Medicinal Plants: An Overview: Bir Bahadur, K. Janardhan Reddy and MLN Rao

Advances in Medicinal Plants
Editors: Reddy, K.J., Bahadur, B., Bhadraiah, B., & Rao, M.L.N. 2005: Pages 1-52
Aicra Publishers, Hyderabad
Medicinal Plants: An Overview
Bir Bahadur, K. Janardhan Reddy1 and MLN Rao2

Biotech Unit Swamy Ramananda Tirtha Rural Insitute, Jalalpur (V), Pochampally (M),
Nalgonda Dist – 508284, A.P., India.
1
Botany Department, Osmania University, Hyderabad – 500 007., A.P., India.
2
Institute of Public Enterprise, Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad – 500 007., A.P., India.
Abstract
The paper presents history of medicinal plants with emphasis on Ayurveda, Unani
and other systems. Various aspects such as plant part used in medicine, biodiversity
& conservation, rare/threatened medicinal plants, biotechnological applications like
micropropogation, transgenic medicinal plants, in vitro biotransformation,
antibodies and vaccines from transgenics are dealt with. Drugs and chemicals,
isolation of drugs, National Medicinal Plants Boards, trade, antioxidants,
nutraceutical, dermaceuticals, neurotransmitters in plants, medicinal mangroves,
websites on medicinal plants are listed. Exhaustive list of about 200 references is
appended.
Keywords: Medicinal Plants ; an Overview ; past, present and future prospects
INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plants are nature’s hidden and unexplored treasures (nature’s pharmacy) for humanity since
times immemorial, and over 35,000 species have been used virtually in all human cultures around the
world (over 75% population) as a source of safe and effective medicine. Excavations of mankind’s oldest
settlement such as shanidar (ca. 30,000 BC), support the contention that pre-historic peoples gathered
plants for medicinal purposes, suggesting the existence of the art and science of primitive pharmacy. The
widespread use of herbal remedies and healthcare preparations, as those described in ancient texts such as
the Vedas, the Quran, the Bible and other religious books are obtained from commonly used traditional
herbs and medicinal plants has been traced to the occurrence of natural products with medicinal
properties. Ancient people used plants as purgatives, sedatives, for fever, insanity, antitussives and wide
range of ailments.
People in every society depend on plants for staying healthy and improving their quality of life.
According to WHO 3.5 billion people in developing countries use plant based medicines for their primary
health care. WHO further indicates that over 30% of world’s plant species have at one time or another
been used for medicinal purpose. Over 35,000 plants are used in various human cultures around the
world. Of the over 2.5 lakh higher plant 1/3 are medicinal products related to over 20,000 plants are
marketed for medicines and cosmetics. About 90% of marked plant drugs are from wild resources and
over 120 important phytochemicals are of plant origin. According to Buttler (2005) and Newman et al.
(2003) approximately half of the drugs currently in clinical use are of natural product origin.
2 Advances in Medicinal Plants
The cultivation of medicinal plants for food, health care and cure dates back to the late Mesolithic to
early Neolithic age roughly about 10,000 BC. Assyrians recorded 250 medicinal plants and Sumerians
1000 plants. Babylonians medical care was based on asipu (magical) and asu (emperical) principles. The
latter used stone and plants therapy. Civilizations of ancient, China, India, Egypt, Greece, Arabia, Europe,
Africa, North America and Latin America recorded the use of medicinal plants in their traditional
medicines. The Chinese were the pioneers in using plants as valuable source of home medicines. No
wonder ethno-botanical medicine has been in use in China for over 5000 years. In 2735 BC, the Chinese
Emperor Shen Nung studied medicinal plants and verified their pharmaceutical properties and over
11,000 herbal remedies were developed and used in China for thousands of years. Chang Shang, an
antimalarial and antipyrytic drug called “Qinghao” or “Quinghaosu” artemisinin from Artemisia annua, a
potent antimalarial and “Chaihu” from Bupleurum chinense a popular remedy for hepatitis and Ma Huang
from Ephedrasinica ephedrine a remedy for sympathetic nervous system now used as a nasal
decongestant asthma and sinusitis are known since then. Recently, Gorman (1992) drew attention to the
power of Chinese folk medicinal potions in treating maladies like eczema, malaria and respiratory
disorders. Huant et al (1992), Benskey and Gamble (1993), Huang et al. (1999) have dealt with Chinese
herbal Materia Medica and herbal remedies in considerable detail.
Ayurveda (science of life) originated in the pre-Vedic period around 10 th century BC; took shape
between 5th to 6th century BC and 7th century saw the Golden Age and 5th century AD. Ayurvedic
knowledge coming from divine origins,astraditionwould have it, first propounded by Brahm and then
passed on through Dakshaprajapati, and Asvins, Indra, Bharadwaja and Atreya Punarvasu to Agnivesa.
Ayurveda is not only a well docuemnted system of medicine but a way of life; used to prevent and cure
diseases and is holistic in approach. It faced neglect during several political invasions from outside the
country. This system is practised in South East Asia, especially India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and
Pakistan.
Ayurveda is a branch of Atharvaveda and is the treatise and wisdom of sages, munis and seers tested
and handed down from generations to generations and is based on drug discovery and uses “reverse
Pharmacology” i.e. drug candidates are first identified based on use in population and then validated in
clinical trials. (see Chopra and Simon, 2000; Svododa, 1997; Sukhdev, 1997).
According to Ayurveda all the biological processes are governed by three factors, namely, vatta, pitta
and kappa which are called dosha and collectively referred to as tridosha. Herbal drugs taste differently
and control various physiological activities of the body depending on their constituents; the rasa. The
rasas taste variously viz., Mathura (Sweet), Kattu (Pungent), Amla (Sour), Tikta (Bitter), Lavan (Salty)
and Kasaya (astringent). A relationship between Rasa and Tridosa exists and its disturbance results in
disease. Thus, Ayurveda is harmonius interviewing of our environment, body, mind and spirit. “Susrutha
Samhita” also dealt with plants related to medicine which includes information on taste, appearance,
properties, efficacy, dosage, safety and benefits. This resembles Tibetan medicine and Galen’s four
humours.
In India, the earliest reference to the medicinal value of plants appears in Rigveda (4500-1500 BC)
which lists 67 plants of therapeutic values; with brief references to the healing property of plants like
simal, palas, peepal etc. Likewise, Yajurveda lists 81 medicinal plants followed by Atharvaveda which
mentions 290 medicinal plants. Atharvaveda and the associated Garbhopanishad (the Upanishad related to
human intra-uterine gestation) along with less esoteric but equally valuable inputs from folk medicine.
However, it is in the Ayurveda that definite properties and uses of drugs and drug yielding plants have
been discussed in detail. There is no plant, our rishis say, devoid of medicinal value, so when Rama and
Lakshmana were wounded during the war with Ravana; Jambuvanta, the medical adviser to Rama’s
army, requisioned ‘sanjeevani’ and some other herbs from the Oushadhagiri, the medicine mountain.
Hanuman instead of risking in choosing the wrong herbs, carried back the entire mountain.
The people of India from time immemorial have been using thousands of medicinal plants for curing
various diseases suggesting that Ayurveda has been widely used to maintain human health. Ancient
Medicinal Plants: An Overview 3
Indian medical heritage is based on 7000 plant species and about 8000 herbal remedis have been codified
in the Ayurveda. Plants in Ayurveda have Sanskrit names and synonyms and each plant may have
synonyms ranging from five to hundred. The Vedas were folled by Charaka Samhita three great works of
Ayurveda – Charaka Samhita, alone list 350 plants, Sushrutha Samhita and Ashtanga Hridaya; mention
between them 19,000 plant names referring to around 700 distinct species of 4% of the total number of
species in folk use. In accordance with other ayurvedic text (such as susruta Samhita and Astanga
Hridaya), the Caraka Samhita has 120 chapters arranged in eight Sthanas sections: Sutra, Nitana,
Vimana, Sarira, Indriya, Cikitsa, Kalpa and Siddhi.
During the thousands of years of early human existence many natural material were used for
combating human ailments either by instinct or intuition or by trial and error. In other words there was a
pill for every ill but not a magic tablet and anyone with luck, pluck and some capital opened an
apothecary, vary common in ancient Europe and such a practice is not uncommon in Indian folk
medicine. The earliest mention of the medicinal use of plants is found Vedas (1500 BC) in Sanskrit the
most important are “Rigveda”, was written between 4000 and 1600 BC. In the “Atharvaveda”, where one
can find use of plant drugs. It is in the “Ayurveda” which is considered as an “Upaveda”, that definite
properties of drugs and their uses are given in considerable detail. “Charaka Samhita” (700 BC) is another
earliest treatise on “Ayurveda” which provides list of 395 plant drugs and their products for use in health
management. Accordinng to Charaka the sub-alpine Himalaya is the best habitat of herbal drug materials.
Of the nearly 3000 herbal drugs described in “Ayurvedic Materia Medica”, about 50% of species
prescribed in Indian System of Medicine (now Ayush department) have their origin in Himalaya
(Mathela, 2005). Subsequent authors of later treatises have extended the list of Ayurvedic single plant
drugs to 600 species. Biksu Atreya a renowned Ayurvedic scholar of University of Taxila, who imparted
knowledge of 400 medicinal plants tohis his student Jivaka, physician to King Bimisara of Magadha;
Dhanavantari (The God of Health) and Nagarjuna were the well known authorities with intimate
knowledge of the characteristics of many medicinal plants but their written records are not available,
since in ancient times wisdom was orally passed on by teachers. Indeed the importance of Ayurveda is
timeless tradition, deep wisdom of ancient Indian sages rishis and munis. Ayurveda had its ups and down
during the Moghul Period (16th century) following Islamic dominance. Unani Tibb led to partial
repression and again during the British period Ayurvedic schools were banned or closed down. Revival of
Ayurveda is comparatively recent and it regained its past glory only after India became independent; so
much so that people in East and West, WHO & UNESCO have taken keen interest and resolved to
promote the science of Ayurveda on global basis.
Unani system is based on Greek Philosophy of Hippocrates (462 – 377 BC) theory of 4 bodily humors;
blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile (Galen 131-210 AD, Rhazes (850-925 AD) and Avicenna (980-
1037AD) author of ‘Canon of Medicine’ influenced Unanis foundation and formed its principles. The
system is commonly practised in China, Egypt, Iraq, Persia, Syria and Arabs introduced in India around
135 AD, but now established in Indian System of medicine and employs durgs of plant origin. Ibn
Cordoba the Arab brought ginseng root from China to Europe. Influence of Arabic culture (500 – 1300
AD) extended to several European countries since the Arabs were considered experts pharmacists
blending and mixing herbs to improve their medicinal effect and taste (Ahmad and Qadeer, 1998;
Chevallier 1996)
Tibbe Nabawi (Prophet’s Medicine) is about 1500 year old Islamic system and is based on the Sunnah
(life and traditions of Prophet Mohammed) and the Hadith (Prophets medical treatment). This system is
also based on herbs and employs pomegranates, henna, miswak, ginger, figs, black cumin, fenugreek,
hibiscus. It is a life style management system to prevent health problems both curative and preventive.
Gso-Rig-Pa is a Buddhitst Medical tradition practised mostly in North West and North East India. The
Tibetan system is an ancient traditional system and makes use of 1000 genera and 2500 species of plants.
Jamu (Indonesia) and Kampa (Japanese) systems also employ variety of plants.
The Pharmacopeia committees of Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani have published 3 volumes of
Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia containing 326 ayurvedic drugs and unani pharmacopoeia 45 Unani drugs. The
Govt. of India published two volumes of Ayurvedic Formulary of India (636 formulations), one volume
of Sidhha (practised in South India, particularly Tamilnadu, Kerala and Sri Lanka), and three volumes of
unani formulary (746 formulations). A total of 1000 medicinal plants, 60 minerals and metals; 60
substances of marine and animal origin; over all 95% drugs are derived from medicinal plants. There are
100,000 herbal formulations and traditional fomularies of Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Gso-Rig-Pa.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) described number of drug plants. I atros, Greek physican followed Hippocratic
method and favoured dietary and life style adjustment over drug use. The Greek system, of the
Alexandrian school, Hippocrates in his Materia Medica described plants which are still in use today viz.,
poppy, sage, rosemary and mungwort. Pedanius Dioscorides a Greek botanist and physician (1st century
AD) in his book ‘De Materia Medica’ written in Greek language described 600 plants with authoritative
comments not only on their habitat but their medicinal properties. He was physician to Emperor Nero and
probably was the first to classify plants as aromatic, culinary and medicinal plants. This illustrated
coloured herbal of medicinal plants remained the last word on Medical Botany upto 1500 AD; not only
became a standard reference and used until 17 th century but was translated in to several European
languages and ran through many editions.
Homer (ca. 800 BC) in the Odyssey refers to the medical wisdom of Egypt. According to him, the
early Greek physician, the demiourgoi had advanced to where they diagnosed natural causes of illness.
People beset with persistent afflictions visited the temple of God Asklepios where they slept with the
hope of being visited during the night by the God or his daughter Hygeia who carried a magical serpent
and a bowl of healing plant medicine.
Egyption plant drugs founded in Alexandria about 300 yers before birth of Christ were main vehicle of
healing power medicine makers of second millennium BC wer eth forerunners of todays pharmacists.
Unfortunately 700,000 medical books mostly dealing with medicinal plants were destroyed by
fundamentalist of 4th Century AD. (see Chopa and Simon, 200)
Egyption treated constipation with sennapods and castor oild and used caraway and peppermint to
relieve indigestion. (Manniche, 1989).
In later centuries, in medieval Europe the “Doctrine of Signature”, advocated earlier was revived by
Paracelsus; was modern yet medivieval, reasoned that plants medicinally useful to man, possessed certain
forms and shapes (God’s Signature) a belief that God had placed a sign on the healing substances
indicating their use against disease which had close resemblance to the shapes of human body organs and
could be used for their treatment. For example walnut seeds show superficial resemblence to human brain
and, therefore, considered to be a brain tonic. Liverworts form the cure of liver diseases. Lung like
mottled leaves of Pulmonaria officinalis resemble lungs and are still being used to cure respiratory
diseases. This concept gave impetus to locally grown plants over expensive imported drugs in many parts
of the world.
The period of Renaissance (16th and 17th centuries) is called the era of Herbalists; notably Brunfels,
Fuchs and Bobel have described various medicinal plants in their herbals. It is common to see medicinal
gardens in Padua and Pisa, (Italy) and several British Universities (Cambridge, Oxford and Birmingham)
even today. Garcia de Orta (1565) wrote on medicinal plants of India and it is mentioned that during 7 th
century Medical herb garden and Ayurvedic hospitals were popular in Nalanda now in Bihar.
The African continent is rich reservoir of medicinal plants. The best known species is Phytolacca
dodecandra, whose extract is known as ‘endod’, and used as an effective molluscicide to control
schistosomiasis (Lemma, 1991). In other African countries like Botswana, Lesotho, Nambia and South
Africa Harpagophytum procumbens produce a crude anti-inflammatory drug for export. Pausinystalia
yohimbe from Cameroon, Nigeria and Rwanda which yields yohimbine and Rauvolfia vomitoria, from
Madagascar, Mozambique and Zaire, yields reserpine and ajmaline are exported.
Over 70% of traditional S. Africal population relies on traditional medicines and according to an
estimate 4000 tons of plants/plant parts are traded anuallly in Durban (S. Africa) alone in traditional
medicine market called “Muthi”. In Zulu culture a herbalist (iNyanga) uses indigenous plants to treat a
disease and over 1020 plants are used and 450 species are sold in large volmes in markets costing Rs. 62
million per annum; an indication of how deep roted traditional medicine in Zulus is. In South Africa 500
species are commercialised trade products.
The use of several medicinal plants like Eupatorium perfoliatum, Podophyllum peltatum and Panax
quinquefolium in the USA have long been associated with the American Indians. According to Schultes
(1952) nearly 200 species were used by the people of Colombian Amazon for medicinal purpose; their
knowledge of plants is said to be exemplary as they can identify any plant without having to refer any
flora.. Plants have also been appreciated for their aesthetic and medicinal value, and widely used by the
Maya Indians in Mexico, in central America, the Miskitos and Sumus in Honduras and Nicaragua, the
Pech, Lencas, the Pipiles in EI Salvador, the Talamancas in Coasta Rica, and the Guaymis and Kunas in
Panama.
In Europe as in India, herbs enjoyed acceptance and herbal products are classified and sold as
medicines in European pharmacies along with allopathic medicines there are 1400 herbal substances in
European community that sale US $7 billion in 1996. Germany tops with 36% plant drugs followed by
Hungary, France, etc. One of us (BB) visited several vendors of fresh medicinal plants in Hungary and
Southern France and experienced herbal teas for cold and cough. The German Federal Health Agency
examined belonging to 200 families and 800 genera 1500 plants for their safety and efficiency.
About 1500 species of medicinal and aromatic plants are widely used in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia,
France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Spain, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. The people of Malta
Islands use medicinal plants in every day life as part of folk medicinal remedies (Lanfranco, 1992).
Traditional medicine for veterinary purpose (Mrugayurveda) Ethno-veterinary practitioners. Pashu
vaidya of Kadri in Karnataka. There are several books on veterinary medicines in Ayurveda, Go-
Ayurveda, Hasti Ayurveda. The medicinal plants are therefore an integral component of ethno veterinary
medicine and this is an area which requires considerable attention. Farmers and pastorilists in several
countries including India and Mexico use medicinal plants in the maintenance and conservation of the
healthcare of their livestock. Intestinal disorders in cows, are treated with herbal extracts of Polakowskia
tacacco (Cucurbitaceae). Dietary supplements of poultry feeds in Uganda are supplied through
enrichments of Amaranthus sp. for vitamin A. It is estimated that many medicinal plants, for several
centuries, have been widely used as a primary source of prevention and control of livestock diseases. In
fact, interest in use of medicinal plants in the veterinary sector has resulted primarily from the increasing
cost of livestock maintenance and the introduction of new technology in the production of veterinary
medicines and vaccines. For further details on ethnoveterinary plants, Anjara (1996) and Jain &
Srivastava (1999) may be consulted.
A well-documented, but somewhat limited, listing of medicinal plants is found in modern systems of
medicine like allopathy and homeopathy: the allopathy list of Indian medicinal plants is less than 50 but
homeopathy uses 571 medicinal plants including many exotic species.
India occupies the top position in the use of herbal drugs and also enjoys unique position in exporting
plant drugs and their derivatives because of its huge diverse flora spread over the entire Indian sub-
continent. Ayurveda, Unani and Homeopathic system of medicines dwell heavily on medicinal plants and
scientific cultivation of medicinal plants and extensive phytochemical research is being carried out.
Further organised pharmaceutical, phytochemical and herbal drug industry in India exists with scope for
expansion.
With the advent of organic chemistry, however, several synthetic drugs flooded the market resulting in
the decline of natural medicines from plants. Thanks to the efforts of Governmental and several NGOs,
and other research organizations there is a welcome revival of interest in native herbal medicines and
medicinal plants at large. There is thus a green wave sweeping the developed and developing world.
During the last 30-40 years medicinal plants have received a lot of attention and number of
conferences, seminars, workshops and books have been published in India and abroad focusing the
various aspects of medicinal plants. (Jain, 1968, 1989, 1991, 1994; Atal and Kapur, 1977; Chatterjee,
1980, Bentley and trimen, 1983; Dharma, 1987; Bajaj, 1998; Chandel, 1996; Blackwell, 1990; Weiss,
1988; Wagner et al, 1989; Satyavati and Gupta, 1987; Constable, 1990; Huang, 1992; Warrier et al, 1994;
Swaminathan and Kochar, 1989; Kluer, 1991; Nadkarni, 1992; Lanfranco, 1992; Shah, 1992;
Mashkovskia, 1993; Wahid, 1993; Artuso, 1997; Anonymous, 1997; Nair and Mohanan, 1998; Sairam,
1998; Gautam et al, 1998; Kaushik and Dhiman, 1999; Khan and Khanum, 1998-2001; Sumy et al. 2005;
Farooqui and Srinivasulu, 2001; Parrotta, 2001; Anonymous, 2001; Chopra and Simon, 2002; Swamy
Brahamanda, 2002; Ross, 2003; Rana, 2003; Bhattacharya, 2004; Naik, 2004; Mathela, 2005a, b, c).
The WHO, Geneva has planned 28 monographs on selected medicinal plants of the world. Till today,
however, only few volumes have been published that deal with detailed information on various aspects of
plants. In addition information on quality assurance (Quality control, safety and efficacy of medicinal
plants / herbal products is also given, because this is the key issue in industrialised and developing
countries; these volumes are useful to scientists, health authorities, pharmacists and global network of
active collaborators. The European Commission and Canadian Governments have recommended these
monographs as an authoritative reference (Anonymous, 1997-2000). Likewise, UNESCO (1996, 1998) in
their reports on the role of medicinal plants, health, promotion and sustainable use of plant resources
advocate extraction, development of drugs and chemothereapeutics and use of rural herbal remedies.
Medicinal plants of the world a serial publication deals with chemical constituents, traditional and
medicinal uses of select plants (see Ross, 2003).
Characteristics of medicinal plants

