and benefits associated 

with eastern hardwood management. Cren. Tech. 

Rep. NE-112. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest 

Experiment Station. 7 p. 

LeDoux, C. B.; Gopalakrishnan, B.; Lankalapalli, K. 

1995. FOREX--An expert system for managing 

even-aged upland oak forests on steep terrain. In: 

Gottsehalk, K. W.; Fosbroke, S. L. C., eds. 

Proceedings, 10th central hardwood forest 

conference; 1995 March 5-7; Morgantown, WV. 

Gen. Teeh. Rep. NE-197. Radnor, PA: U.S. 

Deparlment of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 474-480. 

Odum, E. P. 1969. Fundamentals of ecology, 2nd ed. 

Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Co. 546 p. 

226

AN INTERACTIVE SIMULATION OF piece production rates of log merchandisers in the face 

PARTIAL CIYITING OPERATIONS OF of the smaller tree sizes currentlybeing harvested. In 

FEIX,ER-BUNCHERS t another decision simulator application, graphical 

animation and numerical data were used to make log 

by bucking decisions (Lembersky and Chi, 1984). That 

simulator is an interactive program that allows 

Jingxin Wang 

individual operators to compare their own attempts at 


log bucking with actual computed optimal solutions. 

W. Dale Greene This application was reported to have saved millions of 

dollars for a major forest products company by 

The University of Georgia 

improving the use of their raw material furnish. 

Athens, Georgia, USA 

Fridley et al. (1985) reported the use of interactive 

simulation for studying the design of swing-to-tree 

ABSTRACT: Partial cutting is increasingly feller-bunchers used for thinning. The program 

prescribed on forest lands to satisfythe demands of the (Fridley et al, 1982) used graphical animation as a type 

public. It is nearly always more expensive to perform of output for verification and evaluation purposes. It 

and can potentially have greater negative environ- 

was used to identify the effect of various design 

mental impacts due to the more frequent entries into the parameters on feller-buncher performance during 

forest. An interactive simulation program was thinning. 

developed in this study to model harvesting machines 

and evaluate their activities in partial cutting 

Greene and Lanford (1984, 1986) developed an 

operations. The simulation is performed by moving the interactive simulation program for modeling fellermachine 

image within a stand map on the computer bunehers. The program was used to identify the 

screen. The residual stand andmachine running path importance of stand and operating variables during 

are recorded simultaneously for later analysis. The thinning of southern pine plantations. Working with 

physical and economic feasibility of partial cutting can this simulation, Greene et al. (1987) concluded that 

be evaluated with this technique, 

variability between simulation operators exists but does 

not appear to affect the usefulness of interactive 

Key Words: interactive simulation, partial cutting 

simulation. 

A three-dimensional, color, interactive, real-time, 

INTRODUCTION 

computer graphics simulation of a feller-buncher was 

developed by Block and Fridley (1990). The 

Computer simulation is used extensively in analysis of simulation operator views what would be seen looking 

forest harvesting systems. Due to the wide variety of through the windshield of a feller-buncher in operation 

logging systems used and the variation among the types on the screen of the computer. The software allows the 

of forest stands harvested, simulation often offers the 

programmer to vary physical parameters of the felleronly 

way to examine certain logging situations. In buncher that will affect its performance in the forest. 

general, simulation involves building a model of a 

This simulation was developed on a Silicon Graphics 

system to assess how it reacts to changes in its 

Iris 3020 Workstation. The software runs under the 

operating environment. 

UNIX operating system and programs written in the C 

programming language access the graphics features of 

Computer simulation of feller-buneher operation has the system. A ground-based harvesting system 

been reported by several authors (Goulet et al., 1979, 

simulation model has also been developed to estimate 

1980a, 1980b), as well as a model which simulates stump-to-truck production rates and multiproduet 

complete harvest or thinning systems from cutting 

yields for conventional ground-based timber harvesting 

through loading (Stuart, 1981). Oarbini(1984) used systems in Appalachian hardwood stands(Baumgras et 

animation to illustrate material movement and machine al., 1993). This program is to evaluate a model 

activities in continuous simulation of a log 

numerically over a time period of interest, and data are 

merchandiser. The program was developed to increase gathered to estimate the desired true characteristics of 

the model. A method of estimating damage was 

developed in conjunction with an interactive machine 

tPresentedatthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering 


simulation program that can model harvesting 


performance in a variety of silvicultural operations 

227

(Bragg et al., 1994). The damage estimation worked The program uses five visual forms and a code module 

well in an empirical comparison, but further testing 

with Run, Analysis, View, Output, and Exit 

with data from other harvesting systems and stands submodules. The Run module contains the main part 

could improve the model's usefulness, of the simulation system. Within the Run module, the 

system asks the user to input a stand file name, machine 

One logging situation which has been difficult to 

running path name, and plot size. The stand map and 

accurately simulate with numerical simulation is the machine image are then displayed in the main 

movement of a feller-buncher in partial cuts. The simulation window. In this window, each solid blue 

machine must avoid the remaining trees in the stand circle represents a tree of a given diameter. Two 

while effectively moving between the trees to be cut. smaller windows display machine activities, action 

Many logging simulators do not adequately model these commands, and the messages for the user. 

machine movements. Studies using interactive simulation 

to study feller-bunchers have found it to be a useful A simulation is performed by moving the machine 

method of studying mechanical felling in partial cuts. image in the stand map on the computer screen using a 

mouse. While the machine image is approaching the 

The utility of interactive computer simulation has been tree to be cut, the location of the machine is recorded 

demonstrated. However, many of these reports are now into the machine nmning path file. The left mouse 

based on the data that is 10 years old. They also 

button invokes the action commands and loads the 

simulated the system that should be different from the 

image machine at the very beginning of the simulation. 

systems used today to some extent. Furthermore, 

The fight button is used to move the image machine. 

today's computer simulation environment and 

To begin the simulation, the user moves the image 

languages can also improve the forest harvesting 

machine toward the first tree to be cut. 

simulation tasks. 

OBJECTIVES 

Each time a location point is recorded, the machine 

summary window is replaced by the machine action 

menu. Actions for the feller-buncher include its 

common work elements including move to tree, cut 

This paper reports on (1) some examples of adapting 

tree, move to dump, and dump. These four actions plus 

previous techniques for interactive graphical simulation an Exit command are displayed in a window. The 

of feller-buncher operations to handle a variety of 

operator selects the appropriate machine action by 

partial cuts in mature stands with drive-to-tree feller- 

using the mouse to point and click within the command 

bunchers; (2) obtaining stand map data for representa- window. Each time a point location of the machine is 

tive forest stands considered for the partial cuts 

recorded and an action is selected, the machine 

evaluated; (3) modeling drive-to-tree feller-bunchers 

summary is updated and displayed in the machine 

performing felling duties in the partial cuts considered; summary window. When a tree is cut, a solid black 

and (4) analyzing and estimating the physical 

circle is drawn to signify the stump and the machine 

possibility and economic feasibility of such operations, can then move forward from this point. Later, if the 

operator attempts to cut another tree at this point, the 

program will indicate "tree not found". The machine 

SYSTEM STRUCTURE 

image can be rotated 3600 and is able to detect 

obstacles such as the remaining trees. When the 

The system uses IBM compatible, Pentium-based 

machine collides with a tree, the program gives sound 

personal computers. The simulation program is written and text warnings. The machine must then move in the 

with Visual Basic, an event-driven programming 

opposite direction or cut the now "damaged" tree. 

language thatruns under the Microsoft Windows 

environment. 

The above procedure is repeated until the felling head 

is full. The capacity of the felling head can be changed 

Stand map data involve locating each tree within a plot to model different machines. The system reminds the 

using a coordinate system and recording its species, user when the maximum number of trees is held by the 

DBH, total height, volume, and whether or not it is to felling head. The user then uses the 'MoveToDump' 

be harvested. This map information forms the basis for command to move the machine image to the location of 

the simulation effort. Plot size is variable, but should 

be larger than 0.08-ha (0.20-acre) and less than 0.4-ha 

(1.0-acre). 

228 

the bunch to be built and drops the trees. The machine 

summary window is cleared, showing an empty head on 

the machine, and the dropped trees are drawn to scale

on the screen in the direction the machine image was 

Trees to be cut were marked according to their DBH. 

facing when they were dropped. 

The feller-buncher was first located at one end of the 

plot and then moved parallel to the rows of trees which 

When ending the simulation run, the system saves two were 5-7 m wide. Marked trees on either side of the 

files. One file contains the coordinates of the machine machine were removed. When the machine reached 

running path in chronological order with associated 

the end of the row, it turned around and cut another tree 

actions and the diameter breast height (DBH) of each in the nearest swath, continuing until the plot was 

tree cut. The second contains the coordinates and finished. 

dimensions of the trees in the residual stand. These two 

files along with the file containing the original stand Two general types of summaries are provided: (1) 

map data are used in subsequent statistical analyses, stand summaries and (2) machine summaries. The 

stand summary compares the original stand to the 

The Analysis module compares the original stand to the residual stand and computes the trees, basal area, and 

residual standanddisplays eachintheformatofstand volumeremovedperacreinthethinning. Thisis 

and stock tables. Since thinnings alter the diameter 

provided in the stand and stock table format commonly 

distribution of stands, diameter distribution histograms used by foresters to report stand information and in a 

are provided in auxiliary windows along with the stand histogram (Figure 1). This summary can be used to 

and stock tables, 

determine the quality of the thinning performed from a 

silvicultural standpoint or as input for economic 

Any previous simulation can be viewed again using the decisions. The difference in the stand before and after 

View module. The stand map, histograms of DBH dis- thinning provides information on removals by diameter 

tributions, stand and stock tables, and the machine path class--an important input for estimating logging cost. 

file can be reproduced either on screen or on paper. 

IMPLEMENTATION 

J00" 

To illustrate the use of this program, three harvesting 

_ 

prescriptions were evaluated on a southern pine 

p,t on 

light thinning (LT) with a target residual stand of 865 __ 

treesperha,a heavythinning griT)withatarget 

m0 

residual stand of 620 trees per ha, and for comparison 0 

r7 

purposes a clearcut. The area harvested during the m 15 _N (em) 20 25 

simulation contained 0.16-ha (0.4-acre) and measured 

[maple IHoitw/Thin _Light Thid 

40 m (132 ft) square. 

Figure 1. DBH distributions for the example stand 

before thinning and after a heavy and light 

Table 1, Stand and stock table for example stand thinning. 

before thinning. 

o,, • " 

J 

Total Machine summaries are provided in three parts: (1) an 

DBH Trees Height Basal Area Volume elemental time summary, (2) a summary by cut and 

(cm) per Ha (m) (m2/ha). (m3/ha) dump cycles, and (3) a production summary. The 

elemental time summary reports, information as ff a 

10.0 173 12 1.4 6.3 time study of the machine had been performed. Feller- 

12.5 99 13 1.3 6.9 buncher cyclescorrespond to the machine actions 

15.0 222 14 4.1 25.8 available while running the simulation program. In 

17.5 420 14 10.4 71.2 analyzing the output of the run, cut and dump times are 

20.0 346 15 11.2 79.4 estimated using production equations developed from 

22.5 148 15 6.1 43.5 previous time studies of the machine. Times of travel 

to tree and travel to dump were computed by dividing 

25.0 49 15 2.5 18.3 the distance traveled by the average speed of the 

Total 1457 37.0 251.4 machine. Elemental time figures are provided since 

229

they are an acc_ted method of describing machine sparselystocked stand. A good indication of the ability 

performance (Table 2). 

of the operator to utilize the potential of the machine is 

provided by the "number of trees per dump" or "basal 

The summary by cut and dump cycles provides the area per dump" measure. This reports the number of 

mostusefulinformation fromthesimulation run(Table treesandthebasalareaheldby thefelling headwhen 

3).Information inthi summaryearlindicate theeffect thetreesaredroppedintothebunch.Feller-buncher 

ofthestandon machineproductivity andtheability of production iso_engreatest when thismeasureis 

theoperator tousethemachinetoitsfullpotential. One maximized.Anothermeasureoffcller-buncher 

usefulmeasureofstandeffects on machinemovement efficiency inthistypeofsimulation isthetotaldistance 

isprovidedbythe"movestotreeneeded"value.In 

traveled. A methodismore efficient thananotherifit 

maneuveringthemachinemodelthroughadensestand, cutsthesametrees, butindoingsotravels a shorter 

more actions of"move totree"areneededtoaccurately totaldistance. As ourexampleillustrates, production is 

represent the machine path than would be the case in a reduced as harvest intensity decreases (Table 3). 

Table 2. 

Summary of elemental times (minutes) for three harvesting prescriptions examined with interactive 

simulation in a 0.16-ha (0.4-acre) planted stand. The three prescriptions were a clearcut (CC), a heavy 

thinning (I-IT), and a light thinning LT). 

CC HT LT 

Element # Mean SDev # Mean SDev # Mean SDev 

Move totree 265 0.04 0.01 183 0.05 0.01 162 0.05 0.01 

Cut 221 0.14 0.02 134 0.14 0.02 95 0.15 0.02 

Move to dump 80 0.01 0.0I 52 0.01 0.01 36 0.01 0.01 

Dump 80 0.32 0.05 52 0.29 0.05 36 0.28 0.04 

Table 3, 

Machine summary by cut and dump cycles for the harvesting prescriptions clearcut (CC), heavy thinning 

(/-IT), and light thinning (LT). 

Item CC HT LT 

Cut 

moves to tree needed per tree cut 1.20 1.37 1.71 

distance between cut trees (m) 2.12 2.65 3.16 

elapsed time between cuts (mill.) 0.05 0.06 0.09 

Dump 

movestotreeperdump 3.31 3.52 4.50 

movetodumpperdump 1.74 1.83 1.89 

trees per dump 2.76 2.58 2.64 

basal area per dump (m2) 0.07 0.06 0.06 

volumeperdump(m3) 0.45 0.41 0.39 

distancebetweendumps(m) 8.5 9.8 10.8 

time between dumps (rain.) 0.52 0.51 0.56 

Total distance traveled (m) 678 .... 509 .... 390 

The final machine summary provides the typical 

(Table 4). These measures include trees per minute 

production figures used in comparing machines and volume per productive machine hour. These 

230

values represent a relative measure of unconstrained Block, W. A. and J. L. Fridley. 1990. Simulation of 

machine performance. As such, they are not to be forest harvesting using computer animation. 

taken as an accurate measure of actual field Transactions of the ASAE 33(3): 967-974. 

performance. However, comparison of these measures 

for different operating circumstances provides an 

indication of the relative performance of the machine. 

Table 4. 

Machine production summary. 

Bragg, W. C., W. D. Ostrofsky, and B. F. Hoffman, Jr. 

1994. Residual tree damage estimates from partial 

cutting simulation. Forest Products Journal 

44(7/8): 19-22. 

Fridley, J.L., J.L. Garbini, and J.E. Jorgensen. 1982. 

Prescription 

.... 

Trees/Minute m_/PMH Interactive simulation of forest thinning system 

concepts. ASAEPaper No. 82-1603. St. Joseph, 

CC (Cleareutting) 3.32 32.63 MI. 

I-IT ('Heavythinning) 3.20 30.49 

LT (Light thinning) 3.16 27.99 Fridley, J. L, J. L. Garbini, J. E. Jorgensen, andP. A. 

Peters. 1985. An interactive simulation for studying 

the design of feller-bunehers for forest thin- 

FUTURE WORK ning. Transactions of the ASAE 28(3): 680-686. 

Interactive simulation is a viable method for examining Goulet, D. V., R. H. lff, and D. L. Sirois. 1979. Treethe 

operation and working patterns of machines in 

to-mill forest harvesting simulation models: Where 

forest stands. The method can be used on relatively are we? Forest Products Journal 29(10): 50-55. 

inexpensive computer equipment with simple graphics 

capability without sacrificing excessive detail. Such a Goulet, D. V., R. H. lff, and D. L. Sirois. 1980. Five 

method offers potential for studying and improving the forest harvesting simulation models - Part I: 

work methods of operators and machines in a variety of Modeling characteristics. Forest Products Journal 

harvest prescriptions. Since the program requires user 30(7): 17-20. 

decisions as input, the results obtained through the 

simulation are more easily accepted. The user Goulet, D. V., R. H. Iff, and D. L. Sirois. 1980. Five 

immediately sees the effects of his decisions while 

forest harvesting simulation models - Part II: 

running the program. Paths, pitfalls, and other considerations. Forest 

Products Journal 30(8): 18-22. 

A new stand generator module will be added to the 

system. This will allow the user to ask that a stand be Greene, W. D. and B. L. Lanford. 1984. Geometric 

generated with a given set of characteristics instead of simulation of feller-bunchers in southern pine 

providing a stand map file. The stand generator will plantation thinning. ASAE Paper No. 84-1612. 

generate either planted or natural stands. 

St. Joseph, MI. 

Machines other than feller-bunehers will also be added Greene, W. D. and B. L. Lanford. 1986. An 

to the program, including machines to extract the wood 

interactive simulation program to model fellerin 

addition to felling and processing equipment. Once bunchers. Alabama Agricultural Experiment 

these features are added, harvesting prescriptions such Station, Bulletin No. 576. 

as group selection, shelterwood, and clearcutting (as a 

base case for comparisons) will be compared to Greene, W. D., J. L. Fridley, and B. L. Lanford. 1987. 

evaluate differences in production or possible stand 

Operator variability in interactive simulations of 

effects (percent of area traversed, trees damaged, etc.), feller-bunchers. Transactions of the ASAE 30(4): 

918-922. 

LITERATURE CITED Lembersky, M. R. and U. H. Chi. 1984. "Decision 

simulators" speed implementation and improve 

Battmgras, J. E., Curt C. Hassler, and Chris B. LeDoux. operations. Interfaces 14(4): 1-15. 

1993. Estimating and validating harvesting system 

production through computer simulation. Forest 

Stuart, W. B. 1981. Harvesting Analysis Technique: a 

Products Journal 43(11/12): 65-71. 

computer simulation system for timber harvesting. 

Forest Products Journal 31 (11): 45-53. 

231

DEVELOPMENT OF FOREST ENGINEERING William Sctdich, the school taught its students 

AND ITS LITERATURE 1'2 technical material in preparation for employment in 

the Colony of India. Forestry program graduates 

by 

would aid in the harvesting of India's forests. 

Schlich's Manual of Forestry became the definitive 

James L. Fridley English language forestry textbook of that era. 4 The 

University of Washington volume on forest utilization written by Karl Gayer, 

Seattle, Washington, USA Professor of Forestry at the University of Munich, 

was the recognized standard on forest utilization in 

John A. Miles Germany. Within this volume the section on wood 

University of California transportation describes road, rail, cable, and water- 

Davis, California, USA based transportation systems. There are good 

structural illustrations but no numerical analysis is 

and offered. The academic program at Cooper's Hill was 

moved to Oxford in 1905, marking a transition in 

Frank E. Greulich 

becoming what we now view as modern forestry 


instead of an area of applied engineering. 

Seattle, Washington, USA 

The first American Forest Engineering degree was 

awarded at Cornell University in 1902, where 

ABSTRACT: The development of the academic Bernard E. Fernow, a German educated forest 

and professional field of Forest Engineering since engineer, led a short-lived program (1896-1903). 

the late 1800s is examined in terms of the key events Only seventeen students graduated with this 

and the published literature that is most significant 

degree, which Fernow described as follows: "This 

to the field. Although forest engineering appeared degree, it is believed, expresses more adequately... 

as early as 1884 at the Royal Indian Engineering the fact that not a science but an art of technical 

College at Cooper's Hill in the United Kingdom and character has been studied as a profession; it is a 

in 1902 at Cornell University in the United States, title indicating practical rather than literary 

the modem field of Forest Engineering developed attainments and describes the work for which the 

primarily out of the efforts of the Pacific Logging student has prepared, namely, the application of 

Congress in the early 20th century along with technical scientific knowledge to a business and in 

several Universities located on the North American a productive industry."5 Fernow clearly identified 

West Coast. 

the engineering aspects of forestry;a profession 

whose mission reached beyond the logging 

Key Words: forest engineering, history, literature, operation to address such issues as regeneration 

development of, logging engineering and protection of the soil and water resource. 6 

In the southeastern United States, the Biltmore 

FIRST ACADEMIC PROGRAMS Forest School operated from 1898 to 1913 under the 

direction of another German forestry school 

The Royal Indian Engineering College at Cooper's graduate, Carl A. Schenck. The Biltmore School did 

Hill (Great Britain) was among the first colleges to not have a forest engineering curriculum but did 

blend engineering with forestry when in 1884 it emphasize the practical aspects of forestry, including 

i established a school of forestry. 3 Headed by substantial attention given to logging. 7 Schenck's 

1Presented at the joint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering 4 

and International Union of Forest Research Organizations Subject William Schlich, Schlich "sManual of Forestry, 2d ed. (London: 

Group $3.04-00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1, 1996. Bradbury, Agnew & Co., L/xL, 1908 [Vol. V, "Forest Utilization," 

English translation by W. R. Fisher of Die Forstbenutzung by Karl 

2 Reprinted from J. L. Fridley, J. ,4. Miles, and F. E. Greulich, Gayerl)" 

"Development Forest Engineering and Its Literature," in The 51L S. Hosmer, Forestry at Cornell (Ithaca, N Y Dec. 1950). 

Literature ofAgriculturalEngineering, ed. Carl W. Hall and 

Wallace C. Olsen, Copyright 1992 by ComeU University. Used by 6 B. E. Femow, "l'he Forester, an Engineer," Journal of the Western 

permission of the publisher, CorneU University Press. Sociefy of Engineers 6 (5) (1901: 402-420. 

3 B. E. Fernow, A Brief History of Forestry (Toronto: University 7 j. O Heame. "How Shall We Teach Logging Engineer 5th Annual 

Press, 1913), p. 377-78. Session, Pacific Logging Congress, 1913. 

