The story of Emperor Yu of the Xia dynasty is well known to all Chinese. In Taiwan's history textbooks, he is a sage gratefully venerated by the common people for his success in taming the waters. His achievements, and the fact that his son Qi was wise and able, won him the support of the nobles and allowed him to found a hereditary dynasty.

But mainland textbooks cast Yu in a very different light. They say Yu's clan gained its special position because after Yu became head of the alliance of tribes, he amassed power in his own hands and punished any who opposed his rule. By succeeding Yu after his death, his son Qi "broke with the established rules for the leadership of the tribal alliance," and from then on the old system of ceding the throne to another was replaced by a hereditary succession.

Interestingly, Hong Kong's history textbooks only trace China's dynasties back as far as the beginning of reliable historical records in the Shang dynasty. They do not discuss the Xia dynasty, so naturally we are told nothing of Yu's part in establishing a hereditary monarchic system. But other textbooks do give a thoroughly positive view of Emperor Yu's achievement in taming the waters: one first-year secondary school textbook describes how through 13 years of ceaseless effort, Yu finally brought the flood waters under control,and how "while he was taming the waters, he would often pass by his own door without going in. This spirit of selflessness and working for the common good aroused people's deep admiration."

How do textbooks from the three areas handle lessons on moral character and proper behavior? Jim Ying Nam, a teacher at a Hong Kong secondary school, says that because Hong Kong does not have "civics" classes, content about morality and behavior is all included in the teaching materials for other subjects. For instance, chemistry textbooks especially stress: "When doing experiments, be sure not to waste materials."

Unlike in Hong Kong, teaching materials in mainland China and Taiwan seem to take the approach of teaching morality as a separate subject; but the emphasis on both sides of the Taiwan Strait is different.

For instance, both Taiwan and mainland China stress the virtues of being filial to one's parents and respecting one's elders, but for what reason? Taiwan's civics textbooks say it is to "express our sincere gratitude and respect," while the mainland's say it is to "respect the fruits of their labor."

Do slogans calling for courtesy and a sense of honor mean anything to mainland schoolchildren? How are moral values taught? Taiwan, Hong Kong and mainland China all have different approaches.

Different ideologies

Many similar examples are to be found in the three areas' textbooks, and experts who have compared their content have found that the differences are "far greater than originally expected."

The question of whether the content of school education and textbooks should be politically controlled is one worth discussing in itself. But Professor Ou Yung-sheng of National Taipei Teachers' College observes that there must be very few countries anywhere in the world where political leaders can afford not to be concerned about the content of school education, or where political ideology is not expressed in school teaching materials.

Ideology is the greatest difference between textbooks from Taiwan and mainland China. Textbooks on either side of the Taiwan Strait are written according to general subject syllabuses, but "one side's are based on a belief in the Three Principles of the People, while the other's are based on a belief in communism," says Professor Huang Cheng-chieh of National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU), pointing out the most fundamental difference.

Although both have reasons for their beliefs, comparatively speaking the mainland's syllabuses and textbooks contain much more of the ideology of the Communist Party and of socialism, "making it explicit that education must serve politics," says Huang Cheng-chieh. In his view, Taiwan's syllabuses also incorporate the spirit of the Three Principles of the People, but it is expressed in "vague and abstract terms, in the hope that it can be acceptable to everyone, and not serve a minority of political parties or interest groups."

The principal of political guidance in mainland syllabuses not only covers subjects in the humanities such as language and history, where it is couched in such phrases as: "The study of language and literature must be guided by Marxism and must fully implement the general policy on education. . .," and "[it must] serve socialist material and spiritual culture" (from the lower middle school Chinese language and literature syllabus); even for a subject such as biology, which has no apparent connection with politics, the syllabus says that "through the study of the basic knowledge of biology," one can "have the pupils learn the requirements of dialectical materialism and patriotic thinking."

Hong Kong textbooks, which tend to adopt a pragmatic approach, do their utmost to avoid ideology. When describing historical incidents they mainly confine themselves to facts, and when talking about factors leading to conflicts they also do their best to avoid either laudatory or derogatory language, and try to bring out both positive and negative aspects. For instance, when speaking of the first Qin emperor, who is described in both Taiwan and mainland textbooks as a "tyrant," Hong Kong secondary school teaching materials bring out both the positive and negative aspects of his regime. Even his "burning books and burying scholars alive," which is roundly criticized by both the mainland and Taiwan, has its positive side: "As well as consolidating political power, it also helped establish the concept of unity and eliminate separatist thinking." On the negative side, however, "suppressing thought . . . caused widespread resentment . . . and the order to burn the books . . . did enormous damage to Chinese culture."

