Leek Scientific Classification and Etymology - Academics - Hamilton ...

Onion 

Entry prepared by Katherine White 08 and Jonathan Zellner '08 

in College Seminar 235 Food for Thought: The Science, Culture, & Politics of Food 

Spring, 2008 

Scientific Classification and Etymology 

The onion is a subspecies and primary member of the 

genus Allium. Because many Allium species share the 

common name onion, the “garden onion”—also known as 

the “bulb onion” and “shallot”—is referred to as Allium 

cepa. 1 The plant’s name comes from the Latin unio, or 

annianus, and is associated with the Welsh einion, 

meaning “anvil.” 2 

Historical Origins 

Onions were originally native to central Asia, but 

today have a worldwide geographic range. They 

made their way to Egypt via trade, where they 

became a crucial food plant in the ancient world. 

Because onions were a cheap source of food, 

Egyptian slave laborers, those who constructed the 

pyramids, consumed them on a daily basis. 3 In 

addition, they were depicted in the funerary 

paintings in tombs and even placed on and around 

mummies. 4 Ancient Sumerians widely grew and 

cooked onions 4,000 years ago, and the plant has 

been discovered at the royal palace at Knossos in 

Crete. 5 Additionally, the ancient Greek physician 

Hippocrates wrote in the fifth and fourth centuries 

B.C. that a broad variety of onions were eaten 

regularly in Greece. 6 In ancient India, however, 

there was a fair amount of revulsion to onions. 

Orthodox Brahmins, Hindu widows, Buddhists, 

and Jains regarded onions as forbidden vegetables 

because of their strong odor and stimulating 

action. 7 

Scientific Classification 

Kingdom Plantae 

Phylum Magnoliophyta 

Class Liliopsida 

Order Asparagales 

Family Alliaceae 

Genus Allium 

Species A. cepa 

An illustration of a chive and onion 

Flora von Deutschland by Dr. Otto 

Wilhelm, 1885 (http://en. wikipedia. 

org/wiki/Chives). 

During the fourth century B.C., Alexander the Great transported onions from Egypt to 

Greece, where they spread to other parts of Europe following Alexander’s conquests. 8 

For centuries thereafter, Europeans cultivated onions, which became especially popular in 

cooking in places such as present-day Germany at the start of the Middle Ages. 9 By the 

1

fifteenth century, Europeans began introducing different cultivars and landraces to parts 

of the New World. Christopher Columbus’ crews planted onions in Hispaniola as early as 

1494, and the vegetable was mentioned as cultivated in the present-day United States as 

early as 1629. By the nineteenth century, various types of onion were growing all across 

the U.S. 10 

Generally speaking, those varieties of onion adapted to northern Europe were introduced 

to New England and the mid-Atlantic region, and those grown in southern Europe were 

brought to southern states. Some of the northern landraces include Red Wethersfield, 

bred in the Connecticut River Valley around 1800, and Southport Yellow Globe, 

developed prior to 1835 in and around Southport, Connecticut. 11 Southern varieties 

include White Portugal (or Silverskin), an old European variety grown in North America 

before 1800, and Bermuda, a variety that originated in Italy and was first grown in 

southern Texas in the late-1800’s. 12 

The list of major producers of dry onion effectively illustrates the expansive geographic 

distribution of onions. In 1996, China led the world with more than 9.6 million tons of 

dry onion produced, followed by India (4.3 million), the U.S. (2.7 million), Turkey (1.9 

million), Japan and Iran (1.2 million apiece), Pakistan (1.1. million), and Spain (1 

million). 13 

Horticulture and Plant Specifics 

The common onion no longer grows in the wild, and so is known only in cultivation. 

Onion leaves are characterized as the thickened bases of the plant’s normal leaves from 

the previous season. 14 The outermost leaf bases, rather than swelling, thin, dry out, and 

become discolored, and thus form a covering for bulbs. The visible portion of the plant 

generally flowers in the spring. 15 

Bulbs consist of the fleshy, enlarged leaf bases of onions, and form in response to 

specific day lengths and temperatures (activity called “photoperiodic response”). 

Photoperiodic response includes long day and short day. Long-day plants require a day 

length of more than fourteen hours in order to initiate bulb formation, while short-day 

varieties need between twelve and fourteen hours of daylight in order to form bulbs. 16 

Short-day onions are generally grown in warmer climates, including the Middle East and 

southern Europe. For these varieties, bulb formation occurs in spring and bulb harvest is 

performed in early-summer. Long-day onions, cultivated in northern Europe for hundreds 

of years and subsequently taken to New England, have adapted to northern latitudes. 

Bulb formation for these varieties takes place during the summer months, with bulb 

harvest in late-summer and early-autumn. 17 

Cultivated Allium cepa is placed into one of two horticultural groups: the Common Onion 

group and the Aggregatum group. The former contains the typical bulb onion as well as 

the majority of existing cultivars. Onions in this group show dramatic variation in color 

and shape, photoperiodic response, storage quality and pungency, and many other 

2

characteristics. Their bulbs are usually large and single. 18 Species assigned to the 

Aggregatum group have active lateral bulbs, and thus form clusters of smaller bulbs. One 

subdivision of this group, multiplier onions, consists of varieties that can contain as many 

as twenty small, short and wide bulbs. 19 

Cultivation 

Despite their broad geographical distribution, onions are very sensitive to climate and 

soil. (In Europe, for example, onions had to be selectively adapted to local growing 

conditions. 20 ) As a result, onions require a number of specific conditions in order to 

achieve optimal growth. These include bountiful sunshine; stone-free, loamy, wellirrigated 

soil; and excellent drainage. 21 Onions will not grow well in a clay soil or in a 

soil with a high salinity. Furthermore, because they have relatively shallow (yet thick) 

roots, onions require significant amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for 

maximum yield. The concentration of these elements in soil, as well as high temperature, 

high light intensity, and soil moisture, will affect flavor and bulb development. 22 

Onions can be grown from dry sets as well as by seed. The United States grows most of 

its onions by the first of these methods, as it offers growers a much better chance at 

obtaining a crop than does direct seeding. 23 Dry sets are generally planted as early in the 

spring as possible—usually when the soil temperature is about 40°F—so as to produce an 

early crop. Sets are often placed close together—about 2.5 to 3.5 inches apart in rows 12 

to 16 inches apart—as a means of encouraging large bulb growth. 24 Compost and other 

organic matter are sometimes added to further enhance bulb size. 25 

Growing onions from seed requires a different series of steps. The eighteenth-century 

farmer and journalist William Cobbett discusses in The American Gardener three ways 

by which to produce crops from seed. The first approach suggests that growers plant seed 

thinly to depths of two inches and 

in rows one foot apart. The seed is 

raked over and the plants are 

thinned to four to eight inches 

once they reach a height of three 

inches. When the leaf tips turn 

brown, the necks of the leaves are 

bent to the ground. The onions are 

pulled up when the leaves are 

nearly dead, and are thereafter 

dried and stored. The second 

approach involves each of the 

aforementioned steps, but instead 

of planting seeds one foot apart, 

growers are encouraged to sow a 

handful every six to seven inches. 