232

text, Logging and Lumbering or Forest Utilization; Forest had produced 320 miles of road, 2,225 miles 

A Textbook for Forest Schools, was apparently of trail, 1,888 miles of telephone lines, 464 cabins 

published in 1912, although the book does not in fact and barns, and fifty-one corrals. I° Industry was 

give a publication date. s Part I dealt with logging similarly responding. Turn-of-the-century loggers in 

operations while Part 11 discussed the manufacture the Pacific Northwest well understood the value of a 

of wood products. Part I consists of three chapters 

capable engineer. 

and is an excellent descriptive treatment of logging 

engineering practice during that era. The first Western loggers were contending with steep rugged 

chapter covers camps, duration of employment, terrain, big trees, and logging technology that was 

enumeration, and animals, the discussion is non- based on cable systems and railroads. They needed 

technical and is a generally thorough introduction to persons who could survey railroad lines and property 

the topic. The second chapter describes the tools boundaries as well as oversee road layout and 

used (including discussion on setting and filing saw construction. Many civil and mechanical engineers 

teeth), tree felling and bucking. Chapter 3, had the necessary educational background, but two 

transportation, is quite detailed and covers land problems prevented these engineers from being 

transportation (without vehicles), water employed by the logging firms. First, young 

transportation, vehicles, roads, loading, cable mechanical and civil engineering graduates were not 

logging, and choosing between transportation 

compatible with the loggers. The Pacific Northwest 

systems. The section on roads includes equations for was extremely rural, logging enterprises operated out 

grade, curve layout, cuts and fills, etc., along with 

of camps, and the climate was, true to the 

prediction equations for the rolling resistance of northwest's reputation, conducive to wet socks and 

wheels, webbed feet for those who undertook an engineering 

qareer in the outdoors. Formally educated engineers 

An early textbook by Ralph Clement Bryant, a were finding preferable employment in more urban 

forest engineering graduate of the program at settings at more attractive salaries. Further, the 

Cornell, is similar in topical content to Schenck's logging business did not know what to do with 

book. 9 Bryant does not present any engineering engineers. It was not appropriate to turn an engineer 

analysis of harvesting activity but, somewhat into an overpaid logger; yet with no existing career 

unique for that period, he does give an extensive track for engineers in the business, there did not 

bibliography. Bryant's text was the first widely exist means for an engineer to become sufficiently 

distributed textbook on logging in North America. familiar with the operations of the business. 

This text was followed with a thoroughly revised 

second edition in 1923. The second problem impeding the employment of 

engineers in the logging industry was the poor 

performance of engineers who had been hired by the 

THE EMERGENCE OF LOGGING industry. When civil and mechanical engineers were 

ENGINEERING 

employed by the logging industry the results were 

frequently disastrous. E. T. Clark describes a case 

The need for engineering skills in North American where a loggingoutfit engaged a civil engineering 

logging and forest management continued to grow firm to locate some boundary lines. The surveyors, 

during the first decade of this century, especially in not understanding the nature of logging, located the 

the west. The U.S. Forest Service responded to this section corners but, to the loggers' dismay (and too 

need for engineers when, in 1905, F. G. Plummer late discovery), did not blaze the boundary lines for 

was transferred from the Geological Survey to the the fallers. Clark also told of a logging company that 

Forest Service. Plummer was the first engineer in hired a "gang of civil engineers" to survey a few 

what was to become, in 1907, the U.S. National miles of rail line. The construction crew discovered 

Forest System. By 1910, activity on the National the newly surveyed line would have required 

excavation at a cost not justifiable by the timber to be 

extracted. The company then called in their own 

8c. A. SchenckLoggingandLumberingorForestUtilizationA 

Textbookfor ForestSchools(Dmanstadt, Crennany: L. C.Willie, h, 

timber cruiser (Note: probably a college educated 

1912). 

9 RalphC.Bryant,LoggingThePrinciplesandGeneralMethods 10UnitedStatesForestService,HistoryofEngineeringinthe 

ofOperationintheUnitedStates(NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons, ForestService1905-1969(WashingtonD.C.:USFSEngineering 

Inc.,1913). 

Staff,1972). 

233

forester) to "spot in a roadthat couldbe built 

without bankruptingthe company."11 

In Augustof 1908, GeorgeCornwall,editorof a 

trademagazine called The Timberman, and Edward 

English, an influentiallogging firm ownerfromMt. 

Vernon, Washington, visited in the Dillar Hotelin 

Seattle. At thatmeeting Mr. Cornwallproposedhis 

ideas fora meeting of whatwas to becomethe 

PacificLogging Congress. The congress would be a 

"friendlypowwow of otherloggers foran exchange 

of ideas (pertainingto logging)."It is evidentthat 

Cornwallunderstoodthe natureof the men operating 

logging operationsandthe importanceof their 

perceptions,thus he allowed that "the ideaof this 

congress was thereforea mutualand simultaneous 

inspiration." 12 

Cornwall subsequentlymet withDean FrankG. 

Miller andProfessorHugoWinkenwerderof the 

University of Washington to discuss the upcoming 

Pacific Logging Congress tobe held on the campus 

of the University of Washingtonin Seattle. Miller 

and Winkenwerderhad recognizedthe growing need 

for engineeringtalents in the logging campsand 

were interestedin establishing a programin logging 

engineering. But, they too recognizedthatthe 

success of their endeavorwould depend on 

acceptanceby the loggers, and that the easiestway to 

attain acceptancewas to allow the ideato come from 

the loggersthemselves. GeorgeCornwall, for his 

part,neededlittle convincingand tookit upon 

himself to become a championfor the effortto 

establish a "new"profession. So, the professionand 

academicfield of"logging engineering"became an 

important component of the Congress'mission, 

The firstPacific Logging Congress(PLC)was held 

July 19-21, 1909, in the Hoo-HooHouse at the 

Alaska YukonPacific Exposition in Seattle. At that 

first PLC,GeorgeCornwall stated: 

Logging is an engineeringscience and as such 

it mustbe consideredin the futureto a greater 

extent than it has in the past.The countryis 

doingbigger things in everydepartmentof 

humanactivity, and the logging business is no 

exceptionto the rule. R takesclose application 

anda high grade of engineering skillto be able 

to layoutthe properlocationof roads,which 

will intersectand drawto one common point 

the greatestamountof timberin any onetract. 

The graspof this one problemis the deciding 

factorin determiningthe ability of the 

engineer,which often can be realized only after 

the tractis well opened up. There is a growing 

field on the Pacific Coastforyoung menwith a 

knowledgeof engineering, both civil and 

mechanical,who will devotetheir time to a 

studyof thePacific Coast logging 

requirements,with aview of being able to 

presentin an intelligent and practical mannera 

workingplanforopening up and logging a 

tractof timber,This is practicallyan 

unoccupiedfield, andone of the underlying 

motiveswhich dominatedthe congress.13 

Although Cornwall may well have been the one to 

coin the termlogging engineering,FrankLambis 

one of the earliest to use the term in publication.In a 

paperpresentedto the firstPLC, Lambof Lamb 

Timber Companyin Hoquium,Washington, 

discussed some of the subjectsthat compose logging 

engineering and suggested: "Ihope that I have 

briefly outlineda few of the subjects comprised 

underthe generalterm logging engineering, and 

while it would not make us morevaluable men or 

more successfulin our business, yet I think that if we 

practicalmenwere to call ourselves logging 

engineersinstead of simply loggers or boss loggers it 

might give us greaterpride in ourprofession. I use 

the termprofessionadvisedly,because I think the act 

of drawing logs out of the woods to the marketsof 

the worldis fully as elevating, fully as useful an 

occupationas is the drawingof useless teeth outof 

anotherman'shead, and if one is a profession,so 

should the other be.,,14 

The following year, 1910, a short course in logging 

engineering was taught atthe University of 

Washington by ProfessorW. T. Andrews.15One 

year later Elias T. Clark was hired to takechargeof 

14 F. Lamb, "Logging Engineering Requires Skill and Experience for 

11 E. T. Clark, "Logging Engineering Should Be Recognized by Success," 1st Annual Session, Pacific Logging Congress, The 

Institufiom of Learning," 44h ArmualSession Pacific Logging Timberman 10 (1909): 32. 

Congress, 1912 10. 15 W. T. Andrews, _Introductionto the Practical Teaching of 

12 G. M. Cornwall, "Develccng_t of the Logging Industry of the Logging Engineering and Lumber Manufacture at the University of 

Pacific Coast States," 1st Annual Session, Pacific Logging Congress Washington," ForestClub Annual (University of Washington) 4 (3) 

77, The Timberman 10 (1909): 32. (1925):34-37. 

23/4 

13 Ibid.

the forest engineering program at the University of topographic maps, and steam engines. However, by 

Washington. 16 A major strength of that program 1920, the very nature of logging engineering was 

was in the extensive use of a capstone field exercise beginning to change. 

that is still the trademark of the program today. 17 

Oregon State University (then Oregon State RE-EMERGENCE OF FOREST 

Agricultural College) established a department of ENGINEERING 

logging engineering in 1913. A well-respected 

logger from industry, J. P. Van Orsdel was hired as Two forces were acting to change the fundamental 

the program's first professor of logging engineering nature of the problem addressed by logging 

and the first logging engineer graduated from engineering. First, technology was changing. 

this program in 1915.18 The new curriculum was Advances in the internal combustion engine and 

outlined to the PLC as follows: rnanufacturing processes during World War I were 

enabling the development of tractors and motor 

In the student's freshman year he is taught, trucks suitable for logging. The result was a change 

aside from (citizenship, executive training, in logging methods that reduced dependence on 

military training) trigonometry, analysis, railroads. Second, concern for the forest resource 

general forestry, elementary mensuration, plane was building and with that concern came increased 

surveying, general chemistry, and wood work. interest in regeneration and selective logging. 

In the second year, engineering physics, 

blacksmithing, tool making and tempering, In 1919 the Oregon Engineers Registration Law was 

machine shop, practice, mechanical drawing, passed and logging engineering was included as one 

topographic surveying, railroad surveying and of the branches, z° The passing of legislation that 

dendrology and mensuration. In the third year provided for professional licensing of logging 

this is followed up by advanced mensuration, engineers was an acknowledgment of the importance 

forest appraisals and reports, log scaling, of engineering to the protection of forest resources. 

logging railroads, logging machine design, 

elements of steam engineering and steam The primary emphasis of the early logging 

laboratory, mechanism, lumber rates and tariffs, engineering programs was however directed at the 

The senior year is devoted entirely to specialized problem of economic development of a timber 

work and the following ground is covered: resource located on difficult terrain. The requisite 

topographic logging plans, logging devices and system of railroads and cable yarders represented a 

equipment, logging methods, timber technology substantial capital investment. Poor harvest design, 

and testing, and lumber manufacture. 19 

resulting in high logging costs, were of constant 

concern. The preparation of boundary and 

By 1920 logging engineering programs had been topographic maps, the development of a rail and 

established at the University of California cable transport system and the actual railroad survey, 

(Berkeley), Oregon State University, the University design and location called for the skills of an 

of Washington, the University of Idaho, and the engineer. That forestry knowledge was also required 

University of British Columbia. These early in equal measure was not as clear. Indeed it was not 

curricula, like the one described by Van Orsdel, until the early 1920s when public concern about 

stressed traditional forestry, logging planning and sustained forest yield became a political issue that 

setting layout, surveying (land and railroad), forestry skills were accorded significant recognition 

in the conduct of harvesting operations. In 1922 

George Cornwall, writing for the industry, observed: 

"From now forward the growing of timber will 

16Clark,"LoggingEngineering..." become a recognized and essential part in logging. 

17 j. L. Ffidley and P. Sehiess. "A Successful Senior Forest 

Engineering Capstone Design Course" (1989 [ASAEPaper no. 89- A good fundamental knowledge of forestry will be 

551o]). helpful, in fact necessary, in conducting logging 

18 W. A. Davies "Western Logging Engineering Sehools---(kegon operations in the future; where the question of how 

State College" 42nd Annual Session, Pacific Logging Congress, best tO removethe present crop with a view of 

Loggers Handbook 11 (1951): 87-89. 

19 j p. van Orsdel, "'Presentation of Logging Engineering 

Curriculum at the Oregon State Agricultural College" 8th Annual 

Session, Pacific Logging Congress 1916. 20 Davies, "Western Logging Engineering Schools." 

235 

P 

?

in stimulatingthe U.S. ForestServiceto publish 

theirown Engineering Field Tables in 1935.24This 

handbookconcentratedon practical surveying, 

earthwork,roaddrainageand surfaces,and concrete 

andtimberconstruction. 

The 1940sbroughtmanyadvancesto steep terrain 

harvestingtechnology, which hadbeen the impetus 

for logging engineering in the PacificNorthwest. 

The appearanceof track mounted steel towers, wide 

use of rubberand track mountedcable loadersand 

the wide acceptanceof the powerchain saw in 

felling andbucking operationswere some of the 

more significantadvances. Along with the 

improvementsin technology came greater interestin 

forestryas a component of logging engineering. 

During the 1940sthe logging engineering curricula 

began to show changes reflectingthis new emphasis. 

The program of Oregon State Universitywas 

renamedto forestengineering,25and the programat 

the Universityof British Columbiawas changed to 

add moreEnglish, technicalforestryand forest 

productsin placeof the applied engineering 

courses.26 

In Washington State, a tax law designedto 

encourageforestryon private land was passedin 

1941.27The first forest practicesact for the State 

was passed in 1945 and was directed at achievement 

and maintenanceof adequateregenerationon cut- 

overland.2sFurthersignificant forestpractices 

legislation would not be seen again until early in the 

1970s. In 1949 logging engineeringwas granted 

recognitionas a distinctbranchof engineering, for 

purposesof professionallicensing, by the 

Washington State Legislature.29 

providing fora continuousfuturesupply will be 

regardedas a test of efficiency."21 

In 1924 the directorof the newly formedPacific 

NorthwestForestExperiment Station of the U.S. 

Forest Service,ThortonT. Munger,called logging 

without forestreplacement"industrialsuicide.''22 It 

was duringthis periodthat the term forestengineer 

first appearedin the PacificNorthwest. As noted by 

Cornwallthe same paper, it was felt that the nameof 

"logging engineer" shouldbe widened to "forest 

engineer" to reflect adequatelythe scope of these 

new responsibilities.As previouslynoted the term 

"forest engineer"had alreadybeen introducedby 

Fernowwhose earlierdefinition of the scopeof the 

forest engineer'sactivity is consistent with the ideas 

advocatedby Cornwall and Munger.23 

The confluenceof advancing technology and 

increasing concern about the forest resourcehad then 

forceda reconsiderationof the role of the logging 

engineer.If logging (forest) engineers shouldonce 

again enjoya high profile in corporateoperations, it 

was thoughtthat it wouldbe because of the broader 

issues offorestresourcesmanagement and the ability 

of forest engineersto address those issues with a 

uniquelyappropriateset of skills. But duringthe 

economic depressionof the 1930sand the Second 

World War,the interest of the forest industryfocused 

on short-termeconomic efficiency.Logging time and 

cost studieswere increasinglyapplied, and the forest 

engineer began to use manyof the techniques 

popularizedby industrialengineers. Interestin and 

developmentof the broaderrole of the forest 

engineer in forestresource management seemed to 

have waned. 

The CivilianConservationCorps(CCC) program 

initiated in the early 1930s suppliedover250,000 

young men to do conservationwork. Hundreds of 

engineers wereemployed to design and supervisethe 

constructionof roads, trails,bridges, etc. While we 

usually do notthink of these CCCrelated activities 

24 United Sallies Forest Service, Engineering Field Tables 

(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1935). 

as forest engineeringper se, this activity provided 25Davies, "Western LoggingEngineering Schools". 

much of the infrastructurewhich has been essential 26 L. Besley, "Western Logging School University of British 

to efficient foresttransportation, and was a catalyst 

Columbia," 42ndAnnualSession, Pacific Logging Congress, 

Loggers Handbook 11 (1951): 79-84. 

27 D. H. Basinger, "The Status of Forest Taxation in the State of 

21 (3. M. Cornwall, "The Profession of Logging Engineering." Washington," Forest Club Quarterly (University of Washington) 15 

Forest Clu b Quarterly (University of Washington) 10 (1922): 17- (2) (1941): 17-20. 

19. 28 L. T. Webster, "Washington's Forest Practices Act," Forest Club 

22 T. T. Munger, "Objectives of the New Federal Forest Experiment Quarterly (University of Washington) 19 (1-3),(1945 46): 5-7. 

Station," 15th Annual Session, Pacific Logging Congress, 1924. p. 6- 29 G. D. Markwort_ "Western Logging Engineering Schools-- 

7. University of Washington," 42nd Annual Session, Pacific Logging 

23 Fernow, "The Forester, an Engineer." Congress, Loggers Handbook, 11 (1951): 85-87. 

236

PROFESSIONAL SOCIETY ACTIVITIES for the forestresourceswas sparkinginterestsof 

professionalsoutsideof forestryand (2) thebroader 

The previouslymentionedPacificLogging Congress scope of forestengineers (outlinedby Fernowin 

was, until about 1930, an organizationthat 

1901 and furtherdiscussedby Cornwallandothers 

functioned muchlike today'stechnicalsocieties. The duringthe 1920s) was becomingrecognized.B. Y. 

annual meetings consistedof presented papers, 

Richardsonwrote, in the Forewordto the 

formal discussion, field tripsand a business meeting, proceedings of the firstASAE sponsoredforest 

The presentedpaperswere veryoften of high caliber engineering conference, "Goodengineering is also 

and some of them remainlandmarkpapersin forest requiredin site preparation,regeneration,cultural 

engineering research. The fundamental nature of the and protectivefunctions. These needs take the form 

PLC began to change during the thirties. This 

of design, development and testing of machines for 

change manifestsitself as the presentationschange precise planting,seeding, fertilizer application, 

from the technical to the business side of logging, 

nursery operations as well as insect, disease and fire 

control." 30 

The CanadianInstitute of Forestrywas founded in 

1908 as the Canadian Societyof Forest Engineers The second ASAE sponsored forest engineering 

with the participation of Fernow. The current name, conference, held in 1969, is significant because it 

adopted in 1950, more accurately reflects the 

was the first conference held since the early Pacific 

members' preponderant professional interest in Logging Conferences that was directed at teaching 

forestry rather than engineering. This professional and curriculain forest engineering. (The PLC had, 

society continues to publishthe Forestry Chronicle as previously mentioned, evolved so as to place 

which contains only occasional articles of minor 

dominant emphasis on the business and occupation 

engineering content, 

of logging as opposed to the profession and 

discipline of forest engineering.).S.J. Coughran 

The Societyof American Foresters (SAF) is yet 

noted in the opening remarks of the conferencethat 

another professional forestry association. Lacking a "it was quite evident that the subject matter to be 

traditional interest in the engineering aspects of 

explored in this conference is extremely 

forestry it provides only limited support toforest 

controversial."31The controversy he refers to was 

engineering activities. In spite of this limitation it 

one of determining whether forest engineers are or 

has historically been widely subscribedto as a 

shouldbe foresters or engineers. George Cornwall's 

professional organization by American forest 

notion of a distinct profession of forest engineering 

engineers. Its publications such as Forest Science 

had perhaps become forgotten. 

and the regional applied forestryjournals (Western, 

Southern, and Northern Journals ofApplied 

In 1981, ASAE sponsored a third forest engineering 

Forestry) provide an important outlet for forest 

conference, the Forest Regeneration Symposium. 

engineering articles. 

This conferencewas held in Raleigh, North 

Carolina, and published a proceedings under the 

The Forest Products Research Societyis an 

same title.32This conference identifies Forest 

organization of researchers with a common interest Engineering as a profession which serves all the 

of solid wood products. Through such publications as aspects of forestry, where most previous works 

the Forest Products Journal and the Timber 

concentrated on the removal of timber and the 

Harvesting and Merchandising Newsletter the FPRS associated transportation systems. 

has been active in the publication of forest 

engineering research. 

3013. Y. Richardson. "Foreword "Proceedings of the Forest 

In the later 1960s and early seventies, protection of 

Engineering Conference, American Societyof Agricultural 

the public resources adverselyaffectedbyforest 

Engineers, Michigan State University, East Lansing. Sept.25-27 

1968. 

harvesting operations became a front pagepolitical 31 S. J.Coughran "Opening Remarks." Proceedings of the Forest 

issue. The increased public awareness sparked Engineering Conference on Education, American Society of 

interest in forest engineering among other Agricultural Engineers, Chicago, Dec. 8-9 1969. 

disciplines. The American Society of Agricultural 

32 AmericanSocietyofAgricultural Engineers, Forest 

Engineers (ASAE) held twoforest engineering Regeneration, Proceedings of a Symposium on Engineering Systems 

for Forest Regeneration, Mar. 2-6, Raleigh, N.C. (St Joseph Mich.: 

conferences in 1968 and 1969. The interestof the 

American societyofAgricultural Engineers, 1981[ASAE 

ASAE serves to illustrate that (1) the public concern Publicationno. 10-81]). 

237

The ASAE's technical journal, Transactions of the trestles, water transport, permanent buildings and 

ASAE, has served as an important outlet for the more timber conversion and seasoning are included. 

engineering oriented research papers since the 1968 Published with his manual are twenty-four pages of 

and 1969 conferences, advertisements for goods commonly needed in a 

logging camp. 

