BiblioAsia-14 01

biblioasia Vol.
14
A P R –J U N 2 018
Issue
01
10 / Lee Brothers Studio 18 / Secret War Experiments 24 / Malayan Mata Hari
36 / Chinese Renaissance Architecture 44 / Rani of Jhansi Regiment 50 / Four National Taps
The Truth About

Miss Joaquim
and her Orchid p. 2
CONTENTS Vol. 14 / Issue 01
BiblioAsia
APR–JUN 2018
Director’s Note
The proliferation of fake news isn’t a recent phenomenon. Fictitious accounts of how Agnes
Editorial &
Production
Managing Editor
Joaquim stumbled upon her namesake orchid in her garden began circulating several
FEATURE
Francis Dorai
decades after she was credited for creating the hybrid by crossing two orchid species.
Writers Nadia Wright, Linda Locke and Harold Johnson separate fact from fiction in their Editor
Veronica Chee
search for the truth.
02Blooming Lies: The Vanda
Miss Joaquim Story
Similarly, not enough people know that Singapore was a base for nefarious experi-
ments in biological warfare during the Japanese Occupation. Between 1942 and 1945, a
Editorial Support
Masamah Ahmad
laboratory was set up to breed bubonic plague-infected fleas and other deadly pathogens Jocelyn Lau
10Portraits from the

Lee Brothers Studio
for use as biological weapons. Cheong Suk-Wai finds out more from Singaporean war
history researcher Lim Shao Bin.
Covert operations is also the subject of Ronnie Tan’s essay, as he recounts the fascinat-
Design and Print
Oxygen Studio Designs
18
Pte Ltd
18Secret War Experiments

in Singapore 02 10 ing story of Lee Meng, a Malayan Communist Party agent who headed its network of secret
couriers during the Emergency and the elaborate efforts hatched to trap her. Against this
same backdrop of anti-British sentiment, Meira Chand pays tribute to the Rani of Jhansi
Contributors
Barbara Quek
Cheong Suk-Wai
24Hunting Down the Regiment. These intrepid women soldiers were recruited by Indian freedom fighter Subhas
Chua Chee Lay
Malayan Mata Hari Chandra Bose during the Japanese Occupation in Singapore to fight for independence in Gretchen Liu
the motherland. Harold Johnson
Singapore’s quest for water began when Stamford Raffles ordered his troops to dig a
30
Julian Davison
St John’s Island: From
well when he landed in Singapore on 29 January 1819. Just a day earlier, his fleet of ships Lim Tin Seng
Gateway to Getaway Linda Locke
had docked at St John’s Island. Lim Tin Seng tells us how far the nation has come in its
Lu Wenshi
quest for water, while Marcus Ng documents the history of St John’s Island – a corrup-
36Chinese Renaissance Marcus Ng
tion of its early Malay name, Pulau Sekijang, or “barking deer island’. At various times St Meira Chand
Architecture John’s has been used as a quarantine, opium treatment and detention centre, and, today, Nadia Wright
as a recreational spot. Ronnie Tan
44Warrior Women: The

Rani of Jhansi Regiment 30 Chinese Renaissance architecture originated in China in the 1900s and later sank its
roots in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore. Julian Davison charts the history of this archi- Please direct all
correspondence to:
tectural style and provides shining examples of Chinese Renaissance buildings in Singapore. National Library Board
50Four Taps: The Story

of Singapore Water
Still on the subject of Chinese heritage, Chua Chee Lay provides valuable lessons gleaned
from the teaching of Classical and Modern Chinese in China and Taiwan.
The Lee Brothers Studio Collection of some 2,500 images forms the largest single
100 Victoria Street #14-01
National Library Building
Singapore 188064
collection of photographic portraits in the National Archives of Singapore. Gretchen Liu Email: ref@nlb.gov.sg
58文言与白话的抗争与磨合：
近代华文教学语体的
蜕变历程
recalls the glory days of Lee Brothers Studio, a prominent landmark on Hill Street before
World War II.
Website: www.nlb.gov.sg
On the cover:
One of the statutory functions of the National Library is Legal Deposit, which mandates Portrait of Agnes Joaquim
that two copies of every work published in Singapore must be deposited with the library. and a colourised rendition
Barbara Quek showcases a selection of first issues of magazines and journals from the of the original drawing of
the Vanda Miss Joaquim as
24 36 44
Legal Deposit Collection – many of which have ceased publication. featured in the 26 June 1897
Finally, Lu Wenshi interviews Eric Khoo and finds out what inspired his latest film, issue of The Gardeners’
Ramen Teh – scenes of which were shot at the Former Ford Factory in Bukit Timah. Chronicle.
We hope you enjoy reading this edition of BiblioAsia.
Errata:
In the article, “Living it up
at the Capitol”, published
in BiblioAsia, Vol. 13, Iss. 4,
we incorrectly stated that
the construction cost of
Mrs Wai Yin Pryke Capitol Theatre and Namazie
Director Mansions was 1,250 Straits
National Library dollars when it should have
been 1.25 million Straits
dollars. The online edition has
50 58 been revised. We apologise

for the error.
All rights reserved.
NL NOTES National Library Board,

Singapore, 2018.
ISSN 0219-8126 (print)

ISSN 1793-9968 (online)
60Ramen Teh: Food, War

and Memory
BiblioAsia is a free quarterly publication produced by the National Library Board.
The views of writers and contribu-
tors do not reflect the views of the
Publisher. No part of this publica-
tion may be reproduced in any form
It features articles on the history, culture and heritage of Singapore within the larger
62First Issues: Publications
from the Past Asian context, and has a strong focus on the collections and services of the National
or by any means without prior writ-
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62
and copyright owner(s).
60 Library. BiblioAsia is distributed to local and international libraries, academic institutions,

government ministries and agencies, as well as members of the public. The online
Whilst reasonable care has been
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legal liabilities whatsoever for the
contents of this magazine.
BIBLIOASIA APR – JUN 2018 Vol. 14 / Issue 01 / Feature
Nadia Wright, a historian, Linda Locke, a Joaquim.2 Intrigued as to why Ridley’s In an 1894 paper delivered to the
great grand-niece of Agnes Joaquim, and account had been replaced by a tale prestigious Linnean Society in England,
Harold Johnson, an orchid enthusiast, of chance discovery in various stories Ridley reiterated that Vanda Hookeriana
collaborated in this historiography of about the flower in Singapore, Wright had been “successfully crossed” with V.
Singapore’s national flower, the Vanda Miss decided to investigate. teres, Lindl., “producing a remarkably
Joaquim. Locke is a former advertising CEO
handsome offspring, V. x Miss Joaquim.”
and the co-author of the recently released
children’s book: Agnes and her Amazing This paper was published unaltered in
The Birth of a Bloom 1896.4 Ridley, who lived to be 100 years
Orchid. Johnson and Wright’s second
edition of Vanda Miss Joaquim: Singapore’s In 1893, Agnes Joaquim, or possibly her old, never wavered in his statement.
National Flower & the Legacy of Agnes & brother Joe (Joaquim P. Joaquim), showed When Isaac Henry Burkill (Ridley’s suc-
Ridley will be published in late 2018. Locke Henry Ridley a new orchid. After carefully cessor at the Botanic Gardens) checked
and Johnson are Singaporeans, while examining the bloom, having it sketched, all of Ridley’s herbarium specimens
w
Wright is an Australian.
and preserving a specimen in the her- and redid the labels, he saw no reason
barium of the Botanic Gardens, Ridley to dispute Ridley and recorded Joaquim
sent an account of the orchid’s origin and as the creator.
appearance to The Gardeners’ Chronicle, a Ridley sent cuttings of Vanda Miss
respected English horticulture periodical Joaquim to Sir Trevor Lawrence, Presi-
While doing research on the Armenian founded in 1841. He wrote: dent of the Royal Horticultural Society
community in Singapore back in the and one of the world’s leading orchidists,
1990s, Australian historian Nadia Wright “A few years ago Miss Joaquim, where it was nurtured in his orchid house
read an account of how the daughter of a a lady residing in Singapore, at Burford Lodge, in Dorking, England.
prominent Armenian family in Singapore, well-known for her success as a Flowering for the first time in Europe in
Agnes Joaquim1(Ashken Hovagimian), had horticulturist, succeeded in cross 1897, Vanda Miss Joaquim was displayed
stumbled upon a never-before-seen orchid ing Vanda Hookeriana, Rchb. f., and at the Royal Horticultural Show in Lon-
bloom by accident in the family garden. V. teres, two plants cultivated in don, winning a First Class Certificate.
In the authoritative The Gardeners’ almost every garden in Singapore. In describing the event, The Gardeners’
Chronicle, published on 24 June 1893, Unfortunately, no record was kept as Chronicle noted that “the plant was
however, Henry Nicholas Ridley, the first to which was used as the male. The obtained from a cross between V. teres
Director of the Singapore Botanic Gar- result has now appeared in the form and V. Hookeriana some years ago by
dens (1888−1911) stated unequivocally of a very beautiful plant, quite inter Miss Joaquim at Singapore”.5
that Agnes Joaquim had crossed two mediate between the two species In Singapore, Joaquim’s orchid
different orchids, the Vanda Hookeriana and as I cannot find any record of debuted at the 1899 Flower Show. The
with the Vanda teres and produced the this cross having been made before, Straits Times commented that "one of
orchid which he later named Vanda Miss I describe it herewith.”3 the most noticeable flowers was the
(Facing page) Vanda x Miss Joa-

quim. Image source: Linden, J.,
& Linden, L. (1897). Lindenia Ico-
nographie des Orchidées (Series
2, vol. 13).
(Right) The First Class Certificate
awarded to Sir Trevor Lawrence,
President of the Royal Horticul-
tural Society, at the 1897 Royal
Horticultural Flower Show for his
Vanda Miss Joaquim hybrid. Image
source: RHS Lindley Collections,
The Royal Horticultural Society.
(Far right) A detail from the Vanda
Miss Joaquim specimen sheet of
the first spike of flowers received
in April 1893 by the Singapore
Botanic Gardens. The flower was
the same one described by Henry
Ridley in The Gardeners’ Chronicle
The Vanda Miss Joaquim Story

in June 1893. The label beneath the
specimen is Ridley’s handwriting.
Courtesy of the Singapore Botanic
Gardens Herbarium.
Is the Vanda Miss Joaquim a human-made hybrid or a happy accident?

In this cautionary tale, Nadia Wright, Linda Locke and Harold Johnson
recount how fiction becomes truth when it is repeated often enough.
02 03
orchid Vanda Miss Joaquim, named after first Director of Honolulu’s Foster Botani- former directors, but also cast doubt on
Miss Joaquim and raised by that lady”.6 cal Garden), who was involved with the Ridley’s character. Ridley had not only
The Singapore Free Press confirmed propagation of Vanda Miss Joaquim there, officially reported the genesis of the Vanda
Joaquim’s achievement, reporting that believed Ridley. Miss Joaquim in 1893 but also successfully
“Miss Joaquim showed a hybrid which has Agnes Joaquim’s nephew Basil J.P. created orchid hybrids himself, in 1896 and
been named after her, that she has, after Joaquim, a prominent lawyer in Kuala 1902. Yet, the younger Burkill gave no sup-
repeated trials, succeeded in cultivating”.7 Lumpur, corroborated Ridley’s view and porting evidence for his puzzling assertion.
From 1893 until 1981, the orchid was was cited in The Straits Times in 1951 as References to Vanda Miss Joaquim’s
accepted, with few exceptions, as a hybrid saying “this hybrid was not discovered in origin decreased in the late 1960s and
bred by Joaquim. Robert Rolfe, editor of the garden… [but was the result of [an] during the 1970s, reflecting declining
The Orchid Review and an authority on artificial pollination… performed by my interest in the orchid. While some in Sin-
orchid hybrids, placed Vanda Miss Joaquim unmarried aunt, Miss Agnes Joaquim”.9 gapore referred to it as an artificial hybrid,
among the 106 cultivated hybrids created Articles published in local newspapers others began to repeat Humphrey Burkill’s
in 1893. Subsequent issues of The Orchid also regarded the orchid as an artificial allegation that it was a natural hybrid. Like
Review, The Gardeners’ Chronicle and hybrid created by Joaquim. him, none gave any reason for doubting
other leading contemporary horticultural However, at the 1963 World Orchid Ridley’s official account.
journals reiterated the fact that Joaquim Conference held in Singapore, Humphrey Flower Week in July 1981, he further stature” should hold sway over the remi- (Left) Henry Ridley, first Director of the Singapore
had crossed the parent orchids, as did all Morrison Burkill, who was appointed contributed to the confusion by claiming niscences of an elderly person. But his Botanic Gardens (1888–1911), was described as “a
the editions of the authoritative Sander’s Director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens
The Discovery Myth that Agnes Joaquim had discovered the views published in the Malayan Orchid genius”, “a keen observer and a great naturalist”,
and “a botanist of exceptional capability”. His article
Complete List of Orchid Hybrids. in 1957, sowed the seeds of dispute, alleg- On 15 April 1981, Vanda Miss Joaquim flower – not only contradicting what his Review in 198214 were brushed aside, and published in The Gardeners’ Chronicle on 24 June
ing that artificial orchid hybrids were not was declared Singapore’s national flower. cousin Basil J.P. Joaquim said in 1951, again it was claimed that the orchid was 1893 unequivocally states that Agnes Joaquim had
produced in Singapore until 1928. He added While fame was assured for the orchid, but also Ridley. a natural hybrid.15 bred the Vanda Miss Joaquim. Image source: Make-
Sowing the First Seeds of Doubt that among the plants used in creating Agnes Joaquim’s true role was tossed Arriving at Changi Airport on 21 July There was no further opposition to peace, W., Brooke, G., & Braddell, R. S. J. (Eds.). (1921).
One Hundred Years of Singapore (p. 78). London: J.
In 1931, The Straits Times announced hybrids was the “natural hybrid Vanda aside when newspaper reports of the from Perth, Australia, where he had been this fictitious story: an example of when Murray. (Call no.: RCLOS 959.91 MAK)
that a new hybrid orchid – the Spatho- Miss Joaquim” which he described as a day described the flower as a natural living for over two decades, the 88-year- something is repeated often enough, (Middle) Richard Eric Holttum, Director of the
glottis Primrose – had been produced in “delightful accident of nature”.10 hybrid which she had chanced upon in old Johannes declared to the reporter who it sometimes becomes accepted truth. Singapore Botanic Gardens (1925–1942 and
Singapore. It was the first orchid raised Burkill’s claims not only contradicted her garden. When a nephew of Agnes interviewed him that “Aunt Agnes found Subsequent newspaper mentions of the 1946–1949), was an orchid hybridiser himself
the flower one morning [in 1893] when she and he regarded the Vanda Miss Joaquim as
using the new technique of germinating those of his father Isaac Burkill (Director Joaquim, Basil E. Johannes, was invited orchid said it was a natural hybrid. Even
Singapore’s first artificial hybrid orchid. Courtesy
seeds in a sterile culture. This orchid of Botanic Gardens, 1912–25) and other to Singapore for the launch of the National was loitering in the garden. She was so when the centenary of the orchid took of Singapore Botanic Gardens.
was described as the second hybrid to be excited that she took it to the director of place in 1993, there was no reference to (Above) Humphrey Morrison Burkill, Director of
produced in Malaya or, as the newspaper the Botanic Gardens straightaway”.11 Local Ridley’s account. the Singapore Botanic Gardens (1957–1969), alleged
playfully added in parentheses, “the first newspapers ran with Johannes’s story, A diorama at the Singapore History that artificial orchid hybrids were not produced in
Singapore until 1928. He said that among plants
if Vanda Miss Joaquim came into being as alleging that Vanda Miss Joaquim was a Museum and a brochure on the National used in creating hybrids was the “natural hybrid
the result of a happy accident”.8 No reason natural hybrid and making no mention of Orchid Garden stated that the orchid was Vanda Miss Joaquim” which he described as a
was offered for this speculation and the Ridley’s original account. discovered by Miss Agnes Joaquim, as did “delightful accident of nature”. Image source: Sharp,
mischievous aside was not taken up. In his book on the Vanda Miss Joaquim a display board at the Singapore Botanic I., & Lum, S. (Eds.). (1996). A View from the Sum-
Richard Eric Holttum, who was published in 1982, Teoh Eng Soon further Gardens as recently as 2016. All of that mit: The Story of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (p.
29). Singapore: Nanyang Technological University
Director of the Botanic Gardens between enshrined Johannes’s stor y in print, reinforced the view that Singapore’s and the National University of Singapore. (Call no.:
1925 and 1942 and again from 1946 to 1949, embellishing it with more detail: “One national flower had popped up seren- RSING 333.78095957 VIE)
accepted Ridley’s description, as did his morning while Agnes was loitering alone dipitously in Joaquim’s garden one day. (Below) Issued on 10 March 1963, this stamp with
later successors Murray Ross Henderson in the garden she came upon a new orchid a face value of 30 cents features the Vanda Miss
Joaquim. It is one of the stamps in the Fishes,
(1949–54) and John William Purseglove flower nestled in a clump of bamboo…
(1954–57). In Hawaii, Harold Lyon (the Agnes could not contain her excitement.
Debunking the Myth Orchids & Birds Definitives series. Image source:
Stamp Community Forum.
Straightaway she took it to the Director of In 2000, Nadia Wright wrote an article in
the Singapore Botanic Gardens.”12 the Malayan Orchid Review, maintaining
(Right) This is the first published image of the
Vanda Miss Joaquim. Image source: The Gardeners’ Arshak Galstaun, President of St that Agnes Joaquim had crossed the
Chronicle, 26 June 1897, p. 427, Biodiversity Heritage Gregory’s Board of Trustees, which looked orchid as Ridley had recorded. Explaining
Library. Digitised by UMass Amherst Libraries. after the affairs of the Armenian Church in why the discovery story was false, she
(Bottom) An extract of the list of Vanda orchids Singapore, and an old friend of Johannes’s declared it was time to set the record
showing natural and artificial ones published
was dismayed by this turn of events. In straight.16 Although Wright based her
by Sander & Sons. All rights reserved, Orchid
Hybrids: Sander's Complete List, Containing fact, he said so at Teoh’s book launch and reassessment on publicly available his-
the Names and Parentages of all the Known wrote to the media refuting it. torical evidence, her article was criticised
Hybrid Orchids Whether Introduced or Artificially Galstaun regarded Ridley’s state- by those who believed that the orchid was
Raised… (p. 81). (1915). St Albans; Sander & Sons. ment in 1893 that “no record was kept a natural hybrid discovered by chance.
as to which of the plants was used as Aiming to discredit Wright’s research,
the male” as evidence that Joaquim had the detractors echoed Teoh Eng Soon’s
been experimenting with orchid hybrids spurious claim that “nearly every orchidist
for some time. He was certain that Ridley since [1893] believed that [Joaquim] had
would not have made that comment if the discovered a natural hybrid”.17
hybrid had been created naturally.13 The debate continued until 2007.
Believing Johannes’s recollections In her book on Singapore’s Armenians
to be based on hearsay and pure conjec- published in 2003, Wright reiterated her
ture, Galstaun reasoned that the “positive stand, adding that Joaquim was the first
written record of a scientist of Mr Ridley’s woman in the world to breed an orchid.18
04 05
years after Joaquim’s death. Johannes with a much later event. One day in the Ridley’s article reinforces the fact that
agnes joaquim would have met Joaquim only when the 1930s while walking in Malaya, his cousin Joaquim had produced the orchid. Had
family was visiting Singapore and when Basil Joaquim came across an unusual she just stumbled upon it by chance, there
Agnes Joaquim’s lineage can be traced
to the diasporic Armenian commu- he was very young (he was only six years orchid, which he sent to the Director of would be no need for Ridley to mention
nity who sank roots in Singapore soon old when she died). Members of the the Botanic Gardens to see if it were a the fact that she had failed to record the
after the settlement’s founding in extended Joaquim family were stunned new orchid. pollen parent. Ridley would gain nothing
1819. Joaquim’s grandparents were by Johannes’s remarks to the press. by concocting a false claim; indeed, his
Isaiah Zechariah, one of the founders Whatever the case, these facts reputation as an orchid expert would have
of Singapore’s Armenian Apostolic cast serious doubt on the credibility of
Discrediting Ridley been at stake, not to mention his position as
Church of St Gregory the Illuminator – Johannes’s testimony, as does an oral To push for acceptance of Basil Johannes’s the first Director of the Botanic Gardens.
more simply known as the Armenian history interview he gave to the National account, its supporters turned on Ridley. Critics tried to discredit Ridley by
Church – and Ashkhen Arathoon, after Archives in July 1981 which showed that They suggested that Ridley’s statement claiming that he did not know how to
whom Agnes Joaquim was named.
his recollections were neither consistent about Agnes Joaquim crossing the orchid hybridise orchids. They questioned his
Her parents were Parsick
Joaquim, an Armenian from Madras, nor accurate. was “allegorical rather than factual”, or specific expertise as his interests ranged
and Urelia Zechariah, a Singapore- Basil Johannes’s older brother that it was based on an “assumption”.25 “from agriculture to ghosts”, implying
born Armenian. Parsick Joaquim John, who was born 10 years earlier in But Ridley was known to be a careful that he had only a superficial knowledge
arrived in Singapore around 1840 and 1883, told a very different story. In the observer and recorder. Had Joaquim found about many subjects. They dismissed
worked as a merchant and trader. 1890s, John Johannes attended Raffles the orchid, Ridley would have written it Ridley’s expert account in The Garden-
Together with Simon Stephens, he Institution and no doubt lived with his up accordingly as he had done with other ers’ Chronicle because it was written
founded Stephens & Joaquim in 1849. grandmother and Joaquim at the family natural hybrids. Besides, the wording of after he had lived “in Singapore only 4–5
In 1852, Parsick Joaquim mar- home. He was 16 years old in 1899 and years and before acquiring the expertise
ried Urelia Zechariah and lived on Hill more likely than his younger brother to he had in later years”.26
Street near other Armenian families
have had first-hand knowledge of the what is hybridisation? In truth, Ridley was an orchid expert
and the church. His business thrived,
and in 1861, the family moved to a orchid. In later years when John Johannes when he arrived in Singapore in 1888. As
mansion overlooking Tanjong Pagar, walked past a flower shop displaying The hybridisation of a plant involves a Fellow of the Linnean Society, his prolific
which he named Mt Narcis, after his Vanda Miss Joaquim orchids, he would two steps. First, pollination takes output covered 10 papers on orchids. These
eldest son. When the mansion was (Top) Photo of Agnes Joaquim on a locket that once belonged to her, with an inscription of cross his two forefingers and proudly tell place during which pollen is trans- included his detailed observations of orchid
demolished in 1901, the carriage- her name on the reverse side. The locket is now in the possession of Linda Locke, her great his daughter Hazel that her grand-aunt ferred from the male flower to the self-pollination and an influential paper on
way leading to the house was named grand-niece. Courtesy of Linda Locke.
had bred the orchid. female flower to create a seed. Sec- “The Nomenclature of Orchids” presented
(Right) Agnes Joaquim died of cancer on 2 July 1899 at the age of 45. Her tombstone is found
Narcis Road. Hazel Locke’s (nee Johannes) ond, germination occurs in which the at the 1886 British orchid conference.
within the grounds of the Armenian Church in Singapore. It was originally located at Bukit
Parsick Joaquim died unexpect- Timah Cemeter y. Her tombstone bears the inscription “Let her own works praise her”. account of her father’s actions was seed develops into a plant. Whether a Indeed, England’s leading orchidists of
edly in 1872, leaving his wife to raise Courtesy of Prem Singh. scathingly dismissed by various people hybrid is artificial or natural depends the time, such as Frederick Burbidge and
11 children, the youngest of whom
who insisted that Johannes’s claim that on how the pollination occurred. If James Veitch, turned to Ridley with queries
was three years old. Fortunately, he
left the family well provided for. the orchid grew in a clump of bamboo the transfer of pollen is done by a on orchid fertilisation. Yet his account was
attractive bouquet composed of orchids Local newspapers reported Joaquim’s
Agnes Joaquim, born on 7 April was “a report of an observation”.24 How person, the resulting hybrid is termed rejected in favour of that of Basil Johannes
and delicate grasses. death, describing her as the sister of
1854, did not marry and was no doubt However, it was in the garden that “respected townsman” Joe Joaquim, the proponents of the discovery theory “artificial”. If it is done by agents of who admitted that he knew nothing about
an immense help to her widowed Joaquim excelled, putting her fingers her younger brother, and an eminent reached these conclusions is unknown. pollination such as insects, birds or growing plants.
mother, although their workload and mind to work. She won an impressive lawyer and Municipal Commissioner. It is likely that Basil Johannes was by the wind, it is termed “natural”. Ridley’s account was further dis-
eased when the four youngest sons number of prizes in the annual flower Joaquim was buried in Bukit confusing Agnes Joaquim’s “discovery” missed because Joaquim had not kept
were sent to boarding school in Eng- shows before finally making her mark Timah Cemetery, and when the close records of her work. The aforemen-
land. Joaquim led a busy social life, in history with her hybrid, Vanda Miss grounds were acquired by the govern- tioned Robert Rolfe lamented that earlier
attending various balls and festivities. Joaquim. Exhibited at the annual ment, her tombstone was one of those hybridists too had not kept records as to
However, it appears she was a strict Flower Show in April 1899, the Vanda rescued and moved to the Armenian which was the seed parent. However, their
woman in her later years, shooing her Miss Joaquim won First Prize for the Church grounds. Today, it rests in the
young nieces and nephews out of sight work has not been dismissed because of
rarest orchid, and more importantly, Garden of Memories in the church
whenever guests arrived at the house. this supposed failing.
recognition for her years of work. grounds, with a pot of orchids – the
Joaquim was a skilled and artis- However, Joaquim was not destined Vanda Miss Joaquim naturally – on It has been claimed that because
tic needlewoman. She embroidered a to live long. She developed cancer and her either side. The epitaph on the tomb- Ridley did not describe how the seeds
beautiful altar cloth for the Armenian condition took a turn for the worse when stone reads: “Let her own works praise were germinated in his report, Joaquim
Church, and at the 1891 Flower Show, she contracted pneumonia. She died on 2 her”, a reminder of the enduring legacy could not have made the cross. But then,
she was complimented for her most July 1899 at the relatively young age of 45. Agnes Joaquim left behind. such information was not included in
other articles on hybrids in The Gar-
deners’ Chronicle; they simply gave
That book and Wright’s subsequent article The authors accepted Teoh’s recon- have grown in the shade of a bamboo the names of the hybridiser, the parent
in 2004 came under fire, but no credible structed account as factual, declaring clump as alleged. 22 orchids, and a detailed botanical descrip-
evidence to refute Ridley’s findings was that Teoh was right simply because he The book repeated Teoh’s claim that tion of the new flower. This was exactly
offered in return.19 “described the event” in detail. 21 Yet Johannes was right, declaring that he what Ridley’s article did.
Although Wright explained why the Teoh could not provide concrete proof was “the only living person to have met Indeed, biologist Joseph Arditti, a
account of the orchid’s origin written by of how he became privy to his informa- her [Agnes Joaquim]”. 23 The authors, strong supporter of the discovery myth,
a respected botanist and orchid expert, tion, including details such as Joaquim however, failed to mention that the noted that William Herbert, a pioneer
and accepted by other experts should be was “alone” when she found the orchid 88-year-old Johannes was born in 1893, in hybridisation, had given “no details
believed over confused and unsubstanti- “nestled in a clump of bamboo”. The the year Vanda Miss Joaquim originated, regarding his germination method”.27 Yet,
ated speculations, her views were sum- Vanda Miss Joaquim needs “full sunlight or that Johannes had spent his infancy inexplicably, Arditti accepted Herbert’s
marily dismissed by the authors of a book and plenty of air movement” in order to in Java, only coming to Singapore to live Agnes Joaquim succeeded in crossing Vanda Hookeriana (left ) with Vanda teres (right) to create the hybrid hybrid as genuine, but not Joaquim’s.
on Vanda Miss Joaquim.20 thrive, and thus it was most unlikely to in 1901 when he was eight years old: two Vanda Miss Joaquim. Photos by David Lim. Courtesy of the National Parks Board.
06 07
In 2007, Arditti and Hew continued recognition of her hybridisation of the Joaquim had indeed crossed the parent
to claim that Vanda Miss Joaquim was orchid. Hazel Locke (Basil Johannes’s plants to create Vanda Miss Joaquim.
a natural hybrid but yet again provided niece) accepted the award on Joaquim’s NHB and the Singapore Botanic Gardens
no evidence. 42 In a final attempt to set behalf. The award was presented by Hali- amended their official records in 2016.
the record straight, Harold Johnson and mah Yacob, then Speaker of Parliament This news was brought to the atten-
Nadia Wright collaborated on a book in (and currently President of Singapore). tion of other government agencies – the
2008 that documented the orchid’s true But the journey towards correcting National Library Board, for instance,
origins.43 Although the book elevated public history was not over yet. In 2016, matters corrected its articles about the orchid on
awareness of the subject, it was still not came to a head after Hazel Locke’s daughter, Singapore Infopedia, its online encyclope-
sufficient to convince officialdom to accept Linda Locke, came across a display board at dia − and in September 2016, The Straits
that Joaquim had hybridised the orchid. the Singapore Botanic Gardens that failed Times ran a full-page report accepting
In 2009, The Straits Times repeated to recognise Joaquim’s role. The younger that Agnes Joaquim was responsible for
that Agnes Joaquim had bred the orchid, Locke embarked on further research to creating the hybrid orchid.44
but in news reports published in 2011, evaluate the conflicting arguments put Truth had finally triumphed, but its
2012 and 2015, it moved to a more neu- forward by various people and was able vindication was hard won, with a war of
tral position without attributing credit to to confirm that the evidence presented by words and various parties taking dif-
her. However, signs of change began to Johnson and Wright was indisputable. ferent sides since the late 1950s. Much
appear. For example, in 2011, a sample Locke persisted in her efforts to cor- ado over a trivial matter, some may say.
question from the Singapore citizenship rect official records of Singapore history However, when the bloom in question is
(Above) Vanda Miss Joaquim orchids in bloom. Courtesy of Linda Locke.
(Middle) A close-up of a Vanda Miss Joaquim. Courtesy of National Parks Board. pollination in Singapore”, he compiled a quiz asked who had bred the orchid. The and managed to convince the National Her- Singapore’s national flower, it is important
(Right) A painting of the Vanda Miss Joaquim that won Sir Trevor Lawrence, President of the Royal Horti- list of plants they pollinated.35 He did not correct answer was Agnes Joaquim. itage Board (NHB) to conduct its own review that its correct history is told. This is all
cultural Society, the First Class Certificate at the 1897 Royal Horticultural Flower Show. Drawn by artist record carpenter bees as visiting or pol- Finally, in 2015, after careful delib- of all historical source materials. Only then the more timely as we commemorate
Nellie Roberts in 1897, it is simply titled “Miss Joaquim Agnes”. FCC/RHS. Image source: RHS Lindley linating either Vanda Hookeriana or Vanda eration, Joaquim was inducted into the did NHB, together with the National Parks the 125th anniversary of the Vanda Miss
Collections, The Royal Horticultural Society.
teres, although he noted that such bees did Singapore Women’s Hall of Fame in Board, arrive at the conclusion that Agnes Joaquim in 2018.
assist in the fertilisation of other orchids.36
The Plot Thickens her role. For example, they quoted The Arditti insisted that “all orchid scien-
15 Goh, C. J. (1982). Dr Goh replies. Malayan Orchid 32 Laycock, J. (1949, January). Vanda Miss Joaquim.
Straits Times of 12 April 1899 as reporting tists and knowledgeable orchid growers Notes Review, 16, pp. 53–54. Singapore: Straits Times Philippine Orchid Review, 2, p. 3. (Not available in
It has been suggested that Agnes Joaquim that Joaquim “succeed [sic] in cultivating” believe that Vanda Miss Joaquim is a natu- 1 Joaquim is pronounced joe/ah/kim/ with the accent Press. (Call no.: RSING 584.15 MOR) [Note: The NLB holdings)
on joe.
would not have known how to germinate the Vanda Miss Joaquim, but downplayed ral hybrid”.37 But he did not substantiate editor of the journal was Teoh Eng Soon.] 33 Hew, Yam & Arditti, 2002, pp. 49, 52.
2 Today, the orchid’s botanic name has been changed 16 Wright, N. H. (2000). The origins of Vanda Miss 34 Claims that a hybrid found growing in garden
seeds and that successful methods of the word “cultivating” in this context to this sweeping statement. Indeed, to the to Papilionanthe Miss Joaquim although it is still Joaquim. Malayan Orchid Review, 34, pp. 70–73. in Johor Bahru is evidence that Vanda Miss
germination had been developed only mean merely “growing”.30 contrary, Harold Johnson’s review of lit- commonly called Vanda Miss Joaquim. (Call no.: RSING 584.15 MOR) Joaquim is a natural hybrid are misleading.
after her death. This is far from true. Elsewhere, they omitted Ridley’s erature shows that until 1981, almost all 3 Ridley, H. N. (1893, June 24). Vanda Miss Joaquim. 17 Teoh, 1982, p. 30; Yam T. W., Arditti, J., & Hew That hybrid was not a Vanda Miss Joaquim.
In fact, Vanda Miss Joaquim was one of reference to Joaquim by claiming that he publications accepted Vanda Miss Joaquim The Gardeners’ Chronicle, 13, p. 740. Retrieved C. S. (2004). The origin of Vanda Miss Joaquim. Although the parent plants grew in the garden,
from Biodiversity Library website.
106 artificial hybrids created in Britain “only wrote that the cross was between as an artificial hybrid and only a few after 4 Ridley, H. N. (1896). Mr. Ridley on the Orchideae and
Malayan Orchid Review, 38, p. 93. (Call no.: the bee did not create the orchid from them,
RSING 584.15 MOR) instead it cross-pollinated Vanda Hookeriana
in 1893. Joaquim’s achievement was not Vanda Hookeriana Rchb.f. and V. teres” 1963 suggested differently.38 Apostasiaceae of the Malay Peninsula. Journal of 18 Wright, N. H. (2003). Respected citizens: The and Vanda Miss Joaquim.
an anomaly – she was doing in Singapore when in fact he had specifically reported It is worth remembering that Botanic the Linnean Society, Botany, p. 356. history of Armenians in Singapore and Malaysia 35 Ridley, H. N. Various Notes Zoological and
what others were already doing in Britain that Joaquim had “succeeded in cross- Gardens director Richard Holttum, who 5 Orchid Committee. (1897, June 19). The Gardeners’ (p. 150). Middle Park, Vic.: Amassia Publishing. Botanical: Fertilization Notes, Australian Joint
Chronicle, 21, p. 410. Retrieved from Biodiversity
and elsewhere. ing” these two orchid species. 31 closely reviewed his predecessor Isaac (Call no.: RSING 305.891992 WRI) Copying Project, M. 773, reel 44, frame 336–7.
Library website. 19 Wright, N. H. (2004). A re-examination of the 36 Ridley, H. N. Notebook 1891–1896 Fertilization
Information on germination was They also misquoted Singaporean Burkill’s work, regarded Vanda Miss 6 The flower show. (1899, April 12). The Straits Times, origins of Vanda Miss Joaquim. Orchid Review 112 Notes, AJCP, M. 771, reel 42, frame 255. Also see
readily available in books as well as in pioneer breeder John Laycock, who Joaquim as an artificial hybrid. In 1928, p. 3. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. (1259), pp. 292–298; Human Flower Project. (2005, Ridley, H.N. (1905, July). On the fertilization of the
horticultural journals. Besides, it has said the question as to how Agnes had Holttum quoted Ridley’s original report, 7 The flower show. (1899, April 12). The Singapore August). Miss Agnes’s big little secret. Retrieved grammatophyllum. Journal of the Straits Branch of
been suggested that Joaquim had sown succeeded in germinating the seed into commenting on the skill and care with Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser, p. 2. from Human Flower Project website; Arditti, J., & the Royal Asiatic Society, 44, pp. 228–229. Retrieved
Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
the seeds onto a base of coconut dust, from a flowering plant “must now forever which Agnes Joaquim had raised the 8 The article later described Vanda Miss Joaquim
Hew, S. H. (2005) Letter to the editor. The Orchid from JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website.
Review, 113 (1263), pp. 176–177. 37 Arditti, J. (2005, April 26). You say orchid, I say
where they germinated.28 Curiously, it was remain unanswered”.32 Laycock’s words plant and describing it as “her orchid”.39 as an artificial hybrid. New orchids for Malaya 20 Hew, C. S., Yam, T. W., & Arditti, J. (2002). Biology Joaquim. Retrieved from dsng.net website.
inferred that if the pollination was done were rewritten into something quite dif- Again in 1972, he quoted Ridley’s report (1931, August 4). The Straits Times , p. 12. of Vanda Miss Joaquim (pp. 222–224). Singapore: 38 Johnson, H. J. (2004). Vanda Miss Joaquim.
by a bee, then the seeds could germinate, ferent from what he had intended – that as evidence of the orchid’s origins.40 Retrieved from NewspaperSG. Singapore University Press. (Call no.: RSING Malayan Orchid Review, 38, pp. 99–107. [Note: Linda
9 On the margin. (1951, April 5). The Straits Times,
but if the pollination was done by Joaquim, the question of whether or not Joaquim 584.4095957 HEW). Locke added more to that list of literature in 2017.]
p. 6. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. 21 Hew, Yam & Arditti, 2002, p. 41. 39 Holttum, R. E. (1928). Vanda Miss Joaquim. Malayan
the seeds could not have done so. bred the orchid “must now forever remain
There was no end to the efforts to unanswered”.33
Getting it Right – Finally 10 Burkill, H. M. (1963). The role of the Singapore 22 Hew, Yam & Arditti, 2002, p. 179; Miss Joaquim’s Naturalist, 2 (1), pp. 22, 24. (Microfilm no.: NL 6582)
Botanic Gardens in the development of Orchid nephew coming for Flower Week. (1981, July 40 Holttum, R. E. (1972). And comments. The Orchid
disparage Joaquim. Her critics pointed If the Vanda Miss Joaquim is a natural Ridley was widely respected for his role Hybrids (p. 14). Singapore: Straits Times Press. 19). The Straits Times, p. 6. Retrieved from Review, 80 (951), p. 168. (Not available in NLB holdings)
out that Joaquim did not breed any other hybrid as alleged, then what was the agent in establishing the Singapore Botanic (Call no.: RCLOS 584.15 BUR-[RFL]) NewspaperSG. 41 Purseglove, J. W. (1955, December 10). The Ridley
11 Lim, H. K. (1981, July 23). “Miss Joaquim fails to
orchids, apart from the one she had of the pollination? Could it be carpenter Gardens as a reputable attraction and, greet nephew at gates”. The Straits Times, p. 8.
23 Hew, Yam & Arditti, 2002, p. 46. Centennial, mss.
24 Yam, Arditti & Hew, 2004, p. 93; Hew, Yam & Arditti, 42 Arditti, J., & Hew, C. S. (2007). The origins of
been falsely credited with. Claiming bees, as it has been claimed before? But in 1955, was described by historian Sir Retrieved from NewspaperSG. 2002, p. 224. Vanda Miss Joaquim (pp. 290–291, 309). In Orchid
that hybridisers tended to make several there is no evidence in history of these Richard Winstedt as “the man whose 12 Teoh, E. S. (1982). A joy forever: Vanda Miss 25 Hew, Yam & Arditti, 2002, p. 223; Arditti & Hew, Biology, Reviews and Perspectives, IX. (Not
crosses in their lifetimes, they concluded bees ever creating another Vanda Miss influence on Malayan history is second Joaquim Singapore’s national flower (p. 29) 2005, p. 176. available in NLB holdings)
Singapore: Times Books International. (Call no.:
that she could not possibly have created Joaquim. And there never have been any only to that of Raffles”.41 Yet, after 1981, 26 Arditti & Hew, 2005, p. 176. 43 Johnson, H., & Wright N. (2008). Vanda Miss
RSING 584.15095957 TEO) 27 Arditti, J. (1992). Fundamentals of orchid biology Joaquim: Singapore’s national flower & the legacy
the Vanda Miss Joaquim. But the fact is reports of naturally occurring Vanda Miss Ridley’s pronouncement on the origins 13 The question of the male parent was only (p. 43). New York: Wiley. (Not available in NLB holdings) of Agnes & Ridley. Singapore: Suntree Media. (Call
all hybridisers start with one cross. What Joaquim orchids being found anywhere.34 of the Vanda Miss Joaquim became resolved in 2015 by Dr Gillian Khew who 28 Notes on monthly meetings. (1957). Malayan Orchid no.: RSING 635.9344095957 JOH)
further weakened the critics’ spurious Besides, if bees had done the pol- sidelined. Although contemporary orchid determined that it was Vanda Hookeriana. See Review, 5 (2), p. 30; Yeoh, B. C. (1959). Kinta weed. 44 Zaccheus. F. M. (2016, September 7). Vanda Miss
claims is that the very source they cited linating, Ridley would have said so. In his experts accepted Ridley’s statement that Feng, Z. (2015, July 10). Vanda Miss Joaquim Malayan Orchid Review, 5, p. 81. Joaquim’s namesake gets official credit as creator.
mystery solved. The Straits Times. Retrieved
reported that half of all breeders in that observations, Ridley carefully distinguished the orchid was deliberately created, the from The Straits Times website.
29 Citing Yeoh Bok Choon’s List of Malayan Hybrids, The Straits Times. Retrieved from The Straits
1963, p. v, which mentioned that of 62 individual Times website.
study produced only one hybrid.29 between an insect visiting a flower and discovery story was perpetuated by a 14 Galstaun, A. C. (1982). Letter to the editor. Malayan breeders, 31 produced only one hybrid.
As they did with Ridley, Joaquim’s pollination by a human. Noting that car- television drama, online articles, in books Orchid Review, 16, pp. 52–53. Singapore: Straits 30 Arditti & Hew, 2005, p. 177.
detractors doctored quotations to belittle penter bees did the “greatest amount of and even in scholarly journals. Times Press. (Call no.: RSING 584.15 MOR) 31 Yam, Arditti & Hew, 2004, p. 92.
08 09
PORTRAITS
Gretchen Liu is a former journalist and (Facing page top) Lee King Yan behind the camera. Marjorie Lau Collection, courtesy of National Archives
book editor as well as the author of several of Singapore.
illustrated books, including Pastel Portraits: (Facing page bottom) Lee Brothers Studio at 54-8 Hill Street, 1910s. Lee Brothers Studio Collection,
Singapore’s Architectural Heritage, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
Singapore: A Pictorial History 1819–2000 (Below) The Lee family with Poh Yan and King Yan standing third and fourth from the left respectively.
LEE
and the official book on the Raffles Hotel. Marjorie Lau Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
FROM Liu first knew of the Lee Brothers Collection

