Automotive Battery Supply Chain Analysis 2021 Final - Abb - Ams - Abridged Version

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Electric Vehicle Battery Supply Chain Analysis
How Battery Demand and Production Are Reshaping the Automotive Industry
March 2021
Report author: Daniel Harrison, Automotive Analyst

Daniel.harrison@ultimamedia.com
Report editor: Christopher Ludwig, Editor-in-Chief

Christopher.ludwig@ultimamedia.com
This electric vehicle battery supply chain report and database is the independent work and
research from Automotive from Ultima Media, the business intelligence unit of Ultima
Media and Automotive Manufacturing Solutions.
For more information and to read more reports and coverage of automotive manufacturing,
register free to become a member of automotivemanufacturingsolutions.com.
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Table of Contents
1. Executive Summary…………………………………………………………………………..…7
1.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries Will Reshape Automotive Supply Chains
1.2 The Future of Battery Supply Will Be Diversified
2. Market Definitions……………………………………………………………..….….11
2.1 Defining the Automotive Battery Supply Chain
2.2 Note on Units
2.3 Lithium-Ion Battery Types
Table 2.1 Lithium-Ion Battery Types
3.The Race to Build The Battery Supply Chain……………………………...13

3.1 Battle of the Value Chain
3.2 Electric Vehicle Demand Forecast
Figure 3.1 Global Passenger New Vehicle Powertrain Forecast by Type 2021-2040
Figure 3.2 Global New Vehicle Powertrain Forecast Marketshare by Type 2020
Figure 3.4 Global New Vehicle Powertrain Forecast Marketshare By Type 2040
Figure 3.5 Global Lithium Battery Demand & Capacity Forecast by Sector 2020-2030
Figure 3.6 Battery Supply Chain Schematic Diagram
3.3 Localisation of the Battery Supply Chain
Table 3.1 EU Roadmap For Rules Of Origin For European Lithium Battery Production
3.4 Diversifying the Supply Base
3.5 Vertical Integration in the Battery Supply Chain
Table 3.2 Vertical Integration and Level of Control in EV Batteries Compared by OEM
3.6 Ethical Supply Chains
3.7 Changing Strategies for Battery Pack Integration
3.8 Potential Disruptors to Battery Capacity Demand
3.9 Battery Supply Chain Is A Competitive Advantage
4. Battery Raw Materials and Minerals………………………………………...29

4.1 Lithium Suppliers
Table 4.1 Leading Global Lithium Suppliers
4.2 Cobalt Suppliers
Table 4.2 Leading Cobalt Suppliers
4.3 Nickel Suppliers
Table 4.3 Leading Nickel Suppliers
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4.4 Manganese Suppliers
Table 4.4 Leading Manganese Suppliers
5. Battery Component Suppliers……………………………………………………30

5.1 Cathodes Materials
Table 5.1 Leading Cathode Materials Manufacturers
5.2 Anode Materials
Table 5.2 Leading Anode Materials Manufacturers
5.3 Electrolytes
Table 5.3 Leading Electrolyte Manufacturers
5.4 Separators
Table 5.4 Leading Separators Manufacturers
6. Battery Cell Market and Production………………………………………….32

6.1 Largest Global Battery Cell Companies
Table 6.1 Top 20 Lithium Battery Cell Manufacturers 2020
Figure 6.1 Top 20 Lithium Battery Cell Manufacturers Production Capacity Share 2020
6.2 Battery Cell Manufacturing Plants
Table 6.2 Lithium Battery Plants and Production Capacity Forecast by Region 2020 vs 2030
Figure 6.2 Lithium Battery Production Capacity by Region 2020 vs. 2030 (GWh)
Table 6.3 Europe Lithium Battery Plants Current and Announced
Table 6.4 North America Lithium Battery Plants Current and Announced
Table 6.5 Asia Pacific Lithium Battery Plants Current and Announced
7. Companies Providing Battery Management Systems (BMS),

Thermal Management Systems (TMS) and Battery Pack Cases…….49
Table 7.1 Leading Battery Management Systems (BMS) Companies
Table 7.2 Thermal Management Systems (TMS) Companies
Table 7.3 Battery Pack Cases Companies
8. Disruptive Battery Cell Technologies………………………………………..51

Table 8.1 Companies Developing Potentially Disruptive Battery Cell Technologies
9. Battery Pack Assembly Plants…………………………………………………..53

Table 9.1 Battery Pack Assembly Plants
10. Automotive OEM Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Assembly Plants…59
5
Table 10.1 OEM Hybrid & EV Vehicle Assembly Plants
11. OEMs and Battery Cell Supplier Database ……………………..………87

Table 11.1 OEMs and Battery Cell Supplier Database
12. EV and Hybrid Export Markets Analysis……………………..…………..94

Table 12.1 Top 30 Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Exporting Countries by dollar value 2019
Figure 12.1 Top 30 Electric & Hybrid Vehicle (X)EV Exporting Countries by dollar value 2019
13. Automotive Battery Re-Use and Recycling Companies…………..97

13.1 Re-using EV Batteries for A Second Life
Table 13.1 Examples of OEMs Re-Using EV Batteries in Other Applications
13.2 Recycling Automotive Batteries
Table 13.2 Leading Automotive Battery Recycling Companies
Table 13.3 Other Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Companies
14. Conclusions: Local, Strategic Supply………….…………………….…….......102
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………..……………….…….105
A. Credits
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1. Executive Summary
1.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries Will Reshape Automotive Supply Chains
Lithium-ion batteries are central to the success of automotive OEMs’ electrification
strategies in terms of improving the driving range and price competitiveness of electric
vehicles (EVs). Carmakers and battery manufacturers are aiming to improve battery quality
and bring down prices to below $100 per kilowatt hour (KWh), a rate at which EVs can
compete with traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles.
However, battery technology and prices are not the only factors at play. As EV demand rises,
it is becoming especially critical for manufacturers to manage the procurement and
production of batteries. And there are serious questions over whether supply will keep up
with demand across the battery supply chain.
Even before the Covid-19 crisis, there were growing reports of OEMs facing production
issues as a result of difficulties sourcing batteries and cells. In the aftermath of global
shutdowns and subsequent restarts following the first wave of the pandemic, EV production
again felt the squeeze in supply as demand ramped up, impacting output of key products
like Tesla’s Model 3, for example.
More recently, the wider shortage of electronic components, including semiconductors and
microchips, has compounded these issues. There are further bottlenecks in the supply of
lithium and certain materials and minerals in the battery supply chain, with the risk of price
spikes.
Such supply issues could lead to potential lost sales, unnecessary costs and lower profits for
manufacturers at a particularly critical time. Analysis of the fast-developing battery industry
reveals why many of these teething problems arise. Not only are there a new set of
companies compared to the supply chain for internal combustion engines (ICEs), but the EV
battery chain introduces new technologies, regulations, safety and environmental concerns.
But growth of the sector is set to be exceptional, propelled by 20% compound annual
growth rates (CAGR) for global EV sales over the next decade. Battery production capacity
will likely need to outpace EV demand to meet the rising need for lithium-ion power in other
sectors, along with mitigating supply and production constraints. We estimate that global
capacity for lithium-ion batteries will increase from 450 gigawatt hours (GWh) in 2020 to
more than 2,850 GWh by 2030.
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This supply chain will help to redefine the automotive industry, bringing strategic
opportunities for many manufacturers and suppliers – but also considerable risks and
disruptions.
This report tracks the rising scale and pace of the battery chain and maps out the detail of
its fast-emerging supply chain. It will help OEMs, suppliers and service providers to better
understand new requirements and evaluate the investments that the battery value chain
will demand. One clear finding is that capitalising on the electric revolution will not just be
about having the best technology or price – but also the need to build, secure and, where
necessary, change battery capacity in different regions. This report will help stakeholders
across the supply chain to anticipate and make these decisions.
1.2 The Future of Battery Supply Will Be Diversified

The battery supply chain is highly complex, made up of a number of critical minerals,
materials and components, many sourced and produced from companies relatively new to
the automotive sector. The locations for materials stretch across regions, including China,
Africa, Australia and South America. The production of lithium-ion cells is also largely
concentrated in Asia.
As the battery represents 30% or more of the value of a vehicle, established OEMs and tier
suppliers – not to mention governments – want to take more control of the battery chain,
rather than see profits and jobs shift to other players and locations. It has been estimated
that a complete European battery supply chain, for example, from upstream materials to
recycling, would be worth up to €250 billion ($303 billion) a year and could create 4m jobs
across the EU.
OEMs such as the Volkswagen Group, Toyota, General Motors and BMW are establishing
new supply partnerships and joint ventures to increase lithium-ion battery and cell
production, in some cases with a view to commercialise this capacity by selling batteries to
other OEMs. Tesla, meanwhile, is taking steps to gain more control and vertically integrate
more aspects of battery production, including cell manufacturing but also the mining and
processing of key materials. Other OEMs are considering the strategy that works best for
them. But increasingly, carmakers are looking to a diversified battery strategy.
There are also emerging legislative and regulatory dimensions to this battery race. National
governments in Europe and at the EU level, for example, are investing state money in
supporting the development of a regional battery supply chain – as well as legislating for
higher localisation rates. Trade agreements such as the EU-UK free trade deal, as well as the
US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), include targets for increasing regional battery
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content. In February, Joe Biden, the new US president, also signed an executive order to
undertake a strategic review of critical supply chains, including for large capacity batteries
for electric vehicles, as well as for semiconductors. Increasingly, over dependence on a
single region or set of suppliers is seen not only as a competitive issue but also one of
potential national security concern. Some experts, such as Simon Moores, head of lithium-
ion battery data firm Benchmark Minerals, have referred to the push for regional battery
production and supply chains as an ‘arms race’.
The competition is increasingly contentious. In the US, LG Energy Solution – the battery-
focused division spun off by South Korean battery giant LG Chem – filed a trade-secret
lawsuit against SK Innovation (SKI) that has resulted in a 10-year ban on SKI selling and
importing batteries in the US (with an exception for supplying existing contracts with
Volkswagen and Ford), raising serious questions over current supply and battery production
plans. It also highlights how important securing and diversifying battery supply will be for
OEMs.
Despite these challenges, a firm outline of an expanding battery supply chain is clearly
taking shape. Battery manufacturers and startups have announced construction of more
than 80 new gigafactories across the globe to produce lithium-ion cells and batteries, and
many more will be needed over the next decade. Europe, though still far behind China and
Asia in battery and cell production, is set to emerge as a major player, with the most
announcements for new gigafactories so far. The US and North America have lagged behind
but are also set for growth. China is expanding its base even further and will likely play a
major role in the global battery and finished electric vehicle supply chain.
There is no guarantee that the announced gigafactories will all become reality, nor that the
ambitious battery capacity targets that many battery suppliers have set will be achievable.
These factories, after all, require tremendous capital investment, and they are dependent
on fast-changing technology. The profitability of such operations is also far from a certainty.
And yet, the demand for this capacity is set to grow exponentially.
There are also questions over the strategic role that EV batteries will ultimately play for
OEMs. Some experts suggest that batteries are becoming commodities and will eventually
offer little difference in price or performance. Research for this report indicates the
contrary: EV batteries are a long way from being truly commoditised, with considerable
differences in price, quality, driving range and energy density across different chemistries
and combinations.
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That is partly why it has become even more important that OEMs develop multiple supply
relationships and partnerships with battery specialists. Whereas OEMs previously tended to
have exclusive battery supply agreements, they are increasingly pursuing the best quality
and competitive technology available, including a mix of contracts with multiple players and
even in-house production. We ultimately expect that OEMs will want such flexibility that
they could even switch battery suppliers mid-product cycle, so as to take advantage of
available supply and improvements in technology.
The race to electrification will inevitably bring pain and disruption to many parts of the
supply chain. For OEMs, developing and producing ICE powertrains have been part of how
brands differentiate themselves; phasing out petrol and diesel threatens many
manufacturing and engineering jobs, too. As EV powertrains have fewer components, many
existing suppliers may be threatened and even eliminated.
But electrification and especially the battery supply chain represent one of the most
significant growth opportunities across the automotive industry. The new manufacturing
networks, supply patterns and business relationships will play a large role in defining the
next generation of the automotive value chain.
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2. Market Definitions
2.1 Defining the Automotive Battery Supply Chain
• This report focuses only on batteries for tractive power or powertrain – as used in
electric and hybrid electric vehicles. It does not cover the conventional, usually lead acid
(Pb) batteries used for starting an engine and for ancillary functions such as lights,
dashboard and other electrical systems.
• Batteries for vehicle powertrains are currently more than 99% of lithium-ion chemical
composition. However, in some applications, such as the smaller batteries fitted to
hybrids such as the Toyota Prius, the battery is the Nickel Metal Hydride type (NiMH).
However, even that composition is changing with later model versions moving to lithium-
ion.
• Both passenger vehicles and commercial vehicles are included in the definition because
there is significant innovation and growth from vehicles such as buses and trucks.
• The report predominantly focuses upon conventional 4-wheel vehicles and does not
specifically refer to 2-wheel electric motorcycles, e-bicycles or e-scooters. However, the
battery supply chain detailed in this report may also supply those products.
• The report lists a wide range of lithium cell suppliers and manufacturers supplying the
automotive industry. However, whilst many battery companies exclusively cater to
automotive, some also supply a mixture of sectors such as energy storage, consumer
electronics and others. We have also included some lithium battery cell manufacturers
that currently only supply to non-automotive sectors, because they are still part of the
wider lithium battery supply chain (albeit at lower volumes). As EV volumes rise, there is
a possibility that these manufacturers will also get involved in supplying the automotive
sector.
• The report does not focus on companies predominantly involved in the NiMh or Pb
battery supply chains, although there is some overlap between those companies and the
lithium-ion battery supply chain.
2.2 Note on Units

This report refers to various electrical power units. They refer to the following energy units:
KWh = 1,000 (or one thousand) watts for 1 hour

MWh = 1,000,000 (or one million) watts for 1 hour
GWh = 1,000,000,000 (or one billion) watts for 1 hour
A typical EV has a battery pack of 50 KWh (50,000 watts for 1 hour). A factory producing 1
GWh per year of battery cells can therefore supply around 20,000 vehicle battery packs per
year.
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2.3 Lithium-ion Battery Types
The term ‘lithium-ion’ battery is an umbrella term that refers to a broad group of battery
chemistries that include lithium, but which are subtly different. Within this category there
are significantly different chemistries with a range of different price and performance
characteristics suitable for different applications. In development there are various other
battery types such as lithium-sulphur (Li-S), lithium-air (Li-Air) and solid state but these are
yet to be commercialised.
Table 2.1 summarises the key types of lithium-ion batteries that OEMs are using in electric
and hybrid vehicles.
Table 2.1 Lithium-Ion Battery Types

Type Description
LFP Lithium Iron Phosphate. A type of cathode material containing LiFePO4. LFP is
one of the safest li-ion battery cathodes, but with lower specific energy.
LCO Lithium Cobalt Oxide – LCO has high specific energy and high cost due to high
cobalt content. It is cathode material with a chemical formula of LiCoO2. Models
that use this technology include the Tesla Roadster and Smart ForTwo EV.
LMO Lithium Manganese Oxide – LMO has around 30% lower energy density than
LCO, hence most blend with Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide.
NMC Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide. This composition can provide high
specific energy or power with high density and thermal stability. That proportion
of N, M and C is denoted by the numbers NMC111 and varies by company
having switched from NMC111 to NMC442 to NMC622, and now NMC811, with
the exact blend remaining secret. The LMO-NMC combination has been used by
multiple EV manufacturers in the past including Nissan Leaf, Chevy Volt and
BMW i3.
NCA Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide offers high specific energy and power
for specific applications. Tesla is the only OEM to use this chemistry including for
the Model 3 and the first Model S in 2012.
NCM Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese contain cathodes containing nickel, cobalt
and manganese.
Solid Solid state batteries use a solid separator material such as ceramic instead of
State the liquid separator as used in conventional lithium-ion batteries. However, solid
state batteries still use lithium in the battery chemistry and are a related, but not
entirely separate battery technology.
Source: Automotive from Ultima Media
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3. The Race to Build the Battery Supply Chain
3.1 Battle of The Value Chain
There are clear opportunities that arise across the supply chain in the transition to
electrification, with many aspects likely to change OEM and supplier relationships.
For example, OEMs have traditionally developed and produced ICE powertrains in house.
But in the race to electrification, manufacturers are increasingly reliant on new suppliers
across a complex and valuable supply chain. This shift in technology and production creates
space for automotive suppliers – some traditional, others new to the industry – to capture
(or re-capture) value.
For example, production of lithium-ion batteries, including key components such as cells,
have been predominantly located in Asia. American and European OEMs are to this extent
already on the backfoot in terms of competing with players in China, Japan and South Korea.
The battery players who have emerged in the lead – including South Korea’s LG Energy
Solution, Japan’s Panasonic and China’s CATL – continue to establish major battery cell
manufacturing bases in Europe and North America, along with a range of startups and even
OEMs themselves.
Automotive manufacturers are pursing different business models to develop this regional
value chain, including through joint ventures with cell suppliers, vertical integration and
agreements to ‘lock in’ the supply of raw materials through large-scale purchasing
agreements.
However, securing battery cells only addresses part of the overall manufacturing and supply
chain challenge. There are many other dimensions to the total lifecycle of the battery value
chain, including maintenance and recycling requirements.
Perhaps even more fundamentally, the automotive industry continues to struggle following
the sharp fall in global vehicle sales in the wake of the Covid pandemic, leaving many OEMs
and suppliers with shrinking margins. The transition to battery and EV supply chains puts a
huge amount at stake for the automotive supply base. The entire industry needs to
maximise its value proposition and cost base in the hopes of at least retaining its already
tight operating margins.
3.2 Electric Vehicle Demand Forecast