By the end of the 1970s, most of the western states 

had toughened and enlarged the scope of their forest Some of the books by Brown were written as forest 

practice legislation. Companies engaged in the engineering texts. These books are generally 

harvest of a very valuable timber resource were 

descriptive of logging practices and contain little 

operating on difficult terrain under restrictive forest engineering analysis. 34 One point of significance in 

practice acts. Forest engineers were again in high the 1936 volume is the inclusion of silvicultural 

demand. The forest engineering programs in the considerations within the chapters on logging 

Northwest were strong and numerous and others had methods. Only a loose tie is made between forestry 

materialized throughout the country. Some of the and engineering. 

newer programs had affiliation with Agricultural 

Engineering Departments. In 1979 a forest In 1942 Professor Donald Matthews published his 

engineering conference, independent of any existing book Cost Control in the Logging Industry. 35 This 

organization, was held in Corvallis, Oregon. This text reflects the concern for economic efficiency 

conference marked the formation of the Council on 

prevalent during the 1930s. Among the topics 

Forest Engineering (COFE), a proximate covered are the economic location of roads and 

professional organization for persons interested in landings, economic service standards for roads and 

forest engineering. At that first meeting of COFE it the selection of logging equipment by economic 

was decided that no affiliation should be sought with criteria. Despite the voluminous research that has 

either the ASAE or the Society of American 

been inspired at least in part by this book, it remains 

Foresters. The "controversy" of the 1969 meeting the only English language text written specifically 

was still a concern. By the beginning of the eighties, on the topic of forest engineering economics. A 

however, even the forest engineering profession was major weakness of this poorly referenced text is its 

impacted by the industry-wide recession. Academic lack of a bibliography. 

concerns were replaced by institutional concerns as 

employment opportunities and student enrollment In 1947, the American Pulpwood Association 

declined, initiated the Technical Release series oriented 

toward solving problems and presenting innovative 

ideas for loggers. Each monthly mailing to the 

DEVELOPMENT OI¢THE CURRENT Association membership contained several 

LITERATURE 

"Releases," each devoted to a single topic. In many 

cases these were written by the logger who actually 

The previously mentioned early texts by Schlich, developed the problem solution. Approximately 100 

Schenck and Bryant were followed by J. P. Stewart's of these articles are published each year. While they 

1927 Manual of Forest Engineering and normally are not written or reviewed by professional 

Extraction. 33At the time, Stewart was a lecturer in engineers, many do address the art and occasionally 

Forest Engineering at the University of Edinburgh. the science of forest engineering. These articles, 

His examples draw from extensive experience in 

although not of the technical quality exhibited in the 

North America, Africa and India where he had 

early PLC papers, probably served to flU some of the 

served as an advisor to various forest managers. His void created as the PLC departed from its strong 

manual provides practical solutions to a variety of 

forest engineering problems ranging from protection 

from wild animals and malaria to a variety of 34(a)NelsonC.Brown,Logging--Principles and Practices in the 

logging and transportationschemes. Surveying, 

UnitedStatesandCanada(NewYork:JohnWiley,1934).(b) 

sleds, petrol and steam tractors, wire rope NelsonC.Brown, LoggingmTransportation: The Principles and 

OperatiOns, slides and flumes, road, railways, 

MethodsofLogTransportationintheUnitedStatesandCanada 

(NzwYork:JohnWiley,1936).(c)NelsonC.Brown,Logging:The 

PrinciplesandMethodsofHarvestingTimberin theUnitedStates 

andCanada(NewYork:JohnWiley,1949). 

33j. p. Steward,ManualofForestEngineeringandExtraction 35D. M.Matthews,CostControlintheLoggingIndustry (New 

_: ChapmanandHall,1927). YorkMcCn'aw-Hill, 1942). 

238

technical beginnings and became more of a social 

and trade organization, 

A second contribution from the University of 

Edinburgh appeared in 1951 in the form of Forest 

In 1955 the Society of American Foresters published 

its first handbook, the Forestry Handbook. 38 A 

committee led by A. M. Koroleff of the Pulp and 

Paper Research Institute of Canada prepared the 

chapter on logging. The chapters on road 

Engineering Roads and Bridges. 36 James L. engineering and surveying were prepared by a 

Harrison had been Forest Officer in India and 

committee chaired by Anthony P. Dean of the U.S. 

following his retirement from foreign service he 

Forest Service. A total of 167 pages of this handbook 

lectured on forest engineering and utilization at 

are dedicated to forest engineering, which is 

Edinburgh. This text discusses road reconnaissance 

Indicative of the need for published materials at the 

and location, drainage structures, quarrying, 

time. Although not explicitly an engineering 

retaining walls and river crossings. Harrison points handbook the Forestry Handbook is a common 

out the essential need for a transportation network 

reference book in the libraries of most forest 

regardless of the particular logging system to be 

engineers. 

used. This textbook is one of the first to offer 

rigorous engineering analysis directed at bridge and A Forester's Engineering Handbook was written by 

retaining wall structures typical of forestry 

Eric 1L Huggard, a lecturer in forest engineering at 

operations. This book represents an engineering 

the University College of North Wales, in 1958. 39 It 

version of the type of text written by Schenck or 

covered the familiar topics of surveying, road and 

Bryant. 

bridge design and construction, use of explosives, 

and timber extraction. The United Nations through 

With the exception of the text by Harrison, the 

the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has 

previously mentioned books dealt with forest 

also published a variety of manuals starting with one 

engineering topics in a descriptive fashion, lacking 

that gives a good blend of practical application and 

engineering analysis and synthesis. Filling this void theory, Tractors for Logging. 4° In 1958, the United 

are a number of manuals and handbooks. 

Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) 

and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the 

Logging and forest road construction appeared as 

United Nations formed a joint FAO/ECE Committee 

chapter topics in the Forest Handbook for British 

on Forest Working Techniques and Training of 

Columbia in 1953. 37 The original Handbook was 

Forest Workers. An International Training Course 

primarily written by students at the University of 

on Mechanized Forest Operations was held in 

British Columbia, under the direction of John (Jack) Sweden in 1959, and a lengthy publication of this 

Waiters. Walters was later to become internationally work was published by the U.N. in 1960. 41Topics 

recognized for his work in developing a mechanical included equipment analysis, work-study, 

tree planter and serving as one of the first chairmen transportation systems, road standards, detailed 

of the Forest Machine Committee of the American 

descriptions of logging systems, and even human 

Society of Agricultural Engineers. It is interesting 

physiological requirements related to woods 

that this handbook had two sections devoted to 

operations. Many of the topics, including some of the 

engineering topics. The first, simply titled 

same diagrams, still appear in the current research 

"Engineering," dealt with planning issues such as 

literature. Several additional manuals of interest 

surveying and setting layout. The second section was have been published by FAO. 42 

tiffed "Logging Safely," and consisted of seven pages 

of direct quotations from the new British Columbia 

Safety code, implemented by the Workman's 

38AmericanSocietyofForesters, 

Forbes(NewYork:RonaldPress,1955). 

ForestryHandbook.ed.byIt.D. 

Compensation Board on September1, 1950. This 

39E.R.Huggard, Foresters'EngineeringHandbook(Bangor: 

handbook is cmTently in its fourth edition. 

UniversityCollegeNorthWales,1958). 

40UnitedNations,Tractorsfor Logging(Rome:FAO,1956[FAO 

ForestryDevelopmentPaperno.1]). 

, 41 UnitedNations,ECF./FAOJointCommitteeofForestWorking 

TechniquesandTrainingofForestWorkers(Geneva.1960). 

42 (a)UnitedNations,LoggingandLogTransportinTropical 

36j. L. Hamson,ForestEngineeringRoadsandBridges HighForest(Rome:FAO.1974[FAOForestryDevelopment 

(Edinburgh: OliverandBoyd,1951). 

Papern o 18]).(b)UnitedNations,HarvestingMan-MadeForests 

37j. Waiters, ForestHandbookfor BritishColumbia.1sted. 

inDevelopingCountries(Rome:FAO,1976).(c)UnitedNations, 

(Vancouver:UniversityofBritishColumbia,1953). 

PlanningForestRoadsandHarvestingSystems(Rome:FAO,1977 

239

A short time later, J. Kenneth Pearce of the 

communication network to provide guidance on 

University of Washington published the first of engineering methods, information exchange, 

several versions of the Forest Engineering 

continuing training and awareness of new 

Handbook.43Pearce is a registered civil engineer but developments and technical literature, the Notes 48 

his handbookis written for practitioners whomay are widely distributed and commonly used by the 

not have had formal engineeringtraining. It also 

forest engineering community. 

filled an important gap in the literature because it 

was specificallywritten for use in western North 

It was not until 1972 when J. Kenneth Pearce and 

America where European literature had not gained George Stenzel published Logging and Pulpwood 

wide acceptance. 

Production that a textbook was written in the United 

States as a replacement for the texts of the 1910-40 

During this same period in Canada, Lussier 

era. 49 This text addresses the same familiar topics as 

published a textbookdealingwith the applicationof earlier publishedhandbooks,but with much more 

managementsciencetechniquesto forest 

attention to referencedresearchand some attemptsto 

engineeringproblems.This book has stimulated 

expose basic principlesas well asproblem solutions. 

numerousresearchpapersand remainsan excellent By contrast, Steve Conway'sbooks, Timber Cutting 

source of materialforboth teaching and research.44 Practices 50andLogging Practices 51contain 

detailed descriptions of logging practices, but areof 

Another publicationwhich hasbeen reprintedin 

limited scholasticvalue due to scant referenceto 

several versionsand has servedas source material researchpapersand the absenceof any discussion of 

forseveral texts is the Skyline Tension and 

fundamentalengineeringprinciples. 

Definition Handbook, by HiltonLysons and Charles 

Mann.45The authorspresentedtables andgraphical In 1974, the Woodlands ResearchDivision of the 

techniquesto aid in the designof skylineyarder 

Pulp and PaperResearchInstituteof Canadaand the 

settings. Presentedin 1967, these techniquesbecame Logging DevelopmentProgramof the Canadian 

the standardyarder setting designguide untilthey ForestryServicewere merged to form the Forest 

were replacedby computertechniquesin the early Engineering ResearchInstitute of Canada (FERIC). 

1980s.'z 

With a 1990budgetin excess of seven million 

dollars and a Canadian staff of 84 people, this 

Severaldescriptivemanualsof logging operations cooperative government-industryalliance is the 

were publishedby the U.S. Forest Serviceduringthe largest and mostprolific source of forest engineering 

1970s. NormanSearswas responsibleforinitiating literature. Majoractivity areas areharvesting, 

a continuingseriesof publicationsknownas 

secondary transportation,silviculturaloperationsand 

Engineering Field Notes. 47 While this seriesis 

woodlottechnology.They have staffsupport in the 

intendedas a U.S. Forest Serviceinternal 

areas of designengineering, instnm_entationand 

computers,and libraryfunctions.Their Log Bridge 

Construction Handbook is indicativeof their 

I'FAO For Paper no 21 ]). (d) United Naliom, Assessment of orientation toward the forestry construction 

Logging Costs from Forestlnventories in the Tropics (Rome: 1978 practitioner rather than the design engineer. 52 

[FAO Forestry Papers no 10]). Although it lacks much needed engineering analysis 

43 j. K. Pearce, Forest Engineering Handbook (Department of the 

Interior, Oregonstateomce,1961). 

this manual is an excellent handbook for field design 

44 I., J. Lm_er, Planning and Control of Logging Operations of log stringer bridges. 

(Quebec, Canada: Forest Research Foundation, Universite Laval, 

1961). 

48 United States Forest Service, Engineering Field Notes 

45 42. 43. H. Ly_raa madC. Mann, Skyline Tension and Deflection 

Handbook (W_ D.C.: U.S. C-overnment Printing Office, 

(Washington. D.C.: U.S. Departmental of Agriculture, 1909 + ). 

1967 [I3.8. Forest Service PNW 39]). 49 j. IC Pearce and G. Stenzel. Logging and Pulpwood Production 

(New York: Ronald Press, 1972). 

46 V. W. Binkley and J. Sessions, Chain and Board Handbook for 50 S. Conway, Timber Culling Practices (San Francisco: Miller 

Skyline Tension and Deflection (USDA FS PNW Region, 1979 

[GPO 799.549]). Freeman Publishers, 1968). 

47 (a) Fred C. Simmons, Handbook for Western Timber Harvesting 51 S. Conway, Logging Practices (San Francisco: Miller Freeman 

(n_rtxmudl, Pa: USDA FS NE Area Slate & Private Forestry, 1979). Publishers, 1976). 

(b) Keith L McGouagill, Logging Systems Guide (1978 [USDA FS 52 Michael M. Nag),, J. T. Trebett, C. V. Wellburn, and L F. 

Alaska Region, Div. of Timber Management, Series no. R I0-21]). Crower, LOg Bridge Construction Handbook 1980. (Vancouver, 

(c) Donald D. Studier and Virgil W. Binldey, Cable Logging British Colombia, 1980 [Engineering Research Institute Of Canada 

Systems (Corvallis, Oregon.: O.S.U. Book Stores, Inc., 1975). Handbook no. 3]). 

240

The following two manuals are characteristic of the Silversides from the Canadian Forestry Service also 

vast quantity of published material from a varietyof seem to have grown from the FAO/ECE roots. 5s 

sources. The manual Trucks and Trailers and Their This is the first book to seriously address such things 

Application to Logging Operations by McNally as ergonomics of forest operations, problem analysis, 

represents a good blend of analytical and descriptive energy analysis and the interaction between the 

material. 53The Manual for Roads and stand, the prescription and the machine. 

Transportation, most recently revised by David Measurements and logging systems are confined to 

Holmes in 1978 and brought out in two volumes, is four pages. 

an excellent textbook for students. 54 It employs a 

good blend of numerical analysis with the practical Another step in the development of the forest 

and descriptive. These two manuals and many others engineering literature occurred in late 1989, when 

of similar high quality have been published but are The Journal of Forest Engineering began to be 

not widely distributed, published under the sponsorship of the Forest 

Engineering Department at the University of New 

A number of forest engineering texts and references Brunswick. Representatives of twelve countries sit on 

have been generated by European authors during the the editorial board, so it is clear that an international 

1980s. Ivar Samset from the Norwegian Forest scope is intended. 

Research Institute produced a very complete cable 

logging text written in Norwegian. Fortunately, 

Winch and Cable Systems was translated into CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE 

English in 1985. 55 

The development of the forest engineering discipline 

In 1981, the Skogsarbeten organization in Sweden and its literature has been influenced by Western 

produced three volumes on forest machinery 

society's deep concern for the world's forests and by a 

systems. Unfortunately, the Terrangmaskinen series pragmatic need for wood-based products. It is 

32 was only available in Swedish until 1989, when reasonably clear from the literature however that the 

the first volume was translated into English. 56The discipline has spent the last eighty to 100 years 

excellent diagrams used in these books provide a responding to the change in technology and the 

valuable resource even if the reader does not shifting emphasis on environmental concerns, as 

understand the written text. opposed to building a foundation from which 

tomorrow's new technology and solutions will arise. 

Tree Harvesting Techniques was written by K. A.F. The result is a discipline with a body of literature 

Staaf from the Swedish University of Agriculture at that has never developed a cohesive framework of 

Uppsala and N. A. Wiksten. 57This text appears to information that can serve to increase the awareness 

rely heavily on earlier Swedish works and is clearly a 

of a novice or enhance the analytical and design 

descendent of the FAO/ECE work listed above. The capabilities of advanced students. A perusal of the 

two volumes on Operational Efficiency in Forestry forest engineering literature would lead one to 

edited by U. Sunburg from the Swedish University of conclude that forest engineering design, the area of 

Agricultural Sciences at Farpenberg and C.R. synthesizing new solutions, is not dependent upon 

analysis but rather upon an orally transmitted 

collection of field procedures. 

53 j. A. McNally, Trucks and Trailers and Their Application to 

Logging Operations (Fredericton, New Brunswick: University of The forest engineering profession now faces a 

New Brunswick, Depmtment of Forest Engineering. 1975). serious challenge. Scholars must address the need for 

54 David C. Holmes, Manual for Roads and Transportation, Rev. a literature that will serve to fully describe and 

ed. (Burnaby, British Columbia: British Columbia Institute of 

Technology, 1978). define forest engineering. This new literature must 

not be merely descriptive nor a handbook 

55 I. Sam.set, Winch and Cable Systems (Franslated from 

Norwegian) (Dordrecht Martinus NijhoflYDr. W. Junk Publishe_ presentation of known solutions of limited analytical 

1985). value. This new literature must present a synthesis 

56 (a) C-E. Mahnberg_ Terrangmaslanen (Sleckholm, Sweden: 

Skogsarbeten, 1981). (b) C.E. Malmbcrg, The Off-Road Vehicle. 

(Translation of Terrangmaskinen, vol. 3) (Montreal: Joint Textbook 

Committee of the Paper Industry, 1989). 58 U. Sunburg and C. R. Silversides, eds., OperationalEfficiency in 

57 K. A. G. Slaaf and N. A. Wiksterg Tree Harvesting Techniques Forestry (Dordrecht: Mattinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk Publishers, 

(Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk Publishers, 1984). 1988). 

241

of the dispersedlypublished engin_dng analysis 

that has been directed at forestryproblems, 

Practitioners are also facing serious challenges that 

call for innovative solutions not to be found in the 

handbooks. Low elevation second-growth stands in 

the Pacific Northwestarebeing harvestedandare 

thefocus of intensivemanagementactivity. These 

stands, as comparedto the old-growth stands of 

formeryears,have morehomogeneoustimber 

located on genOerterrain.Roadlocation and logging 

arenot as challengingin this regard.The useof 

computershas greatly reducedoffice engineering 

time, thus a given quantity of designactivity can be 

accomplishedwith fewerengineer hours. Easier 

conditions forroadingand harvestinghave reduced 

the obviousfinancial benefitassociated with careful 

planningand engineeringdesign. 

bodies of knowledge that constituteforest 

engineering. The continued developmentof forest 

engineering should address the technology and 

problems of today and anticipate those of tomorrow. 

It is also the time to examine the profession in a new 

way, not engineering with some forestry, not 

foresterswith some engineering, not even a hybrid 

engineer-forester,but as a distinct profession and 

academicdiscipline. 

If planningand conductingthe roadingand 

harvestingoperationhavebeenmadeeasierby the 

terrainand technology,in at leasttwo aspects it has 

become, and will become, much moredifficult. First, 

thelarge and highly valuablelogs of the old-growth 

foresthave beenreplacedwith smalldiameter lower 

valuelogs. This change in log size andvalue has 

madelog handlingcriticalto the profitabilityof a 

logging enterprise.The homogeneousnature ofthe 

timberresourcebetterlends itself to mechanized 

harvestingand handlingoperationsthan did the oldgrowth 

timber.Su_ mechanizedlogging 

operationsarehighly engineeredsystems. Second, 

increasedrecognitionand legislationforthe 

protectionof the publicresourcesof air, water,fish 

and wildlife haveplacedmajorconstraintson timber 

harvestingand other forest managementactivities. 

The resourcesbelongingto societyat,large cannotbe 

dismissed as illegitimateorephemeralconcerns. It is 

herethatthe forestengineercan makea substantial 

contributionto the forestryindustryand to society. 

The engineering design of forestroads,harvest 

systems, or otherforest managementoperations is 

the key tothe integrationof the manyconstraints 

currentlyplacedon forestmanagementand 

utilization.To the extent thatengineering skills and 

accountabilitycancontributeto the identification 

and implementationof environmentallyacceptable, 

ecologicallydesirable,and financiallyattractive 

managementand harvestingactivities,forest 

engineersmustbe involved. 

The futureof the professiondependson practicing 

forestengineers and educational institutions 

cooperatingto redefinethe areasof technologyor 

242

THE GENESIS OF COFE: 

A related problem was that many of the advanced 

A POPULIST RESPONSE TO A harvesting systems being employed required special 

PROFESSIONAL NEED' attention to transportation. Road systems and 

harvesting systems had to be planned together to be 

by 

effective. This necessitated a lot of communication 

between the civil engineers responsible for road design 

George W. Brown and construction and the "forest engineers" designated 


to layout harvest units. Often, there was neither a 


common vocabulary for communication nor an 

appreciation of the design requirements that dictated 

road location or harvest unit configuration. 

ABSTRACT: The Council On Forest Engineering 

(COFE) began at a small conference at Oregon State 

At the universities, forest engineering curricula were 

University in 1978 and grew into the principal expanding to meet the new demands of industry and 

professional organization for forest engineers in North agencies. Forest engineering faculty were in high 

America. It is a history of excellent technical demand; there were almost no Ph.Ds available with 

communication, professional networking, and many both engineering expertise and the field experience 

contributions to forestry, necessary to translate theory to practice. There was a 

great need for the faculties from the several university 

Key Words: forest engineering, professional society forest engineering programs to share information, 

lesson plans and experiences and to standardize, at 

least regionally, the structure and content of forest 

The 1970's may well be described as the "Golden Age" engineering curricula. 

of forest engineering. There was rapid development of 

timber harvesting and road construction technology. 

During this decade, universities were also beginning to 

New forest engineering curricula and departments were establish programs in forest engineering or timber 

being started in universities in Canada and the United 

harvesting extension. Like their colleagues responsible 

States. There was a great deal of creative innovation in for resident instruction, forest engineering extension 

equipment development within the forest industry and specialists found themselves swamped with demand for 

by equipment manufacturers in North America and 

programs but with few materials to support county 

Europe, especially Scandinavia. Timber was actually 

extension staff. And like others in the forest 

being harvested on federal lands in the United States. 

engineering profession, there was no good forum for 

In the West, much of this timber was being harvested 

them to share information or discuss opportunities for 

with skylines, helicopters and balloons, 

cooperation. 

The forest engineering profession was likewise 

Two professional societies, the Society of American 

growing. Universities were beginning to graduate Foresters (SAF) and the American Society of 

larger numbers of students from forest engineering 

Agricultural Engineers (ASAE), both had (and still 

programs. In federal agencies, at least in the United 

have) working groups or sections on forest engineering. 

States, administrators were scrambling to fill specialist However, these groups met only at the national 

positions in forest engineering to assist in the layout of conventions of the parent organization and then only for 

advanced harvesting systems. It seemed that no district a few hours. Unless forest engineers had some interest 

could do without at least one complex skyline sale and in the full convention program, it was difficult to justify 

one helicopter sale. 

the time and expense of travel to the convention for a 

two-hour section meeting. 

The problem was that there were not enough trained 

forest engineers to go around. Agencies took the It was in this environment of expanding demand for 

initiative, simply designating people as "forest 

forest engineers, expanding need for technological 

engineers" even though they hadno technical expertise development, and a critical need for professional 

in any engineering discipline, 

communication that the Council on Forest Engineering 

(COFE) was born. 

Like many auspicious developments, COFE was 

'Presentedattl_jointmeeting ofth© Council On 

andInternational Unionof ForestResearchOrganizations 

ForestEngineering 

Subject 

triggered by a very inauspicious incident. In the 

GroupS3.04-00,Marquee,MI,July29-August1,1996. 

autumn of 1977, the Society of American Foresters 

243

held its annual convention in Albuquerque, New will we meet next year" or "shouldn't we have a more 

Mexico. Conor Boyd, then program manager for forest formal process to get us together regularly." 

engineering research at Weyerhaeuser, and I were 

invited to give technical papers summarizing recent The closing session was critical. The goal was to 

forest engineering developments in industry and determine if there was sufficient interest in forming 

tmiversities at the SAF Forest Engineering Working some kind of organization for forest engineers and, if 

Group meeting. Three people attended that meeting-- so, how such an organization would function and be 

the Working Group chair, Conor and me. In disgust, structured. Everyone quickly agreed that an 

Conor and I adjourned to a good restaurant for beer and 

Mexican food. 

organization was necessary, but that we needed to start 

with something informal and allow very open 

participation. 