Medicinal plants represents a wide variety of plant groups ranging from algae, fungi, lichens, and
flowering plants. Only the flowering plants will be considered in this discussion. These represents various
life forms; herbs, shrubs, climbers and trees. The drug-yielding medicinal plants are generally classified
on the basis of the morphology of the plant part from which the drug is extracted. These are as follows:
i. Drugs obtained from roots date back to 5000 BC., eg. aconite, gentian, colchicine and valerian.
Other root drugs in use are goldenseal, ginseng, ipeca, licorice, jalap, podophylum, rhubarb, and
senega; several of these have their origin in the New World and were well known in aboriginal
medicine.
ii. Drug obtained from rhizome are Acorus, Curcuma, Zingiber etc. and their use date back to
distant past.
iii. Drugs obtained from bark are also ancients eg. Quinine, curare, cascara, sagrada mostly from the
New World are also in use for centuries.
iv. Drugs obtained from stem and wood are Ephedrine from China eg., guaicum, sarada from
Tropical America are in use for centuries.
v. Drugs obtained from leaves are Aloe, Bellodona, cocaine, Digitalis, witch hazel, henbane,
horehound, lobelia, pennyroyal, senna, stramonium, wormwood and eucalyptus.
vi. Drugs obtained from flowers are chamomile and hops.
vii. Drugs obtained from fruits, are strychnine, strophanthus and worm seed.
viii. Drugs obtained from seed parts are croton oil, psyllium, nux-vomica etc.,
ix. Drugs obtained from gum-resins and
x. Drugs obtained from the entire plant belong to many diverse species and families.
Majority of the drug plants are found in the tropics, grow in wild and are mainly used by hakims
and vaids refer them as jaributis. The medicinal value of the drug plants is due to the presence of specific
chemical substanes present in them, which when consumed in prescribed doses, produces physiological
action and provide relief to the human body.
A knowledge of the active and other chemical constituents of plants enable one to understand not only
their structure but mode of action in human body. Vast information is available on the subject and an
update is not possible. Naturally occurring bio-dynamic plant chemicals are many throughout the world
with a tremendous range of action and degree of potency since 75% of medicines in use are of plant
origin; therefore, Goldmine! Some important compounds present in plants are listed below. For details
Rattauf (1970), Balandrin et al. (1985), Chevallier (1996) may be consulted.
1. Alkaloids (Atropine, Vincristine etc) reduce spasm and relieve pain. Plant alkaloids were
mankinds original ‘Materia Medica’. There are about 12000 alkaloids isolated from plants.
Narcotine in 1803; morpine in 1806, emetine and strychicine and quinine (1820), nicotine
(1828), atropine (1833), cocaine (1860), and physostigmine (1867). Isolation of these potent
compounds was a milestone in pharmaceutical progress.
2. Anthroquinone are laxatives and relieve constipation (Cassia senna, Rheum palmatum).
3. Anthocyanins & carotenoids are pigments that maintain healthy blood vessels (Vitis vinifera
etc.).
4. Coumarins (about 1500) are muscle relaxant and blood thinner (Melilotus officianalis, Apium
graveoleus).
5. Glycosides (Digitoxin etc) are important cardiac stimulant obtained from Digitalis purpurea
since 1785.
6. Glycosides act as sedative/ relaxant but are poisons in view of the presence of cyanide
(sambucus nigra, prumus serotina).
7. Bitter chemicals promote salivation, digestion and improve appetite (Chirata).
8. Glucosilinates increase blood flow, and reduce thyroid function (Raphanus sativus).
9. Glycosides terpenoides are variously used.
10. Flavonoids (ca. 4500) are diverse and are anti-inflammatory and regulate healthy circulation.
11. Lignins and Lignans are anti-inflammatory and relieve pain.
12. Oils, aromatic (60 different types) act mostly used as antiseptic, apart from various vegetable
oils and fatty acids.
13. Saponins, (Triterpenoids are expectorants, steroidal saponins are hormonal in action. Tannis
are astringent contract the tissue and, improve resistance to infection especially skin
(Glycirrhiza glapra).
14. Vitamins are rich in plants, some plants are very rich in vitamin C and E.
15. Phenols and Polyphenols (ca 8000): Salicylic acid, Gallic acid, Catechin, Thymol act as
antiseptic & analgesic and relieve pain.
16. Gels/Mucilage are polysaccharides and reduce acidity and inflammation.
17. Minerals such as Si, K, Mn, Zn, Ca, and insulin are common in plant tissues and are variously
and routinely used in various human ailments (Equisetum, Taraxacum).
18. Resins and Gums are also used in the treatment of various ailments.
According to an estimate about 80,000 species are medicinal, of which about 35,000 plants have been
phytochemically studied and less than 5% plants have been evaluated as source of new medicines,
although active research is being pursued for discovering new and useful bioactive lead compounds, there
is never ending drive to discover new medicines for diseases not treatable. Unfortunately medicinal plant
wealth is rapidly diminishing day by day due to genetic erosion, loss of biodiversity, urbanisation,
expansion of agriculture, increasing deforestation and dam construction, and urbanisation. If this trend
continues mankind will loose some of most important sources of plants which will be lost for ever.
According to Glaxo Wellcome Medical Reaseach Centre, 8 of the top 30 medicines are natural
products or semi synthetic of the value of US $ 16 billions in 1999.
During the last 25 years several encyclopaedias and atlases of medicinal plants have also been
published (Bianchini, 1977, Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1982; Chieg, 1984; Bertram, 1995; Chevallier, 1996;
WHO, 2005; Anonymous, 1999-2000; and Ross, 2003; Pullaiah, 2005).
Bianchi et al, (1997) in their illustrated atlas describe various aspects of about 200 medicinal plants.
Chevallier (1996) gives a comprehensive list of 550 species and their potential medicinal aspects. While
Chopra and Simon (2000) in their herbal formulary mention 40 important herbs for holistic health. These
authors have grouped plants in separate sections based on their principal areas of operation in human
body.
Human ailments curable with herbs for creating good health (Modified after Bianchi et al., 1997,
Chevalier, 1996; Chopra and Simon, 2000)
1. Allergies: Asthma, Eczema, Wheeziness, Rhinitis, Angina, etc.,
2. Cardiovascular problems: Anemia, Fat reducing, Blood thinning, High blood pressure etc.,
3. Digestive problems: Constipation, Diarrhoea, Acidity, Indigestion, Appetite and Tonic etc.,
Salivary glands problems (Xerostomia, Gingivitis etc.)
4. Detoxification: Fatigue, Anti-oxidants
5. Infants and children ailments.
6. Immunity against diseases.
7. Nervous systems problems, (Mind, mood and emotions). nerve and stress problems, anxiety,
depression, psychiatric, insomnia, Calming/ Soothing herbs that enhance mental
performance. (Anxiolytic and neuroleptic drugs).
8. Metabolism: Herbs for obesity, balance nutrition.
9. Musculo-skeletal problems: Analgesic and anti-inflammatory plants provide relief from
various pains, arthritis tendenitis and rheumatism etc,.
10. Fertility in men and women, birth control, sexual potency, prostrate disease etc.
11. Pregnancy related diseases: Menstrual and Reproductive cycle problems.
12. Pathological problems: Cancers, Hepatitis, Diabetes, Viral, Fungal and Bacterial infections.
13. Respiratory tract problems: Pneumonia, Bronchitis, Cough, Cold, Flu, Sinusitis, Tonsillitis,
Ear ache etc,.
14. Old age, rejuvenation and energy: Herbal tonics and Anti-oxidants.
15. Urinary problems: Kidneys, Ureter, Bladder stones etc.
16. Skin diseases: including Alopacia, Baldness, Leucoderma, Leprosy, psoriosis and corns
17. Endocrine problems: Thyroid, Pitutary, Parathyroid, Adrenal, Pancreas, etc.
N.B comprehensive list of diseases can be found in books mentioned above.
The plants used for medicinal properties range from leaves, stem, rhizomes, bark, flowers, seed etc.
and depending upon the requirement, the various plant parts are harvested safely to enable the plant to
regenerate. Therefore, plant based forest management requires skills. The number of plants with
confirmed therapeutic properties with a clinically useful chemical compound is about 700 species; of
these 50% plants are regularly used as raw materials by Indian drug and pharmaceuticals industry. In
additon raw materials imported from other countries such as ephedra, liquories, henbane, galangal, cassia
bark and long pepper are also used.
The raw materials derived from plants is as follow: Plants occurring in forests, grasslands, aquatic and
desert ecosystems constitute about 150 species, they are : Ephedra geradiana, Saussurea costus,
Podophyllum hexandrum, Taxus baccata ssp. wallichiana, Aquillaria malaccensis,Valeriana jatamansi,
Strychnos nux-vomica, Terminalia chebula, Rauvolfia serpentina and various species of Berberis. The
raw material of more than 80 plants consist of root, rhizome or other underground parts: heart wood or
whole herb which are non-renewable, while the renewable raw material are leaf, flower, fruit and seed.
Various plant exudates (resins) suffer if the collection method is plant destructive.
Weed plants constitute 54 species provide the raw materials such as Adhatoda zeylanica, Andrographis
paniculata, Phyllanthus amarus, Boerhavia diffusa, Convolvulus microphyllus, Gymnema sylvestre and
Datura species are traditionally derived from forests by local communities.
Plants cultivated as cereal, fruit, vegetable, spice, oil seed etc. constitute 68 species and in this
category also in rich source of medicinal raw material, such as clove, cinnamom, turmeric, cumin, jamun,
papaya, castor etc. Plants cultivated as medical crop include 70 species. The major crops are: Plantago
ovata, Cassia angustifolia, Withania somnifera, Cinchona spp, Saussurea Costus etc. Sixteen medicinal
plants are exotic and are now component of Indian flora. Some important exotic species are: Plantago,
Atropa, Cinchona, Eucalyptus, Digitalis, Dioscorea, Artemisia annua. Table 1 summarize important
plants which have applications in some specific diseases. Table 2 summarizes the select list of plants
whose plant parts are used in treatment of various ailments.
Table 1 List of important plants their important biochemicals for some important diseases.
Name Family Important Bio-chemicals
Cardiovascular plants
Digitalis purpurea Scrophulariaceae Digoxgenin, Digitoxgenin,
Lanatoside
Thevetia nerifolia Apocynaceae Thevetin
Coleus forskolii Lamiaceae Colenol, Forskolin
Podophyllum sp. Berberidaceae Podophyllotoxin, Podophyllin
Urgenia scilla Liliaceae Scillaren
Convallaria majalis Liliaceae Convallotoxin
Acokanthera schimperi Apocyanceae Ouabain
Ginkgo biloba Ginkgoaceae Flavonoid Bilobalide, Ginkgolides
Anti HIV plant
Aspalanthus linearis Fabaceae Polysaccharide
Castanospermum australe Fabaceae Castanospermine, HIV Vaccine
Erythrina glauca Fabaceae Pterocarpans, Isoflavonoids
Calophyllum sp Guttiferae Autoflavonoids
Garcinia multiflora Guttiferae Biflavonoids
Terminalia bellerica Combretaceae Lignans
Buchenavia capitata Combretaceae Flavonoids
Hedera taurica Araliaceae Saponins
Maprounea africana Euphorbiaceae Triterpene
Syzygium claviflorum Myrtaceae Betulinic acid platanic acid
Dianthus caryophyllus Caryophyllaceae GAP 30, 32
Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae MAP 30
Hypericum esculantum Hypericaceae Hypericin
Tripterigium wilfodii Celostraceae Tripterifordin
Castanospermum australe Castanospermine Fataceae
Hyssop officinalis Lamiaceae MAR-10, Terpenes, marubiin
Margyricarpus setosus Rosaceae Catechin and epicatechin
Panax zingiberensis Zingibroside R Araliaceae
Anticancerous & Antiviral plants
Catharanthus roseus Apocynaceae Vinblastin, Vinorelbine, Vindesine,
Vincristine, vinresidine, etc.
Aglaia sp. Meliaceae Rocaglamide derivatives
antiproliferative.
Ochrosia sp Apcoynaceae
Phyllanthus acuminatus Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthoside

Ostodes paniculata Euphorbiaceae
Camptotheca acuminta Nyssaceae/Cornaceae Camptothecin
Taxus brevifolia, T. baccata Taxaceae Palitaxol (Taxol)
Heliotropium indicum Boraginaceae Indicine N.oxide
Dirca occidentalis Thymeleaceae GAP 31
Trichosanthes kirilowii Cucurbitaceae TAP 29
Dianthus caryophyllus Caryopyllaceae DAP 30 & DAP 32
Gelonium multiflorum Euphorbiaceae GAP 31
Antimalarial plants
Simarouba amara Simaroubaceae Glaucarubinone
Eurycoma longifolia Simaroubaceae Eurycomalatore, Eurycomanol
Melia azadirachta Meliaceae Limonoid, Gedunin
Dichoroea febrifuga Saxifragaceae Febrifugine
Artemisia annua Asteraceae Artemisinin
Brucea javanica Simaroubaceae Bruceines A to D, Brusatol
Antidiabetic plants
Trigonella foenum-gradecum Fabaceae Hypoglycemic, Diosgenin,
dioxygenase
Salacia oblonga Hippocrateaceae Hypoglycemic
Gymnema sylvestre Asclepiadaceae Gymnemic acid, Gurmarin
Syzygium jambolana Myrtaceae Hypoglycemic
Pterocarpus marsupium Fabaceae Hypoglycemic
Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae Hypoglycemic. Trichosanthin
Boswellia serrata Burseraceae Hypoglycemic, Glycosides
Mucuna pruriata Fabacea Hypoglycemic, Glycosides
Sedative Plants
Plant derived sedatives with tranquilizing and relaxing effect and sleep inducing properties (anxiolytic
drugs) are found in many plants. The most commonly used plants are : Viscum album, Nardostachys
grandiflora (Jatmansi) Valerina officinalis, Passiflora incarnata, Humulus lupulus, Viburmum opulus,
Lippia citridora, Asperula odorata, and Melittis melissophyllum, Chamomilla recuitita, Tilia spp,
Lavendula officinalis, Eleutherococcus senticosus, Panax ginseng, Piper methysticum (Kava kava),
Lavender Oil, hops (Humulus) and chamomilla are excellent to combat insomma, nervous tension and
fatigue. These plants are considered safe alternatives, not habit forming unlike the diazapem, valium etc
routinely used by millions. Aromatherapy of valerian / Lavener oil also provides good relief (see Chopra
and Simon, 2000).
Papaer somniferum dedicated to Hypnos (God of sleep) and his son; Morpheus (the god of dreams) is
known as an excellent inducer of sleep and turbulent dreams is known to greeks since 3500 BC. The
principal alkaloid is morphine followed by narcotine, papaverine, thebaine etc. Indcidentally, Avicenna,
the Arab physician died of opium addiction and intoxication.
Centranthus ruber (red valerian) of southern England is also a good sedative because of rich citral,
terpenes and glycosides. The plant is useful in disorders of nervous system because of its antispasmodic
action. Popularly called ‘tisane’ this is served as vervine odorante in French bars and cafes. Prunus
laurocerasus (chary lauret) referred in Bible and later in British Pharmacopocia is equally good sedative
and antispasmodic, useful in insomnia and nervous idsorders. (Bianchi and Corbetta, 1985).
In addition there are several plants that are known to reduce/cure stress and depression. They are:
Coleus forskohli Gingko biloba withania somnifera, Codonopsis sp. Turnera diffusa and Panax ginsing.
Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae) commonly called as St. John’s wort has been used for centuries
to treat persons with depression without the side effects common in Prozac and similar modern allopathic
drugs. This plant is widely sold in several European countries and approval by US Food and Drug
Administration is due (Andrews, 1997) Eating Oats in breakfast also relieves depression.
Accounts like the above for skin, endocrine, genito-urinary, digestive, respiratory systems are
interesting but space forbids details. An account of about 100 plants with anti-inflammatory and analgesic
properties has been reviewed by Bahadur et al. this volume).
Indian Medicinal Flora

The diversified topography of Inidan sub-continent from sea level to Himalayas coupled with its rich
biodiversity has lead to wide range of structural diversity in the vegetation. The sub-alpine and alpine
region posess great potential for medicinal and aromatic plants. Plant biodiversity coupled with vast
chemical diversity has lead to the resultant valuable drug molecules. Medicinal and aromatic plants flora
is comprised of trees, shrubs, climbers, herbs and grasses and are widely distributed in different parts of
the Indian states with specific phytogeographical entities. There are some in inaccessible areas of
Himalayas, & N.E. India where several plants are still unexplored while many plants are endemic.
Medicinal plants in the Indian forest ecosystem range from Kerala and Andaman islands to desert of
Kutch to cold desert of Ladak and Himalaya.
The Indian sub-continent is rich in various medicinal plants. A total of 18000 plants belonging to 387
families comprising 2220 genera constitute the Indian medicinal flora. The following families are the
major components. Asteraceae (424 species), Euphorbiaceae (219 species), Lamiaceae (218 species),
Fabaceae (217 species), Rubiaceae (210 species), Apiaceae (118 species), Poaceae (269 species),
Acanthaceae (142 species), Rosaceae (30 species) etc.
Indian medicinal plants are both indigenous as well as introduced 360 plants and about 2500 are used
in ethno medicine. According to a report, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India
about 7500 are used as ethnomedicine. It is relevant to point out that Ayurvedic Materia Medica contains
260 (Dhanvantri’s nighantu) and 560 plants (Bhavprakash’s nighantu) while the Dept. of Indian system
of medicine; list 387 plants and the Unani system list 440 to 750 plants. According to a report the
Ayurvedic and other traditional healers in South Asia use at least 1800 different plants. One third of the
prescription drugs in US have a plant component and over 120 important drugs are derived from plants.
Threatened Medicinal Plants

According to International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural resources, (IUCN 1998), 10%
of world’s vascular plants are under varying degrees of threat (Lucas and Synge, 1978). Rajasekharan and
Ganeshan (2002) have highlighted the conservation of medicinal plant diversity from the Indian point of
view. At least 1000 species used in medicine today are threatened. In India 120 medicinal species are said
to be threatened, 77 species in China, 75 species in Moracco. The list of threatened and endangered
species are gradually increasing. In India, 26 plant species have reached the stage of extinction greatly
threatened and likely to be threatened (Table 3). In Bangladesh 37 species are lost / rare / endangered /
threatened due to habitat destruction and in Nepal 14 plant species are said to be threatened.
Table 3 Threatened medicinal plants of India (compiled from Nayar and Shastry, 1990, Rajasekharan &
Ganeshan 2002).
Name Family Status
Aconitum deinorrhizum Ranunculacae Almost extinct
Aconitum heterophyllum Ranunculacae Greatly threatened
Amebia benthemii Boraginaceae Threatened
Angelica gluca Apiaceae Threatened
Artemisia brevifolia Asteraceae Likely to be threatened
Artemisia martima Asteraceae Threatened
Atropa acuminata Solanaceae Threatened
Berberis aristata Berberidaceae Greatly Threatened
Bunium persicum Apiaceae Threatened
Celastrus pariculator Celestraceae Nearly threatened

Colchicum luteum Liliaceae Threatened
Corydalis govaniana Papaveraceae Likely to be Threatened
Curcuma pseudomontana Zingiberaceae Vulnerable
Decalepis hamiltoxii Aselepiadaceae Endangered
Dioscorea deltoidea Dioscoreaceae Threatened
Drosera burmanii Druseraceae Vulnerable
Entada pursaetha Mimosaceae Vulnerable
Ephedra gerardiana Gnetaceae Likely to be Threatened
Ferula jaeschkeana Apiaceae Threatened
Gardenia gummifera Rubiaceae Vulnerable
Gentiana kurroa Gentianaceae Threatened
Habenaria roxburghii Orchidaceae Threatened
Hedychium spicatum Zingiberaceae Likely to be Threatened
Holostemma adakodien Asclepiadaceae Vulnerable
Jurinea dolomiaea Asteraceae Likely to be Threatened
Nardostachys jatamansi Valerianceae Threatened
Orchis latifolia Orchidaceae Threatened
Picrorrhiza kurroa Scrophulariaceae Likely to be Threatened
Podophyllum emodi Berberidaceae Threatened
Pueraria tuberosa Fabaceae Nearly threatened
Rheum emodi Rutaceae Threatened
Swertia chirata Gentianceae Threatened
Valeriana wallichii Valerianceae Likely to be Threatened
Xanthoxylum alatum Polygonaceae Likely to be Threatened
The Botanical Survey of India has published in 1980 booklets on threatened plants of India. Nayar and
Shastri (1987) in their ‘Red Data Book’ mention 235 plants to be endemic to India are endangered or
vulnerable. Incidentally over 70% of the threatened plants are in active trade involving harvesting of plant
parts and products. Ravikumar and Ved (2000) have reported 100 Red listed Plants. Reddy et al. (2001)
have recently listed several threatened plants of Andhra Pradesh.
It is interesting to note that Adonis vernalis already extinct in Italy and the Netherlands is an
endangered species in Germany, Slovakia, Sweden and Switzerland. Fortunately, to safeguard against
such losses, guidelines and licensing concerning the use of such plants are provided for by the
Convention on International Trade Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (Hoareau & De Silva,
1999). According to Balick (1994) mass scale exploitation of pilaocarpine an ophthalmic drug from
Pilocarpus pignatifolios, P. microfilla and P. jaburandi threatened the survival of these species in South
America. Likewise, clinical trials with taxol have affected the survival of Taxus brevifolia in its natural
habitat in USA, Japanese (Tamaya et al, 1997).
The loss of biodiversity is estimated at 30-300 species/day (Eco News 1995). It is, therefore, desirable
that various Pharma companies that use the rare species should reinvest substantial revenues from their
earnings to conserve the species facing extinction. Medicinal herbs, possessing male potency properties
and anti-cancer principles are the focus of smuggling to import markets in Germany, France, Switzerland,
Japan, the UK, and the USA. The best known example, is that of ‘tetu lakda’ (Nothapoytes foetida) found
in Southern India and Sri Lanka and exploited as a source of anticancer drugs. Saussurea lappa from
India and Frittilaria cirrhosa from China are respectively used for chronic skin disorders and respiratory
infections. Similarly Saussurea lappa from India whose root is used for chronic skin disorders, and
Fritillaria cirrhosa from China, used for respiratory infections. According to Sunderland et al (2000),
Pausinystalia Johimbe (Rubiaccae) of Cameroon and other West African countries is being over exploied
for its bark (alkaloid yohimbine) used as an aphrodisiac ‘herbal viagra’. The species is on the verge of
extinction because of over exploitation. Genetic biodiversity of traditional medicinal species is
connntinuosly under the threat of extinction as a result of growth habitats and unmonitored trade of
medicinal plants. Hoareau and De Silva (1999) have rightly stated that “the market and demand has been
so great that there is a great risk that many medicinal plants today face either extinction or loss of genetic
diversity implying we are losing rare potential plant drugs.
It is heartening to note that the Indian Postal Department during the last 25 years has issued several
postal stamps of important and endangered medicinal plants, which are not only educative but informative
in dealing with conservation strategy. The following are some important stamps on: Saussurea obvallata,
S.simpsoniana Meconopsis aculeata, M.horridula Commiphora wightii, Aloe barbadensis, Bacopa
monnieri, Gloriosa superba, Arisaema wallachianum Emblica officinalis, Rauvolfia serpentina, Withania
somnifera, Curcuma longa, Cassia fistula, Ocimum sanctum, Melia azadirachta, Inula grandiflora,
Nauclea kadamba, Nycatanthus arbor-tristis, Rhododendron species etc. It may be recalled that thepostal
dept, issued a stamp on wheat Revolution to generate public awareness.
In vitro collection (IVC) can be used to broaden germplasm collection of medicinal plants and can be
used as a source of material for both propagation and preservation of endangered taxa. Molecular
techniques, RAPD analysis is also being used to monitor the genetic diversity of endangered plants. DNA
libraries and DNA banking are also being currently used and can be usefully employed for wide variety of
medicinal plants (Mattick et al, 1992; Adams and Adams, 1992).
Trade of Medicinal Plants

Medicinal plants are vitally important to national and global economy in view of their easy accessibility,
affordability and effective traditional medicine. The WHO estimated that the world trade at US $500
million in 1980. In Europe and North America, there is great demand by consumer interest in products
that are ‘all-natural’. The sale of herbal medicine in Eastern Europe, Asia, Japan and North America are
US $6000,2300, 2100 and 1500 millions respectively. Drugs derived from leafy plants amounted to the
US $11 billion. It is estimated that the total economic value to the United States from plant derived
pharmaceuticals to the total sale of US $12400 million. (Srivastava et al, 1995). The value of traditional
medicines in China as US $571 million and the country-wide sale of crude plant drugs.
Global trade of medicinal and aromatic plants is of the order of US $ 60 billions and with increasing
popularity by 2050 the trade is likely to shoot up to US $ 800 million per year. The annual export of
medicinal plants from India is Rs. 12,000 million (Ramakrishnappa, 2005). India ranks sixth in the
essential oil production (6.1%) with China (30.7%), Brazil (13.1%), Turkey (10.4%), Indonesia (8.7%)
and Morocco (9.1%). A similar situation exists in the export of medicinal plant materials (Varshney,
2001).
In Japan pharmaceutical export for Kampo medicine in 1983 was US $150 million. The herbal
product market in Germany in 1989 was about US $ 1.7 billion, while in USA the sale of pharmaceuticals
was $68 billions per year.
India is next to China by exporting over 32600 tonnes of medicinal raw material worth US $ 2 billion.
With increasing demand, the market for medicinal plants has expanded, thus opening new avenues to
improve the economic status of local commodities.
With globalization of Ayurveda, there is high demand for herbal and medicinal plants. The Asian
countries account for 16% of global market of the total US $ 62 billion/year, Chinese have a major export
share followed by India. Global demand of medicinal and aromatic plants is growing @ 7% per annum.
The internatioinal trade of medicinal plants is estimated at US $70 billion and is growing at a rate of
7% annually. The Planning Commission Govt of India plans to increase the trade of medicinal plants
10000 crores by 2010.
The domestic demand of medicinal plants in 1999-2000 was about Rs.1100 crores and is likely to go
up to Rs.2000 crores by 2005. India exports parts of 22 plant species (Table 4) and imports parts of 7
plant species (Table 5) but the quantitative information on the exports and imports are not correctly
available. The annual international trade of Ginkgo biloba leaf extract alone is approximately US $500
million. Ginkgo is cultivated in France, Japan and U.S.A for the supply of 100 tonnes of dried leaves per
month (Hamberger et al, 1991). There are several artificially synthesizable drugs which are also extracted
from the wild collections because of the lower cost of production. India and Africa export Rauvolfia sp. to
various countries for its drug.
Germany imports around $100 milion of plant drugs. Germany imports at least 1560 plants species for
medicinal purposes, of which 50-100 are cultivated and the rest are wild.
Europe, annually, imports about 400,000 tons of medicinal plants with an average market value of US
$1 billion from Africa and Asia. There is a growing awareness of this new contributor to the foreign-
exchange reserves of several countries.
Table 4. Medicinal plant exported by India

