(xanthosoma caracu, x. atrovirens and x. nigrum), ancient root

MORTON:COCOYAMS 85 

veqelabb Section 

COCOYAMS (XANTHOSOMA CARACU, X. ATROVIRENS 

AND X. NIGRUM), ANCIENT ROOT- AND LEAF- 

VEGETABLES, GAINING IN ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 

Julia F. Morton 

Directory Morton Collectanea, 

University of Miami 

Coral Gables 

There are some 38 or 40 species of Xanthosoma 

(family Araceae), all indigenous to the American 

Tropics (1, 12, 43). Some of them are considered 

by ethnobotanists and archaeologists to be among 

the oldest root crops in the world (4, 45) and it 

is strange that there is little readily available in 

formation on the economically important species 

of this genus. Generally, in literature on root 

crops, Xanthosoma species are discussed jointly 

with the taro (Colocasia esculenta Schott) and 

this practice tends to obscure the distinction be 

tween the two crops. The cocoyams (Xantho 

soma spp.), though superior comestibly and nu 

tritionally, remain the lesser known. The taro has 

enjoyed universal publicity through historical and 

fictional accounts of life on the Pacific Islands and 

the convenience of its simple, widely familiar, 

vernacular name has contributed to its general 

recognition. Xanthosoma species, in contrast, are 

burdened with a multiplicity of highly localized 

vernacular names: MALANGA and GUAGUI 

(the latter especially in Matanzas Province) in 

Cuba; MALANGA or TAYO in Haiti; YAUTIA 

in the Dominican Republic and the Philippines; 

YAUTIA or TANIER in Puerto Rico; TANNIA 

in Trinidad; CHOU CARAIBE in Martinique and 

Gabon; OCUMO or YACUMO in Venezuela; 

TAIOBA or MANGARETO in Brazil; GUALUZA 

in Bolivia (14), UNCUCHA in Peru; TAJER in 

Surinam; OTO in Panama; TIQUISQUE in Costa 

Rica; QUISCAMOTE in Honduras; COCO, MA 

LANGA or MUNUL in British Honduras; MA- 

CAL in Yucatan (11, 47); MACABO in Came- 

roun; and COCOYAM in Ghana and Nigeria (23, 

24, 25). To further complicate matters, Colocasia 

esculenta is known as MALANGA ISLENA in 

Cuba (32). Also, the term MALANGA is applied 

specifically to Colocasia esculenta in Puerto Rico 

and is defined as "taro" in Webster's International 

Dictionary, with a cross-reference to YAUTIA, 

which is defined as applicable principally to any 

species of Xanthosoma. 

The existing confusion is a serious matter for 

the agriculturist seeking information, for there 

are some major differences in the two crops: for 

example, the Xanthosoma species require good 

drainage while taro can be grown in lowlands too 

wet for Xanthosoma culture. Also, Colocasia escu 

lenta, which should be readily recognized by its 

peltate leaves, is not limited to tropical regions 

and is grown throughout the coastal plain of our 

southern States as far north as South Carolina, 

where it is commonly called ELEPHANT'S EAR 

(a name popularly given to ornamental forms of 

Xanthosoma and Alocasia in South Florida). 

In southern Florida, cocoyams have been 

grown in small patches for many years and on a 

limited commercial scale since 1963 (7). At the 

present time, to meet the needs of our Latin 

American population, Xanthosoma and Colocasia 

are being grown together in the same fields as 

two different types of "MALANGA," the tubers 

of Colocasia being sold in local markets as "YEL 

LOW MALANGA." Because of the increasing 

commercial interest in Xanthosoma as a root crop, 

not only in Florida but throughout the Tropics, 

I would like to propose the general adoption of the 

euphonious and appetizing term, COCOYAM, as a 

collective trade name for Xanthosoma species—a 

simple name that would come to be recognized 

throughout the United States and in all countries 

regardless of regional languages. 

It seems timely, too, to suggest abandonment 

of the designation Xanthosoma sagittifolium Schott 

as a group term. This was the first species to be 

described and the binomial has been loosely em 

ployed by various authors in discussions of the

86 FLORIDA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, 1972 

Fig. 1. Dr. Robert McMillan displays reverse of cocoyam 

leaf (non-peltate) in contrast with two taro leaves (peltate), 

reverse and face views, at right. 

—Photo by Julia Morton. 

Xanthosoma species cultivated for their so-called 

"roots." Professor Roy W. Woodbury, formerly a 

member of the Botany faculty of the University 

of Miami and, for the past several years, working 

with the University of Puerto Rico in Rio Piedras, 

declares that he has never seen a specimen of 

X. sagittifolium in Florida. In the opinion of 

Agronomist Angel Acosta Matienzo, Subestacion 

de Gurabo, Puerto Rico, most, if not all, of the co- 

coyams grown for food in Puerto Rico (4), Cuba 

and now in Florida are of the seldom-mentioned 

species X. caracu Koch & Bouche. Through the 

generous cooperation of these two valued col 

leagues, I was able recently to view in farm plots 

the three species of Xanthosoma most grown for 

food in Puerto Rico, though the University's collec 

tion of species and clones has been moved from the 

Gurabo station to the College of Agriculture, 

Mayaguez. 