This approach does not allow for 

the development of large onions, 

“Harvested onions” (Egyptian “Walking” variety), from 

http://www.flickr.com/photos/ejchang/1479672268/. 

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ut it does produce a great quantity of onions that ripen at an earlier date. The final 

method of cultivation calls for sowing seed six inches apart between April and mid-June 

and pulling the onions up when their stems turn yellow. The plants are dried on a board 

and, once their leaves become withered, are placed in a bag and stored in a dry location 

until spring. The onions are then planted about six to eight inches from each other in rows 

one foot apart, but are not covered over with earth, and are harvested in the late-summer 

or early-fall. 26 

Growers frequently harvest onions once the leaves of the plants have fallen over. Curing 

is necessary after harvest, unless the crop is to go to market immediately. It serves to dry 

the skins and tops of onions as a means of safeguarding the vegetables against microbial 

attack and bulb weight loss. An onion is said to be cured when its neck is tight, its outer 

scales are dry, and no more than 3 to 5 percent of its original bulb weight has been lost. 27 

Following curing, onions are stored, frequently for upwards of six months. Cold storage 

at temperatures around 32°F, with a humidity of 70 to 75 percent, produces the best 

results, though onions stored in the tropics need to be kept warmer. In these cases, studies 

have shown that some bulbs can be stored at temperatures of 75° to 85°F or higher for a 

period of five to six months without sprouting. 28 

Pathogens and Pests 

Onions are vulnerable to a handful of diseases and disorders courtesy of fungi, bacteria, 

viruses, and insects, among other sources. These include: 

Downy Mildew (Peronospora farinosa): First reported in 

England in 1841, this fungus spreads rapidly in wet and humid 

conditions. When attacked, bulb tissue softens and shrivels, 

and the outer scales become amber-colored, watery, and 

wrinkled. Early infection can kill younger plants. Surviving 

species can appear dwarfed, pale, and distorted. The seeds 

from infected plants can affect entire crops if sowed. 

Treatment with 2 percent of the pesticide Zineb in sprays and 

dusts has been shown to control the spread of mildew. 29 

Onion Smut (Urocystis cepulae and Urocystis colchici): This 

fungus likely originated in the United States and was first 

reported in England in 1918. Infection usually occurs two to 

three weeks after sowing and is characterized by elongated 

streaks that discolor scales and growing leaves, which may 

become thickened and malformed. Measures to control smut 

Downy mildew on 

onion stems (http:// 

mtvernon.wsu.edu/path 

_team/Disease%20Gall 

ery/dg94L.jpg). 

include avoiding affected areas, applying hexachlorobenzene fungicide pellets to infected 

plants, and dusting with thiram—a general use pesticide. 30 

Onion Smudge (Colletotrichum circinans): Onion smudge was first reported in England 

in 1851 and is common in Europe and the central and northeastern United States. The 

fungus primarily attacks white species of onion, is mostly confined to the neck and scales 

4

of the bulb, and rarely attacks active parts of the plant. Symptoms include tiny green and 

black dots, often arranged concentrically, on outer scales and, on colored varieties of 

onion, sunken yellowish splotches on fleshy scales. Onion smudge tends to form in 

warm, moist conditions, and its threat can thus 

be minimized by thoroughly drying plants after 

harvest. 31 

White Rot (Phanerochaete chyrsosporium): 

First observed in England in the mid-1800’s, 

white rot tends to form in dry soil exposed to 

cool temperatures. The disease spreads rapidly 

when it attacks young plants. External signs of 

infection include yellowing and necrosis of 

leaf tips. Bulb scales may become spongy, become covered with white mycelium (the 

vegetative part of the white rot fungus), and 

develop black sclerotia (a compact mass of 

hardened sclerotia). Treatment with chemical 

Garlic bulbs infected with the white rot 

fungus (http://www. garlicworld.co.uk/ 

images/rot.gif). 

agents such as mercuric chloride, lime, and 2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline has proven 

effective. 32 

Neck Rot (Botrytis allii): This disorder is caused by three different species of the fungus 

Botrylis and is probably the most widely distributed and most destructive disease of 

storage onions. The illness was documented in Germany in 1876, the United States in 

1890, and England in 1894. Though infection occurs in the field, it is usually not noticed 

until after harvest. Symptoms include softening of bulb scales and the development of 

sunken brown lesions, with an observable boundary between fresh and tainted tissue. 

Over time, the bulb desiccates and collapses. White cultivars tend to be more vulnerable 

to the ailment than do colored varieties. Neck rot can be controlled through careful 

handling during harvest and providing sufficiently cool and dry storage conditions. 

Spraying with Zineb or carbamate can help combat infection after it has occurred. 33 

Soft Rot (Erwina carotovora): This bacterial rot does most of its damage to onions and 

other alliums during storage. It usually begins at the neck of the bulb and affects one or 

more scales, though does not spread rapidly from one to another. External symptoms 

include a lack of firmness and a foul-smelling discharge from the neck when the affected 

vegetable is squeezed. Soft rot tends to form in humid weather, and so growers in tropical 

climates must take care to rapidly and thoroughly dry bulbs at harvest. 34 

Aster Yellows: Aster yellow is a virus spread by the six-spotted leafhopper that can affect 

carrots, celery, and lettuce in addition to onions. The leaves of infected plants appear 

light-yellow, though in many cases only one part of the plant will display symptoms. 

Shoots may also become discolored, and roots often become short and twisted. 