in 1987 through her friendship with one of
THE
Lee Poh Yan’s granddaughters.
BROTHERS
STUDIO
b
Between 1910 and 1940, Lee Brothers
Photographers was a well-known land-
mark along Hill Street. In the years before
amateur photography became wide-
spread, hundreds of its clients – the
prospering and aspiring, the famous and
unknown, Chinese, Indian, Malay and
European, resident and visitor – climbed
the wooden steps to the top floor of a shop-
house at No. 58-4 in search of that small
bit of immortality: the studio portrait.
The brothers started their business in
the three-storey shophouse located promi-
nently at the corner of Hill Street and Loke
Yew Street. The corner location was ideal
because the additional windows provided the to the National Archives by 80-year-old Hin King Yan, Poh Yan and Sou Yan. The fourth,
main source of illumination and kept expo- Ming, thus ensuring the survival of a unique Chi Yan, was sent by the Methodist mission
sure times to a minimum. Typical of Victorian and eloquent record of the people of Singa- to study in the United States and became a
photographers, the studio was equipped with pore in the early years of the 20th century. minister and teacher until his early death in
decorative painted backdrops imported from the mid-1920s. When Tit Loon retired to his
Shanghai and Europe, and various props home village, Koon Sun Photo Studio was
ranging from imitation masonry, drapery,
A Family of Photographers left in the hands of Poh Yan and Sou Yan.
potted plants and porcelain dogs to toys Lee King Yan and Lee Poh Yan belonged to King Yan, however, struck out on
for children, rustic benches and handsome a large Cantonese family from the village of his own. By 1911, he had established
drawing room chairs. Siu Wong Nai Cheun (literally “Small Yellow Lee Brothers Photographers at 58-4 Hill
All of the equipment was of the best Earth Village”) in Nam Hoi county, Guang- Street, and by 1913, Poh Yan had joined
quality while the processing chemicals dong province. According to family lineage him. Younger brother Sou Yan continued
were the purest available. The British-made records, the village was founded by Lee to run Koon Sun for several years, closing
main studio camera was a large wooden Shun Tsai from Zhejiang province in the 13th it around 1917 before returning to China.
affair with squared bellows connecting the century.1 From this village, members of the The move out of Chinatown and
front lens panel with a rear panel carrying family ventured forth to operate more than into the more salubrious Stamford Road
the focusing screen and the plate holder. It a dozen photographic studios in Southeast area was significant. With a population of
rested on a heavy wooden stand that could Asia, including eight in Singapore. over 185,000, Singapore was one of the
be raised, lowered or tilted so as to frame King Yan and Poh Yan, who were born busiest ports in the world and the most
the sitter appropriately, and was fitted with in China, belonged to the 21st genera- cosmopolitan city in Asia. Nearly three-
cast-iron castors for mobility. tion and learned photography from their quarters of the population were Chinese,
Sharing the work behind the camera father, Lee Tit Loon. In its early days, but there were large groups of peninsular
– adjusting the lens, inserting the treated the art of photography was considered Malays, Sumatrans, Javanese, Bugis,
glass plates, calculating the exposure a trade secret. In some European cities, Boyanese, Indians, Ceylonese, Arabs,
times, removing the plates and process- photography was a protected profession Jews, Eurasians and Europeans.3 Men still
ing them in the darkroom – were the Lee that no one who had not served as an outnumbered women by eight to one but
brothers, King Yan (1877–1957) and Poh Yan apprentice could join.2 In the Lee family, it there was a steady increase in the number
(1884–1960). For over half a century, from was the brothers and sons who handled the of Chinese women immigrants and more
1940 until 1994, copies of over 2,500 of these camera and processed the plates, while babies being born in the Straits Settle-
Gretchen Liu casts the spotlight on the Lee Brothers original photographs and some glass plate employees were engaged as retouchers, ments,4 a fact reflected by the impressive
negatives were kept by Poh Yan’s eldest finishers and mounters. number of baby and family photographs
Studio Collection. Comprising some 2,500 images, son, Lee Hin Ming. The photographs were By 1900, Tit Loon was managing the in the Lee Brothers Collection.
this is the largest single collection of photographic mostly excess or uncollected prints while successful Koon Sun Photo Studio at 179 It wasn't long before King Yan and Poh
the negatives had been deliberately set South Bridge Road. He had four surviving Yan were photographing many of the well-
portraits in the National Archives of Singapore. aside. In 1994, this collection was entrusted sons, three of whom became photographers: known personalities of the day, including
10 11
Dr Lim Boon Keng, Mr and Mrs Song Ong chants and their well-dressed wives, They returned to Singapore and had
Siang, Mr and Mrs Lee Choon Guan, Dr Hu beguiling wedding couples and, perhaps 12 children. Three of his sons became
Tsai Kuan, rubber planter Lim Chong Pang, most endearing of all, enchanting family photographers. A Methodist and an active
rubber merchant Teo Eng Hock, banker portraits of all races. YMCA member, King Yan was one of the
Seet Tiong Wah, the families of Tan Kim In the early 1920s, the two brothers first in Singapore to cut off his queue and
Seng and Tan Kah Kee, and Dr Sun Yat parted company on amicable terms and King was known in photographic circles as mo
Sen during his historic visits to Singapore. Yan opened Eastern Studio on Stamford pin lou or “the man with no pigtail”.
Many of the photographs in Song Ong Road. The decision may have been dictated On the eve of World War II, King
Siang’s landmark 1923 publication, One by domestic circumstances as both men Yan evacuated Eastern Studio because
Hundred Years' History of the Chinese in had large and still growing families. The of vibrations to the shophouse structure
Singapore, were supplied by Lee Brothers 1923 edition of Seaports of the Far East caused by the frequent passing of heavy
Studio.5 The Methodist missionaries who contained a highly flattering description of trucks along Stamford Road. He contin-
patronised the brothers – both active church Eastern Studio that highlighted King Yan's ued to operate Venus Studio in nearby Eu
members – included Sophia Blackmore, the expertise: “One of the best photographers Court, a branch of Eastern Studio that he
founder of Methodist Girls' School. in Singapore is Mr Lee Keng (sic) Yan, pro- had opened in the 1930s. Unfortunately,
The photographs of these luminar- prietor of the Eastern Studio, who has been these premises were damaged during a
ies are found among the many more operating locally for thirty years, and is an Japanese air raid, and the archive of nega-
captivating portraits of the anonymous, expert in every branch of his trade.”6 tives and prints destroyed. After the war,
but obviously prospering, inhabitants King Yan came to Singapore with his King Yan continued to work from his home
of Singapore: plump satisfied towkays, father in 1891 as an apprentice photog- at 26 Dublin Road. When he died in 1957 at
formidable nonyas of all ages bedecked rapher. In 1897, he married Tong Oi Yuet age 80, his obituary in The Straits Times
with exquisite jewellery, European mer- in St Stephen's Church in Hong Kong. described him as “one of the pioneers of
photography in the country” and the “grand (Left) Lee King Yan with his wife and children, 1919. Lee Brothers Studio Collection, courtesy of National
old man of photography”.7 negatives had to be destroyed because Archives of Singapore.
The interior of Lee Brothers Studio at 54-8 Hill Street, 1920s. Lee Brothers Studio Collection, courtesy of (Above) Lee Poh Yan (holding child on lap) with his wife and children, c.1930. Lee Brothers Studio Collec-
National Archives of Singapore.
Poh Yan, who maintained an avid of insufficient storage space.
tion, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
interest in new advances in photography With the imminent outbreak of World
throughout his life, married Soh Moo War II, Poh Yan permanently closed the
Hin in China in 1902 and they raised 13 studio. Although some family members Originally intended as a visiting card with as for major political events in Malaya, G.R.
children. Two sons became involved in continued to reside in the Hill Street a photographic portrait mounted on it, Lambert & Co maintained branch offices in
photography. Lee Hin Ming, the eldest, shophouse, he and his wife moved to a such cards were later produced in great Sumatra, Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok. By
ran the family-owned photographic supply farm at the eighth mile of Thomson Road. numbers for friends' albums.10 A further the turn of the century, the firm had amassed
company Wah Heng for many years and He passed away in 1960 at the age of 76. revolution took place not long after with the one of the “finest collections of landscape
was also a founder and director of Rain- The last of the family's photographic introduction of superior paper photographs views in the East, comprising about 3,000
bow Colour Service. Youngest son Francis enterprises to survive was Wah Heng and made with the wet collodion process, or subjects which were mainly purchased
Lee Wai Ming developed a keen interest Co., importers of photographic materials at wet plate process. This new method gave a by globe-trotters as travel souvenirs and
in photography, kindled by watching his 95 North Bridge Road, of which King Yan, Poh high-quality negative on glass with excellent pasted into large leather-bound albums”.14
father in the darkroom, and bought his Yan and their many cousins were sharehold- resolution of detail from which an unlimited Chinese photographers were also
first camera with the profits made from ers. The firm stocked a “remarkable range number of prints could be made.11 active in Singapore in the late 19th and early
taking identity card photos for fellow stu- of goods” for both beginners and experts in The commercial possibilities of 20th centuries, as evidenced by the many
dents at St Andrew's School. He became photography, and did business “throughout the wet plate process were staggering. examples of their work that have survived in
a freelance photojournalist in the 1950s. the Straits Settlements, Federated Malay Any quantity of prints could be ordered family albums or turned up in antique shops.
For many years, the business prem- States and the Dutch East Indies”.8 from the best results of a studio session, Such photographs are usually mounted on
ises of Lee Brothers at Hill Street doubled and supplied at terms attractive to both cardboard and carry names such as Pun
as the family home and the older children photographer and customer. The first to Loon at High Street, Poh Wah at Upper Chin
were called upon to perform simple tasks
Studio Portraits exploit this technical advance in Singapore Chew Street, and Kwong Sun, Koon Hin and
in the studio. The ground floor was used The Lee brothers were practitioners of a was Edward A. Edgerton who, in 1858, Guan Seng along South Bridge Road. While
mainly as storage. The first floor front tradition that began with the invention advertised his “photographic and stereo- important examples of historic photography
room was the reception area with the living of photography by Frenchman Louis scopic portrait” services at his Stamford in their own right, the subjects are often
quarters behind. The top floor contained the Daguerre in 1839. The possibilities of Street residence.12 posed stiffly and lack individual character.
studio and darkroom. At night, the reception studio portraiture were seized upon as the Another early European photogra- In contrast, the Lee brothers achieved
area became the children's bedroom as most exciting benefit of the new invention. pher who established a photo studio in the both subtlety and naturalness in their work.
mats were unrolled and spread out on the The daguerreotype photographic method settlement was John Thomson, who went Their genius lay in their ability to combine
floor. As the number of children increased, spread quickly and became available in on to become one of the most celebrated the technician's dispassionate skill with
more living space was secured in a block Singapore by 1843 when G. Dutronquoy, of all 19th-century photographers. He the camera, the scientist's understanding
of flats behind on Loke Yew Street. proprietor of the London Hotel, placed an arrived in Singapore in 1862 equipped of the subtleties of the darkroom and the
When the Hill Street studio was advertisement in The Singapore Free Press with the knowledge of the latest advances artist's finely developed sense of human
acquired for redevelopment in the 1930s, and Mercantile Advertiser on 4 December in commercial photography in Europe, character and human expression.
Poh Yan moved to a smaller unit nearby 1843, promising that a picture can be taken and advertised a range of new services In many of the portraits found in the col-
at the corner of Hill Street and St Greg- “in the astonishing short space of two min- involving “micro-photographs”.13 lection – all of which were taken circa 1910
ory's Place. Business had, by this time, utes”, “free from all blemish” and “in every Of all the European studios, however, to the mid-1920s – a dignity and timeless
steadily declined due to the economic respect perfect likenesses”.9 the most enduring was G.R. Lambert & elegance is apparent, which tempts us to
depression and the popularity of amateur In the 1860s, portrait photography was Co, which operated from the 1880s until look upon the faces of those who climbed
photography. At the time of the move, further invigorated by the introduction of around 1917. The official photographers to the steps to Lee Brothers Studio as though
three-quarters of the firm's glass plate the inexpensive carte-de-visite in France. the King of Siam and Sultan of Johor as well we might almost know them today.
12 13
14 15
Notes
1 Family lineage records were kept by Dr Lee Ying
Keng, the second son of Lee Tat Loon, who came
to Singapore at the age of eight with his father. Lee
Ying Keng attended Anglo-Chinese School and was
13 years old when his father died. He graduated
from King Edward VII College of Medicine in 1920
and practised on board a coastal steamer plying
the region until he set up practice in Muar, Johor,
in the late 1920s. A copy of the family record was
obtained courtesy of Marjorie Lau, daughter of Lee
King Yan. See Oldest living graduate of a Singapore
University? (1922, August 22). The Straits Times,
p. 22. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
2 Hillier, B. (1976, January 1). Victoria studio
photographs (p. 17). London: Ash & Grant. (Not
available in NLB holdings)
3 Turnbull, C. M. (1977). A history of Singapore, 1819–
1975 (p. 97). Singapore: Oxford University Press.
(Call no.: RDLKL 959.57 TUR)
4 Turnbull, 1977, p. 103.
5 Song Ong Siang’s One Hundred Years’ History of the
Chinese in Singapore was published in London 1923
and reprinted by Oxford University Press in 1967.
An annotated edition was published by the National
Library Board Singapore in 2016. See Song, O. S.
(1923). One hundred years' history of the Chinese in
Singapore. London: John Murray. Retrieved from
BooKSG; Song, O. S. (1967). One hundred years'
history of the Chinese in Singapore. Singapore:
University of Malaya Press. (RCLOS 959.57 SON);
Song, O. S. (2016). One hundred years’ history of
the Chinese in Singapore: The annotated edition.
Singapore: National Library Board Singapore.
Retrieved from BookSG.
6 Macmillan, A. (Ed.). (1923). Seaports of the Far East:
Historical and descriptive commercial and industrial
facts, figures & resources (p. 274). London: W. H. & L.
Collingridge. (Microfilm no.: NL 14242)
7 The full obituary in The Straits Times on 31
December 1957 reads: “Mr Lee King Yan, 80, one of
the pioneers of photography in the country died at
his home in Serangoon Garden Estate yesterday.
He came to Singapore from China 50 years ago. He
had received numerous awards for his photography.
He was the proprietor of the Eastern Photo Studio,
Stamford Road. Often referred to as the ‘grand old
man of photography’, Mr Lee leaves seven sons
and four daughters.” See Colony’s grand old man
of photography dies at 80. (1957, December 31). The
Straits Times, p. 4. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
8 Macmillan, 1923, p. 273.
9 Page 1 advertisements column 3: Notice: Mr
Dutronquoy. (1843, December 7). The Singapore
Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser, p. 1.
Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
All photos are from the Lee Brothers Studio Collection. Identities of the subjects are unknown as these 10 Carte-de-visits from old Singapore studios still turn
photos are unrecorded excess or uncollected prints kept by the Lee Brothers Studio. up in antique shops in Singapore and London, with the
name of the studio handsomely printed on the back.
11 The most complete history of photography in
Singapore to date is contained in Falconer, J. (1987).
A vision of the past: A history of early photography
This is an abridged version of the introductory chapter by Gretchen Liu from in Singapore and Malaya: The photographs of G.
the book, From the Family Album: Portraits from the Lee Brothers Studio, R. Lambert & Co., 1880–1910. Singapore: Times
Singapore 1910–1925, published by Landmark Books in collaboration with Editions. (Call no.: RSING 779.995957 FAL)
National Archives in 1995. The book is available for reference and loan at the 12 Falconer, 1987, p. 18.
13 Falconer, 1987, p. 20.
Lee Kong Chian Reference Library and selected public libraries (Call nos.:
14 John Falconer's book contains 180 Lambert views
SING 779.26095957 FRO and RSING 779.26095957 FRO). and portraits of people and places in Singapore and
Southeast Asia.
16 17
Cheong Suk-Wai is a former lawyer