The plants and leaves of X. sagittifolium 

Schott (NOT cultivated for its roots in Puerto 

Fig. 2. Cocoyams and taro are cultivated side-by-side in 

South Dade fields, to meet the local demand. 


Rico nor in Florida) are quite different from those 

of X. caracu. The following brief, non-technical 

descriptions of these two species and four others 

of major economic interest are compiled from 

Acosta and Haudricourt and sundry other sources 

(3, 8, 9, 12, 18, 30, 39, 58). 

X. sagittifolium (or sagittaefolium) Schott. Stem of mature 

plant thick, erect, to 3 or 4 ft. Petioles (to 3 ft. long) and 

leaves uniformly light-green without powdery bloom. Leaf 

blade 1-1/3 to 3 ft. long, 16 in. to 2 ft. wide, almost oval, 

with abrupt point at apex, cordate at the base, usually hav 

ing 8 primary lateral nerves. Basal lobes subacute, more 

rounded in the adult plant, especially the inner margin. Basal 

rib (lowest pair of nerves) not denuded at the sinus; sepa 

rated from the sinus by leaf tissue nearly to the base. 

Spathe greenish-white. Cultivated and subspontaneous in 

the Greater Antilles and northern South America. Haudri 

court and other writers show it as occurring in Barbados 

but Gooding et al. have never seen it there and believe that 

the semi-wild specimens formerly reported as X. sagitti 

folium may be X. brasilense Engl. (27). 

X. caracu Koch & Bouche YAUTIA BLANCA; YAUTIA 

HORQUETA; YAUTIA MANOLA; ROLLIZA; TRINIDAD. 

Plant is vigorous and reaches 5 to 6 ft.; has no above-ground 

stem. Petiole is thick, fleshy, flattened above, the wings 

tinted with violet and the back coated with waxy bloom. 

Blade is bright bluish-green, glossy above, pale beneath; 

sagittate, cordate, pointed, 1 to 2 ft. long and larger; up 

to 15 in. wide, usually with 6 primary lateral nerves. Basal 

lobes 4 times shorter than the anterior lobe and slightly 

protruding outward. Basal rib exposed to a distance of 1*4 

to 2M> cm. (variety ROLLIZA) or as much as 4 cm. 

(variety BLANCA DEL PAIS). Inflorescence unknown. The 

tubers are abundant and large, mace-shaped, narrow at the 

end attached to the stem and broad at the apex. They are 

uniform and without protruding eyes and roots. The surface 

is rough, grayish-brown ; the apical button ivory. Flesh of 

ROLLIZA is non-acrid and white. It is of high quality and, 

after cooking, is still white and firmer than that of X. 

nigrum (q.v.). Occurs in Mexico, Honduras, Colombia, 

Venezuela, Guyana, Cuba, Dominican Republic and Puerto 

Rico. Of recent introduction into Cameron (21). This species 

is widely cultivated in Puerto Rico in fields and home 

gardens as a food and ornamental plant. Thrives in rich, 

moist soil (not wet) in part-shade or full sun (58); can 

tolerate prolonged drought and is as disease-resistant as 

RASCANA (q.v.). Tubers keep well in dry storage. 

Eight clones of this species have been grown at the Gurabo 

station. One, distinguished as VIEQUERA, is particularly 

drought-resistant and has especially large and long tubers, 

almost black externally when wet (4). BLANCA DEL PAIS 

has a low yield of small, thin tubers lacking uniformity. 

BISLEY produces few, long, thin tubers of poor appearance 

and quality. MANOLA tolerates more sun than the others; 

its leaves are smooth and soft; the tubers rough with many 

eyes; the flesh yellow or orange. 

INGLESA has characteristics which cause Acosta to set it 

apart from X. caracu. The plant is vigorous and reaches 5 

to 6 ft. The petiole wings are bordered with purplish-red 

but the petiole bears longitudinal streaks of dark-green, 

bright-green and yellow-green which sometimes extend onto 

the blade. Usually, the blade is all dark-green, with 

prominent, pale veins. The basal rib is exposed for a distance 

of 3 cm. in the sinus, at times less on one side of center 

than on the other. There are numerous medium and small 

tubers, broader at the attached end than those of YAUTIA 

BLANCA and VIEQUERA. Some are irregular, rough ex 

ternally, with markedly protruding eyes. The apical button 

is yellowish-white, sometimes pink-tipped. Flesh is white and 

of good quality and the yield is high. 

X. atrovirens Koch & Bouche. MARTINIQUE, MARTINICA, 

YEMA DE HUEVO; AMARILLA DEL PAIS (Puerto Rico) ; 

DARK-LEAF MALANGA; INDIAN KALE. Plant has no 

stem above ground. Attains a height of 5 ft. or more. 