Conor and I agreed that something must be done to 

provide a forum for forest engineers in industry, This led to a discussion about by-laws and Ross 

government and universities to come together annually Silversides, our senior statesman, agreed to help trait 

to share information and to develop stronger 

the fu'st draft. We decided to meet in different locations 

professional networks. Neither of us knew what type of each year, with the host organization providing the 

organization would meet those needs best, but decided logistical support (on a break-even basis), calling for 

to start by bringing together a cross-section of forest papers and organizing the meetings and field trips. We 

engineers from industry, government and universities in decided not to have a formal dues structure initially, but 

the United States and Canada to see what was possible, to reconsider that need as the organization grew. We 

I agreed to help organize such a meeting and to host it agreed on a name. 

at Oregon State University. Conor agreed to cosponsor 

the meeting and to help with organization and Having resolved these general issues, the final question 

finances, 

tested the commitment of the attendees to actually 

beginning the Council on Forest Engineering. As 

Upon returning to Oregon State, I described the 

closing session chair, I asked "Who will host and 

proposal to the Forest Engineering Department faculty organize the next meeting in 1979"? After a long 

and they enthusiastically embraced the idea. We period of silence, Tom Walbridge volunteered to host 

organized a program with general sessions on 

the 1979 meeting at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and 

overviews of forest engineering research, teaching and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia. And, as they 

extension. We also had concurrent "break-out" say, "therest is history". At the end of the meeting at 

sessions on these topics for attendees to work in small VPI, three organizations volunteered as hosts and 

groups and discuss trends and needs. We planned 

COFE was offat full speed. 

some field trips to exhibit some of the advanced 

harvesting systems being used in Oregon. We also 

l.x_oking back at the origins of COFE, it seems to me 

planned a wrap-up session that would focus on 

that several key factors contributed to the establishment 

establishing some kind of organization to facilitate and immediate success of the organization. First, there 

continued professional development opportunities for was a clear and immediate need for such an 

forest engineers. Finally, we put together an invitation organization. Timing, as they say, is everything and 

list of those most actively involved in forest 

clearly the time was right; no other organization came 

engineering. It was a relatively small group, no more close to providing the opportunities for professional 

than 30, to insure manageable dialog, 

interchange and growth that COFE affords its 

participants. 

Once the invitations were sent, the word quickly spread 

among forest engineers. We decided to take all comers Second, and clearly most important, a group of highly 

and the attendance grew to 60. 

motivated, committed people came together to make 

something happen. These were people used to taking 

The four day conference (August 8-11, 1978) exceeded responsibility and assuming leadership roles. Finding 

our expectations. The discussions during the meetings, people to host meetings, chair committees, and give 

breaks and field trips reflected an enthusiasm that 

clearly justified our prediction of a need for 

presentations has never been a problem. 

communication that was not being met by either SAF Third, there was a wealth of knowledge and experience 

or ASAE. People began talking almost immediately to be shared. One of the most important aspects of 

about "how do we keep this momentum going", "where COFE has been, right from the start, that forest 

engineers from industry, government and universities 

244

participated equally in the meetings. This was not just 

a forum for forest engineers working in research to give 

scientific papers. Forest engineers working in the field 

came forward to share their knowledge, experiences 

and frustrations in ways that provided the basis for 

great discussions about needs for new information or 

educational programs. 

Finally, the traditional culture of forest engineering is 

one of getting things done. Or as one of my favorite 

forest engineers is fond of saying "lead, follow or get 

the hell out of the way!" We didn't get bogged down in 

a lot of formality or bureaucracy. The by-laws that 

Ross Silversides and his committee crafted are a 

marvel of simplicity. We spent as much time in the 

field as in meetings. We kept costs low so lots of 

people could participate. In short, we "just did it." 

It is clear that the idea behind COFE was a good one. 

After almost 20 years, the organization not only still 

exists but it has grown and prospered in those two 

decades. Many of those who attended that first meeting 

in 1978 are still providing leadership to our profession 

and are still actively participating in COFE. 

Membership is around 400; about 80 percent of the 

members are from the United States, 15 percent from 

Canada and 5 percent from countries overseas. There 

are active regional COFE organizations in the 

northeastern and southern United States. From a very 

modest beginning, COFE has emerged as an 

organization that now represents the core of the forest 

engineering profession. And that is a legacy to be 

proud off 

245

INTEGRATED FOREST MANAGEMENT Although the repetition of an opmion does not 

SYSTEM (IFMS) DESIGNS FOR NORTH necessarily make it true, there is considerable evidence 

AMERICAN FOREST PRODUCT COMPANIES 1 that forest managers truly are faced with an increasingly 

complex decision environment. In the ease of large, 

by 

integrated forest products companies, the decisions are 

usually made by management teams. These teams are 

E.W. Ted Robak charged with developing and implementing a "system" 

University of New Bnmswiek 

of strategic, tactical and operational plans that have 

Frederieton, New Brunswick, Canada 

multiple objectives, require varying levels of detail, are 

the responsibility of several levels of management and 

span a range of time horizons and spatial resolutions. 

ABSTRACT: The principles of hierarchical forest Where it is recognized that all of these plans must be 

management planning and integrated forest 

linked in a rational and explicit manner, the entire 

management system (IFMS) design have been applied system could be referred to as an "integrated" forest 

to the problems faced by a forestry organization 

management plan. 

responsible for tropical forest plantation management 

in Thailand. Although integrated forest management is All integrated forest management plans are likely to 

at least as important an issue for the managers of the 

include strategic, tactical and operational elements, but 

extensive natural forests of the northern United States the specific decision environments in which they are 

and Canada, the nature of the problem environment is formulated should dictate the design of the overall 

significantly different. In order to address the decision- system of plans and its elements. Although there are 

making needs of those who are responsible for the long, implications for companies in other regions, this paper 

medium and short-term forest management of 

will primarily refer to the situation that confronts forest 

integrated forest product companies in this region, 

products companies operating on public lands in 

design modifications will be required and additional 

eastern Canada. 

tools and techniques may have to be incorporated. This 

paper proposes an integrated decision-making process 

for such companies and presents an FMS design which DECISION ENVIRONMENT 

is primarily based upon available technologies. 

Most large, integrated forest products companies that 

Key Words: integrated forest management, operate in eastern Canada have acquired rights to 

hierarchical production planning, decision support 

extract the timber from specific crown forests for a 

systems 

period of time in exchange for fees and the 

responsibility to manage those forests. The forests are 

usually extensive (often several hundred thousand 

INTRODUCTION 

hectares) and complex (containing tens or hundreds of 

thousands of stands composed of varying species mixes 

"Traditional forestry research ... is not keeping pace and age classes). Although forest resources are a 

with the growing complexity and problems to be faced provincial jurisdiction and forest management 

now and in the future" (Buekman, 1990). 

agreements vary by province, in general the agreements 

require that the forests be managed sustainably for 

"Because of the complexity of forestry systems, fore- 

timber and non-timber values (including the protection 

seeing the likely consequences of a particular decision of water quality, wildlife and environmentally sensitive 

is not an easy task" (Buongiomo and CJilless, 1986). areas). In most cases, there is the understanding 

(implicit or explicit) that, if the forests are properly 

"Resource management issues are becoming 

managed, the management agreement will be extended 

increasingly complex" (Kiil, 1989). after every review period. For example, the 

management agreement may be for a 25 year duration, 

"The management of forest and agricultural lands and with a review every five years. If, after the fast review 

their associated resources is becoming more complex" period, it is found that a company has undertaken 

(Lurid, 1991). 

proper forest management, the agreement will be 

extended by five years, bringing the total duration back 

t PresentedatthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering 

up to 25 years. On the other hand, a failing grade in the 

and International Unima of Forest Researda Organizations Subject 

review will mean that the agreement will not be 

Group$3.04-00,Marquee,MI,July29-August1,1996 

extended and so will only have 20 years to run. 

246

Although it might seem that this would only be a minor GENERAL PLANNING PROCESS 

inconvenience for a company (after all, there would still 

be twenty years left in the agreement), the implications If we were to envisage a truly integrated forest 

are actually quite serious. Such companies carry these management planning process for the above-mentioned 

agreements as major assets on their balance sheets, situation that encompasses both government 

The failure to renew an agreement would, in fact, requirements and company needs, it might include the 

represent a significant reduction in the value of their 

following procedures: 

assets. Furthermore, it is quite likely that a flagrant 

failure to manage these forests might be used by a 1) The development of a long term (one or more 

government as a reason to cancel the entire agreement, 

rotations) forest-wide plan for sustainable 

wood supply (and the sustainability of other 

At the same time, a company must manage all of its resources). Since these forests are ordinarily 

resources to make a profit and obtain an adequate 

quite extensive and structurally complex, this 

return on investment for its shareholders. Therefore a harvest schedule must normally be aspatial 

company's woodlands division must also demonstrate and some degree of aggregation is required. 

that it can satisfy the requirements of the company's 

wood processing plants at a reasonable cost, make a 2) The development of a medium to long-term 

profit on products supplied to external markets and 

(twenty to thirty year) plan that addresses 

obtain an adequate return on its own capital 

issues relating to a) an implementable timber 

investments. In the longer term (perhaps twenty-five supply that coincides with the life of major 

years) it must show that it can meet its forecasted mills' investments (such as processing plants and 

requirements from its forests (and wood purchases) and 

road networks) and b) landscape, watershed 

indicate what long-term investments (such as major and wildlife management concerns. In this 

roads) will be required. Looking at shorter time case, some level of spatial referencing and 

frames, woodlands managers must produce multi-year disaggregation is required. Since natural 

operating and capital investment plans that satisfy more 

forests are composed of stands of various 

certain mill requirements and maximize profits and sizes and shapes that do not always coincide 

returns. Finally, woodlands must produce very detailed with operational requirements, there must be 

annual operating schedules and budgets, 

a method of blocking that puts together stands 

(or parts of stands) into decision units and 

Although it would appear obvious that the two main 

schedules these with the timber supply and 

purposes for planning (to satisfy management 

landscape management objectives in mind. 

agreement requirements and to maximize returns for 

shareholders) should be equally important to industrial 3) The development of a multi-year (five to ten 

forest managers, at least one study has suggested that 

year) plan to supply specific markets with 

this is not the case. Based upon a survey of major 

specific products from specific blocks in order 

Canadian forest products companies, MacDonald 

to achieve profit (or cost) objectives. 

(1991) surmised that their planning processes seemed Important decisions to be made atthis level 

primarily designed to satisfy the requirements of forest include those concerning system acquisition, 

management agreements. He also found that, although allocation and scheduling, as well as detailed 

managers recognized the need to link planning 

access road network development. 

processes over all time frames and organizational 

levels, such integrated planning was generally not 4) Finally, a detailed annual operating plan and 

being done. When queried about this, respondents 

budget must be produced for road 

seemed to indicate that institutional barriers and 

construction, harvesting, stand establishment 

managerial inertia were the major reasons, 

and hauling operations (as well as support 

functions). This includes an operating 

MacDonald's report is not the only one that suggests schedule which ensures that the plan is 

that modem forest product companies everywhere suffer implementable and that periodic (weekly or 

from the lack of well-developed integrated analysisand 

monthly) mill delivery targets canbe met. 

planning capabilities. For example, Kent et al (1988) 

reported thatthe "link between operational feasibility and Each planning level has distinct sets of major and 

forest plans is tenuous" and etmcluded that the "necessary minor decisions that must be made with respect to 

linkages between differentlevels ofplarming must be 

problem modelling and solution evaluation. At the 

developed", same time, relationships between decision sets must be 

247

established. The following is a description of the major appropriate integrated forest management planning 

modelling decisions that must be made at each planning decisions, managers could benefit from the availability 

level: 

of models and decision support tools, especially if the 

tools were themselves well integrated. This might 

Long-term, forest-wide planning - Planners must 

suggest that it would be beneficial to develop the 

decide on the objectives of the strategic plan, the integrated plan by using one large model. However, it 

explicit constraints that must be applied, the is difficult to see how this could be accomplished 

constitution of the "operable" forest, the data types 

within a single model since: 

and structures that will be employed (especially as 

they relate to forest stratification and the modelling of 

the decision makers and the objectives at each 

forest dynamics), the interventions that maybe 

level may differ significantly; 

employed, and the operability and action time flames 

that are most appropriate for their situation. - each level of planning differs in terms of time 

males, types of decisions and kinds of 

Block creation and scheduling - At this level, 

information upon which to base decisions; 

planners must choose the specific landscape 

management, operability and market constraints to - the data used at each level differs in terms of 

be followed, the outputs to be tracked and the stand 

detail, accuracy, and degree of aggregation 

aggregation and timing rules to be employed. Since and spatial referencing. 

the creation and scheduling of blocks may reduce the 

achievement of strategic objectives, they must also 

Support for the idea that a series of distinct (but linked) 

decide on the degree of incongruity between plans at models are preferable in such a situation is found in 

these two levels that can be accepted without hierarchical production planning literature. 

requiring that the entire planning process be started 

again. 

HIERARCHICAL PLANNING 

Tactical/operational planning - Since most landscape 

management objectives and constraints should have Integrated forest management planning can be 

been addressed at the block creation and scheduling described as a hierarchical production planning 

level, the tactical/operational plan can focus on 

problem since all decision-making levels are involved 

issues concerning profitability, return on investment and the goals of the process are related to the 

and the fulfillment of foreseeable market demands, 

production of goods, services and values (eg. timber, 

As such, planners must choose the objectives, wildlife habitat, recreational opportunities). According 

constraints and operating variables that would form to Hax and Candea (1984), a hierarchical approach is 

the basis of an optimum multi-year operating plan. necessary to integrate the strategic, tactical and 

The decision to maximize profits rather than operational components of a complex production 

minimize costs, for instance, will change the system since it "recognizes the distinct characteristics 

structure of the modelling process and the outputs 

of the type of management participation, the scope of 

that will be tracked and constrained. In choosing the the decision, the level of aggregation of the required 

possible operating systems that should be modelled, information, and the time framework in which the 

planners must decide whether the additional benefit decision is to be made". In their opinion, attempting 

of adding more alternatives is worth the extra data "to deal with all these decisions simultaneously, via a 

gathering effort and increased model size. single monolithic system or model" would be "a 

serious mistake" since it would not meet the needs of 

Annual operational scheduling and budgeting - At 

each management level and would prevent interactions 

this final, major planning level, decisions regarding 

between the levels. 

the degree of scheduling and budgeting detail and 

measures of plan acceptability must be decided. Are Although there is some evidence that single models can 

monthly (as opposed to weekly) delivery schedules be used to integrate some parts of the forest 

adequate? What outputs of the plan will be used to management planning process (Nitaya, 1996), it would 

decide that a budget is unacceptable or that the risk 

be wrong to try to address the entire problem in this 

of"unimplementability" is too high? way. When describing the general nature of the 

decision support tools that would be needed to address 

Given the amount and complexity of data manipulation the hierarchical production problem, Hax and Candea 

and analysis that is required in order to make 

suggest that an integrated approach is necessary to 

248

avoid suboptimization, but that the problem must be 

integrated forest management systems. Although the 

decomposed and these decomposed subproblems must descriptions of the projects were not extensive (or 

be addressed at the appropriate organizational level 

entirely correct), his report does provide an overview 

before an overall solution can be found. As Vollman et of the approaches being taken. One of these projects, 

al. (1984) state, hierarchical production planning is 

described in a IUFRO paper by Jamnick and Robak 

based upon the premise that product aggregations 

(1992) forms the basis of the design that will be 

should be matched to decision-making levels, presented here. However, before proposing an IFMS 

design that could be used by Canadian forest products 

Hierarchical planning proponents also suggest that an companies, I will first briefly describe an integrated 

iterative approach is necessary: once the overall management system developed for an organization in 

problem is decomposed, the subproblems earl be Thailand. 

solved, but these solutions must be linked and 

constrained by one another (Bitran and Hax, 1977). In The Integrated Plantation Management System (IPMS) 

the words of Hax and Candea, "decisions made at for the Forest Industry Organization of Thailand (FIO) 

higher levels provide constraints for lower level 

has been previously described more fully in Robak 

decision-making: in turn, detailed decisions provide the (1992) and Robak (1995). What I would like to focus 

feedback to evaluate the quality of aggregate decision- on here is the management environment in which it 

making". It should not be forgotten, as well, that many works, and to show how a distinctly different decision 

of these linkages must be made between different sets environment has resulted in significant design 

of decision-makers at the same level of the planning differences. 

hierarchy. An example of this in forest management 

planning might be where operational planners and FIO is a state corporation responsible for the 

wildlife managers must work together to ensure that management of 133 forest plantations located 

blocking patterns are both operationally feasible and throughout Thailand. Teak (Tectona grandis) isthe 

biologically acceptable, 

primary species grown in the Northern Division 

plantations, while Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus eamaldulensis, 

Given that each of the subproblems has its own set of primarily for pulp) and Para (Hevea brasiliensis, for latex 

goals and constraints, and that the solution of one 

midtimber production) are predominant in plantations in 

subproblem will constrain others, it is necessary to be the Northeastand Southernregions restx_tively. 

able to conduct trade-off analyses between solution 

sets. In a large, integrated forest management plan, it is Each forest plantation is administered by a separate 

not enough to simply pass down constraints to lower 

management structure and both the plantation and the 

levels of planning: it is also necessary to studythe 

organization that work on it are referred to as a 

effects of each plan on the others in the hierarchy and, "Plantation Unit". Each Plantation Unit usually 

where necessary, make decisions concerning the consists of twenty to thirty blocks of approximately 160 

achievement of each plan's goals relative to the hectares of forest plantation. Each of these blocks 

achievement of others. A good example of trade-off usually represents a single species planted in a 

analysis between planning levels is provided by Nitaya particular year on a contiguous piece of land. 

(1996), who studied the relationships between long- Management personnel know these blocks very well 

term harvest scheduling and short-term wood and, although there is some movement of the 

procurement, 

management personnel between plantation units, the 

management structure is generally quite stable. For 

The purpose of this paper is to propose a design for a 

this reason, and because all plantations are mapped 

decision support system (or system of systems), based (manually) and there is no real need for GIS 

upon hierarchical planning principles, that could be technology. 

used to enhance integrated forest management 

processes. 

Plantationsunits are administeredby one of the three 

regional divisions of FIO. Many of the operational 

PREVIOUS DESIGNS policies are set at that level, and the divisions monitor 

operating budgets and results very closely. However, 

There have been previous endeavours aimed at the operational planning is primarily undertaken at the 

producing IFMS designs for the Canadian decision 

Plantation Unit level. 

environment. MacDonald, in his 1991 report, 

described several systems that were at various stages of Strategic planning, on the other hand, is principally 

development at that time and that purported to be carried out at the corporate level, with some input from 

249

the divisions. The strategic forest management managers' knowledge of the land is considered 

planning is essentially concerned with harvest 

adequate. 

scheduling and plantation investment. 

Although the IPMS is quite adequate for FIO's current 

An interesting characteristic of FIO's decision needs, it is apparent that the design of their system 

environment is that there does not appear to be a great would be inadequate for the Canadian decision 

need, at this time, for tactical-level forest planning, environment. The main deficiencies of the IPMS in 

Given the relatively small number of blocks (fewer than this regard are that: 

four thousand), harvest scheduling can be block 

specific: no stratification is required. As well, since the 1) There are no strategic/tactical level tools 

plantations are only now beginning to produce a small which would facilitate the creation of blocks 

amount of timber, the optimum allocation of this supply 

and their scheduling over some intermediate 

is not considered an important problem. Therefore, time period. In other words, the IPMS 

once the strategic forest development plan has been 

ignores the need for spatial disaggregation 

completed, it can be fed directly into the operational that must be undertaken when working with 

planning process where the managers are able to check 

extensive natural forests, and the spatial 

the validity of the strategic plan and provide feedback 

constraints that modem landscape 

directly to the corporate planning office, 

management requires. 