turned journalist who is now in public
service. A music, art and history buff,
she has written four books, including
the first history of Singapore’s Attorney-
General’s Chambers titled In Chambers:
150 Years of Upholding the Rule of Law
(2017), and the official SG50 book, Living
The Singapore Story: Celebrating Our 50
Years 1965–2015 (2015).
(Facing page) Japanese war planes such as these were used to transport rats from Tokyo to Singapore
during World War II to bolster the local rat population and enable secret experiments in biological warfare
to be carried out. These planes were also used to drop “bombs” carrying plague-infected fleas on enemy
a
lands in China. Courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
(Above) The restored College of Medicine Building within the grounds of the Singapore General Hos-
pital. During the Japanese Occupation, the building was requisitioned by the Japanese and housed
OKA 9420, the Singapore branch of Unit 731, the biological warfare research operative of the Imperial
Japanese Army that was headquartered in Shinjuku, Tokyo, with another branch in Harbin, China.
Bubonic plague-infested rats and fleas were bred at the Singapore facility along with other deadly
disease-carrying pathogens. The building today houses the Ministry of Health, the Singapore Medical
Council and the College of General Practitioners. Courtesy of Preservation of Sites and Monuments,
National Heritage Board.
A few days before Christmas in 2017, The IJA sought to re-enact the A Personal World War II Experience, the
Nor th Korea threatened to load its Black Death in Asia – its main target building housed up to six labs for Unit 731’s
intercontinental ballistic missiles with being the obliteration of enemies in diabolical remit.These were designated
anthrax-carrying microbes and fire them mainland China – through its top-secret as Dai-ichi (No. 1), Dai-ni (No. 2), Dai-san
into the United States. (Anthrax is a highly biological warfare research operative (No. 3) and so on. Tan worked in Dai-ni.
SECRET WAR
fatal infection caused by the bacterium known as Unit 731. The unit was set up
Bacillus anthracis.) sometime between 1932 and 1935, with
Anthrax-tipped missiles might its headquarters in Shinjuku, the Tokyo
Burrowing Through Bookshelves
seem like the fantasy of a delirious ward with the world’s busiest train The terrifying details of Singapore as
despot – until one learns that anthrax station today. From this Shinjuku unit a base for Unit 731’s evil first came to
and the bubonic plague were developed later sprang a second Asian command light when Singaporean researcher
right here in Singapore by the Imperial centre in Harbin, in northeastern China. and collector Lim Shao Bin was invited
Japanese Army (IJA) for use as biologi- The Harbin unit answered to its parent by the Singapore Societ y of A sian
EXPERIMENTS
cal weapons during World War II. Like unit in Shinjuku. Studies to speak on the subject at the
North Korea, the IJA threatened to kill Besides Shinjuku and Harbin, Unit National Library on 4 November 2017.
hordes of people by dropping disease- 731 was also found in Singapore. The The Straits Times followed up with a
carrying bombs on them. But unlike Singapore branch, known as OKA 9420 newspaper report on 13 November.1
North Korea (for now), the IJA actually (“oka” meaning “hill” or “height” in Lim, 61, began ferreting out the ugly
carried out the nefarious deed during Japanese), was set up just days after the truths about Unit 731 when he was in
IN SINGAPORE
World War II. Fall of Singapore on 15 February 1942. his 20s, poring through piles of books
The plague, which is spread by Like the unit’s other branches, OKA 9420 and papers cramming the dusty shelves
rats, is highly infectious and has a was run by some of Japan’s top doctors of bookshops lining shabby but genteel
death rate of between 50 and 100 per- and scientists. Its first head was Yoshio Kanda Street in Tokyo.
cent. It is sometimes called the Black Hareyama, who was soon replaced by Lim is no eccentric, but an avid his-
Death because its victims’ lymph nodes Ryoichi Naito. tory buff and collector of memorabilia
swell into dark boils and the skin turns The latter and his colleagues worked such as old postcards and photos of Sin-
The story of the Imperial Japanese Army farming bubonic black from gangrene. The worst plague out of the stately building at Outram Park gapore. His quest to uncover and piece
plague-bearing fleas as biological weapons is very much fact, outbreak to date occurred in Europe – the Singapore General Hospital’s Col- together hidden details of the Japanese
between 1347 and 1350, when almost lege of Medicine today (and home to the Occupation, including the atrocities of
not fiction. Cheong Suk-Wai delves deeper. 65 per cent of the continent’s population Ministry of Health). As Singaporean war Unit 731, is his way of finding closure
was wiped out, making it one of history’s survivor Geoffrey Tan, 91, recalled in his for his paternal grandfather’s sense-
most devastating pandemics. 2001 memoir Escape from Battambang: less murder by the Japanese just after
18 19
they surrendered to the Allied Forces it, “an investigator of war crimes”, but his instrumental in helping Lim retrace the But Lim unearthed more on this
in 1945 (see text box overleaf). zeal and eye for detail are impressive. For murky workings of this clandestine unit subject in Kanda Street. Besides the
It helped that the younger Lim is instance, he was able to refer me to an because the chain showed Singapore to plague, he learnt from wartime docu-
equally adept at reading, writing and August 2002 paper by the late American be the Southeast Asian headquarters of ments found in Kanda Street bookshops
speaking Japanese. His study of the scholar Sheldon H. Harris, and point to Unit 731, along with other units in the that OKA 9420’s three labs cultivated
language is so serious that he has taught references in it to OKA 9420, including Malayan towns of Tampoi in Johor and such pandemic horrors as cholera,
himself old Japanese script, the lan- the 150 physicians who worked at the Kuala Pilah in Negeri Sembilan. smallpox, malaria, typhus, dysentery
guage in which the books and documents Singapore unit. In his memoir, Takebana also said and anthrax.
he sought were written. Over some 40 He adds that Unit 731 not only had a that when he was first shipped in to In some British war time docu-
years, Lim rifled through and acquired lot of clout, but also an “extraordinary” Singapore, he reported for work at OKA ments, there is also mention of the
all the wartime records and other docu- budget for its activities. Lim said he 9420 at Outram Park. He started out as malaria parasite cultivated in the Sin-
ments he could find on Unit 731. gleaned this from the 1991 memoir by a clerk of sorts but later took charge of gapore labs and used to kill hundreds
Lim did not, however, rely on Kanda a former OKA 9420 worker, Koichi Take- the huge boilers in the unit’s backyard, of British soldiers in 1942 when the IJA
Street alone. His burning questions about bana, entitled Fleas, Rats and Plague: and soon became aware of what he called invaded Buin and Bougainville Island in
Unit 731 spurred him to trawl the internet I Saw All Three. Crucially, Takebana’s the “critical” (i.e. biological warfare Papua New Guinea.
for clues of its heinous activities. Lim may book contains vital information about development) lab within the area, which
be an amateur researcher or, as he puts OKA 9420’s chain of sub-units. This was had huge facilities.
No Need for Bullets
Harbin, the capital city of Heilongjiang
The Workings of OKA 9420 province in China, is today famous for
Ironically, it was claimed that OKA 9420 its beer and the annual ice sculpture
was set up to rid Singapore of the plague festival, but during World War II, its This sketch is a simplified version of a rough map of Unit 731's branch in Permai Hospital, Tampoi. The
and other infectious diseases. Some outlying hamlet Pingfang served as Unit map was published on page 44 of the 1991 memoir, Fleas, Rats and Plague: I Saw All Three, by former
among its 600-strong staff thought that 731’s hub in China. OKA 9420 worker Koichi Takebana. The dividing wall in the sketch was about 4 m high, and separated
was true. Among them was Geoffrey Tan, Lim’s research shows that after the biological warfare production units from those providing support services such as washing, cooking,
sterilisation of equipment and logistics. Drawn by Cheong Suk-Wai, based on information by Lim Shao
who was one of those involved in making Japan unleashed the Nanjing Massacre Bin and Koichi Takebana. All rights reserved, Cheong Suk-Wai, Lim Shao Bin, Koichi Takebana and the
the anti-tetanus vaccine in Dai-ni lab. between December 1937 and Janu- National Library Board, Singapore.
Tan stuck it out for four months before ary 1938, Unit 731 began researching
quitting. When Lim met Tan recently and the optimal conditions necessary for
asked him why he was willing to work breeding biological weapons, such as Once the captive rats were bloated of fleas, the effects were quadrupled,
there in the first place, the latter said plague-carrying fleas from rats, in order from the frenzied feeding, the lab work- easily wiping out as many as 2,400 people
that if the Japanese were developing to obliterate the Chinese economically ers would inject them with the plague at once. “The Japanese found it a most
vaccines against tetanus, “they cannot and efficiently. bacteria. When the rats became sick, effective weapon of war,” he notes. On one
only be doing bad things”. Tropical Singapore and Malaya were millions of fleas would be unleashed on of their subsequent bombing blitzes, war
In 2000, former Singaporean cabi- ideal breeding grounds because Unit them. The bloodsuckers went straight to planes carrying clay bombs filled with oxy-
net minister Othman Wok, who worked 731’s research showed that fleas thrived work, feeding on their dying prey. gen and plague-infected fleas obliterated
as a lab assistant in OKA 9420, wrote best in places that had temperatures of Lab workers would then isolate more than 9,000 people in China, accord-
in his biography, Never in My Wildest between 27 and 30 degrees Celsius, and the fleas, now swollen with plague-rich ing to Chinese wartime records. “There
Dreams, that he was certain Singapore 90 percent humidity. blood. This involved an ingenious plan of was no need for bullets,” adds Lim wryly.
had been a base for making biological Despite these hospitable conditions, shovelling flea-embedded soil or sawdust From a 2009 Japanese research
weapons. 2 For one thing, he was made it appeared that there were insufficient into a box, with mounds of dirt atop the report, Lim further learnt that in June
to trap rats and then check his rodent rats in Malaya and Singapore for IJA’s box, and then shining a light on the fleas 1940, 3,031 people in China’s Jilin prov-
bounty for fleas, which his colleagues diabolical ambitions. Hence, in late at an angle. The fleas, which hated the ince died after being infected by plague-
in the lab would then retrieve for later 1943, the Japanese military transported glow, would then flee to the box’s darkest bearing fleas originating from Unit 731,
use. Unfortunately, Othman, who died 30,000 rats by military jets from Tokyo corners, where lab workers would scoop while in October that same year, another
on 17 April 2017 at the age of 92, did not to Singapore to bolster the local rat them up as one would raisins. The “raisins” 9,060 people died in Zhejiang province,
say more in his book about OKA 9420’s population. The IJA also sent truckloads would then be examined under micro- located south of Shanghai.
shady misdeeds. of the vermin to two places in Malaya: scopes in the labs, which were located To top it off, and as an experiment,
Permai Hospital in Tampoi, in the middle right next to the plantations. Here, lab Japanese land troops contaminated
of a Johor jungle, and a school in Kuala workers had to “verify” if the fleas were the wells of several of the villages
(Top) The neo-classical College of Medicine Building Pilah. The Japanese also sent rats to incubating the plague bacteria in their they invaded in Zhejiang with bacteria.
(c.1949) with its stately row of fluted Doric columns Bandung in Indonesia. systems, according to Lim. “That was so senseless,” obser ves
was erected in 1926 to house the King Edward VII The rats flown in from Japan, along Millions of the “verified” fleas were Lim, noting that they never repeated
College of Medicine. Ironically a building dedicated
to the training of medical doctors would later be
with those caught locally, were housed in then flown to Thailand every two or three that experiment.
turned into a facility to spread diseases among what Lim calls “plantations” within the months “in big glass jars”, says Lim, OKA 9420 maintained huge boilers
people. Ong Kay Ann Collection, courtesy of National OKA 9420 compound in Outram Park. ready for Japanese war planes to drop that bubbled and belched steam 24 hours
Archives of Singapore. Each rat farm, as it were, consisted of on their hapless foes. a day so that workers always had boiling
(Left) Passers-by bowing to Japanese soldiers
a hut within a small garden. The floor of Wartime records show that 10,000 water on hand to disinfect themselves
outside a Japanese-owned shop in Singapore dur-
ing the Japanese Occupation, c.1942–45. Unknown each hut was a huge metal plate, bolted rats sickened by the bubonic plague and sterilise their equipment instantly.
to the local population at the time, the Japanese down. On each plate rested four cages, could yield 10 kg of plague-bearing Meanwhile, Lim learnt from online
had set up a laboratory in Singapore to cultivate into which the rats were released. It fleas – and one needed only 5 g of fleas, Japanese war time records that the
pathogens that could cause pandemics such as must have seemed like heaven as food or an estimated 1,700 fleas, to finish Japanese disposed of the rat carcasses
anthrax, cholera, smallpox and malaria. From
Shashin Shuho, courtesy of National Archives
scraps were scattered liberally about off around 600 people, as Lim learnt by incinerating them in nearby furnaces
of Singapore. these cages. from reading the documents. With 10 g built for that express purpose.
20 21
Dr Yosuke Watanabe, 47, visiting fellow

a grandson’s relentless quest also, as he says, find “closure” for his at the Center for Asia-Pacific Partner-
grandfather’s senseless killing. ship, Osaka University of Economics
In the 1970s, it was rare for a Singa- Ever y month, he would have to and Law, acted as translator.
porean to snag a scholarship to study report to NMB’s Tokyo office on Kanda When I asked Prof Takashima what,
and work in Japan, and most would Street, where the bookshops were. He as a Japanese, he would like to say to
be overjoyed at such an opportunity. recalls: “After visiting the office, I would Singaporeans, he hesitated and then
But when Lim Shao Bin won drop by the bookshops and soon found said: “Now is the time for making peace
the chance to work for Japanese that I could find wartime documents if from humanism, not for condemning
precision engineering company NMB I was patient enough.” war criminals.” He hoped that the OKA
– which was among the first Japa- The budding collec tor star ted 9420 stories that Lim has unearthed
nese multinationals to set up shop small, rifling through the bookshelves would spur Singaporeans to learn more
in Singapore after independence in for old postcards. He started to find about their history.
1965 – he had mixed feelings about it. things relating to Singapore. Paying Prof Takashima added that his
For one thing, he had rued since he tribute to Kanda’s old-style shops and interest in Unit 731 was piqued when one
was a boy that his paternal grandfather, their owners, he says: “It’s a special of his students took him to visit the Tam-
Lim Kui Yi, had died at the hands of trade. When they purchase something A portrait of Lim Kui Yi, the paternal grand- poi site in the 1980s. That started him
Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) soldiers to put on their shelves, they price their father of Lim Shao Bin whom the Japanese off on his quest to uncover the atroci-
Imperial Army killed in Melaka on 5 September
during the Japanese Occupation. purchases w ith pr ide and profes- 1945. Courtesy of Lim Shao Bin.
ties committed by the IJA in Southeast
Lim, who was bor n in 1957, sionalism. So if they say something is Asia. “The Japanese Occupation is not
remembers, “When I was a kid, I was worth 2,000 yen, you can be assured researched much in Japan,” he told me,
just told ‘Grandpa had been killed they are right. They respect sincere over the necklace of islands south explaining why, in 1983, he established
during World War II.’” So I assumed collectors.” Kanda’s bookshop owners of Japan, which China claims under his now-yearly Takashima Tours, taking
he was killed by Japanese aerial also, up till recently, traded on “cash the name Diaoyu, and which Japan a busload of his countrymen on tours
bomb attacks in Singapore. only” terms. knows as Senkaku. The tensions of former World War II sites in Singa-
“But after I got the scholar- Lim adds: “World War II split Japan are still taut today; on 31 January pore and Malaysia. In the course of his
ship, my father told me the truth: into two worlds. Before the Japanese 2018, China ordered the Japanese From left to right: Professor Nobuyoshi Takashima, Dr Yosuke Watanabe and Lim Shao Bin, holding a travels, Prof Takashima came to know
Grandpa had been killed after the surrendered, they were so confident consumer goods giant Muji to destroy rare 1938 map showing Tokyo as the centre of the world. This photo was taken on 15 February 2018, Lim, and the firm friends now meet and
Japanese surrendered in August of themselves. They learnt from the all its catalogues that contained during the Japanese dons’ yearly sojourn to Singapore to commemorate the Fall of Singapore on 15 regularly exchange information on Unit
February 1942. Courtesy of Cheong Suk-Wai.
1945.” His grandfather was the head West but modernised their culture, what China called “a problem map” 731 and the IJA via email.
of the feedback unit of Melaka’s including language, without the need bec aus e it omit ted the Diaoy u / In 2010, Prof Takashima wrote and
temporary city council, set up right of foreign languages like English.” This Senkaku islands. Lim says: “There In late June 1945, OKA 9420 suddenly Naito, his deputy Iichiro Otaguro published a guidebook of such sites in
after the Japanese surrender to give occasionally led to some blind spots; are now buyers from the US, Japan, vanished from Singapore – weeks ahead and their ilk went on to rebuild their lives Malaysia, and in 2016, he published
the city some semblance of govern- for instance, there is no traditional China, Taiwan and Korea in Kanda, of the official Japanese surrender on by, among other things, setting up clinics one such book on Singapore. Among
ance. On 5 September, the council Japanese word for “rubber” because all looking for books on Diaoyu or 12 September 1945. At first, everyone to treat everyday folk, joining academia his inner circle of enthusiasts are his
members celebrated Japan’s defeat the trees had never grown in Japan. Senkaku.” at its Tampoi base moved wholesale and rising to professorships and, in 75-year-old wife Michi Takashima,
at Jonker Street by waving flags of But, Lim notes, when Japan lost Lim’s most recent sojourn to to Singapore on 15 June that year, and some instances, becoming politicians. Dr Watanabe and the journalist Fuyuko
the Kuomintang, the Chinese party the war, Japanese egos were deflated, Japan was in early December 2017 to then nine days later, the entire arm was But the truth eventually surfaced. Nishisato, whose 2017 book on Unit 731
led by General Chiang Kai-shek that and of one of the repercussions was that join his friend, Nobuyoshi Takashima, relocated to Laos for no discernible “In the 1980s and 90s,” says Lim, “the titled Behind Bayonets and Barbed Wire:
defended China against the maraud- people began corrupting the Japanese at the World Peace Forum in the reason. Its workers also burned all doctors among these men started to The Secrets of Japanese Army Unit 731,
ing IJA during World War II. language with words from the English old por t cit y of Yokohama. It is traces of their records and research retire and mentor younger doctors. has been mentioned by news agencies
According to Lim’s father, Lim lexicon, resulting in a Japlish form called clear that Lim is as much a bridge- in Singapore, says Lim grimly, leaving When the latter found out that their such as China’s Xinhua.
Chow Sin, the open revelry enraged waise-eigo, yielding mish-mash words builder as he is a truth-seeker. Prof no evidence of its existence. mentors had done such bad things, they Prof Takashima and his contem-
the Kempeitai, the Japanese secret such as bakku-mira (“back mirror”), Takashima, 76, is professor emeritus were shocked.” poraries have also taken to visiting
police who were still around in Mel- chia-garu (“cheergirl” or cheerleader) at Ryukyu University, and he has Some of these younger doctors Singapore every February to commemo-
aka at the time. “So on 5 September and hafu (a “half-blood” or person of been researching the war crimes
Free but not Forgotten formed non-governmental organisa- rate the Fall of Singapore, followed by
1945, they stabbed Grandpa to death mixed ancestry). of the IJA in Southeast Asia for the Lim says that OKA 9420’s head Ryoichi tions, which published accounts of what a chicken rice dinner with Lim at Chin
and threw his body down a well in Today, he considers himself a bona past 40 years. Naito and his colleagues were never their founders had learnt about Unit Chin Eating House, a well-known coffee
Pulau Besar, Melaka.” fide, if not formally trained, “historian” The next step of Lim’s quest tried as war criminals. “After the war, 731’s experiments. Why was Japan not shop on Purvis Street.
Thus, when Lim Shao Bin and sometimes refers to himself as a is to find someone who can help the Americans occupied Japan,” he rocked by such findings? Lim puts it What Lim cannot stomach, even
touched down in Japan for the first “historical detective” – and one keen to him read and decipher a c ache recalls. “They started interviewing and down to the thick fog of negation sur- more than the grisly fates of plague vic-
time in 1980, at the age of 23, he felt revive interest in Singapore’s history of medical reports from Unit 731 tried to arrest war criminals. And one rounding Japan’s war crimes, including tims, is what he sees as Unit 731’s “lack
conflicted. “It was quite confusing; before the nation gained independence written by Iichiro Otaguro. “After critical thing they sought more informa- from Japan’s powerful and vociferous of remorse” for any of their actions. He
I was supposed to learn from these on 9 August 1965. He says wistfully: independence, so much of Singa- tion about was biochemical warfare in right-wing politicians. Also, he mused says of Unit 731’s surviving Japanese
people but I also thought, ‘I shouldn’t “After independence, I think we empha- pore history emphasised the years Harbin. They wanted the key men.” sadly: “Children do not appreciate their officers: “All these soldiers write about
learn blindly from this place.’” sised too much on what was happening after 1965. I would like what I’ve The Americans tracked down Naito grandfathers’ histories.” somebody else’s stories, not their own
But as a true Singaporean who on this small island and lost the history found to spur future generations who, in his fluent English, told them Some Japanese do, though. On 15 dirty work.”
was “a bit kiasu”, he did his best at of the years before 1965.” of Singaporeans to rediscover the that he would turn over all the medical February this year, Lim introduced me
work. Yet, burning within him was one Since 2012, he says, visitors to histor y of our war years. Let’s not records, data from experiments and to Nobuyoshi Takashima, 76, professor
big question: “Why was there a war in quiet Kanda Street have trebled. It is make it a case of children forgetting papers to the US on condition that they emeritus at Ryukyu University, who has Notes
Malaya to begin with?” So began his more proof that history does matter, their grandparents’ past”, says Lim let him walk free. The Americans did been researching the dark days of the 1 Zaccheus, M. (2017, November 13). WWII S’pore
used as base to spread disease. The Straits Times.
quest to understanding all he could for the increase in literar y foragers with a pensive smile. just that, granting Naito and the rest Japanese Occupation in Singapore and Retrieved from The Straits Times website.
about the Japanese Occupation – and is due to China and Japan’s squabble of Unit 731 immunity from prosecution Malaya for more than 40 years. As Prof 2 Othman Wok. (2000). Never in my wildest dreams.
for war crimes. Takashima speaks no English, his friend, Singapore: Raffles. (Call no.: RSING 324.259570092 OTH)
22 23
Ronnie Tan is a Senior Manager (Research) To carry out its nefarious activities, communists, it is not surprising that she units scattered around the jungle fringes
with the National Library, Singapore, the MCP’s Central Committee needed to readily joined the MCP in 1942 when she of Malaya or in the vicinity of Ipoh.
where he researches public policy, as well communicate effectively with its rank- was recruited by her school teacher. By then, the Malayan Special Branch
as historical, regional and library issues. and-file members scattered throughout The courier network Lee Meng was – instructed to flush out MCP members
Prior to his posting to the National Library, Malaya and Singapore. But as the MCP ordered to set up required all messages and sympathisers – had found out about
he served as a librarian in a public library, cadres had no access to wireless com- to and from Chin Peng, or between local Lee Meng’s activities and decided to pen-
school library and fisheries research library.
munications technology back then, they units and regimental commanders, to pass etrate the courier link she was heading
had to rely on “open and fragile jungle through it. During the early years of the and establish her whereabouts. The task
couriers”.4 Emergency, Lee Meng’s exact wherea- of arresting Lee Meng and unravelling the
As it turned out, communications bouts were unknown as she had reportedly network fell on the shoulders of Detective-
– or the lack of, rather − was the MCP’s gone underground, living among Min Yuen Inspector Irene Lee Saw Leng.11
Achilles heel. To cite an example, com-
munications between local branches of
the Min Yuen (Mass People’s Movement)
in Pahang, comprising MCP sympathis-
ers, was so bad that one branch was not
aware of the other’s activities even when
the physical distance was small. Chin
Peng, Secretary-General of the MCP
then, himself admitted that the Sungei
Siput killings “were the work of local
cadres acting without an order from
the Central Committee – even without
its knowledge”.5
Chin Peng needed someone who was
street smart and capable of managing its
communications courier system in north
and central Malaya, and decided that the
best person for the job as MCP’s “head
courier” was a young lady named Lee
Ten Tai (alias Lee Meng). Lee was leader
O
of the Kepayang Gang6 which operated in
Ipoh, the state capital of Perak.
Lee Meng: Malayan Mata Hari

On 16 June 1948, three European planters Lee Meng already had a reputation as a
were brutally murdered by communist cunning fighter and organiser. She was
guerillas in the Sungei Siput area in Perak also “one of the most ruthless and capable
state, in what was then known as Malaya.1 members of the Min Yuen” in Ipoh.7 Surren-
Two days later, Britain declared a state of dered and captured communist guerrillas
Emergency in Malaya, with Singapore fol- claimed that Lee had ordered a number
lowing suit on 24 June 1948. The battle for of cold-blooded executions that were
HUNTING DOWN
control of Malaya and Singapore between carried out by Communist Special Service
the British and the Malayan Communist squads.8 While Chin Peng described her
Party (MCP; also known as the Communist as “dedicated, active and brave” he also
Party of Malaya) had begun, and it would commented that she “lacked caution” and
THE
MALAYAN
not end until 31 July 1960. was reckless in her operational style.9
During the Malayan Emergency (1948– Lee Meng was born in Guangzhou,
60), the MCP carried out labour strikes, China, in 1926 and moved to Ipoh at the
assassinations and other acts of violence age of five. She was believed to have
MATA HARI
aimed at bringing about social and industrial worked as a Chinese school teacher in
disruption in Malaya and Singapore. Teluk Anson (now known as Teluk Intan),
In Singapore, the MCP tried to over- Perak, during the British Military Admin- (Facing page) Lee Meng, head courier of the Malayan Commuinist Party in an undated photo (left), and
being escorted to the Ipoh court complex for her retrial 10 days after she was found innocent during her first
throw the British authorities “by means istration period – the interim military trial on 27 August 1952 (right). Image source: Chin, P. (2003). My Side of History (pp. 340, 343). Singapore:
of subversion and terror”.2 Specific sec- government established in Singapore Media Masters Pte Ltd. (Call no.: R SING 959.5104092 CHI)
Ronnie Tan pieces together the fascinating tions of society were targeted, including
“students, factor y workers, govern-
and Malaya after the Japanese surrender
on 12 September 1945.10 Her father was
(Top) Irene Lee (first row, second from left), the Malayan Special Branch officer who played a key role
in Lee Meng’s arrest. Photo was taken around 1955 with six other women police officers, who formed
story of Lee Meng, the Malayan Communist ment servants, intellectuals, politicians, unemployed and lived with her uncle
the first batch of women inspectors in the Malayan Police Force. Image source: Selamat bin Sainayune.
(2007). Polis Wanita: Sejarah Bergambar 1955–2007 (p. 82). Petaling Jaya: Kelana Publications Sdn Bhd.
Party female agent who headed its courier newspapermen, transport workers and
dockhands”.3 The wealthy were not spared
and aunt, while her mother would be
banished to China in 1950 after she was
(Call no.: R 363.208209595 SEL)
(Above) The brutal murder of three European planters by communist guerrillas in the Sungei Siput area,
network for a brief period in 1952. either − the murder of pineapple and arrested for communist activities. Given Perak, on 16 June 1948 led to the British authorities declaring a state of Emergency in Malaya two days
rubber merchant Lim Teck Kin being a Lee Meng’s disenfranchised background later, with Singapore following suit on 24 June. The Emergency lasted for 12 years and ended only in 1960.
©The Straits Times, 17 June 1948, p. 1.
case in point. and her mum’s own involvement with the
24 25
Detective-Inspector Irene Lee: Workers Protection Corps in Singapore. Meanwhile, the other woman was press in Singapore, but 50,000 copies of
Special Branch Officer Wong also had a hand in the murder of quietly arrested by Special Branch offic- the photograph would be dropped by plane
pineapple and rubber merchant Lim Teck ers inside Robinsons. Along Stamford around the area where she operated. Left
On the other side of the ideological divide Kin and others, including a policeman, a Road, just by YMCA's tennis courts, Ah with little room to manoeuvre, Ah Shu
was Detective-Inspector Irene Lee, who was factory supervisor and a manager at Hock Shu alighted and started walking towards agreed to cooperate and carry the message
herself a victim of the communists: in April Lee Bus Company. YMCA building, with Lee following behind. to Johor and pass it on to the next link in
1951, her policeman husband, Detective- Once the identity of Ah Shu was At the right moment, Lee gave the signal the courier chain.
Corporal Jimmy Loke, was murdered by established, the Special Branch sent for the unmarked Special Branch car to The information Ah Shu supplied
communist gunmen in Penang.12 After her Irene Lee to Singapore in February 1952 to draw abreast. Simultaneously, Lee stuck led Special Branch officers to an address
husband’s death, Lee joined the police force track Ah Shu down and follow a complex a gun into Ah Shu’s back and ordered her in Yong Peng, Johor, where another
as an inspector and was posted to Special trail that would ultimately lead to Lee to get into the car, which then sped off to unnamed woman courier along the chain
Branch Headquarters in Kuala Lumpur. Meng’s arrest and eventual banishment a secret Special Branch “safe house” on lived. To gain her trust, Lee posed as a fel-
Lee was highly regarded by her peers to China. the outskirts of the city. low communist courier. Her ruse worked
in Singapore’s Special Branch as a compe- For three weeks, Ah Shu’s move- On arrival, Ah Shu was searched and the woman believed her.
tent and experienced officer. She was not ments were closely monitored, par- by a woman constable, and a message Lee then persuaded the woman to
only a highly skilled markswoman but also ticularly when she went shopping at hidden in a sealed tin of Johnson’s baby go out for lunch. The former made up
“a brilliant lock-picker, an expert with a mini- Robinson’s department store, which powder was found in her shopping bag. a story about how she had murdered a
camera, an accomplished thief (in the course was then located at Raffles Place. On a The tin’s bottom had been skillfully policeman in an ambush not far from Yong
of her duty)” and endowed with a “delicious number of occasions, Lee observed Ah removed to contain the message. After Peng three days earlier. The meal would
sense of humour”, according to the British Shu unobtrusively from a safe distance the message had been extracted and be a celebration of Lee’s daring feat. After
journalist and author Noel Barber.13 as the latter “skillfully switch[ed] identi- photographed, it was then carefully put lunch, Lee flagged a taxi (conveniently
cal shopping bags”,14 believed to contain back into another identical tin, “which driven by a Special Branch officer) and
communist literature and messages, meant that a detective had to persuade both got in. Four hours later, the woman A communist guerrilla surrenders to security forces at a rubber plantation during the Malayan Emergency
The Hunt for Lee Meng with another unidentified lady courier. an irate shopkeeper to open up [late at courier arrived at the Holding Centre in (1948–60). Image source: Barber, N. (1971). The War of the Running Dogs: How Malaya Defeated the Com-
munist Guerrillas, 1948–60 (p. 216). London: Collins. (Call no.: R CLOS 959.5 BAR-[JSB])
The breakthrough in the hunt for Lee Meng The Special Branch knew then that both night] and sell him another [unblemished] Kuala Lumpur with Lee by her side.
came in early February 1952 following a women had to be arrested. tin so the message could be replaced”.15 After dinner, the woman was ush-
raid on a communist guerrilla camp in At 5 pm one evening, Lee shad- All that remained was for Lee to ered into a small room for interrogation Inside the taxi, Lee read out the temporarily unloaded while the wheel
Selangor. Captured documents from the owed Ah Shu and watched her as she persuade Ah Shu to cooperate with the during which Lee managed to convince riot act to her captive, spelling out the was changed. Now those loitering in the
deserted camp revealed the identity of met the other lady to switch bags. No Special Branch and return to the jungle her that the only way out of this difficult various activities Chen Lee had carried area, even if they were communist sym-
a Chinese woman serving as a courier words were exchanged in the process. with the message that was now hidden in situation was to cooperate with the police out for the Min Yuen, including filling his pathisers or spies, had to help the lorry
out of Singapore into Johor and who was In the meantime, Lee’s male colleagues the new tin of baby powder. Lee managed and become a Special Branch double bicycle pump with rice, buying drugs and driver and his workers unload the crates,
believed to be the Singapore link in Lee waited in an unmarked Special Branch to shake Ah Shu's resolve by showing her agent. She agreed and in time became hiding them in the jungle and buying three otherwise something would seem amiss.
Meng’s intricate courier network. car, with its engine running. As Ah Shu a photograph taken in the safe house – in one of its most valuable double agents. bullets – a crime punishable by death Since the crates could not be placed on
That woman was known as Ah Shu or walked out of the store, Lee tailed her, which she was seated with two smiling The double agent realised that she had in Malaya. Chen Lee initially denied the the road without impeding traffic flow,
Ah Soo, a Chinese school teacher and the initially on foot and then by trishaw, with uniformed Malay policemen – with the “wasted the best years” of her life working charges but after Lee produced enough they were conveniently stacked against
wife of Wong Fook Kwang, alias Tit Fung, the Special Branch car following behind warning that the photograph would not for the communists, and even asked her concrete evidence of his crimes, he the door of the bookshop.
the leader of the Communist-controlled at a discreet distance. only be published widely in the Chinese superiors to be allowed to work with Lee.16 decided to cooperate and divulge the next Unaware to passers-by, Irene Lee
link in the courier chain – a bookshop on was hiding in one of those crates. While
Batu Road, Kuala Lumpur. the men went about changing the wheel,
The Trail to Kuala Lumpur As Batu Road was a busy street, the Lee opened the trapdoor of the crate,
The trail next led to a male rubber tapper raid had to be carefully planned without “picked the front door lock [of the book-
in Jenderak rubber estate, near Jerantut, raising the suspicion of the bookshop shop], entered the shop, searched it,
Pahang. Every morning, Lee turned up at owner and communist cadres lurking in made photocopies and was back in her
the rubber estate, posing as a rubber tap- the neighbourhood. Otherwise, contacts packing case” – all before the lorry was
per. After “work” was done at around 11.30 in the courier chain would be alerted reloaded with the crates.18 From the
am, Lee’s real job began, shadowing the and go into hiding. For this reason, the evidence Lee found in the bookshop,
after-work activities of a male rubber tapper Special Branch hatched an elaborate the Special Branch ascertained that the
named Chen Lee, a member of the Min Yuen. plan that involved the acquisition of a nerve centre of the courier network was
Lee shadowed Chen Lee for several pineapple estate and cannery in Johor located in Ipoh and not Kuala Lumpur as
weeks, and eventually, her efforts paid that exported canned pineapples. A lorry it originally thought, and that it was run
off; she obtained evidence that Chen Lee carrying a cargo of canned pineapples by a woman.
was a communist courier and had been to be shipped out to Britain the next day
smuggling food to food dumps meant for via Penang would pass through Kuala
communist terrorists hiding out on the Lumpur at a particular time.
The Cat Finally Gets her Mouse (in Ipoh)
fringes of the jungle. After ascertaining In order not to arouse the suspicion Two blocks away from the FMS Bar in Ipoh,
Chen Lee’s involvement in clandestine of Min Yuen members in the area, the the communist courier trail which began in
activities, she arranged to have him lorry’s movement was timed so that it Singapore on February 1952 finally ended at
arrested. One day, when Chen Lee was “fitted in perfectly” with the actual ship- a small, nondescript house in Lahat Road.
(Above) Robinsons department store in Raffles Place in the early 1950s where two communist couriers walking along a lonely road while out on ment schedule.17 The lorry would suffer a The house “turned out to be the undercover
were caught switching shopping bags containing communist literature and messages. It started a chain one of his regular visits to drop off sup- rear wheel puncture just as it passed by communication post coordinating the secret
of events that would lead to Lee Meng’s arrest on 24 July 1952. RAF Seletar Association Collection,
courtesy of National Archives of Singapore. plies for his comrades in the jungle, he the bookshop. To replace the wheel, the courier network reporting to the CPM’s
(Right) As part of the communists’ clandestine communications network, rolled slips containing secret was nabbed by Special Branch officers lorry would have to be jacked up. However, Central Committee”.19
coded messages were concealed in everyday nondescript items such as a wall clock or a Chinese tea and bundled into the back of a taxi, with due to the weight of the goods, the crates Special Branch officers kept the
box. Courtesy of ISD Heritage Centre. Irene Lee beside him. packed with tins of pineapple would be house under 24-hour surveillance. At
26 27
a UK-bound ship in Penang the following day, a