Frequent use of slogans is common to both sides of the Taiwan Strait. This slogan on a street in Guangzhou reflects the mainland's "basic national policies." （photo by Pu Hua-chih）

Who is most patriotic?

In the way they express ideology in their textbooks, we can describe the mainland's approach as open and straightforward, while Taiwan's is vague and ambiguous. This difference is particularly striking in primary school textbooks.

A mainland "thinking and morality" textbook for the sixth year of primary school contains the following passage in an appendix:

"I love the Great Wall, I love our rivers;

I love the five-starred red flag, I love the white dove;

I love my red [Communist Youth League] neckerchief, I love flowers;

I love Daddy and Mummy

I love my teachers and classmates. . .

But, you ask, what do I love most of all?

Quite simply:

Most of all I love my motherland!"

Evidently this lesson is teaching "patriotism." But on seeing words like this people aged over 40 or 50 who grew up in Taiwan may give a knowing smile, for "it seems strangely familiar," says Professor Huang Cheng-chieh of NTNU. But that era of adulation and fervor is long gone. Today in our elementary school "life and ethics" textbook, the story about patriotism goes like this:

"One day Lung-lung's Daddy took him to Tahu in Miaoli County to pick strawberries. At the foot of the Miaoli Mountains they saw a pagoda, and Lung-lung asked: 'What spirit do they worship there?' His Daddy answered: 'That pagoda isn't for a spirit, its for the hero Lo Fu-hsing, who died leading our Taiwanese compatriots in resisting the Japanese. He was a Chinese whose ancestors came from Guangdong Province. He was born in Indonesia, but later he moved back to Guangdong, so he had the chance to study the Chinese classics, history, and poetry, and get a good grounding in Chinese culture."

Apart from "Picking Strawberries in Tahu Rural Township," the "patriotic" themes in the "life and ethics" textbook include "Visiting the National Palace Museum," "Tian Dan Restores the State of Qi" and so on.

What attitudes towards ethnic minorities should textbooks impart? This is a topic being discussed not only in Taiwan, Hong Kong and mainland China, but in countries all over the world.

Do as you would be done by v. stand up and be counted

Emphasizing respect for and veneration of political leaders is a major way of imparting patriotic thinking, but the images of political leaders as portrayed in the Chinese textbooks for primary school children in Taiwan and mainland China are very different.

Ou Yung-sheng has found that when Sun Yatsen or Chiang Kai-shek appear in Taiwan's textbooks, the texts mainly describe how in their childhood both of them were studious, eager to improve themselves, compassionate and so on. But when Mao Zedong appears in mainland books, they tell how he could not bring himself to exchange his old cotton-padded jacket for a new one, only changing it after his subordinates tried every way they could think of to persuade him; or how as a child he helped his grandmother with the rice harvest and gave his portion of the harvest to his impoverished companions. Or again how as a leader he encouraged children and Communist Youth League members to participate in national construction, how he led the Eighth Route Army in revolution and war, and how he was a "benevolent and humane man who worked hard for the people and gained their love, respect and veneration."

From their political symbolism to their political ideals, the messages imparted by the textbooks on both sides of the Taiwan Strait have almost nothing in common. In Hong Kong textbooks, on the other hand, political topics of this kind are deliberately avoided.

Looking at the political symbols which appear in Chinese textbooks, in Taiwan the main symbols include the plum flower (the ROC's national flower) and the ROC flag, while on the mainland they include the Great Hall of the People, Beijing, Tian'anmen Gate and the five-star PRC flag. In their description of the armed forces, Taiwan textbooks stress their "contribution in defending the country and people," while the mainland praises the Red Army's past achievements in the "proletarian revoluton.

When it comes to concepts and views of society and people, the two side's textbooks also differ in content. For instance, on the subject of "friends," Taiwan's books stress "do as you would be done by," and "you will become like those you mix with"; but mainland texts express the view that in one's dealings with friends one should "take a clear stand between right and wrong." They stress frankness between friends and the courage to criticize oneself and others.

Professor Chen Kuang-hui of NTNU observes that comparing civics courses (called "thought and politics" on the mainland) across the strait, the values stressed on either side such as the group versus the individual, Confucianist thinking versus socialist morality, initiative versus obedience, etc., make him feel there is a great difference between the Chinese under the two educational systems, and we need to increase communication.