Species Part Exported
Plantago ovata Seed,husk
Cassia angustifolia Leaf, pod
Rheum australe Rhizome
Inula racemosa Rhizome
Rauvolfia serpentina Root
Hedychium spicatum Rhizome,
Zingiber officinale Rhizome
Colchicum luteum Rhizome,seed
Valeriana wallichi Rhizome
Acorus calamus Rhizome
Adhatoda vasica Whole plant
Juglans regia Bark
Punica granatum Flower, root bark
Barberis aristata Root
Juniperus communis Fruit
Juniperus macropoda Fruit
Heracleum candicans Rhizome
Pioorhiza kurroa Root
Aconitum species Root
Saussurea lappa Rhizome
Swertia chirata Whole plant
Podophyllum emodi Rhizome
India is a major exporter of medical plant raw materials and their extracts, to various countries.
Majority of export include senna leaf and pod, psyllium husk and seed, galangal roots, bael fruits, karaya
gum; kamila powder, nux-vomica seeds, chebulic,belleric and emblic myrobalan and 100 other plant
materials. India exported 42000 tonnes of medicinal raw materials to other countries upto 2000-01 of this
psyllium husk and seeds, senna leaf and pod, periwinkle and some other account for 32209 tonnes. The
export of material employed in Indian system of medicine was about 9740 tonnes.
India is the leading exporter of the medicinal plants in the world trade. The major export of medicinal
plant parts or whole plants from India are poppy husk and seeds, opium crude, psyllium (Plantago ovata)
husk and seeds, senna (Cassia angustifolia) leaves and pods, chirayata (Swertia angustifolia),
siameseginger (Alpinia galanga) rhizomes, Tukmaria and Zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria) roots, periwinkle
(Catharanthus roseus) roots and leaves. Glycirrhiza glabra and, ipecae dried rhizomes and roots, nux-
vomica dried ripe seeds, sarsaparilla, serpentina roots, etc.
The trade of medicinal and aromatic plants has two main components; the export of plant/plant
products/ plant extracts to other countries and the imports of plants from other countries to meet the
internal demand.
About 40 raw materials are imported regularly and/or in substantially large quantities from other
countries. Some of these are as follow liquorices, asafoetida, gall nut and a number of plant materials
ephedra, long pepper etc. used in Unani drug formulation,
Major importer of medicinal plants from India are U.S.A, Japan, Germany, U .K., France and
Switzerland. South Korea and China are also important exporters of these plants. South Korea is the
major exporters of ginseng (Panax spp.) in the world market. In addition several plant parts are imported
to supplement internal demands (Table 6).
Apart from the medicinal plant parts, India also exports large quantity of phytochemicals like beta-
ionone, papain, solanesol, quinine sulphate, atropine sulphate, quinine hydrochloride, salts and derivatives
of quinine, quinine alkolaids, berberine hydrochloride, emetine alkaloids and brucine, vegetable alkaloids,
salt and other derivatives of nux vomica, alkaloids and brucine, vegetable alkaloids, salt and other
derivatives of ergot, opium alkaloids, ephedrine hydrochloride, ergot alkaloids, hormones, neosoralen,
macsoralen and trimetixy soralen. India’s contribution of phytochemical exports compared to the overall
world trade is however meagre. Hongkong has the largest herbal market in the world and import drugs
worth about US $190 million per year. The herbal market consists chiefly of 1. Ginseng products; 2.
crude drugs; other than ginsing and 3. over the counter drugs and medicated tinctures etc. It may be of
interest to note that about 630plant drugs and adultrants are used and traded in India.
Table 5. Medicinal plants imported by India

Species Family Part used
Glycyrrhiza glabra Fabaceae Under ground stem and root
Pimpinella anisum Apiaceae Fruits
Thymus vulgaris Lamiaceae Whole plant.
Operculina turpethum Convolvulaceae Root and stem
Cuscuta epithymum Convolvulaceae Whole plant
Smilax omata Liliaceae Roots
Lavendula stoechas Lamiaceae Flowers and leaves.
Table 6. Raw materials imported by India to supplement indigenous production.

Species Plant Part Official Trade Name Demand
Acacia senegal Gum Gum Arabic; Gond Babul High
Aloe (various sps.) Dried leaf juice Aloe, eluva, Mussabar High
Anacyclus pyrethrum Whole herb Akarkara Marginal
Aquillaria agallocha Infected wood Agarwood, agaru Medium
Artemisia absynthium Dreid herb Absynth; Afsanatin Marginal
Astragalus gummifer Gum Tragacanth fum ; katira gond Medium
Micropropagation
Micropropagation is one of the most convenient and beneficial ways to propagate economic plants which
has many advantages such as rapid clonal propagation, establishment, maintenance and distribution of
pathogen free clones and maintain true-to-type plant species. Commercial micropropagation of
ornamental, and horticultural species, have become a profitable industry. During the last 10 years interset
in in-vitro propagation of medicinal plants has considerably increased. In India many laboratories are
engaged in tissue culture research and have developed protocols for micropropagation of number of
medicinal plants.
With the increased general awareness on micropropagation technique and increasing demand for
herbal drugs many pharmaceutical firms are showing interest to exploit the benefit of the technique.
However, to harvest dividends there is a need to evolve cost effective mass propagation methods for
commercial exploitation. It is hoped that micropropagation of medicinal plants is expected to become
multi dollar industry in the years to come. Despite, simple and impressive account of number of in vitro
protocols for rapid regeneration of number of medicinal plants, little attention has been paid towards
commercial exploitation of the technique for cultivation of medicinal plants.
In vitro conservation, gene banks, and DN finger printing of MAP is being carried out at NBPGRI,
New Delhi and elsewhere.
In 1997, the World Bank within the framework of the Global Environmental Facility, provided a US$
4.5 million grant for the Sri Lanka Conservation of Medicinal Plants Project which focuses on the
conservation of medicinal plant populations, their habitats, and their sustainable use in Medicinal plant
populations, their habitats, and their sustainable use in Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas.
Inventories on the management, research and conservation of rare and endangered species of medicinal
plants are the main programmes at Ritigala, Naula, Rajawaka, Kinnelia, and Bibile in Sri Lanka.
According to World Bank (1997) India and China have tackled the medicinal plant conservation,
cultivation involvement and sustainable development and their work is not only commendable but
exemplary.
Bio-diversity and germplasm conservation go hand in hand. India is the cradle of many medicinal plant
species and like other developing countries bio-diversity scenario of medicinal plants in India is in
precarious state – due to over exploitation of these plants by numerous pharmaceutical companies. The
demand for medicinal plants is growing exponentially but no serious conservation or cultivation efforts
were undertaken until recently by the concerned user agencies.
For conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources there are three international inititatives.
(1) The FAO International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources (IUPGR) Rome 1983 (2) The
Conservation on Biological Diversity (CBD) Rio de Janerio 1992 (3) The Crucible Group 1993.
Conservation by cultivation is one of the method of taking the pressure off dwindling wild germ plasm
of medicinal plants need to be actively grown by the people who rely on them. Species recovery for all
priority medicinal plants is being far rated and includes species specific artificial propogation for
reintroduction into the wild and formulating strategies for sustainable wild harvest.
The extinction of medicinal plants species hold dire consequences socially and ecologically. People
lose their medicine and traditional healers and plant collectors their livelihood. Plants are the “green glue”
that bind the soil and keep all the fauna alive.
Western Ghats is one of the 8 biodiversity centres identified all over the world and are among the
geologically biodiverse and richest region of with 15000 species, out of which 4000 species are endemic.
The role of some NGO’s in this regard is worthy of mention. The Academy of Development of Science, a
Non Governmental organisation works in protecting genetic material in medicinal garden nursary, seed
bank, indigenous conservation and restoration of rare / threatened medical plants
Of the several NGO’s involved in biodiversity and conservation of medicinal plants the M.S.
Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai (T.N.) and Regional Plant Resources Centre, Bhubaneshwar
(Orissa). Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute, Thiruvanthapuram, Central Insitute for
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow have contributed immensely in plant diversity,
micropropogation and reintroduction to the field.
The Tamilnadu Forest Department in collaboration with Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health
Traditions (FRLHT), a Bangalore based NGO have Plants Conservation Areas in different forest
locations of Tamilnadu. Each of MPCAs with an average size of 200 ha represent forests of high bio-
diversity value and contain a high proportion of the inter and intra specific medicinal plant diversity.
These act as forest gene banks and serve the purpose not only to conserve economically important
medicinal plants but supply genuine planting materials to breeders and cultivators.
Arya Vaidya Sala (AVS) in Kottakkal, Kerala, a charitable institution offers authentic Ayurvedic
medicines and treatments. Further, AVS has embarked upon a novel project to ensure the sustainable
supply of plant materials to the pharma industry. This ensure that genetic resources are not lost due to
deforestation. AVS, with the support from IDRC, Cananda in 1973 has developed the medicinal plants
germplasm bank, which serves as a resource centre to ensure supply of medicinal plant materials during
shortages; protects medicinal plant biodiversity. In addition species have been reintroduced to their
natural habitats and ex-situ medicinal plant gardens have been created.
The goal of the AVS-IDRC project is to ensure a sustainable supply of quality raw materials to the
medicinal plants- based drug industry by organizing meetings of small-scale growers and commercial
cultivators.. Sustainable supply of medicinal plants to industry, reintroduction of rare plants to their
natural habitats and ex-situ medical plants garden have been created. In addition the AVS is a center that
provides safe and effective health care to locals.
Various aspects of henetic imporovement, ex-situ and in vitro conservation internation pharmaceutical
trade and their vulnerability to over exploitation and extinction has been discussed. (Akerele et al 191,;
Chadovick and Marsh, 1994).
Trichopus zeylanicus (Dioscoreaceae) the Ginseng of Kerala is noted in ancient text as a source of
health and vigour was discovered in December 1987 when botanists of TBGRI Trivanthapuram were
bioprospecting in Westren Ghats. Pushpangadhan et al (1995). review on Trichopus zeylanicus and its
ethnopharmacology commonly called in Kerala as “arogyappacha” meaning evergreen health, is
noteworthy. Its fruits are traditionally used by ‘Kani’ tribal people to get instant source of health, energy
and agility. The antifatigue principle is due to the presence of glycolipids and some non-steroidal
compounds. The leaves of this plant with other two plants ingredients were later developed into the drug
‘Jeevani’ by TBGRI and a license to manufacture was given to Arya Vaidya Pharmacy Ltd, Coimbatore
for a seven year period for Rs. one million of which the Kani tribals received 50% license fee as well as
50% of royalty obtained by TBGRI on the sale of the drug. However, this received criticism for its
inequitable nature because of lack of involvement of the Kani tribals and failure to take permission from
the Kani medicinal practitioners who are considered as the guardians of this local knowledge (Padma
2005; Anuradha, 2000; Natesh and Mohan Ram, 1999). Scientists at TBGRI claim that the
‘arogyappacha’ will hopefully replace the Korean ginseng as health food of the 21st century. The sale of
this energy boosting drug now stands at US $230 lakh / year and works as a model for the benefit of local
population. Looking at the success of Jeevani drug, Dr R.A. Mashelkar, CSIR, Director General
commented “India can benefit enormously if it can build golden triangle between traditional medicine,
modern medicine and modern science”. Nazaruddin et al. (1996) have summarised the use of various
plants used by pariyar community in N. Kerala. Like Jeevani, most Ayurvedic and Unani drugs are
widely used across India and cannot be traced back to particular community.
The CSIR has founded these Ayurvedic based projects seeking drug candidates for arthritis, type-2
diabetes and liver diseases.
There are over 4752 tribal communities in India of which 3226 form a component of the life whose
natural geosystems resolves around forest. Their tribal culture, have developed a pharmacopoeia based on
wild plants. The erosion of ethnomedicinal plant resources is alarming, therefore their conservation is of
prime importance as also their ethnopharmacopoeias since these are reservoir of ancient medical heritage.
Conservation of Medicinal Plants

Conservation of biodiversity has assumed considerable importance in view of over increasing human
population as well as due to depleting natural resources. Efforts are being made at global level to preserve
biodiversity to achieve genetic conservation. In vitro technology and cryopreservation i.e. storage in
liquid nitrogen (–196o C) have received attention and complement significantly to existing methods such
as seed storage in gene bank (– 20oC), maintenance under field conditions, orchards, plantations and
botanic gardens. Protocols for in vitro storage of several medicinal plants are also now available.
The Medicinal Plants Boards activities include conservation and sustainable use of medical plants
leading to remunerative farming, regulation of medicinal farms and conservations of biodiversity.
The priorities of MPB is cultivation of 32 medical plants with special reference to their reproductive
systems (biology), distribution post harvest management, shelf life and storage. Conservation of germ
plasm of rare and endangered plants, establishment of gene banks, and related aspects of agrotechnology
regulate registration of farmers, cooperative societies, transportation, marketing procurement and supply
to pharmaceutical industry ; simplifying export / import procedure. The export of medicinal plants during
(2003-2004) was about 1000 crore rupees ; 70% of which was raw products and 30%, from finished
products. The CIMAP was established in by CSIR 1959 with the following objectives
1. Genetic improvement, cultivation of medicinal, aromatic, nutraceutical, dye and gum plants.
2. Conservation of biodiversity and genetic resources of MAPs. (Medicinal and aromatic plants).
3. Development and commercial phytocellular technologies for plant compounds of pharmaceutical
importance.
4. Formulation of edible plant vaccines.
5. Development of agrotechnologies, chemical processing, detection and characterisation of new
anticancerous, antimicrobials and other useful compounds.
6. Production of seeds of selected rare genotypes of domesticated MAPs.
7. Gene banks of MAPs.
8. Building of MAP related databases and development of human resources for R & D
The National Research Centre for Medicinal and aromatic plants at Borivai, Anand in Gujarat has also
been setup with similar objectives. It is impossible to write more on these aspects in view of space
constrain. Medicinal and aromatic plant programs in Asia (MAPPA) has wide network of expertise on
conservation, research and documentation of medicinal plants in New Delhi. Mappa in collaboration with
Foundation for Revitalization of local health traditions brings out a newsletter. The ex-situ group, FRLHT
has been coordinationg the establishment of chain of 19 Medicinal plant conservation parks and nurseries
by NGOs and Research Institutes of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala and about 900 species in ethno-
medicinal gardens with emphasis to red listed plants.
National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB)

This board was set in 24th November 2000, by Government of India. To promote conservation and
sustainable use of medicinal plants from shrinking wild source. The govt of India has constituted 29 State
Medicinal plant Boards which coordinate activities of cultivation, conservation, demand, supply,
marketing, export, quality control and standardisation of plant based medication and has identified 60
priority plant species.
Transgenic Medicinal Plants

Several crop plants have been genetically engineered and are called Transgenic crops in a similar manner
some very important medicinal plants have been genetically transformed mostly by Agrobacterium
species using Ti and Ri plasmids and some by particle bombordment technique. A list of transgenic
medicinal crops, the important gene transferred for the high alkaloid content are summerised in Table 7.
Table 7. Transgenic Medicinal Plants

Species Genes transferred Alkaloids
Catharnthus roseus Strictosidine synthase*GUS-A Strictosidine
Tabernaemontana Strictosidine synthase Strictosidine
pandacaqui
Altropa belladonna Hysscyamine hydroxylase Hysocyamine6- Anabasine,
Scopolamine. hydroxylase
Scopolamine
Nicotiana rustica Ornithine decarboxylase Putrescine, Nicotine
N. tabacum Lysine decarboxylase Cadaverine
Solanum lacinatum Ti, Ri plasmid Steroid alkaloid
Papaver somniferum Ri plasmid Sanguinarine
Peganun harmala Tryptophan decarboxylase Serotonin
Ri: root inducing plasmid; ti; tumor inducing plasmid; *: particle bombardment
Extensive information on transgenic plants is available and a review is beyond the scope of this paper.
However the role of transgenics in vaccines roduction will be presented later.
Indian Drug and Pharmaceutical Industry

India has well established and rapidly growing drug and pharmaceutical industry utilizing plant based raw
materials. There are around 7000 small and big pharmacies, manufacturing medicines and over the
counter (OTC) products like digestives, carminatives. The popularity of herbal medicines in traditional
health care can be gauged by the following statistics. There are 55, 000 licenced pharmacies, 13, 770
dispensaries, 7000 licenced manufacturing units 16, 900 hospitals, 98 Ayurvedic colleges, 400, 000
registered practioners.
While much of the plants are gathered by herb collectors and small traders for use in Ayurvedic and
Unani systems of medicine, there is still shortage of these materials for maintaing the sustained supply to
the plant-based drug industries. There is thus urgent need for domestication and mass farming of these
plants as well as producing the drug products of uniformly high potency and quality.
Protection, Conservation and Biodiversity