8 pm on 24 July 1952, a raid was carried But there was another twist to the awarded the Colonial Police Medal for
dock labourer, likely a communist, approached the
out. Irene Lee’s knock on the door was Lee Meng story. Lee Meng’s trial had meritorious service in 1956. lorry driver to ask if his vehicle had indeed suffered
answered by her nemesis, Lee Meng. generated worldwide interest, with the Lee left the police force on 1 Janu- a tyre puncture along Batu Road in Kuala Lumpur
Stunned by this stranger at the door, government receiving petitions for her to ary 1960 “as a result of a disagreement the previous day.
Lee Meng and her friend Cheow Yin, be spared the death penalty. Moreover, with the Malayan authorities” 29 and 19 Comber, 2008, p. 230.
20 ‘I am not the bandit boss Lee Meng’, says woman,
who was also in the house at the time, the Cold War between the Soviet Union subsequently took up a secretarial job at
24. (1952, August 29). The Straits Times, p. 7.
were caught unawares and unarmed, and Eastern Bloc countries and the United an import firm in Singapore. She passed 21 After Lee Meng was handpicked to head the courier
and quickly apprehended. States and its NATO allies was in full away on 12 May 1994 at the age of 72. network, Chin Peng told her to acquire an old
The noose around Lee Meng tightened swing. Both sides conducted espionage Chinese desk. It had a false drawer where she
activities on each other to gain the upper could conceal messages meant to be transmitted
further when she slipped up in her attempt
along the courier network.
to produce her identity card. Issued in Ipoh hand in the battle for dominance. The author would like to thank 22 Comber, 2008, p. 231.
in 1949, the card did not bear her name It was against this backdrop, on 2 Yvonne Yeo, Goh Yu Mei and Seow 23 Lee Meng decision on Monday? (1953, March
but that of another person by the name March 1953, that the Hungarian gov- Peck Ngiam for their help in trans- 7). Singapore Standard, p. 7. Retrieved from
of Wong Nyuk Yin.20 Lee Meng claimed ernment offered to swap Lee Meng for lating Lee Meng’s autobiography and NewspaperSG.
24 Tai, S. O. (1964, January 29). It’s back to China for
that she had been in Ipoh for just over two a British businessman, Edgar Sanders, providing additional information, as
Lee Meng. The Straits Times, p. 7. Retrieved from
years and was living in Singapore prior to who was serving a 13-year jail sentence well as the staff at the ISD Heritage NewspaperSG.
that. However, Irene Lee caught on to her in Budapest for espionage. Almost over- Centre for their assistance in provid- 25 Lim, P. G. (2012). Kaleidoscope: The memoirs
lie; it was impossible for Lee Meng to be night Lee Meng’s case became a cause ing resources for this article. of P.G. Lim (p. 141). Petaling Jaya: Strategic
Information and Research Development Centre,
in Singapore in 1949 and yet receive “her” celèbre.25 However, the offer of a prisoner
Petaling Jaya. (Call no.: RSEA 322.5950092 LIM)
identity card in Ipoh at the same time. swap was turned down by the British. 26 Lim, 2012, p. 151.
Notes
Upon further questioning, Lee Meng Lee Meng was incarcerated at Taip- 27 郑昭贤 [Zheng, Z.]. (2007). 陈田夫人: 李明口述历史
1 Malaya was still under British rule in 1948. It
buckled. In addition, the old Chinese desk ing Jail until her release and banishment gained independence on 31 August 1957 and (pp. 98, 101). Petaling Jaya: 策略资讯研究中心. (Call
with a false drawer that Chin Peng had to China on 23 November 1963 – the same became known as Malaysia on 16 September no.: Chinese RSEA 324.2595075092 ZZX)
28 Lim, 2012, p. 152.
ordered her to buy earlier was found in the fate that had befallen her mother in 1950. 1963 after representatives from Sabah, Sarawak
and Singapore signed the Federation of Malaysia 29 Comber, 2008, p. 242.
house.21 Inside the drawer were commu- However, it was only in January 1964 that
agreement on 9 July 1963.
nist documents waiting to be disseminated the Malaysian government announced her 2 Clague, P. (1980). Iron Spearhead: The true story
– ample proof of her role as being part of deportation. Before Lee Meng left, she of a communist killer squad in Singapore (p. 3). References
Chin Peng’s courier network. Lee Meng asked the lawyers who defended her, the Singapore: Heinemann Educational Books (Asia) Coroner returns murder finding. (1951, June 6). The
was subsequently remanded in Taiping Seenivasagam brothers (Sri Padhmaraja Ltd. (Call no.: RSING 335.43095957 CLA) Straits Times. p. 6. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
3 Clague, 1980, p. 3. Douglas, W. O. (1953). North from Malaya: Adventure
Jail to await trial. and Darma Raja, popularly known as S.P.
4 Chin, P. (2003). My side of history (p. 334). on five fronts (p. 55). New York: Doubleday &
and D.R. Seenivasagam), to buy her two Singapore: Media Masters. (Call no.: RSING Company. (Call no.: RD KSC 959 DOU)
bicycles, a transistor radio, blankets, 959.5104092 CHI) Grenade case girl: I’m not that woman story of her 2
The Aftermath a mattress, several watches and some 5 Stockwell, A. J. (2006, November). Chin Peng and I-cards. (1952, August 29). Singapore Standard, p.
the struggle for Malaya. Journal of the Royal Asiatic 1. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
Lee Meng gold bangles so that she could bring
Society, 16 (3), 279–297, p. 286. Retrieved from Irene Lee – from housewife to head of women police.
When Lee Meng appeared before the these to China. JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website. (1958, August 14). The Straits Times, p. 10.
Magistrate’s Court in Ipoh on 6 August In China, she was reunited with 6 According to Leon Comber, the Kepayang Gang was Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
1952, she was charged with three offences her mother, whom she cared for until involved in several deadly hand grenade attacks Lee Meng. (1953, February 24). The Straits Times, p. 1.
– being armed with a pistol and a hand the latter passed on. She also met Chen around Perak in 1949. These included the attack Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
on the offices of the Kin Kwok Daily News (an anti- Lee Meng: Prison drama. (1953, March 10). The Straits
grenade between August 1948 and Sep- Tien, Chin Peng’s “trusted aide and
Communist newspaper) on 1 October 1949 and an Times, p. 1. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
tember 1951 in Ipoh, and for consorting comrade”,26 and married him in 1965. He attack on a circus audience in Kampar that same year. Leong, H. M. (1953, March 10). ‘Grenade girl’ Lee Meng
“with persons who were carrying fire- passed away on 3 September 1990 from 7 Short, A. (2000). In pursuit of mountain rats: is reprieved. Singapore Standard, p. 1. Retrieved
arms and acting in a manner prejudicial lung cancer.27 In August 2007, Lee Meng The communist insurrection in Malaya (p. 384). from NewspaperSG.
Singapore: Cultured Lotus. (Call no.: RSING Malayan takes over as chief of women police. (1958,
to the maintenance of good order”.22 No visited Malaysia. During her visit, she
(Top) Chin Peng (right), Secretary-General of the Malayan Communist Party, seen here with Rashid 959.5104 SHO) August 21). Singapore Standard. p. 2. Retrieved
references were made to her activities as Maidin, one of the few Malay communist leaders and a trusted aide of Chin Peng (undated photo). Image called on one of her trial lawyers, Lim 8 Short, 2000, p. 385. from NewspaperSG.
a courier to avoid compromising Special source: Chin, P. (2003). My Side of History (p. 513). Singapore: Media Masters Pte Ltd. (Call no. R SING Phaik Gan, to thank her for “securing 9 Chin, 2003, p. 348. Malaysia History. (2012, June 30). The Malayan Emergency
Branch operations that were going on at 959.5104092 CHI) her release”.28 It was reported that Lee 10 The British Military Administration (BMA) ended 1948–1960. Retrieved from Malayan History website.
the time and neither was she charged as (Above) Lee Meng (left), former head courier of the Malayan Communist Party, at age 80, seen here with Meng passed away in Guangzhou, China, when civilian rule was restored on 1 April 1946. Miller, S. (2012, April 16). Malaya: The myths of hearts
two friends. Image source: Zheng, Z. (2007). 陈田夫人: 李明口述历史 (p. 3). Petaling Jaya: 策略资讯研究中 See National Library Board. (2014). British Military and minds. Small Wars Journal. Retrieved from
a communist. The Special Branch hoped on 2 June 2012 at the age of 86.
心. (Call no.: 324.2595075092 ZZX) Administration is established. Retrieved from Small Wars Journal website.
that when Chin Peng received news of HistorySG. National Archives of Malaysia. (2018, January 23).
her arrest, he would assume that her Irene Lee 11 Comber, L. (2008). Malaya's secret police Formation of Malaysia 16 September 1963. Retrieved
courier activities had not been exposed. the press,23 was pronounced guilty and her case was dismissed on 14 November. Following the successful capture and 1945–60: The role of the Special Branch in the from National Archives of Malaysia website.
In court, she denied that she was Lee sentenced to death. She was returned to Taiping Jail to await prosecution of Lee Meng, Irene Lee went Malayan Emergency (p. 228). Singapore: Institute Pretty girl gave murder orders: Court told. (1952,
of Southeast Asian Studies; Australia: Monash August 28). The Straits Times, p. 1. Retrieved from
Meng but Lee Ten Tai. She also denied According to one account, while Lee her fate while her lawyers lodged an on to serve in other capacities in the police Asia Institute. (Call no.: RSING 363.283095951 NewspaperSG.
ever living in the jungle and claimed that Meng was remanded in Taiping Jail, she appeal to the Judicial Committee of the force in Malaya. These included stints in COM-[GH]) Selamat bin Sainayune. (2007). Polis wanita: Sejarah
she did not know what a hand grenade tried to seduce the male jailer on night Privy Council in London on 14 February the Penang Contingent, the Georgetown 12 Such a surprise for Irene. (1956, January 4). The bergambar 1955–2007 (p. 279). Petaling Jaya:
was. However, several former communist duty in an effort to become pregnant. She 1953. The appeal was unsuccessful and Police District Headquarters (1957) and Straits Times. p. 7. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. Kelana Publications Sdn Bhd. (Call no.: Malay R
13 Barber, N. (1971). The war of the running dogs: 363.208209595 SEL)
guerrillas testified in court that they had knew that British law did not permit a a petition for clemency was then sent to the Federal Police Headquarters in Kuala
How Malaya defeated the communist guerrillas, Such a surprise for Irene. (1956, January 4). The
seen Lee Meng armed with grenades and pregnant woman to be executed. Unfor- the Sultan of Perak on 23 February 1953. Lumpur (1958), while serving as Chief of 1948–60 (p. 165). London: Collins. (Call no.: RCLOS Straits Times, p. 7. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
was a senior MCP member. tunately for Lee Meng, the authorities The petition was approved and just two Women Police and, shortly thereafter, as a 959.5 BAR-[JSB]) Tay, M. (2008, May 31). Robinsons. The Straits Times,
Lee Meng was initially found not discovered the plot and replaced him weeks later on 9 March, Lee Meng’s death Woman Police Supervisor, with the rank of 14 Barber, 1971, p. 166. p. 67. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
guilty during her first trial on 27 August with a female jailer. sentence was commuted to life impris- Assistant Superintendent of Police (ASP). 15 Barber, 1971, p. 166. The grenade girl who also faced death. (1968, July 15). The
16 Barber, 1971, p. 167. Straits Times, p. 8. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
1952. A retrial was ordered on 10 Septem- During her retrial on 10 September onment in Taiping Jail. While in prison, On 12 October 1959, Lee was trans- 17 Barber, 1971, p. 170. Van Tonder, G. (2017). Malayan Emergency: Triumph of
ber the following month. This time, Lee 1952, Lee Meng appealed to the Malayan she passed her time knitting shawls and ferred to the Perak Contingent and served 18 Barber, 1971, p. 170. Such an elaborate plan was the running dogs (p. 4). Barnsley: Pen and Sword
Meng, now dubbed the “grenade girl” by High Court against her death sentence but even learned to speak “superb Malay”. 24 as an Inspector of ‘A’ Branch. She was warranted: when the crates were being loaded onto Military. (Call no.: RSING 959.5104 VAN)
28 29
Marcus Ng is a freelance writer, editor “Pulo Siquijan” was Erédia’s (mis) flagstaff that stood on it between 1823
and curator interested in biodiversity, rendering of Pulau Sekijang, Malay for and 1833. According to H.T. Haughton,
ethnobiology and the intersection “barking deer island”. Passing sailors then “these islands are supposed to be two roe-
between natural and human histories. played a centuries-old game of Chinese deer at which the ‘spear-reef (Terumbu
His work includes the book Habitats in whispers, distorting “Sekijang” into “St Seligi) off Blakang Mati is being aimed”.9
Harmony: The Story of Semakau Landfill John’s” by way of “Sijang”.6 Erédia’s depic- The tales that gave rise to these names,
(2009 and 2012), and two exhibitions at
tion of two islands sharing the same name, unfortunately, are lost, as are any deer that
the National Museum of Singapore:“Balik
Pulau: Stories from Singapore’s Islands” however, was no error. Two neighbouring may have once inhabited these islands.10
and “Danger and Desire”. isles bore the moniker “St John’s” and Gone too are names that one Cap-
were marked as such in charts, including tain George Thomas assigned to nearby
one produced by French hydrographer islands in the late 1700s.11 Hoping perhaps
i
and geographer Jacques-Nicolas Bellin to expand the Biblical theme, he marked
in 1755 and another by the Honourable Pulau Tekukor (north of St John’s Island) as
Thomas Howe in 1758.7 It was only in 1899 “Luke” and the Sisters’ Islands as “Mark”
that one of the two St John’s Islands – the and “Matthew”. These names, however,
eastern one – which housed a hospital failed to stick and only St John’s survived
It’s well known that Stamford Raffles for patients afflicted with beri-beri, was in later charts.
landed by the banks of the Singapore River renamed Lazarus Island.8
on 29 January 1819 to establish a British In Malay, the islands continue to
trading port on the island.1 Most accounts share a nomenclatural link: Lazarus
Gateway to Singapore
of this colonial milestone, however, skim Island is known as Pulau Sekijang Pelepah St John’s Island was not only Raffles’
over the minor fact that a day earlier, (pelepah means “palm fronds”), while St gateway to Singapore. The hilly island,
Raffles’ fleet of ships had anchored off St John’s Island is Pulau Sekijang Bendera located south of the Singapore harbour,
John’s Island. This was where representa- (bendera means “flag”) on account of a also became a crucial landmark for the
St John’s Island tives of the local ruler – the Temenggong

of Johor, Abdul Rahman – met and assured
the British that Singapore harboured no (Facing page top) Scene at St John’s Island, showing newly arrived migrants at the quarantine centre
FROM GATEWAY
waiting for the ferry to take them to mainland Singapore, c.1908. Courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
Dutch settlers who would be hostile to (Facing page bottom) The living reefs of St John’s Island. In the distant background is the skyline of
rival powers.2 mainland Singapore. Photo taken by Ria Tan on 31 August 2004. Courtesy of WildSingapore.
Early modern Singapore was a by- (Below) Detail of a 1924 map showing St John’s and other adjacent islands. Survey Department Collec-
product of geographical serendipity cou- tion, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
TO GETAWAY
pled with commercial desperation. Raffles’
mission was driven by the British quest
for a regional port that could rival Dutch-
controlled Melaka. Raffles also knew that
the island enjoyed regional pedigree as
“the site of the ancient maritime capital
St John’s Island was once home to new migrants, opium of the Malays”.3 Beyond that, Singapore
addicts and political detainees. Marcus Ng charts the island’s was largely terra incognita to Europeans.4
transformation from a place of exile to an oasis of idyll.