Petiole is 1 to 2 ft. long, thick, dark-green. The two wings 

of the petiole are speckled inside and out with ivory, bluishpurple 

and various shades of rose or maroon; sometimes 

with streaks of pale-yellow, light-green and dark-green along 

the lower length of the petiole. The back is covered with 

waxy bloom. Blade is 28 to 32 in. long and to 2 ft. wide; 

dark-green above, grayish-green with powdery bloom beneath; 

the margin green; midrib and veins light-green; anterior

Fig. 3. Xanthosoma caracu and X. nigrum ('KELLY') in 

a typical hillside plantation between Gurabo and San 

Lorenzo, Puerto Rico. Cocoyams grown with good drainage 

have best keeping quality. 


lobe 2.xk times longer than basal lobes. There are 4 to 6 

primary lateral nerves. Basal lobes subrhomboid or semiovate, 

obtuse. Basal rib exposed for distance of 2% cm. or 

more. Spathe tube green; blade of the spathe dull-green, the 

apex purplish; veins reddish. Spadix yellow or rose. The 

underground base of the stem (madre) is yellow-orange 

inside and is the major edible portion, being tenderer than 

the tubers. It may reach 2V£ kg. in weight and is richer 

in carotene than other cocoyams. The tubers are few, small, 

cylindric, irregular in form, with numerous large roots; 

brown on the outside, yellow-orange within, acrid when 

raw, and remain fairly firm after cooking. Around the 

crown, there occur many small, round, very firm tubers 

("eggs") which are usually used only for planting. The 

apical button may be cream-colored or pale-rose. Cultivated 

in Puerto Rico, St. Thomas, St. Croix, Cuba and Jamaica. 

Thrives in rich loam with lime added. For tuber produc 

tion, requires 40% shade. When grown for its leaves needs 

full shade and plenty of water. Haudricourt describes 5 

botanical varieties, including var. Moritzi Engl., the NUT 

EDDO of Trinidad (30). 

MARTINICA AMARILLA differs in having pale-yellow-green 

leaves and petioles and these are covered with a heavy 

waxy bloom. The wings of the petiole have rose margins 

and tinges of violet. This form requires more shade than 

MARTINICA. The tubers are fairly firm when cooked. 

RASCANA is a well-recognized variety which may belong 

to this species. It is a vigorous plant, reaching 5 or 6 ft., 

tolerant of a fairly wide range of soil and climatic con- 

Fig. 4. Agronomist Angel Acosta Matienzo identifying 

Xanthosoma caracu at the Subestacion de Gurabo, Puerto 

Rico. 


MORTON: COCOYAMS 87 

ditions and springing up spontaneously after cultivation. 

The leaves and petioles are yellowish-green though not as 

light as those of MARTINICA AMARILLA. The leaf sur 

face is smooth, the basal rib is scarcely or not at all exposed 

in the sinus. There is a slight rosy tone where the petiole 

meets the leaf blade but no tints on the wings of the petiole. 

The waxy bloom on the blade and petiole is thin and in 

conspicuous. The spathe and spadix are greenish-white. The 

plant produces an abundance of tubers in a compact mass 

around the base of the stem. They are short, more or less 

potato-shaped, irregular in form, and thickest at the end 

attached to the stem ; brown and rough on the surface, 

with ivory or dark-rose apical button. They have many pro 

truding eyes and only a few large roots. Flesh is creamcolored 

; firm even after cooking. Tubers that are not fully 

mature are very acrid and the irritant properties are not 

completely destroyed by cooking. The tubers keep and ship 

well and are consequently much exported to the United 

States. 

X. nigrum Mansf. (8) (Arum nigrum Veil.; X. violaceum 

Schott). BLACK MALANGA; MALANGA NOIR; MALAN- 

GA MORADA; MALANGA COLORADA; VINO LA: QUE- 

QUESQUE (El Salvador); OTO (Panama); RASCADERA 

(Colombia); OCUMO MORADO CULIN or DANCHI in 

Venezuela; BADU or COCO (Jamaica and Guatemala); 

CEBUGABI (Philippines). Plant is vigorous, attaining 5 

to 6 ft.; has no stem above ground. Petiole 1 ft. 

to 28 in. long, waxy on the back, the wings more or less 

tinted with rich purple. Leaves ovate or ovate-oblong 

sagittate, 8 to 20 in. long, 6 to 16 in. wide. Dark-green on 

upper surface, pale beneath and often tinged with purple. 

Ribs and nerves light-green or dark purple; margin usually 

purple; lateral nerves prominent beneath the blade. An 

terior lobe 3 to 4 times longer than the basal lobes and 

has short, slender point. Basal lobes of blade almost 

triangular. Sinus acute, open. Basal rib exposed for 2 cm. 

Young leaves have conspicuous, bluish-powdery bloom at 

first; later become green. Tube of spathe violet or palegreen 

outside, creamy within. Blade of spathe yellowishwhite 

or yellowish-green with longitudinal purple veins. 

Inere is a large underground rhizomatous stem (usually 

referred to as the rhizome) and numerous lateral tubers, 

larger and more symmetrical than those of other species 

The stem-end of the tubers is thicker than in X. caracu 

There are only a few protruding eyes and roots. The ex 

terior is smooth and purplish-gray. The eyes and the 

apical button are dark purplish-red. Flesh varies in color 

from violet or wine-red with dark veins to pink, lightyellow 

or white, sometimes streaked with purple. Cooking 

changes the colored types to gray. The rhizome, as well as 

the tubers, is used for food; also the young leaves and 

petioles. This species is much cultivated for food in Puerto 

Rico (thriving on the red clay of the mountainsides), in 

Haiti, the Dominican Republic (34), Cuba (32), in Panama 

(50) and British Honduras (51), at Alta Verapaz and 

Izabal in Guatemala (52), in Venezuela (46) and many 

other areas in tropical America, and in Cameroun (31), Java 

(8) and the Philippines (13). 