In Hong Kong "citizenship and morality" is not taught as a separate subject in schools; instead, teaching materials in all subjects present factual information and practical examples to explain various moral values. A school education which stresses individual development makes Hong Kong people attach more importance to efficiency, material gain and ability than do the Chinese of Taiwan and the mainland.

In recent years mainland archaeologists have made many important discoveries, but Taiwan's textbooks have failed to keep up. （photo by Vincent Chang）

History of the oppressed and exploited

Differences in ideology also affect the picture of history and the world view imparted on both sides of the strait and in Hong Kong. A comparison of the history textbooks makes this difference all the clearer.

Comparing such aspects as what material is covered, how it is arranged, what is chosen as basic historical knowledge and how history is explained reveals differences in the view of history on each side of the strait. "One side looks at history from the point of view of traditional monarchic dynasties, of emperors, kings, generals and ministers; while the other looks from the perspective of the people, of the oppressed and exploited," says Professor Wang Shou-nan of the history department at National Chengchih University.

The material covered in the mainland's textbooks is arranged in a progression from primitive society through slave society, feudal society and semi-colonial/semi-feudal society to socialist society, unlike Taiwan's textbooks which follow the order of the dynasties from Xia to Shang to Zhou and so on.

These different views of history mean that some historical figures described in each side's textbooks hardly seem to be the same person.

The story of the emperor Yu is one example. Professor Kung Peng-cheng of the history department at Chung Cheng University, who has a deep interest both in cross-strait relations and in history, observes that in fact both sides are both right and wrong, for each tells just half the story. "Taiwan stresses the first part, in which Yu gains the support of the nobility, and the mainland plays up the second part, in which Yu punishes and kills the nobles; but each is selective in its own way." Hong Kong textbooks meanwhile take the most pragmatic approach, mentioning only Yu's "selflessness."

Wang Shou-nan points out that the fact that the mainland stresses the history of the common people and their role in wars is related to its class view of history, and this is obviously different from Taiwan. Taiwan still stresses the traditional view of history, emphasizing the higher strata of society, international relations and so on, but mainland textbooks emphasize the "history of popular struggle," such as the uprisings under the Zhou dynasty, the Da Ze rebellion in the late Qin, the "Greenwood" and "Red Brow" peasant uprisings in the reign of the Han usurper Wang Mang, the Wagang Army peasant war at the end of the Sui and so on, all of which are quite unfamiliar to schoolchildren in Taiwan.

This bronze statue of Sun Yat-sen in a memorial hall at his old residence in Zhongshan City, Guangdong Province, differs somewhat from the image people in Taiwan are accustomed to seeing. But Sun is revered as the Founder of the Republic on the mainland too. （photo by Pu Hua-chih）

Li Zicheng, folk hero?

Thus it is not surprising if some figures such as Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong, who are portrayed as marauding bandits in Taiwan's textbooks, are presented on the mainland as "folk heroes."

For instance, the activities of the Tang dynasty figure Huang Chao are described in Taiwan's history textbooks as the "Huang Chao Revolt." The books say that his was the "largest" and "longest" of the rebellions in the latter part of the Tang dynasty, that "he pillaged large areas to the north and south of the Yangtze River," and that "one after another Luoyang and Chang'an fell into his hands." The use of words like "revolt," "pillaged," and "destroyed" expresses the view held in Taiwan.

But the story as told by mainland textbooks is: "The peasant rebel army led by Huang Chao fought valiantly for ten years, marched tens of thousands of miles, sweeping across more than half of China, and set up a government in Chang'an which caused the collapse of the reactionary Tang rule." Phrases like "the rebel army . . . fought valiantly," and "the reactionary Tang rule" express the mainland point of view.

This example also highlights the basic pragmatic stance of Hong Kong textbooks, which simply describe Huang's rebellion as the most powerful and longest lasting of the popular uprisings at the end of the Tang dynasty.

There is also a difference of emphasis between Taiwan and mainland China where the history of other countries is concerned. Taiwan's textbooks stress the history of Western Europe and the USA, while the mainland's concentrate on descriptions of national wars and wars of the ordinary people, such as the Latin-American struggles for independence from Spain, and the Ethiopian war. "Some of them we had never even heard of," says Professor Wang Shou-nan.

In other foreign history, when describing ancient Egypt for example, Taiwan accents its culture, while the mainland emphasizes the slave system. On the Renaissance, Taiwan's books stress that "the main spirit was one of humanism, to make people once again realize the value and importance of human beings." But the mainland view is that the Renaissance "served the interests of the bourgeoisie."