Siquijan to Sekijang
The islands that clustered along Singa-
pore’s southern coastline, however, were
already longstanding landmarks to sailors
plying the waters between the Straits of
Melaka and the South China Sea.
The Portuguese were undoubtedly
familiar with St John’s Island. Portuguese-
Bugis cartographer Manuel Godinho
de Erédia marked two islands as “Pulo
Siquijan” in a map he had drawn in 1613
that was part of a manuscript titled
Declaracam de Malaca e India Meridional
com o Cathay. In another map he drew in
1604, titled Discripsao Chorographica dos
Estreitos de Sincapura e Sabbam. ano.
1604 (Chorographic Description of the
Straits of Sincapura and Sabbam 1604
A.D.), Erédia sketched a maritime pas-
sage called estreito nouo (“New Strait”)
which ran south of Pulau Blakang Mati
(present-day Sentosa) before passing
north of Pulau Sekijang and turning east.5
30 31
fledging port on the mainland. Before alarming levels – to no avail. However, in in steerage (who shared a deck or hold) measles and kindred diseases, and the
Raffles left the settlement, he issued the end, St John’s Island was never used were quarantined for two to three days. barracks and temple for the 15 men of the
instructions “to establish a careful and to accommodate lepers.18 From the 1920s, most cargo-hold travel- island’s Sikh Police force, the gardeners’
steady European at St John’s with a lers were required to transit at St John’s quarters and mosque, the coolies’ and
boat and small crew, for the purpose of Island for inoculation before proceeding workmen’s quarters, the Coroner’s court
boarding all square sailed vessels pass-
Quarantine Island to Singapore, with migrants from China and the lock-up”.24
ing through the Straits”.12 An apocryphal St John’s transformation into a rather less subject to at least a week’s quarantine.22
account credits one Loughony with this welcoming destination began in 1873 after For the British, St John’s Island was
task of informing passing captains “that a severe cholera outbreak in Singapore an achievement “which every resident may
Memories of Quarantine
the port is open” for business .13 St John’s claimed the lives of 357 people. Under be proud”. The Singapore Free Press and Henry Ellis’ initial plans to use Peak (Kusu)
Island, by hosting this crew of heralds, pressure from the mercantile community, Mercantile Advertiser reported in 1926: Island as a burial ground were soon cut
was instrumental in placing Singapore Andrew Clarke, the British Governor in short when a community leader named
on the mental maps of mariners at a time Singapore, approved a proposal by Acting “With thousands of Chinese arriving Cheang Hong Lim raised strenuous objec-
when news could spread only as fast as Master Attendant Henry Ellis to establish at Singapore every week, and with tions to this idea. Instead, Lazarus Island
the swiftest craft. a lazaretto (a facility to isolate and treat smallpox on two out of every four took its place; from the early 20th century
St John’s turn on the frontlines of patients with contagious diseases) on St immigrant ships entering the port, onwards, passengers who died upon or
colonial enterprise was brief. By 1834, John’s Island. Singapore and the Peninsula are shortly after arrival were buried here.
the island was all but abandoned. “The Ellis’ wishlist for the site included a nevertheless kept practically free Writing to the Colonial Engineer J.F.A.
only inhabitant was an old Malay, whose steam cutter (patrol boat), a floating police from that disease…. Certainly the McNair in 1875, Cheang offered a glimpse
small thatched habitation was surrounded station and a hospital as well as burial treatment which the immigrants into Kusu’s cultural life, which British
by cocoa-nut, orange, guava, plantain, grounds on nearby Peak (Kusu) Island.19 received on the island is about as authorities had overlooked. He wrote:
and other tropical fruit-trees”, observed St John’s stint as Singapore’s “Quarantine pleasant an introduction to Malaya
a visiting naturalist, who added, “The view Island” thus began in November 1874 as they could expect. They arrive “... a small Island called Peak
from the summit of this elevated island when the barely completed lazaretto hungry, dirty and miserable after a Island, lying opposite to this Colony
was both extensive and beautiful; the small took in between 1,200 and 1,300 Chinese deck passage through the China Sea, of Singapore, has, for upwards of Minister for Health Armand J. Braga visits the Opium Treatment Centre on St John’s Island when it opened
islands near us were either covered by a passengers from the cholera-stricken and they spend five blissful days – or thirty years been used by many of in 1955. The centre trained opium addicts in various tasks, such as carpentry and woodworking, for their
rehabilitation into productive society. It closed in 1975. Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection,
wilderness of wood, or else the jungle was S.S. Milton from Swatow (now Shantou), it may be a fortnight – with nothing to the Chinese and native Inhabitants
courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
cleared away” for pineapple plantations.14 China.20 do, wholesome food to eat, and the of this Settlement as a place for
The pineapples were still extant in By 1908, the quarantine facility on St beaches of the island on which to them to resort to at certain periods
1847 when Dr Robert Little – a medical John’s had expanded to encompass the lounge away the first hours of leisure every year, for the purpose of making cook and eat there. I was quarantined own food. It gave me a sort of fright there
practitioner who was appointed first entire island, which was populated with they have known in their lives.”23 sacrifices, and paying their vows to for two days before being released.”26 because of centipedes, cockroaches…”29
Coroner of Singapore in 1848 – visited the sheds housing the occupants of infected or certain deities there called ‘Twa Pek Year s l ater, in 1955, Per umal
two St John’s Islands. He wrote: suspected ships,21 be they new migrants Another report in The Straits Times in Kong Koosoo’ and ‘Datok Kramat’, Teong Eng Siong offered a more returned to St John’s Island when he
to Malaya or religious pilgrims returning 1935 feted St John’s as the “largest quar- and as that place has lately, to the sanguine view of his stay on St John’s was transferred there to help establish an
“... we crossed to 2 islands called from performing the Haj in Mecca. antine station in the world” − after New great prejudice of their feelings, been Island after he arrived from Foochow (now Opium Treatment Centre. This centre, he
Pulo Sakijang about 1¼ mile from In reality, quarantine was defined by York’s Ellis Island and El Tor in Egypt − with desecrated by the interment therein Fuzhou) in 1948: explained, trained opium addicts in various
Blakang Mati. On landing on the the class of passage. First- and second- the means to accommodate up to 6,000 of a number of dead bodies. Your tasks for rehabilitation into productive
nearest we ascended a hill covered class cabin passengers could simply people in 22 camps. The island then also Petitioner is desirous of applying for “Every batch of people who came society. “After a month, when they are
with pine apples [sic] and found one present themselves for clearance before housed “several hospitals for actual cases a Title to the same, in order to prevent here had to stay at Qizhang Hill 27 certified fit for work, they were given the
house with one inhabitant… from disembarking, while hapless passengers of smallpox, cholera, plague, chickenpox, that place from being any longer used for a short three to five days, so jobs of carpentry where they made tables,
this island we pulled to the other of as a Burial Ground.”25 as to ensure that there were no chairs, furniture, rattan work, tailoring…”30
the same name, and found on the infectious diseases and such. After The treatment centre at St John’s,
beach a colony of Bugis, consisting Teo Choon Hong, who arrived in three or five days, I was allowed which operated until 1975, was one of the
of 7 men and inhabiting 3 houses. Singapore from Amoy (now Xiamen), ashore.... We had three meals a island’s new functions after the war. But
This had been a settlement for China, in 1937, recalled his quarantine day. Breakfast consisted of bread quarantine continued even after Singa-
40 years, and they permitted no experience with the National Archives of and milk tea. There were two small pore gained independence in 1965 as the
women to be located with them, Singapore in 1983. He said in Hokkien: slices of bread. At that time, it was government had adopted a precautionary
the only reason they gave for this not enough. Then in the afternoon, stance against the risk of infection from
misogynistic feeling, was that “I was quarantined on Kusu Island it was lunch, and at night it was deck passengers from China and India.31
women invariably quarrelled and [later in the interview, he clarified dinner. The meals all had eggs, It was only in 1971 that deck passengers
prevented them from working.”15 that he had meant St John's Island] and some stir-fried vegetables and from China were exempted from compul-
as the British thought that there fish. We had two time slots a day to sory quarantine if they had valid health
The aim of Dr Little’s sojourn to were germs on the lower berth of the shower, because at that time, the certificates.32 Those from India had to wait
St John’s was to investigate remittent steamer that might lead to infectious weather was hotter, hotter than now. until 1973 for compulsory quarantine to
fever (malaria), which he mistakenly diseases. Only those on the lower It made us more comfortable. Living end. St John’s quarantine centre officially
believed was caused by miasma from deck were quarantined. Those who quarters-wise, there were many closed on 14 January 1976.33
dying coral reefs.16 Medical interest in St stayed in the cabins did not have to people living together in a big hall.”28
John’s Island came from other quarters go. There was a class distinction....
in 1848 when a medical committee sug- Being quarantined on Kusu Island For Saravana Perumal, who came
Island and Prison
gested the use of “St John’s or one of the was inhumane. We were bossed from Jaffna, Ceylon, in 1947, St John’s In 1948, parts of St John’s Island were
neighbouring islands” for the segrega- St John’s became known as Singapore’s “Quarantine Island” in November 1874 when the first load of 1,200 around like chickens and ducks. The Island was an “isolated place”. “We were converted into a detention centre for
tion of leprous convicts.17 The subject to 1,300 Chinese passengers from the cholera-stricken S.S. Milton from Swatow (now Shantou), China, British saw us Chinese as beasts. locked up in the camp,” he told the National political prisoners. 34 Earlier, during
was raised again in 1857 – when the arrived on the island. This 1930 photo shows passengers being vaccinated against infectious disease upon After being given some rations, it Archives in 1983. “We were given rations, World War II, the island had already
disembarkation. Courtesy of The National Archives of the UK, ref. CO1069/560 pt1 (23).
leper population in Singapore reached felt like we were camping – we had to firewood, pots to cook and prepare our acquired a political-military dimension
32 33
when it housed Japanese and German new airport. 40 St John’s Island would village with recreational and mooring
civilians. During their stay, the Germans join Kusu, Sisters’ Islands and Sentosa facilities and waterfront housing” failed
erected a Chinese-style moon gate by to become an idyllic getaway from the to materialise as the business climate
the island’s western shore, which still confines of the congested mainland. changed.44 Singaporeans, sparked perhaps
stands today. 35 Meanwhile, before any transforma- by the preservation of Chek Jawa on Pulau
C.V. Devan Nair, who became Sin- tion into an island paradise could take Ubin, also began to see their islands less as
gapore’s third president in 1981, was place, St John’s island housed a final “underutilised” spaces than as treasures
among those detained on St John’s batch of “detainees”: about 1,000 Viet- of national and natural heritage.
Island for anti-colonial activities. With namese refugees fleeing their homeland, New landmarks emerged in the 2000s:
little else to do but immerse himself who occupied the island between May and a Marine Aquaculture Centre where seabass
in books, Nair dubbed the island “St October 1975 as they awaited resettle- are bred, and Singapore’s only offshore Marine
John’s University”. 36 His studies were ment in the West.41 Laboratory where researchers investigate
interrupted one fateful day in 1952 by a Since 1976, St John’s Island has diverse facets of marine science, ranging from
visitor who described the island thus: become entrenched in the memories of giant clams to coral ecology and anti-fouling
a new generation of Singaporeans: as a solutions for the shipping industry. Another
“There, amid beautiful old tembusu site for offshore school camps, holiday milestone occurred in 2014 when St John’s
trees, stood some government bungalows, and wet and wild weekends western shore was designated as part of the
holiday bungalows, and not far at its swimming lagoons protected by Sisters’ Islands Marine Park.45
away, long rows of barrack-like walls of rock. It is also fondly known as A signboard at the end of the jetty
buildings surrounded by chain-link “cat island” to some, in reference to the invites visitors to explore the Marine Park’s
In 1948, part of St John’s Island was converted into a detention centre for political prisoners. In 1956, C.V.
fences for opium addicts undergoing Devan Nair (extreme right) – who became Singapore’s third president in 1981 – along with (from left to abandoned felines that now outnumber Public Gallery on the island’s southern
rehabilitation. One of the bungalows right) Lim Chin Siong, Sydney Woodhull and Fong Swee Suan, his colleagues from the People’s Action children in the corridors of a former pri- peak. The path from the jetty runs through
was also ringed with chain-link Party (PAP), were detained on St John’s until the PAP was returned to power in 1959. This photo was taken mary school established in the 1950s for compounds of barbed wire and beckons
topped with barbed wire. This by Lee Kuan Yew, the first prime minister of Singapore, in 1959. Photograph taken by the late Mr Lee Kuan families of staff residing on the island.42 towards a row of low houses, home to
Yew, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
housed the political detainees.”37 Echoes of the past returned in 1999, the island’s last residents.46 Turn left and Scores of cats now dwell at the former school
when fences and barbed wire lined parts of the trail winds past old bungalows, lush premises on St John's Island. Photo taken by
Marcus Ng on 2 September 2014. Courtesy
That visitor was a young anti-colo- Chin Siong and Sydney Woodhull, until An Island Getaway St John’s Island as the authorities braced mangroves where fiddler crabs frolic at
of Marcus Ng.
nial lawyer named Lee Kuan Yew, and the their release in 1959 when the PAP was for a wave of illegal migrants fleeing politi- low tide, and patches of coastal forest. On
fateful meeting between the two men led returned to power 38 in the Legislative By the mid-1970s, plans were afoot to cal turmoil in Indonesia.43 Thankfully, the the other side of the island are the former
to Nair becoming one of the convenors Assembly general election that gave convert Singapore’s southern islands storm abated but the fences still stand, quarantine quarters turned campsites, far enough to imagine that the island,
of the People’s Action Party (PAP) at its Singapore the right to self-government into beachside holiday destinations.39 In perhaps as a precautionary measure. which overlook beaches that still attract as it was in the not-too-distant past, is
founding in 1954. Nair would later be and paved the way for Lee to become the part, these developments were aimed at In the interim, the two St John’s sizeable crowds on weekends. not where Singapore ends, in space and
detained again in 1956, along with his first prime minister of Singapore. replacing a stretch of the shoreline at Islands were conjoined by a causeway. The bustling city seethes beyond St thought, but a gateway to hope, to a future
party comrades Fong Swee Suan, Lim Changi that would be buried under the Further plans for a “canal-laced marine John’s seawalls, always looming but still in harmony with its history and habitats.
Kuala Lumpur: Malayan Printers. (Call no.: RCLOS December 8). The Straits Times, p. 27. Retrieved 21 Infected ships were defined as those where a recording no. 000335/17/9, p. 95]. Retrieved from NewspaperSG; Wong, P. P. (1992). The newly
Notes 959,5 RAJ-RFL] from NewspaperSG. case of infectious disease had occurred up to 12 National Archives of Singapore website. reclaimed land. In A. Gupta & J. Pitts (Eds.),
1 National Library Board. (2001). Stamford Raffles’s 7 Bellin, J. N. [1755]. Carte réduite des détroits de 14 Bennett, G. (1834). Wanderings in New South days before arrival. Suspected ships were those 30 Chew, D. (1983, October 6). Oral history interview Physical adjustments in a changing landscape:
landing in Singapore by Tan, Bonny. Retrieved from Malaca, Sincapour, et du Gouverneur, dressée Wales, Batavia, Petir Coast, Singapore, and China: where disease had occurred during the voyage but with Saravana Perumal [Transcript of cassette The Singapore story (p. 255). Singapore: Singapore
Singapore Infopedia. au dépost des cartes et plans de la Marine [Map]. Being the journal of a naturalist in those countries with no fresh cases in the 12 days preceding arrival. recording no. 000335/17/11, pp. 116–117]. Retrieved University Press, National University of Singapore.
2 Antechamber text, panel 3, “Arrival at Singapore” Dépôt-Générale de la Marine; Howe, T. (1805, during 1832, 1833 and 1834 (Vol. 2) (pp. 218–221). 22 Teo, D., & Liew, C. (2004). Guardians of our from National Archives of Singapore website. (Call no.: RSING 915.95702 PHY-[TRA])
from Raffles’ Letters: Intrigues Behind the March 17). Sketch of the Straits of Singapore by The London: Richard Bentley. Retrieved from BookSG. homeland: The heritage of Immigration and 31 Quarantine: No change. (1967, December 19). 40 St John’s Island to become holiday resort. (1976,
Founding of Singapore, National Library Gallery, Hon’ble Thomas Howe April 1758 [Map]. Retrieved 15 Little, R. (1848). An essay on coral reefs as the Checkpoints Authority (pp. 26–27). Singapore: The Straits Times, p. 24; T. Ramasamy. (1970, January 23). The Straits Times, p. 13. Retrieved
29 August 2012 to 28 February 2013. from BookSG. cause of Blakan Mati fever, and of the fevers Immigration & Checkpoints Authority. (Call no.: December 5). Untitled. The Straits Times, p. 20. from NewspaperSG.
3 Raffles’ letter to the Duchess of Somerset, 22 8 Government gazette. (1899, March 25). The Straits in various parts of the east. The Journal of the RSING q353.59095957 TEO) Retrieved from NewspaperSG. 41 Last 80 refugees get set to leave St John’s. (1975,
February 1819, from Raffles’ Letters: Intrigues Times, p. 2. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, 2, 591–592. 23 Our newcomers. (1926, April 30). The Singapore 32 No more quarantine for deck passengers from October 22). The Straits Times, p. 19. Retrieved
Behind the Founding of Singapore. 9 Haughton, H. T. (1889). Notes on names of places Singapore: J. R. Logan. (Microfilm no.: NL 1889) Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser, p. 12. China. (1971, June 3). The Straits Times, p. 24. from NewspaperSG.
4 European maps from the 16th–18th centuries in the island of Singapore and its vicinity. Journal 16 Ng, M. (2017, May–July). Through time and tide: Retrieved from NewspaperSG. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. 42 Nanyang Technological University Cat Club. (2016,
variously marked Singapore as a town on the west of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, A survey of Singapore’s reefs. BiblioAsia, 13 (1). 24 St John’s Island. (1935, June 1). The Straits Times, 33 Teo & Liew, 2004, p. 54. December 27). Heaven is filled… with cats. Retrieved
coast of the Malay Peninsula, a city on the left bank 20, 79. Singapore: Straits Branch, Royal Asiatic Retrieved from BiblioAsia website. p. 13. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. 34 More prison space ready. (1948, July 3). The Straits from NTU Cat Management Network website.
of the Johor River, a promontory, a cape or simply Society. (Microfilm no.: NL 1569) 17 Lee, Y. K. (1978). The medical history of early 25 Cheang, H. L. (1875, August 14). Wednesday, 11th Times, p. 4. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. 43 Lee, J. (1999, February 25). Barbed wire, fences go
as a sea passage. See Periasamy, M. (2015). The 10 Barking deer or kijang (Muntiacus muntjak) are Singapore (p. 266). Tokyo: Southeast Asian Medical August. The Straits Times, p. 2. Retrieved from 35 Kaite, Y. (1942, October 1). Inhuman acts of British up at St John’s. The Straits Times, p. 28. Retrieved
rare maps collection of the National Library. In native to Singapore but were hunted to extinction Information Center. (Call no.: RSING 610.95957 LEE) NewspaperSG. towards Nippon internees. The Shonan Times, p. 4; from NewspaperSG.
Singapore. National Library Board, Visualising in the 20th century. There are no records of 18 A 1938 report proposed the erection of an annexe 26 Translated from Tan, B. L. (1983, September 16). Untitled. (1950, November 27). The Straits Times, 44 Singapore. Parliament. Official reports – Parliamentary
space: Maps of Singapore and the region barking deer on St John’s Island, but two deer “for the examination of immigrants for early signs (Inter viewer). Oral history interview with Teo p. 6. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. debates (Hansard). (1996, October 28). Reclamation
(pp. 60–61). Singapore: National Library Board. were relocated to the island in 1906. See Untitled. of leprosy”, but it seems unlikely that the British Choon Hong [Transcript of cassette recording 36 Seow, F. (1994). To catch a tartar: A dissident in Lee Kuan (Southern Islands) (Vol. 66, cols. 841–842). Retrieved
(Call no.: RSING 911.5957 SIN) (1906, January 16). The Straits Times , p. 2; Deer would have considered housing lepers on the island no. 000328/7/2, pp. 22–23]. Retrieved from Yew’s prison (Foreword). New Haven: Yale University from Parliament of Singapore website.
5 When did Singapore become an Island? Part hunt of St John’s. The Singapore Free Press in close proximity with thousands of new migrants. National Archives of Singapore website. [Note: Southeast Asia Studies. (Call no.: RSING 365.45092 SEO) 45 National Parks Board. (2017, December 14).
III. (2015, February 8). Retrieved from History and Mercantile Advertiser, p. 3. Retrieved from See St. John’s Island. (1938, April 26). The Malaya Mr Teo’s reference to Kusu Island is likely an 37 Lee, K. Y. (1998). The Singapore story: Memoirs of Lee Sisters’ Island Marine Park. Retrieved from
Delocalised blogspot; Nor-Afidah Abdul Rahman. NewspaperSG. Tribune, p. 16. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. error as this island was too small to house Kuan Yew (p. 158). Singapore: Simon & Schuster. (Call National Parks Board website.
(2016, January–March). A Portuguese map of 11 Thomas, G. (1805, March 19). Sketch of the Straits 19 Lee, Y. K. (1978, January). Quarantine in early extensive quarantine facilities.] no.: RCLOS 959.57) 46 Azim Azman. (2015, May 18). Meet the last two
Sincapura. BiblioAsia, 11 (4), 20–21; Gibson-Hill, of Sincapore by Capt George Thomas [map]. Singapore (Part 2). Annals of the Academy of 27 Mandarin for St John’s Island, which is probably a 38 Ministry of Culture. (1959, February 8). The battle people who still live on sleepy St John’s Island.
C. (1954, May). Singapore: Notes on the history of Retrieved from BookSG. Medicine, Singapore, 7 (1), 81–87. Singapore: transliteration of “Sekijang”. for merger – (from right) C V Devan Nair, Fong Swee The New Paper. Retrieved from AsiaOne website;
the old strait, 1580–1850. Journal of the Malayan 12 Raffles’ instructions to Farquhar, Resident and Academy of Medicine. (Call no.: RSING 610.5 28 Translated from Quah, I. (2002, February 1). Suan, S Woodhull and Lim Chin Siong at St John’s Zaccheus, M. (2017, February 23). Last islanders
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 27 (1(165)), Commandant of Singapore, 6 February 1819. See AMSAAM) (Interviewer). Oral history interview with Teong Island detention camp. The picture was taken by Lee likely to get to remain on St John’s Island. The
163–214, p. 173. Singapore: Malayan Branch, Royal Buckley, C. B. (1984). An anecdotal history of old times 20 Legislative Council meeting 24 December 1874. (1875, Eng Siong [Transcript of cassette recording no. Kuan Yew when he paid them a visit on Chinese New Straits Times. Retrieved from The Straits Times
Asiatic Society. (Call no.: RCLOS 959.5 JMBRAS) in Singapore (p. 43). Singapore: Oxford University January 9). The Straits Times, p. 2; The “Milton”. 002605/10/1, pp. 5–6, 9–10]. Retrieved from Year day in 1959 [Photograph] [Online]. Retrieved from website. [Note: Sadly, one of the last residents, Mr
6 Durai Raja Singam, S. (1939). Port Weld to Kuantan: Press. (Call no.: RSING 959,57 BUC-[HIS]) (1874, November 19). Straits Times Overland Journal, National Archives of Singapore website. National Archives of Singapore website. Mohamed Sulih, passed away later in the year.]
A study of Malayan place names (pp. 250–251). 13 Gunner Loughony, first P.R.O. of Singapore. (1956, p. 2. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. 29 Chew, D. (1983, September 16). Oral history interview 39 Holmberg, J. (1976, December 3). Islands in
with Saravana Perumal [Transcript of cassette the sun. New Nation, pp. 10–11. Retrieved from
34 35
sensibilities – a kind of architectural as an architectural movement, can be were not so much interested in a renewal
equivalent of “Socialism with Chinese seen as part of a wider call for renewal and rejuvenation of Chinese society and
characteristics”. and revitalisation of Chinese society and culture, but rather were more intent on
Perhaps the best known of these culture taking place at the time. This came luring potential Chinese converts away
architects was Lu Yanzhi (1894–1929), on the back of more than half a century from their traditional belief systems –
a graduate of Cornell University, who of foreign interference in China’s affairs, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and
designed the Sun Yat Sen Mausoleum following the disastrous Opium Wars of ancestral worship – and persuade them
in Nanjing (completed 1929). Another the mid-19th century that ceded Hong to embrace a Christian god.
was Dong Dayou (1899–1975), an alum- Kong to Britain and established treaty One of the earliest examples of an
nus of Columbia University, who wrote ports in China. East-West architectural pairing in China
an ar ticle in the English-language is a remarkable structure – a church
T’ien Hsia Monthly in 1936 extolling the with a belfry in the form of a Chinese
achievements of this pioneer generation
The Christian Influence pagoda – erected by Catholic mission-
of Chinese architects: But if the term Chinese Renaissance aries in Guiyang, southwest China,
perfectly captures the spirit of those in the mid-1870s. Named St Joseph’s
“A group of young students went times and the ambitions of the young Cathedral, it is, perhaps, no more than
to America and Europe to study architects who sought, quite literally, a case of cultural appropriation – mak-
the fundamentals of architecture. to build a new China, the origins of ing do with the materials available at
They came back to China filled with the movement can be traced back to the time – than a purposeful attempt to
ambition to create something new the architecture of Christian missions create a new architectural style that took
and worthwhile. They initiated a stations a quarter of a century earlier. the design aesthetics of the West and
great movement, a movement to Although the intent of the mainly infused them with an Eastern sensibility.
bring back a dead architecture to American Christian architects who By the turn of the century, however,
life: in other words, to do away designed these buildings was by and Christian missionaries in China were
with poor imitations of Western large the same as the Chinese archi- acknowledging the fact that churches
architecture and to make Chinese tects who followed them a generation built in an overtly European style – Gothic
architecture truly national.”1 later – namely, to find a middle ground was the architecture of choice back
between Eastern and Western building then – could seem alienating and even
Given the historical background of typologies – their motivation was quite intimidating to their Chinese audience.
this period, the Chinese Renaissance, different. These Christian architects And not only churches, but also schools,
hospitals, orphanages and other buildings
associated with the typical mission station
(Facing page) The China Building on Chulia Street, which served as the old headquarters of Oversea-
Chinese Banking Corporation, 1964. The building was designed by Keys & Dowdeswell in 1929. It was a in China in the late 19th century.
five-storey Deco block capped with a Chinese pavilion. All rights reserved, family of Kouo Shang-Wei and Jeffrey Cody, a leading historian
National Library Board, Singapore. in the field of Christian missionar y
(Below) Interment of Sun Yat Sen, 1 June 1929. His mausoleum, which was designed by Chinese architecture in China, writes: “As they
architect Lu Yanzhi, is situated at the foot of the second peak of Mount Zijin in Nanjing, China. Image source:
[the missionaries] sought to educate,
CHINESE RENAISSANCE
Wikimedia Commons.
(Below right) St Joseph’s Cathedral in Guiyang, China, erected by Catholic missionaries, mid-1870s. It repre- proselytize and convert Chinese, they
sents one of the earliest examples of an East-West architectural pairing in China. Courtesy of Julian Davison.
ARCHITECTURE
This unique style of architecture only reigned for five
decades in China, yet several buildings in Singapore still bear
the hallmarks of this hybrid form, says Julian Davison.
t
There have been sever al “Chinese
Renaissances” in the history of the Middle
Kingdom – depending on which authority
one consults. For the historian, the Han
(206 BCE–CE 220), Tang (618–907) and
Song (960–1279) dynasties, can each, in
their own way, claim to be the Chinese
equivalent to the Renaissance in the West
that took place between the end of the 14th
and the beginning of the 17th centuries.
Chinese Renaissance Deconstructed
When it comes to architecture, however,
the term “Chinese Renaissance” gener-
ally refers to the output of a group of
young Chinese architects in the 1920s and
’30s who returned to China after a period
Anthropologist, architectural historian and former Lee Kong Chian Research Fellow, of overseas study, seeking to reconcile
Dr Julian Davison lives in Singapore where he works as a writer and television presenter, what they had learnt of modern building
specialising in Singapore architecture and local history. His latest book, Swan & Maclaren: technologies with a stylistic idiom that
A Story of Singapore Architecture, will be published in 2018.
reflected traditional Chinese aesthetic
36 37
(1959–63); Singapore Chinese Chamber ordinary church with a nave, transept was part-Byzantine and part-Chinese in
of Commerce on Hill Street (1960–64); and pews, but rather a wholly modern execution. Most radical of all, though, was
and Chung Cheng High School (Main) structure designed specifically to meet the allocation of space. To begin with, the
Administration Building (1965–68). the requirements of the client. main congregational hall where church
The parallels with pre-war China In terms of its construction, it was services were held was not on the ground
and post-war Taiwan are self-evident. a modern four-storey, concrete-frame floor as one might have expected, but on
Although these buildings – an excep- building with a flat roof; stylistically it the floor above – a large auditorium with a
tion being Chung Cheng High School –
belong, somewhat paradoxically, to the
years immediately before independence,
they are all about nation-building and
the quest for a new architectural identity
in the post-colonial era – a style that
was at once modern but also reflected
(Above) Singapore has its share of buildings in the local (i.e. non-Western) sensibilities
Chinese Renaissance style, mostly dating from the in Shanghai, Ginling College for women largely financed by a massive endow- and histor y. Apart from Kheng Chiu
post-war era. These include (from the left): Nanyang in Nanjing, and University of Nanking ment from Singaporean industrialist Building on Beach Road which was
University Library and Administration Building,
Wong Kwan Collection, courtesy of National Ar-
campus, also in Nanjing. Tan Kah Kee. 4 designed by the British architectural
chives of Singapore; Singapore Chinese Chamber A precedent had been established The Chinese Renaissance, as an practice, Swan & Maclaren, the other
of Commerce, courtesy of Julian Davison; and C. K. and thereafter it became the norm for architectural movement, was relatively buildings are the work of Singaporean
Tang department store, Chiang Ker Chiu Collection, schools and universities, and later, short-lived in mainland China – around architects – Ng Keng Siang, Ang Kheng
courtesy of National Archives of Singapore. Lang and Ee Hoong Chwee – all of whom,
other kinds of civic buildings – town 50 years in all – beginning with the
(Below) University of Nanking campus in Nanjing,
China, 1920. Designed by American architect Wil- hall s, museums, municipal of fices early experiments of the Christian one assumes, shared similar goals and
liam Kinne Fellows (1870–1948), the university is – to proclaim their Chinese-ness by missionaries at the turn of the 19th aspirations with their confrères in China
an outstanding example of the Chinese Renais- incor por ating tr aditional Chine s e century to the defeat of the Nationalist and Taiwan.
sance style in “collegiate” mode. Image source: architectural features in their overall Government in 1949 and the proclama- Before the World War II, however,
Wikimedia Commons.
design, though often this meant no tion of the People’s Republic of China. the circumstances surrounding the
more than placing a token Chinese- After that, the style fell out of favour erection of first-generation Chinese
tried to strike a culturally harmonious style roof on what was other wise an on the mainland. It continued, how- Renaissance buildings in Singapore
chord with their buildings.”2 entirely Western construction. ever, to be popular in Taiwan where were rather different, though even here
One of the first missions to adopt When it came to the turn of young there are a number of notable Chinese one finds parallels with China, since it
this approach was the Canadian Meth- Chinese architects working in China Renaissance buildings from the 1950s was Christian missionaries who intro-
odist Mission in Chengdu, China, which just after the end of World War I, many and beyond. Examples include Nanhai duced the Chinese Renaissance style
started adding Chinese-style roofs to of whom had at one time or another Academy campus (1950–60s); Grand of architecture to Singapore.
its West China Union University campus been employed by Henry Killam Mur- Hotel (1953–73); National Place Museum
buildings from around 1910 onwards. phy (1877–1954), the leading American (1965); and National Theatre and Con-
As a Foreign Missions Report from 1914 exponent of college campus architecture cert Hall (1987) – all of which are found
Telok Ayer Chinese Methodist Church
explained, five years of deliberations had in a contemporary Chinese style, it was in Taipei and its vicinity. The earliest example of Chinese Renais-
“resulted in the adoption of an Oriental- only natural that they should follow suit. sance architecture in Singapore is the
ized Occidental type of architecture. The But there was a marked difference in Telok Ayer Chinese Methodist Church
buildings… express the harmony and their thinking.
Singapore’s Chinese Renaissance in Telok Ayer, commissioned by the
spirit of unity that pervades the entire What had originally been conceived Singapore too has its share of buildings American Methodist Mission and erected
institution and the purpose to unite in as a way of persuading the Chinese to in the Chinese Renaissance style, mostly between 1923 and 1925. Its architects
one the East and West”.3 abandon their traditional beliefs for dating from the post-war era. These were Messrs Swan & Maclaren, the
Before long, other missions followed the Christian faith was now turned on include Nanyang University Librar y leading architectural practice of the day,
suit. Between 1911 and 1917, there were its head and seen as an expression of and Administration Building (1953–56); with Denis Santry the man responsible
at least four other large-scale building Chinese nationalism and self-regard the old C.K. Tang department store on for drawing up the plans. His brief was
projects initiated by Christian mission- – the physical embodiment of Chinese Orchard Road (1957–58, demolished to design an “institutional church” in the
aries in China that sought to introduce aspirations in the modern world. A 1982); Tuan Mong High School on Clem- heart of Chinatown that would serve the
Chinese architectural features into their famous instance of this and one that enceau Avenue (Teochew Centre today) needs of Chinatown’s burgeoning Chris-
plans for Christian schools and colleges in has a Singapore connection is Xiamen (1958–63); Kheng Chiu Building on Beach tian community – the term “institutional
China. These include Shandong Christian University (previously known as Amoy Road that houses the Hainanese clan church” in Methodist parlance meaning
University in Jinan, St John's University University), founded in 1921, which was association and Tin Hou Kong temple a place where worship, education and
recreational activities all come together
under one roof.
Up until this time, most church
buildings erected in Singapore were in
the Gothic Revival style, which was the
architecture of choice for ecclesiastical
(Top) Denis Santry’s building plan of the proposed church and recreation rooms for the Telok Ayer Chinese
buildings in late 19th-century Britain.5 Methodist Church, 1923. Building Control Division Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
The Telok Ayer Chinese Methodist (Above) Telok Ayer Chinese Methodist Church was consecrated by Bishop Titus Lowe on 25 April 1925.
Church completely broke with that tra- Designed by Denis Santry of Swan & Maclaren, it was a modern four-storey, concrete-frame build-
dition, and from the very outset it was ing that was part-Byzantine and part-Chinese in design. Lee Brothers Studio Collection, courtesy of
National Archives of Singapore.
clear that this was not going to be an
38 39
seating capacity of 800, as well as vestries new plan in Church architecture as far notwithstanding. If anything, it is more In 1925, Frank Brewer designed two blocks of flats
in the Chinese Renaissance style for Eu Tong Sen, a
for the minister and choir. This allowed the as this part of the world is concerned Byzantine Revival, the arcaded loggias prominent businessman and leader of the Chinese
ground floor to be used for recreational and its ingenious and effective lay-out and arrangement of the side windows community, at 31–45 Club Street. The buildings
activities: games, classes, nativity plays and novel and attractive design reflect within recessed alcoves contributing to now form part of Emerald Garden condominium.
at Christmas – in short, various amuse- much skill on the part of the architects, this impression. All the same, it was the Courtesy of Julian Davison.
ments intended to encourage people to Messrs Swan and Maclaren”.6 building’s Chinese elements that seem
come to church. The third floor provided Completed in early 1925, the Telok to have caught the untrained public eye.
where the school had moved to soon
living quarters for two pastors and their Ayer Chinese Methodist Church was The Straits Times described the new
after it was founded in 1886.9
families, while the top floor consisted of a consecrated by Bishop Titus Lowe on church as being “distinctly Chinese in
By the beginning of the 1920s,
roof terrace with a Chinese-style pavilion 25 April the same year. In his address, appearance, its most characteristic
the Coleman Street buildings were no
at one end that provided fine views of Telok Bishop Lowe noted that the “building was feature being a quaint gabled tower sur-
longer able to accommodate the ever-
Ayer and its environs. a new departure in the line of making a mounting the roof, and finishing off the
increasing student population – the
Not long after work had begun church a great and useful social centre, design of the frontage very effectively”.8
school was already obliged to schedule
on site, The Straits Times reported in the idea here being to “create a social
two sessions a day to cope with the exist-
February 1924 that this was “an entirely atmosphere which would make it pos-
sible for both young and old alike to enjoy
Chinese Methodist School ing enrolment of 1,500 pupils – and so
the fellowship of each other”.7 He drew
(Anglo-Chinese School) the Mission started looking for a suitable
location to expand the school. A plot of
attention to the fact that the building was Telok Ayer Methodis t Church w as
land on the summit of one of Cairnhill’s
“distinctly Chinese”, adding that “for this closely followed by another Swan &
twin peaks was purchased in 1923 for
matter they [the Church] were indebted Maclaren commission from the Ameri-
$65,000, following which the title deed
to the architects… in attempting to give can Methodist Mission, this time for
was transferred to the government in
them a building that was characteristic a new school building at the summit
return for a lease with a duration of 999
of Chinese art”. of Cairnhill. The existing Methodist
years. With the site secured, the school
In reality, Santry’s design was no School – the forerunner of today’s
authorities invited Swan & Maclaren to
more like a traditional Chinese building Anglo-Chinese School – was located
design a building on it.
than it was a conventional church, the at Coleman Street at the time, next
Described in the newspapers as that was also repeated on the floor above the many door and window openings,
upturned eaves of the rooftop pavilion door to the American Methodist Chapel
“semi-Chinese”,10 the new Anglo-Chi- in the three-storey block that fronted the thus creating a constant circulation of
nese School building was completed site. Supported by massive brackets, air through the building (it worked like
(Left) The rear elevation of the Anglo-Chinese School at Cairnhill, showing the two-tier roof and extended in 1924 to a design by British architect the eaves of the canopy roof were swept a gigantic chimney flue). This system of
eaves. Courtesy of Julian Davison. Frank Brewer, another leading figure at up at the corners in the typical Chinese natural ventilation was further enhanced
(Below) Frank Brewer’s architectural plan of the proposed new building for Anglo-Chinese School at by the school’s breezy hilltop location,
Swan & Maclaren in the 1920s. Located manner, as did the eaves of the main roof.
Cairnhill, 1924. Swan & Maclaren Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
off Oldham Lane – named after pioneer As well as making an impressive visual which simultaneously made the most of
Methodist missionary William F. Oldham statement, these tiered roofs worked ambient air currents.
who was also the school’s founder – the together to cast long shadows over the
first sight that greeted visitors to the external walls of the building during the
school was its imposing three-storey middle of the day when the sun was at its
Eu Tong Sen’s Apartment Blocks
entrance pavilion, which skilfully com- highest point, shielding the classrooms Frank Brewer revisited the Chinese
bined Chinese and Art Deco detail. At the within from the warming effects of solar Renaissance in 1925 when he designed
back of the entrance pavilion were two radiation. two blocks of flats on Club Street for
floors of classrooms arranged around The internal courtyard also acted Eu Tong Sen, a prominent businessman
an internal courtyard, or atrium. as a cooling mechanism, allowing warm and leader of the Chinese community.
One of the most striking features of air inside the classrooms to escape via This was at a time when apar tment
the building was the broad canopy roof the open atrium, and replaced by cooler living was just beginning to take root
over the ground floor windows, a feature air drawn in from the outside through in Singapore.
a timeline of singapore’s chinese renaissance buildings
Building telok ayer chinese methodist eu tong sen club for alan ee hoe hean club china building holy trinity nanyang university c.k. tang tuan mong high singapore chinese kheng chiu building chung cheng high c.k. tang and
chinese methodist school (anglo- apartments loke wan wye (ocbc) church library and department store school (teochew chamber of school (main) dynasty hotel
church chinese school) administration centre) commerce administration
building building
Year 1923–1925 1924–1928 1925–1926 1925 1926 1929–1931 1940–1941 1953–1956 1957–1958 1958–1963 1960–1964 1959–1963 1965–1968 1977–1982
Address Telok Ayer Cairnhill Club Street Robinson Road Bukit Pasoh Chulia Street Hamilton Road Jurong Orchard Road Clemenceau Hill Street Beach Road Goodman Road Orchard Road
Road Avenue
Architect Denis Santry, Frank Brewer, Frank Brewer, Frank Brewer, Swan & Keys & Ho Kwong Yew Ng Keng Siang Ang Kheng Lang Ng Keng Siang Ee Hoong Chwee Swan & Ho Beng Hong Archiplan Team
Swan & Swan & Swan & Swan & Maclaren Dowdeswell & Co. Maclaren
Maclaren Maclaren Maclaren Maclaren
Status Extant Extant Extant Demolished Proposal Demolished Extant Extant Demolished Extant Extant Extant Extant Extant
(date unknown) (not built) 1970 c.1976
40 41
Bu t w h er e a s p r e v io u sly, thi s central, unadorned arch and fair-faced Heavenly Shows, today’s Majestic Thea- Maclaren, but they are more Art Deco Holy Trinit y Church at Hamilton Road was
designed by Ho Kwong Yew in 1940 for the
new type of accommodation had been brickwork, brings to mind Chinese gate- tre (1928). All three were commissioned in character, albeit with Chinese flour-
Anglican Foochow congregation. The building
intended for a mainly European clientele, ways from the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). by Eu Tong Sen and designed by Swan & ishes – a kind of Shanghai chic that was has Chinese-st yle roofs and fenestration.
in this instance the prospective occu- Similarly, the slightly tapering profile of all the rage back then. Courtesy of Julian Davison.
pants were clearly meant to be Asian; in the tower is reminiscent of the classic There was, however, one other
1925, no European would have dreamed silhouette of a Chinese drum tower. major building from this period that
gentlemen’s clubs
of putting up in Chinatown, thanks to its Other “traditional” Chinese fea- managed to be both Art Deco and Chi- sance with its imitation roof brackets
shady reputation as a hotbed for secret tures include the canopy roofs over the In 1926, the famous Ee Hoe Hean nese Renaissance at the same time. (dougong) supporting upturned eaves
societies, brothels, gambling dens and windows, which rest on Chinese-style Club, otherwise known as the “Mil- This was the headquarters of the newly surmounted with stylised “dragon” orna-
opium shops. Possibly, it was this consid- brackets protruding from the wall; lionaires’ Club” – home to wealthy created Oversea-Chinese Banking Cor- ments (chiwen) at the four corners.
eration that encouraged Brewer to opt for one sees a similar arrangement in the Chinese businessmen, financiers, poration (OCBC) on Chulia Street,11 which The OCBC building was the last
a Chinese Renaissance-style building, canopy roofs of shophouses. The tiles shipping magnates, tin towkays, was designed by the British partnership major Chinese Renaissance-style build-
which at once signalled its modernity were imported from China (unlike the rubber barons and their like – of Keys & Dowdeswell in 1929. ing to be erected by British architects
and yet retained a characteristically v-shaped tiles normally used for shop- commissioned Swan & Maclaren Best remembered for the Fullerton in pre-war Singapore. At this early
Chinese flavour. house roofs, which were manufactured to design new premises for them Building (today’s Fullerton Hotel), home stage, it was almost exclusively British
Generally speaking, many sup- locally), and came adorned with decora- at Bukit Pasoh. to Singapore’s General Post Office, which architects who embraced the Chinese
posedly Chinese-style buildings from tive, green-glazed “stoppers”, or end- The original plans were for a had been completed the previous year, Renaissance style. Local architects
this period, both in Singapore and else- pieces (wadang), for the roof margins; Chinese Renaissance-style build- Keys & Dowdeswell were riding the crest were not much inclined to take up the
where, are little more than a pastiche the origins of the latter can be traced ing, and one cannot help but draw of a wave, having temporarily displaced cause until after World War II. Why
– even bordering on the kitsch – since back to the second millennium BCE. the conclusion that members of the Swan & Maclaren as the architects was this so?
the Western architects who designed The upturned corners, which are building committee were influenced of choice for large-scale corporate Many local architects who quali-
them had little real understanding of every Westerner’s idea of what a Chinese by Eu Tong Sen’s apartments at the commissions in the latter half of the fied to practice under the Architects
traditional Chinese architecture and roof should look like, are perhaps the foot of Club Street – the original Ee 1920s. Other major works by Keys & Ordinance of 1926 were schooled in
were probably not too bothered to find least successful aspect of the edifices Hoe Hean Club (established 1895) Dowdeswell at this time include the Mer- Western engineering and may have
out. Brewer’s two apartment blocks for – and smacking of Chinese tokenism was at 28 Club Street at the time, a cantile Bank of India building in Raffles instinctively been attracted to more
Eu Tong Sen, however, were different – but the composition of the window stone’s throw from the apartments. Place and the Kwantung Provincial Bank contemporary or “Modernistic” styles Renaissance style erected before the
and went some way beyond the typical mullions and transoms is convincing, Although Swan & Maclaren’s origi- on Cecil Street, as well as a six-storey of architecture – mainly Streamlined Japanese Occupation.
“Western-style building with a China- as they are derived from traditional nal building plans were beautifully office block on the corner of Finlayson Moderne – which exploited the potential After World War II, it was a differ-
man’s hat on top” approach, revealing Chinese latticework patterns, albeit executed, in the end club members Green and Robinson Road for the Dutch of the latest building technologies, most ent scene altogether with Singaporean
that Brewer had at least taken the time greatly simplified here. decided to go for a more contem- shipping line, Koninklijke Paketvaart- notably reinforced concrete, rather than Chinese architects coming to the fore,
to acquaint himself with some of the porary look, which is the building Maatschappij, or KPM for short. the retrospective traditionalism of the embracing the Chinese Renaissance
basic precepts of Chinese architectural we see today on Bukit Pasoh Road. The China Building, as the OCBC Chinese Renaissance movement. style with gusto in response to the out-
practices and building typologies.
Chinese Art Deco The club is still around today; the building was known, was Keys & Dow- One exception, however, was Ho pouring of nationalist fervour, although
The basement floor of the main T here are sever al other Chinese- membership remains exclusively deswell’s only venture into the realm Kwong Yew’s Holy Trinity Church at Swan & Maclaren did make one more
building (which is on the left as one inflected buildings dating from the male and by invitation only. of Chinese Renaissance architecture Hamilton Road. Ordinarily, Ho was very important contribution: the Kheng Chiu
heads up Club Street from the Cross 1920s, notably Eu Court (1925), Great – a massive, five-storey Art Deco block much the Modernist, but in 1940 he was Building on Beach Road.
Street junction), for example, with its Southern Hotel (1927) and Theatre of capped with a Chinese pavilion wrought commissioned to design a new church Somewhat ironically, though, by the
The architectural plan showing the front
in reinforced concrete – but it made a for the Anglican Foochow congrega- time nationhood was achieved in 1965,
elevation of the Ee Hoe Hean Club to
be erected on Bukit Pasoh Road, 1927. huge impact. tion, which sported Chinese-style roofs the world had moved on and Chinese
Majestic Theatre (left) and Great Southern Hotel (right) on Eu Tong Sen Street, 1950. Designed by Swan
& Maclaren, these buildings were more Art Deco than Chinese Renaissance in design, although both The original plans were for a Chinese Much of the building’s Art Deco- and fenestration with a stringcourse Renaissance, as an architectural style,
bear Chinese-inspired details and decorative motifs. Tan Kok Kheng Collection, courtesy of National Renaissance-style building but in the end, style ornamentation was modelled after inscribed with the Chinese cloud or was beginning to sound like old news.
Archives of Singapore. club members opted for a more contem- the firm’s Fullerton Building – similar thunder pattern (leiwen). The Straits The last major Chinese-style building
porary look, which is the building we see
today. Building Control Division Collection,
detailing was used for its Capitol Theatre Times described it as “the first church of any consequence to be constructed
courtesy of National Archives of Singapore. and the adjoining four-storey apartment- in Malaya built in the Chinese style of in Singapore was the C. K. Tang and
cum-shop complex known as Namazie architecture”,12 but of course they had Dynasty Hotel complex (1977–1982), but
Mansions at the corner of Stamford and overlooked Denis Santry’s church for the that can hardly be thought of as Chinese
North Bridge roads in 1930, giving rise to Methodist Mission at Telok Ayer. Com- Renaissance in the sense of the term as
the term “GPO architecture” – but the attic pleted in July 1941, Holy Trinity Church has been described here. What was seen
storey was full-blown Chinese Renais- was the last building in the Chinese as a rebirth was, in fact, a dead end.
Timah (today’s Hwa Chong Institution), which Mercantile Advertiser, p. 8. Retrieved from
Notes was founded by Tan in 1919 (the school building NewspaperSG.
1 Doon, D. (1936). Architectural chronicle. T’ien dates from 1923); Beaux Arts for his residence 8 A Chinese church. (1925, April 27). The Straits
Hsia Monthly, 3 (4), 358–362. The article was at Cairnhill (1926); and Art Deco for his rubber Times, p. 9. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
republished in the online China Heritage Quarterly, goods factory in Kallang (1930). 9 It was a boys-only school in those days as girls
June 2010, China Heritage Project, Australian 5 Two notable exceptions are the Armenian attended their own school, known as Methodist
National University. Church, consecrated 1835, and the Cathedral of Girls’ School today, on Selegie Road.
2 Cody, J. W. (1996, December). Striking a the Good Shepherd, consecrated in 1847, which 10 Anglo-Chinese School. (1928, November 19). The
harmonious chord: Foreign missionaries and are both neo-Classical in conception, but then Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser,
Chinese-style buildings, 1911–1949. Architronic, they date from before the Gothic Revival style p. 9. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
5 (3), 1–30 , p. 1. Retrieved from iBrarian website. became popular in Britain. 11 Oversea-Chinese Banking Corporation was
3 Cody, Dec 1996, p. 5. 6 The new Chinese church. (1924, February 2). formed from a merger of Ho Hong Bank, Chinese
4 When it came to Tan’s buildings in Singapore, Malayan Saturday Post, p. 24. Retrieved from Commercial Bank and Oversea-Chinese Bank
however, it seems that he preferred to adopt NewspaperSG. in 1932.
a Western style of architecture: Edwardian 7 Opening of Telok Ayer Chinese Church. (1925, 12 New church in Horne Road. (1941, July 14). The
Baroque for the Chinese High School at Bukit April 27). The Singapore Free Press and Straits Times, p. 9. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
42 43
Meira Chand’s multi-cultural heritage