KELLY is a less vigorous variety of this species. The 

petiole is darker in hue, the wings being brownish-purple. 

The leaf blade is lighter green and the veins are less 

prominent. Sometimes the midrib is light-maroon on the 

underside. The basal rib is exposed for a distance of only 

1 cm. in the sinus. The tubers differ from the foregoing 

in having yellow apical button tipped with red, and yellow 

flesh. They lose their acridity and become soft with cooking 

and are well recognized in the market as distinct from the 

yellow tubers of X. atrovirens (4). Unfortunately, they 

tend to rot if left in the ground too long and they are not 

suitable for shipping. 

DOMINICANA, or GUAYAMERA, may be a variety of 

X. nigrum. The plant is vigorous and erect, to 5 or 6 ft. 

in fertile soil. It has conspicuous black-purple petioles and 

midribs, coated with bluish, waxy bloom (4). The leaf 

blade is green with purplish tints and attached obliquely 

or at a right-angle to the petiole. The basal rib is scarcely 

or not at all exposed in the sinus. The tubers are of 

medium or small size, round or irregular without pro 

truding eyes or roots; rough and grayish-brown on the 

surface, with light-yellow apical button tipped with pink. 

The flesh is cream-colored and firm even after cooking (4) 

The plant yields poorly and is seldom planted. 

X. jacquinii Schott (X. sagittifolium Liebm.). YAUTIA 

PALM A; YAUTIA HUECA; YAUTIA SILVESTRE; MA 

LANGA COCHON; GIANT TANIER. Plant has acrid, 

milky sap and a foetid odor. Stem of mature plant erect or


Fig. 5. Xanthosoma atrovirens 'MARTINICA AMARIL- 

LA,' at the Fairchild Tropical Garden Research Center. 


reclining, 3 to 8 ft. long and to 6 in. thick. Petiole to 6 ft. 

long and 3 in. wide at base. Leaf blade dark-green above, 

pale below; with prominent midrib and veins; to 30 in. wide 

and 40 in. long; apex rounded with abrupt, short point; 

usually 6 to 8 primary lateral nerves. Basal lobes obtuse, 

6 to 20 in. long. Sinus broad and open. Basal rib exposed 

near the base and along the edge next to the sinus for 

a distance of 1 to \V>> cm. Flowering occurs frequently. 

Spathe tube green or yellow-green outside, purplish inside; 

spathe blade green outside, whitish inside. The mature in 

florescence is unpleasantly odoriferous. Cultivated and 

naturalized in Florida, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, 

Lesser Antilles, Mexico and in Venezuela, Ecuador and other 

areas of South America from sea level to 3,000 ft. Needs 

dense or partial shade. Grown as an ornamental as well as 

for pig feed in Puerto Rico. The stem base, casually referred 

to as the rhizome, may reach a diameter of 6 in. in one 

year and a weight of 10 lbs. It is yellow-orange inside and 

is acrid, but if sliced, sun-dried and cooked can be utilized 

for human food. The small lateral tubers are rarely formed. 

In Surinam they and the leaves are cooked and eaten. In 

the Andes of southern Colombia, the tubers are ground, boiled 

and fermented to make chicha, an intoxicating drink. 

X brasiliense Engl. (X. hastifolium Koch). BELEMBE; 

QUELEMBE; CALALOU; TAHITI AN SPINACH. This plant 

need not be described in detail here. It is valued for its 

nutritious leaves which are commonly cooked like spinach 

in Puerto Rico, Haiti, the Lesser Antilles, southern Brazil 

and Hawaii. It has tubers which are non-acrid and edible 

but tiny—ii to 1 in. wide. Propagated by offshoots and 

grown the year around in home gardens (33). 

X. belophyllum Kunth. TURIARA. Leaves of this species are 

sold in Caracas markets for use in salads (43) after cooking 

in salted water (10). 

Fig. 6. Xanthosoma nigrum, 'KELLY/ posed by Agron 

omist Angel Acosta Matienzo and Professor Roy Woodbury 

at the Subestacion de Gurabo, Puerto Rico. 


Variety Preference. In Puerto Rico, the most 

valued cocoyams are the MARTINICA and MAR 

TINICA AMARILLA and the supply is never 

sufficient to meet the demand. The other commer 

cially prominent varieties are VINOLA, KELLY, 

RASCANA and BLANCA (4). In Ghana and 

Gabon, the pink-, red-, or purple-fleshed tubers are 

most popular (31, 54). 

Economic Status 

Over the past 40 years, there has been a 

steady trend in tropical agriculture away from 

the taro (including the dasheens), Colocasia escu- 

lenta, and toward increased planting of cocoyams 

(Xanthosoma spp.). Compared with other starchy 

food crops, cocoyams bring a high yield with a 

minimum of labor (4). In 1949, Williams wrote 

that cocoyams brought double the price of cassava 

(Manihot esculenta Crantz) (55). In 1951, coco 

yams were said to be largely replacing taro in the

Philippines because the tubers were larger, more 

mealy and mucilaginous and the people preferred 

the taste (13). In Venezuela, cocoyam production 

in 1960 was double that of 1937 and totaled 70,000 

metric tons. Half the crop was produced in the 

State of Sucre (1). Coursey writes that the cur 

rent rapid shift from taro to cocoyams in Africa 

(14) is apparently because the cocoyam is more 

suitable for manufacturing the popular food prod 

uct, fufu, a paste formerly made of yams (Dios- 

corea spp.) (19). The tubers and leaves form a 

major part of the diet of the people of Gabon (5). 