The battery supply chain is developing at a stunning pace even compared to expectations
just a few years ago. The push to electrification is becoming increasingly central to the long-
term prospects of many manufacturers.
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Pre-Covid, a variety of factors were driving vehicle electrification, but the most significant
was regulatory pressures, mainly in Europe and China and to a lesser extent in other
regions, such as Japan. Post-Covid, consumer demand for battery and plug-in electric
vehicles (PHEVs) has accelerated, spurred by a mix of improving technology, incentives from
governments and OEMs.
According to our analysis, global electric passenger vehicle sales rose around 33% year-on-
year in 2020 even as overall vehicle sales fell by around 20%. In Europe, sales of EV and
PHEVs more than doubled in 2020. Globally, the share of EVs and PHEVs rose from 3.4% in
2019 to 5.6% (of which 3.7% were pure EVs), according to our analysis.
Combining EVs and all types of hybrids (including mild, full, and plug-in hybrids) accounted
for 19.2% of the powertrain mix, meaning nearly one-fifth of all global passenger vehicle
sales already have some sort of lithium-ion battery. By 2030, we forecast that 53% of global
new vehicle sales will be fully electric or hybridised in some way.
Figure 3.1 Global Passenger New Vehicle Powertrain Forecast by Type 2021-2040 (Units)
100000
90000
80000
70000
Sales (1,000 Units)
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040
Pure ICE 63950 60580 55200 41952 46147 48455 48309 48116 47875 47445 46970 44622 41498 37348 33128 29815 27430 26881 26344 26344 25817 24784 23297 21433
NGV + FCV 800 850 900 630 693 714 728 743 757 773 788 804 820 836 853 870 888 905 923 942 961 980 999 1019
MHEV 2500 3000 3500 4200 4620 5082 5692 6375 7140 7997 8956 10031 11235 12583 13841 14948 15247 14485 13471 12528 11526 10489 9440 8496
HEV 1500 2000 2500 3000 3300 3630 4066 4553 5100 5712 6397 7165 8025 8988 9887 10677 10891 10346 9622 8949 8322 7740 7198 6694
PHEV 650 750 750 1050 1260 1537 1875 2288 2791 3405 4155 5069 6184 7420 8385 9224 9962 10460 10460 9414 8472 7625 6863 6176
EV 1300 1500 1500 1950 2399 2926 3658 4572 5532 6639 7900 9401 11093 12979 15056 17314 19392 21719 24325 27244 30514 34175 38276 42869
Powertrain type: Internal Combustion Engine (ICE), Natural Gas Vehicle (NGV), Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV), Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle
(MHEV), Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV, or ‘Full’ Hybrid), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV), Electric Vehicle (EV, or ‘Battery’ Electric
Vehicle)
Source for all tables and figures in this section unless noted otherwise: Automotive from Ultima Media
14
NGV + FCV EV PHEV
1.2% 3.7% 2.0% HEV
5.7%
MHEV
8.0%
Pure ICE
79.5%
NGV + FCV
1.0% EV
16.2%
PHEV
9.3%
Pure ICE
46.6%
HEV
11.2%
MHEV
15.7%
15
NGV + FCV
1.2%
Pure ICE
24.7%
EV
49.5%
MHEV
9.8%
HEV
7.7%
PHEV
7.1%
While we forecast global EV sales to grow by a remarkable 21% CAGR over the next decade,
the increase in battery production and capacity will be even higher. That is because the
kilowatt hour (KWh) battery capacity required per vehicle is likely to rise as well. We
estimate the average vehicle battery capacity will increase by 3% per year over the next
decade as battery prices fall, allowing OEMs to fit larger capacity batteries to improve
driving range. Thus far, fully electric variants have also tended to be of the smaller to mid-
size models in an OEMs range, which were easier to electrify to meet emissions targets. But
OEMs will increasingly be compelled to electrify most if not all of their fleets. The increase in
the e-SUV globally and electric pickup truck segment in North America, for example, will
likely increase battery sizes and thus battery demand.
Demand for other home, consumer and energy storage products will also increase the need
for gigawatt hour capacity.
Battery production will thus need to increase faster than EV sales volumes would suggest.
Furthermore, battery capacity needs to exceed demand significantly because the theoretical
maximum capacity of battery plants is rarely achieved as a result of technical and logistical
issues. For example, there may be a slowdown due to a shortage of cobalt, cathodes or
quality control issues, which could mean that not all cells produced will be viable. A rule of
thumb is that a realistic production output is around 70% of the stated maximum capacity.
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We forecast that while battery demand will rise from 330 GWh in 2020 to 2,180 GWh in
2030, battery production capacity will rise in the same period from 450 GWh to more than
2,857 GWh.
Figure 3.5 Global Lithium Battery Demand & Capacity Forecast by Sector 2020-2030
3000 3000
2800 2800
2600 2600
2400 2400
2200 2200
2000 2000
1800 1800
1600 1600
GWh Capacity
GWh Demand
1400 1400
1200 1200
1000 1000
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200
0 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
0
Consumer 60 72 86 104 124 149 179 215 258 310 372
Storage 11 13 16 19 23 27 33 39 47 57 68
Electric CV 20 24 29 35 41 50 60 72 86 103 124
Electric PV 240 290 351 425 514 622 753 911 1103 1334 1615
Capacity 450 541 651 783 942 1134 1364 1641 1974 2375 2857
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Figure 3.6 Battery Supply Chain Schematic Diagram
To understand and analyse the automotive battery supply chain, we have broken down the
value chain into eight key stages. As volumes ramp up, the ‘closed-loop’ nature of the
supply chain is becoming more important, including where batteries are recycled, and the
raw materials fed back into the start of the supply chain to mitigate potential shortages of
raw materials.
Raw Material Suppliers e.g. Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese
Battery Component Suppliers e.g. Cathodes, Anodes, Separators
Battery Cell Manufacturers
BMS, TMS & Battery Pack Cases
Battery Pack Assembly Plants – Cells --> Modules --> Packs
EV & Hybrid Vehicle Assembly Plants
Finished Vehicles
*12
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Battery Repurposing, Re-use & Recycling Companies
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3.3 Localisation of the Battery Supply Chain
Not only is there an arms race for the battery supply chain, but the impetus to localise
production grows as EV volumes accelerate. Logistics and supply costs play a key role here,
as batteries are heavy, costly and complicated to move because of varying regulations
around transporting hazardous goods. Carmakers such as BMW are organising supply chains
around local lithium-ion battery manufacturing in all regions where it is feasible, in part to
keep logistics costs to a minimum.
Although batteries are generally cheaper to manufacture in low-wage regions in Asia and
specifically China, supply and transport costs are likely to eliminate that cost advantage
when shipping to Europe or North America, for example. The localisation of battery
production is also increasingly preferred because it helps to ensure visibility and security of
supply. Increasingly, OEMs and regulators are focusing more on the sustainability of the EV
and battery supply chain.
The Covid-19 crisis has further exposed weaknesses in single-sourced purchasing, lean
inventory strategies and over-reliance on limited supply bases. The ongoing shortages of
semiconductors and microchips highlight a potential problem for battery supply chains.
Currently, China, South Korea and Japan dominate battery cell manufacturing, while raw
minerals are sourced from several primary locations including Chile, China, Africa, as well as
the US, Canada and Australia for some materials.
Even as battery cell manufacturing increases in North America and Europe, regional plants
will still be reliant upon imports of cell components and raw materials from far afield,
including politically sensitive areas such as cobalt mining from the Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC).
As hybrid and EV penetration increases, this reliance on particular regions and a narrow
range of specialist companies will remain an inherent and growing vulnerability – not least
when the supply chain is hit by shocks and shortages.
Put simply, manufacturers will need to build up commensurate raw material and cell
component capacity alongside cell manufacturing plants. Otherwise, the full battery value
chain is at risk not only of disruption but of considerable value being lost to Asia.
This risk is not lost on major OEMs or on governments keen to gain the investments and jobs
expected to accompany it. But higher labour costs and environmental standards, along with
lower economies of scale for now, will make it harder to suppliers and manufacturers to
compete with countries in Asia.
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That is partly why governments are targeting the battery value chain through legislation,
including environmental standards and minimum sourcing levels, which are clearly aimed at
discouraging imports and ramping up regional battery sectors. The European Commission, for
example, has set a list of green criteria that imported batteries will need to meet, ranging
from sustainability of raw material production, to energy used during manufacture.
In December 2020, the EU announced the roadmap for the environmental criteria for the
production of lithium batteries, with a view towards increasing localisation.
Table 3.1 EU Roadmap For Rules Of Origin For European Lithium Battery Production
Date Level of Localisation
Now until Dec 2023 No change
2024 to 2027 Key parts such as cathodes, anodes and chemicals must be
sourced in the EU
2027 onwards The target is for 100% sourcing from Europe, resilient and
independent of foreign supply
European Commission Vice-President Maroš Šefčovič has also indicated that batteries that
do not meet green standards could be banned from the European market, and that EU state
aid would be steered under the Battery Alliance to European battery projects that do meet
those standards. France and Germany in particular are pushing the idea of ‘green batteries’.
The EU-UK free trade agreement also includes provisions for rising battery localisation in
electric vehicles with a six-year phase-in period for EVs and batteries. Until the end of 2023,
complete EVs, including hybrid, plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles, have a minimum
origin threshold of 40% parts coming from the EU or UK, compared to 55% required for
combustion engine vehicles. During this period, batteries must have at least 30% of parts
sourced in the EU or UK. From 2024 to end of 2026, the origin threshold for finished EVs rises
to 45%, while batteries must have at least 50% regional content. From 2027, the rules are
expected to tighten further as part of wider EU and UK objectives to develop a regional
battery supply chain.
A number of OEMs and experts have greeted the high localisation proposals with scepticism,
voicing doubts about the viability of producing so much of the battery supply chain in such a
short time frame.
State support is likely to continue. The EU and UK have been investing government money
in developing the battery value chain. In January this year, the European Commission
approved €2.9 billion in subsidies to support an EU battery industry, which came on top of
20
€3.2 billion in 2019. The funds are part of an objective for the EU to power at least 6m
electric cars by 2025 and are adjoined to the latest ‘European Battery Innovation’ scheme
set to go to 42 companies across 12 EU member states. The companies include European
firms including BMW, French chemical firm Arkema and Swedish battery manufacturer
Northvolt, but also foreign firms such as Tesla, which is building an EV and battery plant in
Germany.
The French and German government have also given backing to the Automotive Cell
Company (ACC), joint venture between SAFT and PSA Group, which plans significant battery
cell production across two plants In Hauts-de-France in northern France and Kaiserslautern,
Germany. The Germany government has also allocated €300m to German battery
manufacturer Varta as part of a €1.5 billion in R&D. Varta intends to develop lithium-ion
technology further with the aim of increasing the energy density of cells, as well as to put
silicon-dominated anodes into mass production.
Developing a lithium-ion battery base is also a strategic issue in North America. Although
the US has neither the same level of EV penetration nor growth trajectory for EVs as Europe
or China, the Biden administration is set to drive a more ambitious climate policy, which is
likely to include tightening fuel economy standards, providing purchase incentives and
investment in charging infrastructure. Already, the administration has committed to
purchasing American-made electric vehicles for government fleets.
And recently in February, President Biden announced a 100-day review in the US to address
critical supply chain items such as the sourcing of rare earth metals, lithium batteries and
semiconductors – all items inextricably associated with the growth in electric vehicles.
The localisation of a North American battery supply chain will also be driven in part by the
new rules of origin under the USMCA, which came into effect in July 2020. From a 62.5%
localisation rate across the region to quality for tariff-free trade under NAFTA, the rate is
rising in a phase manner to 70-75% over the next three years, including for core parts like
batteries. As EV batteries represent around 40% of the value of a vehicles, OEMs will need
to localise these components.
But as the dispute between LG Energy Solution and SK Innovation in the US has
demonstrated, developing the battery chain is highly strategic and competitive. The recent
decision by the US International Trade Commission to ban SK Innovation from the US for ten
years put into stark contrast the importance and complexities for OEMs when it comes to
securing long-term battery cell supply.
21
3.4 Diversifying the Supply Base
Until recently, OEMs have mainly established exclusive supply agreements with battery
suppliers, or even exclusive joint venture partnerships. With relatively low volumes of
electrification, it made sense for carmakers to commit to purchasing from a specific supplier
as a means to mitigate risk and share potential gains together.
However, that approach is changing. With rising EV demand, there have already been
bottlenecks in supply, meanwhile OEMs want to ensure they have flexible access to supply
and new technology.
A good example of the changing approach to battery supply is with Tesla, which previously
had an exclusive arrangement for cells with Panasonic, with which it jointly built the
Gigafactory 1 near Reno, Nevada. However, Tesla CEO Elon Musk has criticised Panasonic
for not meeting necessary levels of production. Tesla is temporarily using LG Chem batteries
at its Gigafactory 3 in Shanghai and has agreed a supply arrangement with CATL for EVs built
in Asia. Tesla is also planning to develop its own in-house cells to diversify its supply base
even further.
Nissan also had an exclusive relationship for battery supply through AESC, a joint venture
with Japan’s NEC. Although a good relationship when Nissan launched the Leaf EV in 2008,
less than a decade later AESC was no longer the cheapest or best battery supplier. Arguably,
the battery manufacturer became uncompetitive precisely because of this exclusive
agreement. In 2016, Nissan announced plans to sell the unit and use a wider variety of
suppliers, and it along with NEC eventually sold their majority stake to China’s Envision in
2019 (Nissan retains a 25% share).
Volkswagen, meanwhile, exclusively used Samsung SDI batteries for its previous generations
of EVs, such as the e-Golf. For its hugely ambitious EV plans, including its MEB platform and
the ID range, the group has diversified its procurement of batteries, forging supply
agreements with LG Chem, Samsung SDI and SKI for production in Europe, CATL for China
and SKI for North America from 2022 (the US ban on SKI allows four years to supply existing
agreements with VW, but it is unclear if that will change). VW has also signed an agreement
with Sweden’s Northvolt, and formed a joint venture with the company to build a battery
production plant in Salzgitter, Germany, which will be called Northvolt Zwei.
Other OEMs, including BMW, have also signed multiple agreements with battery suppliers,
including CATL, Samsung SDI and Northvolt. Toyota has established a joint venture with
Panasonic, while also signing agreements with CATL.
22
This trend demonstrates that flexibility of battery supply is increasingly important. As
battery technology evolves, OEMs want to make sure they can keep up, and so it is
important to be able to either switch or to have additional access to new suppliers
according to changing local requirements, price or performance parameters.
3.5 Vertical Integration in the Battery Supply Chain

Flexibility and control of supply will, however, continue to shape different strategies and
relationships in the battery supply chain. While Nissan has moved away from vertical
integration in battery supply, others are investing in precisely such capability and capacity,
including new joint ventures with established battery players.
The transition to electrification already disrupts the control that OEMs have held over
internal combustion engines. Most OEMs take an in-house approach to develop and build
powertrains – comprising the engine, gearbox and transmission – as these modules help to
differentiate brands in terms of quality, performance, reliability and even the exhaust
sound. As batteries represent 30-40% of the cost of the manufactured vehicle, giving over
this element to suppliers is a risk.
Joint ventures between OEMs and battery manufacturers bring clear benefits. They help to
convince suppliers to invest as they will have a guaranteed customer, while sharing
investment reduces the risk and upfront capital expenditure required on both sides. OEMs
also gain insight into the battery manufacturing process, not only in terms of factory design
and layout, but in producing cells and battery packs. The complete visibility and
understanding of the battery supply chain ultimately allows the OEM to optimise battery
performance and factory output.
Table 3.2 Vertical Integration and Level of Control in EV Batteries Compared by OEM
Low Control Moderate Control High Control Total Control
Cell, module and Cell production Cell production In-house
pack outsourced to outsourced. In- through joint manufacturing of
rd
3 party supplier house module, pack ventures/partnerships. cell, module and
design and In-house pack design pack design
manufacturing and manufacturing
Many EV start-ups - BMW Nissan BYD
Nio, Lucid, Fisker Renault Mitsubishi
Daimler Tesla → Tesla from 2021/22
VW → GM →
Ford→ PSA (Stellantis)
Toyota
23
One of the best-known examples of a joint venture is the Tesla and Panasonic joint venture
in Nevada, which is possibly the most successful partnerships between an OEM and battery
supplier. Panasonic bring its battery manufacturing expertise to supplying the cells and then
Tesla performs the module and pack assembly.
Other OEMs have also established major joint ventures for battery cell production, including
Volkswagen Group with Northvolt and GM’s Ultium joint venture with LG Chem. Ford CEO
Jim Farley has also said that the carmaker is interested in pursuing a model similar to Tesla
or GM in producing batteries, even after the company had previously said it saw no
advantage to building its own batteries.
OEMs are not just integrating battery cell production to save costs, but also to gain more
flexibility, technological innovation and differentiation compared to other OEMs. Unlike
other components, lithium-ion batteries are not commoditised and there is considerable
competitive advantage to be had by developing and commercialising a specific battery
technology.
This is an advantage that some OEMs may even look to commercialise further by supplying
other manufacturers. Volkswagen Group’s joint venture with Northvolt will be able to sell to
other carmakers; Ultium is also expected to sell to other brands beyond GM. China’s BYD,
which builds its own batteries, is already a supplier to other OEMs. Another Chinese OEM,
Great Wall, has spun out its own battery division to create SVOLT, which is investing in new
capacity in Asia and Europe.
BYD is in fact a rare example of an OEM that also has fully in-house battery cell, module and
pack production for its own vehicles. Its growth as a battery supplier was further supported
by the Chinese government’s previous policy up to 2019, which required foreign OEMs
selling EVs in China to fit a Chinese-made battery from its ‘white list’ to quality for subsidies
– which greatly benefitted BYD and CATL. The government has since removed this
requirement, further opening up the Chinese battery market.
Some OEMs are considering moves to achieve even more supply chain integration further
upstream. This can be witnessed by the links being forged with the cathode manufacturers
and mining companies who extract and process the raw lithium, cobalt, nickel and
manganese elements used within lithium-ion batteries.
BMW Group has formed a joint technology consortium with Northvolt and Umicore,
a Belgian developer of cathode materials for battery cells, but also in the development of a
more holistic and sustainable supply chain including recycling – which is particularly important
24
given the finite availability of some of the raw elements. In November 2018, BYD signed a
contract to buy lithium-ion battery cathode materials from China's Beijing Easpring
Materials Technology.
It has been reported that Tesla is in negotiations to purchase cobalt from Glencore
specifically for Tesla’s Shanghai plant. Furthermore, Tesla announced the acquisition of
Maxwell Technologies in 2019, and Elon Musk suggested at the time that the company
could enter the mining business to ensure it scales fast enough. On Tesla’s ‘battery day’ in
October 2020, the company confirmed that it intended to get involved in mining lithium in
North America.
3.6 Ethical Supply Chains

Gaining more control of the battery supply chain is not just about securing supplies – it is also
about securing the reputations of OEMs. The supply chain for lithium-ion batteries is
increasingly under the scrutiny of environmentalists, regulators and consumers, with serious
questions about the emissions and pollution created in the process, as well as the ethics and
working practices in mining and mineral extraction, for example of cobalt from DRC. The
fear is that brands could be tarnished with regulators, shareholders and customers if they
are associated with poor practices and labour conditions in the supply chain.
As a result, corporate social responsibility (CSR) for electric vehicles is moving well beyond a
tick-box exercise to become a business-critical issue to protect huge capital investment into
electrification. OEMs are thus forging alliances with raw material suppliers partly to secure
supply – but also to improve visibility of working conditions under which raw materials such
as lithium, cobalt, nickel and manganese are mined and refined.
For example, BMW has announced a €540m contract with Ganfeng Lithium to ‘lock-in’ 100%
of its supply of lithium hydroxide until 2025. But BMW is also concerned about the human
rights and environmental impact of mining raw materials, and how it could tarnish its brand
image. By being more involved in the value chain, BMW believes it can better control the
conditions under which raw materials are procured.
In October 2019, BMW launched the ‘Cobalt for Development’ pilot project jointly with
BASF SE, Samsung SDI and Samsung Electronics to promote responsible artisanal cobalt
mining in the DRC. Since 2020, the carmaker began sourcing both lithium and cobalt directly
before the materials are supplied to its battery cell suppliers, CATL and Samsung SDI. From
2021, it plans to manufacture its fifth generation EV powertrains without using any rare earth
metals.
25
In September 2020, VW Group partnered with RCS Global, a specialist in analysing supply
chains, with the aim of auditing its extensive supplier base to ensure that it conforms with
human rights, safe working conditions and environmental protection. This strongly relates
to the battery supply chain and issues around mines, raw materials, child labour, and health
and safety.
Mercedes-Benz has said that it will only source battery cells in future with cobalt and lithium
from certified mining sites, while the company also aims to significantly reduce cobalt levels.
Companies including China’s SVOLT and CATL, as well as Tesla, have said that they are in the
advanced stages of developing batteries that do not require any cobalt. Although this can
reduce battery power density, engineers are developing ways around this. The elimination
of cobalt would reduce the price of the battery as well as making companies less reliant on
erratic supply from the DRC.
3.7 Changing Strategies for Battery Pack Integration

As the battery supply chain develops, the lines are increasingly blurring between supply and
production roles of battery cells and complete pack manufacturing. The ‘battery integration’
process, for example, includes turning the basic individual cells into modules and then
combining these to form the pack – effectively the hardware – which includes key software,
namely the battery management system (BMS) and a thermal management system (TMS).
Battery performance is not just down to the individual cell, but how the battery modules
and pack are combined into a single entity, processes which offer OEMs and suppliers more
opportunities to add value. Larger OEMs are often more involved in the module and battery
pack integration, while smaller OEMs and start-ups usually rely on battery cell suppliers to
manage the production stages of cell, module and battery pack, and then deliver a
complete, ready-to-install pack to vehicles.
These relationships vary based on OEMs and model programmes but demonstrate the fluid
relationships between manufacturers and suppliers, as well as the room for new
manufacturing and supply chain services. For example, there have been recent moves
towards a combined ‘cell-to-pack’ process.
Tesla has made a patent application for a new approach to battery cells and pack assembly.
Although not yet implemented, the process would see the cell manufacturing plant produce
small-cell modules, which can then be combined like building blocks into complete battery
packs. In September 2019, CATL introduced a similar process called ‘cell to pack’, which
claims a higher energy density than usual batteries thanks to a tighter packing of the cells.
26
Like much around battery technology, these processes remain shrouded in secrecy, but they
are aimed at simplifying the manufacturing and assembly process, pursuing efficiency and
lower costs to deliver on the holy grail of reducing battery prices to $100 per KWh or below.
3.8 Potential Disruptors to Battery Capacity Demand