is reflected in the nine novels she has
published. A Different Sky, set in Singapore,
was long-listed for the International IMPAC
WARRIOR
Dublin Literary Award in 2012, and made it to
Oprah Winfrey’s reading list. Her new book,
Sacred Waters, was recently published in
Singapore. She has a PhD in Creative Writing.
t
WOMEN
The Rani of Jhansi Regiment The traditional Indian woman is invari-
ably portrayed as modest and compliant,
(Facing page top) Subhas Chandra Bose inspecting the Rani of Jhansi Regiment and Indian National Army
troops in Singapore in 1943. S R Nathan Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
entirely focused on her role as daugh- (Facing page bottom) Soldiers of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment marching alongside Indian National Army
troops, c.1943–45. Puan Sri Datin J Athi Nahappan Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
ter, wife and mother. Yet, by the same
(Above) Subhas Chandra Bose, with Captain (Dr) Lakshmi Sahgal, inspecting the guard of honour
A band of extraordinary women rose token, the image of the warrior woman
is a recurring figure in Indian history,
presented by the Rani of Jhansi Regiment during the opening of the Rani of Jhansi camp at Waterloo
Street, Singapore, on 22 October 1943. Courtesy of Netaji Research Bureau.
above oppression and poverty in Malayan beginning in Hindu religious mythology (Below) Subhas Chandra Bose (1897–1945) was a freedom fighter who fought for the liberation of India
from British rule. He commanded the Indian National Army in Singapore and created the Rani of Jhansi
plantations to overthrow the British in with the goddess Durga and culminating
in modern times with figures such as
Regiment. Nirvan Thivy Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
colonial India. Meira Chand has the story. Phoolan Devi, the notorious bandit queen.
Female power has also been cel- Subhas Chandra Bose was comprised of Indian prisoners-of
ebrated over the centuries in the works war in Germany who had been captured
of Indian women poets and writers, and in The name Subhas Chandra Bose is from the British. Around this time Bose
tales of legendary women such as Chand little heard today, but in his own time acquired the title, Netaji, or great leader,
Bibi and the Rani of Jhansi. Bose was a hero to many in India. He by which he is still remembered today.
The Indian women who joined the was a controversial and divisive figure, Although Hitler appeared supportive
Indian National Army (INA) in 1942, as inspiring aversion in his opponents and of Bose, once Germany lost the war to
the events of World War II unfolded, adulation in his followers. Both Mahatma Russia, it was clear he was in no posi-
chose to recognise their power and Gandhi (1869–1948) and Bose (1897–1945) tion to help Bose drive the British out
agency as women in a way that reflects were legendary sons of India, fighters of India. Any interest Hitler retained
that alternative image. The bravery of for freedom from colonial rule, and in Bose was reserved for propaganda
these women in the nationalist efforts active during the same timeframe. Yet, victories rather than military ones, and
to overthrow the British in colonial India the means by which each man sought to Bose grew progressively disillusioned.
has been largely overlooked by history. achieve India’s freedom could not have
The issue of gender, and the illiteracy been more different.
and low caste of the majority of the Indian Bose was 28 years younger than Gan-
women allowed for their easy dismissal, dhi, and was initially greatly influenced by
and has resulted in their courage being the writings and ideals of the older man.
little known or celebrated. However, a growing admiration for militant
In trying to make sense of the his- European fascism caused Bose’s views
torical meaning and importance of the to take a radical turn. He grew critical of
Rani of Jhansi Regiment while research- Gandhi with his symbolically rustic spin-
ing my novel, Sacred Waters, I found a ning wheel and call for non-violent civil
general scarcity of material about the disobedience, feeling that such passivity
women who made up this regiment. In would never achieve independence for
contrast, there is a large collection of India. Bose believed freedom could only
material available for those researching be gained by violent means, through an
the male segment of the INA. invasion of the country from outside. “Give
The remarkable stor y of these me your blood, and I will give you freedom"
brave women deser ves to be better was his famous battle cry.
known. But it is impossible to write about In 1941, Bose escaped house arrest
the Rani of Jhansi Regiment without by the British in Calcutta, and fled over-
mentioning the force they were part land to Germany to petition Adolf Hitler’s
of, the INA, and its inextricable ties to help in his mission. At first Hitler was
the charismatic Indian freedom fighter, supportive of Bose, allowing him to raise
Subhas Chandra Bose. a small army, the Indian Legion, which
44 45
(Left) Subhas Chandra Bose arriving in Singapore on 2 July 1943. Nirvan Thivy Collection, courtesy of rateness allowed their Indian identity labourer, where a northerner cannot wayside, and how the tight knit bonds of
National Archives of Singapore. to remain intact. Even if cut off from speak the language of a southerner, and being a community of women motivated
(Below) Subhas Chandra Bose announcing the formation of the Provisional Government of Free India, or Azad India for t wo or three generations, where the untouchable is anathema to by a powerful cause overrode everything
Hind, at a rally at Cathay Building, Singapore, in October 1943. He established Azad Hind to ally with the Axis they still spoke their native tongue and all, the fostering of a sense of oneness else. This sense of community forged alli-
powers and free India from British rule. Nirvan Thivy Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
wore Indian dress in everyday life. At was a difficult task. ances and collaborations across diverse
Hindu temples in the rubber estates, Bose ordered all recruits to eat and boundaries, firing up everyone with the
they celebrated religious festivals and live together whatever their differences. commitment of female comradeship and
practices. Hindu myth and folklore was As they came from different parts of India the commonality of shared experiences.
handed down from one generation to the and spoke different languages, they were
next, and their sense of Tamil identity required to learn the common language
remained strong. 2 of Hindustani as a means of communi-
The Making of Women Warriors
Stripped of their self-wor th in cation. Bose also introduced the Roman The women in the Rani of Jhansi Regiment
Malaya, the motherland became a con- script for writing Hindustani in order to received the same basic military training
soling image for these displaced Tamils, overcome the conflict of using multiple as male INA recruits. For many, the early
an India of the imagination, created out of regional Indian scripts. experiences of military life would have
an ancestral memory that was constantly Those Ranis whose testimony has been a difficult rite of passage. When
kept alive.3 Seen through this lens – the been recorded all bear witness to how the women first joined the regiment, the
insularity of the Tamil community and its quickly feelings of differences fell by the unshackling of traditional ways could not
powerful ties to India and Indian heritage
– it is easier to understand why second
and third generation Indians in Malaya,
who had never lived in India, were stirred
by the nationalistic feelings of the time,
and willingly laid down their lives for the
patriotic cause.
The women who volunteered to
join the newly formed Rani of Jhansi
Regiment were all exceptionally young,
On the other side of the world, the Beginnings of the Jhansi Regiment to fight for their freedom and the majority in their mid- to late teens,
British stronghold of Singapore fell to for independence… along with a few are even documented as being
the Japanese military on 15 February Bose was from Bengal, a state that more independence they will get their no more than 12 or 14 years old. Most
1942. As had been the case in Germany, than any other in India encouraged the own emancipation.”1 were of an impressionable age, filled
large numbers of Indian soldiers who education and emancipation of women. It with burgeoning emotions, desires and
were part of the defeated British army was this principle that led him to create a Bose’s inspiring words caused romantic dreams. In the turmoil of war,
were taken prisoner and encouraged regiment of women in the INA. The new women listening to him on the Padang the women regiment may also have been
by the Japanese to become part of a regiment was formed on 12 July 1943 and to surge forward through police bar- seen by some as a safe haven where
new military force known as the Indian Bose named it after the legendary Rani ricades, eager to fight as he demanded food, shelter and safety from marauding
National Army. of Jhansi, who famously rode into battle for India and their own emancipation. Japanese soldiers was provided.
With Japanese support, this force against the British in 1858, and died a At the time in India, the struggle Even so, it is astounding that Indian
was expected to rally opposition to Brit- martyr to the Indian cause. for independence from British rule, women, some so young as to be barely
ish colonial rule in India and spearhead Reported numbers vary, but it is more than any other impetus, encour- out of childhood, many illiterate and
a possible subsequent Japanese inva- thought that the Rani of Jhansi Regiment aged women from all strata of Indian the majority mindful of their traditional
sion of the country. The fledgling INA consisted of well over 1,000 Indian women, society to take greater control of their roles in their society, should be prepared
unit, however, fell apart in 1943 when spread out over camps in Singapore, Malaya lives. They were urged to participate to leave families and husbands behind
its commander, Captain Mohan Singh, and Burma (Myanmar). It is estimated in a life outside the home in new but and lay down their lives for the cause of
was arrested for insubordination to the that only 20 percent of the recruits were sanctioned ways, to cross the forbidden Indian freedom. Their commitment is even
Japanese. A new leader was sought and well educated women, who became the threshold into the world of men, and to more exceptional when it is remembered
the Japanese settled on Subhas Chandra commanding officers. The remaining 80 work together with men for the freedom that most had never set foot in their
Bose. In Germany, World War II was not percent were the wives and daughters of of the motherland. motherland. Yet, all were filled with pas-
going well for Hitler, and he was only too Tamil labourers who worked on the rubber The wave of Indian nationalism sion for the cause, all empowered by the
happy to put Bose on a German subma- estates of Malaya, and who would have been sweeping through the Indian diaspora irresistible sense of adventure the Rani
rine and pack him off to the Japanese either illiterate, or have had no more than at this time cannot be underestimated. of Jhansi Regiment offered. Many were
in Singapore. a few years of basic education. On the British-owned rubber planta- also a testament to Bose’s personality
Bose ar r i ved in Singapore on Before large and enthusiastic ral- tions of Malaya, where Tamil workers as a powerful element in their decision
2 July 1943 to an enthusiastic welcome lies on the Padang and at Farrer Park, lived a degraded life set apart from to join the regiment.
from the Indian community. He immedi- Bose set out his vision for India, and his other communities, they would have Under Bose’s leadership, Indian
ately took command of both the Indian wish that the Indian women of Singapore, been well aware of the growing anti- women from Singapore, Burma and
Independence League (IIL), a political Malaya and Burma – like their contem- colonial sentiments of the time. Tamil Malaya, of varied caste, religion and
organisation of expatriate Indians, and poraries in the Indian motherland – par- newspapers and radio carried news social backgrounds, were recruited (Top) Women volunteering to join the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, 1943. Image source: Lebra, J. C. (2008).
the INA. The latter was made up of ticipate in the freedom movement too. from India, and pictures of Gandhi hung into the Rani of Jhansi Regiment to Women Against the Raj: The Rani of Jhansi Regiment. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
approximately 40,000 Indian soldiers, in many places. fight for India’s freedom. In caste- and (Call no.: RSING 954.035 LEB)
and one of Bose’s first initiatives was “This must be a truly revolutionary At the very bottom of the planta- class-ridden India where Hindu will not (Above) Soldiers of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment undergoing training, c.1943–45. Image source: Bose,
to encourage civilian recruits to join army… I am appealing also to tion hierarchy, Tamil workers lived in eat with Muslim, where the superior S.K., & Sinha, B.N. (Eds). (1979). Netaji: A Pictorial Biography (p. 176) . Calcutta: Ananda Publishers Pte
Ltd. (Call no.: R 954.0350924 NET)
this army. women… women must be prepared poverty and exploitation, but this sepa- Brahmin will not mix with the low-caste
46 47
have been easy, especially for uneducated in Singapore who rose to command the permissible to speculate that many of His death still remains shrouded in mys- to, all remember their service in the
girls from the plantations. Rani of Jhansi Regiment, points out that the Ranis, along with the motivation of tery and speculation, and has attained the regiment – whatever the dangers and
The discarding of conventional femi- while on the plantations the women were patriotism in joining the regiment, may status of myth. Many questions remain privations they endured – as the best
nine reticence, ingrained through centuries treated like cattle and sexually exploited, have found in Bose the romantic ideal unanswered, queries that only time and time of their lives.
of Indian custom, and the learning of in the Rani of Jhansi Regiment they found that traditional Indian society – along the release of still-classified documents It is sad that the endeavours of
military aggression was akin to building a dignity as individuals and pride in fighting with arranged marriage and female in India will put to rest. these brave women have been largely
new personality. The wearing of military for the nation. repression – denied them. Bose’s tragic death came as a shock forgotten by history. In her introduction
uniforms – shorts, jodhpurs, fitted shirts For better or for worse, the Rani of No tales of impropriety have ever to all who knew him, and history con- to Lakshmi Sahgal’s memoir, A Revolu-
and belts that cinched the waist – revealed Jhansi Regiment was never sent to the come to light in Bose’s leadership of tinues to evaluate his contribution to tionary Life, Geraldine Forbes suggests
the body in an unaccustomed way that may frontlines. After their military training, these young women; he was known to be a India’s independence in 1947. Yet, his- it is easy to reject their enterprise
have been shameful for some of the girls. many recruits opted to become nurses dedicated, caring and paternalistic leader. tory has never dealt squarely with the because they never saw action, were
A fighting force, ready for war, has and work in hospitals near war zones in In the minds of the Ranis, they were his women of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, never real “female warriors” fighting
no time for vanity, and the shedding of Burma, but a large number of women Ranis, and Bose spoke of them as my and their courage has been inadequately alongside their men, nor “true women”
their long tresses, a source of pride for remained as active reservists, always girls. Bose himself openly acknowledged celebrated. Their gender prevented them fighting to death to save their children.
all Indian women, must have also been waiting – and expecting – to be sent to the “grave responsibility” of persuading from being taken seriously, and indeed Most male-authored accounts of the
painful to many. Yet, most of the women the front. young women to leave their homes and the Japanese military was resolutely INA seldom give due reference to the
quickly adapted to the empowerment Soon after World War II ended, a diary take up arms.5 dismissive of them. role played by the women in the Rani of
their new life brought, and the demand for was published in India asserting that some At the end of the war when the INA Jhansi Regiment. Forbes laments that Meira Chand’s new novel, Sacred
growth it made on their character. In their of the women in the Jhansi Regiment did was dissolved, most of the women were so many decades after the war when Waters (2017), is published by Mar-
new role they were soldiers first before see actual action in the field. Jai Hind: The
The End of World War II still very young, with their entire lives many historians are committed to a shall Cavendish Editions and retails
they were women. Diary of a Rebel Daughter of India with the The devastation wreaked by the atomic ahead of them. On their return to Malaya, more inclusive view of events, this lack for S$21.50 at major bookshops. It
Although for educated recruits, the Rani of Jhansi Regiment created a great bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiro- they were quickly released, rejected by of acknowledgement is regrettable. 8 is also available for reference and
Rani of Jhansi Regiment presented an stir when it was anonymously published shima and Nagasaki by American war- the returning British Military Adminis- T h e R a n i of Jh a n s i Re g im e nt loan at the Lee Kong Chian Reference
opportunity to assert their identity as in 1945, but it was later found to be a planes in the first weeks of August 1945 tration as misguided females carried comprised a relatively small number Library and selected public libraries
women and as Indians, for the illiterate fictionalised account written by a male set off a series of events that brought away by romantic notions. In contrast, of women, and they were operative (Call nos.: RSING 823.914 CHA and
it was above all a chance to gain self- journalist, A.D. Shenth. World War II to a rapid close. When the the professional male soldiers of the INA for only the last two years of the war, SING CHA).
respect for the first time, to escape the Those ageing Ranis I interviewed British returned to Malaya in September, were sent to stand trial at the Red Fort in between 1943 and 1945, when Bose
abuse and contempt they experienced for my novel, so many decades after Bose kept good his promise to the young Delhi, where it was expected they would commanded the INA. It matters not that
on a daily basis on the plantations. the war, still spoke of Subhas Chandra women under his command by returning be hung as traitors. The Red Fort Trials, this female regiment played a minor
Notes
For many, this change of status had an Bose with intense emotion. Indeed, the them safely to their families. Within days however, collapsed under the pressure role in both the INA and the events of 1 Lee, G. B. (2005). The Syonan years: Singapore
enormous psychological effect. In her influence of Bose’s personal charisma of the conclusion of the war, Bose was of Indian unrest, but that, as they say, is World War II. It matters not that this under Japanese rule 1942–1945 (p. 237). Singapore:
memoir, A Revolutionary Life (1997), 4 pervades almost everything that has killed in a plane crash in Taiwan as he another story. force of women was small and did not National Archives of Singapore and Epigram. (Call
Lakshmi Sahgal (see text box), a doctor been written about him. Perhaps it is tried to escape to Russia or Manchuria. Many educated women from the see action at the frontlines. That such no.: RSING q940.53957 LEE-[WAR])
2 Lebra, J. C. (2008). The Indian National Army and
of ficer class of the Rani of Jhansi a force should have been established
Japan (p. 61). Singapore: Institute of Southeast
Regiment later entered professional at all in that day and age in history is in Asian Studies. (Call no.: RSING 940.5354 LEB-
lakshmi sahgal mand, establishing a camp and recruit- In her later years, Sahgal joined careers, and much of what we know itself of tremendous importance. [WAR])
ing young women to the force. Sahgal the Communist Party of India (Marx- about the regiment today is largely Bose’s motivations for star ting 3 Pillai, S., & Subramaniam, G. (2009). Through the
As the daughter of politically active became known as Captain Lakshmi, a ist) and was a founding member of because of this group of women and the the regiment can be endlessly argued, coils of memory and ethnicity: The Malaysian Indian
journey to nationhood. European Journal of Social
parents, Lakshmi Sahgal (born Lak- name and identity that would remain the All India Democratic Women’s more public nature of their activities. but what mat ter s is that it ut ter ly Sciences, 7 (3), 133–148, p. 139. (Not available in
shmi Swaminathan; 1914–2012) was with her for life. Association. She passed away on Unfortunately, the majority of women transformed the lives of the traditional NLB holdings)
made aware, from a young age, of In Singapore, in October 1943, Bose 23 July 2012, at age 97. in the rank-and-file regiment returned women who joined it. These women 4 Sahgal, L. (1997). A revolutionary life: Memoirs
anti-British sentiments in India and formed the Provisional Government of to the same disempowered situations entered a scenario where the patri- of an activist. New Delhi: Kali for Women. (Not
the fight for political freedom. After Free India, or as it was more simply known, they had left behind when they first archal code was at its most inflex-
5 Hills, C., & Silverman, D. C. (October, 1993).
completing high school, she chose Azad Hind, and Sahgal was included in his signed up; they married and raised ible, and where they represented an Nationalism and feminism in late colonial India:
to study medicine and obtained her cabinet. Later, in Burma, she established families, and became cloistered again embodiment of female agenc y and The Rani of Jhansi Regiment, 1943–1945. Modern
medical degree in 1938. more camps and organised relief work. in traditional social structures. resistance. Asian Studies, 27 (4), 741–760, p. 748. Cambridge
Fiercely independent, Sahgal When the war ended in 1945, Sahgal was Still others were repatriated to Although so many of the Jhansi University Press. Retrieved from JSTOR via NLB’s
eResources website.
left an unhappy marriage to follow a taken prisoner by guerrilla fighters, and India, a countr y unfamiliar to them, Ranis returned to their tr aditional 6 Lebra, 2008, p. 101.
lover, who was also a doctor, to Sin- made to march through the jungle for and died there in poverty and obscurity. societies after the war, and others 7 Gawankar, R. (2003). The women’s regiment and
gapore in 1940. During the Japanese days. In 1946, she was handed over to Some ex-officers of the Jhansi Regiment lived out their lives in poverty in India, Capt. Lakshmi of INA: An untold episode of NRI
Occupation, she became involved with the British in Rangoon, and subsequently worked to secure pensions from the their brief experience of empowerment women’s contribution to Indian freedom struggle
(pp. 263–264). New Delhi: Devika Publications. (Not
the Indian Independence League. In repatriated to India and released. Indian government for these women, but would have been orally related to their
1943, Subhas Chandra Bose arrived In 1947, Sahgal married Prem Kumar often to no avail. 6 Illiteracy prevented daughters and other female members 8 Sahgal, 1997, p. xxix.
in Singapore to take command of Sahgal, a former officer who left the Brit- many women from being aware of their of their households, and would have
the INA, and Sahgal, as a prominent ish Indian Army to join the Indian National elevated status as freedom fighters, or helped sow the seed for change in later References
woman activist, was part of the official Army (INA). Along with other fellow INA that pensions could be extracted from generations of women. Jai Hind: The diary of a rebel daughter of India, with
reception committee that met him at officers, her husband was put on trial for the Indian government because of their In India, recent renewed interest the Rani of Jhansi Regiment. (1945). Bombay:
Janmabhoomi Prakashan Mandir. (Call no.: RSEA
the airport. treason at the Red Fort in Delhi. However, status. Their low social position, and in the Rani of Jhansi Regiment has 954.025 JAI)
When Bose announced his wish the charge was not upheld, and he was Dr Lakshmi Sahgal took up command of the lack of knowledge and education made rekindled discussion of their role in the Lebra J. C. (2008). Women against the Raj: The Rani of
to create the Rani of Jhansi Regi- dismissed from the British Indian Army. Rani of Jhansi Regiment and became known it easy for the Indian government to struggle for Indian independence. It is Jhansi Regiment. Singapore: Institute of Southeast
ment, Sahgal was quickly drawn into The couple then settled in Kanpur in the as Captain Lakshmi, a name and identity that refuse such pension payouts.7 hoped that with this renewed interest, Asian Studies. (Call no.: RSING 954.035 LEB)
the organising of this new force. At state of Uttar Pradesh, where Sahgal would remain with her for life. Image source: Yet, without exception, those Ranis acknowledgement will at last be given
IASPaper.net.
Bose’s request she took up its com- established her medical practice. I interviewed or those whose recorded to this small band of extraordinar y
testimonies I have read or listened Indian women.
48 49
Despite being rudimentary, the reservoir in 1877, exactly 20 years after Tan Kim Municipal Engineer James MacRitchie
had an aqueduct that carried water to a Seng’s philanthropic gesture. Located off decided that the best course of action
plaster-lined tank sited at the edge of the Thomson Road, the reservoir comprised a was to enlarge the Impounding Reservoir.
Singapore River.4 The tank had a spout so catchment area of about 1,890 acres and Carried out between 1891 and 1894 and
that skiffs (small boats) dispatched by the a conduit made of masonry that could at a cost of 32,000 Straits dollars, the
larger ships anchored in the harbour could transport water to within 200 feet of the expansion works increased the capacity
pull up beneath the spout to collect water.5 Singapore River.10 of the reservoir.12
The reser voir remained as the Managed by the Municipal Council, the However, the enlarged reservoir could
island’s main water supply until the 1830s reservoir used gravity rather than pumps barely meet with the increased demand
when demand exceeded its capacity. It to distribute the water. As a result, the during prolonged periods of dry weather. To
was subsequently replaced by a system municipality had to construct a number relieve the pressure, the municipality had to
of wells that were dug around the hill. of service reservoirs on high ground such curtail water supply to as few as two hours
As demand for water continued to as hilltops. Water from the Impounding per day. It also resorted to supplementing
grow in tandem with Singapore’s develop- Reservoir would flow to a pumping station the water supply with well water despite
ment as a trading port, the British real- at the foot of the hill before being sent up its inferior quality.13
ised that using wells to supply water to to the service reservoir and distributed In 1905, the Impounding Reservoir's
visiting vessels was unsustainable as the to households. The first of such service embankment was raised to fur ther
low water rate – at a piddling four gallons reservoirs was built on Mount Emily in increase its capacity. To obtain the addi-
per minute – was too slow. This meant 1878, followed by Pearl's Hill in 1898 and tional water, a tunnel was dug to connect
that ships had to wait for several hours Fort Canning in 1928.11 the reservoir to Kallang River. While the
before they could fully replenish their By the end of the 1900s, Singapore’s construction of the tunnel was still under-
water supply. Those whose patience wore daily water consumption had surged to way, Municipal Engineer Robert Peirce
thin resorted to obtaining contaminated 4.5 million gallons. This was due to the proposed constructing an embankment
water from the Kallang River.6 booming population as well as the growth across the valley of Kallang River to cre-
w
of New Harbour (now Keppel Harbour). ate a second reservoir in 1902.14
The First Reservoirs
In 1823, the British Resident John Craw-
furd proposed spending 1,000 Spanish
dollars to build a new reservoir, but this
Water has and will always be a precious did not materialise. In 1852, the Govern-
resource in Singapore. In 2015, the ment Surveyor and Engineer John Turn-
Washington-based World Resources bull Thomson suggested drawing water
Institute identified the city-state as one from the “Singapore Creek” – an early
of 33 out of 167 countries most likely to reference to the Singapore River. The
face extremely high water stress by 2040.1 lack of government support and public
To help overcome the absence of natural interest, however, scotched this plan. Five
water bodies, the government has come years later, in 1857, the idea of having a
up with innovative ways to expand and proper reservoir resurfaced again when
diversify Singapore’s water resources. Tan Kim Seng, a wealthy Straits Chinese
Over the decades, PUB, Singapore’s merchant, donated 13,000 Straits dollars
national water agency, has created a sus- to the local government to improve the
tainable supply from four sources: water town’s water supply.7
from local catchment, imported water, Tan’s offer could not have come at
high-grade reclaimed water (known as a better time: the population had grown
The Story of Singapore Water NEWater) and desalinated water.2 Together,