As on today, the rising global interest in medicinal plants is burgeoning legitimate and “underground”
trades in plant materials. Most plant samples are collected from the forests in developing countries in a
completely unregulated manner. The collection, processing and marketing of medicinal plants are seldom
handled an organized and regulated manner. There is also no international pricing policy for export or
import of these plants or plant parts, which remain as uncontrolled exploitation with little or no concern
for the future. Escalation of consumers demand, results in more indiscriminate harvest damaging both to
ecosystems and the biodiversity. As the demands for roots, rhizomes, whole plants, flowers and seeds are
high so are also the losses of the reproductive potentials of these plants. In view of the increasing demand
and decreasing reproduction, the protection of medicinal plants becomes imperative and top priority.
The Government of India therefore has taken up special strategies to conserve and to cultivate
medicinal plants. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) has a specialized institute,
Central Institute for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) in Lucknow, that deals with conservation,
cultivation, and processing technologies of endangered and commercial medicinal plants. This institute
has also established Gene Bank under G-15 GEBMAP programme. There are also several regional
research stations of the CSIR with similar working objectives.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) initiated an all India coordinated improvement
project on medicinal plants with number of centers in different agricultural universities with the objective
to develop agro-technology and to incorporate it into the farming systems. The Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India also supports projects in universities and institutes to establish conservatories and
nurseries of medicinal plants with the objective to conserve them and bring them under cultivation. The
Department of Biotechnology and the Department of Science & Technology, the Central Indian
Medicinal Plants Organization (CIMPO) was established by CSIR, New Delhi in 1957 which was later
shifted to National Botanical Research Institute campus, Lucknow and renamed as Central Institute of
Medical and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) in 1978. It is or full fledged CSIR institute in Lucknow with 7
sub-centers all over the country.
Domestication of plants involves extensive exploration and collection of the germplasm of a particular
species from the whole range of it’s distribution, quantitative and qualitative analysis of it’s active
principle from different sources of collection, multilocational trial of the species, recurrent selection and
breeding, establishment of seed orchard or clonal multiplication area, standardization of propagation
techniques, planting techniques and cultural practices, streamlining the production system and
devlopement of proper harvesting schedule.
An international border control is in illegal trading network involving Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan,
Myanmar and India, unregulated trade and over harvesting are a major threat to biodiversity and decline
in medicinal and aromatic plants of S.E. Asia.
Genetic Resources
National Gene Bank at National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) New Delhi was established
for safe conservation of germplasm of agri-horticultural crops followed by three exclusive gene banks for
medicinal and aromatic plants have been established at NBPGR; New Delhi, CIMAP, Lucknow and
TBGRI, Thiruvananthapuram; under G-15 group of countries programmes for safe and effective
conservations of medicinal and aromatic plants impetus genetic material for posterity.
The Andhra Pradesh Forest Department, has given impetus for scientific management and
conservation of the medicinal plants and several research and development activity have been setup at
Tirupati, Rajahmundary, Achutapuram, Warangal and Hyderabad (Mulugu) and medicinal gardens with
about 200-300 species each. Bhadrachalam, Seshachalam, Nagaram, Tirumala hills, Paderu, Srisailam
and Godavari forests are rich in numerous medicinal plants and traditionally the local tribes have
depended on these plants for curing common ailments and the ethnomedicinal knowledge has been passed
on from generations to generations. Chemical investigations of popular tribal medicines of A.P. is
urgently required which should also involve IPR, patent protection and rewarding the tribals for providing
the information. Value addition techniques for 61 commercially important medicinal plants of A.P. by
Sastry (2002) is timely and welcome addition for Pharma Bio industries. Recently swamy (1997) has
compiled data on conservation, cultivation and commercialisation of medicinal plants of Karnataka.
Mangroves as medicinals
Mangroves constitute an important wetland ecosystem in the intertidal, tropical and subtropical regions of
the world and represent considerable angiospermic flora; 66 genera and 114 species (Tomlinson, 1986).
The importance of mangroves in medicine has been recognized recently. Bandarnanayaka (2002) has
reviewed the traditional and medicinal uses as also biological activities of mangrove plant extracts. More
recently, Satyanarayana and Raman (2005) have reviewed the medicinal aspects of mangroves. Various
mangrove species Aegiceros, Avicennia, Lumnitzera and Rhizophora show antiviral, antifertility,
antitumor properties while Xylocarpus is known to be antifungal and antimalarial, Rhizophora spp also
show anti HIV, antielephantiasis and larvicidal properties. Similarly, the aquatic, arctic and desert plants
which represents considerable flora of various ecosystems have not been explored. Although they are
used as food fibre, feed, paper pulp, green manure (see Mohan Ram 1991). It is hoped that valuable
medicinal compounds from these plants will be discovered in near future. Rayl (1999) thought provoking
paper ‘Oceans: Medicines chest for the future? Is a mind blowing idea and needs deep thought worth
exploration.
Aromatic Plants
Aromatic Plants are characterized by pleasant noticeable smell due to the presence of volatile aromatic
oils; which may be present in any part of the plant; stem, root, wood, bark, leaf, inflorescence, glands,
fruits. Aromatic plants are widely distributed in several families. The chemical nature is due to complex
compounds. Aromatic oils are antibacteral, powerful germicides, used in perfumery food flavouring and
in various medicinal preparations. Over 60 essential oils are known and the plants commonly grown are
listed in Table 8.
In view of high economic returns and great demand in medicine, aromatherapy tradional Health and
Medicine; the Central and State Governments have setup Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Board to
Promote cultivation, trade, research and related aspects.
Table 8. Important aromatic plants and their active principle

Species Family Economic part Active principle
Acorus calamus Araceae rhizome Eugenol, calamine, p-asarone
Anethum graveolens Apiaceae seed Carvone
Artemisia pallens Asteraceae whole plant Davanone, davona furans
Artemisia pallens Asteraceae whole plant Cis & trans Davanone
Bursera penicillata Burseraceae fruit husk Linalool, geraniol, narol
C. flexuous “ “ “
C. martinii var. motia ” “ “
Cymbopogan winterianus Gramineae whole plant Methyl eugenol, eugenol
Eucalyphus citriodora Myrtaceae leaves Citroneellol, gernaniol
J. auriculatum “ “ “
Jasminum grandiflorm Oleaceae flowers Jasmone
Lavendula latifolia, L Lamiaceae leaves, flowers Lavendin, comphene
M. arvensis Lamiaceae whole plant Menthol, Menthone
M. spicata “ “ “
Marjorana hortensis Lamiaceae whole plant Lindool, Linalylatate
Mentha piperita, “ “ “
Ocimum camphora Lamiaceae whole plants Camphene
Pelargonium graveolens Geraniaceae Leaves/glands zdravetz oil from hairs
Polyanthus tuberosa Liliaceae leaves patcholulene, patchouli, alwhol,
linalool
Polyanthus tuberosa Liliaceae flowers Generoil, forvesol
Rosa damascena Rosaceae flowers Geranial, linalook, nerol
Rosemarinus officinalis Lamiaceae whole plants Pinine, cineol

Thymus vulgaris Lamiaceae whole plants Thynol, carvacrol
Vanilla fragrans Orchidaceae pod Vanillin
Vetiveria zizanioides Gramineae whole plants Vetiverone, Veticerol
Pollen as medicine and food

Hamilton (1853) first mentioned the indiscriminate use of pollen for numerous ailments of skin, nose,
throat, heart etc., while O’Shanghnessey (1841) described Lycopodium spores and its snuff and tincture as
diuretic and to cure urinary diseases. Use of Typha and Cycas pollen is sold as indigenous medicine for
its potential nutritional value in India and elsewhere (Nair, 1974; Schmidt and Chandler and Hawkins,
1985; Schmidt, 1984, and Buchanan and Schmidt, 1992). According to Witherall’s (1975) ‘Other
products of hive’: The Hive and The Honey Bee states ‘pollen can vary greatly in its nutritional content
from as low as 7% protein (Pinus) to over 30% Date palm). This book gives an account of pollen
collection, processing and its use in human diet. Buchanan and Schmidt (1992) state, “pollen is deficient
in several lipid soluble vitamins but surpasses in nutritional quality of any food eaten my man, thus pollen
is a potential food/nutritional supplement and available/sold as tablets.”
Pollen as nutraceutical energize the body, therefore, enhances athletic performance and regulate
digestion, boost immunity, help weight loss and fight cancer. It is also used for multiple sclerosis,
stomach ulcers. Bee pollen include buckwheat pollen, maize pollen, pine pollen, Pahuang, rape pollen,
Ginsing pollen with royal jelly and Typha pollen, Thus many varieties of pollen preparations, viz.,
tinctures, tablets for health and beauty aids (facial mask) are currently used in many parts of the world
especially by Shop Natural, Tuscon, Arizona, Star Stuff World, Australia. The subject of pollen as food
and medicine has been reviewed by Linsken and Jorde (1997).
With ever increasing population and decrease in forest land area of medicinal plants and ever
increasing demand at the national and international market, in vitro technology, appears safe and sound as
the alternative. The possibilities of using elicitors, bio transformations and gene transfer to enhance the
manurability of the technology and adding it to more spice and flavour. The future developments in this
up coming and fertile area will be paralleled by better understanding of the metabolic pathways and
control mechanisms that govern the biosynthesis of various secondary metabolities. This is dealt under
plant drugs.
Department of Indian Systems of Medicine and Homoeopathy of the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, Govt. of India has a Central Scheme for the Cultivation and Development of Medicinal plants in
which 46 species of Medicinal plants, have been identified for promoting their cultivation to help reduce
pressure on their natural habitat and also to meet the shortage in their demand by the industry involved in
producing the ISM and Homoeopathy medicines etc.
Drugs and Chemicals from Plants

Drug is a material that can alter the structure or function of the living organism. Organs may be of plants
or animals origin, and dried / frozen for preservation and are termed crude drugs. They may be used
medicinally in essentially this form, as in the case of cardiac drug, digitalis, or as source of mixtures or of
chemicals obtained by processes of extraction. Pepermint oil (by steam distillation), Podophyllum resin
(by percolation) and others can be acqous solutions. Exudations, like opium from poppy fruits, turpentine
from conifers etc.
The term drug and pharmaceutical are interchangeably used. The former means pharmacologically
active ingredient in a medical formulation. A pharmaceutical is a therapeutically active drug, that is, a
chemical substance that alters the structure or function of a living organism and cure or alleviate disease.
Since 1935 the pharmaceutical industry has become a large and profitable sector of the chemicals and
allied products industry. It is research intensive and competition exists frequently between patent
protected products by “molecular roulette”. This industry offers most prized possessions; good health,
issues of quality control and testing and safety of new drugs are of paramount importance. By value of
products, fermentation is the most important process since almost all antibiotics of fungal origin are
produced by this method. By tonnage, chemical synthesis is the most important as it provides majority of
heart drugs, anti-histamines analgesics, steroids and antiflammatory drugs.
Isolation and Characterisation of Active Principles

With the advent iof organic chemistry around 1850, studies on natural plant productios, isolation of active
principles from medicinal plants and their characterization. Large number of drugs from medicinal plants
were discovered and introduced in various modern pharmacopoeias during 1850 – 1950. Pharmaceutical
practice improved with the advent of printing technology in 16 th century and the first pharmocopia,
Dispensatorium byValarious Cardus containing list of drugs and chemicals with directions for making
standard medical preparations was published in Niirenberg, Germani in 1546 and became the official
standard. Number of standard pharmacopias are now in use in various countries; British pharmacopia
(BP), India pharmacopia (IP), Chinese Pharmacopia (CP), pharmacopia of United States (USP) etc. Most
of the pharmacopias contain hundreds of native medicinal plants and their uses. The Indian pharmacopia
(1966) recognises 85 plant drugs while the Chinese pharmacopia of traditional medicines (CPTM) lists
5700 plants. Some of the important crude plant drugs are belladonna (Atropa belladona), cascara
(Rhamnus purshina), digitalis (Digitalis purpurea), ipecae (Psychotria ipecacuanha), opium (Papaver
somniferum), rauvolfia (Rauvolfia sepentina and veraturm (Veratrum viride). More than hundred pure
compounds derived from higher plants are used in modern medicine and some of the traditional active
plant principles are atropine (Hyocyasmus muticus), codeine (Papaver somniferum), digoxin (Digitalis
lanata), pilocarpine (Pilocarpus jaborndi), quinidine and quinine (Cinchona spp) etc.
During the last few decades considerable advances have been made in the medicinal system all over
the world since plants continue to constitute one of the major raw materials for drugs for treating various
aliments. Because of the general awareness of the widespread toxicity and harmful after effects associated
with the prolong use of synthetic drugs and antibiotics, the people in the West prefer drugs from natural
sources rather than the synthetics. In USA and UK, the plant based drugs are being used substantially,
while Russia and China have adopted an integrated system of allopathic, traditional and folk system of
medicine.
Commercialization of Plants and Modern Medicine

Over 100 medicinal plants are in use in modern medicine and the traditional systems of medicine uses
more than 500 plants. Most of the raw material for traditional medicine for pharmaceutical houses is
collected from wild sources but many of the medicinal plants are cultivated commercially for extraction
of important active constituents. For steroidal hormones which are synthesized from diosgenin, hecogenin
and solasodine different species of Dioscorea, Solanum and Agave sp. are cultivated. Costus speciosus is
also a good source of diosgenin. Papaver somniferum is a source of different types of alkaloids, out of
which morphine, codeine, papaverine and nascopine are routinely used. Various species of Cinchona also
contain large number of alkaloids in the bark, and most important are quinine and quinidine. Different
species of Datura, Hyoscyamus, Atropa, Duboisia, Scopolia and Physochlaina contain tropane alkaloids
which include hyposcyamine, atropine and are routinely used. Rauvolfia serpentina, R.canescens and
R.vomitoria contain reserpine, resinamine and deserpidine. Catharanthus roseus has become most
important modern plant medicine as it contains more than 100 alkaloids of which ajmalicine is of great
importance. Leaves of this species also contain two more anticancer alkaloids viz., vincristine and
vinblasline. Cephaelis ipecacuanha and C. acuminata yield number of alkaloids of which emetine and
psychotrine are most important.
Table 9 is a list of plants with, their active principle and curative properties. In addition secondary
metabolites previously unknown as constituents in intact plants are also briefly summarised.
Table 9. In Vitro Productions of Herbal Drugs

Plant Name Herbal Drug Techniques used Uses
Rauvolfia Ajamalcine Hairy root culture Hypnotic, sedative,
serpentina induces uterine
contraction,
circulatory disorder,
reduces B.P
Ajmaline Cell suspension culture -- do --
Indole alkaloids Clonal propagation Sedative, insomnia
Raucaffricine Cell suspension culture Hypnotic, sedative,
circulatory disorders,
uterine contraction
Reserpine Hairy root culture Cardiac
Foeniculum Anethole Cell culture Stimulant, aromatic,
vulgare stomachic,
carminative
Morinda Anthraquinones Cell suspension culture Catharic, febrifuge
citrifolia
Rubia peregrina Anthraquinones Hairy root culture Carminative, diuretic
Catharanthus Ajamalcine Cell immobilization Diabetes, anticancer
roseus N-acetyl tryptamine Pythium -- do --
aphanidermatum
(Elicitor)
Indole alkaloids Hairy root culture Sedative, insomnia
Atropa Atropine Hairy root culture Sedative, anodyne,
belladona Anti-spasmodic
Azadirachta Azadirachtin Shoot and root culture Insecticide
indica Nimbin Shoots and roots Anti-fungal
Artemisia Artemisinin Shoot cultures Anti-malarial
annua Artemisinin Root culture Anti-malarial
Artemisia Terpenoid Cell suspension culture Anti-malarial
pallens
Coptis japonica Berberine Cell suspension culture Stomachic, atonic
dyspepsia
Mucuna 3-(3,4- Cell suspension culture Parkinson’s disease

pruriens Dihydroxyphenyl I) L-
alanine (L-DOPA)
Glycyrrhiza Glycyrrhizin Hairy root culture Expectorant,
glabra demulcent, laxative
Glycyrrhiza Glycyrrhizin Hairy root culture Sedative, narcotic
uralensis