Speaking of Ghana, Karikari says: "Generally, 

cocoyams are not grown on a large scale. However, 

they are of immense importance and in every 

farm, garden or smallholding this crop is grown. 

The total acreage and annual production are there 

fore considerable . . . Because of its excellent 

storage quality, it is the one most often used as a 

travelling food by local people. When famine 

threatens, as it often does, cocoyam is the crop 

which is most frequently sought for to alleviate 

the situation. In fact, when people talk of famine 

in this country they refer primarily to a shortage 

of cocoyams." (31). 

In a consumer survey in Puerto Rico (1949- 

50), the majority of families preferred cocoyams 

over yams, sweet potatoes, plantains and green 

bananas (28). There is presently a shortage of 

cocoyams in Puerto Rico where the price has 

risen from 5tf per lb. in 1931 to 25tf in 1972. In 

the 1964-5 season, the Puerto Rican crop amounted 

to 17,700 tons valued at $2,620,000, mostly for 

domestic consumption with a small export to the 

United States (4). 

Propagation 

The plant top ("head" or maman) (56) may be 

used as planting material, or the underground 

MORTON: COCOYAMS 

stem (primary corm), whole (25) or cut into 

pieces, each piece with about 4 eyes (29). The 

primary corm has been found to give better, 

quicker growth and higher yields than the secon 

dary corms, or tubers, which are sometimes em 

ployed (2, 23). The top should be set lower in the 

ground than it was originally—about 32 to 40 in. 

deep—an(j its leaves are trimmed (53). Corms or 

pieces should be set 3 to 5 in. below the surface. 

A. atrovirens may be propagated from offshoots or 

by rootstock division (29). A. jacquinii is grown 

from suckers (58). Requirement of tops per hec 

tare may be 8,000 to 10,000 (17) or 10,000 to 

15,000 (53) depending on spacing. 

Culture 

Cocoyams thrive up to an altitude of 5,000 ft. 

in tropical and near-tropical zones (29). For best 

growth, the soil should be porous, rich in humus. 

In Florida, plantings have been successful on lowlying 

marl but good crops have also been obtained 

on scarified oolitic limestone (7). The plant has 

a high moisture requirement but needs less water 

than taro and better drainage. 

Spacing of 4 x 4 ft. has been recommended in 

good soil; 3 ft. x 3 ft. in poor soil. In Puerto 

Rican tests, a population of 7,260 plants per acre 

produced 75% more than 4,840 per acre and the 

yield increased with density up to 14,520 plants 

per acre (2). However, in Nigeria, Enyi reports 

that increasing spacing to 5 ft. x 5 ft. stepped up 

the yield, particularly when secondary corms were 

used as setts (23). 

Ideal planting time is said to be generally in 

Fig. 7. Xanthosoma jacquinii at the Fairchild Tropical 

Garden, Miami, Fla. This stout-stemmed species is favored 

as an ornamental and is important for pig feed in Puerto 

Rico. 


89


Fig. 8. BELEMBE (Xanthosoma brasiliense) is cultivated 

for its nutritious leaves in the West Indies, Brazil and 

Hawaii. This specimen is at the Fairchcld Tropical Garden 

Research Center. 


the spring before the onset of rains. In Jamaica, 

planting is usually done from January to April 

or June to August (29). In Puerto Rico, December 

to April is considered best. The crop needs 1,000 

mm. of rain in its early stages. The field is pre 

pared during the dry season; cleared and 

thoroughly cross-disked to a depth of 10 or 12 in. 

(6) except on steep slopes where tilling is omitted 

to avoid erosion (2). Working-in of sugarcane 

waste is strongly recommended—25 tons per hec 

tare if the soil is red clay or dark sandy clay; 50 

tons per hectare if the soil is light and sandy. 

Fertilizer should be applied twice at the rate of 

650 kg. per hectare, the first application in the 

bottom of the furrows or distributed between the 

plants immediately after planting. The field should 

be watered the day before planting. Amargos 

recommends the following mixture for 1,000 kg. 

fertilizer: 120 kg. 46% urea; 230 kg. tankage; 

210 kg. bonemeal; 110 kg. 20% superphosphate, 

140 kg. potassium chloride; 100 kg. potassium sul 

phate; 65 kg. magnesium sulphate; 10 kg. man 

ganese sulphate; 10 kg. copper sulphate; 3 kg. 

boric acid; 2 kg. zinc sulphate. This is equivalent 

to a 7-4-13 formula (6). Childers et aZ. recom 

mend per hectare: 112 kg. nitrogen; 40 kg. phos 

phoric acid (P2On); 112 kg. potassium (K2O) 

(16). In field studies at Gurabo, Puerto Rico, a 

12-6-16 formula was applied twice, 2 oz. in each 

hole at planting time and 2 oz. per plant after 60 

days, and the yield was only moderate (4). Abrufia- 

Rodriguez et al. favor 100 lbs. nitrogen per acre; 

40 lbs. phosphorus (or 92 lbs. P2O.); and 100 

lbs. potassium. They found that sodium nitrate 

seriously reduces yields (2). In Florida, the plants 

often exhibit interveinal chlorosis which is reme 

died by chelated iron (Sequestrene 330 and 138) — 

40 lbs. in 3,000 gals, water per acre (7). Detailed 

studies of minor element deficiencies have been 

reported from Trinidad (48). 