The expansion of the battery supply chain is contingent upon two things: the growth in EV
market share and an expanding requirement for battery capacity in each vehicle. The first is
almost guaranteed given the heavy regulatory push and massive OEM investment in EV
development. However, the growth in battery capacity is not quite as clear cut.
Installing large, heavy and expensive batteries in vehicles is done to increase driving
distances between charges and reduce ‘range anxiety.’ However, the vast majority of car
journeys are within short distances and well within 50-60km rather than the 400km or more
range that most new EV models promise. If vehicle batteries were more geared around this
reality, than EVs would require neither the expense, capacity nor the long-charging times
common today.
Proposing vehicles with shorter ranges would however require a significant change in
mindset for consumers, and likely different business model for OEMs – such as battery swap
or vehicle subscriptions, for example. But several OEMs and startups are pursing just these
types of offers.
There also other technologies that may play a bigger role in the overall electrification and
diversification of propulsion. Several OEMs, notably in Japan and South Korea, are investing
in hydrogen fuel cell technology, for example. However, we don’t forecast fuel cell
propulsion to play a major role in the overall powertrain mix for a variety of reasons,
including a lack of fuelling infrastructure.
Many companies are also developing solid-state battery technology that they claim can
reduce charging times to around 10 minutes. Toyota has revealed such a battery will be
close to commercialisation in 2021 and will be fitted to vehicles for sale by 2025. Whilst we
don’t anticipate solid state playing a significant role in the overall powertrain mix over the
next decade, technology is developing fast and there is room for disruption.
27
3.9 Battery Supply Chain Is a Competitive Advantage
The rapid acceleration of electric vehicle demand and the commensurate ramping up of the
battery supply chain creates multiple challenges. Bottlenecks in supply could ultimately
stifle production, sales and consumer uptake, and put billions of dollars of investment at
risk.
With other supply chain shortages, OEMs are already prioritising the production of vehicles
with customer orders and those that deliver higher margins. It is notable that OEMs already
tend to manufacture electric vehicles on a more ‘built-to-order’ basis, rather than for stock
at compounds and dealerships. The result has been longer average waiting times for EVs in
hot-selling markets. The longer customers have to wait, the more of a risk it is to sales.
These supply issues underline how important the battery supply chain is as EV production
and sales ramp up. OEMs able to provide the best batteries will have advantages on range
and price. But important, too, will be having a flexible, resilient and multi-sourced battery
supply chain that can respond to fluctuating EV demand. In the race to electrification,
development of the battery supply chain is going to be a clear competitive advantage.
There is a huge amount at stake. The fate of individual OEMs could be decided by the
alliances they make with particular battery suppliers and the overall strategy they
implement – whether it is full vertical integration, keeping suppliers at arm’s length or a
variety of approaches across markets. That’s why it’s never been more important to
understand the fast-developing battery supply chain, including its current and future
capacity.
28
4. Battery Raw Materials and Minerals
4.1 Lithium Suppliers
Table 4.1 Leading Global Lithium Suppliers

Company
Albermarle
Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile (SQM)
Livent Corp.
Tianqi Lithium Industries Inc.
Ganfeng Lithium
4.2 Cobalt Suppliers

Table 4.2 Leading Cobalt Suppliers
Company
Glencore
China Molybdenum
Katanga Mining
Umicore
Eurasian Resources Group
4.1 Nickel Suppliers

Table 4.3 Leading Nickel Suppliers
Company
Vale
MMC Norilsk Nickel
Jinchuan Group Ltd.
Glencore
BHP Billiton Ltd.
Table 4.4 Leading Manganese Suppliers

Company
South32
Anglo American
Consolidated Minerals
Eramet
Vale
29
5. Battery Component Suppliers
5.1 Cathodes Materials
Table 5.1 Leading Cathode Materials Manufacturers

Company Location Clients
Umicore Korea, China, Samsung SDI, LG Chem, Panasonic, Sony
Poland
Nichia Japan Panasonic, Sony, Hitachi, ASEC Envision,
LEJ
Toda Kogyo Japan
Beijing Easpring China Samsung SDI, LG Chemicals, Sony, Hitachi
SKI, Panasonic, BYD, Lishen
Ningdo Jinhe China Samsung SDI, LG Chemicals
GEM China
Shanshan Energy China CATL, Panasonic, Lishen
Xiamen Tungsten China
Kingray New Materials China Panasonic
Science & Tech
5.2 Anode Materials
Table 5.2 Leading Anode Materials Manufacturers

Hitachi Chemicals Japan Samsung SDI, LG Chem, Panasonic, Hitachi
BTR Energy China Samsung SDI, LG Chem, Panasonic, Sony and
BYD
Nippon Carbon Japan
Ningbo Shanshan China LG Chem, Sony, Lishen, BAK and BYD
Hunan Shinzoom Technology China BYD, CATL and Far East First
Jiangxi Zeto New Energy China BAK Battery
Tech
5.3 Electrolytes
Table 5.3 Leading Electrolyte Manufacturers

30
CapChem Technology China Samsung SDI, Panasonic, Sony, BYD, Lishen, BAK
and Coslight
Tinci Materials Tech China Sony, BYD, CATL, Guoxuan, Wanxiang A123,
Coslight
Guotai-Huarong China, Samsung SDI, LG Chemicals, ATL, Lishen, Panasonic
(GTHR) Poland
Panax-Etec China Samsung SDI, LG Chemicals
Mitsui Chemicals Japan LEJ
Ube Japan Panasonic
Mitsubishi Chemicals Japan Panasonic, Sony, Hitachi, AESC
Ningbo Shanshan China LG Chem, Sony, Lishen, BAK and BYD
Do-Fluoride China BYD and King Long
Chemicals
5.4 Separators
Table 5.4 Leading Separators Manufacturers

Asahi Kasei Japan Samsung SDI, LG Chemicals, Panasonic,
Sony, Hitachi, AESC Envision
Toray Tonen Japan Samsung SDI, LG Chemicals, Sony
SKI Japan Samsung SDI, Sony
Celgard US LG Chemicals, Panasonic, AESC
Envision
Entek US
Senior Technology Material China LG Chem, BYD, Guoxuan, Lishen, CALB
Victory Precision Manufacture / China BYD, LG Chem, CATL, SDI
Suzhou Greenpower New Energy
Materials
UBE Japan Hitachi, AESC
Jinhui Hi-tech China BYD, BAK
BNE China CALB, Coslight
Cangzhou Mingzhu China BYD, CALB., ATL, and Lishen
Shanghai Energy New Materials China Samsung SDI, LG Chem, ATL, BYD
Zhongke Science and Tech China LG Chem, BYD, Lishen, BAK
Donghang China Narada, Guangdong Great Power
Newmi Tech China LG Chem, Lishen, Coslight
Sinoma China BYD, ATL, Eve Battery
31
6. Battery Cell Market and Production
6.1 Largest Global Battery Cell Companies
Battery cell manufacturers have rapidly risen to prominence within automotive battery
supply chains as producers of the key component of lithium-ion batteries. The success of
any OEM’s electrification strategy relies heavily upon the partnerships, alliances and joint
ventures forged with battery cell manufacturers.
These companies, some of whom have only recently entered the automotive industry, are
emerging as leading tier-1 suppliers and manufacturing integrators as carmakers ramp up
electrification plans. The technology developed by the battery cell manufacturers has the
potential to make them ‘kingmakers’ in the automotive value chain, and in helping to
determine the success of electric vehicle programmes.
The largest battery cell manufacturer by current capacity is South Korea’s LG Energy
Solution (an independently run spinoff of LG Chem), supplying a diverse range of OEMs
across the world. But other manufacturers are fast adding capacity, including the
remarkable growth of China’s CATL. All of the top five battery manufacturers, including LG
Energy Solution, BYD, Panasonic, CATL and SK Innovation, are expanding plants globally,
including in Europe and North America.
One of the most striking aspects of the leading battery cell manufacturers is that almost half
(44%) of current capacity is controlled by Chinese-owned companies, and some 93% of
capacity is controlled by Asian companies. North American and European OEMs pushing
towards electrification are thus almost completely reliant upon these Asian battery
suppliers. However, battery cell companies are fasting expanding their capacity in global
regions, while a number of new players and startups are emerging.
32
Table 6.1 Top 20 Lithium Battery Cell Manufacturers 2020
Rank Company Countr Capacity Plants OEMs supplied (not exhaustive)
y In 2020* 2020
1 LG Energy South 81 GWh 5 FCA, Ford, Geely, General Motors,
Solution (LG Korea Hyundai, Jaguar, Renault-Nissan-
Chem) Mitsubishi (RNM), Tesla, VW, Volvo
2 BYD China 62 GWh 6 BYD, Toyota
3 Panasonic Japan 54 GWh 10 BMW, Ford, Honda, Tesla, Toyota,
4 Contemporary China 53 GWh 6 BAIC, BMW, Daimler, Dongfeng, Foton,
Amperex GAC, Geely, Honda, Hyundai-Kia, Nanjing
Technology Golden Dragon, RNM, SAIC, Stellantis,
Co. Limited Toyota, Volvo, VW Group, Xiamen King
(CATL) Long, Yutong Bus, Zhongtong Bus
5 SK Innovation South 42 GWh 5 Daimler, BAIC, Hyundai, Jaguar Land
(SKI) Korea Rover, Ferrari, Kia, VW Group
6 Samsung SDI South 30 GWh 13 Akasol, BMW, Hyundai-Kia, JAC,
Korea Stellantis, Volvo, VW Group
7 Guoxuan High China 28 GWh 5 Ankai Bus, BAIC Motor, Dongfeng Motor,
Tech Power JAC, Jianghuai Automobile, Jinlong,
Shanghai Sunwin, Shenwo, Zhongtong
Bus, Zoomlion
8 Dynavolt China 12 GWh 2
9 Farasis / China 10 GWh 1 BAIC, Changan, Great Wall, Jiangling
Funeng
10 BAK Battery China 8 GWh 3
11 Lishen China 8 GWh 1 Dongfeng, JAC, Geely, Jinlong, Kandi
Tech, Zhongtong, Qingyuan, FAW
12 Envision AESC China 7.5 GWh 3 Nissan
13 EVE Energy China 7.5 GWh 1 Geely, Kia Motors
14 DLG China 7 GWh 2
15 DFD China 6 GWh 1
16 Phylion China 6 GWh 1
Battery
17 Microvast China 5 GWh 1 Foton, Hengtong, Jinlong, Zhongtong Bus
18 SVOLT China 4 GWh 1 Great Wall
19 SAFT France 4 GWh 2 Stellantis
20 PEVE Japan 2.5 GWh 4 Toyota
33
Others 12.5
GWh
Total 450
GWh
*Installed capacity expected by the end of 2020
Figure 6.1 Top 20 Lithium Battery Cell Manufacturers Production Capacity Share 2020
Microvast SVOLT PEVE
SAFT
1.1% 0.9% 0.9% 0.6%
Phylion Battery Other
1.3% 2.8%
EVE Energy DFD
DLG
1.7% 1.3% LG Energy Solution
1.6%
18.0%
Envision / AESC
1.7%
Lishen
1.8%
BAK Battery
1.8%
Farasis / Funeng
2.2%
Dynavolt
2.7%
BYD
Guoxuan Hi-Tech
13.8%
6.2%
Samsung SDI
6.7%
Panasonic
SK Innovation 12.0%
9.3%
CATL
11.8%
34
6.2 Battery Cell Manufacturing Plants
Some 74% of current battery cell manufacturing capacity is located in Asia and that
dominance is likely to continue. Currently, around 13% of capacity is in Europe and 10% in
the US (the majority of which is currently Tesla’s joint venture with Panasonic).
However, rising EV demand in Europe, along with regulations to encourage local battery
supply, will lead to considerable growth in European battery cell manufacturing plants and
the wider upstream supply chain. We predict that Europe will more than double its plant
capacity share from 15% in 2020 to 33% by 2030 and reach a capacity of 950 GWh. Capacity
in Asia, meanwhile, is expected to rise to 1,620 GWh.
As of 2020, there were nine current gigafactories for batteries in Europe, while we estimate
that around 30 new plants have already been announced or are under construction. There
will doubtless be many more to reach the expected demand for batteries.
North America will also experience a rapid rate of growth, albeit from a lower starting point.
Sales of EVs are expected to rise faster over the next decade, with the Biden administration
likely to tighten fuel economy standards and encourage more investment in electrification.
The new USMCA protocol will require higher rules of origin for vehicle components
including for batteries, which will further encourage OEMs and manufacturers to source
batteries within North America.
Eight new gigafactories have been announced in the US along with the existing seven.
However, two of those factories, from SK Innovation, are at least partly in doubt after the
US imposed restrictions on SKI in response to a lawsuit from LG Energy Solution. There are
currently no existing or planned gigafactories outside of the US in North America, however
OEMs including GM and Ford are investing in EV production capacity in Canada and Mexico,
for example.
By 2030, we expect North American battery production to grow in line with the market, for
its market share to remain constant at around 10%.
Of course, there is no guarantee that all of the plants announced will come to reality or
reach the high capcity levels promised. Some companies are startups that will need to
finance hugely capital-intensive projects. In other cases, suppliers from China and other
countries might struggle to break into new markets in Europe or the US. However, we do
expect demand for battery capacity to grow, and those suppliers who are able to produce
and supply battery cells are likely to have ready customers.
35
Table 6.2 Lithium Battery Plants and Production Capacity Forecast by Region 2020 vs 2030
Region Current Future Total 2020 capacity 2030 capacity
plants plants being current + (GWh, % share) (GWh, % share)
built* future
plants*
Asia Pacific 99 56 155 345 GWh (77%) 1,627 GWh (57%)
Europe 11 26 37 60 GWh (13%) 950 GWh (33%)
N. America 8 10 18 45 GWh (10%) 280 GWh (10%)
Global 118 92 210 450 GWh 2,857 GWh
*Factories under construction or announced
Figure 6.2 Lithium Battery Production Capacity by Region 2020 vs. 2030
36
Table 6.3 Europe Lithium Battery Plants Current and Announced
Rank Company Location Start Capacity
Date
1 LG Energy Wroclaw, Poland 2018 45 GWh to 70 GWh
Solution later
2 SK innovation Komarom, Hungary, 2020 7.5 GWh
Plant 1
3 Samsung SDI Goed, Hungary 2020 2.5 GWh to 20 GWh
by 2028
4 Envision AESC Sunderland, UK 2010 2.5 GWh
5 Leclanche Willstatt, Germany 2020 1 GWh to 2.3 GWh
by 2024
6 AMTE Power Thurso, Scotland - 1 GWh to 5 GWh
7 Bollore Ergue-Gaberic, France 2009 500 MWh* a form
of lithium / solid
state battery
8 Akasol Langen, Germany 2018 300 MWh up to 800
MWh
9 Liacon Ottendorf-Okrilla, 2019 300 MWh
Dresden, Germany
10 Tesvolt Germany 2020 255 MWh for
Energy Storage
applications
11 Samsung SDI Premstatten, Graz, 2015 Former plant of
Battery Systems Austria Magna Steyr
battery systems
12 AMTE / Blyth, near Newcastle, 2023 35 GWh
BritishVolt UK
13 Italvolt Italy 2024 35 GWh rising to 70
GWh
14 BMZ / Terra & Karlstein, Germany ? 34 GWh
others
15 Morrow Arendal, Norway 2024 8 GWh, rising to 32
Batteries GWh
16 Listrom North Rhine- ? 30 GWh
Westphalia, Germany
17 SK innovation Ivancska, Hungary, 2024 Rising to 30 GWh
Plant 3
37
18 Zorlu / GSR Turkey 2022 25 GWh
Capital
19 Tesla Gruenheide, Germany 2021 Model Y and Model
3 production
alongside battery
production capacity
of a claimed 100-
250 GWh.
20 Northvolt Zwei Salzgitter, Germany 2024 16 GWh rising to 24
GWh
21 Verkor France 2023 16 GWh rising to 50
GWh
22 CATL Erfurt, 2022 14 GWh rising to
Thuringia, Germany 100 GWh
23 Microvast Brandenburg, 2021 12 GWh
Germany
24 Northvolt Ett Skelleftea, Sweden 2021 8 GWh rising to 40
GWh in 2024
25 Inobat Voderady, Bratislava, 2021 100 MWh in 2021
Slovakia rising to 10 GWh by
2024
26 SK innovation Komarom, Hungary 2022 9.8 GWh rising to 16
Plant 2 GWh
27 Automotive Cell Hauts-de-France, 2023 8 GWh rising to 24
Company France GWh by 2030
(SAFT/Stellantis)
28 Automotive Cell Kaiserslautern, 2024 8 GWh rising to 24
Company Germany GWh by 2030
(SAFT/Stellantis)
29 Samsung SDI Plant 2, Goed, 2021 7.5 GWh
Hungary
30 Farasis Energy Bitterfeld-Wolfen, 2022 6 GWh rising to 16
Germany GWh
31 SVOLT Uberhelm, Germany 2023 6 GWh rising to 24
GWh
32 Lithops / FAAM Teverola, Napoli, Italy 2021 200 MWh rising to
2.5 GWh (military,
industrial and
38
storage
applications)
33 FREYR Mo I Rana, Norway 2022 Rising to 40 GWh
34 GSR Capital Trollhättan, Sweden 2020? Rising to 20-25 GWh
35 Panasonic Norway Not yet MoU with Equinor
announced & Norsk Hydro
36 Blackstone Braunschweig, Initially 100m
Resources Germany battery cells
37 Akasol - Darmstadt, Germany 2021 2.5 GWh rising to 5
Gigafactory 1 GWh
Plants under construction or announced – not all details fully confirmed. List may
not be exhaustive
Table 6.4 North America Lithium Battery Plants Current and Announced
Date
1 Panasonic-Tesla Gigafactory 1, Nevada, 2016 35 GWh rising to 39
US GWh in 2021
2 LG Energy Holland, Michigan, US 2013 3 GWh rising to 24
Solution (LG GWh in 2028
Chem)
3 Envision AESC Smyrna, Tennessee, US 2012 2 GWh rising to 8
GWh in 2028
4 Imperium3 Imperium, New York, US 2019 3 GWh rising to 15
GWh
5 SAFT Jacksonville, Florida, US 2011 1 GWh
6 A123 Systems US Plant 1, Michigan, US 150 MWh
7 A123 Systems US Plant 2, Michigan, US 150 MWh
8 Samsung SDI Auburn Hills, MI, US Production & sales
9 Ultium (GM-LG Lordstown, Ohio, US 2022 30 GWh
Chem)
10 SK innovation* 2nd Plant, Georgia, US 2023 11.7 GWh (*US ban
on SKI for 10 years
except for VW and
Ford puts plants in
doubt)
39
11 Do Fluoride 10 GWh (energy
Chemicals (DFD) storage applications,
/ KORE Power not auto)
12 SK innovation* Commerce, Georgia, US 2022 9.8 GWh (*US ban on
SKI for 10 years
except for VW and
Ford puts plants in
doubt)
13 Tesla Austin, Texas, US - Cybertruck, Semi,
Roadster, Model Y
but also battery cell
production to further
integrate the supply
chain
14 Tesla Gigafactory 2, Buffalo, - 2 GWh battery
New York, US production for solar
plant (not
automotive)
15 Tesla Fremont, California Currently a vehicle
assembly plant, Tesla
indicated a pilot
battery production
line would be built
for in-house cell
production up to 10
GWh
16 Akasol – Detroit, Michigan, US 2021 400 MWh to 2 GWh
Gigafactory 2 by 2023
17 SVOLT US - Unknown
18 Microvast Clarksville, Tennessee, 2022 2 GWh
US
Plants under construction or announced – not all details fully confirmed. List may not
be exhaustive
40
Table 6.5 Asia Pacific Lithium Battery Plants Current and Announced
Date
1 BYD Plant 1, Xining, 2018 24 GWh rising to
Qinghai, China 36 GWh in 2028
2 LG Energy Nanjing, China 1st 2016 20 GWh rising to
Solution plant 60 GWh in 2028
3 BYD-Changan JV Bishan, Chongqing, 2020 20 GWh rising to
China 36 GWh in 2028
4 SKI Yancheng, China 2020 20 GWh
5 CATL-SAIC JV Changzhou, Jiangsu, 2018 18 GWh rising to
China 36 GWh
6 CATL-FAW JV Xiapu County, Ningde 2019 -
Fujian Province, China
7 CATL Xining, Qinghai, China 2020 15 GWh
8 LG Energy Ochang, Seoul, S. 2010 12 GWh
Solution Korea
9 CATL Ningde, Fujian, China - 10 GWh rising to
100 GWh in 2028
10 Panasonic Suminoe, Osaka, City, 2010 10 GWh rising to
Japan 20 GWh by 2023
11 Guoxuan High- Qingdao, China 2018 8 GWh in 2020
Tech rising to 20 GWh in
2028
12 Guoxuan High- Hefei, Anhui, China 13.5 GWh
Tech
13 Guoxuan High-
Tech Kunshan, China
14 Guoxuan High-
Tech Nanjing, China
15 Guoxuan High-
Tech Wuhan, China
16 CATL-Dongfeng Wuhan, China 2020 9.6 GWh
JV
17 BYD Plant 1 Shenzhen, 2018 8 GWh
Guangdong, China
18 BYD Plant 2 Shenzhen, 8 GWh
Guangdong, China
19 Panasonic Kasai City, Himeji, 2020 8 GWh rising to 20
Japan GWh in 2028
20 Funeng Ganzhou, Jiangxi, 2016 10 GWh rising to
China 35 GWh by 2028
21 BAK Battery Shenzhen, China - 8 GWh rising to 20
GWh in 2028
41
22 Lishen Tianjin, China - 8 GWh rising to 42
GWh in 2028
23 SKI-BAIC JV Changzhou, Jiangsu 2020 7.5 GWh rising to
China 10 GWh in 2028
24 EVE Energy Huizhou, China - 7.5 GWh rising to
15 GWh in 2028
25 Dynavolt Fujian, China 2017 6 GWh rising to 10
GWh
26 Dynavolt Hubei, China 2017 6 GWh rising to 15
GWh
27 Do Fluoride China 6 GWh (energy
Chemicals (DFD) storage
/ KORE Power applications, not
auto)
28 Phylion Battery Suzhou, Jiangsu, China 2016 6 GWh rising to 25
GWh by 2022
29 Microvast Power Huzhou, China 2019 5 GWh (with plans
Systems to expand to 9
GWh by 2022)
30 Tianneng Zhejiang, China 2020 5 GWh rising to 15
GWh in 2028
31 DLG DSD, Shandong 5 GWh
China
32 Coslight Chongqing, China 2019 4.5 GWh
33 Coslight Harbin, China 2020 4.4 GWh
34 SVOLT Changzhou, Jiangsu, 2019 4 GWh rising to 18
China GWh later
35 SKI Seosan, South Korea - 3.9 GWh rising to
4.7 GWh in 2022
36 SKI Jeungpyeong, South - 3 GWh rising to 10
Korea GWh in 2023
37 Samsung SDI Ulsan, South Korea 2020 3 GWh rising to 23
GWh by 2023
38 Envision AESC Zama, Kanagawa, 2009 3 GWh
Japan
39 Youlion Suzhou, China - 2.5 GWh rising to 6
GWh in 2023
40 Samsung SDI Xian, China 2020 2 GWh rising to 32
GWh by 2028
41 Samsung SDI Cheonan, South Korea
42 Samsung SDI Cheongu, South Korea
43 Samsung SDI Gumi, South Korea
44 Samsung SDI Tianjin, China
42
45 Samsung SDI Wuxi, Jiangsu
Province, China
46 Samsung SDI Bacninh Province
Yenphong District,
Vietnam
47 Samsung SDI Seremban, Malaysia
48 Samsung SDI Noida, India Production and
Sales
49 Panasonic 1st plant, Dalian, China 2018 2 GWh to 22 GWh
in 2028
50 Panasonic 2nd pant, Dalian, China 2019 2 GWh
51 BYD Huizhou, China 2018 2 GWh
52 SAFT Changxing, China - 2GWh, later 5.5
GWh SAFT 40:60
JV with Tianneng
Energy Technology
(TET)
53 DLG DETSD, Shandong, 2 GWh
China
54 CBAK Energy Dallan, China 2 GWh
55 Panasonic Sumoto, Japan 2017 1 GWh rising to 5
GWh by 2023
56 Penghui Power Guangzhou, China 2019 1 GWh rising to 4
/Guangzhou GWh and then 10
Great Power GWh in 2028
Energy & Tech
57 China Aviation Luoyang, China 1 GWh rising to 10
Lithium Battery GWh in 2028
(CALB)
58 China Aviation Jiangsu, China
Lithium Battery
(CALB)
59 Energy Absolute Thailand 2019 1 GWh rising to 50
GWh by 2022
60 Tenpower Plant 1, Zhangjiagang, 1 GWh
China
61 Tenpower Plant 2, Zhangjiagang, 1.5 GWh rising to 5
China GWh in 2022
62 Panasonic Suzhou, Jiangsu, China 2012 Consumer
electronics cells
63 Panasonic Wuxi. China 2012
64 Panasonic Beijing, China 2012
65 Primearth EV Miyagi, Taiwa, Japan - 400,000 Li-Ion
(PEVE) batteries
43
66 Primearth EV Shizuoka, Tokyo, Japan - 200,000 Li-Ion
(PEVE) batteries
67 PEVE/ Sinogy Sinogy China
Toyota
68 Lithium Energy Inobanba-cho, 2007
Japan Nishinosho, Kisshoin,
(GS Yuasa/ Minami-ku, Kyoto,
Mitsubishi JV) Japan
69 Blue Energy Co. Osadano-cho, 2009 20m cells per year
(GS Yuasa/ Fukuchiyama City, mainly for hybrids
Honda JV) Kyoto Japan
70 LG Energy Hai Phong, Vietnam 2020 -
Solution/Vinfast
JV
71 BAK battery Zhengzhou, China
72 BAK battery Chengdu, China
73 Farasis Energy Ganzhou, Jiangxi, unknown
China
74 Leclanche / Exide Gujarat, India 2020
JV
75 Inverted Energy Okhla, Delhi, India 2020 100 MWh
76 Shandong Old Plant, Minquan, 2016
Winabattery China
77 Shandong New Plant, Minquan, 2020 3 Billion Ampere
Winabattery China Hours (Ah)
78 Zhuoneng New Shenzhen, Guangdong,
Energy China
Corporation
79 CITIC Guoan Beijing China
Group/CITIC
Monguli Power
Technology Co.
80 Tohoku Murata Motomiya Plant, China
Manufacturing
81 Cenat New Shanghai, China
Energy /
Evergrande
82 Cenat New Jiangxi, China
Energy /
Evergrande
83 Cenat New Guangxi, China
Energy /
Evergrande
44
84 Cenat New Jiangsu, China
Energy /
Evergrande
85 Yinlong New Zhuhai, Guangdong,
Energy Co China
86 AVIC Lithium China EVs, power
Battery Co. storage, military,
rail transit, &
mining equipment.
87 Desai Battery China Energy storage
Technology Co.
88 Shenzhen Shenzhen, China Automotive,
Waterma Battery energy storage
89 Vaillant, Shouguang City, China Automotive &
Shandong military
Weineng
Environmental
Protection Power
Technology Co.
90 Shenzhen Kayo Dongguan, Guangdong, 2014 Consumer
Battery China applications only
91 Dongguan Large Dongguan, Guangdong, 2002 Consumer
Electronics China applications only
92 Shenzhen HLC Shenzhen, Guangdong, Industrial
Battery China applications only
Technology
93 Guangzhou Guangzhou, Consumer &
Fullriver Battery Guangdong, China industrial
New Technology applications only
94 Perfect Amperex Dongguan, Guangdong, Consumer
Technology China applications only
95 Shandong Shenzhen, Guangdong, Consumer &
Goldencell China, automotive
Electronics ancillary batteries
Technology
96 Shenzhen Eastar Shenzhen, Guangdong, Consumer &
Battery China, automotive
ancillary batteries
97 HZM Electronics Zhongshan, Consumer
Guangdong, China applications only
98 Xiangyang Ahead Xiangyang, Hubei, Consumer
Cell Technology China applications only
99 GrePow Shenzhen, China Consumer, sports,
vehicles
45
100 A123/Wanxiang Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 2021 80 GWh
China
101 LG Energy North Maluku, 2024 $12bn deal by LG
Solution Indonesia and CATL
102 CATL Indonesia 2024 $12bn deal by LG
and CATL
103 BYD Xi-an, Shaanxi, China 2023 30 GWh
104 SVOLT Suining, Sichuan, 2022 20 GWh
province, China
105 SVOLT Huzhou, Zhejiang 2022 20 GWh
province, China
106 SVOLT Jintan, China 18 GWh
107 SVOLT Hunan province, China 40 GWh
108 SVOLT Hubei province, China 40 GWh
109 LG Energy 2nd plant Nanjing, 2023 28 GWh to 35
Solution China GWh in 2028
110 BYD Plant 2 Xining, Qinghai, planned 20 GWh
China
111 EVE Energy-SK - 20-25 GWh
Innovation JV
112 Farasis Energy Zhenjiang, Jiangxi 2021 20 GWh up to 120
China GWh
113 CATL Yibin, Suchuan, China 2022 15 GWh to 30
GWh in 2024
114 EVE Energy Jingmen, Hubei, China 11 GWh (6 GWh
energy storage & 5
GWh power
batteries)
115 Vision Jingshan, Hubei, China 2021 10 GWh rising to
30 GWh
116 LG Energy China 2021 10 GWh
Solution-Geely JV
117 CATL-Geely JV Jingzhou, China 2021 10 GWh
118 CATL-GAC JV Guangzhou, 2021 10 GWh / 400,000
Guangdong, China battery packs per
year
119 Sunwoda Nanjing, China 10 GWh
120 Tata Group Dholera, Gujarat , India 2021 10 GWh rising 50
GWh
121 Funeng Shunyi, Beijing. China 8 GWh
Technology /
BAIC JV
122 Sichuan Energy Sichuan, Chengdu, 2021 10 GWh
Investment China
46
Huading Guolian
Power Battery
Industrial Base
123 Lithium Werks Nanjing, Jiangsheng, 2021 8 GWh rising to
Shanghai., China 500 GWh by 2030
124 Envision AESC Wuxi, Jiangsu, China 2021 8 GWh rising to 20
GWh by 2028
125 Imperium3 Townsville, Australia 2022 6 GWh rising to 18
GWh
126 CBAK Energy Nanjing, China 2 GWh up to 8
GWh
127 Jiangsu Tafel Jiangsu, China 3 GWh by 2021
New Energy rising to 6 GWh by
Technology Co., 2022
Ltd.
128 Penghui Changzhou, Jiangsu, 2021 2 GWh
Power/Guangzho China
u Great Power
Energy & Tech
129 BHEL-Libcoin India 1 GWh rising to 30
consortium GWh
130 Jiangsu Qindao, China 2021 0.5 GWh rising to 8
Fengchuen New GWh
Energy Power
Technology Co.,/
Sichuan Lvran
Technology
Group Co. Ltd
131 Prime Planet Tokushima prefecture, 2022 Batteries for up to
Energy and Japan 500,00 vehicles a
Solution year
(Panasonic/
Toyota JV)
132 Toshiba/Suzuki/ India 2021
Denso
133 Primearth EV Jiangsu, China 2021 100,000 batteries
(PEVE) a year
134 Blue Energy Co., Osadano-cho, 2009 20 million cells /
Ltd. (GS Yuasa / Fukuchiyama City, year mainly for
Honda JV) Kyoto Japan hybrids
135 Adani Gujarat, India - -
136 Amara Raja Hyderabad, India 2021 500 MWh
137 Amperex Tech Gurumgram, Haryana, 2021 1 GWh
(TDK) India
47
138 Ather Energy
139 AMTE Power & Australia
InfraNomics
140 EVE Energy Huizhou, Guangdong, JV between EVE
China Energy and
StoreDot
141 Gangfeng Lithium 2019 100 MWh. pilot
China plant for solid
state batteries
142 HBL Power India Planned
143 Hero / India Planned
Electrovaya
144 High Energy India Planned
Batteries
145 JSW Energy India Planned