At this time, most major decisions regarding plantation 2) There are no tactical/operational level tools 

management are either made at the Plantation Unit which would be needed for multi-year 

level (with respect to short-term planning and day-to- operations planning. The operations 

day management), or atthe corporate level (strategic managers of an integrated forest products 

planning, policy development and investment analysis), 

company in Canada might be required to 

Regional-level decisions are either not complex enough design operations that entail several 

to warrant the use of more elegant software, or can be 

harvesting systems producing many products 

handled by the strategic level software since it is 

from many blocks in order to satisfy the 

possible to use it to undertake regional level strategic requirements of several mills and external 

planning, markets. At the same time, these operations 

must satisfy the constraints and objectives set 

It is unlikely that this process will be considered by the strategic and tactical level plans. This 

acceptable once the plantations begin producing more is a complex decision process that impacts 

products and it becomes necessary to efficiently directly on the profitability of an organization 

allocate products to the markets on a regional basis. In and the viability of the strategic and tactical 

fact, it is quite likely that the divisions will insist upon 

plans. 

some intermediate level intervention as soon as they 

realize that the new strategic/operational planning If we look at Jamnick and Robak's (1992) paper, it 

process has usurped much of their own traditional 

must be recognized that the multi-year planning needs 

decision-making authority. At such a time, it is likely of Canadian forest products companies are not well 

that tactical-level tools will be required for multi-year 

addressed by the IFMS design presented there. 

resource allocation and investment planning. Although OP-PLAN can be used in a multi-year mode, 

it is cumbersome when confronted with a large number 

In any ease, the current decision environment has of blocks and complex mill requirements. The 

resulted in an integrated system that focuses on 

following design takes that flaw into account, as well as 

decision processes related to long-term planning and 

addresses some other issues that were not well 

operational planning (along with some medium-term 

addressed in the 1992 design. 

planning related to capital budgeting). As described in 

Robak (1995), besides the forest inventory system 

(FIS), the major models required are PIPM (a harvest PROPOSED DESIGN 

scheduler), 0P-PLAN (for operational planning and 

budgeting) and CTS (for operations monitoring). GIS Building and expanding on that previous design, the 

technology is unnecessary since most spatially-oriented following are the primary elements of an IFMS that 

decision-making is currently undertaken at the should address the primary forest management 

Plantation Unit level where hand-drawn maps and 

planning needs of companies that must work the 

Canadian decision environment (Figure 1): 

250

Forest 

that would be used to analyze trade-offs 

I 

between objectives at the strategic level or 

[ Strata.Based between objectives at the strategic level and 

Inventory Sch_e for an application of this technique and 

GISI 

__ 

ltm'v I t_t lower As well, levels although of planning the models (see Nitaya, used may 1996, be 

Block Creation 

primarily aspatial, they should be able to 

I 

reference to other literature on this subject). 

handle some spatial referencing. In other 

., j . primarilyfocusonaggregatedand aspatial 

" "1 Block Scheduling information, it may also require that some 

I 

Mulli-Year 

words, community-level although the employment strategic level stability, may for 

parameters 

example) may 

(related 

need 

to 

to 

wildlife 

be constrained. 

habitat or 

Operational Planning Furthermore, it should be possible to easily 

various yield curves "on the fly" in order to 

I 

restratify facilitate sensitivity the forest and anddevelop trade-off(or analyses. modify) 

/_aufl 

Such restratifieation may be based upon 

Operalional Planning 

spatial or aspatial economic, biological or 

social parameters. For example, some stands 

that might theoretically provide habitat may 

Figure 1: Overview of the Integrated Forest not be large enough or may be too close or too 

Management Planning System 

far from important landform features such as 

inhabited areas or water-ways. In other 

situations, revenue and cost curves may be 

1) Strategic Planning - The strategic plan should derived from current cost information 

describe the timing and nature of all actions 

(implying linkages to operational monitoring 

(interventions) that must be undertaken on systems) or lower levels of planning (implying 

specific forest types in order to achieve the 

that these curves will be developed after one 

strategic objective(s) of the organization, 

iteration of the planning process) and the 

while respecting constraints set by the 

result may be that some stands will be 

government or the company's own policies, 

removed from the analysis for economic 

Besides ensuring the sustainability of timber 

reasons. 

resources, the "harvest sehedulinge' process 

should be able to address other values and 2) Block creation is the process of aggregating 

concerns, primarily those related to long-term 

stands into units that can be considered to 

ecosystem management, economic objectives 

have similar or compatible characteristics 

and community stability. In other words, the 

with respect to operational and silvicultural 

long-term planning process should be able to 

criteria. As well, of course, the aggregation 

plan for and document the environmental, 

process should ensure (as much as is 

economic and social mistainability called for 

possible) that all stands in a block should be 

by the "green certification" programs that are 

eligible for the same interventions in the same 

currently being established by various 

time periods (as prescribed in the strategic 

national and international bodies. As such, 

plan). However, the process should allow for 

the tools that are used for strategic planning 

some discretion regarding how much 

should be able to identify trade-offs among 

flexibility will be allowed in the block 

objectives in a multi-objective decision 

creation rules and the results of the process 

environment. Multiple criteria decision should be able to be easily compared to the 

making (MCDM) optimization techniques 

results of the strategic plan. If the strategic 

should probably be employed in order to 

plan is very stringently followed, the blocks 

generate feasible, non-inferior alternatives 

that are created may make it difficult to or 

251

impossible to develop an acceptable though linked process. The block scheduling 

operational level plan. On the other hand, two tool described in Jamnick and Robak (1992) 

much flexibility in the rules will result in too used a Monte-Carlo simulation approach, but 

great a deviation from the strategic plan, the availability of more powerful computers 

thereby resulting in a decrease in the achieve- and mixed integer programming solvers may 

ment of the strategic objective(s) or the de- mean that optimization could now be applied 

coupling of the strategic plan from lower 

to the problem. 

levels (tactical and operational) ofplarming. 

4) Once the block scheduling process has been 

Two stand creation tools that have been 

carried out, it is necessary to produce 

developed are described in Baskent and operating plans that use the blocks from the 

Jordan (1991) and Waiters (1991). Although first fewyears of this schedule. Such 

the approaches and usage contexts of each of operating plans must be implementable, must 

these tools differs somewhat, their goals are normally fulfill mill requirements (from short 

similar: to produce blocks from stands in and medium-term market forecasts), and must 

order to tie the strategic and operational 

do so with the objective of maximizing profits 

planning levels together. Neither of these for the organization. Multi-year operational 

tools is completely satisfactory, however. The planning (or tactical/operational planning) 

ability to include operational and landscape 

was not properly addressed in the IFMS demanagement 

constraints could be 

sign described by Jamnick and Robak. At this 

strengthened. As well, to my knowledge, level of planning, it is necessary to choose: 

neither of these tools is able to incorporate 

partial stands in blocks without direct human - what harvesting systems should be used 

intervention (an onerous task, given the huge in which blocks in which seasons of 

number of stands that must be considered ) . 

which years, given that different systems 

Blocks that follow stand boundaries exactly 

have different costs, production 

may not be operationally feasible or may be 

capabilities, silvicultural and road 

unacceptable for landscape management requirements; 

reasons (such as those related to wildlife - what products should be produced in 

habitat or visual impact maintenance). The which blocks and transported by which 

ability to modify stand boundaries 

transportation systems to whieh mills or 

(automatically or through facilitated human 

buyers; 

intervention) would be an important - what equipment should be purchased or 

improvement to the IFMS design described in 

contracted in which years; 

Jamniek andRobak (1992). - where should tertiary, secondary and 

main roads be built in which years; 

3) The scheduling of blocks ensures that - what silvicultural activities should be 

landscape management, operational and 

undertaken in which blocks in which 

market demand issues are spatially addressed 

years. 

in the medium term, or at the strategic/tactical 

level of planning. Specific issues that must be Such a multi-year planning tool would obtain 

dealt with include wildlife habitat 

the first period blocks from the block 

requirements (location and size of contiguous scheduler (through the GIS). The (}IS should 

habitat, migration corridors), aesthetics, and 

also be used to help to produce road location 

the location of operations over time (for and block -to-mill distances. Another paper 

infrastructure and community stability at this conference (Obom, 1996) describes 

reasons). At the same time, blocking the Tactical Operational Planning Model 

schedules must be related to the strategic plan which has been designed to produce optimum 

to ensure that they adhere to the strategic multi-year operational plans. It should be 

objectives. Although some of these recognized that the plan that results from the 

requirements might be met (initially) at the 

use of TOPM must be fed back to higher 

block creation level, it is quite likely that the 

levels of planning to ensure that strategic and 

large number of blocks that are created and 

strategic/tactical objectives are still met (and 

spatial constraints that must be satisfied will 

to validate the assumptions of the higher level 

requirethatblockscheduling be a separate, 

plans).Furthermore, theresults oftheplan 

252

should be modeled by the GIS so that 

much should we give up in terms of sustainable longmanagers 

can visually verify the feasibility of term harvest levels in order to increase profits over the 

the plan (and adherence to near-term 

short term?". 

landscape management objectives). 

The application of an iterative approach and trade-off 

5) Since the optimum multi-year plan includes analyses are necessary because the objectives are 

most of the decisions related to the annual 

different at the planning levels, but also because the 

planning, the annual operational planning decision-makers at various planning levels are usually 

process can concentrate on very short term 

themselves different managers from different levels of 

scheduling, implementation, and budgeting organizational hierarchy. Therefore, an iterative 

issues. The OP-PLAN model (Robak, 1989) approach and trade-off analyses are used to support the 

has many of these capabilities, but it should 

negotiations that must be undertaken before an 

be improved by: 

acceptable and implementable integrated plan earlbe 

produced. 

linking it to the multi-year planning tool 

so that the data does not need to be reentered; 

IFMSSUPPORT 

- improving its scheduling algorithms so 

that managers can more quickly develop In order to support the above-mentioned models and 

feasible harvesting and mill delivery 

approaches, it will be necessary to have a wellschedules; 

integrated GIS andforest inventorysystem 

- linking it to GIS so that plan incorporated in the IFMS design. 

implementability can be more easily 

verified. 

The forest inventorysystem should include data that 

describes the forest according to criteria related to the 

The IFMS proposed for the problem environment requirements of all planning levels: stand dynamics, 

described is more than a set of tools: it includes the habitat suitability, operability, wood product 

procedures and processes that ensure that the best characteristics, other forest values and so on. The 

possible decisions are made. Two related concepts, inventory database should be a multi-layered system 

iteration and trade-off analysis, should be applied to that includes information from photo-interpreted data, 

ensure the formulation of well-integrated, robust plans, permanent sample plots andoperational cruises, with 

information from each level updating and verifying the 

An iterative approach is necessary for understanding information at other levels. Permanent sample plot 

the complex forest management planning problem (and information should be used to regularly validate and 

the inherent relationships among its component plans) improve yield curves. Furthermore, scaling information 

and for generating alternative solutions that satisfy should be linked to the inventory system in such a way 

objectives and constraints at all levels. This requires that the data it contains regarding product yields will be 

that managers undertake sensitivity analyses of the 

automatically (or semi-automatically) updated and 

impacts of decisions at one planning level on all the improved over time. The structure of the databases 

others. Stratification strategies at the strategic planning should be flexible enough to support restratification of 

level, for example, may constrain tactical and 

the forest and spatial modelling requirements on an asoperational 

plans in a way that could not be foreseen at needed basis. 

the initial stage. Similarly, basic assumptions used at 

an upper planning level (regarding costs, for instance), The linkages between the GIS and the tools used at the 

may be found to be false once lower level plans are 

various planning levels will need to be very strong 

developed, and this information should be fed back up since: 

to be used as the basis of new upper-level planning. 

- the GIS would be the repository or 

Trade-off analyses, which assume an iterative "coordinator" of all physical data that is 

approach, are used to produce best compromise required by those tools; 

solutions when multiple, competing goals must be - the GIS would be used to generate much of 

satisfied. Since the performance measures for these the secondary data (distances, overlays, 

conflicting goals are not always compatible, an optimal 

spatial relationships) required by models; 

solution cannot always be found. For example, an - managers would want to view the results of 

organization must have to decide questions like "How any plan on a map to verify implementability 

253

and to help them generate new modelling Bitran, G.E. and A.C. Hax. 1977. "On the Design of 

approaches. 

Hierarchical Production Planning Systems," 

Decision Sciences, Vol. 8, No. 1, January, pp. 28- 

Given the complexity of the overall management 54. 

planning process and the iterative approach that should 

be used, the ability of managers to verify results and Buckman, R.E. 1990. "Global Forestry Research: 

generate new planning approaches before passing plans 

Closing of the First Century, Preparing for the 

to the next planning level is an important one. 

Second," IUFRO World Congress Report, 

Managers at each planning level would want to visually Montreal, August, pp. 53-54. 

check the plans that are passed down to them from 

higher levels and the results of their own planning 

Buongiomo, J. and J.K. GiUess. 1986. Forest 

efforts. This would include such things as the visual Management and Economics. Macmillan 

analysis of the overall period/strata schema at the 

Publishing Company, New York, 285 pp. 

strategic level, the blocking patternsfor landscape 

management purposes at the tactical level, and Hax, A.C. and D. Candea. 1984. Production and 

implementability issues at the operational level. Inventory Management, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 513 pp. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Jamnick, M.S. and E.W. Robak. 1992. "An Integrated 

ForestryPlanning System," Proceedings of 

A design andapproach such as the one described 

$3.04.01 IUFRO Conference, Christchurch, New 

should help managers of forest products companies Zealand, Jan 27-3 l, 1992, pp. 17-25. 

improve their strategic, tactical and operational level 

planning. Besides enabling managers to understand the Kent, B., Hof, J. and L. Joyce. 1988. "Experiences 

forest management problem more completely, it should 

with FORPLAN: A Distillation to Two 

help them generate alternatives and best compromise 

Proceedings from a Research Perspective," 

solutions to large, multi-objective forest management 

Proceedings of the 1988 Symposium on Systems 

planning environment. Most of the tools that are Analysis in Forest Resources, Pacific Grove, 

required to support this process currently exist, 

California. U.S. Forest Service General Technical 

although some adaptations and improvements may 

Report RM-161. 

need to be made. 

Kill, A.D. 

1989. "Welcome," Proceedings of the 

Although implemented the proposed by an actual IFMS forest design products has not company, yet beenit Forest Information Modelling ReportSymposium, NOR-X-308, Saskatoon, pp. 2-4. March, 

has been tested in a "realistic" case study in a forest 

management practicum involving senior forest Lurid, H.G. 1991. "Integrated Data Collection - A 

ecosystem management and forest engineering students Challenge for the Future," Proceedings of the 

at the University of New Brunswick. The course Symposium on Integrated Forest Management 

requires that an entire class of students develops an 

Information Systems, Tsukuba, Japan, October, 

integrated forest management plan for a fictitious forest pp. 1-10. 

products company on an actual land base in New 

Brunswick. The students have used an IFMS similar to MacDonald, J. 1991. Review of Proposals for Forest 

the one described above to better understand planning Management Activities in Canada. Unpublished 

processes and the relationships between decisions 

Interim Report for the Forest Engineering Institute 

made at the various levels of planning, of Canada_,December, 23 pp. 

Nitaya, K. 1996. Integration of Long-Term Harves't 

LITERATURE CITED Schedule and Short-Term Wood Procurement 

Decisions. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of New 

Baskent, E.Z. and G.A. Jordan. 1991. "Spatial Wood Brunswick (In Print) 

Supply Modelling," The Forestry Chronicle, 

Vol. 67, No. 6, December, pp. 610-621. 

254

Obom, R.M. 1996. "A Mixed-Integer Programming 

Model for Tactical Forest Operations Planning," 

To be published in the proceedings of the joint 

meeting of the Council on Forest Engineering and 

International Union of Forest Research 

Organizations Subject Group $3.04-00, 

Marquette, Michigan. 

Robak, E.W. 1989. "Integrated operational planning: 

an OP-PLAN update," Proceedings of the IUFRO 

Subject Group 3.04 Executive Committee Meeting 

(Vol.II), Wageningen, Netherlands, May, pp. 37- 

46. 

Robak, E.W. 1992. "FIO Plantation Planning System 

Project Proposal," Proceedings of $3.04.01 

IUFRO Conference, Christchurch, New Zealand, 

Jan 27-31, 1992, pp. 195-206. 

Robak, E.W. 1995. "The FIO Plantation Management 

System Project Proposal," Proceedings of 

$3.04.01 sessions at the 1995 IUFRO World 

Congress, Tampere, Finland (In Print). 

Vollman, T.E., Berry, W.L. and D.C. Whybark. 1984. 

Manufacturing Planning and Control Systems, 

Richard d. Irwin, Inc., Homewood, Illinois. 745 

PP. 

Waiters, K.W. 1991. Spatial and temporal allocation 

of strata-based timber harvest schedules. MSeF 

Thesis, Univ. of New Brunswick, Frederieton. 

102 pp. 

255

QUALITY-BASED WOOD PROCUREMENT INTRODUCTION 

PLANNING AND INDUSTRIAL END-USE OF 

ABSTRACT WOO Dl Quality is a word that is used more and more 

frequently when the development needs of industrial 

by products are discussed. It is believed that higher 

quality products also bring a better quality of life. 

Esko Mikkonen 

Forest industry and forest products are not an excep- 

University of Helsinki tion. On the contrary, because vast areas are used 

Helsinki, Finland for timber and wood fiber production, special attention 

must be paid to sound environmental practices 

when harvesting timber crops. Other basic quality 

ABSTRACT: The paper deals with methods and factors should not be endangered either. Wood is a 

procedures that are used in Finland in wood 

versatile material that can be converted into many 

procurement to steer the raw material to the fight high quality products if only wood properties, conindustrial 

process according to its quality. This version processes, and customer needs are known. 

implies accurate and up-to-date information on the 

stands to be harvested or the quality characteristic of To properly steer the wood procurement process 

the raw material to be bought from outside, according to these requirements is a challenging task 

for woodland management. An additional contem- 

Customer-oriented quality-based wood procurement porary problem is that customers start to require 

means that the wood is measured, cross-cut into the quality certificates or standards of the forest operaappropriate 

lengths in harvesting, transported as tions as well. The technical quality requirements 

soon and as fresh as possible to the mill and used for will be discussed in more detail within this paper. 

the process that maximizes the value of raw 

material. 

MODERN WOOD PROCUREMENT 

There are several methods to carry out the pre- 

PLANNING 

_ment of stands and the necessary 

calculations to find out the quality distributions of 

Wood procurement is a logistic process that has the 

timber. These distributions, together with the following key elements; material flow, information 

demand of different dimensions of sawn timber, are management, and cash flow management. An extra 

used to create a value table that is then used in the 

difficulty in Finnish conditions is that the raw 

shortwood harvester to actually cross-cut the trees 

material must be purchased from several hundred 

into the appropriate lengths for sawing, thousand private woodland owners. These owners 

have many times special requirements as far as the 

In a self-employed forest owner's sawtimber environment, quality and timing of operations are 

harvesting operations a so called A,B,C quality concerned. This makes the planning procedure 

classification scheme is used. The measurements are rather difficult. The organization of wood procurecarried 

out at the sawmill with an automatic merit consists of the following activities: material 

measurement device, purchase, planning, harvesting and transportation in 

addition to management and administration. 

The quality and freshness have become more and Organizations usually operate on three levels; local 

more important for the pulp and paper industry as work management, regional district management, 

well. The pulpwood is classified according to the and at a company woodland management level. 

dimensions and freshness and steered then to the 

most appropriate product line (e.g., mechanical pulp The raw material quality requirement information 

or chemical pulp), 

comes usually from themill or in a more general 

form from the consumer. 

Key Words: wood procurement, quality, crosscutting, 

measurement, harvesting, transporation 

When planning the activities the key element to a 

.... successful operation is the fight timing of all opera- 

I presentedatthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering ions to minimize the quality loss, interest cost, o13. 

andInternational UnionofForestRe_earchOrganizations Subject 

Group $3.04.00, Marquette, MI, July 29-August 1,1996. 

erational cost and manufacturing cost. The environmental 

factors must be borne in mind all the time. 

256

CUSTOMER ORIENTED APPROACH This information is then used to develop value tables 

for harvesting machine operation on a particular 

The trend in the modern European forest industry is stand. A value table combines the on stand 

more and more towards the customer products, 

characteristic information with the distribution of 

There are fewer and fewer such bulk products that 

customer product dimensions to be produced into an 

may be picked "directly from the shelf'. This is true operable form when harvesting timber. 

for sawn goods and recently also for wood fiber 

products. 

The same kind of information can be gathered at the 

sawmill by using an automatic measurement device 

The sawmill companies plan their sawing production and a so-callod "A,B, C classification scheme". The 

according to the customer orders. Very rarely is cross-cutting optimization is not possible, however, 

sawn timber producedfor stock to be sold later. All 

since it is already done according to the more or less 

the products should have a known final end-use permanent cross-cutting rules. 

before they are produced. This is important 

especially for non-integrated smaller producers that 

frequently have problems with byproducts such as WOOD QUALITY PARAMETERS 

pulp chips. 

Mechanical forest industry 

The market pulp sale has stayed level although the 

pulp production has doubled within the past two In the Nordic conditions the quality parameters for 

decades. Market pulp currently comprises only 7 pine in most cases are diameter breast height DBH, 

percent of the 10.5 million tons of pulp produced 

dead branch height, crown height, the early growth 

per year. This means that companies produce special rate, tree height, and tapering that predict the quality 

pulps for their own high-grade customer products, of sawn timber from a tree. Uusitalo found that the 

first three parameters are the most significant. From 

Information needs these parameters it is possible to develop a 

premeasurement scheme that can be used for more 

It is clear that the above mentioned customer- 

accurate prediction of quality. This work is being 

oriented approach sets strict requirements for the done at the moment. The other species and mixture 

raw material information to be used for various 

of various species will be handled in successive 

products. The sawmill should know in advance what studies. 

kind of raw material it gets from a particular stand if 

it is purchased. The companies apply procedures that Chemical forest industry 

have been developed for this purpose at the 

universities and research institutes. The thermomechanical pulp process requires fresh 

wood so that the following paper quality 

Similarly, the pulpwood characteristics should be 

requirements are met. 

known in addition to the freshness that must be 

maintained all the time. This information is kept in 1) Good strength properties. 

the files that are monitored by the harvesting and 2) Good formation, high smoothness, low 

transportation scheduling programs, porosity and high opacity. 

3) Low fiber coarseness. 

4) High brightness. 

PRE-MEASUREMENTS 5) Sufficient proportion of long fibers to 

minimize reinforcement. 

When gathering information from sawtimber stands, 

some sort of clever sampling procedure and calcula- The wood quality characteristics affecting the above 

tion method needs to be developed for predicting the mentioned properties are: basic density, extent of 

quality of timber. In Jori Uusitalos' dissertation decay, fiber morphology, moisture content, chip size 

project, this sort of procedure was developed. The distribution, branch and knot wood, inner and outer 

basic aim is to maximize the reliability while mini- bark, sapwood and heart wood, mature and juvenile 

mizing the information needed and the cost wood, chemical composition and wood extractives, 

involved. Uusitalo uses the logistic regression earlywood and latewood, and impurities such as sand 

models with Weibull distributions to reach the goal. (Tyrvainen 1995). 

257

In wood procurement, the factors that are harmful HARVESTING AND TRANSPOR-TATION 

should be minimized. Such factors are, for instance, SCHEDULING 

the volume of decayed, ovemged, and dry wood. 

Selection of stands having high basic density should Wood procurement scheduling relies on optimization 

be steered to mechanical pulping where the high of activities. The most important part of this is the 

debarking grade is important, optimization of transportation. The scheduled 

cutting and transportationprograms must be 

The procurement process needs to planned and 

carried out so that the wood does not get in contact 

with sand or other impurities, 

integrated to consider supplies coming from 

company lands as well as wood purchased from 

private forests. 

The quality requirements for chemical pulp used for In this system, the location data of the woodlots that 

high grade printing and writing papers are also has been cut are fed into a computerized database. 

becoming more strict. Low quality knotty, dry The optimization program allocates the wood 

softwood pulpwood may yield 20 percent less pulp 

coming from different geographical districts to the 

than high quality wood. Decayed wood is not appropriate mills, recognizing demands they have to 

allowed. It is important to maintain the fiber length fulfill. 

distribution in the chip flow also. This means that 

the mill has to maintain several chip piles containing In the next phase, the weekly pick-up program is 

different quality chips, 

created for the trucks. Global positioning systems 

(GPS) are used to find the location of the piles. The 

The most important factor affecting procurement is pick-up program schedules the arrival of the trucks 

the freshness of wood. As shown in Figures 1 and 2, to the mills. This means that an individual truck 

winter harvesting and transportation gives more 

gets its transportation program for the week in the 

freedom than stmuner harvesting when the wood 

beginning of the week. 

deliveries must be completed within a week for 

mechanical pulp and within three months for 

Stock level and route optimization options are also 

chemical pulp. The industry tries to apply even more included in the program packages. The overall goal 

tight schedules, especially during the winter time, is to increase vehicle use and minimize the interest 

even though such need from the quality point of view cost of tied-up capital in stocks and standing timber. 

does not exist. 