Cephaelis Cephaeline Cell immobilization Emetic, amoebic,
ipecacuanha dysentery, expectorant
Emietine Cell immobilization Emetic, amoebic
dysentery, expectorant
Taxus X media Cephalo-mannine Callus culture Anti-cancer
var. Hatfieldii Paclitaxol Callus culture Anti-cancer
Taxus baccata Taxol Cell suspension culture Anti-cancer
Papaver Codeine Cell-culture Narcotic, sedative,
somniferum anti-spasmodic,
hypnotic, emetic
Morphine Cell culture Narcotic, sedative,
anti-spasmodic,
hypnotic, emetic
Sanguinarine Elicitor Botrytis spp. Anti-allergic,
used analgetic, anti-
inflammatory
Sonaquinarine Cell culture Narcotic, sedative,
anti-spasmodic,
hypnotic, emetic
Papaverine Cell culture -- do --
Datura candida Hyoscyamine Hairy root culture Narcotic, anti-
spasmodic
Hyosayamus Hyoscyamine Hairy root culture Sedative, insomnia
muticus
Coleus Forskolin Hairy root culture Cardiovascular
forskohlii disease, asthma,
carminative.
Eucommia Pinoresinol Shoot tip culture Anti-hypertnesive
ulmoides diglucoside
Dysosma Podophyllo toxin Somatic embryogenesis Anti-cancer
pleilntha
Cinchona Quinine Hairy root culture Febrifuge,anti-
ledgeriana malarial
Cinchona Quinine Cell immobilization Astringent,
pubescens carminative
Ruta graveolens Rutacridone Elicitor, S-adenosyl- Anthelmintic, anti-
Lmethionine spasmodic
Bupleurum Saikosaponin Root culture Anti-allergic,
falcatum analgesic anti-
inflammatory
Solanum Sapnin SC-1 Cell culture Anti-fungal
chrysotrchum
Solanum Solamargine Multiple shoot Diuretic, sedative
paludosum
Solanum Solasodine Batch suspension culture Cardiac stimulant
eleangifolium

Datura candida Scopalamine Hairy root culture Narcotic, anti-
spasmodic
Lithospermum Shikonin Cell suspension culture Diuretic, sedative

erythrorhizon Shikonin Hairy root culture Diuretic, sedative
Vitis vinifera Stilbene glucosides Cell culture Free radical scavenger
Valeriana Valpotriates actinidine Hairy root culture Anti-spasmodic,
officinalis stimulant, carminative
Vinca minor Vincamine Multiple shoot culture Carminative,
hypotensive,
astringent, diuretic
Swertia Xanthons Hairy root culture Febriguge, asthma,
japonica liver disorder
Data compiled from several sources. This list is incomplete.
Table 10. Market for important plant secondary products

Compound Use Estimated retail market ($US million)
Vinblastine/Vicristine Leukaemia 18-20 (USA)
Ajmaline Circulatory problems 5-25 (World)
Digitalin Heart disroders 20-55 (USA)
Quinine Malaria, flavour 5-10 (USA)
Codeine Sedative 50 (USA)
Jasmine Fragrance 0.5 (World)
Pyrethrins Insecticide 20 (World)
Spearmint Flavour, fragrance 85-90 (World)
Phytochemicals from plant cell cultures

Number of phytochemicals (secondary metabolities or neutral products) such as alkaloids, terpenoids,
steroids, anthocyanins, anthraquinones and polyphenols are used as drugs, food flavours, pigments,
perfumes and agrochemicals could potentially be obtained from cell culture. A unique feature of most of
the phytochemicals is that they are secondary metabolities of plant origin and unique to specific groups of
plants. In many cases they are highly tissue specific, for example ‘crocin’ and picrocrocin from ‘saffron’
are synthesized only in the stigmas of Crocus sativus. Many of these compounds have a complex
structure and stereospecificity and are difficult to synthesise. Efforts are being made to explore the
possibility of using cultured cells as the source of these valuable phytochemicals. Plant cell and tissue
culture techniques are of promise to agument the commercial production of different phytochemicals used
for human welfare. (Brodellus and Nilsson, 1983; Jayapaul et al, 2005)
Plant cells are totipotent, since all the necessary genetic and physiological potential for natural product
formation is present in an isolated cell (Zenk, 1978). According to him cultured cells obtained from any
part of a plant might be expected to yield secondary compounds similar to those of the plant grown in
vivo. Therefore, the exploration of tissue culture techniques in medicinal plants for the extraction of
important chemical compounds is never ending endeavour. The root, stem and leaves of regenerated
plants or the callus may be used fresh or dried as raw drugs, or different secondary metabolities may be
extracted from them. The following techniques are routinely used.
1. Biotransformation : This is a comparatively a recent technique for the commercial exploitation
of secondary metabolites from cell cultures. Production of valuable plant products by
biotransformation from inexpensive precursors that cannot be transformed effectively by
chemical or microbial methods for commercial application of plant tissue culture. The process of
biotransformation may be simple, where one or more enzymes with many steps mediate the
process. Single step biotransformation is comparatively efficient, as the yield decreases with
increase in steps. Natural or synthetic substrates are used for biotransformation. Example of such
biotransformation is the conversion of digitoxin digxin, a cardiac drug from cultured cells of
Digtalis lanata etc. (Fransen & Walton, 1999; Ravi Shankar and Ramachandra Rao, 2000)
2. Cell permeabilization : The problems of the production of herbal drugs is that the compounds
are stored intracellularly which renders the product recovery expensive. Permeabilization of cells
result in the release of the product. For example, when the cells of Catharanthus roseus were
subjected to a lone current for 18 hours, the rate of release of alkaloids almost doubled. Pre-
treatment of cells, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) further enhanced alkaloid production. (Brodelius
et al, 1979; Lindsey and Yeoman, 1987)
3. Cell immobilization : Capsaicin, an alkaloid used in pharmaceutical preparations as a digestive

stimulant and for rheumatic disorders has been produced in vitro using immobilized cells, freely
suspended cell cultures of Capsicum frutescens. Kim and Chaing (1990) showed enhanced
production of shikonin by the immobilized cell culture of Lithospermum erythrorhizon. Furuya
et al. (1984) reported transformation of codeninone to codeine using immobilized cell culture of
Papaver somniferum. (Brodelius et al 1979; Lindsey and Yeoman, 1987; Brodelius and Silsson,
1983)
4. Elicitation : Fungal extracts and certain chemicals have been used as elicitors of cells for the
production by feeding tryptophan to Cinchona succirubra suspension culture. Fungal extract was
used as elicitor in Papaver somniferum cell culture to induce enhanced secretion of sanguinarine
and 5-adenosyl methonine from Ruta graveolans. Similarly, addition of precursor secologanin
increased ajamaline production tenfolds in Rauvolfia serpentina (see Eilert et al, 1987; Braz et
al, 1988)
5. Hairy root cultures : Roots are excellent source of variety of natural products like tropane
alkaloids, cathranthus alkaloids, atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine and steroidal precursors.
Considerable attention has been given in recent years for obtaining secondary plant products by
hairy root culture technique. Over 15 plant families are known to produce major secondary
products in root cultures. The ability to exploit plant root cultures as a commercial source of
natural products depends on the development of a suitable bioreactor, which increases the ability
of plant root culture as a commercial source. (Flores et al, 1999; Subroto and Doran, 1994),
Hairy root cultures of medicinal plants is likely to be sure and viable option for the future.
Recently, attempts have been made to induce root tumours in plants using the bacteria Agrobacterium
rhizogenes that carries Ri plasmid which cause hairy root disease. Root tumours obtained in this way
grow rapidly in culture and have been found to be very useful for the production of phytochemicals. The
transformed roots are genetically stable and retain their biosynthetic activity for longer periods. The
growth in these roots is comparable to that of cell suspension and faster than that of normal roots. Genes
required for the expression of biosynthetic pathways can be transferred and expressed in hairy root
cultures.
A wide variety of compounds have been synthesized through the transformed or hairy root cultures.
The secondary metabolites produced from hairy root cultures exhibit several advantages over the cell
cultures such as 1) the relative ease of culturing, 2) simple media they require, 3) the genetic stability
4) rapid growth with greater accumulation of biomass in short period, 5) steady level of product synthesis
over a relatively long period and 6) the production of new compounds which are absent in cell cultures
but present in roots of intact plants. Genetic transformation of excised roots of Atropa belladonna with
Agrobacterium rhizogens caused increased production of tropanes in hairy roots. Shimomura et al (1991)
a hairy roots have been produced in the antitumor plant. Species (Euphorbia lathyris : Follansbee et al
1995) anti malarial drug producing plant. Artemisia annua (Weathers et al 1997), parasympathicolotics
drug producing Datura stramonium (Sikuli and Demeyer, 1997). The hairy roots of Rubia peregrine
contained double the amount of anthraquinones as compared to one year old field grown plants (Lodhi et
al 1996).
Neurotransmitters in plants
Roshcina (2001) in her book “Neurotransmitters in Plant Life” described the distribution of
neurotransmitters in various edible plants belonging to several families. She has discussed the medicinal
importance with reference to the presence of serotonin in species with a high content of certain
neurotransmitters that may be used in medicine and pharmacology as natural components of drugs
Catecholamines are present in Cactaecae and Mimosaceae and regulate blood pressure, vascular
contraction and their deficit leads to motile disturbances after cerebral stroke and intoxications,
Parkinson’s disease, psychic disorders such as schnizophrehia. Neurotransmitters are also known to
regulate embryonal development (Roschina 2001).
Nutraceuticals and Medicinal foods

Nutracenticals are food products based on nutrition and health and address major health areas,
osteoporosis, high blood pressure diabetes, gastrointestinal problems and diabetes. Neutraceuticals are
functional foods for ageing population and has created wellness revolution. Its global market is fast
growing; the world consumption is worth US$70 billion annually and the Indian share is just Rs. 16,000
crores. These are classified as follows:
1. Nutraceuticals without therapeutic claims to be regulated under food laws.
2. Nutraceuticals products with prophylactic diagnostic claims regulated under drug and cosmetic
Act.
Nutraceuticals (Nutrients and Pharmaceuticals) are food or part of food which provide medical or
health benefits including prevention and treatment of disease. Pharmaceutical companies are trying to
isolate components in foods, herbs plants, and supply as nutraceuticals in the form of tablets, liquids or
supplements. Calcium enriched drink may be termed as medicinal food, while beta-carotene rich capsules
from Spirulina are commonly used as nutraceutical. The term medicinal food also includes any modified
food or food ingredient that provide a health benefit beyond traditional nutrient, flavour or colour.
In U.S. the number of visits to allopathic centers are more or less static but number of visits to
alternative medicine practitioners has increased considerably. National survey conducted in Europe, U.K.
and Australia showed that alternative medicines are gaining popularity. During the year 1999, use of
alternative medicines rose to 10% in Denmark, 15% in Canada, 33% in Finland and 49% in Australia. In
developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, the corresponding figures are also high, although
data are not available.
Production of food additives such as pigments, flavours and fragrances is also an equally important
application of Plant Biotechnology. Cell cultures are being investigated in different laboratories all over
the world for the production of crocin, Betaxanthines, Bixin and Anthocyanins. Amongst the flavours and
fragrances, capsaicin and vanillin are commercially important. The global vanillin requirement is around
2000 metric ton of which only 20 metric ton is from the natural source. The consumer preference for
natural vanilla costs US $ 2500/kg as against synthetic vanillin US $ 5000/kg makes Vanilla a potential
plant for tissue cultures. Escagenetics Corpn, USA, have a patent for production of vanilla by plant cell
cultures (Angela Stafford, 1991). Cocao and Coffee aromas have similarly been produced by cell cultures.
Nutrilite is the leading nutrition and wellness company of the world and holds 61 patents on dietary
supplements alone which are fortified with carotene, flavonoids, quercetrin, minerals and several
phytofactors plant compounds and are used worldwide. Worldwide alternative medicines like
nutraceuticals, medicinal foods, dietary supplements, functional foods and health drinks are being
developed. Nutrition apart, certain foods may be better for health than others, while certain foods may be
good for the treatment of diseases. Only during second half of the last century serious attempts have been
made to evaluate scientifically the disease prevention and therapeutic effects of certain foods.
Indonesian herbal producs “Simplicia”
1. Prolipid (Cholestrol reducer);
2. Prourie (uric acid reducer),
3. biofibra (slimming and natural fibre) are popular and earn valuable foreign exchange from several
countries.
Value addition
India has large potential to process many valuable raw herbals into value added nutraceuticlas products.
Many of these products are popular in the West and a few examples are given. Garlic, (Allium sativum),
Allicin rich odourless capsules are used as antibacterial and rich in source. Soya, (Glycine max), health
drink, Isoflavone rich Soya capsules, milk is popular in USA as anticarcinogenic etc. and used elsewhere.
McGee (1988) has surveyed the use of spices and their medicinal properties around the world and
concluded that spices serve the adaptive purpose of reducing food borne diseases, act as antimicrobial
antioxidant and preservative. A whole range of plant-derived dietary supplements, phytochemicals and
pro-vitamins that assist in maintaining good health and combining disease are now being described as
functional foods and nutraceuticals.
Obesity has acquired epidemic proportions with fast food consumption by young and old is the major
cause of other related diseases. Health benefits of plant based diets are immense. It can prevent, retard or
reverse many life threatening diseases. Therefore slimming nutraceuticals are gaining importance. The
case of Boswellia (guggal) Garcinia cambogia, source of hydroxy citric acid (Guttifereae) and Opuntia
species are interesting as weight loss agents.
Opuntia dillenii, called Hoodia by South African hunters (Cactaceae) has novel pharmacological
properties enabling obesse person to loose weight. Hoodia attacks obesity and curbs appetite. This is
therefore considered as the ideal slimming remedy with no side effects. Hoodia Therefore is a powerful
nutritional supplement and antioxidant with radical severing activity, allergies, and acne. The active
compounds of Hoodia are: Opuntioside – 1, 4 ethoxyl – 6 - hydroxymethyl-alpha-pyrone & Kaempferol
7-0-beta-D-glucopyranosyl (1->4) beta –D-glucopyranoside The chemical molecule is commercially
called P 57. The Phytopharm company USA has 6 patents on this species. License to this drug was sold to
Biopharmacentical Company Phytopharm, inturn sold the development and marketing rights to Pfizer
Corporation, USA and purchased the drug for $ 21 million dollars.
Schizandra tetrandra (Menispermaceae) is yet another plant used for slimming preparations but often
Aristolochia fangchi (Aristolochiaceae) is used as adulterant which cotnains aristolochic acid which is
nephrotoxic and carcinogenic. Therefore care must be taken in using such anti slimming preparations.
Molecular Farming
Genetically modified plants including medicinal plants are the greatest gift to humanity and world
agriculture. GM plants tailored to produce phytochemicals, vaccines, recombinant proteins has now
become a reality and the non-medicinal plants will also become biofactories/bioreactor for producing safe
and cheap consumer friendly drugs; thanks to the modern era of functional genomics, proteomics,
metabolomics and bioinformatics. Molecular farming in plants has many practical, economic and safety
advantages over the conventional systems. The subject of molecular farming has been repeatedly
reviewed during the last 10 years in view of the exciting and new developments in Biopharma and for
economic gains (Goddijn and Pen, 1995; Hemming, 1995, Gidding, 2001, Commandeur, 2003; Richord
et al. 2003).
Tobacco has been established as a model transgenic system for molecular farming and most widely
used for pharmaceutical protein research with therapeutic and prophylactic applications. The commercial
success of plant derived avidin and glucuronidase at low cost from Sigma Co. USA is a testimony. Plants
might one day surpass other production systems for pharma proteins because of economic affordability,
safety benefits and scalability. The main aim of molecular farming is production of recombinant proteins
at high yields. To achieve this expression constructs design must optimize all stages of gene expression
from transcription to protein stability (Ma et al, 2003). There are over 100 recombinant proteins (Richord
et al, 2003) targeting leafy crops, cereal & legumes and vegetables & fruit crops. Table 11 reviews
medicinally useful products from transgnic non medicinal plants including Hirudu.
Medically related proteins is an area of great hope for recombinant proteins from plants for
diagnostics. These are classified as i) antibodies, immunoglobulins and engineered types such as sc Fvs
(Single chain antibodies. 2)Sub units vaccines (stable and transent expression systems) are basis upon
short peptide sequences that act as antigens rather than whole organism based vaccines. The main focus is
generation of edible cheap vaccines, and effective and easily administered that could provide mucosal
immunity against infectious agents causing deaths of millions of children. It is, therefore, necessary to
develop a practical edible form, a quantity of vaccine that will stimulate the gut associated lymphoid
tissue (GALT) system in the gut to generate secretary antibodies.
Despite considerable improvement in public health during the 20 th century, partly due to development of
vaccines, majority of children in developing 3 rd world countries especially Africa and Asia, 12 million
children under age of 5 die each year due to lack of proper vaccination facilities like cold storage during
transportation etc., against diptheria, polio, measles, tetanus and whooping cough. WHO advocated the
use of cheap vaccines that need no refrigeration. Such cheap vaccines are needed since they are the
primary tools in any health care programme. Either by low cost production of such antigens for
oral/mucosal route of immunization are the possible use of GM plants/their fruits as edible vaccines.
Various edible vaccines are being developed all over the world using wide variety of edible fruits,
vegetables. cereals etc employing rDNA technology and plant transformation methods coupled with
tissue and cell culture regeneration technology. Various Edible vaccines (are unusual, less expensive to
produce, safe, painless to administer) contain DNA frgarment from the original pathogens (measle virus).
These DNA fragments code for proteins which normally reside on the outside of the virus and provokes
the body immune response. An important feature of edible vaccine is their ability to induce mucosal
immunity, the secretion of antibodies in saliva, tears and breast milk and the secretions that bathe the
mucosal surfaces in the respiratory, gastrointestinal and genito urinary tracts. Most edible vaccines are for
gut pathogens like Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) which probably is the most important cause of persistent
viremia in human, causes hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma, Human Papilloma virus (HPV-II) and
Recombinant Virus like particle (VLPs)
With edible vaccines, the fruit/vegetable could be grown locally in small green houses cutting down
the transformation costs, salaries on medical staff etc. In addition, painless vaccination (since no needles
are required to administer) reducing thereby the risk of infection. Vaccination programme in poor
countries of Africa etc. would be to use crop plants for production of vaccine antigens. Immunization
could potentially be achieved by eating the product/by oral/mucosal/parenteral immunization. Whether
edible vaccine will be effective has been debated but edible vaccines are now-routinely used. However,
the following questions remain:
i) Whether edible vaccines will be effective/ how the antigens survive the hostile acidic
conditions of stomach?
ii) How to control the vaccine dose, oral tolerance etc?
iii) How to avoid naturation of candidate vaccine protein
iv) GM food will continue to encounter public resistance. Presently Mycogen Co., USA has the
exclusive license to develop edible vaccines for prevention of human/animal infectious
diseases. The diseases for which plant vaccines are produced briefly summarized below.
The advent of rDNA technology and plant transformation methods coupled with ability to regenerate
plants from single cells has made impossible the synthesis of antigens and autoantigens in edible plants.
Recent developments in plant biotechnology indicate that the production of mucosal vaccine in edible
plants for effective and inexpensive protection against infectious and autoimmune disease will soon be
feasible.
While traditional parenteral immunization methods generate a humoral immune response, they fail to
generate significant levels of mucosal immunity. Mucosal immune responses levels synthesized in the
plant were able to generate detectable antibody titers in immunized animals (Mason et al., 1992) and even
provide protection against pathogen challenge (Arakawa et al., 1997). These indicated that from
transgenic plants it is possible to product and delivery systems for providing protective immunization
against infectious diseases (Castannon et al., 1999).
Transgenic plants can produce foreign proteins almost 24 hours a day and could therefore be one of the
most inexpensive sources of antigen protein and potentially one of the cheapest sources of vaccine
proteins. Manipulation of antigen encoding genes at both the transcriptional and translational levels may
provide increased levels of recombinant protein antigens in transformed plants. The use of constitutively
expressed promoters, adjustment of codon usage to favour plant gene expression and removal of intron
sequences may fovour higher levels of antigen and autoantigen expression in plants (Mor et al., 1998; Ma
and Vine 1999).
About 35 biotechnology derived therapeutic and vaccines approved by the US, FDA for medical use
and over 500 additional drugs and vaccines by 150 companies are in various phases of clinical trials.
Biotechnology has also spurred growth in diagnostics and over 600 biotechnology based diagnostics are
now available in clinical practice.
It is estimated that by 2050 the anticipated population of the world would be 10 billion and plant based
vaccines via transgenic plants will be the most cheapest and affordable method and edible vaccines will
slowly begin to replace parenteral immunization in human and animals.
Table 11. Medicinally useful products from Transgenic plants
I. Pharmaceutical Vaccines produced in transgenic plants
Origin Plant Recombinant protein Remarks