Weeding, by cultivation or otherwise, should 

take place 20 or 30 days after planting and again 

in 30 to 35 days (6). In chemical weed control 

experiments, Prometryne gave excellent results, 

Amiben performed satisfactorily, but Simazine 

proved toxic to the crop (2). After 35 days, growth 

of the crop should be so rapid as to shade out 

weeds and make further weeding unnecessary (6). 

Mulching hastens sprouting and enhances yield 

(23). Inflorescences, which must be cut out, appear 

in 5-6 months, or 7-8 months, depending on the 

fertility of the soil (6). 50% shading by trees 

or by interplanted bananas or plantains has been 

shown to reduce yield by 66-2/3% (2). 

Florida cocoyam culture has suffered periodic 

reverses due to unfavorable weather conditions. 

Overhead sprinkler irrigation has been found to 

afford protection from light frosts (7). 

Pests and Diseases 

Nematodes will inhibit cocoyam growth and 

for this reason the crop is often planted on virgin 

soil. The principal insects reported as damaging 

the plant are: a hairy caterpillar, mealybug, and 

cotton lacebug (16); woolly aphids, scale insects 

and red spiders (in very dry seasons) (6). These 

pests may be controlled by spraying with malathion 

or trithion. The fungi, Cladosporium colocasiae 

and Phyllostica colocasiae, have caused leaf- 

spotting in Ghana (22, 31). Wireworms, white 

grubs and a smooth, black or dark-brown boring 

caterpillar may occasionally attack the corms (16), 

as will a Dynastid beetle (Ligyrus ebenus) (19). 

Currutaca, a soft rot of the rhizomes and 

tubers is caused by the fungus Pythium ultimum 

Trow. It is believed to be induced by excessive soil 

moisture, high acidity, potash deficiency and lack 

of crop rotation (5). X. jacquinii is highly resis-

tant to this disease (22). X. atrovirens is less 

disease-resistant than other species (1, 3). Stored 

tubers are subject to attack by an Anthribid beetle 

(Araecerus fasciculatus) (26). 

Harvesting 

The crop matures in 9 or 10 months, but partial 

harvesting can begin ordinarily in 6 months, re 

moving only the tubers that show white at the 

tips. This practice actually increases the yield be 

cause removal of the larger tubers hastens the 

development of the rest. If the plants are left 

in the ground, harvesting may be repeated every 

3 months for total periods of up to 18 months, the 

continuous harvesting discouraging foliage pro 

duction and encouraging tuber formation (56). In 

Cameroun, the first harvest is taken in 3 months 

and 3 or 4 collections follow at intervals of 2 or 

3 weeks (16). When the growing period is term 

inating, the leaves start yellowing around the 

edges. 

Manual harvesting may be accomplished ef 

ficiently by 3 men, 2 wielding shovels to loosen 

the soil and the third bending the plant over to 

expose the corms (16). In large fields, the 

potato plow may be used as a mechanical aid to 

harvesting, as it loosens the soil around and 

beneath the plants and facilitates pulling them up 

and detaching the rhizomes and tubers (6). A 

mechanical yam harvester has been tried in Trini 

dad. It required the preliminary hand cutting of 

the plants close to the ground. Though it har 

vested nearly 12 times faster than hand labor, 

the damage to tubers (6.8%) was excessive (25). 

In Bolivia, the rhizomes and tubers are left in 

heaps in the open air to mellow (lose their 

acridity) (1). Generally, they are piled and 

covered with the leaves of the plants or with 

MORTON: COCOYAMS 

some other material such as palm fronds until they 

can be conveyed to a shaded area where they are 

spread out in a single layer, the tubers and rhi 

zomes separated and the soil removed. Prior to 

marketing, they are washed (6). 

Harvesting of leaves. When X. atrovirens is 

grown for its leaves, cutting can begin in 6 weeks 

and can take place twice a week (29). In regard 

to X. brasiliense, Lind et al. say that the dark- 

green outside leaves showing no yellowing at the 

edges may be cut whenever needed (33). 

Yield of Cocoyams 

Yield reports vary greatly and are heavily in 

fluenced by the cultivar, the soil, weather, spacing, 

Fig. 9. Left: taro (yellow-fleshed) from the Dominican 

Republic. Right: cocoyams (white-fleshed) grown in South 

Florida. 


fertilization and methods of harvesting. The two 

R. 0. Williams' wrote in 1951: "The late Mr. 

J. R. Bovell, of Barbados, conducted experiments 

with many varieties of tannias for a number of 

years and he showed that an average yield of 

from 3,000 to 5,000 lbs. of tubers and 1,000 to 

3,500 lbs. of rhizomes may be expected, according 

to variety" (56). The Kizibani Experimental Sta 

tion reports 6,000 lbs. per acre in Zanzibar (55). 

In Puerto Rico, any amount from 7 to 15 tons 

per acre may be realized (2). Gooding reports 

that the variety Barbados has given 13.8 tons per 

acre in Trinidad (26). 