__.Fellingtime 

January __ "_._ _ _ April 

February __ ._._ April 

Latest at mill 

March April 

_ April/May 

May [_ May/June 

June _,_ June/July 

July _,_ July/August 

!August m ] 

September/October 

[ Oct'2? r __,_,,_, [ October/November 

August/Sepember 

November _@_ ,_ December 

-_:ember ___ _,._ _,_ _._ _ April 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 

Storage time in weeks 

Figure 1. The freshness calendar for mechanical pulpwood in Nordic conditions. 

258

Felling time 

Latest at mill 

February _'_....._@_ ........................ ......_'_'_"_ _ _ 

March _,_,_K_,_,__N,"_,I June ,, 

April 

[___ ,,'_,,,,'t_, ,_,,", _,_ June .... 

May _-__,_ |_ ,," _ _,," 

,_ _,k," ,_ _,- 

,, _,_ _ _,_ .... , July 

June .... ___q All_tlst 

July __N1 September 

t_,,-.-.,, _,," ,,_,¢¢,_, ,_',, _-_-', .," _,," __,%,t_,_ _____: 

November 

September |_ _l_,_,_,___ _ December 

October _:_",,,," _:_,_ _\_ _ ,"_,,-,,,-,,,,,,.,_-,,_,,I-', 

_ _ __'_ 

.... March 

November [_ ....._,_....,"_,_,,_,'_,__',_,_,',_,,_ ,,_-_'_,_,_,',,_ May 

December 

June 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 

Storage time in months 

Figure 2. The freshness calendar for chemical pulpwood in Nordic conditions. 

DISCUSSION 

The quality-basedwood procurementconcept has 

been aroundforfew yearsin big companies. It is 

gaining groundalsoinsmaller companies,especially 

within the sawmilling industry. They can cut their 

operating costsdramatically by applying modem 

computer technology and the just-in-time principle 

in planning the operations. 

There are, however, difficulties that mustbe 

overcome before the operations nm smoothly. 

Probably (he most difficult ones are the educational 

levels and attitudes of the personnel and frequently 

the quite high initial investment compared to 

turnover of the enterprise. One additional obstacle 

of some companies is their limited productpalette 

which makes it difficult to fully attain all of the 

benefits. 

Rummukainen,A., Alanne, H. and Mikkonen,E. 

1995. WoodProcurementin the Pressureof 

Change- ResourceEvaluationModel till Year 

2010. Acta ForestaliaFennica248. Helsinki. 

Uusitalo, J. 1995.Ire-harvest Measurement of Pine 

Standsfor Sawing Production Planning. 

University of Helsinki. Department of Forest 

ResourceManagement Publications 9. Helsinki. 

Tyrv_nen, J. 1995. Wood and Fiber Properties of 

Norway Spruceand Its Suitability for 

Thermomechanical Pulping. Acta Forestalia 

Fennica 249. Helsinki 


Anonymous.1995. Profitable Harvesting. The 

Finnish Foreign Trade Association. Helsinki. 

Anonymous. 1996. Quality handbook of Metsa- 

Rauma pulp mill ( in Finnish). Rauma. 

Hakkila, P. 1995. Procurement of Timber for the 

Finnish Forest Industries. The Finnish Forest 

Research Institute. Research papers 557. 

Helsinki. 

259

BUSINESS PROCESS IMPROVEMENT: THE Key Words: business process reengineering, total 

KEY TO SATISFIED CUSTOMERS AND COST quality management, benchmarking 

REDUCTION l 

by 

INTRODUCTION 

Sten-Gunnar Skutin 

Business Process Improvement is a relatively new 

The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, 

concept in the field of business development, has 

SkogForsk 

great potential as a management tool in forestry. 

Uppsala, Sweden Based primarily on the ideas put forward by H. 

James Harrington (Harrington, 1993), SkogForsk 

has developed a method of which the central 

ABSTRACT: Business Process Improvement (BPI) elements are identification of customer requireis 

a concept with great potential in forestry, 

ments, mapping of processes, and benchmarking 

SkogForsk has experience with BPI-projccts in small (learning from the best). Several forest enterprises in 

and large forestry enterprises, covering objectives 

Sweden are now using the concept. 

such as reduced costs, reduced lead time, improved 

flexibility and more satisfied customers. SkogForsk In part, the methodology is similar to that employed 

has developed a method that includes identification 

in everyday rationalization work and cost 

of customer demands, mapping of processes, and 

comparisons. The new elements relating to Business 

benchmaddng. Forestry is a supplier of raw 

Process Improvement include: 

materials. There are numerous steps between the • focusing on the customer (determining what 

forest owner and the end-user. A considerable period 

is important to the customer), 

can elapse between the time the forest owner sells • a holistic approach (endeavoring to span the 

the timber and the time at which the converted 

entire chain from purchase to delivery), and 

product reaches the customer. In the past we focused • a deeper analysis of those with whom 

our attention on operations in the woods. However, 

comparisons are being made. 

by looking at the entire process that creates revenue 

for the forest owner and value for the customer, we 

can increase efficiency. Our findings so far indicate 

WHAT IS A PROCESS? 

that Business Process Improvement can secure lower 

costs, shorter lead times, faster response to market 

Figure 1 shows a number of events, from the 

changes and happier customers, 

purchase of timber from the private forest owner, 

logging, secondary transport and delivery to the mill, 

IOtO" 

- ...... _ 

Fgure 

1. Examples of processes in forestry. 

1 

at the joint meeting of the Council On Forest Engineering 

andlntemuionalUnionofForestResearchOrganizations Subject 

Group$3.04-00,Marquette, MI,July29-August1,1996. 

260

activities can be regarded as a process. Another Business Process Improvement is to be found today 

approach is to regard each activity as a subprocess, under a variety of names, including.: 

with the activities together from purchase to final • Business Process Improvement, 

payment comprising a single process. • Business Process Reengineering (BPR), 

• Process Management. 

A process can be defined as a working method 

designed to produce a product or to provide a 

BPR is perhaps the most widely used of these. 

service. The process receives input from an internal 

or external supplier and delivers an output to an This new management vogue originated in the 

internal or external customer. Processes can be United States following the 1993 publication of the 

classified as main processes and support processes, book, Reengineering the Corporation (Hammer and 

as defined in Figure 2. Champy, 1993). The authors define BPR as a radical 

reengineering of processes in order to bring about 

dramatically improved results in an organization. A 

faithful following of the concept would involve 

Main process The business's production and reorganizing the business starting with a clean sheet, 

distribution process. Creates in other words, totally ignoring the existing organivalue 

for the customer and 

zation. This is clearly an extremely radical approach 

revenue for the business (e.g., 

logging and transport), 

and too radical in most cases. The five-step method 

developed by SkogForsk is more closely aligned with 

Business Process Improvement, which concentrates 

Support process Meeting internal needs and more on improving the existing organization. 

requirements. Supports main 

processes (e.g., administra- A closer analysis of the business process concept 

tion, office functions), 

usually reveals that there are several major processes 

in an organization. One way to gain an overview is 

to produce a simple business process flow chart, 

Figure 2. Different types of processes, 

What is Business 

Process Improvement? 

which shows the main processes in the business and 

how they are linked to each other. An example flow 

chart is shown in Figure 3. 

The aim of Business Process Improvement is to 

increase the efficiency of the business by taking a 

Private 

holistic approach to it. We have put a lot of time and woodlot -') Purchase _1 

effort into improving individual parts of the owner 

processes in forestry, but we are perhaps less adept at Harvesting -11,Delivery @ Mill 

taking a holistic view, looking at an entire process or 

the entire chain from purchase to delivery, and Forest management _I 

analyzing how the different activities contribute to 

the achievement of an overall satisfactory result. The 

wood and administration flows cut through several Figure 3. A simple business process flow chart. 

areas of responsibility. Naturally enough, The chart shows the four main processes 

information gets lost along the way and it is easy to in a forest management district. 

lose sight of our overriding goal (of creating value 

for the customer and revenue for the business), as we 

find ourselves immersed in the everyday operational WHICH QUALITY SYSTEMS LEAD TO 

objectives. However, by studying the business 

SUCCESS? 

processes, we can acquire a greater understanding of 

how the activities function and be better equipped to Satisfied customers constitute a key strategic goal in 

attain the desired end. all businesses. In the end, it is the customers who 

finance the entire enterprise. It is also naturally 

important to keep costs down, so that the business is 

261

competitive and able to survive downtun_ in the 

Step 1. Organize the project 

market. 

1. Ideally, a corporate vision or strategic plan 

Before we take a closer look at Business Process for the business should first be drawn up, 

Improvement, it is worthwhile examining the involving all the employees. The purpose of 

approaches that can lead to the success of a business 

this is to firmly implant the idea of change 

internationally. A few years ago, the International into the business culture and to create a 

Academy for Quality commissioned Ernst and high level of awareness among all 

Young to conduct a scientific study of the link employees of the business's strategic success 

between quality and success. Interim findings of this 

factors. 

study were presented at a conference in May 1995 

(Harrington, 1995). The study took three years to 2. Select the process to be improved (usually 

complete and covered 500 companies in Japan one of the main processes) 

(representing Asia), Germany (representing Europe), 

the United States and Canada. The study material 3. Sell the project idea to senior management. 

was broken down by profitability, productivity and 

quality (customer satisfaction). After statistical 4. Set up an interfunctional project group of 

processing of the results, it was established that the key individuals from the functions and 

following approaches are effective in all types of 

personnel categories affected. 

business: 

* top management is involved, 5. Draw up a project plan. 

• cycle time analysis, 

• process value analysis, and 6. Inform personnel, contractors, etc., likely to 

* process simplification, be affected by the project. 

Thus, three of the four approaches are directly 

Step 2. Map the process 

concerned with the business processes. In 

conclusion, therefore, Business Process Improvement 1. Map the process. Suppliers, affected 

should make an important contribution to the task of 

personnel and customers should be 

making the business more competitive, 

interviewed. 

2. Define and structure customer requirements 

BUSINESS PROCESS IMPROVEMENT on the process. 

METHODOLOGY 

3. Produce a flow chart of the process. 

Let's look at the five-step method of Business Process 

Improvement developed by SkogForsk, which has 

The flow chart should show which activities are 

now been used by several forest enterprises in included, which function or personnel category is 

Sweden (Figure 4). 

involved in each activity and how the flow proceeds. 

An example flow chart is shown in Figure 5. 

Contlnous Improvements 

T .,, I 

Organize the Map the Define key Benchmarking Evaluate and 

project process parameters improve 

$tePl _ Step2 _ Step3 ' _ $tep4 _ Step5 I 

Figure 4. The five-step method of Business Process Improvement. 

262

1. Forestownerand area managersigncontract 

2. Area managerdrawsup roughplanfor site andentersit incontractreport 

3. Area manager drawsup roughsite planinthe field 

4. Area managernotifieslocalforestryboardof intentionto logthe site 

6.5"Logginginspectororarea Logginginspector,areamanageror managerarrangecontractorneCessary 

obtainsge-ahead preparatorywork _L__ _., ..... 

from owner u'Fm_ 

, 

Logg.Logg.Land- Area ForestryRegional 

group insp ownermanager Board Office 

7. Loggingnow hasinSpect°rstarted orarea managermailscardto informownerthat work _-_ -._a_l_J41--_/ _ 

8. Registrationof contractbyregionaloffice '_ 

etc. 

Figure 5. Flow chart example.The courseof eventsgoes from signing a contractwiththe forest owner to the 

final reportingof logging work(a total of 65 activities in the chain). 

Step 3. Define key parameters 3. Comparisonof the processeswith the best. 

1. Focuson keyfactorsin the process(e.g., 4. Analysisand conclusionslearningfrom the 

lead times, valueto customer,costs and 

best. 

flexibility). 

5. Benchmarkingshouldbe carriedout both 

2. Define key parametersthat are easyto internally(comparisonof districts)andexmeasure, 

monitorandcompare, 

ternally(comparisonwith other companies). 

Typicalkey parametersthat can be usedare: 

Step 5. Evaluateand improve 

• Leadtime betweenactivities. 

• Costsand value-addingeffects(revenue) Businessprocessescanoften be improvedthrough: 

fromdifferentactivities. . Simplificationofthe processes.(Run 

• Productivityexpressedin termsof throughthe processesandremoveall 

productionper employee/contractorper 

unnecessaryelements.) 

year. 

• Delivery precision at differentlevels • Decentralization,integration and process 

(possibleindicatorof how well assortment- 

orientation.In practice,this oftenimplies 

categoryvolumes suppliedmeet customer 

moving as muchas possibleof the operarequirements), 

tional responsibilityout to the machine- 

• Numberof peoplefully or partlyresponsible basedteams, collaboratingmoreclosely 

for each activity (measureof complexity 

with suppliersand customers,andstreamwithin 

the organization), 

lining the decision-makingprocessat all 

levels. 

Step 4. Benchmarking 

3. Improvedcoordination,communications 

1. Productionofkey indicators (e.g., by means andsupportsystems. 

of existing monitoringroutines). 

2. Identificationof the best districtsor the 4. Trainingof personnel. 

equivalent by useof the keyparameters. 

263 

..... ,i ]

PROJECTS IN PROGRESS AT SWEDISH The Mllarskog T50 project 

FOREST ENTERPRISES 

The aim of the project was to identify possibilities 

Several forest enterprises in Sweden have projects in for halving the lead time between the signing of a 

progress at which the five-step method of business 

logging contract and receipt of the final payment. 

process improvement is being used. A smmnm_ of Shortening the lead time is one way to make for 

some selected projects is given in the Table 1. more satisfied association members. 

During mapping of the process, from the signing of 

PROJECT RESULTS the contract through to receipt of the final payment, 

a number of activities were identified that could be 

We can now present some of the results of the above discontinued or simplified immediately, together 

projects (pilot studies, aimed at identifying potential with others requiring further evaluation. 

improvements). 

The internal benchmarking involved a comparison of 

The five-step method of Business Process 

key parameters (lead times for different activities in 

Improve-ment is of a general nature and can the chain from contract to final payment) for all 

therefore be used in a wide context in forestry. The ranger districts and forest management districts. The 

two examples given below concern a woodlot owner bar chart in Figure 6 shows the lead time from 

association and a timber hauling company, logging to reporting on completion for each 

M,'tlarskog forest management districts and for the 

fastest ranger district in the respective forest 

management district. The difference between the 

lead time of a given forest management district, and 

Table 1. Sample of ongoing projects at Swedish forest enterprises 

Enterprise Milarskog MoDo Skog Skogs_tkarna Skogss_llskapet 

(a woodlot owner (a hauling 

association) 

cooperative) 

Project Malarskog T50 Logging-organization Future transport Business Process 

name improvement management Improvement 

Objective Halving of lead time Reduced logging costs More efficient More efficient 

from signing of transport coordination production 

contract to final report (satisfied customers) organization 

(satisfied members) 

....Method Business Process Business Process Business Process Business Process 

Improvement Improvement (using Improvement (with Improvement 

ABC* and advanced in-depth customer 

benchmarkin_) 

interviews) 

Key Time Costs Delivery precision, Time, costs 

parameters 

optimized transportations, 

lead time 

Focus .... Time-based Improved cost- Strategic alliances Time-based 

management** effectiveness and improved management** and 

logistics 

improved costeffectiveness 

* ABC or Activity Based Costing is a technique used to apportion joint costs to the respective activity 

** Time-Based Management is the management philosophy that a business can achieve greater success 

if it focuses on cutting the time taken in every activity. 

264

Leadtime from logging to contract-completion 

reporting 

[] Forest management 

district 

[] Fastest ranger district 

in the forest 

management 

district 

A B C D E 

Forest management district 

Figure 6. There is relativelywide scopefor improvementin forestmanagement 

district A. 

the fastest rangerdistrictwithin it, canbe seen as the 

potential scope for improvement.Thus, if the 

methods of the rangerdistricthaving the shortest 

lead time in forest managementdistrict A in the 

chart were employedthroughoutthat forest 

managementdistrict, theoverall lead timecouldbe 

reducedby some 30 percent.The comparisonswere 

followed by interviews with the inspectorsin the 

fastest rangerdistricts to identify the working 

methods used and thus learnfrom thebest. 

In the externalbenchmarking,the organizationof 

the rangerdistricts of three woodlotowner 

associations were compared.We foundthat the work 

of the inspectors involved in purchasingtimberand 

logging in the areaswasorganized accordingto one 

of two models (Figure7). The first usesspecialists: 

the areamanagerliaises with the forestowners, 

while the logging inspectorliaises with contractors, 

etc. The secondmodel uses genera.lists:the inspector 

drawingup the contractwith the ownerof the tract is 

in chargeof all aspectsof the contractupto the point 

at which the completion reportis submittedto the 

owner, 

Both models have theirpluses and minuses.To make 

the right choice, an overallassessment mustbe made 

of leadtimes, the benefits to members,and 

profitability, 

The projectgrouppublishedrecommendationsfor 

futureactiontogether with a scenario forthe future. 

The recommendedaction focuses on the introduction 

of annualbenchinarkingto be managedby a special 

qualitycontroller.The scenarioof the future 

describesthe consequencesof following strict 

implementationof Time Based Management.Lead 

timeshavebeenshortened by reducingthe number 

of transfers of informationand responsibility 

between units and organizationallevels; by 

decentralization;and by relatingresponsibilityto the 

flow. Newinformationsystemsand IT applications 

make all the necessaryinformationavailablefor 

those who needit and renderadministrationmore 

efficient. Although the scenariois confinedto the 

lead-time criterion,there areobviouslyotherfactors 

that influenceabusiness'schancesof success. 

Preliminary findings from the Skogs=tkarna 

project: future transport management 

The Skogdtkamahauling cooperativeoperatesin 

fourcountiesin centralSweden.This regionoffers 

plentyof scope forrouteplanningandcoordinated 

transportto minimize vehicles travelling empty.The 

companyhauls roundwoodandwood chips for 

severallarge forestenterprises. Everyyearit carries 

6 to 7 million m3(solid woodinside of the bark)of 

roundwood,and 2 to 3 million m3 (loose volume) of 

265

Model 1 

L_.downer Am manager LoggingIMp. Area manager CompleUonmpowt 

Model 2 

Landowner 

InsrN_4_ • Completionreport 

Figure 

7. Two models of the organization of the work of inspectors 

in wood purchasing and logging. 

of chips and biocnergy fuel in 15,000 to 20,000 

An organization with information technologies and 

hauling assignments. The transport fleet comprises 

communications systems able to ensure: 

160 to 200 roundwood and chip vehicles. By 

coordinating shipments from multiple customers, • High delivery precision and a steady inward 

and employing route planning, the company can 

flow of raw materials to the mill. 

offer an efficient fleet of vehicles with a high level of 

utilization. High utilization helps to reduce the cost • Low costs. 

to the customer and to give the haulers greater profit 

stability. • Improved route planning and reduction in 

empty vehicles on the road. 

The "FutureTransport Management" project is a 

pilot study set up to identify the potential for • Improved coordination of all material 

development aimed at improved transport 

transport within a given geographical area. 

coordination and increased customer satisfaction. All 

the customer categories are represented in the • Improved quality and reliability. 

steering group, in this case, a prerequisite for a 

! successful outcome. • Services tailored more closely to the needs 

of the customers. 

Sko_ canbe described asa cooperative that is 

the result of a strategic alliance between a number of • High flexibility (e.g., faster reschoduling on 

large customers (forest enterprises) on the one hand closure of reception area at mill). 

and a major trucking firm on the other. It was 

therefore important during the mapping of the Skogs_m_'s requirements vis-/L-vis the customers 

processes to identify the hauling requirements of all (The haulier cooperative requirements vis-a-vis the 

the parties. To this end, searching interviews were 

forest enterprises) 

conducted. Samples of he findings are given below. 

• Reliable shipping plans (to facilitate 

Customer requirements vis-/L-vis Skogstkama 

improved resource planning). 

(The forest enterprises requirements vis-/l-vis the 

hauling cooperative) • Improved delivery of timber and chips to 

roadside. 

266

• All large customersto introducedaily provevaluable in the continuing work aimed at 

reportingon volumesextractedto roadside, improvingoperations.Those haulerswho recorded 

the highest amountof transportationson optimized 

• Facility to collectfrom customervia data- routes: 

communicationsystem detailsof volume of 

woodstoredat roadside. • Areawareof the cost-effectivenessof using 

plannedroutes. 

• Adoption of a common standardfor 

pinpointing the location of wood for • Have access to possible route planning/are 

collection, in orderto facilitate coordination 

situated advantageously. 

of loads from different customers. 

• Have systems forroute planning and 

Hauliers'requirementsvis-a-vis Skogs/tlmmaor vis- 

collaborate with other hauliers. 

_-visthe forest enterprises 

• Customerrequirementsareconflicting 

(high-precisiondeliveries,high percentage 

of routeplanning,small storagevolume and 

short lead times). Clearersignalsneededon 

howto prioritizethe criteria. 

• Actively seek out possible routes. 

USINESS PROCESS IMPROVEMENT, THE 

NEW KEY TO SUCCESS IN FORESTRY? 

Forestryenterprises are suppliersof raw materials, 

• Shorterleadtimebetween identificationof which meansthat the chain of activitiesbetween the 

shortageof a givenassortmentat the mill forestandthe final customeris a long one. A long 

and time at which transportmanager 

period can elapsefrom the time at which the forest 

informedandableto take action, 

owner sellsthe standing timberto the time at which 

the convertedtimber reachesthe end-user.By 

• More informationon why certainquota examiningthe entire process that creates revenuefor 

systems are introducedby some mills 

Interviewswith the '1_est"haulers (Figure8) 

revealedthe following information,which should 

the privateforestowner and the forest enterprise, 

and value to the end-user, we canfind hidden scope 

for improvement.Improvingthe processescan result 

in lowercosts, shorter lead times, fasterresponseto 

marketfluctuations, and more satisfied customers. 