Controlling the virus typically involves eradicating the leafhopper population. 35 

Onion Thrips (Thrips tabaci): Among insects that can attack onions and other allium 

plants, the onion thrip can do some of the most significant damage. The thrip punctures 

5

leaves and sucks the sap that exudes, leaving 

whitish areas on the leaves. Infestation is 

worse in seasons of drought and can sometimes 

lead to the destruction of entire crops. 

Effective chemicals can control the pest; 

results have indicated that affected crops 

treated with chemicals have a considerably 

higher bulb-yield than affected crops not 

sprayed or dusted. 36 

Nutrition 

Depending on the variety, growing conditions 

and climate, the nutritional value of onions can 

vary. They are very low in calories, only about 

30 per one half cup serving, and fat, sodium and cholesterol free while still being very 

flavorful. Onions are also a good source of 

vitamin C (5mg or 9% of daily value), B6 

(0.1mg or 5% of daily value), potassium 

(126mg or 4% of daily value) and the 

flavonoid quercitin and trace mineral chromium. 37 

Medicinal Uses 

Onion thrips on an onion stalk (http:// 

www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/inter/inmi 

ne/inimage/onionthrips.jpg). 

Onions have been used in many medicinal practices. Similar to garlic, they contain 

sulfur-compounds such as allyl propyl disulphide that contribute to onions pungent odor. 

Onions have been shown to improve cardiovascular health. Studies in China which 

compared the health of two similar villages, one who grew onions and the other who did 

not, showed that the village who grew and consumed onions had a lower death rate due to 

cardiovascular disease in comparison to the village who did not consume onions. 38 

Current research has shown that the more pungent the onion, the stronger the anti-platelet 

activity effect is. 39 This is due to the sulfur compounds, chromium and vitamin B6, all of 

which are known to decrease the homocysteine levels which is a known factor in heart 

attack, stroke and heart disease patients. Similarly atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, 

heart attack and stroke are all associated with platelet aggregation and the clogging of 

arteries and veins that these compounds can help mitigate. Due to the presence of these 

compounds, onions have been shown to control hyperglycemia and hyperlipemia as 

well. 40 

At the University of Wisconsin, current research is investigating how onion consumption 

and specific onion compounds affect the in vivo aggregation of blood platelets. 41 "Using 

an in vivo model, we are beginning to investigate and, in some cases, confirm the potency 

of the onion as a blood thinner and platelet inhibitor. Onions may be among the 

vegetables that will be prized not only for their addition to our cuisine, but for their 

6

value-added health characteristics," said Irwin Goldman, Associate Professor of 

Horticulture, University of Wisconsin-Madison. 42 

Onions are also known for their blood sugar lowering abilities. Studies have shown that 

individuals that ingest onion have lower levels of glucose in their bloods. This is due to 

the allyl propyl disulfide which increases the amount of free insulin available by 

competing with insulin for binding sites in the liver, thus more insulin is available in 

blood stream to lower blood sugar levels. 43 In addition to sulfur compounds, onions also 

contain 20% of an individual’s daily amount of chromium, a trace mineral, involved in 

the body’s response to insulin. Chromium has been shown to decrease fasting blood 

glucose levels, improve glucose tolerance, lower insulin levels, and help lower 

triglyceride and cholesterol levels in the blood stream. 44 

Onions are also very beneficial to gastrointestinal health. By ingesting onions, especially 

the yellow varieties, at least twice a week, an individual’s chance of contracting colon 

cancer can be greatly reduced. 45 Similar to other Allium species, onions have very high 

levels of flavonoids, specifically quercitin, which in laboratory studies on animals, 

quercitin protected colon cells from cancer causing agents. 46 In addition to colon cancer, 

onions, like garlic, are protective against many other types of cancer. (See garlic) 

Bone health can also be improved by ingesting onions on a regular basis. In a recent 

study published in the Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, the compound 

gamma-L-glutamyl-trans-S-1-propenyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide (GPCS), has shown to 

inhibit osteoclasts, or the cells that degrade bone, thus mitigating bone loss. 47 This 

research is especially important and beneficial to women with osteoporosis. GPCS acts in 

the same manner as the common osteoporosis drug Fosamax, but onions do not produced 

the same negative side effects. 48 

Culinary 

Onions are the third largest fresh vegetable industry in the United States, leading to 20 

pounds consumed per person in 2007. Used in the form of fresh, dehydrated, powdered, 

oil, juice, salt or pickled, onions are used ubiquitously in cooking, and most commonly in 

stews, soups, pizza and salads. Onions are often seen in restaurants as either an appetizer 

in the form of onion soup, onion rings, caramelized or can be used as a side dish to many 

main course meals. Their unique flavor is often used to enhance recipes and help bring 

out other flavors used. 

The flavor of the onion is due to sulfur compounds developing throughout the growing 

season. There is a long and complex biosynthetic pathway that can vary depending on 

environmental factors such as water supply, growing temperature, sulfate fertility in soil, 

other environmental factors and length of storage. 49 Water supply plays a large role in 

determining how pungent and flavorful the onion will be. 50 Onions grown under dry 

conditions will have an increase in pungent flavors, while well watered onions will have 

a milder flavor. 51 The temperature onions are grown under also plays and important role 

in onion development. The hotter the conditions the more sulfur compounds will be 

7

produced, leading to a more pungent flavor. 52 Thus there is high variability in flavor 

strength depending on where, when and how the onion was grown. 

In preparing onion, there are several methods to avoid tearing of the eyes while cutting. 

The tearing is caused by the compound allyl sulfate, which is produced when the onion 

tissue is cut and exposed to air, leading to the burning and tearing of the eyes. 53 Either 

chilling the onions can reduce this and hour or more before cutting them thus slowing 

then enzymatic activity or glasses or goggles can be worn if necessary. 54 

Garlic 


Garlic is a species of plant of the genus Allium—which 

includes onions, leeks, and chives, among other species, 

and represents one of the largest plant genera on 

Earth. 55 The name garlic comes from the Anglo-Saxon 

word “garlec,” meaning “spear,” in reference to its 

spear-shaped leaves. 56 


While some have maintained that garlic first 

originated in southern Europe, most believe that the 

plant originated from a wild ancestor (A. 

longicuspis) in south central Asia, an area 

occasionally referred to as the “garlic crescent.” 57 

Migrating populations carried it around the 

Mediterranean to places such as present-day Egypt, 

Greece, and Italy. 58 Today, garlic can be found in 

eastern Asia, Europe, the Americas, as well as parts 

of northern Africa. 