146 Li Energy Thondi, Tamil Nadu, 2021
India
147 MARII Malaysia Planned
148 McNair Dongguan, Guangdong, Planned
China
149 Monbat (EAS India Planned
Batteries)
150 National Power Beijing, China Planned
151 ProLogium Taiwan 2020 Collaboration with
NIO
152 ProLogium Taiwan 5 GWh
Collaboration with
WM motors
153 Reliance India
154 Lishen Wuhan, China Planned
155 Lishen Qingdao, China Planned
Plants under construction or announced – not all details fully confirmed. List may not
be exhaustive
48
7. Companies Providing Battery Management Systems (BMS),
Thermal Management Systems (TMS) and Battery Pack Cases
The battery cell and the chemistry contained therein usually get the most attention in terms
of the lithium-ion battery supply chain and is understandably where many OEMs and
battery manufacturers are focusing development and production investment. However,
there are other key parts to the overall EV battery architecture and software, with many
companies – including OEMs and tier suppliers – pursing added value service and
technology.
A single raw battery cell (which is slightly larger than a consumer ‘AA’ battery) on its own is
of little use in a vehicle. An EV needs a usable battery pack with a battery management
system (BMS) and a thermal management system (TMS) to ensure safe charging, to monitor
individual cells, regulate temperature and control demand discharge under a wide range of
driving scenarios and atmospheric conditions. The overall battery pack case enclosure is also
important in thermal management and ensuring the reliability of individual cells.
The battery pack together is a very sophisticated piece of hardware and chemistry, as well
as software, all of which plays a critical in battery and EV performance.
Table 7.1 Leading Battery Management Systems (BMS) Companies

BYD
CATL
Eberspächer
Ficosa
G-Pulse
Hella
Idneo Engineering Services Company
Leclanche
LG Chem
Lithium Balance
Nuvation Energy
NXP Semiconductors
Panasonic Corporation
Renesas Electronics
Robert Bosch
Roboteq
SVolt
Tesla
49
Other: Analog Devices, AVL LIST, Battery Systems, Calsonic Kansei Corporation,
Continental, Denso Corporation, Elithion, Hitachi, Horiba Mira, Infineon
Technologies, Intel Corporation, Ion Energy, Johnson Matthey, Marelli, Maxim
Integrated Products, Midtronics, Mitsubishi Electric, Navitas System, Orient
Technology, Preh, Ricardo, Samsung SDI, Silicon Labs, ST Microelectronics, Texas
Instruments, Toshiba Corporation, Vitesco Technologies
Table 7.2 Thermal Management Systems (TMS) Companies

Borgwarner
Calsonic Kansei
CapTherm Systems
Continental
Dana
Gentherm
Hanon System
LG Chem
MAHLE
Robert Bosch
Samsung SDI
Valeo
VOSS Automotive
Table 7.3 Battery Pack Companies

ArcelorMittal
Constellium
Thyssenkrupp
EDAG Group
Gestamp
Hitachi
SGL Carbon
Voestalpine
50
8. Disruptive Battery Cell Technologies
OEMS and battery manufacturers are investing significantly in electrification through a
variety of lithium-ion battery technology, capacity for which this report focuses on.
However, there is investment in applications for a range of other electric vehicle battery
technology, notably for ‘solid state’ batteries and hydrogen fuel cells, as well as other types
of batteries.
Solid-state lithium batteries feature solid electrolyte lithium (rather than liquid), which have
higher thermal stability and can tolerate higher temperatures, with higher voltages, have
greater range and shorter charging times. A number of companies are developing solid-state
batteries, including small cells (which are cheaper to produce) but also larger cells that
would be more suitable for EVs.
Toyota, together with Panasonic, has more than 1,000 patents for solid-state batteries.
Other OEMs including Nissan and Volkswagen are also investing in the technology.
Volkswagen has invested $300m in QuantumScope, a US-based specialist in solid-state
batteries.
The technology, however, is still under development and is not ready for commercial use in
electric vehicles. Toyota has said that it would have a working prototype with solid-state
technology as early as this year, however it would not be until 2025 that such vehicles
would enter production. Vacuum and consumer product manufacturer Dyson, which had
been set to launch an EV based on solid-state battery technology, abandoned the project in
part because of the time it would take to make the technology viable alongside supporting
the capital investment needed to develop an EV (Dyson continues to develop this battery
technology, however).
While solid state could be a disruption in EV batteries, we do not expect it to play a large
role in battery capacity and supply chains over the next 5-10 years.
Other technologies are in play too, including lithium-sulphur batteries and even aluminium-
air batteries, which could offer potential in the longer term, but are unlikely to supplant the
current drive to increase lithium-ion battery production capacity.
There is also investment in hydrogen fuel cell technology, with carmakers including Toyota
and Hyundai already putting vehicles on the market. Fuel cells might also be more effective
in the long run for electrifying commercial vehicles. However, it currently lacks the fuelling
infrastructure to be a mass alternative to electrification.
51
Table 8.1 Companies Developing Potentially Disruptive Battery Cell Technologies
Company Details Battery Type
Solid Power Investment, from Ford, BMW, Hyundai, Solid State
Daimler, Samsung
Quantum Scape $300m investment from VW. Claims a Solid State
battery that can charge to 80% in 15 mins.
BlueSolutions Investment from Daimler Solid State
Innolith Energy density of 1000 Wh/kg, Lithium-ion
Ionic Materials $65m investment from Renault-Nissan- Solid State
Mitsubishi
Libtec consortium Honda, Nissan, Toyota, Panasonic Solid State
ProLogium Enovate Solid State
SVOLT Solid State
AMTE Power Silicon anode
Enovix Silicon anode
Enevate Silicon anode
Hibar Systems Acquired by Tesla Lithium-ion
Sila Nanotechnology Silicon anode
OXIS Energy Lithium-S
Métalectrique Research & LG Chem, Sanyo, Johnson Matthey, the UK Aluminium-
Development (MAL) MoD (DSTL) and Southampton University Air
Maxwell Technologies Acquired by Tesla, Maxwell is a specialist Lithium-ion,
in ultra-capacitors and Tesla is interested Solid State
in its dry electrode / solid state batteries
NanoGraf Graphene anode manufacturer Lithium-ion
Kreisel Electric Collaboration with Shell Lithium-ion
QuantumScape Recently listed on the stock exchange and Solid state
partnering with VW
Dyson Dyson continues with investment in solid Solid state
state technology despite abandoning its
EV car project.
SES Solid state
StoreDot Collaboration with EVE Energy. Daimler, Silicon anode
BP, Samsung and TDK have invested
Foxconn Limited production by 2024 Solid state
Toyota Limited production by 2024 Solid state
52
9. Battery Pack Assembly Plants
Battery pack assembly plants take the raw individual battery cells (just slightly larger than an
individual ‘AA’ consumer battery) and combine them into ‘modules’; these modules are
then combined into complete battery packs, incorporating the BMS, TMS, and enclosure to
create a usable battery system. This is referred to as battery pack ‘integration’.
OEMs often consider that they can achieve product differentiation and competitive
advantage on everything that goes on top of the basic battery cell, including the BMS and
pack assembly. For example, two OEMs may well use the same CATL cells, but with better
software and thermal management, they can often eke out a few percentage points further
range or quicker charging – factors that often influence consumers in purchasing one vehicle
over another. Overall, battery pack assembly is a key competitive advantage for OEMs.
Depending on the OEM, the battery pack assembly plant and location may vary. Some
smaller start-ups will arrange for pack assembly to be outsourced to a third party or have
the cell manufacturer provide this service. Larger volume OEMs will often arrange for the
battery pack assembly to be located close to the vehicle production site or even right
alongside the assembly line to minimise logistics costs and improve supply chain efficiency –
but also to keep the control of the critical pack assembly process in-house and retain it as a
competitive advantage.
Table 9.1 Battery Pack Assembly Plants