Transportations on optimized routes 

E _ vehicle 

I [] 

Meanvalueper 

A B C D E F G 

Transport management area 

Figure 8. Findings of internal benchmarldngby Skogs_ama 

267

Making internal and externalcomparisonsamong 

companies is nothing new. The new formof 

benchmarking perhaps differsin that thereis real 

cooperationbetween the partiesbeing compared. 

Thereisanopenexchangeofinformation, which 

meansthatbothparties canbenefit fromthe 

findings. Intensive efforts gointoidentifying and 

analyzing theapproachandbusiness processes that 

lie behindthe success of the "best". 

In thepast, informationtechnologyprojectsoften 

resulted in automation of the processes,thus 

perpetuatingexisting methodsof working. By 

startingwith processimprovement, 

organizations can securea higherreturnon their 

investmentsin information technology. 

Business ProcessImprovementand benchmarking, 

combinedwiththepossibilitiesopenedupbymodem 

informationtechnologysystems,will constitutevital 

elementsin the futuredevelopmentof forestry. 


Hammer,Michael;Champy,James. 1993. 

Reengineeringthe Corporation.New York: 

Harper Business. 240 p. 

Harrington,H. James. 1991.Business Process 

Improvement.New York:Mc Grow-Hill.274 p. 

Harrington,H. James. 1995. AnInternationalview 

of what worksand what doesn't work. In: 

Proceedingsfrom ASQCAnnual Quality 

Congress;1995May 22-25; Cincinnati,OH. 

ASQC,AmericanSocietyforQuality Control: 

p. 438-447. 

268

DETECTING MANMADE FOREST methodology andLandsat TM or SPOT single image 

ACTIVITIES AND NATURAL DISASTERS acquisitions, only very large changes have been 

USING LANDSAT TM SATELLITE DATA - A detectable. If the satellite image base line inventories 

METHOD PRESENTED FOR CONTROIJ.ING are considered the standwise root mean square error 

CONTINUOUSLY UPDATED FOREST volume estimation for example has varied upwards 

INFORMATION IN ]FINI.AND _ from 26 percent in boreal forest conditions (Hagner 

1990). Considering the mean annual growth in Finland 

by 

is about 3.8 m'/ha, mean volume of the growing stock 

is91.9m'/ha(Metsatilastollinen... 1995)and the 

_ Jail Varjo typical thinning drainvaries from 30 m'/ha to 60m'/ha 

Finnish Forest Research Institute 

the limitations of present satellite images become 

Helsinki, Finland 

obvious.Underthesecircumstances thegrowth 

estimates, for example, are reliable only for large areas 

(Tomppo 1992) and/or long monitoring intervals such 

ABSTRACT: Methodology applying multitemporal as 20 to 30 years. The random variation in the object 

Landsat TM satellite images was presented for 

covers easily the interesting phenomena or change in 

detecting rapid changes in forest canopy. The accuracy analyses. In many applications, such as operational 

of the method varied from 80 to 87 percent expressed 

forest monitoring, this has led to use of several 

in overall percentage of correct classification. With 

succeeding images (i.e., multitemporal image) for 

general change classes, more accurate results were 

improving the separability of interesting objects or 

obtained compared to accurate labeling of the reason 

changes in forest (I-I/tme 1991, Olsson 1994, Va_rjo 

for change. The method was proposed to be used for 

1996a). 

controlling the quality of continuously updated 

operational forest data base. It was estimated that the 

The problems and constraints with multitemporal 

costs of maintaining the accuracy of forest management analyses can be highlighted for example by calibration 

data would be about one third compared to the old 

problems. Let us consider that the task is to control the 

updating method based on repetitive base line 

forest damages or manmade actions for an area like the 

inventories, one state forest district in Finland (20,000 to 100,000 

ha) applying multitemporal images. By analyzing 

Key Words: remote sensing, updating, forest multiternporal satellite images with 1- to 2-year 

inventory 

intervals, thephenomenathatdrastically changeabout 

one third of the basal area, such as thinning or wind 

damage, start to become separable (I-tame 1991, 

INTRODUCTION Olsson 1994, Varjo 1996a). However, somewhat 

usable accuracy in detection of the changes with this 

Satellite remote sensing material provides promising magnitude requires very good training data (Varjo 

information for different monitoring purposes. Often 

1996a, 1996b, 1996e). It can not be expected that the 

addressed advantages of the imagery from the nature 

training data could be collected for each image pair and 

observation satellites, such as Landsat or SPOT interval because of the high cost of field survey. As 

programs, are repetitive and cost-economic coverage of this is the case, the methods have been developed for 

large areas. However, the available technology sets 

calibrating the image pairs or difference images 

remarkable constraints to phenomena that can be 

radiometrieally comparable, i.e., eliminating the effects 

observed, 

The phenomena addressed have to cover large enough 

area and should be spectrally and radiometricaUy 

separable from its background and possible obliteration 

factors to became detectable from space. The effect of 

these limitations, when compared to accuracy of the 

satellite sensors, can be characterized by applying 

simple forest monitoring examples. With the available 

'PresentedatthejointmeetingoftheCouncilOnForestEngineering 


of varying observation conditions, for example, 

between the image acquisitions (Olsson 1994). 

Promising results have been reported from the 

application of relative regression calibration and 

studentization (Olsson 1994). It seems probable that 

the calibration accuracy achieved makes it possible to 

concentrate on detection of actual object, change in the 

forest (Olsson 1994, Varjo 1996b). 

The introduction of continuous updating system, 

provided a good example of actual monitoring needs 

and a suitable case for developing remote sensing 

Group$3.04-00,Marquette,MI,July29-August1,1996. methods. Many organizations such as the Finnish

Forest and Park Service, which manages all the state 

would be the use ofpixel level approach. If the pixel 

owned forest in Finland, have started to apply this sizes ofLandsat TM (30 30m) or SPOT (20 20m) 

updating method (Varjo 1996a). To fulfill today's 

would allow the detection of change in forest attribute 

needs of management planning and decision making, 

information, it also would make it possible to detect the 

the information about forest resources has to be on-line changes in spatial delimitation of the interesting object, 

information if possible (Varjo 1996a). This has led to such as cutting or forest damage. However, the spectral 

establishment of forest data bases that are continuously variation within the interesting objects, such as cutting 

updated by counting for growth once per growing 

area, has been too wide to allow accurate pixel level 

season andby updating the forest treatments 

change detection (Varjo and Folving 1996). These 

immediately after accomplishment. The accuracy of the experiments have led to detection of several small-area 

present growth estimation in the Finnish conditions 

false changes covering a couple pixels, and it has been 

allows about 20- to 30-year intervals in growth 

impossible to delineate moderate changes, such as 

updating without new base line inventories (Siitonen silvicultural treatments (Varjo & Folving 1996). 

1983). However, a risk for updating errors has been 

noticed especially during the transition period. The 

Due to the above mentioned problems larger 

errors maybe caused by undetected changes in stand 

observation units than pixel has been proposed. Olsson 

delineation, human errors in updating and undetected 

(1994) has presented suitable calibration methods for 

forest damages. As one possible solution, a satellite 

producing multitemporal material for forest change 

image based control method for continuous updating 

detection applying a forest stand as an observation unit. 

was proposed (Varjo 1996a). However, The problem with a stand as an observation unit in 

operationalizing of this kind of method requires a lot of change detection is nonsymmetric and occasionally 

research and testing, 

multimodal within stand radiometric variation on 

satellite images (Varjo 1996a, 1996c). This has led to 

Many of the changes that should be detected in relation the introduction of methodology in which no 

to controlling continuously-updated forest information, distribution assumptions are needed (Varjo 1996a). 

form difficult patterns to be detected by satellite remote Good results for the forest change detection have been 

sensing. Final cuttings such as clear cuts or 

demonstrated based on classifying changes applying 

regeneration cuts in which the drain in Finnish broad change classes such as 'final cuts' and 

conditions varies from 150 to 300 m'/ha have been 'silvicultural treatments and damages' with 

detectable by several methods, starting from visual 

nonparametric Kernel discrimination (Varjo 1996a). In 

interpretation (e.g. Saukkola 1982, Hame 1991). 

this paper Kernel methodology is tested with more 

However, many of the other treatments or damages do accurate change labeling and 1- to 2-year interval 

not change the spectral information observed by 

between succeeding images used for forming 

satellite sensors as radically and are thus more difficult multitemporal difference image data on mineral soil. 

to detect. For example, only some of the silvicultural 

The calibrations method proposed by Olsson (1994) is 

treatments have been detectable even with 

used in data production (Varjo 1996b). The achieved 

multitemporal approach by comparing the spectral 

change detection accuracy is evaluated for controlling 

response before and after change applying two separate the qualityof continuously updated operational forest 

images. An obvious reason for this is the nature of the data base and the economy of the proposed control is 

changes to be detected. For example, different 

estimated in comparison with the old updating method 

thinnings affect only about one third of the growing 

based on repetitive base line field inventories. 

stock and if thinning is done from below, the following 

spectral change is even smaller than could be estimated 

based on the drain. In detection of forest changes on MATERIAL AND METHODS 

young standsunclosed canopy causes increased 

problems. The spectral response from ground The study area was located in Hyrynsalmi (referred H) 

vegetation may obliterate the interesting change in tree in Eastern Finland (location of the centre Long. 28030 , 

canopy. This has been obvious with clearings of young E, Lat. 64°30'N). The forest on the study area is 

stands and forest change detection on peat land where 

typical Boreal Forest dominated by coniferous species 

forest canopy often is unclosed (Varjo 1996c). 

(Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies). Only mineral soil 

stands were included in this study. Two data sets were 

In addition to small and sometimes obliterated changes composed from the study area. For training, the change 

to be detected, the pattern shape formed by forest 

analysis following categories and numbers of 

changes sometimes causes difficulties. The ideal observations were included in the training data: 

approach with satellite image based change detection 

untreated (Unt. 390 obs.), uncommercial thinning 

270

(Unc.Thinn.13 obs.), holdoverremoval(HO rern4 -t ,_n-t-, 

obs.),commercialthinning (C.Thinn.15obs.), Ych(O(n)= Po + Pl Xch(O+ oe (4) 

preparatory cut(Prep.cut26 obs.),regeneration cut 

(Regcut13 obs.)andclearcut(28obs).To verify the where: 

results ofthemethodproposed,a separatestdatawas 

composed. It included 593 mineral soil stands. In fl_ = parameters, p e{0, 1, 2} 

addition to training purposes observations in the class 

--t 

'untreated' in the training data was used for radiometrie 

calibrationpurposes (Varjo1996b). 

Y oh(i) = mean intensity of a stand on channel i at the 

momentt 

There were three Landsat TM acquisitions available 

-t-n 

from the Hyrynsalmi test site. The track and row x ¢h(i) = mean intensity of a stand on channel 

coordinates were 188/15 for all the quadrants and the 

I e{ 1, 2, 5, 7} at the moment t-n 

acquisition dates were: June 21, 1990, October 1O, 

n = interval between image acquisitions 

1992, and July 7, 1993. The images were acquired at 

the end of the growing season to avoid phenologieal 

n _{2, 3 } 

differences as much as possible. In addition, there were e = error term. 

two Landsat TM acquisitions available from the study 

by Varjo (1996a) in Nurmes (referred N) to be applied The estimated regression coefficients were used to 

for comparison where test and trainingdata are from 

bring the intensities detected from an earlier image 

different geographic locations, 

radiometrically comparable with a later image by 

The satellite images were registered together and 

applying equations 1-4 for all the image pair interval n. 

After bringing the detected intensities into the 

rectified into the Finnish Uniform Coordinate System. comparable level, the differences of stand means, 

The digital stand map available from the latest base line 

standard deviations, skewnesses, and upper (75%) and 

inventory was combined with satellite data. These 

lower (25%) quartiles were calculated between the 

forest stands were used as observation units. Because 

later and earlier images in each image pair interval. 

of the possible differences in acquisition conditions 

These difference features were not comparable due to 

and phenologicall stage of the forest the images were 

the different sealing of the image pairs due to 

brought to a radiometrically comparable level. 

regression (Weisberg 1985, Olsson 1994). Thus they 

Bandwise regression models were estimated for each 

were studentized (in sense of Weisberg 1985) by 

image pair by explaining the standwise intensity mean 

dividing the difference features by the between stand 

of the later image by applying the standwise intensity 

variance estimate (Olsson 1994). This estimate 

mean an of earlier one. Untreated forest area where 

consisted of two components, the error of the 

changes were caused only by normal growth and above 

calibration model (Equations 1-4) and the leverage of 

mentioned differences between acquisitions were used. observation (see Weisberg 1985, Olsson 1994, Varjo 

In the calibration, stands with possible forest damages 1996c). An exception observation also needed to have 

or stands located under cloud or shadow of cloud were larger change than the mean observation to be 

excluded from the data applying the principles of 

classified as a change after studentization. The 

robust regression (Rousseeuw and Leroy 1987, Varjo studentization was supposed to make all the image 

1996a). The regression models were weighted by the 

inverse of within standvariance in the earlier image in 

pairs comparable with each other. 

orderto give large and homogenous stands more 

For the actual change detection nonparametric Kernel 

weight in parameter estimation (Equations 1-4) (Varjo discrimination was applied (Varjo 1996a, 1996c). The 

1996b). 

method is quite similar with the ordinary Maximum 

--t 

Likelihood classifier except that no distribution 

Ych3(n) = flo + fl_-t-n Xch3 + p2 ,.,n-t-n Xch4 + 6 

assumptions are necessary. The probability for each 

(1) stand under classification for belonging to untreated 

--t 

Ych4(n) B.-t-n ...-t-_ class or change classes in training data was estimated. 

= ,8o" + --. Xch4 + P2 Xch3 + 6 (2) This was obtained by comparing the stand under 

classification with all the stands in a change class of 

-t ,,,,-t-n -n-t-n the training data using the difference features produced. 

YCh6(n) "- PO q" P' Xch6 "}- p2Xch4 "Jr"8 

(3) In the analysis, differences of mean were used from 

every TM channel except channel 1; differences of 

271

6; difference of skewness was used from channel 4; S = P - (z + 50. ) 

differences of lower quartiles were used from channel s n (7) 

5 and 6; difference of upper quartile was used from Where: 

channel 7. In addition, basal areas of pine spruce and 

birch as well as age of the main storey were used as s = lower confidence limit 

additional explaining variables (Varjo 1996c). In P = correct classification percentage 

comparison the probability to belong a certain training Q = 100 -P 

class was obtained as a mean of comparison with all z = critical value in Students T test 

the observations belonging into this training class n = sample size 

(Equation 5) (Varjo 1996e). 

1 t, RESULTS 

.f _(x) = _ _.,,..,K, (x - y _) (5) In the training data, the classification proposed resulted 

Where: 

in 100 percent correct classification with both intervals 

applied. When the elassitieation accuracy was analyzed 

t_(x) = kernel density estimate for assigning in the test data applying the accurate change classes 

stand x to class e 

available the overall percentage of correct classification 

1, = number of observation in the training class e was 87 percent for two-year interval and 78 percent for 

y = an observation in the training class e three year interval. The lowest accuracy was achieved 

with the 'commercial thinning' class at 3-year interval 

K¢ (z) = ] z e-3Zs t ,., _ z and The 'uncommercial best results werethinning' achievedclass in the at 2-year classes interval. 

p 

(2z)_hPlSl _ 'untreated' and 'preparatory cut' (Figures 1 and 2). 

Where: 

The 'hold over removals' were detected accurately as 

well,but the low numberof observationsdid not allow 

p =dimension any final decisions concerning the separability of this 

h =window parameter for smoothing class to be made. 

S = pooled varianee-eovariance matrix 

When the classification from a change class to any of 

Finally the stand under classification was labelled 

the change classes were considered to be correct the 

according to the training class with the greatest 

accuracy in different classes were different. The best 

probability (Equation 6.) (Varjo 1996e). accuracy was achieved with the drastic change classes 

such as 'dear cut' class and 'regeneration cut' class. 

p(cl x) = /c (x) _ However, changes were the differences not large except between fromthese thinning and the other classes 

f, (x) in three-year interval (Figures 1 and 2). 

_! (6) The accuracy of detecting natural disasters, such as 

where: 

forest damages serious enough to affect forest 

management planning, could be estimated only based 

p(clx) = posterior probability of the stand x to belong on the test data. This was because the damage classes 

class e 

were not present in the training data. There were only 

1 = number of classes in the training data. two partial wind damages on the two-year interval from 

which another was detected as 'preparatory cut' and 

The accuracy of proposed change classification was 

another one was miselassified to the class 'untreated'. 

estimated by applying the lower edge of 95 percent On the three-year interval there were altogether 10 

confidence level for overall correct classification 

partial wind damages. Two of them were misclassified 

(Equation 7) (Jensen 1986). into the class 'untreated'. From the rest three were 

classified into the both classes 'preparatory cut' and 

'clear cut' and remaining two into the elasses 

"commercial thinning' and 'regeneration cut'. 

272

%correct 

120 -------- 

100 

80 : 

= : 

' | ° 

60 

4O 

2o 

[--1 Clasfied 

change/no 

--- Classified 

0 to class 

Unt HOrem Prep.cut Clear cut 

Unc thinn. Cthinn. Reg.cut 

Figure 1. Classificationaccuracyin differentclasseson the image pair H92-H90. 

%correct 

120 

100 

80- 3 

60 , 

I 

I 

20 change/no 

--- Classified 

40 ' ,_ 

Unt HOrem Prep. cut Clear cut 

Unc thinn. Cthinn. Reg.cut 

Figure 2. Classificationaccuracyindifferentclasseson the image pair H93-90. 

273

For evaluating the proposed method for controlling the 

accuracy of continuously updated forest data base, the 

overall correct classification percentages were 

estimated (Figure 3). In this test, only the classification 

from a certain class to the same class was considered 

correct. With all the intervals and data combinations 

used the accuracy was higher in the training data 

compared to test data. However, the difference was at 

its most 22 percentage units with the three-year 

interval. It has to be noted that in the results where the 

Nurmes data (Varjo 1996a) was classified applying 

the Hyrynsalmi training data, the only change classes 

applied were 'clear cut', 'thinning' and 'hold over 

removal'. These were the only classes present at the 

Nurmes data. 

120 

% correct 

100 _, . r-.-.-.l., ,"F'-'-'l-, 

I II iI I' II I 

I I I I 

BO 

I, I I . 

60 

4O 

--- Estimated 

20 low limit 

0 

N90-88 Tr H92-90 Tr H93-90 Tr 

NgO-6B T H92-90 T H93-90 T 

Correctly 

Classified 

Figure 3. General classification accuracy on different image pairs, Tr = training data and T = test data 

The usability of the presented method for controlling e) Field inspection recommended. The satellite 

quality of the continuously updated forest information 

image interpretation differs notably fiom the 

was estimated by comparing the detected changes with 

treatment register information due to possibly 

the treatment register available. On the base of these 

incorrect updating or a possible forest 

information sources the district officer responsible for 

damage. 

forest management divided detected changes in tree 

categories (Vsrjo 1996a): 

a) Correctly updated, thetreatment register 

confirms the satellite image change analysis 

The division of the changes detected in satellite image 

analysis is presented in Figure 4. 

It was estimated that the sufficient accuracy of a 

continuously updated forest data base could be 

b) The change class detected in satellite image maintained by field inspecting only the changes in the 

analyses differs from that recorded in the 

category 'c'. This would decrease the need for field 

treatment register but there is no need for work notably compared to the old updating by 

fuaher inspection due to the nature of the 

repetitive field inventories. When the number of the 

difference. For example, a detected hold over chances to be inspected in field is compared to total 

removal was registered as a clear cut in the 

amount of stands in the test data, the recommendation 

treatment list. In this case the future 

for field inspection includes 6.9 percent of all stands in 

treatments and development of the stand will two-year interval. The three-year interval was not 

be similar, 

included in this analysis becauseof weaker 

classification results. 

274

32 

50 

26 29 

21 

H1992-1990 H1993-1990 [] Category a 

Calory b 

[_/A Category e 

Figure 4. Division of the detected changes according field control recommendations. 

Considering the economy of the proposed method it is change classes when classifying drastic changes 

natural to use the ten-year interval applied for the 

compared with classifying some of the moderate 

traditional updating by repetitive field inventories. This changes, such as 'thinnings'. This supports the idea of 

means that approximately 35 percent of the stands 

the application of broad change classes such as 

should be field inspected within a 1O-year interval to 

'untreated', 'moderate change' and 'drastic change' 

maintain the accuracy of the continuously updated 

(Varjo 1996a). With these class levels, the 

forest information. The inspection of selected stands 

interpolation between different causes of spectral 

will probably be more expensive than the inventory of a change seem to work well (Varjo 1996a). In addition, 

stand in the normal standwise base line inventory, 

the detection of wind damages could be possible when 

However, at least part of the control inspections could applying broad change elasses. 

be combined with other field work, such as the 

management and cutting planning and control. 

In addition to the improvement gained by the broad 

Considering these, it could be expected that the costs of change classes in the analysis of a single difference 

the field inspection of the proposed control is directly 

image, it seems possible to use training data from 

comparable with the costs of the base line inventory. In different image pairs and different geographic 

this ease, the proposed control method would be locations. This is a notable advantage when operational 

profitable if the costs of the satellite image analysis 

systems are designed. It can be expected that rather 

would be less than two thirds of the costs of total base large geographical areas could be controlled by 

line inventoryand the accuracy achieved would be 

applying the same training information that would 

acceptable, 

improve the economy of the proposed control method. 

When comparing the costs of satellite image 

DISCUSSION 

acquisitions needed for the ten- year control period it 

can be easily detected that the analysis of the required 5 

The application of broad change classes in the analysis image acquisitions is economic. When using a two-year 

seems to improve the results. It was not expected that image interval the material costs would be about FIM 

the moderate changes such as commercial thinnings 

0.4 per hectare (Varjo 1996c). The analyzing costs are 

would have been among the most accurately detected 

difficult to estimate because the analysis phase can be 

ones in two-year interval when only the labelling to the almost completely automated. In any ease, the costs earl 

according accurate classes were considered correct, 

not be greater than the costs of satellite image-based 

When classification from a change class to the same or base line inventory, which means maximally FIM 2.0 

to any other change class was accepted, the drastic 

per hectare (e.g. Tomppo 1992), When this is 

changes such as final cuttings were detected most 

compared with the cost of base line field inventory 

accurately as expected, especially in the three-year (about FIM 50.0 per hectare), the proposed system 

interval. This indicates that more errors occur between should make notable savings possible. The critical 

275

question will also be the accuracy of the standwise 

Sons. New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, 

information achieved by the proposed method. Singapore. 329 p. 