these four sources, termed the “Four
National Taps”, have come a long way in
eightfold from 10,683 in 1824 to 81,734
in 1860, and in their desperation, people
turned to contaminated wells and streams
helping Singapore meet its water needs. for their water needs.8 With Tan’s dona-
tion, the government began making plans
in January 1858 for a new reservoir and
Early Water Supplies waterworks. But when cost estimates bal-
Securing a sustainable water supply is looned to 100,000 Straits dollars, the Bengal
From a hole in the ground to running water at key to Singapore’s development, a fact Presidency in Calcutta, which administered
the turn of the tap. Lim Tin Seng tells us how recognised by the British since the time of the British colonies in the Far East, refused
Stamford Raffles. One of the reasons why to sanction the project. The reservoir and
far Singapore has come in its search for water. the British chose Singapore as a trading waterworks were put on hold until 1862 (Facing page) Children splashing themselves with water at a standpipe in a village in Geylang Serai,
post was its access to fresh water. In fact, when the Bengal government agreed to 1960s. The government installed standpipes to provide water to residents who had no taps in their homes.
digging a well for drinking water was among fund half the project.9 The remaining half Courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
(Top) The service reservoir on Mount Emily as photographed by G.R. Lambert & Co., c.1880s. It was built
the first tasks ordered by Raffles when he was raised through a loan in 1864. in 1878 to receive water from the Impounding Reservoir in Thomson Road and distribute it to households.
Lim Tin Seng is a Librarian with the National Library, Singapore. He is the co-editor of Roots: landed in Singapore on 28 January 1819.3 The new Impounding Reser voir Courtesy of National Museum of Singapore, National Heritage Board.
Tracing Family Histories – A Resource Guide (2013), Harmony and Development: ASEAN- Eight months later, the British com- (renamed Thomson Road Reser voir (Above) Thomson Road Reservoir c.1910. Known as the Impounding Reservoir when it began operations
China Relations (2009) and China’s New Social Policy: Initiatives for a Harmonious Society pleted building a reservoir near the foot of in 1907 and thereafter as MacRitchie in 1877, it was renamed Thomson Road Reservoir in 1907 and MacRitchie Reservoir in 1922. Lim Kheng
(2010). He is also a regular contributor to BiblioAsia. Chye Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
Bukit Larangan (now Fort Canning Hill). Reservoir in 1922) began operations
50 51
Kallang Reservoir – renamed Peirce The Central Catchment Nature Reserve occupies over 2,000 hectares of forest and is home to a rich ments for at least 20 years. However, gapore by adding at least 20 million gallons
Reservoir in 1922 and Lower Peirce Reser- biodiversity of flora and fauna. MacRitchie, Upper Seletar, Upper Peirce and Lower Peirce reservoirs are the introduction of a waterborne sew- of water to the colony’s daily supply. This
voir in 1975 – was officially opened in 1911 at located within the reserve. Photo by Richard W.J. Koh. age system and an increase in British brought the daily total supply to at least 56
a cost of around one million Straits dollars. troops in Singapore led to an unexpected million gallons, surpassing the daily con-
Capable of producing at least 3.5 million surge in water consumption to 25 million sumption of 52 million gallons. Initially, the
gallons of water each day, the new reservoir gallons a day by 1940. In response, the City Council wanted to expand the Tebrau
together with the enlarged Thomson Road Municipal Council embarked on a plan waterworks, but the winding down of the
Reservoir (known as Impounding Reservoir in 1939 to turn Seletar into a permanent Communist-related Emergency from the
until 1907), supplied the town of Singapore reservoir with a daily yield of at least late 1950s allowed the Johor River scheme
with 9 million gallons of water daily.15 4 million gallons. The project, which to be revived in 1958 and finalised in 1961.27
While the two reservoirs provided cost 5.6 million Straits dollars, also When the new waterworks at Johor
enough water in the first decade of the involved the construction of a second River began operations in 1968, at least
1900s, there were concerns whether this Pontian Kechil-Gunong Pulai water pipe 30 million gallons of water were delivered
was sustainable, especially since the popu- to increase capacity. With these improve- daily to Singapore. While the authorities
lation had swelled from 300,000 in 1910 to ments, Singapore’s daily water supply were planning the Johor River scheme,
almost 420,000 in 1920. During the same increased to over 31 million gallons.22 they also built another waterworks at recognised its heavy dependence on Johor
period, the average daily consumption of The continued rise in population – Scudai River in 1965. for water. This was evident during the
water had risen to over 10 million gallons, from 570,000 in 1940 to nearly a million in Known as Sultan Ismail Waterworks, Malayan Campaign when the water supply
beyond the capacity of the two reservoirs.16 1947 – again cast a spotlight on Singapore’s it provided Singapore with another 30 from Johor was abruptly cut in January
Peirce warned that the water situation water woes.23 Since the daily water supply million gallons of water each day. The 1942 after the British, in a bid to slow down
would end in “disaster” unless “large and stayed relatively unchanged during the additional water supply from the Johor the advancing Japanese forces, blew up
bold measures [were] taken to improve the as early as 1904 after Peirce predicted that which was the most economical means.20 Japanese Occupation and the immediate River and Scudai schemes was timely the Causeway and with it the main water
water supply without delay”. The Municipal Singapore would continue to face chronic Development of the Gunong Pulai post-war period, the increase in consump- for Singapore as the island’s daily water pipe system from Gunong Pulai.29
Council’s initial solution was to construct a water shortages even if it were to develop scheme, which cost 22 million Straits dol- tion meant that Singapore was once again consumption had more than doubled by In 1963 when both the Johor River
third reservoir at Seletar (renamed Upper all its potential water resources on the lars, involved the construction of a series facing the crisis situation it experienced this time, from 52 million gallons in 1955 and Scudai schemes were still under
Seletar Reservoir in 1992), which was island. Over the next decades, Scudai River, of dams to create a 1.2 billion-gallon during the early 1900s.24 To address this to 110 million in 1970. This was largely due construction, coupled with the prolonged
envisaged to have a capacity of 700 million Linggiu River (a tributary of Johor River) impounding reservoir at the mountain’s issue, the Municipal Council curtailed to a population boom in the 1960s as well dry weather, Singapore’s water supply fell
gallons.17 But the project was subsequently and Pelapah River in the state of Johor ridge in 1927 and a second 3.2 billion- water supply and launched a Save Water as the growth of the shipping, services to critically low levels, thereby forcing
scaled down to a smaller reservoir that were identified as potential water sources gallon reservoir located some 5 miles campaign in 1950 to reduce consumption.25 and industrial sectors.28 the PUB – formed in 1963 to take over
supplied only 2 million gallons of water a for Singapore (see text box below).19 away in Pontian Kechil in 1931. As the In urgent need of more water, the the utilities departments from the City
day in favour of something far more ambi- Finally, in 1923, the Municipal Coun- latter reservoir was situated on lower Municipal Council – renamed the City Coun- Council – to impose a 10-month-long
tious – the Johor water scheme.18 cil concluded that the best solution was ground, the water had to be pumped to cil in 1951 – looked for a new water source
Securing Domestic Water Resources water rationing exercise between April
to obtain water from Gunong Pulai in Gunong Pulai’s waterworks for treatment in Johor and decided on Tebrau River.26 Although the water supply from Johor 1963 and February 1964.30
Johor due to its height. Located some and then piped across the Causeway.21 Completed in 1953, the Tebrau water- helped to relieve the water crisis in the In 1950, the Municipal Council had
Water from Across the Border 32 miles from Singapore and standing With water supply boosted by the works alleviated the water situation in Sin- 1950s and 60s, the government had already commissioned a study to investigate
The Municipal Council had explored the at 770 feet, Gunong Pulai allowed water Johor reservoirs, it was initially thought
idea of importing water from Johor from to be delivered to the island by gravity, that Singapore had met its water require-
(Top right) In an age when people had to collect water from standpipes, public education was vital in water conservation. Courtesy of PUB, Singapore’s
national water agency.
(Below) Then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew visiting the Sultan Ismail Waterworks construction site at Scudai River in May 1964. Completed in 1965, the waterwoks
provided Singapore with another 30 million gallons of water each day. Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
water agreements with malaysia paid an annual rent of RM5 per acre and • 24 November 1990: This agreement (Below right) A 2001 poster by the Public Utilities Board exhorting people to save water. PUB Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore.
3 sen for every 1,000 gallons of raw water supplements the 1962 water agree-
Singapore and Malaysia have signed four it drew. After the agreement expired in ment and is still valid today. The agree-
water agreements regarding the supply 2011, Singapore handed over to the Johor ment allows Singapore to purchase
of water from across the Causeway. State government the Gunong Pulai and treated water from Johor in excess of
Scudai waterworks as well as the pump the entitlement of 250 million gallons
• 5 December 1927: This agreement houses at Pontian and Tebrau without per day of untreated water under the
allowed Singapore to lease 2,100 any charges and in good working order. 1962 agreement. Singapore bore the
acres of land in Gunong Pulai at an cost of constructing a dam across Ling-
annual fee of 30 sen per acre for the • 29 September 1962 (Johor River Water giu River and maintaining it. Singapore
purpose of supplying raw water to the Agreement): This agreement is still in also paid a one-time upfront payment
island. Singapore was not charged for effect today and allows Singapore to of RM320 million as compensation
the water. draw 250 million gallons of water per for the loss of land use, a premium of
day from the Johor River for a period of RM18,000 per hectare and rentals for
• 2 October 1961 (Tebrau and Scudai 99 years until 2061. Singapore pays rent the remaining tenure of the agreement
Rivers Water Agreement): Replaced for the land it uses “at the standard rate calculated at an annual rent of RM30
the 1927 agreement and allowed applicable to the use made of such lands per 1,000 square feet (0.02 acre). The
Singapore to draw water from Gunong and in particular building lots on town 1990 agreement will expire in 2061,
Pulai, Tebrau River and Scudai River land”. It also pays for the water it draws along with the 1962 agreement.
for a period of 50 years. Singapore at the rate of 3 sen per 1,000 gallons.
Reference
Government of Singapore. (2018). Water. Retrieved from Ministry of Foreign Affairs website.
Water agreements. (2006). In T. Koh, et al. (Eds.). Singapore: The encyclopedia (p. 585). Singapore: Editions Didier Millet; National Heritage Board. (Call no.: RSING 959.57003 SIN-[HIS])
52 53
the availability of new water sources in in 1975 and officially opened in February The Kranji and Pandan reservoirs A second reservoir, Sungei Seletar Waste water is treated at the Ulu Pandan NEWater Plant, which opened in 2007. Reclaimed water is today
Singapore. Led by the engineering firm Sir 1977 with a water storage capacity seven were the first two estuarine reservoirs Reservoir (renamed Lower Seletar Res- one of Singapore's Four National Taps. Photo by Richard W.J. Koh.
Bruce White, Wolfe Barry and Partners, times that of Lower Peirce Reservoir.33 built in unprotected catchment areas in ervoir in 1992), was formed by damming
the consultants recommended three 1975. The S$75-million Kranji-Pandan Seletar River. The river water was also
methods of drawing water from the water scheme was formed by damming used to fill Bedok Reservoir (see text
rivers: either damming or transferring the
Unprotected Catchments the Kranji and Pandan rivers. The two box overleaf). 38
water to a larger central reservoir, tap- MacRitchie, Upper Peirce and Lower Pei- reser voirs ser ved mainly the north- Marina Reservoir, located in the
ping on groundwater in the eastern part rce reservoirs are located in the Central western part of Singapore, including heart of the city, is another urban reser-
of the island, and constructing wells and Catchment Nature Reserve. As it is not Jurong Industrial Estate and housing voir. It officially opened in 2008 and was
harvesting rainwater. However, in light of possible to build new reservoirs within this estates in the area.36 created by building a dam – Marina Bar-
the revival of the Johor River scheme, the gazetted nature reserve, the PUB has had In 1981, dykes were built across the rage – across Marina Channel. Envisioned
City Council did not implement the recom- to look elsewhere for water. In 1972, the mouths of the Murai, Poyan, Sarimbun by Singapore’s first Prime Minister Lee
mendations except to create a groundwater agency released the first Water Master and Tengah rivers to transform them Kuan Yew in 1987, the barrage is unique
system in Bedok in 1959. Costing M$2 Plan, which charted the long-term devel- into reser voirs under the Western in the sense that it stores water, allevi-
million, the project was a disappointment opment of water resources in Singapore.34 Catchment Scheme. These reservoirs ates flooding and supports recreational
as it yielded less than one million gallons One innovative method adopted supply water to the western part of the activities. The flood control function is
of water a day instead of the expected 5 to by PUB was the creation of a string of island, including Queenstown, Bukit enabled by a mechanism that serves as
10 million gallons.31 unprotected catchments across the Merah, Telok Blangah, Pasir Panjang a tidal barrier to prevent rising waters
After Singapore gained independ- island. Unlike protected reser voirs, and Alexandra. 37 from advancing inland and flooding low-
ence in 1965, one of the first post-inde- such catchments are located in urban In 1983, PUB initiated the Sungei lying areas. The barrage also keeps the
pendence water projects carried out by areas, yielding water that is of lower Seletar-Bedok Water project to meet reservoir's water level constant, making
the PUB was the enlargement of Seletar quality and with higher organic matter. the increasing demand for fresh water in it suitable for water activities such as
Reservoir in April 1967. Upon its comple- To improve water quality, a number of the eastern part of Singapore. Unlike the sailing, windsurfing and canoeing.39
tion in February 1969, the S$27-million measures were taken, such as using earlier two estuarine reservoir schemes, 2002. Although the study concluded Build, Own and Operate (DBOO) model.
project increased the reservoir’s capacity stronger disinfec tant s, improv ing the main water source for this urbanised that NEWater was safe for potable use, This plant, which has a daily capacity of up
by more than 30-fold.32 filtration methods, enforcing stricter catchment was storm water run-off.
NEWater and Desalinated Water it recommended blending NEWater with to 30 million gallons, supplies PUB with
In 1972, PUB embarked on the con- anti-pollution controls, implementing Storm water collected from nine ponds Another recommendation of the 1972 raw reservoir water and then subjecting desalinated water over a 20-year period.
struction of a new S$55-million reservoir a more efficient waste management in Bedok, Tampines and Yan Kit was Water Master Plan was the use of the resulting mix to the same water treat- In 2013, Hyflux won a second bid to
located upstream of Lower Peirce Reser- system, and launching the Keep Sin- channelled to Bedok Reservoir, which reclaimed water, in other words, water ment process as raw reservoir water. construct the second desalination plant
voir. Upper Peirce Reservoir was completed gapore Clean campaign. 35 was created from a former sand quarry. that has been purified to a high degree. This would re-introduce trace miner- under the DBOO model to supply PUB
This was, however, not an entirely new als removed during the production of with desalinated water over a 25-year
concept. Industrial water was first intro- NEWater and make the idea of consuming period.47 By 2020, Singapore is expected
Built across Marina Channel, Marina Barrage created Singapore’s 15th reservoir, the first located in the city. The barrage serves three purposes: it stores water,
duced in 1966 with the construction of treated and purified waste water more to commission three more desalination
alleviates flooding and supports recreational activities. Courtesy of PUB, Singapore’s national water agency.
Jurong Industrial Water Works by the palatable to the public.43 plants in Tuas, Marina East and Jurong
Economic Development Board to supply Following the successful conclu- Island.48 By 2060, Singapore's total water
non-potable water for industries. The sion of the NEWater study, PUB’s Bedok demand could almost double, with the
objective was to help conserve potable NEWater Plant came into operation in non-domestic sector accounting for
water by reclaiming the effluent from 2002, marking the launch of NEWater about 70 percent. By then, NEWater and
Ulu Pandan Water Reclamation Plant.40 as the Third National Tap.44 Since then, desalination would meet up to 85 percent
In 1974, Singapore’s Sewerage NEWater plants have been built in Kranji of Singapore's future water needs.
Department opened an experimental (2003), Seletar (2004 but decommis-
plant in Jurong that attempted to pro- sioned in 2011), Ulu Pandan (2007) and
duce potable reclaimed water by using Changi (2010 and 2017).45 These plants
Other Water Strategies
advanced membrane technologies, are expected to meet up to 55 percent of Conceptualised in the 1990s as a solu-
including reverse osmosis, to purify Singapore’s future water needs by 2060.46 tion for Singapore’s used water needs,
waste water. However, the plant was The 1972 Water Master Plan also Phase 1 of the Deep Tunnel Sewerage
decommissioned a year later as the recommended tapping seawater as System (DTSS) comprises a 48 km-long
purification technologies available then another source of water supply. However, deep sewer tunnel running from Kranji
were unreliable and expensive.41 minerals and salts have to be removed to Changi, a centralised water reclama-
It would take another 25 years before from seawater first in a process known tion plant at Changi, two deep sea outfall
technological advances made it possible as desalination. Unfortunately, as the pipes and 60 km of link sewers.
for PUB to revisit the idea of producing desalination technology available at the The heart of DTSS Phase 1, the
potable reclaimed water. The Singapore time was energy intensive and costly, the Changi Water Reclamation Plant, is
Water Reclamation Study (NE Water PUB decided not to adopt this method. As capable of treating 900,000 cubic metres
Study) conducted in 1998 revealed that more energy efficient water purification (202 million gallons) of used water per
water reclamation was a growing trend methods, particularly reverse osmosis, day. The used water is treated to meet
globally and that membrane-based became available in the 1990s, PUB began international standards before it is chan-
purification technologies had become to relook the idea of desalinating seawater. nelled to a NEWater factory for further
more reliable and cost efficient. This led In 2005, desalinated water officially purification or discharged into sea. At a
to the opening of the prototype NEWater became the Fourth National Tap with the NEWater plant, the treated used water
demonstration plant at Bedok Water opening of the first desalination plant in goes through a rigorous 3-step treatment
Reclamation Plant in 2000.42 Tuas. Hyflux’s wholly owned subsidiary, process to produce high-grade reclaimed
A comprehensive study of NEWa- SingSpring Pte Ltd, won a bid to construct water.49 Projected to complete by 2025,
ter was carried out between 2000 and a desalination plant under PUB’s Design, DTSS Phase 2 can collect used water
54 55
from the western and southern parts of Conceptualised in the 1990s as a solution for Singapore’s waste water needs, the Deep Tunnel Sewerage
active, beautiful, clean waters gramme. Launched in 2006 the pro- As Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong Singapore for treatment at the proposed System uses a network of deep tunnels to convey waste water by gravity to NEWater reclamation plants in
gramme aimed to turn waterways and quipped, “Our old attitude was, the water Tuas Water Reclamation Plant. Kranji, Changi and Tuas. Courtesy of PUB, Singapore’s national water agency.
Other than being one of the first urban reservoirs into recreational sites for public is for the reservoir, don’t go near it, keep To overcome the limited capacity of
water catchments, Bedok Reservoir use by enhancing them with amenities.1 far away, keep it clean, no canoeing, existing reservoirs, PUB implemented the
was also one of three demonstration Prior to this, the public held the view don’t walk near it, if possible, don’t even Reservoir Integration Scheme in 2007.
projects under the Active, Beauti- that reservoirs were out of bounds and look at it”.2 This scheme uses a system of pipelines
ful, Clean Waters (ABC Waters) Pro- strictly used for the collection of water. However, the ABC Waters Pro- and pumps to connect reservoirs so that
gramme became a game changer. excess water can be transferred from one
Kayakers at Bedok Reservoir, 2011. This was one of three demonstration projects under the Active,
Selected reservoirs and waterways in reservoir to another, thereby optimising
Beautiful, Clean Waters (ABC Waters) Programme launched in 2006. Reservoirs were beautified with Singapore received extensive makeo- their capacity.50 In 2011, the total number
pathways, trees and street lights, and some were even opened for recreational purposes. Photo by vers. Street lamps were installed, trees of reservoirs in Singapore increased to 17
Richard W. J. Koh. were planted and proper pedestrian when two more were created when dykes
access was provided. In some cases, were built across the mouth of Punggol
even fishing decks and pontoons for and Serangoon rivers.
boats and kayaks were added.3 PUB is also making strides in water
technologies by partnering overseas
firms. One recent example is the trial of
a new desalination method in 2015 with
American company, Evoqua Water Tech-
Notes nologies. Known as electro-deionisation,
1 Bedok reservoir first to be upgraded. (December
2005/January 2006). Waternet, p. 8. (Call no.:
this method uses an electric field to extract
RSING q363.61095957 W); $23m river, reservoir dissolved salts from seawater, leaving ous – has come a long way since the time It is crucial that Singapore continues to
upgrade. (2006, May 30). The New Paper, p. 16. behind fresh water. Compared with the of Raffles. Through persistence, foresight find innovative ways to secure and sustain
Retrieved from NewspaperSG. current desalination method, electro- and innovation, our water pioneers have a robust and affordable water supply
2 Koh, L. (2005, November 6). $1m makeover
deionisation is significantly more efficient been able to overcome massive obstacles for future generations. Water ration-
at Bedok Reservoir. The Straits Times, p. 8.
Retrieved from NewspaperSG. in terms of energy usage and cost.51 and challenges to develop and diversify ing and lining up in snaking queues to
3 Public Utilities Board. (2008). Explore Bedok From the first well dug by the British Singapore’s water sources. collect water from public standpipes is
Reservoir; Public Utilities Board. (2008). Explore in 1819 to a constant supply of clean drink- At the current rate of 148 litres per a scene from the 1960s that we should
MacRitchie Reservoir. Retrieved from Public
ing water flowing from taps, Singapore’s person per day, Singapore uses more not revisit.
Utilities Board website.
water journey – at times bumpy and peril- water than many other developed cities.
12 Our water supply. (1912, March 28). The Singapore (Weekly), p. 10; Water supply: Expert approves Gunong 27 Colony has no fear of water shortage. (1955, June 7). 36 ‘Yes’ for Kranji-Pandan reservoir project. (1972, March Speech by Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong at the Official
Notes Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (Weekly), p. 14. Pulai scheme. (1922, October 12). The Straits Times, Singapore Standard, p. 5; The Straits Times, 3 Sep 1961, 9). The Straits Times, p. 4; $132m water supply projects Launch of Newater on Friday, 21st February 2003,
1 S'pore “most at risk of facing high water stress”. (2015, Retrieved from NewspaperSG; Ng, Corlett & Tan, 2011, p. 9. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. p. 1; Water supply: Council to reconsider plan. (1958, to be ready this year. (1975, February 9). The Straits at Newater Visitor Centre, 20 Koh Sek Lim Road, at
August 29). The Straits Times. Retrieved from The p. 59; Yeoh, 2003, p. 179. 20 Singapore water supply: Gunong Pulai scheme finally May 23). Singapore Standard, p. 4. Retrieved from Times, p. 6. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. 7.00pm. Retrieved from National Archives of Singapore
Straits Times website. 13 Yeoh, 2003, p. 179; The Singapore Free Press and adopted. (1923, December 17). The Straits Times, p. 9; NewspaperSG. 37 Water from western catchment for these areas. website.
2 The Straits Times, 29 Aug 2015. Mercantile Advertiser (Weekly), 28 Mar 1912, p. 14. Singapore water: Official report on proposed scheme. 28 Lee, G. (1968, April 20). Sultan opens $30m (1982, May 5). The Straits Times, p. 10. Retrieved from 45 Tang, W. F. (2004, June 19). Third Newater plant on
3 Tarling, N. (1992). Singapore and the Singaporeans 14 Yeoh, 2003, p. 179; Official scheme. (1902, December 8). (1924, January 4). The Straits Times, p. 9. Retrieved waterworks. The Straits Times, p. 11; Sultan opens NewspaperSG. stream as water sector opens up. The Business
since 1819 (p. 27). Auckland: Centre for Asian Studies, The Straits Times, p. 5; Singapore water supply. (1912, from NewspaperSG; The Singapore Free Press and $21m. project. (1965, April 3). The Straits Times, p. 15; 38 Tan, 2009, p. 132; Singapore. Public Utilities Board. Times, p. 8. Retrieved from NewspaperSG; Public
University of Auckland. (Call no.: RSING 959.57 SIN-[HIS]) March 20). The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Mercantile Advertiser (Weekly), 26 Mar 1924, p. 10. Singapore Standard, 7 Jun 1955, p. 5; Chia, P. (1971, (1997). Singapore’s water supply (p. 5). Singapore: Utilities Board. (2012). Annual report 2010/2011 (p. 15).
4 National Archives of Singapore. (2008). 10 years that shaped Advertiser, p. 12. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. 21 The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser June 28). Divining water needs for the future. The Public Utilities Board. (Call no.: RSING 628.1095957 Retrieved from Public Utilities Board website; Lee,
a nation: An exhibition catalogue (p. 38). Singapore: National 15 The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser, (Weekly), 26 Mar 1924, p. 13; Singapore water supply. Straits Times, p. 12. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. SIN); Two proposed reservoirs to be linked. (1980, U-W. (2007, March 16). Let's drink to another Newater
Archives of Singapore. (Call no.: RSING 959.5705 TEN- 20 Mar 1912, p. 12; Colonial government. (1911). (1927, April 25). The Singapore Free Press and 29 National Archives of Singapore, 2008, p. 39. August 18). The Straits Times, p. 9. Retrieved from success: PM. Today, p. 3. Retrieved from NewspaperSG;
[HIS]); Hon, J. (1990). Tidal fortunes: A story of change: The Administration report of the Singapore Municipality for the Mercantile Advertiser, p. 7; Visit to Pontian Kechil: A 30 Tan, Y. S. et. al. (2009). Clean, green and blue: NewspaperSG. Public Utilities Board. (2017, January 18). Singapore's
Singapore River and Kallang Basin (pp. 8, 29-30). Singapore: year (p. 23). Singapore: Fraser & Neave. (Call no.: RCLOS sad coincidence. (1932, March 7). The Malaya Tribune, Singapore’s journey towards environmental and water 39 Public Utilities Board. (2016, November 16). Marina fifth NEWater plant opens. Retrieved from Public
Landmark Books. (Call no.: RSING 959.57 HON-[HIS]); 352.05951 SIN); Singapore. Public Utilities Board. (1985). p. 8; Singapore water supply: Pontian reservoir sustainability (pp. 125–126). Singapore: ISEAS Pub. (Call Barrage. Retrieved from Public Utilities Board Utilities Board website; Boh, S. (2017, January 19).
Makepeace, W., Brooke, G. E., & Braddell, R. S. J. (Eds.). Yesterday & today: The story of public electricity, water and completed. (1932, March 7). The Straits Times, p. 12. no.: RSING 363.70095957 TAN) website; Liaw, W. C. (2008, November 1). First city $170m fifth Newater plant launched. The Straits Times.
(1991). One hundred years of Singapore (p. 326). Singapore: gas supplies in Singapore (p. 13). Singapore: Times Books Retrieved from NewspaperSG; The Singapore Free 31 White, B. (1950). Report on the water resources of reservoir opens. The Straits Times, p. 1. Retrieved Retrieved from The Straits Times website.
Oxford University Press. (Call no.: RSING 959.57 ONE-[HIS]) International. (Call no.: RSING 363.6095957 YES); Our Press and Mercantile Advertiser (Weekly), 26 Mar Singapore island, excluding those within the present from NewspaperSG; Ministry of Information, 46 Public Utilities Board. (2017, September 21). NEWater.
5 Dobbs, S. (2003). The Singapore River: A social history, water supply in 1906. (1907, July 20). Eastern Daily Mail and 1924, p.10. protected catchment area (p. 40). London: Wolfe Communications and the Arts. (2005, March 22). Retrieved from Public Utilities Board website.
1819–2002 (pp. 33–34). Singapore: Singapore University Straits Morning Advertiser, p. 2; Our water supply. (1912, 22 The Straits Times, 7 Mar 1932, p. 12; The Malaya Barry & Partners. (Call no.: RCLOS 627.095957 Speech by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew at the Marina 47 Ong, M. A. (2005). Towards environmental
Press. (Call no.: RSING 959.57 DOB-[HIS]) March 27). The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Tribune, 18 May 1940, p. 3; Extension of town supply BRU); $2m extra water plan goes on. (1958, April Barrage commencement ceremony on 22 March 2005, sustainability: State of the environment 2005 report
6 Dobbs, 2003, p. 34. Advertiser, p. 12; Campbell, B. (1972, December 5). Coping ahead of schedule. (1940, May 21). The Singapore Free 28). The Singapore Free Press, p. 7. Retrieved from 6.00pm. Retrieved from National Archives of Singapore (p. 21). Singapore: Ministry of the Environment and
7 Makepeace, Brooke & Braddell, 1991, p. 326; Yeoh, with the ever increasing demand for water. The Straits Press and Mercantile Advertiser, p. 5; Singapore’s NewspaperSG; Tortajada, Joshi & Biswas, 2013, p. 13. website. Water Resources. (Call no.: RSING 363.72095957 ONG);
B.S.A. (2003). Contesting space in colonial Singapore: Times, p. 14. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. $5,500,000 water scheme: Pipe-Line in Johor being 32 Singapore. Public Utilities Board. (1969). Souvenir 40 Tan, 2009, pp. 140–141. Public Utilities Board. (2017, October 3.). Desalinated
Power relations and the urban built environment (pp. 16 The municipality in 1919. (1920, August 27). The doubled. (1939, April 2). The Straits Times, p. 17. brochure to commemorate the inauguration of Seletar 41 Peh, S. H. (2007, April 7). Liquid asset. The Straits water. Retrieved from Public Utilities Board website.
177–178). Singapore: Singapore University Press. Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser, Retrieved from NewspaperSG. Reservoir, Public Utilities Board (Foreword, pp, 2, 4, 9). Times, p. 50. Retrieved from NewspaperSG; Tan, 2009, 48 Chua, G. (2013, September 18). Another milestone as
(Call no.: RSING 307.76095957 YEO) p. 7; Singapore’s water supply. (1922, November 3). The 23 War conditions hold up taking of census. (1941, Singapore: The Board. (Call no.: RCLOS 628.13095957 p. 142. second desalination plant opens. The Straits Times,
8 Saw S. H. (2012). The population of Singapore (p. 9). Malaya Tribune, p. 6. Retrieved from NewspaperSG. June 17). The Malaya Tribune, p. 2. Retrieved from PUB); Over 100 million gallons of water supplied to 42 United Water Technologies. (2002, June). Singapore pp. 2–3. Retrieved from NewspaperSG; Public Utilities
Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. (Call 17 Yeoh, 2003, p. 179; The water supply. (1907, NewspaperSG; Saw, 2012, p. 14. S'pore daily. (1969, August 10). The Straits Times, p. 32. water reclamation study: Expert panel review and Board, 3 Oct 2017.
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Braddell, 1991, p. 327. NewspaperSG. The Singapore Free Press, p. 6. Retrieved from 33 Singapore. Public Utilities Board. (1977). Souvenir Water Technologies website; Tan, 2009, p. 142; Teo, (p. 20). Singapore: Public Utilities Board. (Call no.:
9 Ng, P. K. L., Corlett, R. T., & Tan, H. T. W. (Eds.). (2011). 18 Singapore water supply. (1924, October 17). The Straits NewspaperSG. brochure to commemorate the official opening of the L. (2001, January 13). Recycling to meet 15% of water RSING 333.910095957 OUR)
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environment and sustainable development (p. 59). J. (1935, October 8). The municipality in my time. The Malaya Tribune, p. 2. Retrieved from NewspaperSG; Board. (Call no.: RCLOS 628.13095957 PUB); Mr Lee NewspaperSG. 51 Public Utilities Board, 2016, p. 20.
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56 57
循着历史的轨迹，就不难发现这样的发展发动连署，超过五万人反对大幅调降文言的代言人，在语言思维结构和生活习惯上动中，胡适和陈独秀等人倡导白话文改革