Garlic has been cultivated in the Middle East and Far 

East for at least 5,000 years and, as such, has been a 

valuable source of food and medicine, as well as a 

prized component of specific rituals, for many 

different societies. In Egypt, tomb art dating from 

the Early Dynastic Period (2925-2575 B.C.) depicts 

the consumption of garlic. Moreover, an Egyptian 

medical text called the Codex Elsers, which dates 

from approximately 1500 B.C., describes nearly 

two-dozen garlic preparations used to combat 







Genus Allium 

Species A. sativum 

Illustration of the garlic plant in 

Medical Botany by William 

Woodville (1793), from http://en. 

wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Allium_sa 

tivum_Woodwill_1793.jpg. 

8

ailments ranging from headache to fatigue. 59 Like the ancient Egyptians, the ancient 

Greeks depended on garlic for a number of medical-related reasons. The Greeks viewed 

garlic as a means of staving off aging and illness, and athletes participating in the 

Olympic Games would chew on garlic to improve strength and stamina. 60 

By the start of the first century B.C., garlic had been introduced into China, where its 

cultivation gained significant mention in treatises on agriculture beginning in the fifth 

century. 61 In Western Europe, the cultivation of garlic and fellow alliums is often thought 

to have been influenced by the contacts Crusaders made with the East in the eleventh, 

twelfth, and thirteenth centuries. Nonetheless, Charlemagne had listed garlic in his 

Capitulare de Villis some three centuries prior to the Crusades. 62 Garlic was introduced to 

the Americas by the Spaniards, and was evidently grown in Mexico by Cortés in the 

sixteenth century. 63 It was later cultivated by the Choctaw Indians in the present-day 

central Gulf Coast region of the United States. By 1800, American writers referred to 

garlic as among their garden esculents, even though, as the journalist and gardener 

William Cobbett observed, “Almost all nations except the English, the Americans, and 

the French, make great and constant use of Garlick.” 64 

Although garlic was not especially popular in upstate New York at the beginning of the 

nineteenth century, the Hamilton College “1812 Garden” will nevertheless feature 

varieties of garlic that were presumably grown as esculents in the early-1800’s. These 

include Purple Skin Rocambole and 

Spanish Red Roja. 

Horticulture and Plant 

Specifics 

Like onions and other alliums, garlic 

forms bulbs that develop entirely 

underground, and the plant may or 

may not flower in the spring. The 

bulb consists of bulblets (also known 

as cloves) clustered together between 

membranous scales and surrounded 

by the outermost skin of the bulb, 

which can be either white or red in 

color. 65 

Cultivation 

The entire garlic plant, garlic bulb, and garlic 

flower (http://www.designmom.com/2007/04/ 

thursday-letter-to-nie-nie-by-guest-mom.html). 

Garlic can develop in a wide assortment 

of different soils, yet it grows best in 

rich, deep loams with ample amounts of moisture. 66 To achieve optimal growth, it is 

recommended that garlic bulbs be dried, treated with a fungicide, such as benomyl, to 

reduce the risk of rot, and exposed to cool temperatures—between 0°C and 10°C—for up 

9

to eight weeks to ensure bulbing. 67 It is also advised that garlic cloves be planted either in 

the spring or early in the fall. 68 

Like onions, garlic bulbs form in dissimilar ways depending on factors including soil 

composition (as mentioned above), day length, climate, and altitude. In general, the 

longer the amount of time garlic is exposed to daylight and the higher the temperature, 

the quicker the bulb will develop and mature. Consequently, garlic grown in warmer 

climates, especially when planted in spring, will tend to have larger bulbs than garlic 

grown in colder climates. The plant is frost-hardy, however, so it need not be planted 

strictly in locations where snow and freezing temperatures are minimal. Garlic is grown 

at elevations above 4,000 feet in California, the largest producer of garlic in the U.S., and 

is usually well rooted by the first snows if planted between September and November. 69 

Plant spacing has a significant effect on the size of the bulb. In Italy, for example, 

workers prefer a spacing on the order of forty to fifty bulbs per square meter. Doubling 

this density increases the yield by 50 percent, though this reduces the size of the bulbs 

and renders them more suitable for processing than for sale as fresh produce. 70 When the 

tops of the garlic plant become dry and bend to the ground—forming a small bulb called 

a “scape”—they are removed so that they do not use resources and nutrients that should 

go to the bulb. 71 The bulbs are then typically harvested by hand and dried for upwards of 

ten days at temperatures of 20°C-30°C 

followed by a reduction to 0°C for storage. 

Application of maleic hydrazide and gamma 

irradiation can prolong storage life. 72 (Please 

note that the caretakers of the 1812 Garden will 

not use chemicals for maintenance, but will 

instead rely on organic methods of pest and 

weed control.) 

Garlic does not produce seed. Consequently, 

plant breeders have not been able to develop 

many types of garlic cultivars. Growers must 

usually set aside at least one-tenth of their 

spring crop to be broken into cloves for 

planting in the fall. 73 If breeders consistently 

plant garlic in the same location for an 

extended period of time, the particular strain 

will develop specific characteristics, such as a 

particular external color, a certain number of cloves, or a certain bulb size. 74 Of course, 

because garlic responds dissimilarly to differences in soil composition, day lengths, 

climates, and altitudes, local growing conditions can alter the strain and produce varieties 

with new features. 75 


“Wild garlic” (http://www.flickr.com/photos/ 

mcdnry/478916722/). 

10

Garlic plants are susceptible to the same pathogens and pests discussed in the section on 

onions. 

Medicinal Role and Properties 

Ancient Times 

Garlic has long been known for its medicinal properties. The use of garlic in multiple 

forms was very prominent in ancient medicine as well as in modern homeopathic and 

alternative remedies today. Garlic was a prominent remedy for many ailments ranging 

from the common cough and cold to stomach problems. 76 Dating back to the beginning of 

civilization, garlic has been documented as a remedy in China, India, Egypt, Greece and 

Rome. Additionally, garlic was found in Egyptian tombs and Greek Temples. 77 Whether 

this means garlic had religious or ritualistic significance for these ancient cultures, 

however, remains unclear. Nutritionist Richard S. Rivlin notes that the presence of garlic 

in tombs “is strong evidence that the vegetable was in use” in these societies, yet 

acknowledges that “we do not know” whether garlic 

was employed in religious customs and rituals. 78 

For thousands of years societies have used garlic in 

medicine for scores of different reasons. The 

Mesopotamians prescribed garlic for toothaches, painful 

urination and placed it inside amulets to prevent disease. 