However, it has been estimated by Varjo (1996e) that 

only I percent of the stand information would include Saukkola, P. 1982. Uudistushakkuiden seuranta 

errors serious enough to affect the management satelliittikuvista. Valtion teknillinen tutkimuskesplanning, 

after proposed satellite image based control, kus, Helsinki, Finland. Tutkimuksia 89:1-108. 

Under these conditions the application of the proposed 

method seems profitable. However, only mineral soils Siitonen, M. 1983. A long term forestry planning 

were included in this study and it can be expected that 

system based on data from the Finnish National 

on peat land the results will be worse (Varjo 1996a). 

Forest Inventory. In: Proceedings of the IUFRO 

This is due to often unclosed canopies. With them Subject Group 4.02 meeting. 1983 September 5-9, 

satellite image analyses is affected by ground 

Helsinki, Finland. University of Helsinki, Faculty 

vegetation. In addition the between year spectral of Forestry, Research papers 17:195-207. 

variation has noticed to be wider on peat land 

compared to mineral soils (Hame 1991, Varjo 1996a) Tomppo, E, 1992. Multi-Source national forest 

inventory of Finland. In: Proceedings of Ilvessalo 

Symposium on National Forest Inventories; 1992 

REFERENCES 

August 17-21; Helsinki, Finland; The Finnish 

Forest Research Institute Research Papers 444:52- 

Hagner, O. 1990. Computer aided forest stand 50. 

delineation and inventory based on satellite remote 

sensing. In: Proceedings of the 1990 SNS/IUFRO Varjo, J. 1996a. A Nonparametric Method for 

workshop; 1990; February 26-28; Ume/t, Sweden: 

Controlling Stand Register by satellite data. 

94-106. International Journal of Remote sensing, 17( 1):43- 

67. 

Hame, T. 1991. Spectral interpretation of changes in 

forest using satellite scanner images. Seloste: 

Mets/m muutosten spektrinen tulkinta 

satelliittikeilainkuvien avulla. Aeta Forestalia 

Fennica 222:1-111 

Jensen, J.R., 1986. Introductory Digital Image 

Processing - a Remote Sensing Perspective. 

Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 228 (IAPRS) XXXI. 6 p. 

p. 

Metsatilastollinen v-uosikirja 1995, (Statistical 

yearbook of forestry). Finnish Forest Research 

Institute Information Service. Helsinki, 

Painatuskeskus. 354 p. 

Varjo, J. 1996b. Radiometric correction of 

multitemporal Landsat TM data for detecting rapid 

changes in mineral soil forest land. Paper accepted 

to be presented in XVIII International Society of 

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS) 

Congress, Vienna 1996 July 9-19. International 

Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 

Varjo, J. 1996e. Calibration and change detection 

method for controlling continuously updated forest 

information by Landsat TM material. Manuscript 

for Finnish Doctoral degree in forest management 

planning. 

Olsson, H. 1994. Monitoring of Local Reflectance 

Changes in Boreal Forests using Satellite data. 

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 

Remote Sensing Laboratory, Ume/t, Sweden. 

Report 7. 

Varjo, J., and Folving, S. 1996. Regional Monitoring of 

forest Changes Using Unsupervised Methods; a 

Case Study From Forest on Mineral Soils. 

Manuscript submitted into the Scandinavian 

Journal of Forest Research. 

Roussecuw, P. J. and Leroy, A. M. 1987. Robust Weisberg, S. 1985. Applied Linear Regression. John 

Regression & Outlier Detection. John Wiley & 

Wiley & Sons, New York, Chichester, Brisbane,. 

Toronto. 283 p. 

276

A MODEL OF TIMBER SKIDDING proper skidding form for any forest area included in 

PREDICTING t the production process. 

by Research work on method development for choosing 

the best skidding form due to use disposable data to 

Janez Kr_ assist in the decision process is a very important task 

University of Ljubljana for a researcher in the forest technique area. Modem 

Ljubljana, Slovenia computer technology helps us provide tools for 

simulation of different phases in the forest 

production process. Models are tools which 

ABSTRACT: MCE (multi-criterional evaluation simplify complex reality into simple, more 

method) as means of LSA (Land suitability Analysis) understandable and guidable systems. Models can be 

and decision support process has been used to work to a smaller or greater degree adopted to originals - 

out the model for a wood skidding prediction. The the objects of modeling, although we do not intend to 

adequacy level of joint impact of influential factors reach full equals with them (Ko_ir 1995). More 

for individual wood skidding form determines the important is to capture the most important parts and 

most suitable skidding method for each model area relationships. A proper simulation of real conditions, 

unit - a grid cell with a resolution of 50 x 50 meters therefore, depends not only on variable numbers 

or of 1/4 hectare, 

which control a model, but more on a proper 

processing of core variables. 

Three main data sources have been used (a digital 

evaluation model (DEM), a digital network of forest The main reason for working out a model of timber 

roads, and data from forest inventory). This skidding prediction was to find out the possibilities 

disposable data has been converted into the required of using specific forest databases in selection of 

form and at the same time used for providing appropriate wood skidding form. We want to expand 

supplementary information necessary for the correct the role of computer technologies from analyses, 

selection of the wood skidding form. The result of proceeding and storing data to the quality tool for 

the model has been compared to a map of potential 

decision support system. 

wood skidding means, which was terrain obtained. 

Key Words: wood skidding, model, multi-riterional PROCEDURE 

valuation method, computer simulation 

The model includes some original procedures and 

solutions (the determining of wood skidding 

INTRODUCTION 

direction, eliminating of ridge points, a model 

elaboration of thematic charts on the basis of forest 

Relative smallness of Slovenia (two million hectares, inventory); yet for the most part it makes use of the 

among which more than one half represents forest instruments offered by standard program packages, 

land) and variety of land form which is determined 

primarily the IDRISI GIS program package 

with the Alps (NW, W), the Pannonia lowland (NE, (Eastnmn 1993). The latter has a number of modules 

E), the Dinaric mountains with Karst phenomena to help in the processes of bringing decisions. 

and partly Mediterranean area (SW) dictate a rich 

palette of possible skidding forms. A specific As a modeling object, the Jezersko Forest Enterprise 

environmental impact, economy, and work unit, which has been well processed from the part of 

organization of skidding form is so evident that forestry regarding information, has been selected. 

today's management requires an optimization The Jezersko Forest Enterprise unit comprises 

process. With the optimization we have to choose a approximately 5000 hectares of forests. It is situated 

in the Alpine region, between the Karavanke 

mountains and the Kamnik-Savinja Alps, with 

diverse terrain and stand conditions that require a 


and International Union of Forest Research Organization Subject 

Group $3.04-00, Marquette, ML July 29-August 1, 1996. 

rich selection of appropriate wood skidding forms. 

277

DATA SOURCES 

base and digital base of inventory units borders, 

which is a graphic database) identical. IDRISI 

Four main data sources have been used for the model software has some ability to create a raster thematic 

of wood skidding forms prediction: 

images with such values that are in forest inventory 

• a digital elevation model (DEM), database. The thematic images are geographically 

• a digital network of forest roads, referenced and help us provide a spatial view of data 

• data from forest inventory, dispersion. Raster thematic was made for every 

• data of the significance of influential factors influential factor. 

or limitations for wood skidding forms. 

The data on the significance of influential factors or 

A digital relief model is a source of data on the relief the limitations first of all refer to the properties of 

and terrain slopes. From these data and by means of the means of work used in individual forms of wood 

a model data on the location of ridges or the skidding. Working ranges of individual machines 

delimitation of gravitational units can be obtained, have been brought in line with the data from forest 

We developed an algorithm for recognizing all those work standards; in the limiting of cable crane reach, 

points (dam) in the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) the former are defined by means of technical 

file that are ridge located, characteristics of individual cable cranes. 

Ridge points location helped us to determine gravity Auxiliary limitation to those regarding forest 

fields, skidding fields, and haul directions. The technique equipment and skidding forms, we defined 

model determines haul direction way due to land constraints that are related to public and other 

form (slope and ridges) and location of truck roads, functions of the forest, such as providing biotop 

An algorithm that sorts all basic raster cells (1/4 conditions for endangered animal and plant species, 

hectare) in two haul directions on the base of upper water source preservation, and others which are 

and lower edge of roads body was made. In the most spatially determined. For each prior limitation, a 

cases the upper edge corresponds with digging slope special mask file marking the areas that are due to 

and lower edge with dam slope. There are some limitation inappropriate for the use of a wood 

exceptions in local dikes or cuts, but we avoided 

skidding form has been worked out. 

some large mistakes by monitoring of a broader area 

beside the roads. 

WORKING METHOD 

When determining haul direction, we considered a 

very rough average for tractor skidding where on a Simplicity of a model is an important characteristic 

hang with equal slope conditions on the upper 1/3 of of each model and also for its quality. Therefore we 

the hang we skid wood uphill, and on the lower 2/3 decided to use a relatively simple method to 

of hang we skid wood downhill. Consequently, we determine suitability of a forest area for Slx_ific 

determined the haul direction for every model area 

skidding form. The method is called Multi - Criteria 

unit, and with the help of cost-distance analyses, 

Evaluation (MCE) and is also an advantage because 

which modules are a part of IDRISI software. 

IDRISI software has modules that support their use. 

The method is dedicated to maintain and help in the 

The data source for microtopography and floor 

decision process where it is necessary to choose the 

conditions was state forest inventory database, made optimal disposable solution. 

in 1990 (Mikuli6 1990). The smallest inventory unit 

in the data base was a division or subsection, which Every disposable solution has to have a suitability 

contains forest stands data, sites, volumes, 

file (in our case skidding form suitability files). A 

ownership, geological and floor conditions, function very common procedure for arriving at a suitability 

of forest etc. The following data have been used as index is a weighted linear combination where each 

influential factors in the model of timber skidding 

influential factor is multiplied by a weight and then 

predicting: stoniness, rockiness, groundwork and soil summed to arrive at a final suitability index. In a 

depth. A spatial representation of those data 

module of timber skidding prediction the following 

demands a digitalization of corresponding inventory influential factors have been taken as input variables: 

units to which data refer. It was necessary to • terrain slope, 

cono_tute a link, an identification key that was in • a distance to a truck road, 

both databases (forest inventory - nongraphic data • wood skidding direction, 

278

• stoniness, Weightsfor influentialfactors were derivedby 

• rockiness, takingthe principaleigenvectorof a square 

• groundwork, reciprocalmatrix(Table3). 

• soil depth. 

The methodof multi-criteriaevaluationrequires 

All influential factorswere convertedin raster(]IS standardizedvalues of input data that have to be at 

(GeographicalInformationSystem)environment 

the same time uniformlycorrelatedwith the 

whereeach modelareaunit - a gridcell represents suitability foran individualvariant choice. 

an area of 50 x 50meters or of 1/4hectare. 

The standardizedintervalwas determinedon the 

Weight or influenceof specific factoris possibleto scale from 0 to 20, which was the basefor linear 

achieve by subjectivedecision or by the objective 

interpolation of basic values of all the influential 

waythroughthe use of some comparativemethods, factors. Before the interpolationin standardized 

A weighted linear combinationdemandsa sumof interval all basic values had to be positively 

weight equals one. Ratings are providedon a nine correlatedto the suitabilityforan individualvariant 

point continuousscale (Table 1). Weused a pairwise choice. 

comparative method. A square reciprocal matrix of 

pairwise comparisionsbetween the criteriahasto be The main point of all the creative work represents 

worked out. The comparisonconcernsthe relative the choice andstandardizationof influential factors. 

importanceof two criteriainvolved in determining We have to simulatethe real conditionsand 

suitabilityfor the stated objective(in our case 

skidding for selection) Table 2). 

interrelationships with simplificationand at the 

sametime be as close to the real conditions as 

possible. 

Table 1. The continuous rating scale. 

-- ++ 

Extremely Very Strongly Moder- Equally Moder- Strongly Very Extremely 

ately 

ately 

Table 2. Pairwise comparisionmatrix forassessingthe comparativeimportanceof influentialfactors. 

:iiii_FL:_ !:::::::''''':'''f '" ""::!"':'"":':'i"::'":':'""_::"::"_::i i_:::_f'''_'_'_._ _qRi:.i:'"'"':'_' ":::'"_':::'.

Figure 1 shows the inverse linear relation between THE ACCURACY OF THE MODEL 

suitability of some skidding forms and distance to a 

truck road. At the same time the chart shows the Each model has to have a known threshold of 

function between basic and standardized values for 

accuracy. The model of timber skidding predicting 

influential factor distance to a truck road. was controlled by the comparison of the model 

skidding chart to the chart that was made from 

The same standardized interval of influential factors terrain observation by local foresters. We had a 

and the sum for them, which equals one, mused the skidding chart for Jezersko Forest Enterprise which 

suitability to be determined by values on the was terrain obtained. The computer comparison of 

standardized interval. Values on the standardized model and terrain determined skidding forms finds 

interval are positively correlated to suitability for each possible combination of true and mapped 

specific skidding form. Suitability files give categories (Table 4). 

information, where specific skidding form is more 

and where less suitable for implementation. To 

Tabulation along the diagonal represents cases 

obtain a skidding chart, which is the purpose of the where mapped category matched the true value. All 

model, we have to make a joint analysis of all off- diagonal tabulations represent differences and 

suitability files. A very convenient procedure is touse are tabulated as totals in the margins. Careful 

the IDRISImodule. Multi-dimensional choice that analysis of difference matrix enables not only 

produces an output map indicating which of a series difference assessment but also where it occurs and 

of input maps (suitability files) has the highervalue how it mightbe remedied. 

of each cell. The result of the choice could be 

influenced with the set of weights for input files 

The model is relatively accurate with the most 

favoring some skidding forms, 

frequent wood skidding forms (tractor downhill and 

cable crane uphill), while the discrepancy with other 

Output file of Multi- dimensional choice was at the wood skidding forms is higher. Due to high 

same time the final result of the model and was frequency of most accurate determined skidding 

represented as the raster thematic image indicating 

forms, the sum of the difference is relatively small 

model optimal choice of skidding forms for forest 

(38 percent). 

enterprise (Figure 2). 

Standardized 

2O _ 

interval 

16- ",, "-,. 

14" 

12- 

"'"'_....Tractor 

10 - "., crane "--.... 

8- 

6-4. ,. --... 

_ "%.,.,, _'_'_'_'_""_.... 

0 ! .... ! ! "'"''r. "_ I _,, i i ''""" o """-i... 

0 500 600 1200 

A distance to a truck road (m) 

_'_,_,.... 

Figure 1. Function between basic and standardized values for influential factor distance to a truck 

road to constitute a positive correlation with suitability for some skidding forms 

28O

IK_ Tractor, downhilll 

Tractor, uphill 

i 

Manually 

Cable _'ane, downhil 

F:_ Cable crane, uphill 

Figure 2. Skidding forms for forest enterprise derived by a model. 

Table 4: Difference matrix between model and terrain obtained skidding forms. 

TERRAIN SKIDDING 

CHART 

i_iii ii!i!i!iiii!i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii_iiiiiiiiiiiiiii i _===================================== 

iiiii!iiii"!"::::::::i::::'::::::i::::iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiii!i iiiiiiii!iii!iiiii!ii!i!iiiii!!i!i::.r....:::i._.:..i..:::::i_i:::i:::::::::::::i:::::iii.:.....i:::...::.._!:::i i i:::i:::!:::i:::::i:::i i i!iii_iii i i i i i i i i i _ii ili_i_ii i i ii i i i i ! i i i i_:' 

:! _i:i:i:i:i:_:i!::::::::::::::::::::::i:i::i:iii :': !ii: :i:i:! !i::i:i_:':": !_!ii_iiiiiii:i:i_iiiii_:i::":i:_i:":'::i:i:i:i:ii!_i: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ii:i:!::i'"i:i£:::'h :!:i:i:i:i i !!ii_ii:i:i:!::::_!_:""i:i: i ! i !i:i:i:!$i:!i!::"::: :i: i!i!i! 

.,...v: ,..v rr .,........,..,...,,v..,..v, 

i i ! i i i ii i i 

i!!!i! i !i i ! i :::!_!::':':::i ii !_iii_iiiiii 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iii!i!i!iiiiiiiii!i!iii!iiiiiiii 

15 2 0 30 0 47 1.0000 

M _i_iiiii__ii!i_ii!i 8,932 138 702 2,497 42 12,311 0.2745 

.......................... 

O iiiiiii!__iiiiiiii 27 237 0 10 200 474 0.5000 

ii:i:i:i:i:!:i:i:i:i:i::''i:!_:''!:i:i:i:!:i:ii!:. 

_!_i_ii! 

iiiiii D _i_i__i!ill 132 1 37 50 1 221 0.8326 

_|_ii_i 1548 6 290 555 3 2,402 0.7689 

E 

ii! ......................... iiiill 

_]_i::_i 107 939 50 1,204 2,364 0.4907 

L i!i!i!iii_!iiiiiii! 64 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii_iiiiii:_i:_i:_ilil 10,761 1,323 1,079 3,206 1,450 17,819 

ii!i iiiiiili:_iiii_i:_iii_!_ii:_i 

iii:_iii 0.1700 0.8209 0.9657 0.8269 0.1697 0.3846 

:::;::::::: ::: :::;: ::; :; : :: ::: ::::: :" 

281

DISCUSSION 

SUMMARY 

The model proves it is possible to predict skidding This paper deals with a model that makes a skidding 

forms due to use of computer technologies. A chart of forest enterprise with use of disposable 

computer supported procedure of Multi- Criteria 

skidding forms. The criteria are related not only to 

Evaluation with use of proper data bases is of great properties and technical characteristics means of 

importance in the decision process regarding the work, but also to forest stands and terrain conditions 

planning of wood production and extraction. Mostly that have the most important influence on suitability 

it is possible to support forest management in short determination. The model is based on the method of 

or middle time periods on the area of forest Land Suitability Analyses (LSA), called Multienterprise 

unit (2,000 to 10,000 ha). For more Criteria Evaluation which determines the most 

accurate evaluation of skidding form on smaller area suitable skidding form for each model area unit 

unit we have to have more precise set of input data (raster cell representing area of 50 X 50meters or 

(influential factors) that is a wider network of digital 1/4 hectare), 

elevation model (DEM) from more accurate sources, 

a better digitalization of line objects (truck roads, The model is computer supported and is a kind of 

tractor haulage tracks, forest section borders) and computer simulation. The algorithm of model uses 

more accurate information about floor and stand mostly modules of IDRISI software and some 

condition, originally written procedures. All the input data had 

to be converted to IDRISI raster or vector 

There are three most important influential factors environment. The model does not use only forest and 

(terrain slope, a distance to a truck road and terrain data but also data about existing forest road 

rockiness), which have all different data sources and network. Some original procedures provided more 

therefore different accuracy, 

complete information and data for suitability of 

skidding forms determination. 

The distance to a truck road factor is to a great 

degree, of subjective nature because it is the result of The results of the model could be used as input 

existing forest road network which was planned and information for various economic, ecological and 

constructed due to influence of specific professional, other forest management analyses. 

economic, and social conditions. 

The model does not concern existing secondary LITERATURE C_D 

forest communication (tractor haulage tracks, cable 

crane lines) which would lower the difference Eastman, J.R., 1993. IDRISI update manual, 

between the model and the terrain obtained skidding Worcester, Massachusetts, USA, Clare 

chart. On the other hand, including the secondary University, 209 p. 

communication would cause a loss of objectivity 

because planning and construction were also under Ko_ir, B., 1995. Some experiences with the models 

subjective and time responsible conditions, for operational planning - IUFRO XX 

World Congress, Division 3 Forest 

Model of timber skidding predicting has a pretty lax Operations and Technique, P3.04-00 

procedure which, however, could be complemented Small-Scale Forestry, Tampere, 11 p. 

with new dimensions being added to it or it could 

also be made simpler in relation to specific Kr_, J., 1995. Model napovedovanja oblik spravila 

conditions, needs ,and aspirations, lesa. -Magistrsko delo, Biotehni_ka 

fakulteta, Ljubljana, 114 p. 

The model was developed as a part of research 

project named Adjustment of forest production Mikuli_, v., 1990. Oblikovanje in kori_nje skupnih 

function to other forest functions and was the same zbirk podatkov. Ra_unalni_ka obravnava 

theme of a master thesis (Kr_ 1995). 

podatkov za potrebe izdelovanja 

goz.dnogos_h na/_rtov. -Raziskovalna 

naloga,IGLG,Ljubljana. 

O Printed on recyctable paper. 282 

oU.$. GOVERNMEN_ PRINTING OFFICE: 1996-757-743/40030

U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service. 

1996. Blinn, Charles R,: Thompson, Michacl A., eds. Planning and implementing 

forest operations to achieve sustainable forests: Proceedings of papers presented 

at the joint meeting of the Council on Forest Engineering and International 

Union of Forest Research Organizations. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-186. St. Paul, MN: 

U.S. Department ofAgrict!iturc_ F_.:,restService, North Central Forest Experiment 


C'ontains a variety of papers presented at the joint meeting of the Council on 

Forest Engineering and International Union of Forest Research Organizations 

Subject Group $3_04 and that svpport the meeting theme "Planning and hnplementing 

Forest Operations to Achieve Sustainable Forests." 

KEY WORDS: Forest engineering, forest operations, lk_rest harvesting, operations 

planning and control, work study. 

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is an equal employment opportunity employer.

Our job at the North Central Forest Experiment Station is discovering and 

creating new knowledge and technology in the field of natural resources and 

conveying this information to the people who can use it. As a new generation 

of forests emerges in our region, managers are confronted with two unique 

challenges: (1) Dealing with the great diversity in composition, quality, and 

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about. 

NORTHCENTRRL_ 

ESPERIIT_NT$TRTION

Planning and implementing forest operations to achieve ... - Woodweb

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