Company Location Date Details
ATW Germany Acquired by Tesla to assembly battery packs
Automation for the upcoming vehicle assembly plant in
(owned by Berlin
Tesla)
Audi Brussels, Audi primarily uses LG Chem cells. Audi is one
Belgium of the few EV OEMs that assembles the
modules and packs itself in its own assembly
plants. 3 GWh output in 2020
BMW For its existing generation of electric and
hybrids BMW has mostly used Samsung SDI
cells (with the exception of A123 Systems for
its ActiveHybrids) but has signed an agreement
with CATL batteries for its next generation of
EVs, including the iNext series.
In its efforts to diversify its supply base, BMW

has also formed a technology consortium with
53
Swedish battery manufacturer Northvolt and
Belgian battery materials specialist Umicore
Dingolfing, BMW invested $100m in this plant to design,
Germany develop and manufacture its core electric drive
(Competence components including the power electronics,
Centre for E- BMS and the vehicle electrical system using
drive cells supplied by Samsung SDI
Production)
Munich, Part of the vehicle assembly plant will be used
Germany to assemble battery modules
Leipzig, Part of the vehicle assembly plant will be used
Germany to assemble battery modules from 2021
Regensburg, Coating of cells from 2021, full battery
Germany assembly from 2022
Spartanburg, Hybrid battery assembly and production of
South Carolina, hybrid versions of BMW X3 and X5
USA
Tiexi, China BMW Brilliance Automotive (BBA) JV plant
includes a high voltage battery centres, and
was recently expanded to build battery
modules, including for the new BMW iX3 EV
Thailand Localised battery production with the
Dräxlmaier Group for BMW 5 series PHEVs
BMZ GmbH Karlstein, TerraE consortium co-founded by BMZ.
Germany Production of up to 80m lithium-ion batteries
with a total capacity of around 4 GWh annually
potentially rising to 8 GWh
Bolloré Ergue-Gaberic, Bolloré assembles battery packs for its buses
France with a manufacturing capacity of 300 MWh
BorgWarner/ Vernon, 2019 60:40 joint venture and BorgWarner
Romeo California, US investment in Romeo, which launched a
Power battery pack plant in 2017
Technology
BYD BYD is highly vertically integrated designing,
producing and assembling in-house the
complete electrical power train system
including cells, modules and battery pack
Shenzhen, 14 GWh in 2018
China
Qinghai, China 12 GWh in 2018, 24 GWh in 2019
Huizhou, China 2 GWh in 2018
Xi’an, Shaanxi, From 2023 up to 30 GWh battery production
China
54
Chongqing, From 2023 this is JV between BYD and
China Changan Automobile.
5 to 6 GWh first stage, 10 GWh second stage
Amazonas, 18,000 battery modules assembly per year for
Brazil buses
Continental 2008 LG Chem has been Daimler’s primary supplier
of battery cells. Daimler then assembles its
own battery packs at 9 locations throughout
the world, sometimes with subsidiaries like its
100%-owned Deutsche Accumotive, and in
some cases through JVs with local partners.
Daimler has also signed a supply agreement

with CATL, not specifying any specific models
yet
Daimler Nuremberg, 333 MWh lithium-ion batteries for HEVs such
Germany as Mercedes S400 BlueHYBRID
Kamenz, 2019 Deutsche Accumotive develops, and assemble
Germany plant LG Chem cells and have produced 70,000
1 lithium-ion batteries packs since 2012 for
Mercedes and Smart
Kamenz, 2012
Germany plant
2
Stuttgart-
Untertürkheim,
Germany, plant
1
Stuttgart-
Untertürkheim,
Germany, plant
2
Sindelfingen,
Germany
Beijing, China Joint-venture partner BAIC have added battery
production at an engine factory
Bangkok, Battery production with local partner Thonburi
Thailand Automotive
Tuscaloosa, Near the Mercedes SUV plant, which will build
Vance, USA electric SUVs from 2022
Jawor, Poland Battery assembly facility for EQ range
Ford Valencia, Spain
Rawsonville,
MI, US
55
Ford Otosan Kocaeli, Turkey 2022 Battery packs for E-transit
Geely China JV with Geely Automobile Holdings
GM Brownstown, 2010 Original battery assembly plant for Volt
Michigan, US production. Today assembles battery pack for
hybrids and replacement packs for aftersales
GM (Ultium Lordstown, 2021 $2.3bn JV between LG and GM to build a 30
JV) Northeast GWh battery cell assembly plant in Lordstown
Ohio, US
GS Yuasa Miskolc, 2017 500,000 batteries per year
Hungary
Hyperbat Coventry, UK 2019 Up to 100,000 vehicles
Jaguar Land Hams Hall near 2020 Jaguar Land Rover Battery Assembly Centre
Rover Birmingham,
North
Warwickshire,
UK
Johnson One of Europe’s largest lithium-ion battery
Matthey systems suppliers, processing over 70m cells a
Battery year and supplying volume production of
Systems batteries for global markets. Tier supplier
(Cummins) Cummins acquired the company in 2018
Poland Battery cell manufacture and pack assembly
UK
Kreisel Freistadt, 800 MWh battery pack factory that supplies
Electric Austria BMW, VW and McLaren Automotive with
battery packs and electric powertrains for
orders up to 10,000 vehicles. Kreisel currently
has a supply agreement with Samsung SDI
Microvast Brandenburg, 2021 Ramp up to 8-12 GWh. Assembles battery
Germany packs with cells imported from China
Northvolt Gdansk, Poland Production site for battery modules and
energy storage solutions. An increased
investment will mean an initial capacity of 5
GWh in 2022 and potential for 12 GWh
Renault - Sunderland, UK 2013 Nissan designs and manufactures battery
Nissan - packs in-house for its own use for Nissan Leaf
Mitsubishi and e-NV200 van. Cells provided by AESC
Envision.
Flins, France Renault
Blainville, Renault vans
France
Barcelona, Nissan battery assembly. Factory is slated to
Spain close
56
Kusatsu City, Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV battery pack is
Japan designed in house by Lithium Energy Japan, a
JV between GS Yuasa, and Mitsubishi
Corporation
Scania Södertälje, 2023 For Scania trucks and buses. Cells will be
Sweden supplied by Northvolt.
Stellantis Nersac, France 2021 Pilot plant as part of ACC JV with Saft before
ramping up battery production in 2023
Trnava, Batteries for multiple brands
Slovakia
Hauts-de- 2023 Cell manufacture and pack assembly through
France, France ACC JV with SAFT and PSA/Opel. Initially 8
GWh eventually 24 GWh
Kaiserslautern, 2023 Cell manufacture and pack assembly through
Germany ACC JV with SAFT and PSA/Opel. Initially 8
GWh eventually 24 GWh
Mirafiori 2020 €50m initial investment to build a battery
complex, Turin, assembly ‘hub’
Italy
Zaragoza,
Figueruelas,
Spain
Tesla Gigafactory 1, 2016 JV with Panasonic
Reno, Nevada, 23 GWh 2020
US 35 GWh future
Gigafactory 2, 2017 This plant produces photovoltaic solar cells
Buffalo, New unrelated to automotive
York
Gigafactory 3, Dec Batteries & cars. Target of 15 GWh battery
Shanghai, 2019 production by 2023. Battery packs assembled
China using cells from various suppliers, including
Panasonic, LG Chem and CATL
Gigafactory 4, 2021 Tesla’s new plant will produce vehicles Model
Grünheide, Y Model 3. and batteries. Battery capacity
Germany TBA 100-250 GWh. Elon Musk has said Tesla
will make the plant the largest battery plant in
the world.
Fremont, Pilot plant initially, but Up to 10 GWH.
California Currently a vehicle assembly plant, Tesla
indicated a pilot battery production line would
be built for in-house cell production
Austin, Texas, Cybertruck, Semi, Roadster, Model Y but also
US battery cell production to further integrate the
supply chain
57
Valmet Salo, Finland 2021 Modules and battery packs
Automotive
Valmet Uusikaupunki, Modules and battery packs and vehicle
Automotive Finland contract manufacture
Volvo Ghent, Belgium 2020 XC40 Recharge and battery pack assembly
Vigo, Spain Battery assembly
Ridgeville, 2021
South Carolina,
US
VW Salzgitter, 2020 12 GWh potentially increasing to 30 GWh in JV
Germany with Northvolt
Wolfsburg, Up to 500,000 EV battery packs per year
Germany
Brunswick, Battery module assembly
Germany
Ingolstadt, Audi reported to build battery plant
Germany
58
10. Automotive OEM Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Assembly Plants
In analysing the battery supply chain, it becomes increasingly apparent that the location of
EV assembly plants is very important, perhaps even more so than with conventional ICE
powertrains. The weight of the batteries, regulation around the movement of hazardous
goods, and the security of supply and localisation of the supply chain are all critical factors
intertwined with the chosen location of plug-in hybrid and electric vehicle assembly plants.
Furthermore, the battery sourcing model varies within those parameters, for example with
some OEMs importing batteries completely from outsourced companies, whereas other
OEMs such as Audi and Tesla assembly the batteries in the same actual plant as the vehicle
itself.
OEM strategies also vary in terms of how they produce electric vehicles in plants. Many
OEMs have and continue to opt to add EVs alongside existing ICE models, including GM,
BMW and recently Volvo Cars. However, more OEMs are following the VW Group approach
(and of course that of a pure EV OEM like Tesla), which includes converting a number of
plants into purely electric vehicle production sites, such as Zwickau, Dresden and Emden in
Germany. GM and Ford are now also converting more factories to produce purely EVs.
BMW, which has mainly favoured a flexible approach, is now developed a pure EV platform
and will make its upcoming plant in Hungary a dedicated manufacturing site for EVs.
The table below details many – but not all – locations for variants of hybrid, plug-in and fully
electric vehicles.
Table 10.1 OEM Hybrid & EV Vehicle Assembly Plants