Traditional Chinese medicine also linked garlic with the 

spleen, kidneys, and stomach. In ancient Greece the 

father of medicine, Hippocrates, used garlic frequently 

and included it into his arsenal of remedies. 79 

First-century testimonial by Dioscorides, an herbalist 

and a physician, and Pliny the Elder, an encyclopedist, 

dictated the next several centuries' beliefs concerning 

the medicinal powers of garlic. They believed that garlic 

expelled intestinal worms and skin parasites, protected 

against venomous animals, neutralized internal and 

external inflammations, relieved toothaches 

and coughs, and reduced hemorrhoids. 80 In the 

Materia Medica, Dioscorides believed that garlic’s 

most important function was to remove excess fluid 

from the body by dilating blood vessels and 

15 th century illustration of a garlic 

harvest from Tacuinum sanitatis, the 

Medieval handbook of wellness from 

Arab medicine (http://en.wikipedia. 

org/wiki/Image:Tacuinum_sanitatisgarlic.jpg). 

stimulating kidney function. 81 Together, Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder controlled the 

knowledge and therapeutic usage of garlic for centuries. 

Scientific Revolution and Beyond 

Later in the seventeenth century, Discorides and Pliny the Elder’s theories about garlic 

still held a high position in the field of medicine, but its ability to protect against diseases 

11

such as respiratory disease was becoming widely accepted. 82 Garlic became a major 

ingredient in more that 50 prescription medicines that were recommended by London 

physician Thomas Willis for treating diseases, specifically respiratory disease. In addition 

to respiratory disease, the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh identified that garlic was also an 

effective treatment for malaria, smallpox and in the form of an ointment for whooping 

cough as well. Later, during the Scientific Revolution in the early 1800’s, Jacob Bigelow, 

a professor of medicine at Harvard, believed garlic as a medicine was most powerful in 

the form of an oil and that ingestion would quicken circulation, excite the nervous system 

and increase expectoration from the lungs. 83 

Garlic has been used for centuries in medicine and continues to be studied in modern 

times. The compound allicin, which is responsible for the distinctive odor of alliums, is 

the garlic's natural defense from insects, fungi and infection. The compound is produced 

by plant enzymes when the plant is 

injured or crushed and provides the plant 

with anti-fungal protection. 84 Allicin has 

been shown to reduce plasma 

concentrations of cholesterol, 

triglycerides, and low-density 

lipoproteins in the blood, and has also 

inhibited an enzyme necessary for 

cholesterol synthesis. 85 In 1858, Louis 

Pasteur discovered that garlic has 

Allicin or C6H10OS2 chemical structure 

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Rallicin-2D-skeletal.png). 

antimicrobial properties as well. Pasteur showed that diluted solutions of its juice can 

inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria such as Staphlyococcus, Streptococcus, 

Bacillus, and Vibrio cholera sp., as well as yeasts and other fungi. But due to allicin’s 

instability in the body, no further drug research was pursued. 86 

Scientific Studies 

In addition to its anti-microbial properties, garlic is thought to be an anti-carcinogen. In 

China, where rates of stomach cancer are high, a study featuring 564 patients diagnosed 

with stomach cancer and 1,131 controls showed that there was a significant reduction in 

stomach cancer risk when participants ate allium vegetables such as garlic. 87 Garlic has 

also contributed to reductions in tumors in mice. 88 Isolated epidermal cells applied with 

5�g per milliliter of garlic oil led to an increase in glutathione peroxidase activity and 

inhibited ornithine decarboxylase induction when the cells were exposed to nonphorbol 

ester tumor causing agents. 89 Garlic oil has also led to reductions in tumor sizes and 

tumor formation from the 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate compound, which is a 

known carcinogen. 90 Garlic’s anti cancer properties are thought to be due to garlic’s 

enhancement of glutathione-dependent antioxidants in the epidermal cells. 91 

Garlic has also been shown to reduce hypertension. A 1990 study performed in China, 

which involved 47 participants with mild hypertension, treated patients with 

a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. The patients had a diastolic range of 

95-104 mm Hg blood pressure at the beginning of the study. Each patient took either a 

12

preparation of garlic powder or a placebo for 12 weeks. Blood pressure was then checked 

at week 8 and week 12. Results showed significant differences between the garlic and 

placebo groups. Those taking garlic supplements showed an average of 102 to 92 mm Hg 

in blood pressure within the first 8 weeks and then fell to 89 mm Hg after week 12. 92 

Triglyceride and cholesterol levels were also significantly reduced. Overall, garlic has 

played and will continue to play a large role in therapeutic and homeopathic remedies. 

With the advent of new technology and advancements in medicine, research involving 

garlic and its potential uses could be expanded greatly in the future, leading to new 

treatments and cures for diseases. 

Culinary and Nutritional Significance 

Culinary Usage 

Because of its potency, the result of the presence of sulfurous compounds, garlic was 

previously regarded with disdain in a handful of Western societies, particularly England 

and the United States in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Some in England saw 

garlic as a “strong class barrier” suitable only for 

laborers and other lower-class individuals. 

Amelia Simmons, author of the first American 

cookbook, remarked that garlic was more 

appropriate for medicinal purposes than for 

culinary usage. 93 

Of course, the image of garlic as a “stinking 

rose” in England and the U.S. has largely 

subsided, particularly in the latter case. In 1924 

the caesar salad was introduced in Tijuana, 

Mexico for American diners. The dish was 

“Garlic” (http://www.flickr.com/ 

photos/christing/150532387/sizes/s/). 

prepared by rubbing a salad bowl with a clove of garlic to enhance the flavor of the 

lettuce, and almost immediately gained acceptance in the States as “American” food. 94 

Thirty years later the food writer James Beard wrote about an old Provençal recipe that 

called for cooking chicken with forty cloves of garlic. Thousands of readers tried the 

recipe and enjoyed it. Evidently, garlic usage and consumption has increased fourfold 

since the early-1970’s. 95 

Garlic is frequently used in combination with other foods as a means of bringing out 

distinctive flavors and aromas. Italian cuisine often combines garlic with tomatoes, as 

revealed in dishes such as cioppino, a tomato-based seafood stew. When combined with 

scallions and ginger, garlic helps form the background flavor present in most Chinese 

American dishes. 96 In addition, many foods are prepared using dehydrated garlic or garlic 

powder, the former of which can contain five times the flavor of fresh garlic. Spiced 

sausages and other assorted processed foods make use of garlic in these forms. 97 

Nutritional Aspects 

13

Garlic is not a particularly nutritious food. Most varieties feature roughly 60 percent 

moisture, 30 percent carbohydrate, and small to trace quantities of protein, vitamins, and 

minerals. 98 The protein content of garlic, however, may be three to six times higher than 

that of other allium vegetables. Nevertheless, its caloric value is considerably greater than 

that of the 35 calories per 100 grams present in onions and leeks. 99 

Leek 


The leek is a species of the genus Allium, the 

family of plants that includes onion and garlic. 