Escherichia coli Tobacco Heat-labile First plant vaccine to reach
Enterotoxin B clinical trial stage
Vibrio cholerae Potato/ Tomato Chloera CtoxA and First vaccine candidate
CtoxB subunits expressed in chloroplast
Hepatitis B Tobacco/ Potato Envelope surface protein First vaccine candidate
expressed in plant derived
vaccine to reach clinical trial
stage
Norwalk virus Tobacco/ Potato Capsid protein Second plant vaccine to reach
clinical trial stage.
Rabies virus Tomato Glycoproteins First edible vaccine expressed in
plant tissue
Influenza virus Tobacco --- Flu
Diabetes auto Tobacco/Potato --- First plant derived vaccine for
antigen auto- iummune disease, oral
immune tolerance
II. Pharmaceutical Antibodies produced in transgenic plants
Application Antibody Plant Remarks

Immunoglobulins
Sreptocarpus mutans SA I/II sIgA (hybrid) Tobacco For Dental caries suitable for
topical immunotherapy.
S.mutans SA I/II IgG (guy’s 13) Tobacco For Dental caries suitable for
topical immunotherapy.
Surface antigen IgG Co17-IA Tobacco For colon cancer
Herpes simplex virus IgG (anti HSV-2) Soybean Therapeutic/topical use
Single-chain Fv
Malignant B Lymphoma scFv(38C13) Tobacco Therapeutic use
Carcinoembryonic Antigen scFvT84.66 Tobacco, For cancer, therapeutic/diagnostic
(CEA) Tomato
III. Biopharmaceuticals produced in transgenic plants

Recombinant
Plant Origin Remarks
protein
Protein C Tobacco Human Anticoagulant
Somatotrophin Tobacco/ Human Growth hormone, first human
Sunflower protein expressed in tobacco
chloroplast
-Interferon Tobacco/Rice/ Human Treatment for hepatitis B & C first
Turnip human pharmaceutical protein
produced in rice
Haemoglobin-α Tobacco Human Blood substitute
and- β
Homotrimeric Tobacco Human Collagen, first product of human
collagen structure protein polymer.
Lactoferrin Potato Human Antimicrobial
Hirudin Brassica napus Hirudo Anticoagulant peptide ~ 7KD.

(Canola) medicinalis Hirudin animal protein expressed as
fusion to oil body protein oleasin
Trichosanthin-α Tobacco Trichosanthes HIV therapy & cancer
kirilowii
Erythropoietin Tobacco Human First human protein produced in
tobacco suspension cells
Human secreted Tobacco Human Rhizosecretion (from roots)
alkaline
phosphate
Apotrinin, Tobacco Human First human pharmaceutical protein
Trypsin from maize
Enkephalin Arabidopsis Human Opiate
Data compiled from Carter et al. (2003); Ma et al. (2003); Richord et al. (2003); Daniell et al..(2001);
Gidding (2001); Giddings et al. (2000); Hitz (1999); Kusnadi et al.(1997) and Hemming (1995).
Antioxidants
Antioxidants are a heterogeneous groups of substances comprising vitamin C and E, betacarotenes,
Selenium and certain specific phytochemicals and over 100 food items have been analysed. Antioxidants
boost body immune system and reduce the effect of harmful and highly reactive oxygen free radicals
constantly generated within and outside the body by binding together with these harmful molecules,
decreasing their ill effects. Antioxidants also help repair already damaged cells and effectively counter,
age related degeneration of cataract to cancer, heart diseases to dementia.
In Ayurveda, ashtvarya (i.e., 8 herbs) is the herbal basis of rejuvenating formulations and drugs. Jivak
(Microstylis wallichii), Kakoli (Habenaria acuminata) and Ridhi varidhi (Habenaria intermedia),
(Handa, 1986). Other orcids used in Ayurveda are Jiwanti (Dendrobium alpestre), Salem (Orchis latiflia,
Eulophia campestris), Rasna (Acampe papillosa Vanda cristata) and shwethuli (Zeuxine stratematica).
According to Lawler (1984) orchids are used in folklore medicines to cure nervous rheumatic, dermal
respiratory, digestive and reproductive disorders. They are also used as aphrodisiac and as restorative
drugs (Arditi, 1992).
Certain antioxidant enzymes are produced within the body, the most common of these naturally
occurring antioxidants are Superoxide Dismutase, Catalase and Glutathione. Superoxide Dismutase
changes the structure of oxidants and breaks them down into hydrogen peroxide while Catalase breaks
down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. Glutathione is a detoxifying agent, which binds with
different toxins to change their form so that they are able to leave the body as waste. Antioxidant agents
found in foods, such as multi-coloured vegetables and fruits including dark green leafy vegetables are
packed with nutrients in their most potent forms and effectively cover the entire spectrum of various
vitamins (beta-carotenes), Selinium, minerals and fibers.
Antioxidants derived from plant based sources, such as fruits, nuts, oils and vegetables, are currently
generating a lot of interest and great deal of attention from researchers, because the various colouring
compounds that occur in plants. Beta-carotene present in green, yellow, orange and red vegetables and
fruits, is a dietary supplement and consumed for its potent antioxident properties reducing thereby the
risks of developming degenerative diseases associated with ageing like cataract, macular degeneration
arthritis, cardiovascular diseases and source of vitamin A. Haematococus astaxanthin which is a natural
and potential antioxident more powerful than vitamin C and E. It enhances immune systems, protects
from various cancers and suppresses inflammation. Vitamin C in fresh fruits especially citrus family.
Vitamin E in nut, seeds, wheatgerm. Lycopenes in tomatoes and watermelons; Leutins and Zeaxanthins in
dark leafy greens. Isothiocyanate in cabbage and Sulforaphane in broccoli. Isoflavones especially
Genistein in soybeans, a protective plant estrogen. Resveratrol in red grapes, pectin in apples. Flavonoids
in fruits and black tea, seed coots of various beans, polyphenols; especially, epigallocatechin gallate in
green tea. Phthalides in celery, allylic sulphides in garlic. Tannins in berries and green tea etc. Tannin
sorghum bran has high dietary fibre level and are outstanding source of antioxidant higher than
strawberries, plums, grapes, water melons, and oranges and are preferred for production of sorghum
beers, porridges etc.
Resveratrol, a natural product derived from muscadine grapes (Vitis rotundifolia) and roots of
Polygonum cuspidatum, peanuts, lilies and pine has long been used an important Ayurvedic medicine
(Darakchasava) and Chinese medicine (ko-jo-kon). It is a natural plant antibiotic (Phytoalexin) and
confers disease resistance in plants and posses potent naturally occurring phenolic antioxidant properties
and effective against damaging free radicals and reduces the risk of blood clot, high blood pressure,
various degenrative diseases, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, withand neoplastic activity. Chemically
resveratrol is a mixture of cis and trans elements of stilbene glucosides, polydasin and various forms of
dimers, trimers and tetramers of viniferin. Further, the trans form of resveratrol molecule is the only
naturally occurring form in nature (Bagchi, 2000).
Carotenoids are a diverse class of red, orange and yellow pigments that are important as
pharmaceuticals, feed supplements, food colourants and nutrional supplements. As nutritional agents
carotenoids serve as precursors to vitamin A. As antioxidants they are purported to have roles in
protecting cardiovascular disease etc. Their colourant and antioxidant activities are related to the number
and location of conjugated double bonds within their structure, cyclization of the ends of the molecules
and their modification by oxygen-containing R groups such as hydroxyl keto, and epoxy groups.
The first committed step in carotenoid biosynthesis is the condensation of two geranyl-geranyl
pyrophosphate (GGPP) molecules to form the C40 backbone (phytoene). Phytoene desaturases from
bacteria can introduce four double bonds to yield the red carotenoid, lycopene, on the otherhand plants
utilize two desaturese enzymes on complete this conversion. Lycopene cyclases introduce beta epsilon
rings to form the various carotenes. Albrect et al. (2000) have been able to produce novel carotenoids,
exhibiting improved activities in bacterium E.coli by introducing various carotenoid biosynthesis genes.
DNA shuffling has been used to create novel compounds like nutraceuticals/Pharmaceuticals, enzymes
like phytoene, desaturase are involved in beta-carotene biosynthesis pathway were shuffled resulting in
the evolution of one enzyme in a lycopene derivative that showed enhanced antioxidant activity. This was
accomphlished from Erwinia herbicola and Erwinia uredovora bacterial genes by one round of DNA
shuffling that resulted in a library of phytoene desaturase variants and their ability to synthesize
carotenoids of varying colours. One such synthesized gene variant with 6 introduced double bonds is
3,4,3’,4’-tetradehydrolycopene (torulene), a novel carotenoid not known to occur in nature and has
greater antioxidant activity than lycopene. It is thus possible to create carotenoids that have greater
antioxidant activity not found in nature, suggesting that molecular evolution holds the promise of creating
improved nutraceuticals. Tripathi has discussed the medicinal plants and antioxidants extensively (this
volume).
Preliminary experiments suggest the possibility of using directed molecular evolution to increase the
specific activities of certain enzymes in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway and to raise the levels of bet-
carotene in golden rice. Because traditional breeding methods have been unsuccessful in producing crops
containing a high vitamin A concentration and most national authorities rely on expensive and
complicated supplmentation programs to address the problem. Researchers have introduced three new
genes into rice: two from daffodils and one froma micro-organism. The transgenic golden rice exihibits
an increased production of beta-carotene as a pre-cursor to vitamin A and the seed is yellow in colour.
Such yellow or golden rice may be useful tool to help the problem of Vitamin A deficiency in young
children of tropics that causes partial/total blindness each year. (Stemmer, 1994; Conway and Toennissen
1999; Ye et al 2000). Golden Rice promises to solve Asias Vitamin A deficiency problem in an effective,
inexpensive and sustainable manner.
Dermaceuticals, beauty oriented therapeuticals are basically skin tissue regenerators, the widely used
are anti-age creams and anti-wrinkling agents moisturisers, facial cleansers facial packs and are fairly
popular in national and international market and are derived from algal as well as higher plants plant
extracts that are rich in minerals and the vitamin B group. There is a wide range of dermaceuticals from
several firms ; Skincare products, skin creams, skin tonics etc., derived from medicinal plants. It is
estimated that over 1400 herbal preparations including variety of herbal extracts are widely sold and used
in several European Asian and other countries. Export potential of Dermaceuticals, Rice bran oil is a
proven nutraceutical and good antioxidant consumed for its antilipidic property and used in cosmetics.
processed scientifically from herbals species grown by organic farming provided the active chemical
constituents and shelf life of products are assessed by standard precision methods like HPLC, GC-MS and
AAS for quality control etc. Several scientific Institutions like CFTRI, CIMAP, RRL at various centres,
IICT, Agricultural Universities, Home science departments and Universities are engaged in this type of
work which includes processing and transfer of technology.
Several Ayurvedic companies like Zandu, Dabur, Baidyanath, Ranbaxy, Himalaya through Research
and Development are engaged in the manufacture and export of their herbal products and earning good
foreign exchange.
Intellectual property rights and medicinal plants have been discussed by Nageshwar Rao,
Krishnamurthy (this volume) and by Bhattacharya (2004), therefore no attempt will be made to duplicate
the account. One hundred plants used in Ayurveda have been patened abroad about 80 patents have been
granted on new plants alone. Of the 16000 plants mentioned in Ayurveda only few patents are with India
while China has 45% and Japan 20% herbal patents. Phyllanthus amarus (Bhumiamalaki) was widely
used for jaundice in South India but not used now. A Nobel Laureate recently claimed a patent on the
aquous extract of the whole plant for Hepatitis B & C.
(Bodeker et al, 2005) have discussed the patents of traditional medicines in India.
According to Mathela (2005c) there is less comparatively information on agrotechnology of many
medicinal and aromatic plants in general and high altitude plants in particular and their quality control, as
also their commercial utilization.
Further he rightly pointed the following deficiencies in the Indian context which require serious
thinking.
1. The technological gaps on Indian share of export in M & AP is low because of lack of standardi-
sation of active ingredients and verification of ingredients in their formulation
2. There is lack of marketing management and price structure and this makes the medicinal plant
trade less attractive.
3. There is lack of data on consumer analysis and price fixation police.
4. There is lack of awareness on IPR and patenting among the growers of M & AP in India.
5. India should be partner in international trade of M & AP, with awareness of International Laws
and its impact of WTO, GATT, TRIPS, IPR, etc.
Websites on Herbal Medicine