Storage 

Experiments in Trinidad have shown that 

certain cocoyams of good keeping qualities can be 

kept on wire racks in dry, well ventilated storage 

at an average temperature of 79° F. and humidity 

of 76% for 9 weeks. In refrigerated storage, at 

45° F. with 80% relative humidity, they will re 

main in good condition for 18 weeks or more (26). 

Barrett wrote that tubers of ROLLIZA, after 

remaining 7 months in his office, were planted and 

produced strong, healthy plants (1). There may be 

7 to 11% loss of weight through moisture evapo 

ration in storage (26). In Ghana, farmers bury 

the tubers in the ground, watering them occasion 

ally, and thus keep them for several months 

without dehydration (30). In northern Ghana, the 

tubers are sliced and sun-dried before storage 

91


in order to have them available all year as a 

source of flour (30). 

Properties and Food Value 

The plants, rhizomes and tubers contain, to 

a varying degree, barbed and grooved raphides 

(crystals of calcium oxalate) which cause oral and 

intestinal irritation but which are wholly or 

largely dispelled by cooking (20, 52, 55). In ad 

dition, there are present, particularly in the highly 

colored varieties, water-soluble saponins, or glu- 

cosaponins (16), which are not destroyed by heat 

but released into the cooking water. The latter has 

proved as toxic to rats as the raw tubers.2 The 

forms commonly grown as ornamental plants in 

South Florida are frequent causes of oral irrita 

tion in children who bite or chew the raw petiole 

or leaf blade. In Surinam, people hold the super 

stitious belief that if one breaks a leaf of even the 

relatively non-irritating types while the plant 

is growing, the tubers will be acrid. If they find, 

when peeling tubers, that one in the batch irritates 

the hands, they put rum, whiskey or brandy or 

even a rusty nail in the pot to remove the irritant. 

If all of the tubers irritate the hands, they are 

not used for food (21). 

Cocoyams (especially the yellow types) are 

more nutritious than taros and Irish potatoes; less 

nutritious than sweetpotatoes, plantains and pump 

kins (28). 

The following low and high values for cocoyam 

constituents are amalgamated from the analyses 

of "X. violaceum" by Munsell et ah in Central 

America: 

Moisture, 58.3-67.5 gm.; ether ext., 0.16-0.41 

gm.; crude fiber, 0.5-1.7 gm.; nitrogen, .193-.392 

gm.; ash, .87-1.24 gm.; calcium, 6.7-18.5 mg.; 

phosphorus, 48.3-83.2 mg.; iron, 0.34-4.49 mg.; 

carotene, .002-.012 mg.; thiamine, .112-.150 mg.; 

riboflavin, .017-0.45 mg.; niacin, .585-.810 mg.; 

ascorbic acid, 7.0-14.1 mg.—per 100 gm. (35, 36, 

37,38). 

Busson, in West Africa, gives amino acid con 

tent of "X. violaceum'' as follows: (N = 16 p. 

100) — arginine, 5.6; cystine, 0; histidine, 1.2; 

isoleucine, 2.1; leucine, 4.5; lysine, 2.6; methio- 

nine, 0.4; phenylalanine, 3.6; threonine, 2.3; tryp- 

tophane, 0; tyrosine, 2.6; valine, 3.6; aspartic 

lSakai, W. S., M. Hanson and R. C. Jones. Raphides with 

liarbs and Grooves in Xanthosoma sagittifolium (Araceae). 

Science 178 (4058): 314-315. Oct. 20, 1972. 

-'Clark, A. Examination of the Effects of Feeding Rats 

Upon Tannia, a Member of the Family Araceae. Trans. 

Royal Soc. Trop. Medic, and Hygr. 23(2): 167-172. Aug\ 1929. 

acid, 9.4; glutamic acid, 8.1; alanine, 3.4; proline, 

2.7; serine, 3.9 (14). 

The leaves of X. brasiliense are reported in 

Hawaii to be an excellent source of carotene, a 

good source of ascorbic acid and a fair source of 

thiamine (33). The protein content of young leaves 

varies from 2.2 to 4.1% as compared with that 

of tubers—1.1 to 1.7%—according to Terra (53). 

Preparation and Culinary Uses 

Tender cocoyams are washed and peeled before 

cooking. Some (especially highly colored types in 

Cameroun) are so hard that they require cooking 

before peeling (16). 

Cocoyams may be boiled, baked, steamed, 

creamed, mashed, fried; used in soups, chowders, 

stews, salads, or made into flour or mea] for pastry 

which is stuffed with meat or other fillings. In 

Surinam, the pastry stuffed with chicken or fish 

constitutes the national dish called pom (21, 42, 

49). 

Willsey and Vila, in Pub. No. 1 of the Depart 

ment of Home Economics, University of Puerto 

Rico, presented 30 recipes for cooking cocoyams, 

plus directions for preparing sauces to accompany 

several of the dishes (57). 