The specific scientific name of leek is A. 

ampeloprasum var. porrum, and the plant belongs 

to the larger species A. ampeloprasum, which 

includes individual subgroups for species 

including kurrat and great-headed garlic. 100 The 

name is derived from the Old English word 

“laec,” or “leac.” 101 


A native of the Mediterranean region, most likely 

the eastern Mediterranean, leek is a variable 

species that can be found in many, if not most, 

regions of the globe. The plant was found in 

Europe during the Middle Ages, and early 

European settlers almost certainly brought it to 

the Americas. Today it also exists in northern 

Africa, the Middle East, and parts of southern and 

western Russia. 102 

The culture and use of leek can be traced back 

some 3,000 to 4,000 years to the early 

civilizations of the Middle East. 103 Ancient 

Egyptians had a fondness for leek. In fact, during 

the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2925 B.C.-2575 

B.C.), they adorned their pyramid tombs with 

drawings and designs of the plant. 104 The ancient 

Greeks enjoyed leek as a source of food, as did the 

Romans, who preferred it to garlic and onions. 







Genus Allium 

Species A. ampeloprasum 

Subspecies A. ampeloprasum 

var. porrum 

Garden leek with overlapping leaves 

forming the pseudostem (http://en. 

wikipedia.org/wiki/Leek). 

14

(The Roman emperor Nero apparently consumed leeks on a regular basis.) Roman traders 

helped transport leek to much of the rest of Europe, and the vegetable became especially 

popular during the Middle Ages, when they were additionally believed to be an erotic 

stimulant that increased sperm count and stimulated desire. 105 

Leek is most commonly grown and 

used in Europe, and thus most 

appreciated in Europe. In northern 

England, leek growing has been and 

continues to be a competitive 

business, and parents have been 

known to pass secrets of cultivation 

along to their children. 106 

Horticulture and Plant 

Specifics 

Leek is characterized by the 

formation of a pseudostem, which 

in some cases can exceed lengths of 

one meter, as well as a poorly 

developed bulb. Pseudostem is the 

term for the overlapping leaf bases of the leak, which tend to be flat and slender, and fold 

over each other to create a stemlike structure. Botanically, however, the edible part of the 

plant is not the stem, but rather the elongated leaf bases. 107 

The modern leek is not known in the wild—though a separate species does exist in the 

Allium genus called “wild leek.” 

Interestingly, leek bears a striking 

resemblance to wild A. 

ampeloprasum, not only in flowers 

and foliage, but also in clove 

production. Like its wild relative, 

leek frequently produces a small 

number of large cloves and small 

exterior cloves. These cloves serve as 

defining features of A. 

ampeloprasum. 108 

Cultivation 

“Leeks” (http://www.flickr.com/photos/calliope/ 

54833240/). 

Leek is a relatively hardy species 

Wild leeks in upstate New York (David Gapp). 

that, unlike onion (and to a lesser 

extent garlic), does not have specific photoperiodic requirements for pseudostem 

formation. (Photoperiodic response refers to the amount of time the pseudostem must be 

15

exposed to light in order for development to occur.) Accordingly, the plant can be grown 

in a broad range of latitudes. 109 But while leek can grow well under most soil conditions, 

it tends to do best in deep loams and peat with good drainage and a pH value around 

7.0. 110 

Because leek does not form bulbs, does not enter a rest period, and does not have strict 

photoperiodic requirements, it is not only adaptable but can be harvested over longer 

periods of time than onions. 111 Like onions, though, leek will bolt (that is, develop an 

elongated stalk with flowers grown from within its main stem) if subject to low winter 

temperatures. If leek is exposed to prolonged periods of low temperatures, it becomes 

undesirable for market and cultivators must adjust planting and production dates. 112 

Leek starts from seed and require a rather long growing season to reach an optimal 

marketable size—usually at least two feet in height or about an inch in diameter. 113 In 

cool climates, leeks are often planted as early as 

possible in the spring, and are typically 

transplanted from hotbeds or cold frames into the 

open once the soil warms. Early plantings are 

generally ready by late summer, though leek can 

be harvested in any season. Production tends to 

be greatest, however, in late autumn, winter, and 

early spring, and lightest in summer. 114 

Leeks take up minimal horizontal space and thus 

require only about six inches of space between 

Wild leek flowers (David Gapp). 

one another and two feet between rows. 115 

Experiments with spacing have found that increasing the distance between leeks enables 

the individual plants to grow in size, but this contributes to a reduction in yield per unit 

area. 

Harvesting leek can be challenging because the vegetable is planted deeper and has a 

more extensive and complex network of roots at harvest than other alliums. 116 Leek is 

thus easier to harvest by hand, though it can be harvested mechanically. Once the plant is 

harvested, it is trimmed and bunched for market. It is thereafter stored, usually for one to 

three months at 0° C with 90 to 95 percent relative humidity. 117 


Leek is vulnerable to the same pathogens and pests as other alliums, including smut, 

downy mildew, pink root, neck rot, and thrips. 