OEM Brands Models Location Details
Ai-Ways Ai-Ways U5 ION, U7 ION, Shangrao, Jiangxi Jiangling Motors
RG (planned) province, China Holding, is the JV
between Jiangling
Motors and
Changan
Alexander ADL, BYD Hybrid and Falkirk, Scotland Includes a
Dennis electric Buses partnership with
BYD on electric
buses
Ankai Ankai Buses Hefei, Anhui
province, China
Aston Aston Martin Lagonda EV St Athan, Wales, EV may be delayed
Martin UK to 2025
59
BAIC Foton, Aumark EV, Weifang,
Aumark Toano EV van Shandong
province, China
BAIC Beijing E150EV, Wevan Qingdao,
307EV, EV EU5, Shandong
EX3 province, China
BAIC Beijing E150, EV160, Daixing, Beijing,
EV200, D70 EV China
BAIC Borgward BXi7 Miyun, Beijing,
China
BAIC Beijing, Senova D50 EV, Zhuzhou, Hunan
Senova Beijing EX200, province, China
EX5, ECS, EX360
BAIC Arcfox Arcfox EV GT Zhenjiang, JV between BAIC
(planned 2020), Jiangsu province, and Magna
EV (planned) China
BAIC Beijing EX360, Wevan Changzhou,
407, ev Lite Jiangsu province,
China
Baoneng Changan, Eado EV, DS9 Shenzhen, Baoneng acquired
Baoneng, DS, PHEV (previous) Guangdong plant from
Qoros now new province, China Changan PSA JV,
Baoneng plans also acquired 50%
of Qoros Auto
Beijing Neoplan NEV buses Fengtai, Beijing, North Huade
North China Neoplan, owned
by Beijing North
Vehicle, China
Highway
Machinery Co.
Best Best Shuchi E-Bus Yantai, Shandong
province, China
Bisu Bisu E-mini truck Nanchong,
Sichuan
province, China
BMC BMC Truck, military Pinarbasi, turkey
BMW BMW Ix3 EV, 5-Series Dadong plant, BBA JV between
PHEV, iX, i4 Shenyang, BMW and
(planned) Liaoning Brilliance Auto
province, China
BMW BMW, Zinoro ix3 (from 2022), Tiexi plant, BBA JV between
3 series EV, Shenyang, BMW and
Zinoro 1E Liaoning Brilliance Auto.
province, China
60
Tiexi also builds
batteries
BMW Mini, Mini EVs Zhangjiagang, Spotlight
Spotlight, (planned) Jiangsu province, Automotive JV
Great Wall China between Great
Wall and BMW
BMW BMW 3 Series, 5 Series, Amata city,
7 Series, X5 PHEV Rayong, Thailand
BMW BMW X1 PHEV, X2 Regensburg,
PHEV Bayern, Germany
BMW BMW 3 Series PHEV, I4 Munich, Bavaria, EV from 2021
(2021) Germany
BMW BMW iNext EV and iX Dingolfing, EVs from 2021
EV, 5 and 7 series Bavaria,
PHEV, 7 EV Germany
(2022)
BMW BMW i3 EV, 2 Series Leipzig, Saxony, Electric Mini From
PHEV, Mini Germany 2023 (previously i8
Electric (2023) PHEV)
BMW BMW Future EV Drebrecen, Opening in 2025
platform Hungary to produce only
EVs including new
EV platform
BMW BMW 5 Series PHEV Graz, Austria Magna Steyr
contract
manufacturing
BMW BMW, Mini Mini PHEV VDL Nedcar,
Bom,
Netherlands
BMW Mini Mini Electric Oxford, England
BMW BMW PHEV versions of Spartanburg, SC,
X3 and X5 USA
Bollore Bollore Electric bus Ergue-Gaberic,
France
BYD BYD K9 e-bus Dalian, Liaoning
province, China
BYD Jinma Jinma Bus Wuqing, Tianjin, JV with Tianjin
China Public Transport
Corp
BYD BYD Qin EV300, Qin Xian, Shaanxi
EV450, Song province, China
EV499, Song Pro,
EV Bus-K9,K8
61
BYD BYD Sirui, e1, E3, S2, Changsha, Hunan
Yuan EV, Song province, China
EV, Song PHEV,
Bus K9, EV Truck
K5, T7, Van V3
BYD BYD BYD electric Changzhou, Join venture with
vehicles China Changan with
annual capacity of
400,000 autos
BYD BYD Tang, Tang PHEV, Shenzhen,
e6, Han EV, Han Guangdong
PHEV province, China
BYD Shaoguan, China
BYD Shangluo, China
BYD BYD / Daimler China Shenzhen Denza
New Energy
Automobile JV
between BYD and
Daimler
BYD Olectra Jedcheria,
Telangana, India
BYD BYD Buses Komarom,
Hungary
BYD BYD Buses Beauvaus, France
BYD BYD Buses Allonne, France
BYD BYD Buses Lancaster, CA, US
BYD BYD Short range Ontario, Canada
vehicles
BYD BYD Buses Campinas, Sao Electric bus chassis
Paolo, Brazil
BYD Changan 4 models Kutaisi, Georgia JV between
planned Changan &
AiGroup. Originally
launch planned for
2020
BYD BYD, Buses Falkirk, Scotland Joint venture for
Alexander buses with
Dennis Alexander Dennis
Byton Byton Xiqing, Tianjin, Former Tianjin
China FAW Huali plant,
acquired in 2018
by Byton
Byton Byton M-Byte (2021 - Qixia, Nanjing,
planned) China
62
Byton Byton M-Byte (planned Gunsan, Previous GM
2021), E-Tuktuk Jeollabuk, South Korea plant. 2019
(planned 2020) Korea agreement
Myoung Shin
Industry and
Byton, to build
Byton models
CH Auto Qiantu, Qiantu K50 Suzhou, Jiangsu JV between
Mullen (Dragonfly K50) province, China Mullen Tech and
CH Auto
Changan Changan EV sedan Dingzhou, Hebei
(planned) province, China
Changan Changan Bus EV Ruixing ES30 Dingzhou, Hebei
province, China
Changan Changan CS15 E-Pro Hefei, Anhui
province, China
Changan Chana, Oshan, EULove EV, Lishui, Nanjing,
EULove Oshan EV Jiangsu province,
China
Changfeng Leopaard CS9 EV Changsha, Hunan
province, China
Changjiang Changjiang E-Boss, e-Glory, Hangzhou, Company filed for
e-Cool (all on Zhejiang bankruptcy Q4
hold) province, China 2020
Changjiang Leapmotor Leap Coup, Jinhua, Zhejiang
Minicar T03, C11 province, China
SUV
Changjiang FDG e-vans, logistics Guian, Guizhou
vehicles province, China
Chery Chery Aragua,
Venezuela
Chery Jetour, Karry Yo-Yo EV, Jinyou Kaifeng, Henan
EV, X70s EV province, China
Chery Qoros EV500 (planned) Changshu,
Jiangsu province,
China
Chery Exeed, Chery, Arrizo 5e, Exeed Changchun Lu,
Arrizo, Tiggo PHEV Wuhu, Anhui
province, China
Chery Chery, Arrizo, eQ1, eQ, Arrizo Huajing Nan Lu,
Tiggo 5e, Tiggo e Wuhu, Anhui
province, China
63
CHJ Lixiang (Ideal) Ideal One Changzhou,
Jiangsu province,
China
CIMC CIMC, C&C e-truck Sanshan, Wuhu,
Anhui province,
China
CRRC CRRC CRRC e-Bus Zhuzhou, Hunan
province, China
Daewoo Daewoo e-bus Ulsan, South
Korea
DAF DAF, Paccar CF electric truck Eindoven,
Netherlands
Daihatsu Daihatsu, Toyota Probox Ooyamazaki-cho, Daihatsu plant
Toyota, Mazda HV Otokuni-gun, also producing
Kyoto, Japan Toyota and Mazda
models
Daimler Mercedes, C Class PHEV, Bremen, EV from 2021
Daimler EQE, EQC Germany
Daimler Mercedes e-Sprinter Dusseldorf,
Vans North Rhine-
Westphalia,
Germany
Daimler Evo Evo Bus Mannheim,
Baden-
Württemberg,
Germany
Daimler Mercedes- EQ range e.g. Rastatt, Baden- From 2020
Benz EQA C-SUV Württemberg,
Germany
Daimler Mercedes- E Class, S Class Sindelfingen, EV from 2021
Benz PHEV, EQ range Baden-
(2021) Württemberg,
Germany
Daimler Mercedes- Daimler fuel cell Stuttgart, Baden-
Benz vehicle Württemberg,
Germany
Daimler / Smart, INEOS Smart EQ Hambach, INEOS took over
INEOS Fortwo, Future Moselle, France plant in Q1 2021,
Grenadier EVs produces Smart on
contract
Daimler Mercedes- eVito Vitoria, Basque
Benz Vans Country, Spain
Daimler Fuso eCanter electric Tramagal,
truck Portugal
64
Daimler Mercedes- eActros Wörth, Baden- Starting in 2022
Benz Trucks Württemberg,
Germany
Daimler Mercedes- EQB Kecskemet, From 2021
Benz Hungary
Daimler Daimler Thomas Built Bus High Point, NC,
Trucks US
Daimler Mercedes- EQS, EQE Tuscaloosa, From 2022
Benz Alabama, US
Daimler Western Star Electric trucks Portland, OR, US
Daimler Mercedes- Sprinter Vito, Gonzales Catan,
Benz EQV Argentina
Daimler Mercedes- EQC400, EQE Shunyi, Beijing, JV between BAIC
Benz (planned) China and Daimler
Daimler Mercedes- EQB SUV Boxing Road, JV between BAIC
Benz (planned), EQA Beijing, China and Daimler
SUV(planned)
Daimler Smart, Geely smart EVs Xian, Shaanxi JV between Geely
(planned) province, China and Daimler
Daimler Denza Denza EV 400, Pingshan, JV between BYD
Denza X PHEV, Shenzhen, and Daimler
Denza EV SUV Guangdong
province, China
Dongfeng Dongfeng Special purpose Urumuqi,
EVs Xinjiang, China
Dongfeng Dongfeng, Skio EV, ER30, Xiangyang, Hubei
Skio Junfeng EV ER30 province, China
Dongfeng Dongfeng EV garbage truck Shiyan, Hubei
province, China
Dongfeng Luxgen, Yulon Yulu EV2, U5 EV Hangzhou, JV between
Zhejiang Dongfeng and
province, China Yulon Group
(Taiwan)
Dongfeng Dongfeng Special purpose Pingshan,
EVs Shenzhen,
Guangdong
province, China
Dongfeng Fengxing Fengxing EV T5 Liuzhou, Guangxi
(planned) province, China
Dongfeng Dongfeng EV buses Xiangyang, Hubei
province, China
Dorcen Dorcen, Qiling Dorcen E20, Fuzhou, Jiangxi JV between
Qiling EV Pickup province, China Dorcen and JMC
65
Enovate Enovate ME7 Changsha, Completion late
Hunan, China. 2020
FAW Senia EV Senia R7 Jilin, Jilin Plant owned 70%
province, China by Shandong
Baoya, 30% FAW
FAW Hongqi E-HS9 Changchun, Jilin
province, China
FAW Bestune E-01 Changchun, Jilin
province, China
FAW FAW Sitech EV Changchun, Jilin
province, China
FAW FAW trucks Port Elizabeth, Plans for
Eastern Cape, hybrid/electric
South Africa trucks
FAW, Haima Haima Freema EV Longhua, Haikou, JV between Haima
Hainan province and FAW
Feidie Wuzheng, Dito Wuzheng, Dito Hangzhou,
EV trucks Zhejiang
province, China
Fisker Fisker Ocean SUV Graz, Austria Contract
manufacturer
Magna Steyr will
build the Fisker EV
in 2022
Fisker Fisker Future EVs China Agreement with
Foxconn to
develop and
manufacture EVs
Ford Ford, Mazda Hybrid variants Rayong, Thailand
Ford Ford New EVs using Cologne, North Ford is investing
VW’s MEB Rhine- $1 billion to make
platform Westphalia, the plant its
Germany European
electrification
centre
Ford Ford Focus hybrid Saarlouis,
Saarland,
Germany
Ford Ford Puma mild Craiova, Romania
hybrid
Ford Ford Kuga PHEV, Valencia, Spain Transit production
Transit Connect moving to Mexico
Van plant
66
Ford Ford Transit Custom Golcuk, Kocaeli,
PHEV Turkey
Ford Ford Explorer hybrid Chicago, IL, USA
Ford Ford Truck Escape hybrid Louisville,
Kentucky, USA
Ford Ford F-150 EV Rouge Electric From 2022
Vehicle Center,
Dearborn,
Michigan, USA
Ford Ford Mustang Hybrid Flat Rock, From 2021
Michigan, US
Ford Ford e-Transit van Kansas City, US
Ford Ford, Lincoln Fusion hybrid, Hermosillo,
Fusion PHEV, Sonora, Mexico
MKZ Hybrid
Ford Ford Mustang Mach-e Cuautitlan,
Izcalli, Mexico
Ford Ford Future EVs Oakville From 2024
Assembly
Complex,
Ontario, Canada
Ford Ford, Mazda Ranger hybrid Pretoria,
(future) Gauteng, South
Africa
Ford Changan Ford Mustang Mach-e China From late 2021
Fuda Wuzhoulong Special purpose Longgang,
EVs, buses Shenzhen,
Guangdong
province, China
Fujian Yudo Yudo ¶ 1, 360, Putian, Fujian
pro, E-Shock province, China
Fujian Soueast DX3 EV, Lingyue Fuzhou, Fujian
Motor EV, DEARCC EV province, China
GAZ GAZ Sogutlu, Sakarya,
Turkey
Geely Emgrand, Emgrand EV, Jinzhong, Shanxi Geely subsidiary
Geometry Gse, Geometry Province, China Shanxi New
EV SUV, Energy Auto Co,
Geometry A plant
Geely Maple Maple 30X EV Hangzhou, JV between Geely
Zhejiang and Kandi
province, China
Geely ZD (Zhidou) Zhidou D3, D2, Ningbo, Zhejiang
D1 province, China
67
Geely Polestar, Models on CMA Luqiao, Taizhou, Also brands
Volvo, Lynk & platform under Zhejiang Polestar and LYNK
Co Volvo, XC40, province, China & Co
Polestar 2, Lynk
& Co
Polestar Polestar 1 PHEV Chengdu, China
Geely Geely, LEVC TX5, electric LCVs Yiwu, Zhejiang
province, China
Geely Volvo S60L, XC60 Chengdu, China Zhongjia
hybrids Automobile
Manufacturing
(Chengdu)
(ZAMC)
Geely Volvo S90, S90L hybrids Daqing, China Daqing Volvo Car
Manufacturing
(DVCM)
Geely Farizon, Geely e-TRUCKS, Nanchong, Geely's CV
methanol Sichuan production base
Geely Volvo XC40 PHEV, XC40 Ghent, Belgium EV and battery
Recharge P8 EV productions
started in 2020,
plans to treble
output
Geely Volvo XC60, V60, V60 Torslanda, Volvo Cars
Cross Country, Gothenburg, Torslanda
V90, V90 Cross Sweden (VCT)
Country, XC90
PHEV
Geely Volvo S60 PHEV Ridgeville, Volvo to add
XC90 EV (future) Beverly County, battery plant and
EV batteries South Carolina, EV version in
(future) US future
Geely Lotus Evija Norwich, England Starting in 2022
Geely LEVC, London Electric taxis, van Ansty, England
Taxi
GM Buick, Velite 5 EV Jinqiao, Pudong, JV between SAIC
Chevrolet, Shanghai, China and GM
GM Cadillac, Buick CT6 PHEV (2017- Jinsui Lu, JV between SAIC
2018) Pudong, and GM -plant
Shanghai, China mainly for Cadillac
GM Wuling Wuling Yufeng, Liuzhou,
Rongguang EV Guangxi
province, China
68
GM Corvette Future EV Bowling Green, Future Corvette EV
KY, US (not yet
confirmed). All GM
vehicles will be
battery by 2035
GM Cadillac, Fairfax, KS, US GM recently
Chevrolet withdraw Malibu
hybrid; all vehicles
will be battery by
2035
GM Chevrolet, Bolt, Bolt EUV, Orion Assembly Bolt EUV in 2021
Cruise Cruise AV in Orion
Township,
Michigan, US
GM Cadillac, GMC Lyriq EV Spring Hill, GM has invested
Tennessee, US $2 billion to make
Spring Hill a third
EV plant Lyriq
launch in 2021
GM GMC, Cruise Hummer EV, Factory ZERO Production from
Cruise Origin Hamtramck,, 2021. GM’s first
Detroit, EV-only
Michigan, US manufacturing
plant
Golden Golden e-buses, e-vans Zhetang, Lishui,
Dragon Dragon, Nanjing, Jiangsu
Skywell province, China
Golden Golden e-buses, special Xiamen, Fujian
Dragon Dragon purpose vehicles province, China
Great Wall Great Wall, HEV Wingle Baoding, Hebei
Ora, Wingle pickup, Ora IQ, province, China
Ora R2
Great Wall Wey P8 Xushui, Baoding,
Hebei province,
China
Great Wall Ora Ora R3 EV Taizhou, Jiangsu
province, China
Greenwheel Greenwheel Hydrogen Fuel Rugao, Jiangsu
Cell bus, province, China
Kanghete bus
(EV), e-logistics
vehicles, e-
refrigerated vans
69
Greenwheel Greenwheel EV (planned) Gaoming,
Foshan,
Guangdong
province, China
Guilin Wuling LNG buses, EV, Guilin, Guangxi
Motors CNG buses Zhuang
Autonomous
Region, China
Guilin Daewoo E-buses, PHEV Guilin, Guangxi JV between
buses Zhuang Guilimn Bus
Autonomous Groupo and
Region, China Daewoo
Haima Haima 7X PHEV Zhengzhou, previously
(planned) Henan province, produced Xpeng
China models at this
plant as contract
manufacturers.
Hanteng Hanteng Hanteng X7 Shangrao, Jiangxi
PHEV, X5 EV, province, China
Xingfu
Honda Honda Suzuka, Japan
Honda Honda Clarity PHEV, Sayama, Saitama, Potentially closing
Clarity EV, Acura Japan by 2022
PLX Sport Hybrid
Honda Honda New EVs Yori plant, Japan
Honda Honda Ogawa, Japan
Honda Honda CR-V Hybrid Wuhan, Hubei, Dongfeng Honda
China Automobile Co.,
Ltd.
Honda Honda Accord Hybrid Rojana, Uthai,
Ayuthaya,
Thailand
Honda Honda Gebze, Kocaeli,
Turkey
Honda Honda Accord Hybrid, Marysville, Ohio,
Acura NSX USA
Honda Honda CR-V Hybrid East Liberty,
Ohio, US
Honda Honda Insight, CR-V Greensburg,
Hybrid Indiana, US
Honda Honda Civic hybrid Ontario, Canada
Hybrid Hybrid Kinetic H500, H600, Ningbo, Zhejiang
Kinetic K350 province, China
70
Hyundai-Kia Hyundai Elantra PHEV, I30 Shunyi, Beijing, JV between BAIC
China and Hyundai
Hyundai-Kia Kia K5 PHEV, e-Niro, Hwaseong, South
Sorento PHEV Korea
Hyundai-Kia Hyundai Sonata HEV, Asan,
Sonata PHEV Chuncheongnam,
South Korea
Hyundai-Kia Kia Soul EV, Soul Gwangju, South
Booster EV Korea
Hyundai-Kia Hyundai, ix35 Fuel Cell, Ulsan, South
Genesis Porter EV, Ioniq 5 Korea
EV, Kona EV
Hyundai-Kia Hyundai Sriperumdubur,
Kanchipuram,
Tamil Nadu, India
Hyundai-Kia Kia Ceed and XCeed Zilina, Slovakia
PHEV
Hyundai-Kia Hyundai Kona EV Nosovice, Czech Hyundai Motor
Republic Manufacturing
Czech (HMMC)
Hyundai-Kia Hyundai I20 hybrid Izmit, Kocaeli, Hyundai has
Turkey discussed plans for
a future battery
centre in Turkey
Hyundai-Kia Kia, Horki Horki 300E Yancheng, JV between
Jiangsu province, Dongfeng, Yueda
China and Kia
Hyundai-Kia Kia KX3 EV, K5 PHEV Tinghu, Plant 2. JV
Yancheng, between
Jiangsu province, Dongfeng, Yueda
China and Kia
Hyundai-Kia Hyundai Local EV model Chennai, India Hyundai has
(future) announced a
$200m investment
to produce a local
EV model for India
Hyundai-Kia Hyundai Jurong, Due in 2022 the
Singapore Hyundai Motor
Group Innovation
Centre (HMGICS)
will also produce
EVs
Hyundai-Kia Kia Quito, Ecuador
Ikarbus Ikarbus Beograd, Serbia
71
IKCO IKCO, SAIPA Maracay,
Venezuela
JAC JAC, VW, NIO i-EV4, i-EV5, SOL Hefei, Anhui JAC (owned 75%
e20x, NIO ES8, province, China by VW), with NIO
EC6, ES6 contracting use of
PV plant. Plant is
JV between JAC
and regional
investment players
JAC JAC Iev6e Anqing, Anhui
province, China
JBM JBM bus Mathura, Uttar
Pradesh, India
JBUS Hino, Isuzu EV bus Tochigi, Japan JBUS plant
assembles buses
for Hino, Isuzu
JBUS Toyota, Hino, Toyota Sora FCEV Komatsu-shi, Sora Fuel Cell bus
Isuzu Ishikawa, Japan
Jiangren Singulato Electric CV Zhuzhou, Hunan
(planned province, China
2020/2021)
JLR Jaguar, Land Jaguar E-Pace Changshu, JV between Chery
Rover PHEV (Oct 2020) Jiangsu province, and Jaguar Land
China Rover
JLR Land Rover Defender, Nitra, Slovakia
Discovery PHEVs
JLR Range Rover, Evoque, Halewood,
Land Rover Discovery Sport England
PHEVs
JLR Jaguar XJ, Future EVs Castle Bromwich, Jaguar to be all-
England electric brand by
2025. Plans for
electric XJ
reported to be
cancelled
JLR Jaguar, Range F Type, Range Solihull, England Solihull will be
Rover Rover, Range home to JLR’s
Rover Sport, electric modular
Velar PHEV, architecture and
future EVs the first Land
Rover EV by 2024
JLR Jaguar I Pace EV, E Pace Graz, Austria Contract
PHEV manufacturing by
Magna Steyr
72
JMC Ford, JMC, Ford Territory EV Nanchang, JV between JMC
Fushan, Jiangxi province, and Ford
Aiways China
JMC JM Yizhi EX5, E200N, Mount Lu, JV between Jiangxi
E200L, E160L, Nanchang, Jiangling Motors
E100B Jiangxi province, and Renault
China
JMC JMC, Ford e-SUVs (planned) Xiaolan, JV between JMC
Nanchang, and Ford
Jiangsu province,
China
JMC JM Yizhi EVs Kunming,
(planned) Yunnan province,
China
KAMA KAMA Kama NEV truck Shouguang,
Shandong
province, China
Karma Karma Moreno Valley,
CA, US
Karsan Hyundai, PSA Nilufer, Bursa,
Turkey
King Long Higer, King Jingwei, Xian,
Long Shaanxi
province, China
King Long King Long, e-buses, e-vans Xiamen, Fujian
Apolong province, China
Leapmotor Forta e-trucks, buses Zhangzhou, Wholly owned by
Fujian province, Leapmotor
China
Lifan Lifan 630 EV, 320 E, Jiyuan, Henan
820 EV province, China
LinkTour LinkTour, K-ONE, Yogomo Xingtai, Hebei JV between
Yogomo E330 province, China Yogomo and Great
Wall
Lordstown Lordstown electric pickup Lordstown, OH,
US
Lucid Lucid Air EV Casa Grande, AZ, Lucid Air
US production
starting in 2021
Mahindra Mahindra Satpur, Nashik,
Maharashtra,
India
73
Mahindra Skoda, Chakan,
Daimler, Maharashtra,
Mahindra India
Mahindra Mahindra Bangalore,
Karnataka, India
Marco Polo Marco Polo Germiston,
Johannesburg,
Gauteng, South
Africa
Mazda Mazda Mazda2 HV Hamakata, Hofu-
Shi, Yamaguchi
Mazda Mazda CX-30 Hiroshima, Japan
Minan Minan, Lantu electric logistics Huai'an, Jiangsu
(planned), EV
sedan (planned)
McLaren McLaren Arturas PHEV Working, Surrey,
UK
Minsheng Nezha, Hozon Nezha N01 Tongxiang,
Zhejiang
province, China
Myongohin Byton M-Byte Gunsan Contract
manufacturer
Myongshin agreed
with Future
Mobility Corp
(FMC) to produce
the Byron M-byte
from 2021
Nanjun CNJ special purpose Yanjiang, Ziyang,
EVs Sichuan
province, China
Navistar Navistar Benoni,
Johannesburg,
South Africa
NEVS NEVS, Iconiq EV Guoneng 93 Binhai, Tianjin,
(Saab 93-E), China
Iconiq e-MPV,
Iconiq Seven
NEVS NEVS, Iconiq EV planned Songjiang, Owned by
Shanghai, China Evergrande
NEVS NEVS Trolhattan, Plant not active
Sweden but could see
future EVs
74
Nio EVs Hefie, China JAC are the
contract
manufacturer
Nova Nova bus St Eustach, QC,
Canada
Otkar Iveco, Land Arifiye, Sakarya,
Rover Turkey
Paccar Paccar Bayswater,
Victoria,
Australia
Piaggio Piaggio 3-wheeler Baramati,
Maharashtra,
India
Piaggio Piaggio Pontederia,
Tuscany, Italy
Pininfarina Various Cambiano, Low volume,
Piemonte, Italy specialised
contract
production
Renault- Mitsubishi, Qizhi PHEV, Qizhi Changsha, Hunan JV between
Nissan- Qizhi EV province, China Guangzhou Auto
Mitsubishi Corp (GAC) and
Mitsubishi
Renault- Mitsubishi, Mitsubishi EV I- Mizushima Plant, Mitsubishi plant
Nissan- Nissan, PSA MiEV, eK Wagon, Kurashiki, also producing
Mitsubishi Peugeot EV iOn, Okayama Japan Nissan and PSA
Citroen EV C- models
Zero
Renault- Mitsubishi Mitsubishi Okazaki, Aichi
Nissan- Outlander PHEV prefecture, Japan
Mitsubishi
Renault- Fuso, Nissan, Mitsubishi Fuso Kawasaki, Japan
Nissan- Daimler models, Daimler
Mitsubishi Trucks -UD
Trucks
Renault- Mitsubishi, I-Miev Leamchabang, Mitsubishi
Nissan- RMA Chonburi, Thailand
Mitsubishi Thailand
Renault- Fuso Temsa, Adana,
Nissan- Turkey
Mitsubishi
Renault- Nissan Nissan NV200, Zhengzhou, JV between
Nissan- e30 Henan province, Dongfeng and
Mitsubishi China Nissan
75
Renault- Nissan Ariya EV Tochigi, Japan From 2021
Nissan-
Mitsubishi
Renault- Nissan Nissan X-Trail Miyako-gun, Nissan Kyusho
Nissan- HV, Serena e- Fukuoka, Japan plant
Mitsubishi POWER
Renault- Nissan Leaf Oppama,
Nissan- Yokosuka,
Mitsubishi Kanagawa, Japan
Renault- Nissan, Volvo UD trucks / Volvo Bangsaothong,
Nissan- Truck Samutprakan,
Mitsubishi Thailand
Renault- Nissan Kicks ePower Thailand
Nissan- SUV
Mitsubishi
Renault- Nissan Leaf EV Smyrna,
Nissan- Tennessee, US
Mitsubishi
Renault- Nissan Leaf EV, Qashqai Sunderland, UK
Nissan- hybrids
Mitsubishi
Renault- Nissan NV-200 electric Avila, Castile and Plant is set to
Nissan- van Leon, Spain close
Mitsubishi
Renault- Renault, Jinbei Master EV Shenyang, JV between
Nissan- (planned), Jinbei Liaoning Renault and
Mitsubishi e-LCV (planned) province, China Brilliance Auto
Renault- Renault, Dacia K-ZE City, Dacia Shiyan, West of eGT-New Energy
Nissan- Spring Electric Wuhan, Hubei Vehicle (EGT-NEV),
Mitsubishi (planned 2021) province, China JV between
Dongfeng and
Renault
(transferred to
Nissan after
Renault pulled out
of China domestic
market)
Renault- Renault, Renault Clio Revoz, Novo
Nissan- Smart PHEV, Smart for Mesto, Slovenia
Mitsubishi four EV
Renault- Renault Megane EV, hub Douai, France EVs starting in
Nissan- for EV platforms 2021 on CMF-EV
Mitsubishi platform
76
Renault- Renault, MCA Kangoo EV Maubeuge,
Nissan- France
Mitsubishi
Renault- Alpine Future EVs Dieppe, France Alpine to be
Nissan- converted to pure
Mitsubishi electric brand
Renault- Renault Master ZE Blainville, France
Nissan-
Mitsubishi
Renault- Renault Zoe Flins, France Plant will end
Nissan- assembly in 2024
Mitsubishi and convert to
recycling centre
Renault- Renault Captur Valladolid, Twizy moving to
Nissan- PHEV, Zoe, Twizy Castile and Leon, Renault Samsung
Mitsubishi Spain plant in Busan,
South Korea
Renault- Oyak Renault Clio hybrid Bursa, Turkey
Nissan-
Mitsubishi
Renault- Renault, Twizy, SM3 ZE Busan, South
Nissan- Renault Korea
Mitsubishi Samsung,
Nissan
Rimac Rimac Zagrebm Croatia
Rivian Rivian R1S, R1V, Normal, IL, USA Production
Amazon delivery starting in 2021
vehicle
Ruineng Enovate ME7 Shaoxing,
Zhejiang
province, China
SAIC MG e ZS Zhuanghou,
Henan province,
China
SAIC Maxus EV80, EV EG10, Wuxi, Jiangsu
FCV 80, EG50 province, China
SAIC Roewe, MG, MG eMG6, Lingang, Pudong,
Marvel Roewe Shanghai, China
e550,e950, e50,
EV Marvel,
Marvel R
SAIC Roewe, MG, Roewe e50, ei6 Pukou, Nanjing,
Marvel PHEV, ei5 PHEV, Jiangsu province,
EV ER6 China
77
SAIC MG, Roewe MG eHS PHEV, Ningde, Fujian
Roewe EV Clever province, China
SAIC MG Rayong, Thailand
SAIC MG Panchmahal,
Gujarat, India
SAIC VW, SAIC MEB vehicles Anting, Shanghai, From 2020, JV
ID.3 & ID.4 China with SAIC
Audi brand
Sanhuan Tri-ring, Sitom EV trucks Shiyan, Hubei
province, China
Seres Seres Mishawaka, IL,
USA
Shenlong Shenlong, EV buses, FCEV, Minhang,
Sunlong, CNGVs Shanghai, China
Sunwin
Singulato Singulato EV Ic3 (planned)Suzhou, Jiangsu
province, China
Singulato Singulato e-PVs (planned) Tongling, Anhui
province, China
Sitech Sitech DEV1, DEV Lite Guian, Guizhou
province, China
Solaris Solaris Electric bus Owinska, Poland
SOR SOR Electric bus Libchavy, Czech
Republic
Ssangyong Ssangyong Korando EV Pyeongtaek,
(planned 2021) South Korea
Stellantis Jeep Jeep Commander Changsha, Hunan JV with GAC and
PHEV (planned) province, China FCA
Stellantis Fiat, Jeep EVs China - TBC JV with Foxconn
Stellantis Fiat, Maserati 500e, Gran Miraflori, Battery production
Turismo, Piemonte, Turin,
GranCabrio Italy
(2021)
Stellantis Ferrari SF90 Stradale Maranello,
hybrid Emilia-Romagna,
Italy
Stellantis Fiat Panda hybrid Pomigliano
d'Arco,
Campania, Italy
Stellantis Jeep Jeep Renegade Melfi, Basilicata,
PHEV Italy
Stellantis Jeep Wrangler PHEV Toledo (Ohio)
North Assembly
Plant, US
78
Stellantis Chrysler Durango Hybrid Jefferson
Assembly Plant,
Detroit,
Michigan, US
Stellantis Chrysler PHEV Warren
(Michigan) Truck
Assembly Plant
Stellantis Jeep Future Jeep Detroit Assembly Will launch all-new
PHEV Complex – Mack 3-row Jeep and
(‘Detroit 2), PHEV version
Michigan, US
Stellantis Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid Windsor, ON,
Canada
Stellantis Chrysler Portal EV Brampton,
Minivan Canada
Stellantis Opel, Vauxhall Future EMP2 Russelsheim, Next generation
platform Hessen Germany Astra and future
DS model will be
on electrifiable
platform
Stellantis Opel Opel Crossland X Eisenach,
PHEV Thuringia,
Germany
Stellantis Peugeot, Peugeot 508, Mulhouse,
Citroen, DS DS7 Crossback France
PHEV
Stellantis Peugeot, Peugeot 3008 Sochaux, France
Citroen HEV, PHEV & EV
by 2022
Stellantis Peugeot, Electric and Sevel Nord, Lieu Also some Toyota
Citroen, Opel, hybrid vans Saint-Amand, models
Vauxhall, France
Toyota
Stellantis Peugeot, Peugeot 508, Rennes-la-
Citroen DS7 Crossback Jannais, France
PHEV
Stellantis Peugeot, DS3 Crossback E- Poissy, France
Citroen Tense, Opel
Mokka X PHEV
and EV, Citroen
E-Mahri
Stellantis Peugeot, DS, Peugeot e-208 & Tremery, France
Opel / DS 3 Crossback E-
Vauxhall Tense,
79
Opel/Vauxhall
Corsa-e
Stellantis PSA Peugeot e-208, Trnava, Slovakia electrified
Batteries for all powertrain
brands assembly line
Stellantis Opel Opel e-Corsa Zaragoza,
Aragon, Spain
Stellantis Peugeot, e-2008, e-C4 Vigo, Galicia, Plus Battery
Citroen Spain assembly
Stellantis Peugeot, Buenos Aires,
Citroen Argentina
Subaru Subaru Yajima, Japan
Suda Suda Suda EV Sanmenxia,
Henan province,
China
Sunwin Sunwin E-Bus Qingdao,
Shandong
province, China
Suzuki Suzuki, Suzuki HV, Bandit Shizuoka
Mitsubishi HV prefecture, Japan
Suzuki Suzuki, Mazda Suzuki Wagor R Shizuoka
HV, Mazda HV prefecture, Japan
Flair
Suzuki Suzuki Rayong, Thailand
Suzuki Suzuki Gurgaon,
Haryana, India
Suzuki Suzuki Manesar,
Haryana, India
Suzuki Suzuki Mehsana,
Gujarat, India
Suzuki Suzuki Esztergom,
Hungary
Tata Tata, Ford Sanand, Gujarat,
India
Tata Marcopolo Bus Dharwad,
Karnataka, India
Tata Tata Rosslyn, Pretoria,
Gauteng, South
Africa
Tesla Tesla Model 3, Model Lingang, Pudong, 100% owned by
Y Shanghai, China Tesla HK
Tesla Tesla Model Y & Gruenheide, From 2021
Battery assembly Brandenburg,
Germany
80
Tesla Tesla Model 3, S, X Tilburg, Knockdown
Netherlands assembly of
finished vehicles,
not full production
Tesla Tesla Cybertruck Austin, TX, US Planned
Tesla Tesla Model 3, S Fremont, CA, US
Tongjia Tongjia Electric Bull van Baoji, Shaanxi
province, China
Toyota Toyota Corolla PHEV, Teda, Tianjin, JV between FAW
RAV4 PHEV China and Toyota
Toyota Toyota, Isuzu, Gateway City,
Dongfeng Plaeng Yao,
Chachoengsao,
Thailand
Toyota Hino, MINE Banpo,
Chachaoengsao,
Thailand
Toyota Toyota, Hino Amata Nakon,
Chonburi,
Thailand
Toyota Toyota Bangalore,
Karnataka, India
Toyota Toyota Burnaston,
England
Toyota Toyota Motor Yaris Hybrid Valenciennes,
Manufacturing France
France SAS
Toyota Toyota Arifiye, Sakarya,
Turkey
Toyota Toyota Camry Hybrid, Georgetown, KY, Toyota Motor
Avalon Hybrid USA Manufacturing
Kentucky Inc.
(TMMK)
Toyota Toyota Highlander Princeton, IN, Toyota Motor
Hybrid USA Manufacturing
Indiana, Inc.
(TMMI)
Toyota Toyota Indaiatuba, Sao
Paolo, Brazil
Toyota Toyota Zarate, Argentina
Toyota Toyota Prius Iwate prefecture,
Japan
Toyota Toyota JPN TAXI (LPG) Miyagi
starting 2021 prefecture, Japan
81
Toyota Toyota JPN TAXI (LPG) Shizuoka Toyota Motor
(produced till Q4 prefecture, Japan Kyushu assembly
2020) plant for Lexus
Toyota Toyota, Lexus Lexus UX EV, Miyawaka,
Lexus RX HV Fukuoka
Prefecture, Japan
Toyota Toyota, Lexus Toyota EV C+, Motomachi,
FCV Mirai, Lexus Toyota City, Aichi
LC HV prefecture, Japan
Toyota Toyota Prius Tsutsumi, Alchi
Prefecture, Japan
Toyota Toyota Prius, Estima Fujimatsu, Kanya
Hybrid Prefecture, Japan
Toyota Toyota Tahara, Japan
Toyota Toyota, Tsutumi, Japan
Daihatsu
Toyota Toyota Nagakusa, Japan
Toyota Toyota Alphard Hybrid, Inabe, Mie
Velfire Hybrid Prefecture, Japan
Toyota Toyota, Takaoka, Japan
Daihatsu
Toyota Hino Koga, Japan
Toyota Hino Hamura, Japan
Toyota, Mercedes, Thonburi,
Daimler Hino, Toyota Muang,
Samutprakan,
Thailand
UD Truck UD Rosslyn, Pretoria,
Gauteng, South
Africa
Van Hool Van Hool bus, coach Koningshooikt,
Belgium
VDL VDL bus, coach Valkenswaard,
Netherlands
Volvo Volvo Bus, Bangalore,
Group Scania Karnataka, India
Volvo Volvo Truck, Wacol,
Group UD Truck Queensland,
Australia
Volvo VN Series Dublin, VA, USA
Group trucks, VNR
electric from
2020
82
Volvo Mack Aragua, JV between VW
Group Venezuela and FAW
VW Group VW, Audi A6L e-tron, PHEV Changchun, Jilin JV between FAW
Magotan province, China and VW
VW Group VW e-Bora Qingdao, JV between FAW
Shandong and VW
province, China
VW Group VW, JAC EV Passenger Zhujiang Lu, JV between JAC
cars (planned Hefei, Anhui and VW (VW 75%
2022-2023) province, China ownership)
VW Group Audi, VW, Q4 e-tron, MEB Jiading, JV between SAIC
Skoda, SAIC platform, ID.4 X, Shanghai, China and VW
ID 3, Skoda E
Vision (planned)
VW Tiguan L
PHEV
VW Group VW Passat PHEV Nanjing, Jiangsu JV between FAW
province, China and VW
VW Group Audi, VW, MEB platform, Foshan, JV between FAW
FAW ID.4 CROZZ, Audi Guangdong and VW
Q2L e-tron, province, China
Roadmap E
VW Group Volkswagen Passat GTE PHEV, Emden, Lower Will become pure
ID.4 (2022), Saxony, Germany EV plant, current
MEB-based Passat will be
models phased out
VW Group Volkswagen, Golf PHEV, Seat Wolfsburg, e-Golf ended
Seat Tarraco, future Lower Saxony, 2020, future EV
EV Germany model will be
highly automated
VW Group VW ID. Buzz, Hanover, Lower From 2022
Commercial Multivan hybrid Saxony, Germany
Vehicles
VW Group Audi, Seat, ID.3, ID.4, Audi Zwickau-Mosel, Converted to all
VW Q4 e-tron, Seat Saxony, Germany electric production
el-Born from 2020
VW Group Porsche Taycan, Taycan Zuffenhausen,
Cross Turismo EV Stuttgart, Baden-
Württemberg,
Germany
VW Group Porsche Macan EV Leipzig, Saxony, From 2022
Germany
83
VW Group Audi Hybrid variants, Ingolstadt, EVs on MEB and
future EVs Bavaria, PPE platforms
Germany
VW Group Audi e-tron GT PHEV, Böllinger Höfe, R8 from 2022
R8 EV Baden-
Württemberg,
Germany
VW Group Audi A6, A7 Neckarsulm,
Sportback, A8 Baden-
PHEVs Württemberg,
Germany
VW Group VW ID.3 Transparent ID.3 from 2021, e-
Factory, Golf production
Dresden, ended 2020
Sachsen,
Germany
VW Group Skoda Superb iV PHEV Kvasiny, Czech Future EV
Republic expected
VW Group Skoda Enyaq iV EV Mlada Boleslav,
Czech Republic
VW Group Audi, Seat, VW e-up, Skoda Bratislava,
Skoda, Skoda, Citi-go EV, Seat Slovakia
VW Mii EV, Audi Q7
e-tron PHEV
VW Group Audi Q3 PHEV Gyor, Hungary Plant also builds
electric motors
VW Group Audi e-tron, e-tron Brussels, Belgium Also assembles
Sportback SUV batteries in the
same plant
VW Group Bentley Bentayga hybrid Crewe, UK Bentley will offer
first EV by 2025
and become all-
electric by 2030
VW Group Lamborghini SIÁn FKP 37 Sant' Agata EV by 2025
hybrid, future EV Bolognese,
Emilia-Romagna,
Italy
VW Group VW ID.4 (2022), Chattanooga, Will also build
Future SUV EV Tennessee, US batteries and have
R&D centre for EV
VW Group Audi Q5 PHEV San Jose Chiapas,
Mexico
VW Group VW General Pacheco,
Argentina
84
VW Group Seat Leon, Cupra, Martorell, Spain First pure EV by
Cupra Formentor 2025
PHEV
VW Group MAN eTGM truck, Streyr, Austria Low volume
hybrid trucks output
VW Group MAN Lion’s City E bus, Starachowice,
hybrid bus Poland
VW Group Scania Hybrid and Sodertalje, Battery plant and
electric trucks Sweden long-range EV
truck by 2023
Wanxiang Wanxiang, EV (planned) Hangzhou, Wanxiang owns
Karma Zhejiang Karma Automotive
province, China
Wanxiang Wanxiang E-bus Xiaoshan,
Hangzhou,
Zhejiang
province, China
Wanxiang Wanxiang EV-buses, PHEVs Songjiang,
special vehicles, Shanghai, China
Weltmeister WM EX5-Z, EX-6 Huanggang,
(WM) Hubei province,
China
Weltmeister WM EX5, EX6 Plus Wenzhou,
Zhejiang
province, China
Wulong Southwest, e-bus Kunming,
Wulong Yunnan province,
China
Xpeng Xpeng P7, G3 Zhaoqing, Contract
Guangdong manufacturing
province, China using Haima
Automobile Group
Xingma CAMC e-truck Maanshan,
Wuhu, Anhui
province, China
Yaxing AsiaStar, EV buses Yangzhou, Previously Yaxing
WertStar Jiangsu province, Benz
China
Yinlong Yinlong EV Buses Lanzhou, Gansu
province, China
Yintong Yintong e-bus Zhuhai, JV between
Guangdong Yintong and FAW
province, China Bus
85
Youngman Youngman electric bus Jinhua, Zhejiang
province, China
Yutong Yutong Yutong Xiaoyu Zhengzhou,
Henan province,
China
Zhidou ZD D2, D2S, D3 Lanzhou, Gansu Previously Kandi
Electric province, China Electric Vehicles &
Vehicle part owned by
Company Geely
Zhongtong Zhongtong E-Bus, Solar Bus Liaocheng,
Shandong
province, China
Zhongxing ZX Small Tiger EV Baoding, Hebei
province, China
Zotye Zotye L10 PHEV Dayi, Hubei Zotye filed for
(planned) province, China bankruptcy
December 2020
Zotye Zotye EV Yun Changsha, Hunan
province, China
Zotye Zotye TT EV Xiangtan, Hunan
province, China
Zotye Dorcen, Zotye G60E, Zhima EV Jintan, Jiangsu
e30 province, China
Zotye Zotye E200, E20, FCV Hangzhou,
E200(planned) Zhejiang
province, China
Zotye Zotye EV vans Yongkang,
Zhejiang
province, China
86
11. OEMs and Battery Cell Supplier Database
As securing supply of lithium-ion battery cells is becoming critical, OEMs have been
expanding and diversifying their battery suppliers to ensure competition and mitigate
supply chain shortages. Just a few years ago, an OEM such as Volkswagen relied on single
suppliers, such as Samsung SDI for the e-Golf, today it has significantly expanded suppliers,
including LG Chem, SK Innovation and CATL, as well as forming partnerships to build its own
batteries with Northvolt. Tesla has also expanded its partnerships from working with
Panasonic to wider array of suppliers, as well as investing further in building its own
batteries and components.
The section identifies, where possible, which battery cell manufacture supplies which OEM.
These relationships are not always transparent, and indeed they can vary even by model
type. For example, Audi uses LG Chem for its e-tron electric SUV, but Samsung SDI for other
variants of it. Nonetheless, a pattern of supply is emerging across the major battery players
supplying OEMs.
It is worth noting as well that the leading battery suppliers for the large lithium battery
packs that are used in in ‘full’ electric vehicles (usually around 50 KWh) are quite a different
group of companies compared to the smaller batteries used in plug-in hybrids (typically
around 10 KWh) and hybrids (around 1 KWh).
Table 11.1 OEMs and Battery Cell Supplier Database