The space devoted to describing various countries of the world and the aspects stressed in each case differ vastly between textbooks on either side of the Taiwan Strait. Doe s this affect schoolchildren's world view? （photo by Chien Yung-pin）

Two versions of modern history

On recent and modern history, each side tells a different story, and "you wouldn't think you were reading about the same thing at all," says Wang Shou-nan.

For instance, on the foundation of the Whampoa Military Academy, the mainland stresses that it was set up "with the help of the Soviet Union and the Communist Party"; Taiwan is less explicit, but the context implies that most of the credit was due to late President Chiang Kai-shek.

On the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), Taiwan's textbooks cover it in the order of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, the battle for Shanghai, the atrocities committed by the Japanese army, the military course of the war, domestic and foreign policy during the period, and so on, basically presenting the view of the Kuomintang central government.

Mainland textbooks on the other hand stress the Communist Party of China's development of an all-out resistance campaign behind enemy lines, stressing that "the Nationalist government, for fear of unleashing the great power of the people to resist the Japanese, only mobilized the government and the army in partial resistance, leading to severe military failures. The CPC implemented a total war of resistance, effectively complementing the Kuomintang's overall military strategy and threatening the enemy's rear."

Mainland textbooks are particularly hostile towards the Kuomintang and the political power of the Chiang family. For instance, a contemporary history textbook's section on "the establishment of the Nanjing regime" contains the following passage: "The four great clans meant the families of Chiang Kai-shek, Song Ziwen, Kong Xiangxi, and [the Chen brothers] Chen Guofu and Chen Lifu. They exploited state power, used trickery and deception to amass gigantic fortunes, and relied on British and American imperialism to establish a bureaucrat-capitalist class which held the greatest power in China." The books are also peppered with phrases like "the reactionary faction of the Kuomintang" or "the Chiang dynasty."

In comparison, when speaking about the Communist Party and its members such as Mao Zedong, Taiwan's textbooks use much more even language. Mao Zedong is only briefly mentioned, quite without animosity, in the section on Chiang Kai-shek's attempt to annihilate the communists.

By comparison, Hong Kong's textbooks are livelier in their content and layout, contain less ideology and have a more pragmatic style.

No sign of Han chauvinism

Hong Kong's modern history textbooks merely present the facts. On the war with Japan, Hong Kong books say that both the KMT and the CPC made "contributions," but that "the nationalist army was the main military force resisting the Japanese." But during the second phase of the war the communist Eighth Route Army and New Fourth Army were able to pin down some Japanese forces, and during the war the communist forces were able to increase their strength.

In mainland textbooks on modern history, we see none of the abundant material on Taiwan's past that appears in Taiwan's textbooks, such as Taiwan's development, construction in Taiwan, the foundation in Taipei of a branch of Sun Yat-sen's Hsing Chung Hui (a forerunner of the Kuomintang), and so on. "The mainland treats the Republic of China as having ceased to exist in 1949," says Professor Wang Shou-nan. On the other hand, Hong Kong's history books mainly stress Taiwan's economic achievements in the period since the KMT government withdrew there. Their mainland history finishes with Deng Xiaoping's visit to the US in 1978. It is worth noting that all mention of the Tian'anmen Square Massacre, which was previously included in the textbooks, has been removed.

But there are areas of agreement between the mainland and Taiwan. For instance, the historical status of Sun Yat-sen as the founder of the Republic of China is affirmed by both sides. Some historical figures who promoted ethnic integration or did meritorious service in ethnically mixed areas, such as Zhang Qian and Pan Chao, or who repelled foreign invaders, such as Wei Qing, or who made great contributions to academic thought, such as Sima Qian, are seen positively on both sides.

Comparatively speaking, the mainland shows greater respect for minority peoples, and its textbooks show no trace of "Han chauvinism." In mainland texts one will find none of the traditional derogatory names for non-Han peoples. The interethnic wars of the Three Kingdoms (220-265), Jin (265-420), and Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-581) periods are no longer termed "the 'rape' of China by the five barbarian tribes"; the "Jingkang 'insult'" of 1126, when the Northern Song dynasty fell at the hands of the Jin, is called the "Jingkang incident"; the "sinification campaign" by the Northern Wei emperor Xiao Wen Di (ruled 471-499) is termed a "reform," and so on. Professor Liao Lung-sheng of NTNU's history department, who has been studying the mainland's upper middle school history textbooks, finds them "far more down-to-earth than Taiwan's."