Nutritional Aspects 

Leeks provide all of the essential amino acids for humans, and are also a good source of 

vitamin C. Approximately one-half cup of leeks contains 9 percent of one’s daily 

16

ecommended calcium intake, 14.8 percent of recommended iron intake, 31.3 percent of 

vitamin C intake, and 32 percent of folacin intake. 118 Leeks are also low in sodium, high 

in potassium, and rich in flavonoids, organic compounds that are not directly involved in 

an organism’s normal growth processes. 119 

Medicinal Uses 

Recent research published in The International Journal of Cancer in November of 2007 

discussed flavonoid intake for women. The results showed that women with a diet 

abundant in leeks and other flavonoid-rich foods have a significantly lower chance of 

developing ovarian cancers. This prospective study performed by the Brigham and 

Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School in Boston used flavonoids, which are 

compounds rich in anti-oxidants most commonly found in plants, fruits and teas. Their 

research was based on the intake of five different flavanoids: myricetin, kaempferol, 

quercetin, luteolin and apigenin. Women eating a diet specifically rich in kaempferol, 

which is found in high concentrations in the leaves of leek to protect the plant from 

ultraviolet radiation, exhibited a 40 percent reduction in the risk of developing ovarian 

cancer. 120 This research is still in the prospective stages, but it is leading the way and 

opening new doors in the study of cancer. 121 

Leeks are also very dense in oxalates, which are naturally occurring compounds found in 

plants, animals, and humans. Oxalates are an organic acid which, when in high 

concentrations in bodily fluids, have the potential to form crystals leading to health 

problems such as kidney stones. Thus individuals with a history of digestive tract, 

gallbladder, or kidney problems should watch their oxalate consumption and avoid eating 

leeks. 122 

Culinary Uses 

Sometimes referred to as “green onions on steroids,” leeks 

are available year round and are the mildest in flavor of the 

Allium family. 123 Depending on time of harvest, their flavor 

will change and in the spring and fall they will become 

increasingly sweet. 124 Most often paired with potatoes, they 

are used to make vichyssoise and can be used raw in salads. 

Both the stalk and the white onion base can be eaten, but the 

base can become woody and or unusable as the leak ages. 125 

A popular Scottish equivalent to the French vichyssoise is 

cock-a-leekie. This particular soup, like vichyssoise, 

contains leeks and potatoes, though chicken stock is also 

added. The original recipe featured prunes, and some cooks 

“Leek harvest” (http:// 

www.flickr.com/photos/p 

aulhardy/57641328/). 

will garnish the soup with julienned prunes. Leeks are also included in stews such as the 

French pot-au-feu, which consists of low-cost cuts of beef and is slow-cooked, and are 

occasionally employed for use in vegetable and meat stocks. 126 

17

Cultural Significance 

Leeks play an integral role in Welsh culture. They are one of the national emblems of 

Wales, and have been featured on the one pound Welsh coin—those minted in 1985. 127 In 

addition, leeks play an important cultural role in the Welsh national holiday, St. David’s 

Day (March 1), named after St. David, the patron saint of Wales. 128 Sixty years after St. 

David’s death (approximately 640 AD), the British King Cadwallader was attacked by 

the invading Saxons. According to legend, the Welsh, to distinguish themselves from the 

enemy, wore leeks in their helmets. This battle, known as the Battle of Heathfield, was 

won by the British. To honor this victory in the name of St. David, it is customary for 

residents of Wales to wear a leek or a daffodil in their pockets or hats on March 1. 129 

18 th -century English artist William Hogarth produced a series of eight paintings titled “A Rake’s Progress” 

(1732). The fourth painting, titled “The Arrest,” illustrates the customary Welsh tradition of wearing a leek 

in ones hat on St. David’s Day (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:William_Hogarth_026.jpg). 

18

Chives 


Chive is the smallest species of Alliaceae, the onion family. Because it grows in clumps 

instead of as individual plants, it is referred to as “chives” rather than “chive.” The plant 

is classified as Allium schoenoprasum, with the latter name referring to the rush-like 

leaves of chives. “Chives” is derived from the 

fourteenth-century French word cive—itself 

derived from the Latin term for onion, cepa. 130 


Chive is the most widely distributed member of 

the allium genus, and grows in the wild in North 

America and Eurasia. Because the plant is very 

resistant to cold weather and is winter dormant, it 

can grow in latitudes as high as far north as 70°. 131 

As a result, in North America, chives can be found 

from Newfoundland to Alaska, from New York 

State to Minnesota and southern Oregon, and in 

the Rocky Mountains. The plant has a circumpolar 

distribution in Old World. It extends from Japan, 

China, northern India, and Iran in Asia and the 

Middle East, through the Balkan Mountains, 

northern Italy, and to the Pyrenees Mountains in 

Europe. 132 

Chives originated in the north temperate zone in 

North America, Europe, and Asia, making it the 

only allium species native to both the Old World 

and the New World. Although little is known of 

the early history of chives as a cultivated species, it 

has been established that the plant was known by 

the Chinese 5,000 years ago. Chives were also 

known and enjoyed by the ancient Greeks. 133 

It was not until the sixteenth century, however, 

that chives became popular in European gardens. 

At the time, they were used mostly for food, 



Subkingdom Tracheobionta 

Division Magnoliophyta 


Subclass Liliidae 



Genus Allium 

Species A. schoenoprasum 

Chive and onion illustration, 1885 

(http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Chives). 

although the English botanist John Gerard wrote a medical guide in 1597 in which he 

described chives as an herbal remedy. 134 In the seventeenth century chives was 

introduced to Germany by the Italians. During the 1600’s chives came to be regarded as a 

peasant food in England, yet it was used periodically as a potherb. 

19

Though the English grew chives throughout the 1600’s and 1700’s—it was mentioned as 

part of the supplies of seeders in 1726—the vegetable began to lose favor in England in 

the latter half of the eighteenth century. Of course, this trend was not universal in the 

British Isles. Botanist E. Louis Sturtevant reported in the 1800’s that Scottish families, 

which had traditionally consumed chives in heavy amounts, continued to enjoy chives on 

a regular basis. At the same time, chives were relatively popular among recreational 

gardeners in the U.S. The plant was featured in a list of American esculents in 1806. 135 

Horticulture and Plant Specifics 

Chives is distinguished from other alliums by its flowers, growth in clusters, and its 

narrow slender leaves. The flowers of the plant are normally purple, pink, or sometimes 

white. As many as thirty flowers will form in a one- to two-inch ball at the end of the 

stalk. 136 The flowers stand upright, and open first at the top of the umbel (stalk) before 

opening gradually toward the direction of the base of the stalk. The leaves of chives 

usually stand between one and two feet above ground, with the flower stems reaching 

slightly greater heights. 137 

Cultivation 

The most common method of planting involves 

seeding chives in single rows with about 

fourteen inches of space between them. A gap 

of thirty inches appears between every four or 

so rows. Because chives is dormant in the 

winter, growers will often seed the vegetable 

midway through summer, allowing them to 

harvest in mid-fall and then again in earlyspring 

the following year. Leaves and flowers 

typically develop in abundance during the 

“Chives” (http://www.flickr.com/ 

photos/97775656@N00/153709092/). 