Cuban people are partial to cocoyam fritters 

(frituras de malanga) and the ingredients may 

vary according to taste. The following method is 

simple and the product so delicious that if it were 

more widely known I am sure a nationwide demand 

for cocoyams would be generated. Cocoyams (1 lb.) 

are peeled (not far in advance else they will 

darken), cut into small pieces, and placed in a 

blender until the jar is % full. One raw egg is 

added, plus a tablespoon of freshly and finely 

chopped parsley, 2 tablespoons of evaporated milk; 

1 clove of garlic, minced; 1 teaspoon of salt, 1 

teaspoon of vinegar. When thoroughly blended, the 

batter is dropped by the tablespoonful into hot 

cooking oil and turned once or twice to form uni 

formly crisp, golden-brown balls, irresistible as 

cocktail snacks or as a starchy mealtime vegetable. 

Mayas in Yucatan peel, cook, mash and mix 

cocoyams with honey. When food is scarce, they 

blend uncooked cocoyams with maize to make masa 

for tortillas (12). In Ghana, besides the pasty fufu 

eaten with soup, boiled or roasted cocoyams may 

be mashed, red palm oil added, and the product 

eaten with fish or peanuts (31). 

In the Dominican Republic, cocoyam pudding is 

popular. It requires 3 lbs. cocoyams; 1 coconut; 

% lb. sugar; 2 eggs; 2 tablespoons of butter; 2 

tablespoons of cooking oil; 1 teaspoon salt; 1 tea-

spoon nutmeg; V2 teaspoon cinnamon; 1 teaspoon 

gelatin. Peel, boil and mash cocoyams; add coco 

nut water, sugar, butter, oil, seasoning and gela 

tin; pour into greased mold; put butter on top 

and bake at 350° F. (41). In the Philippines, 

cocoyams are often peeled, cooked, dried, ground 

into flour, mixed with grated coconuts and made 

into pastries (13). 

Leaves: Cocoyam leaves are prized as human 

food in many regions, but not in Colombia (44). 

They serve as the main or only cooked greens for 

most of the population of Ghana (31). In Jamaica, 

the young leaves are usually boiled, chopped fine, 

served with butter, pepper and salt, sometimes 

topped with poached eggs (29). 

In Surinam, where the leaves are the leading 

green vegetable, they are first cooked in lightly 

salted water, drained, beaten to a paste or puree, 

and cooked again with a little milk, butter and 

black pepper (21). In Hawaii, the leaves are 

boiled or steamed, with salt and butter or evapo 

rated milk or prepared coconut milk, or are stuffed 

with fish, bacon, lemon and onion slices, seasoned, 

tied, and then steamed or baked (33). 

Other Uses 

Surplus cocoyams are fed to poultry as well 

as to pigs (1). The leaves provide fodder for 

cattle and the tuber peelings (fresh or dried) are 

fed to cattle, pigs, sheep and goats in Ghana (31). 

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COMPETITION AT WHAT PRICE? AN OLD QUESTION IN 

A NEW ERA FOR FLORIDA VEGETABLE CROPS 

Chris 0. Andrew 

I FAS Food and Resource Economics Department 

Gainesville 

Abstract. The competitive position (market 

share) of Florida's vegetable crop subsector is 

threatened by an intensified cost and price 

squeeze. While the state's share of the overall 

U.S. output of most vegetable products has not 

deteriorated over the past 15 years, that of some 

important truck crops (tomatoes, cucumbers, pep 

pers, eggplant, and strawberries) for winter 

markets has failed to keep pace with consumer 

demand increases. Imports have risen sharply to 

absorb consumption increases. In the process, 

Florida's share of the U. S. market has di 

minished. 

Added to the downward pressure on prices 

by imports is the upward pressure on costs oc 

casioned by policies to control pesticide use and 

to raise wages for farm workers. Further import 

restrictions provide a potential stopgap solution 

to protecting Florida's market share from both of 

these pressures by shifting part of the adjustment 

responsibility to consumers in the form of higher 

prices. The ability to make this shift, however, is 

becoming more difficult due to mounting govern 

mental attempts to suppress inflation and reduce 

barriers to international trade. The dilemma of 

"competition at what price?" is one of concern 

Florida Agricultural Experiment Stations Journal Series 

No. 4634. 

and conflicting interests among Florida producers, 

Florida agricultural workers, U. S. consumers and 

international trade policy makers. Numerous 

questions are raised in this paper for which ade 

quate answers must be sought in the near future. 

Introduction: Old Questions 

With the concern by vegetable growers and 

producers about unionized farm labor and Mexican 

imports some ask—Are vegetable crops important 

to Florida's economy? Floridians reply strongly to 

the affirmative: but how important is the vege 

table subsector to the state's economy? Common 

responses are that 1) vegetables, melons, potatoes 

and strawberries grown in Florida were valued at 

$280.9 million for the 1970-71 crop year (3), 2) 

for calendar year 1971 these crops accounted for 

more than 24% of the total cash receipts from all 

livestock and crops in Florida (8), and 3) about 

366,000 acres (3) and over 3,000 farmers (5) 

were involved in producing the 1970-71 vegetable 

crop. 

Much of the importance of Florida's vegetable 

subsector1 has been overlooked if the evaluation 

stops with farmers. The value of production given 

above reflects solely a farm level price paid upon 

delivery at a packing or preprocessing plant. Be 

yond local producing areas various processing and 

distribution activities add value to the product 

lA subsector is defined to include all of the activities 

involved in producing, harvesting, packing, processing and 

distributing an agricultural commodity or closely related 

group of commodities.

(xanthosoma caracu, x. atrovirens and x. nigrum), ancient root

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