With the revival of interest in medicinal plants coupled with the spectacular developments in information
technology there is an explosion in the range and content of electronic information on medicinal plants as
a re-emergent health aid. Bhat (1997) and Rajpal (2004) have recently reviewed such information in
traditional abstracting services as well as in variety of online electronic databases. As a result, access to
indigenous peoples and cultures concerning medicinal plants are greatly facilitated. Further with the
active participation of natural custodians and practitioners of valuable knowledge on plants is guaranteed
in generating useful research data with the focus on screening and isolation of bioactive principles and the
development of new drugs. The Ayurvedic database in classical texts can be profitably used for
bioprospecting and new drug discovery. Similar databases on wide range of topics like biodiversity
processing technology, agrotechnology etc of M & AP is required from various parts of India. The NBRI,
Lucknow has catalogued over 10,000 medicinal plants and about 200 plants are said to have been
investigated.
CSIR has prepared a traditional knowledge digital library TKDL of over 35,000 herbal formulations
while.
The important Website from India and abroad are listed below.
Database of Ayurvedic http://www.pharm.uu.nl/home/smit/database.htm
Properties
Ayurvedic Foundations http://www.ayur.com
INMEDPLAN Ayurvedic http://cpmcnet.columbia.edu/dept/rosenthal/database/Trad
databaes, India Med_INMEDPLAN.html
Unani Medicine http://www.unani.com/research.htm
Chinese Herbs http://www.herb.com.tw/ENGLISH/HERB_EX/Pin2htm#d
Tibetian Medicine http://www.tibetan_medicine.org
European Scientific http://www.escop.com
Cooperative on Phytomedicine
(ESCOP)
The Phytochemical Society of http://www.dmu.ac.uk/in/pse
Europe
The American Society of http://www.phcog.org

Pharmacognosy
The American Herbal http://www.herbal-ahp.org
Pharmacopoeia
The British Herbal Medical http://info.ex.ac.uk/phytonet/bhma
Association
Society for Medicinal Plant http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de/www/ga/
Research
Medicinal and Aromatic http://www.ics.trieste.it/webservices/databases/mapsdb.htm
American Indian Ethnobotany http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
Database
Department of Agriculture, http://probe.nalusda.gov:8000/related/aboutethnobotdb.html
Ethnobotany database
American Herbalists Guild http://www.healthy.net.herbalists
Native American http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
Enthnobotany Database
Ethnobotany Research http://www.Nal.usda.gov/afsic/afsic_pubs/qb93-02
Citations
Centre for International http://www.cieer.org/directory
Ethnomedicinal Education and
Research
Ethnomedicinals for Research http://walden.mo.net/~tonytork
and development
Phytochemical and http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke
Ethnobotanical Database
Medicinal Plants database http://www.Ejb.org/content/vol2/issue2/full/2/
Medline Plus http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/herbalmedicinal
Medicinal Seeds http://www.datasync.com/sbe/medicine
Medicinal Plants information http://www.medicinalplantinfo.com
Centre
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Medicinal Plant Search Engine http://www.healthlink.com.au/nat_lib/lib_srch2.html
HerbMed http://www.herbmed.org
Health Notes http://www.healthnotes.com
Herbal Hall http://www.herb.com/herbal.htm
HerbNET http://www.herbnet.com
Herb Research Foundation http://www.sunsite.unc.edu/herbs
Herb Society of America http://www.herbsociety.org
Herb Society (UK) http://www.sunsite.unc.edu/herbmed/HerbSociety
Henriette’s Herbal http://www.herbsociety.co.uk
http://www.ibiblio.org/herbmed
Medherb.com http://www.medherb.com
The National Herb Centre http://www.herbcentre.co.uk
Herb research Foundation http://www.sunsite.unc.edu/herbs/hrfinto.html
Colorado, USA
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Natural Products
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Network
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Medicinal & Aromatic Plants
According to Bhattachargy (2004) the focus of future studies on Indian medicinal plants and the
improvement of medicinal crop industry, should be broad based and along the following lines. These may
be briefly summed up:
The focus of future studies on Indian medicinal plants and on the improvement of medicinal crop
industry, preferable keeping the views along the following lines as suggested by Bhattacharya, (2004)
may be briefly summed up:
i. Floral biology of seed propagated medicinal plants, an area which is considered as old fashioned
but very relevant in the present context since protocols fo germination, multiplication and
reproductive biologi are not known.
ii. Standardization of optimum conditions required for germination of seeds of various species
iii. Commercial cultivation of suitable medicinal species to meet the demands of industry.
iv. Use of tissue culture technology for large scale multiplication of commercially important and
rare plants to meet the demands of industry
v. Morphological variation and ecological adaptations of medicinal plants from seedlings to harvest
stage to find out the stage when the active principle content is maximum / optimum.
vi. Ecological factors influencing growth and active principle content of plants under different
altitudes and climates, selecting elite population of high altitude taxa.
vii. Effect of trace elements, plant protection chemicals, organic and inorganic manures on the
variation of active principle content of medicinal plants.
viii. Pathological investigations of controlling diseases of various medicinal plants.
ix. Collection, curing, drying and storage of various plant parts to find out the optimum conditions
under which the highest active principles may be obtained.
x. Improvement of medicinal plants by hybridization or by mutation through chemical and physical
mutagens.
xi. Genetic manipulation of medicinal plants using various plasmids and other genetic
biotechnologies including molecular genetic techniques.
xii. Chemical studies, bioactivity, toxicology and teratology.
xiii. Drug information, their clinical evaluation, new dose forms, quality control, standardization and
stabilization of manufacturing process and
xiv. Market research and feasibility studies in all Indian system of medicines.
In addition, Mathela (2005c) recently has stressed for the neet of a national policy on medicinal plants.
The salient features are:
1. M & AP are an important sector for improving rural economy and subsistence health needs
while conserving the ecosystem and biodiversity.
2. Local communities need support and encouragement to protect their medicinal plant resources.
(especially endangered) For this adequate protection, policies and legislation by government is
necessary.
3. There is scope for starking small scale units for the manufacture of semi processed products
based on local resources.
4. Bioresources have tremendous potential for new pharmaceuticals/new biomolecules for
innovative utilization. Data on suitable pheno-stage and habitat for maximising the
concentration of active constituents in plants in also lacking.
5. Need for development of rural areas for rural employment for marginal farmers and for their
families is important.
6. Need to introduce exotic species having high demand in global market.
7. Bring more forest land under cultivation for species on the verge of extinction because of over
exploiation and population pressure.
8. Need for integrated approach involving various departments and organisations to develop on
integrated plan for conservation, cultivation, and sustainable utilization.
Quantitative testing of plants is difficult due to the complex nature of the active constituents of the
botanicals found in wild and cultivated plants in various parts of the world. According to Rajpal (2004)
there are no special quantitative assessments available for active ingredients for most of the medicinal
herbs and the information is limited to few plants only and very few books deal with quantitative testing
of medicinal herbs. Rajpal’s (2004) book on Standardisation of Botanicals’ is a welcome addition
direction, as this deals with many aspects currently not covered elsewhere. Earlier Shastry (2002) brought
out value addition techniques for 61 commercially important medicinal plants of AP.
Plant Medicines and Future

Artemisinin is the recent antimalarial drug developed from traditional plant based medicine and is
isolated from the leaves and flowers of Artemisia annua indigenous to China and Vietnam. Its active
component, artemisinin, was first isolated in the 1970’s by Chinese scientists. Artemisinin is an
endoperoxide of the sesquiterpene lactone whose chemical structure is complex to be synthesized. Unlike
quinine and chloroquine, artemisinin is non-toxic, rapid in effect and is effective against chloroquine -
resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria and in patients with cerebral malaria. It kills the parasites
directly so that parasitaemia is quickly controlled. This work was confirmed by the WHO in African and
other parts of South East Asia. The WHO and USA are jointly engaged in the cultivation of Chinese
Artemisia for worldwide use. This development offers renewed hope for using traditional medicine to
provide new drugs for future medicines. Recently, American workers have synthesized a compound caled
OZ277 (Oz). Similar to artemisinin and Ranbaxy Pharmaceuticals has safely conducted phase I trials. Bill
and Melinda Gates Foundation have recently sanctioned grants up to US $40 million to genetically
engineer a bacterium that can metabolise precursor to artemisinium. WHO recommends that artemisinin
compounds like artemether/artesunate be used with a second drug called ABT, i.e. Artemisinin based
combination therapy. The Genera based non-profit organisation, “Medicines for Malaria Venture”
(MMV) is doing good work in this direction.
Taxol approved by USFDA in 1992, and semisynthetic taxal approved in 1995 is also used in
antileukaemic and antitumour agent isolated from the bark of Taxus brevifolia found in the US, Japan, etc
Taxol is an alkaloid with a complex ring structure and its anticancer activity, was first observed 25 years
ago. Recently, there has been renewed interest in this compound; since and currently under going phase II
clinical trials for breast cancer and lung cancer. Clinical development of taxol is unfortunately limited by
a shortage of Taxus bark and low yield of taxol. In view of its effectiveness Taxus has become the most
precious medicinal plant, in great demand all over the world. Apart from Taxus several plants have been
shown to be anticancerous and require intensive work. (see Table 1). Rastogi and Dhawan (1990) have
experimentally demonstrated the antiviral and anticancerous properties of Vanda parviflora Cymbidium
giganteum species of Orchidaceae.
During the past few years, many traditional medicinal plants have been studied for their antiviral,
anticancer and other drug activities. Their isolation, purification and characterisation of a new class of
anti-HIV proteins from several unrelated species of plant, has been demonstrated. These proteins
molecular weights ranging from 29,000-32,000 daltons, consisting of 260-280 amino acids. are unique in
that they not only inhibit acute infection of new cells by the AIDS virus, but also block its replication in
the already infected cells. In addition, they are not toxic to normal human cells. All these anti-HIV agents
are proteins with molecular weights ranging from 29,000 - 32,000 daltons, consisting of 260 - 280 amino
acids. The amino acid sequences of these proteins have been partially determined, some of these are
glycoproteins that contain varying amounts of glucose, mannose, xylose, fucose and glycosamine.
Trichosanthes Kirlowii rout tubers are also used not only to cure trophoblastic tumors but has been used
to induce labour in childbirth since 1596 in Chinese traditional medicine (see Huang et al, 1992). It has a
ribosome ribosome in activating protein which inhibits tumor growth and the immune response have been
engineered in Nicotiana benthamiana using a viral RNA based transfection system Sing et al. (2005)
have recently reviewed natural anti HIV products. The need of hour is the search for cheap plant based
effective anti-HIV therapies; inactivating protein which inihibits tumor growth and the immune response
have been engineered in The details are summarised in Table 12.
Table 12 Physicochemical properties of anti-HIV proteins (from Huang et al, 1972)

Name Anti- Carbo- Mol. Wt. Use
HIV/ hydrat
AIDS es
agents
Momardica charantia MAP 30 - 30,000 Antiviral & anti tumor
Trichosanthes kirilowii TAP 29 - 29,000 Antiviral & anti tumor
Gelonium multiflorum GAP 31 + 31,000 Antiviral & anti infection
Dianthus caryophyllus DAP 32 + 32,000 Antivaral (herpes) and
Dianthus caryophyllus DAP 30 + 30,000 Palio virus
Recent advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have significantly improved the production
of many protein and polypeptide drugs by genetic engineering. However, in the case of most plant-
derived medicines, the application of these techniques is limited because many of the plant components
are not proteins but they are secondary metabolites, whose biosynthesis involves complex pathways using
multiple enzymes, many of which have yet to be identified and characterised. Genetic engineering of
these secondary metabolic drugs is currently a difficult task. Thus, plants or plant cell cultures will
continue to be the primary source for the production of the plant drugs. Molecular cloning of their genes
and recombinant production of these proteins is now feasible and the application of these biotechnologies
could ensure sufficient supply of the anti-HIV agents not only for pre-clinical tests but for the design and
development of effective second generation drugs. Plant bdiotechnology thus offers immense potential
and opportunities via transgenic technology.
It is thus obvious that there is a wealth of potential medicines in plants that scientists have only just
begun to realise. The study of plants used in traditional medicine in various cultures has yielded important
drugs that are critical to modern medicine. While new compounds are being rediscovered in medicinal
plants, one can only wonder about potential drugs that have not yet been discovered. The plants thus
holds the key that will unlock the secrets to many other important potent drugs. We must use our wisdom
and foresight to preserve and protect these precious plant resources for the present and future generations.
C., Linnaeus 16th century Swedish botanist rightly observed, “Herbs and plants are medical jewels gracing
the woods, fields, and lanes, which few eyes see, and few minds understand. Through this want of
observation and knowledge, the world suffers immense loss” (cited by Chopra and Simon, 2000). Further,
as stated by Adjanohoun, (1996). “The biodiversity of the tropical regions of the world at large may be
well exploited more particularly for a wide range of pharmaceutical industries”.
Studies on medicinal plants is an on going human endeavour for their natural, bioactive compounds
and their isolation will continue to play pivotal role for centuries to come not only for their commercial
exploitation, utilization as drugs and allied products but for better health of human beings the world over.
Mankinds quest for better medicines (bioprospection for bio-molecules of therapeutic value) will
continue; since todays medicines finance tomorrows miracles. Further, pharma companies linked
innovation is directly linked to its revenue. Judging by the current trends it is estimated that by 2050,
plant based drugs will have a market potential of US $5 trillion.
Drugs/Medicine derived from fungi and lichens need passing mention. At least 80% of antibiotics in
use today are derived from actinomycetes. Pencillin (Pencillium), Ergot alkaloids from Claviceps are
widely used. Over 20 alkaloids from Claviceps are known of which ergotamine, ergometrine and
ergotoxine are used in treatment of migraine and others diseases not to mention the production of so many
antibiotics. Lichens have a long history of herbal medicine. Several antifungal and antibacterial
compounds and about 350 secondary metabolites contain pharmacologically active compounds.
Richardson (1998).
During the last 25 years there has been a rapid evolution and resurgence in research on medicinal
plants as a result of advance vareity in research methodologies like HPLC, LC/UC/LC/MS, LC/NMR,
new bioassay new screening programmes for the extraction, detection, identification and quantification,
therapentic functions, pharmacological and biological properties of active compounds from crude extracts
of medicinal plants. To conclude, we reproduce the following from of Itostettman and Marston (2002)
which are self explanatory, “The most effective strategy is to perform multidisciplinary work on the
development of drugs from plants, a task that can only be effectively tackled by collaboration between
botanist, ethnobotanists, pharmacognist, phytochemists, biologists, pharmacologists and medical doctor”.
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Advances in Medicinal Plants

Medicinal Plants: An Overview

Bir Bahadur, K. Janardhan Reddy1 and MLN Rao2

Keywords: Medicinal Plants ; an Overview ; past, present and future prospects

Characteristics of medicinal plants

Phyllanthus acuminatus Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthoside

Indian Medicinal Flora

Threatened Medicinal Plants

Celastrus pariculator Celestraceae Nearly threatened

Trade of Medicinal Plants

Table 4. Medicinal plant exported by India

Table 5. Medicinal plants imported by India

Table 6. Raw materials imported by India to supplement indigenous production.

Conservation of Medicinal Plants

National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB)

Transgenic Medicinal Plants

Table 7. Transgenic Medicinal Plants

Indian Drug and Pharmaceutical Industry

Protection, Conservation and Biodiversity

Table 8. Important aromatic plants and their active principle

Rosemarinus officinalis Lamiaceae whole plants Pinine, cineol

Pollen as medicine and food

Drugs and Chemicals from Plants

Isolation and Characterisation of Active Principles

Commercialization of Plants and Modern Medicine

Table 9. In Vitro Productions of Herbal Drugs

Mucuna 3-(3,4- Cell suspension culture Parkinson’s disease

Plant Name Herbal Drug Techniques used Uses

Plant Name Herbal Drug Techniques used Uses

Lithospermum Shikonin Cell suspension culture Diuretic, sedative

Table 10. Market for important plant secondary products

Phytochemicals from plant cell cultures

3. Cell immobilization : Capsaicin, an alkaloid used in pharmaceutical preparations as a digestive

Nutraceuticals and Medicinal foods

Table 11. Medicinally useful products from Transgenic plants

I. Pharmaceutical Vaccines produced in transgenic plants

Origin Plant Recombinant protein Remarks

II. Pharmaceutical Antibodies produced in transgenic plants

Application Antibody Plant Remarks

III. Biopharmaceuticals produced in transgenic plants

Hirudin Brassica napus Hirudo Anticoagulant peptide ~ 7KD.

Websites on Herbal Medicine

The American Society of http://www.phcog.org

Plant Medicines and Future

Table 12 Physicochemical properties of anti-HIV proteins (from Huang et al, 1972)

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