spring and in early summer, and it is this part of chives that gets consumed. (Bulbs do not 

get eaten because they are not well defined.) Growers can even harvest over successive 

four- to five-week intervals throughout the summer and autumn, for chives will continue 

producing clusters of leaves and flowers well after spring harvest. 138 

When chives is harvested, it is cut about one-half to one inch above the soil line. An 

additional one inch or two inches is removed from the freshly cut leaves. The leaves are 

thereafter cooled, washed, cut into pieces about one-eighth of an inch in size, and 

packaged and frozen as quickly as possible to maintain freshness. 139 Of course, while 

chives is often used for culinary purposes, it is most often homegrown and employed in 

ornamental designs. 140 


20

Like onions, chives is subject to assault from a handful of different diseases and 

disorders, including downy mildew, onion smut, and bulb and stem nematode. (These 

pests and ailments are described in greater detail in the section on onions.) 

Nutrition 

For an average male, 100g of chives will provide 30 calories and is very high in calcium 

(11.5 percent of daily intake), iron (16 percent), magnesium (12 percent), vitamin A (43 

percent), and vitamin C (96.8 percent). 141 

Culinary Usage 

Chives can be eaten either freshly cut or in the dehydrated form. When frozen, their 

flavor can last for several months. They are often used to flavor baked potatoes, soups, 

and are often used as a garnish. They can be found year round and are considered a fine 

herb in French cuisine. 

Medicinal Usage 

Similar to other alliums chives exhibit all of the same properties but weaker in 

effectiveness. Chives also have similar antibacterial properties to other alliums. See garlic 

and onion for medicinal effects. 

Chemistry 

See garlic and onion. 

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21

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47 Hitti, Miranda. “Onions May Fight Osteoporosis.” WebMD 8 April 2005. 30 March 2008 

. 


49 Randle, W. M. “Onion Flavor Chemistry and Factors Influencing Flavor Intensity.” American Chemical 

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23

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24

77 Platt. 30. 

78 Rivlin, Richard S. “Historical Perspective on the Use of Garlic.” The Journal of Nutrition 2001. 12 April 

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79 Rivlin, Richard S. 2006. “Significance of Garlic and Its Constituents in Cancer and Cardiovascular 

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82 Estes. 257. 

83 Estes. 260. 


85 Estes. 260. 

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88 Belman, S. 1983. “Onion and garlic oils inhibit tumour promotion.” Carcinogenesis 1983. 1063. 

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90 Perchellet, J. P., E. M. Perchellet, N. L. Abney, et al. “Effects of garlic and onion oils on glutathione 

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isolated mouse epidermal cells treated with tumor promoters.” Cancer Biochemistry Biophysics 299. 

91 Estes. 263. 

92 Auer, W., A. Eiber, E. Hertkorn, et al. “Hypertension and hyperlipidaemia: Garlic helps in mild cases.” 

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94 “Herbs and Spices: Garlic.” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America. New York: Oxford 

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95 “Garlic.” 550. 

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97 Estes. 258. 

98 “Garlic.” 551. 

25



101 “Leek.” Online Etymology Dictionary November 2001. 14 February 2008 . 



104 Glazer, Phyllis. “Learn Why Europeans Love Leeks.” St. Petersburg Times 28 June 2006. 24 February 

2008 . 

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Conee Ornelas: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 1799. 

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107 “Onions and Other Allium Plants. 10. 



110 Estes. 263. 



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115 “Growing Leeks.” 


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118 Estes. 263. 


120 Estes. 264. 

26

121 Gates, M. A., S. S. Tworoger, J. L. Hecht, I. De Vivo, B. Rosner, and S. E. Hankinson. 2007. “A 

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125 “All-Star Medley of Leeks.” 

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. 

129 “Welsh Leek Broth and St. David’s Day.” 




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135 Estes. 264. 

136 Platt. 4. 

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140 Estes. 264. 

141 Estes. 265. 

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27

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“Allicin.” Allicin.com 2008. 17 February 2008 . 

“Allium.” Wikipedia 29 March 2008. 10 February 2008 . 

Auer, W., A. Eiber, E. Hertkorn, et al. “Hypertension and hyperlipidaemia: Garlic helps in mild cases.” 

British Journal of Clinical Practice—Symposium Supplement. 

Belman, S. 1983. “Onion and garlic oils inhibit tumour promotion.” Carcinogenesis 1983. 

“Chives.” The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambidge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 

Cobbett, William. The American Gardener. New York: Modern Library, 2003. 

Cobbett, William. The American Gardener. Philadelphia: J.L. Gihon, 1854. 

Estes, J.W. “The Allium Species: Leeks.” The Cambridge World History of Food. Ed. Kenneth F. Kiple and 

Kriemhild Conee Ornelas: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 

Estes, J.W. “Food as Medicine: Garlic in Ancient and Medieval Medicine.” The Cambridge World History 

of Food. Ed. Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Conee Ornelas: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 

Estes, J.W. “Garlic.” The Cambridge World History of Food. Ed. Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Conee 

Ornelas: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 

Estes, J.W. “Leeks.” The Cambridge World History of Food. Ed. Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Conee 

Ornelas: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 

Estes, J.W. “Staple Foods: Domesticated Plants and Animals: Onion.” The Cambridge World History of 

Food. Ed. Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Conee Omelas: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 

“Garlic.” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 

2004. 

Gates, M. A., S. S. Tworoger, J. L. Hecht, I. De Vivo, B. Rosner, and S. E. Hankinson. 2007. “A 

Prospective Study of Dietary Flavonoid Intake and Icidence of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer.” International 

Journal of Cancer 15 November 2007. 

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28

Jones, Henry A. and Louis K. Mann. Onions and Their Allies. London: Leonard Hill [Books] Limited, 

1963. 

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benefits.” Cornell News 7 October 2004. 30 March 2008 . 

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isolated mouse epidermal cells treated with tumor promoters.” Cancer Biochemistry Biophysics 

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2008 . 

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. 

You, W. C., W. J. Blot, Y. S. Chang, et al. “Allium vegetables and reduced risk of stomach cancer.” 

Journal of the National Cancer Institute 1969. 

29

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