OEM Group Battery Cell Supplier
Electric Mild Hybrid Hybrid Plug-In Commercial
Vehicles Electric Electric Hybrid Electric
Vehicle Vehicles Electric Vehicles
Vehicles
AIWAYS CATL
Alexander BYD
Dennis/BYD
Alfabus AESC
Aston Martin Hyperbat
(Williams/
Unipart JV)
BAIC CATL Guoxuan
High tech
BJEV CATL
87
BMW Samsung A123 Samsung
SDI --> Systems SDI
CATL,
Northvolt
Bollore Bollore’s
own
batteries
BYD BYD BYD BYD
Byton CATL
Canoo n/a (likely
Panasonic,
Samsung or
LG)
Changan A123 A123
Systems Systems
Chery A123 A123
Systems Systems
Daimler LG Chem LG Chem LG Chem SK CATL
Innovation/
LG Chem
Detroit MG Energy
Electric Systems
Dongfeng Guoxuan
High tech
Enovate ProLogium
Faraday LG Chem
Future
FCA (now Bosch- Hitachi LG Chem
Stellantis) Samsung Auto-
SDI motive
partnership Systems
Fisker Joining a
consortium
to secure
supply from
one of top
5 battery
suppliers
88
Ford LG Chem Panasonic Panasonic Panasonic
Foton Samsung
SDI
GAC CATL
Geely CATL
Geely / CATL
London
Electric
Vehicle Co.
GM LG Chem, in Hitachi LG Chem
future Auto- /A123
Ultium motive
(GM-LG Systems
Chem JV)
Great Wall Farasis LG Chem
Energy,
SVOLT
Hino Toshiba /
Primearth
EV Energy
Honda Blue Blue Blue
Energy Energy Energy
(Yuasa, (Yuasa, (Yuasa,
Bosch- Bosch / Bosch /
Mitsubishi Mitsubishi Mitsubishi
JV), in JV) JV)
future CATL
Hunan Guoxuan
Zhongche High tech
Hycan (GAC CATL
& Nio JV)
Hyundai- Kia SK LG Chem SK
Innovation, Innovation,
LG Chem, LG Chem,
CATL (for CATL (for
China) China)
Ikarbus Yinlong
89
JAC Guoxuan
High-Tech
(Gotion
Inc.)
JAC / SOL Lishen
(VW brand)
Jaguar Land LG Chem, LG Chem,
Rover Samsung Samsung
SDI SDI
(from 2021) (from 2021)
Jinlong Guoxuan
High tech
Joylong Guoxuan
High tech
Kandi Lishen, Do-
Technologies Fluoride,
Tianneng
Karma A123
Systems
Kawasaki Toshiba
Tsurumi
Rinko Bus
Ltd,
Kinglong Guoxuan
High tech
Lamborghini Super-
capacitor
Lexus Primearth
EV Energy
London LG Chem
Electric
Vehicle
Company
(LEVC))
Lordstown LG Chem
Motors
90
Lotus Hyperbat
(Williams /
Unipart JV)
Lucid Samsung
SDI, LG
Chem
Mahindra LG Chem
Mazda Primearth Toshiba Primearth
EV Energy, EV Energy
Panasonic
Mitsubishi Toshiba Lithium Toshiba
Energy
Japan Corp.
(GS Yuasa-
Mitsubishi
JV)
Nanjing Guoxuan
Golden High tech
Dragon
Navistar A123
Systems
Nikola Moor Proprietary
NIO CATL
Nissan AESC Toshiba AESC AESC
Envision, Envision, Envision
LG Chem, possibly
CATL Sunwoda
(China)
Northern Toshiba
Iwate
Transport-
ation
PSA Group LG Chem, LG Chem, LG Chem, LG Chem,
(Stellantis) CATL (SAFT CATL CATL CATL
in future)
Polestar LG Chem,
CATL
Proterra Inc. Toshiba
91
Renault LG Chem AESC
Envision,
CATL
Rivian LG Chem LG Chem
SAIC / GM / A123 A123 LG Chem,
Wuling Systems, Systems A123
CATL
SOL Tianjin
Lishen
Solaris Bus & Toshiba
Coach S.A,
Sono Motors Proprietary
SsangYong LG Chem
Subaru Primearth
EV Energy
Suzhou Guoxuan
Golden High tech
Dragon
Suzuki Toshiba Sanyo
NiMh
Tata Tata
AutoComp
Systems –
GS Yuasa
Tesla Panasonic,
LG Chem,
CATL
(China),
planning in-
house cells
Toyota Panasonic Primearth Panasonic
EV Energy
Via Motors A123
Systems
Vinfast LG Chem-
Vinfast JV
92
Volkswagen LG Chem, SDI, LG CATL
Group Samsung Chem,
SDI and SKI Panasonic
For EU,
CATL for
China, SKI
for North
America
from 2022,
JV with
Northvolt
Volvo Cars CATL, LG CATL, LG Samsung
Chem Chem SDI, CATL,
LG Chem
Weltmeister CATL, LG
Chem,
Panasonic
Xpeng CATL
Yantai Guoxuan
Shuchang High tech
Yuzong Samsung
SDI, CATL
Zetta GE Power
Technology
Zhonglong Guoxuan
High tech,
CATL
Zotye Guoxuan
High-Tech
93
12. EV and Hybrid Export Markets Analysis
Global trade of hybrids and electric vehicles is still a relatively small share of vehicle exports
and imports. That number will have grown in 2020 with the global increase in electric
vehicle sales, and further as more OEMs launch EVs that will be set for export, perhaps most
notably in Europe, including Tesla, Volkswagen Group, BMW, Mercedes-Benz and Volvo
Cars. China, though not a significant EV exporter as of 2019, is also set for more export
growth.
The top table for electrified vehicle exports looks likely to be more fluid compared to ICE
vehicles. Japan, Germany and the US were the largest exporters in 2019, however Japan’s
ranking was mostly because of the many Toyota, Honda and Mitsubishi hybrids
manufactured in Japan – and relatively few plug-in hybrid and full electric vehicles.
While Germany has been relatively balanced between EV, plug-in and hybrid exports, the US
has been third overall driven mainly by its EV exports – for which it was the largest exporter
– and that has been down in large part to Tesla. While Tesla continues to increase output, it
is also notably expanding its global footprint, having already launched production in China
and set to start production in Germany.
The relatively low volumes have up to now also meant that smaller manufacturing countries
have ranked higher for EV trade. Belgium, for example, was the second largest exporters of
EVs in 2019, thanks mainly to production and export of the Audi e-tron SUV. Volvo Cars’
recent launch of the XC40 Recharge EV will give Belgium a boost as well. Sweden,
meanwhile, has been the third largest global exporter of plug-in hybrids thanks to a wide
range offered by Volvo.
However, the larger automotive nations are likely to rise further up the ranks. OEMs in
Europe are ramping up production of EVs quickly, with a raft of launches set from
Volkswagen Group, BMW, Daimler, Porsche and indeed Tesla’s new German plant. China,
meanwhile, has seen EV exports rise to Europe, including Polestar and MG, as well as Tesla
and BMWs. Other European brands including BMW Mini, Smart and Renault/Dacia are
planning EV exports from China, while Chinese startups like Nio and Xpeng are targeting
European markets in particular.
Exporting electric vehicles may not happen in as large a volume as they do for ICE vehicles,
however. Heavier vehicles bring higher shipping and logistics cost, and in some cases added
complexity (although not as significant as with batteries, see appendix). The high cost of
production and components, however, will also likely encourage more OEMs to localise EV
production. It is likely that as battery plants and capacity increase, OEMs will be produce EVs
94
on a highly regional strategy. The Volkswagen Group, for example, will soon be building EVs
on its MEB platform alone across seven plants in Germany, Czech Republic, China and the
US.
Table 12.1 Top 30 Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Exporting Countries 2019
HS Code 870380 870360 870370 870340 870350 Total
Type EV PHEV PHEV (diesel) HEV HEV XEV (all
(petrol) (petrol) (diesel) variants)
Japan $431,470k $2,588,951k $17k $16,315,948k $63k $19,336,449k
Germany $3,885,103k $4,200,662k $374,583k $3,730,496k - $12,190,844k
US $7,858,135k $1,025,244k $18,345k $802,390k $7,442k $9,711,556k
Belgium $5,017,975k $198,311k $791k $3,672,757k $884k $8,890,718k
Rep. Korea $2,353,736k $939,425k - $2,690,724k $55k $5,983,940k
UK $1,096,333k $837,637k $987k $2,524,478k $236,865k $4,696,300k
Turkey - - - $3,124,196k - $3,124,196k
Slovakia $383,252k $507,773k $22k $761,767k $1,140,847k $2,793,661k
Sweden $38,443k $1,666,162k $96,854k $700,938k $114,113k $2,616,510k
France $1,165,716k $157,095k $501k $1,225,421k $1,849k $2,550,582k
Canada $3,079k $180,740k $339k $1,846,548k $83k $2,030,789k
Netherlands $1,191,949k $78,880k $73,865k $117,182k $9,771k $1,471,647k
Austria $1,268,625k $67,532k $2,447k $7,800k $16,853k $1,363,257k
China $438,082k $522,937k $15k $8,754k $14,262k $984,050k
Czech Rep. $3,258k $9,483k $149k $235,622k $419,936k $668,448k
Spain $259,671k $269,440k $1,417k $73,888k $3,898k $608,314k
Slovenia $112,967k $4,410k $117k $286,346k $104k $403,944k
Romania $1,069k $5,629k $325k $220,431k $1,088k $228,542k
Thailand - - - $129,075k - $129,075k
Estonia - - - $122,262k $361k $122,623k
Malaysia $93k $73,657k - $648k - $74,398k
Hungary $6,860k $5,978k $424k $46,750k $4,948k $64,960k
Singapore $1,551k $52,967k $48k $1,635k - $56,201k
Italy $22,024k $7,184k $186k $11,328k $3,539k $44,261k
Denmark $15,265k $7,438k $2,972k $4,368k $336k $30,379k
Hong Kong $18,355k $5,813k - $6,804k - $30,972k
Australia $1,873k - $160k $25,633k $367k $28,033k
Bulgaria $309k $6,494k $215k $12,990k $2,017k $22,025k
Brazil - - - $18,567k - $18,567k
Finland $5,444k $5,110k - $4,891k $1,758k $17,203k
Other $27,627k $2,177k $1,715k $19,440k $4,193k $47,227k
Totals $25,176,794k $10,838,178k $576,477k $22,434,129k $1,985,569k $61,003,222k
Source: International Trade Centre (ITC), Automotive from Ultima Media
95
Figure 12.1 Top 30 Electric & Hybrid Vehicle (X)EV Exporting Countries 2019 ($ 1000’s)
20,000,000
18,000,000
16,000,000
14,000,000
12,000,000
$ 1,000's
10,000,000
8,000,000
6,000,000
4,000,000
2,000,000
0
Germany
Estonia
Turkey
Austria
China
Thailand
Other
US
UK
France
Brazil
Japan
Netherlands
Czech Rep.
Malaysia
Hong Kong
Finland
Rep. Korea
Sweden
Canada
Spain
Slovenia
Romania
Hungary
Singapore
Denmark
Slovakia
Australia
Italy
Bulgaria
Belgium
EV PHEV (petrol) PHEV (diesel) HEV (petrol) HEV (diesel)
Source: International Trade Centre (ITC), Automotive from Ultima Media
96
13. Automotive Battery Re-Use and Recycling Companies
The issue of what happens to a vehicle’s lithium battery after its useful life is an increasingly
important question. Considering the emission and resource impact of battery production,
this is of course an important environmental concern. However, it will also likely be a
strategic supply strategy.
As OEMs ramp up volumes in the race to electrification, recycling and reuse will be
important to avoid shortages of some metals such as cobalt, nickel and manganese. In the
long run, the percentage of lithium-ion batteries and materials that can be recycled and re-
enter the value chain will be important.
Generally, the lifetime of an automotive vehicle battery is intended to be at least 8-10 years.
It is only considered to be beyond its useful life when its capacity reduces to 70% or below
original levels. However, that does not mean that the battery is of no-value and must be
recycled, as there are also other uses that the battery might have outside the vehicle.
13.1 Re-using EV Batteries for A Second Life