As cross-strait exchanges have grown, the two sides have come to a consensus in their view of some aspects of history. For instance, Wang Shounan says that on the "five tribes' rape of China," the latest textbooks no longer highlight these conflicts as "foreign wars," and in future they may very well be treated as "internal wars." And the mainland no longer portrays the Sino-Japanese War as having been fought by the Communist party alone, but has gradually come to acknowledge the Kuomintang's contribution.

The begonia leaf and the old mother hen

Comparative research on Chinese language and literature textbooks by Taiwan's National Institute for Compilation and Translation shows that in the texts selected for use in the mainland's textbooks, there is less classical Chinese and poetry and more vernacular writing, prose fiction and drama. In comparison, the texts used in Taiwan's textbooks include more classical literary language, and cover a very wide range from the Confucian Analects, Zhuangzi, the Book of History and the Zuo Zhuan to the Historical Records and even translations of Buddhist canons. Moreover, Taiwan's Chinese syllabuses explicitly include such goals as "mastering standard Mandarin Chinese" and "brush calligraphy skills" as teaching goals. Evidently Taiwan's Chinese textbooks, in addition to training linguistic skills, also bear a mission of transmitting culture.

Comparing the two sides' geography textbooks, the most striking difference is in the map of China itself. How big is China? Taiwan's map has the outline of a "begonia leaf," while the mainland's is an "old mother hen." So who is right? For political reasons Taiwan still uses the "begonia leaf" map, but where appropriate, current geography textbooks now add notes explaining such things as the mainland's rail and road construction since 1949, which may go some way to bridging the gap. Hong Kong uses the "old mother hen" map.

Some geography teachers in Taiwan thoroughly admire the way mainland textbooks use folk songs, slang and other vernacular forms of language to express geographical phenomena, such as "Four seasons on the same mountain, walk 5 km and you enter a different climate"; "The hot spring gurgles like a bubbling cauldron of boiling water"; or "If you want to get rich, first build roads." Many experts are discussing how such elements could be used in Taiwan's teaching materials.

Who's the real culprit?

What impression does one gain from reading all these textbooks, which look similar but are actually so different? A third-year lower middle school pupil surnamed Lin, who has been to school on both sides of the Taiwan Strait but is now attending the Nankai Middle School in Tianjin, says that whether in Taiwan or on the mainland, you have to learn the texts by heart. But later you will just forget them, so how much influence can they have? He believes that the only thing textbooks are good for is to help you pass exams!

Professor Kung Peng-cheng believes that in fact what textbooks impart is an attitude towards life. Perhaps after reading so many textbooks which talk about class struggle and resisting oppression, mainland schoolchildren are more aware of the darker side of life. When they meet with setbacks they may be better able to overcome them--but then again perhaps not. And after schoolchildren in Taiwan read teaching materials which stress benevolence, helping each other, honesty and the like, they may perhaps be inclined to think that everything will go smoothly and easily in their dealings with others, but when they really meet with an adverse environment they may not know what to do--but then again, perhaps not.

But Kung Peng-cheng stresses that all this is just speculation. For no-one really knows just how much of what children read in these textbooks is "internalized" as values. Perhaps the political, economic and social differences across the Taiwan strait are the real "culprits" behind our frequent misunderstandings!

[Picture Caption]

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Although schoolchildren in Taiwan, Hong Kong and mainland China are all Chinese, there are differences as well as similarities in the textbooks they learn from. How big is China? Even this map reveals a difference of opinion.

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Do slogans calling for courtesy and a sense of honor mean anything to mainland schoolchildren? How are moral values taught? Taiwan, Hong Kong and mainland China all have different approaches.

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Frequent use of slogans is common to both sides of the Taiwan Strait. This slogan on a street in Guangzhou reflects the mainland's "basic national policies." (photo by Pu Hua-chih)

p.12

What attitudes towards ethnic minorities should textbooks impart? This is a topic being discussed not only in Taiwan, Hong Kong and mainland China, but in countries all over the world.

p.13

In recent years mainland archaeologists have made many important discoveries, but Taiwan's textbooks have failed to keep up. (photo by Vincent Chang)

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This bronze statue of Sun Yat-sen in a memorial hall at his old residence in Zhongshan City, Guangdong Province, differs somewhat from the image people in Taiwan are accustomed to seeing. But Sun is revered as the Founder of the Republic on the mainland too. (photo by Pu Hua-chih)

p.15

The space devoted to describing various countries of the world and the aspects stressed in each case differ vastly between textbooks on either side of the Taiwan Strait. Does this affect schoolchildren's world view? (photo by Chien Yung-pin)

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By comparison, Hong Kong's textbooks are livelier in their content and layout, contain less ideology and have a more pragmatic style.