The performance of the battery will eventually drop below an acceptable level for a critical
application such as an EV, where weight, size and performance are major issues. However,
the battery can still have a useful second life for many years in other applications.
Some OEMs, such as Nissan and BMW, has re-used batteries in production operations, such
as powering automated guided vehicles or forklifts. But batteries are also used in small scale
or local level power storage in domestic and commercial buildings for back-up power, or in
remote locations where there is no mains power.
Batteries could also be combined in large quantities for grid or utility scale energy storage
applications. These achieve ‘load levelling’ or smoothing of the output of inherently
fluctuating renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic solar panels and wind turbines to
create a more consistent input to the electricity networks and are thus vital components in
making renewable energy sources viable.
By re-using batteries in this way, not only does it moderate the price of electricity from the
grid, but it also effectively reduces the environmental impact of the battery’s original
manufacturing process by extending the battery’s useful life.
There is also a financial factor. Repurposing batteries means that they will hold considerable
value for reuse rather than going straight to recycling.
97
Table 13.1 Examples of OEMs Re-Using EV Batteries in Other Applications
OEM Re-Use and Second life
Audi Energy storage test installation at EUREF research campus,
Berlin
‘Audi Brand Experience Centre’ at Munich airport uses old
Audi EV batteries for energy storage
BJEV EV-charging, backup power
BMW Grid-scale energy storage, EV-charging
BMW re-purposes EV batteries at many global plants
BYD Grid-scale energy storage, backup power
Changan Backup power
Daimler Grid-scale energy storage, C&I energy storage
General Motors Remanufacturing
Great Wall Motor Backup power
Honda Renewable energy storage partnership in Europe with Societe
Nouvelle d’Affinage des Metaux (SNAM)
Hyundai Grid-scale energy storage, C&I energy storage
Renault Nissan Mitsubishi C&I energy storage, EV-charging, residential energy storage,
grid-scale energy storage
Nissan-Sumitomo Corporation JV with 4R Energy Corporation
for re-use or less critical applications such as forklifts, golf
carts and streetlamps
Energy storage project with Smarthubs/Connected Energy in
West Sussex, UK
Energy storage project with Advanced Battery Storage in
Douai, France
Nissan repurposes batteries at North American facilities
PSA C&I energy storage
SAIC Backup power
Toyota C&I energy storage, grid-scale energy storage (NiMH)
VW Group C&I energy storage
Volvo Residential energy storage
Energy Storage project with Volvo Buses in partnership with
Stena Recycling subsidiary Batteryloop
Energy Storage with Volvo Buses and Stena Fastigheter
98
13.2 Recycling Automotive Batteries
In an ideal battery supply chain, batteries will move through their useful lifecycles and then
in a ‘closed loop’ to recycling, from which raw materials are extracted and fed back into the
production of new battery components. That would make the production process more
environmentally friendly and also reduce demand on the supply chain for raw materials as
battery volumes ramp up.
However, the recycling of lithium-ion batteries is a relatively new and emerging industry.
Much of the recycling landscape is primarily in Asia, for example, which means that most
batteries used in other markets will need to be sent to Asia for processing. China accounts
for more than two-thirds of all recycling facilities handling the roughly 100,000 tonnes
of batteries currently being recycled. South Korea is second with around one-sixth of
global recycling. The industry is otherwise highly fragmented with a ‘long tail’ of many
other smaller players attempting to enter this burgeoning market.
However, these figures are inexact and fluid due to the nature of how lithium-ion
battery recyclers stockpile them for recycling for when metals prices are more
favourable. That leads to fluctuations in recycling activity and the share across regions.
Table 13.2 Leading Automotive Battery Recycling Companies

Company Location
Green Eco Manufacturing Resource (GEM) Shenzen, China
Hunan Brunp Recycling Technology Hunan Province, China
Quzhou Huayou Cobalt New Material Quzhou, China
Ganzhou Highpower Technology Shenzen, China
Guangdong Guanghua Sci-Tech Guangdong, China
Table 13.3 Other Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Companies

Company Plants
ACCUREC Recycling Mülheim, Germany, Krefeld, Germany
AEA Technology Sunderland, UK
AERC Recycling Solutions Allentown, Pennsylvania, US, West
Melbourne, Florida, US, Richmond,
Virginia, US
AkkuSer Oy Nivala, Finland
American Manganese Surrey, British Columbia, Canada
Anhua Taisen Recycling Technology Co. Hunan province, China
99
BASF BASF, Eramet, and SUEZ have partnered
as part to develop a closed loop recycling
process for lithium-ion batteries
Batrec Industrie Wimmis, Switzerland
Battery Recycling Made Easy Cartersville, Georgia, US
Battery Resourcers Worcester, Massachusetts, US
Battery Solutions
Dowa Eco-System Co.
Duesenfeld Wendeburg, Germany
Ecobat
Eramet-Valdi Commentry, France
Euro Dieuze Industrie-SARP Dieuze, France
Fortnum Harjavalta, Finland
Ikaalinen, Finland
Ganfeng Recycling Technology Co
Ganfeng Lithium Mexico
Glencore International Sudbury, Canada, Rouyn-Noranda,
Canada
Kristiansand, Norway
Green Technology Solutions Blacksburg, South Carolina, US
G&P Batteries Darlaston, UK
Hydro-Northvolt, supported by government Joint venture for a pilot plant in
enterprise Enowa Fredrikstad, Norway
International Metals Reclamation Company
(INMETCO)
Johnson Matthey
JX Nippon Mining and Metals Co.
Li-Cycle Corporation Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Eastman Business Park, New York, US
Lithion Recycling Inc.
Metal Conversion Technologies
Neometals Ontario, Canada
Nippon Recycle Center Corporation Osaka, Japan, Aichi, Japan, Miyagi, Japan
Northvolt Vasteras, Sweden
OnTo Technology
G&P Service
Raad Solar-=Mahindra Electric
Raw Materials Company Inc.
100
Recupyl Grenoble, France, Singapore
Retriev Technologies Inc. Trail, British Columbia, Canada,
Baltimore, Ohio, US, Anaheim, California,
US
Sitrasa
SNAM Saint Quentin Fallavier, France
Sony Electronics Inc. - Sumitomo Metals and
Mining Co.
Tata Chemicals Limited
Tes-Amm Singapore Pte Ltd
Tesla Nevada, US
Umicore Wickliffe, Ohio, US
Hoboken, Belgium
Olen, Belgium
Urecycle Group Oy
VW Salzgitter, Germany
Ziptrax
101
14. Conclusions: Local, Strategic Supply
The global environmental and regulatory push, especially in Europe, China and likely
increasingly in North America, will drive rapid electric vehicle growth over the next decade.
This increase requires a commensurate ramping up of battery gigafactory capacity and the
wider lithium-ion battery supply chain across regions.
There is a lot at stake. Without enough battery cell capacity, major automotive producing
countries risk falling behind in the race for electrification. Without a well-developed and
secure battery supply chain, EV production will ultimately be over dependent on supply
from a limited number of countries, mostly in Asia. As the current semiconductor shortage
demonstrates, that would leave manufacturers and economies vulnerable. This is not just an
economically strategic issue, but arguably one of national security, just as energy supply has
been.
With the battery comprising as much as 30-40% of the vehicle cost, OEMs and suppliers
could also see their existing control of technology and production threatened, with new
competitors and market entrants liable to gain share. But the opportunity is also so huge as
to require investment, technology and capacity from all stakeholders – with many likely to
profit as well.
There are a number of key takeaways from this report:
The Battery Supply Chain Will Become Increasingly Local

As volumes ramp up, manufacturers and suppliers are investing in regional battery
production capacity, with the EU currently set to see the most significant growth in cell
capacity. Huge investments are also set for China, which already dominates EV battery
production. At the strategic level, governments and regulators are pushing to localise
battery supply chains both to ensure the security of supply as well as to gain from the
economic value and compensate for the loss of industry and jobs built around internal
combustion engine powertrains. The EU has set a roadmap of sustainability of raw material
production and energy used in battery manufacture. In the US, the Biden administration’s
recent executive order to review supply chains, including EV batteries and semiconductors,
is a clear example of how seriously governments are taking the issue of supply chain
disruption and security.
OEMs Will Seek a Diversity of Cell Suppliers

As EV volumes ramp up, leading automotive OEMs are increasingly moving away from single
sourcing agreements with battery cell suppliers to a more flexible, multi-sourcing model
across a mix of suppliers, and in some cases joint ventures and investments to build cells
102
and components in house. This diversification is another feature of securing supply, but also
being able to maintain competition, cost and quality. If one supplier suddenly makes a
technological step forward, for example, an OEM can switch or vary suppliers.
Batteries Are Not Commoditised

There is considerable competitive advantage to be had by developing and commercialising a
specific battery technology. That is because, for now, at least, lithium-ion batteries are far
from being commoditised. There are multiple chemical formulations that make for differing
price and performance propositions, including for battery cost, range and charging. OEMs
will consider these factors depending on product and even regional strategy when choosing
a particular battery type and supplier. Carmakers are also investing billions more into their
own battery research and development, hoping to gain advantages in electrification.
OEMs Want to Have More Control of the Battery Supply Chain

It is no coincidence that many OEMs and other stakeholders in the EV value chain are
looking at vertical integration of key operations – including establishing in-house operations
to manufacture battery cells and getting more involved in upstream processes. OEMs
including GM and Volkswagen have followed Tesla’s example in establishing joint ventures
with cell suppliers to produce cells – possibly even to commercialise supply to other OEMs.
Tesla is aiming to develop and produce its own in-house cells even beyond those it makes
with Panasonic. Gaining visibility and control of the supply chain can be a competitive
advantage both in coordinating volume ramp up as well as in preparing for and responding
to supply chain disruption.
Tesla is also leading a charge – in ambition and strategy, at least – to take more control
upstream, including directly mining minerals like lithium, as well as encouraging
technologies that reduce or eliminate the use of cobalt or even nickel. Price spikes in mining
such materials have caused OEMs to look more carefully at the upstream supply chain, in
some cases taking a more active role in procurement, too.
Ethical Supply Chains are Strategic Supply Chains

As well as controlling costs and supply, OEMs are examining upstream supply chains more
carefully to monitor emissions, fair trade and labour practices. The extraction of rare minerals
and the energy used during battery production are increasingly under the scrutiny of
environmentalists, regulators and consumers. Carmakers such as Volvo Cars, BMW and
Daimler are demanding that cell and raw mineral suppliers conform to strict environmental
and labour standards. Partly for this reason, manufacturers are also exploring ways to
reduce or phase out cobalt, which has notorious supply and labour issues from the DRC.
103
Battery Packs Can Be as Important as Cells
Battery performance is not just down to the cell, but how the battery modules and packs
are combined both in hardware and software integration, for example through battery
management systems. The overall battery integration process is becoming increasingly
important for OEMs, as in some cases such packs could gain more range and better
performance even when using the same cell supplier. As such, the lines are increasingly
blurring between battery cell supplier and module pack assembly. In response, some cell
suppliers have developed ‘cell-to-pack’ technologies to optimise this process with the goal
of reducing battery prices below $100 per KWh.
Lithium-ion Batteries May Not Be the Only Solution – But They Will Be Key
The rise in electric vehicle demand looks increasingly to be as sure a bet as possible, thanks
to the heavy regulatory push and massive OEM investment in EV development. However,
the dominance of lithium batteries is not 100% certain. Certain technologies such as lithium-
sulphur and solid-state batteries, hydrogen fuel cell, or even a left-of-field technology could
upend the current trajectory of lithium-ion battery demand. Breakthroughs in faster
charging times – or business models that depend less on them, like battery swaps – could
further reduce the need altogether for such expensive batteries.
These risks could undermine the investment going into the global battery supply chain,
including the many gigafactories currently in the pipeline, as well as the host of cell
processing, battery pack assembly and integration across hundreds of facilities. However,
while not every battery manufacturer is likely to achieve its stated GWh capacity ambitions,
the demand and capacity requirement for lithium-ion battery is still very likely to rise further
over the next decade. New technologies and alternatives will be important, too, but rather
than sweeping away the lithium-ion supply chain, they are more likely to be part of an
increasingly diversified electric powertrain strategy.
Electrification Is the Key to Keeping Automotive a Pillar Industry

It would not be an overstatement to say that the next decade of transition towards
electrification will be the most profound in the automotive industry’s history. The
environmental implications are immense. At the same time, the business opportunities are
vast for an industry currently worth some $3 trillion, and which still plays such a key role in
many countries’ prosperity, individual freedom and personal mobility. The success of the
battery supply chain will be pivotal in both the automotive industry’s transformation and
maintaining its role as a pillar industry.
104
Appendix
A. Credits
Copyright © 2021 Ultima Media Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without
the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical
reviews and certain other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests,
write to the publisher, at the address below.
Ultima Media Ltd part of Süddeutscher Verlag

401 King Street
Hammersmith
London, W6 9NJ
www.ultimamedia.com
P: +44 (0)20 8987 0900
Disclaimer
All facts and figures are believed to be accurate at the time of publication; Ultima Media
accepts no responsibility for inaccuracies due to future developments in the market or
incorrect information provided by Ultima Media's sources. Ultima Media is unable to accept
any legal liability for any consequential loss or damage, however caused, arising as a result
of any actions taken on the basis of the information provided in this report.
Contact Details
Daniel Harrison (report author)
Automotive Analyst
daniel.harrison@ultimamedia.com
P: +44 (0)208 987 0946
Christopher Ludwig
Editor-in-Chief
christopher.ludwig@ultimamedia.com
P: +44 (0)208 987 0968
105

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,000 per hour

THIS REPORT IS IN PARTNERSHIP WITH

Report author: Daniel Harrison, Automotive Analyst

Report editor: Christopher Ludwig, Editor-in-Chief

3.The Race to Build The Battery Supply Chain……………………………...13

4. Battery Raw Materials and Minerals………………………………………...29

5. Battery Component Suppliers……………………………………………………30

6. Battery Cell Market and Production………………………………………….32

7. Companies Providing Battery Management Systems (BMS),

8. Disruptive Battery Cell Technologies………………………………………..51

9. Battery Pack Assembly Plants…………………………………………………..53

10. Automotive OEM Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Assembly Plants…59

11. OEMs and Battery Cell Supplier Database ……………………..………87

12. EV and Hybrid Export Markets Analysis……………………..…………..94

13. Automotive Battery Re-Use and Recycling Companies…………..97

14. Conclusions: Local, Strategic Supply………….…………………….…….......102

1.2 The Future of Battery Supply Will Be Diversified

2.2 Note on Units

KWh = 1,000 (or one thousand) watts for 1 hour

Table 2.1 Lithium-Ion Battery Types

3.2 Electric Vehicle Demand Forecast

Raw Material Suppliers e.g. Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese

Battery Component Suppliers e.g. Cathodes, Anodes, Separators

Battery Cell Manufacturers

BMS, TMS & Battery Pack Cases

Battery Pack Assembly Plants – Cells --> Modules --> Packs

EV & Hybrid Vehicle Assembly Plants

Battery Repurposing, Re-use & Recycling Companies

3.5 Vertical Integration in the Battery Supply Chain

3.6 Ethical Supply Chains

3.7 Changing Strategies for Battery Pack Integration

3.8 Potential Disruptors to Battery Capacity Demand

Table 4.1 Leading Global Lithium Suppliers

4.2 Cobalt Suppliers

4.1 Nickel Suppliers

Table 4.4 Leading Manganese Suppliers

5.1 Cathodes Materials

Table 5.1 Leading Cathode Materials Manufacturers

5.2 Anode Materials

Table 5.2 Leading Anode Materials Manufacturers

Table 5.3 Leading Electrolyte Manufacturers

Table 5.4 Leading Separators Manufacturers

145 JSW Energy India Planned

Table 7.1 Leading Battery Management Systems (BMS) Companies

Table 7.2 Thermal Management Systems (TMS) Companies

Table 7.3 Battery Pack Companies

Table 9.1 Battery Pack Assembly Plants

In its efforts to diversify its supply base, BMW

Daimler has also signed a supply agreement

Table 10.1 OEM Hybrid & EV Vehicle Assembly Plants

Table 11.1 OEMs and Battery Cell Supplier Database

EV PHEV (petrol) PHEV (diesel) HEV (petrol) HEV (diesel)

Source: International Trade Centre (ITC), Automotive from Ultima Media

13.1 Re-using EV Batteries for A Second Life

Table 13.2 Leading Automotive Battery Recycling Companies

Table 13.3 Other Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Companies

There are a number of key takeaways from this report:

The Battery Supply Chain Will Become Increasingly Local

OEMs Will Seek a Diversity of Cell Suppliers

Batteries Are Not Commoditised

OEMs Want to Have More Control of the Battery Supply Chain

Ethical Supply Chains are Strategic Supply Chains

Electrification Is the Key to Keeping Automotive a Pillar Industry