趋势其来有自。六七十年代的中国经历文文比例，强调课纲修订应回归教育专业。有所不同。简要回顾文白之争的历史，对和文学革命，更是促成了白话逐渐取代文
文言白话
化大革命的浩劫，一直到八十年代都一直在事实上，台湾教育部编辑的教科书降低文我们剖析与梳理当今纷争的缘由，应有言的历史机缘。1920年北京政府颁令全国
与
价值观危机边缘徘徊，步入九十年代后，海言文篇数与比例早有先例。选文篇数部编一定的帮助。学校和报刊采用白话文，启动了语文教科
外的“儒学热”和“国学热”乘虚而入，填本从原有的70篇，2010年课纲下降到40 书语体转换的历史进程。
补了精神上无所依托的空白，形成一股波篇；2012年再降到30篇，现在2019年课纲虽说“文言文”古已有之，但此概念却迟至
澜壮阔的传统文化回流现象。九十年代中仅剩20篇。在研修小组订定的课纲中，文晚清方以“白话文”的对立面出现。7 文言历史已清楚证明文白语体的演变，对于语
的抗争与磨合期的全日制普通高中语文教学大纲，已提
出语文是最重要的交际工具，也是最重要
的文化载体的观点。2000年，
“弘扬祖国
言文比例也从2010年课纲的55%到65%，
降至2012年课纲的45%到65%，2019年课
纲为45%到55%，对照早期教科书的文言
是由早期口语演化出来的，两者有着不可
割舍的血脉关系。
“文言”、
“白话”、
“白话
文”与“现代华语”是四个不同的概念，若
文学科的独立和教育的普及有重大意义，
但我们也见证了近代汉语文化转型过于仓
促和功利化所产生的不利影响。诚如周志
优秀文化”、
“培育学生热爱祖国语言文字文比例超过70%，降幅颇大。混为一谈，必然会剪不断理还乱。
“文言” 强指出的：
“五四以来从文言文到白话文
近代华文教学语体的蜕变历程和中华优秀文化的思想感情”已经成为教是以文字记录下来的书面语。
“白话”是日的转换，实现了语言的社会学意义上的转
育大纲上的首要宗旨，排在听说读写语言程晏铃在《天下》杂志专文明确地指出，文常口头的应用语。
“白话文”是以现代口语换，但对古典汉语形象审美传统的继承却
Classical and Modern Chinese education in Mainland 技能的前头。4 在这样一个绝佳的思潮优言文的争议乃源自于大众对台湾以考试为为基础形成的书面语，而现代华语的历史被搁置并延迟”。8 声势浩大的“经典诵读
China and Taiwan has been debated for over a 势下，文言文就自然水到渠成，很快就成主导的教学所引起的集体焦虑。高中生几比白话短得多。现代华语则是以北京语音为热”，提醒我们应把多些言简意赅、生动有
century. Chua Chee Lay analyses its development and 为教学的核心，不仅课时大增，还要求充乎人手一本的抢救国文大作战，参考书、标准，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范趣、蕴含传统美德的经典美文言收入教科
provides valuable lessons from history. 分发掘其审美鉴赏的价值。可见今日新教考古题像是各种焦虑纷陈，各种文章挖空的语言体系。让我们从语言文化传承与教学书里。我们应引导莘莘学子多背诵抑扬顿挫
材重视文言文，是拜“传统文化热”所赐。等着被填满，台湾语文教育因为服膺考试，意义两个角度，梳理分析华文教学面临的两的经典，让他们心领神会中华美学的精妙；
近半个世纪来，海峡两岸对教科书文言与文言文的追思。究其本质，波澜壮阔的“经偏重词性与注释，对文本只有表浅理解，缺难局面与文白之间应如何取舍，如何磨合。也可背诵带有时代精神至情至性的现代美
白话的取舍，有着截然相反的立场和举措。典诵读热”诉求的并非走回文言文的老路，正当中国大陆如火如荼地加大文言文教学乏统整、批判、后设与跨领域思考。可见文文，培养口语流畅优雅的能力，这对提高他
特别是在2017年，文白之争更趋白热化，很而是对文言文所承载的美德，诸如勤慎端的力度时，海峡对岸的台湾官方却大唱反白之争的背后不是语体问题，而是教学的随着时间的推移，以日常生活为活水源泉们的书写能力也大有帮助，唯有如此莘莘
值得远在数千公里外的新加坡华语文教育朴、乐天知命、家和万事兴，牺牲小我完成调，反其道而行。2017年9月，台湾教育部问题，无关乎文体或选文。6 的白话在潮流中不断更新，而以文言文书学子才有可能不由自主地爱上华文华语。
工作者密切关注与参考，甚至于是深切反大我，以及“富贵不能淫、贫贱不能移、威课程审议会通过提案，将于2019年实施的写的书面语却因与时代脱节而停滞不前，
思与检讨。武不能屈”等等传统美德的缅怀与颂扬。 12年教育课纲草案，把高中文言文比例从从社会语言学的角度审视，文言与白话的大大限制了语言的发展和教育的普及。清知古鑑今，华文教学语体应取道中庸。重
45%–65%降为45%–55%；课纲内必选的矛盾冲突错综复杂，不纯然只是教学和末废止科举制，为中华文化从文言转向白文言轻白话，开历史的倒车不可为，而一
跨过21世纪的门槛后，在官方的推波助澜在“多读经典文言文可增强民族自豪感”的古文篇章，从原本的20篇降到10至15篇，考试的问题，因为文言与白话乃不同世代话提供了契机。民国初年掀起的新文化运味废除文言，摒弃经典亦不可取，这两者
下，中国大陆诵读经典的热潮此起彼伏，许大前提下，2017年9月新学期开课时，中国此外也决议删除中华文化基本教材的选之间毕竟存在着不可分割的血缘关系。顺
5
多家长带着孩子身穿汉服诵读《弟子规》小学一年级和初中一年级的语文教材，统材范围，另外，必修课程之《论语》、
《孟应着时代的步履，以白话文为主以文言为
和《论语》。从2010年起，中国教育部、国一使用最新出炉的“教育部编义务教育语子》、
《大学》和《中庸》的中华文化基本辅，古为今用，文白共生，才是华文教学语
家语委与中央精神文明建设指导委员会办（简称“部编本”）,3 而之前的
文教科书” 教材，应考量教学节数、学生学习兴趣与理体走到今天最美好的组合。
公室，还联合实施大规模的“中华诵：经典各教材都将陆续退出校园。在兼顾时代色解能力，可考虑改为能融入品德教育、生命
注释
诵读行动”。1 彩之余，新编教材选文凸显的是经典性和教育、生涯发展、人权教育等议题的合适现 1 中国教育部网站 http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/
xxgk_jyta/jyta_yys/201611/t20161117_289194.html
文质美，所以文言文比例大增，较之前人民代文本，进一步删去经典文言的份量。其
2 郭初阳、蔡朝阳和吕栋(2010)。《救救孩子：小学语文
这股抚今悼昔的热潮，折射出中国社会普教育出版社出版的教材，小学6个年级，古所持的理由是，文言文是因循保守、腐化教材批判》。中国：长江文艺出版社。
3 《新编语文教材9月1日起全国投入使用古诗文数量增
遍对当前以白话文为主的教科书的不满，诗文总数增加了55篇（一年级已有古诗），思想的八股文。现代学生不应被困在古人加》。摘录自中国教育部网站：http://www.moe.
gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/xw_fbh/moe_2069/xwfbh_2017n/
教育工作者还发出“救救孩子：小学语文增幅高达80%；总计124篇，占全部课文的思想的牢笼里，应减少接触抱残守缺的古 xwfb_20170828/mtbd_20170828/201708/
t20170830_312738.html
教材批判”的强烈呼声。道德危机的警 2
30%。初中3个年级，古诗文总篇数也提升籍，增加台湾当地的文学内容，强化台湾的 4 陈子丰“从教材大幅增加文言文，谈中国语文教育的
百年历史”。摘录自《界面》。http://www.jiemian.
钟，一次又一次敲醒人们对承载传统文化的至124篇，占全部课文的51.7%。主体性，让学生有更多空间探讨族群、阶级 com/article/1545417.html
5 摘录自《联合早报》http://www.zaobao.com.sg/
和性别的议题。
realtime/china/story20170911-794322
6 程晏铃“文言文比例回歸專業，國文怎麼教才是重
蔡志礼博士是美国威斯康辛大学（麦迪逊总校）东亚语言暨文学博士和新加坡国立大学教育硕
點”。摘录自《天下》杂志(2017年9月11日)https://
士。他是一位拥有多年培训教师经验的语言教育学者。
提案出台后，所如预料立即引发台湾社会 www.cw.com.tw/article/article.action?id=5084897
Dr Chua Chee Lay received his PhD in Asian Language and Literature from the University of 7 张中行(2007)《文言与白话》。中国：中华书局。
Wisconsin, Madison, and Master in Education from the National University of Singapore. He is a 大争议，抗议文言比例降低的呼声不小， 8 周志强， “一个伟大传统的失落与重建——从汉语
从《续修四库全书》，也可看到文言文与白话文演变的端倪。版权所有，《续修四库全书》编委会编 (2002)。
language educator and researcher with many years of teacher training experience. 形象角度看白话文改革”。摘录自周志强专栏http://
中研院院士邀集文坛大家与跨界专业人士《续修四库全书》。上海: 上海古籍出版社。(索书号：R Chinese 039.951 XXS)
www.aisixiang.com/data/21630.html
58 59
BIBLIOASIA APR – JUN 2018 Vol. 14 / Issue 01 / NL Notes
(Facing page top) The ramen shop run by Masato’s father in Japan.
Courtesy of Zhao Wei FiIms.
(Facing page bottom) Ramen Teh premiered in Singapore cinemas on
RAMEN TEH
29 March 2018. Courtesy of Zhao Wei FiIms.
(Left) Masato discovering the diverse experiences and accounts of the
people in Singapore during the Japanese Occupation at the exhibition in the
Former Ford Factory. The film also features resources from the National
Archives of Singapore. Courtesy of Zhao Wei FiIms.
(Above) In a dream-like scene, Masato’s parents (played by Japanese
actor Tsuyoshi Ihara and Singaporean actress Jeanette Aw) enjoy the
Q: How was the story for Ramen Teh conceived, including the use ramen teh that Masato has prepared. Courtesy of Zhao Wei Films.
of food as a central theme?
A: I’ve always believed that food is an integral part of Singapore’s Q: Do you think there is a good understanding among today’s
cultural identity. In fact, food is a recurring theme in almost all younger generation of what Singapore went through during
of my movies. It has a universal emotional resonance that cuts World War II?
Food, War and Memory

across all cultures. Back in 2015, I was approached by Japanese
producer Yutaka Tachibana to collaborate on this project, and I A: I think it is difficult for any generation to truly understand
immediately said yes. the experience of war when they have only known peacetime in
Singaporeans love Japanese food and the Japanese are also their lives. Even more so when their parents or grandparents
developing a taste for our cuisine, so it seemed logical to use food as who lived through the war years have passed on. There is lit-
the central theme to symbolise ties between Singapore and Japan. tle motivation for subsequent generations to share the war
Eric Khoo tells us how the Japanese Occupation, ramen Our love for bak kut teh (“meat bone soup”) and ramen became the stories of their forefathers, especially when some of these
noodles and bak kut teh became the inspiration for his inspiration for the film, whose title combines the names of these
two dishes. Once the theme was decided, the plot and characters
may be traumatic. Ramen Teh does provide an insight into the
impact of World War II on modern times through the plot and
latest film. Lu Wenshi finds out more. just developed naturally. characters – even though that was not my primary intention.
w
Q: Why did you decide to include a World War II dimension to the plot? Q: Do you think that the legacy of World War II still shapes
A: The starting point is always the characters. As our main
current-day Singapore and Japan?
character Masato is of Japanese-Singaporean parentage, A: This is a big question and I am not a historian! I think what
When acclaimed Singaporean film director Eric Khoo produced his latest film World War II naturally came into play when I decided to is more important is for Singapore and Japan to learn from
Ramen Teh, he was drawn to the historical materials and archival records on inject drama and conflict into the film. We wanted ultimately the lessons of war, and to appreciate that with love and friend-
display at the exhibition – “Surviving the Japanese Occupation: War and its to show that Ramen Teh is a story of love and forgiveness. ship, so much more can be achieved from working together.
Legacies” – at the Former Ford Factory. It was not a coincidence, therefore,
when he decided to feature the World War II site in his film.
Ramen Teh tells the story of Masato (played by Takumi Saitoh), a young
Q: Why did you choose to film at the Former Ford Factory when there Q: What more can be done for a better understanding of World
Japanese ramen chef, who travels to Singapore in a bid to find out more about
are other war-related sites in Singapore? War II and its aftermath as those who lived through the war
his late Singaporean mother. Along the way, he discovers events in Singapore A: I was overwhelmed by the building and the exhibition
gradually pass on?
history that were unknown to him and, eventually, through food, is able to forge space when I visited the place. I knew I had to shoot a scene A: One approach can be through storytelling, in whatever
a bond with his new-found family. there as the displays were very engaging and the oral history artistic form it takes, for instance through movies, books,
In the film, Masato visits the exhibition to find out more about the Japanese interviews extremely moving. The lighting was perfect too. TV, theatre and music. If we can incorporate the lessons of
Occupation in Singapore. The visit leaves a deep impression on Masato as he war and its consequences into our psyche, I think there is
comes to learn about the horrific events that took place during this period in greater resonance – especially for the younger generation.
Singapore’s history. The former car factory in Bukit Timah was where British
Q: Can you share any anecdotes from the filming at the Former
forces officially surrendered Singapore to the Japanese on 15 February 1942.
Ford Factory?
Lu Wenshi is Manager (Archives Services) What followed was three-and-a-half years of brutal Japanese rule when Sin- A: The Japanese production crew and actors were deeply moved The Former Ford Factory is located at 351 Upper Bukit
with the National Archives of Singapore. gapore was renamed Syonan-to (“Light of the South”). by what they saw. The lead actor Takumi Saitoh, after his tour of Timah Road. Presented by the National Archives of Sin-
She was involved in the revamp of the Ramen Teh premiered in local cinemas on 29 March 2018, and also stars the Former Ford Factory, came up to me, close to tears and said, gapore, the exhibition “Surviving the Japanese Occupa-
Former Ford Factory and managed Singaporean artistes Jeanette Aw as Masato’s mother and Mark Lee as his uncle, “I am very sorry, I never knew all this happened.” The staff at tion: War and its Legacies” is open 9 am–5.30 pm from
its outreach programmes, including and Japanese pop singer Seiko Matsuda. In this interview with BiblioAsia, Eric the gallery were extremely knowledgeable and helpful, and that Mondays to Saturdays, and 12 pm–5.30 pm on Sundays.
facilitating the shoot of Ramen Teh.
Khoo shares his thoughts on the war and what drove him to produce this film. ensured our shoot went smoothly.
60 61
BIBLIOASIA APR – JUN 2018 Vol. 14 / Issue 01 / NL Notes
FIRST ISSUES
PUBLICATIONS FROM THE PAST
1
5
7
1. The Journal of the Singapore Society of Architects (December 1923)
This journal of the Singapore Society of Architects, the precursor of the Singapore
Institute of Architects, was launched the same time the society was established in
1923 with 11 founding members, one of whom was the municipal architect S. Douglas
Meadows. The society aimed to foster the growing interest in architecture in Singapore
after World War I. According to Meadows, who became the first president of the society,
“to design in beauty and build in strength should be the aim of the architect”.5
2. Student World (Vol. 1, No. 1, 5 May 1958)

According to the Foreword in the inaugural issue published on 5 May 1958, the magazine
aimed to supplement students’ education in school with articles that will equip them
with skills for the real world.
3. Tumasek (No. 1, January 1964)

Founded by award-winning writer and poet Goh Poh Seng, the inaugural issue of this
literary journal featured Goh’s poem, “On Looking at the Moon and Thinking”, and novel
2 If We Dream Too Long. The latter is considered the first local English novel and won the
National Book Development Council of Singapore’s Fiction Book Award in 1976.
4. Her World (Vol. 1, July 1960)

Launched in July 1960, Her World is the first English-language women’s magazine
published in Singapore and the longest-running to date. Local model Nancy Koh, with
8 half her face artistically cropped out, was the first cover girl. According to the editor,
the cover “suggest[s] all the mystery of the East”.6
5. 旋律飞扬 (Xuan Lü Fei Yang) (March 1987)

When xinyao (新谣), a genre of Mandarin songs unique to Singapore, was making waves
in the local music industry in the 1980s, 旋律飞扬 ( Xuan Lü Fei Yang) was published to
showcase new as well as established xinyao singers and their songs. Featured on the
cover of the inaugural issue is Yan Liming, one of Singapore's pioneer xinyao singers
and affectionately known then as “big sister” among xinyao singers.
6. த ிரைமலர் (Thirai Malar) (January 1961)

This was one of the earliest Tamil movie magazines in Singapore. It was targeted at film
fans with features on Tamil movies, the latest news on famous film stars and scenes
from popular movies. To reach out to non-Tamil speaking audiences, the magazine also
published articles in English that showcased popular Hindi and other movies.
7. Sub Aqua (Vol. 1, No. 1, August/September 1964)

Touted as Malaysia’s skin diving, boating and skiing magazine, the publication was
aimed at watersports and boating enthusiasts. This target audience was likely small
as the people who could indulge in such activities in 1960s Singapore were probably
from privileged backgrounds.
8. National Pioneer (August 1969)

Shown here is the first issue of National Pioneer – the precursor of Pioneer magazine
– launched in August 1969 by then Ministry of Interior and Defence. Pioneer, which is
published by the Singapore Armed Forces, keeps servicemen abreast of events and
developments in the armed forces, and includes topics such as entertainment, travel,
6 and health and fitness.
4
Inaugural or first issues of publications – pedestrian and do not resonate with the intended as an “affordable” publication for food connois-
3
whether lifestyle magazines, trade publica- audience, there is a good chance the publication seurs looking to experience “love at first bite”.2
tions or scholarly journals – are sometimes will not last beyond the first year. The editor of literary magazine Tumasek
much anticipated by readers because of the While editors often try and anticipate readers’ had loftier ambitions, asserting that “at the
Launch issues can make or break a new publication. hype and publicity drummed up in the lead-up
to their launch.
tastes when deciding on the contents, some have
firm personal convictions about what is right (or
inception of a magazine, it is necessary to prom-
ulgate one’s intentions and aspirations…, and
Barbara Quek shares highlights of first issues First issues of famous and iconic maga- wrong) for their readership.1 Editorials – either in it is fitting that the editorial of our first number
zines, such as Life and National Geographic, the form of a lead article or an introductory note should be devoted to this end”.3
from NLB’s Legal Deposit Collection. have become highly sought-after collectors’ from the editor-in-chief or publisher – are usually Published with a discerning audience in
items, with some titles fetching high prices on worth more than a cursory read. mind, the editor of Folk Scene Singapore aimed
eBay. Much time and expense are invested in In the first issue of The Food Paper launched “to present folk music in its fullest spectrum",
Barbara Quek is a Senior Librarian with the National Library, Singapore. She inaugural issues as they can make or break in January 1987, its editor, well-known food critic adding that if readers “find our interpretation
is currently with the Advocacy & Statutory Function group that oversees the the publication. Violet Oon, claimed that her culinary magazine controversial, in which case we shall be pleased,
compliance of Legal Deposit in Singapore. Her work also covers donations as First impressions do count in the publishing “will excite, titillate and amuse” its readers. as this magazine intends to be controversial on
well as gift and exchange materials for the library.
business. If the cover is dull, and the contents Published in a newspaper format, it was pitched the subject of music”.4
62 63
BIBLIOASIA APR – JUN 2018
Pages from the Past 9. Singapore Business (Vol. 1, No. 1, January 1977) Notes
First published in January 1977, the magazine covered 1 McKay, J. (2006). The magazines
First-issue publications evoke memories a wide array of topics on the business landscape in handbook (p. 60). London; New York:
of people, places and events from times Singapore. A feature article in the inaugural issue Routledge. (Call no.: 052 MAC)
past. The tabloid format was the norm reported that the only way to ease traffic congestion 2 Meet Violet, the chef. Retrieved from
in Singapore is to build a mass rapid transit system. Violet Oon Singapore website; Oon, V.
for several early student and commu- Already, more than 40 years ago, the city was suf- (1987, January). Mouthpiece. The Food
nity-focused publications, including The fering from a surfeit of too many vehicles. Paper, p. 1. Singapore: Food Paper.
Student Times (1960), Students' Digest (Call no.: RSING q641.095957 FP)
Illustrated (1967) and Busway (1975). There 10. Development & Construction (Vol. 1, No. 1, January/ 3 Editorial. (1964). Tumasek (p. 3).
were also relatively more B4-size publi- February 1976) Singapore: Tumasek Trust. (Call no.:
Targeted at professionals in the building and con- RCLOS 805 T)
cations back then, such as The Journal of struction industry, the 1976 inaugural issue of this 4 Editorial. (1967, November). Folk scene,
the Singapore Society of Architects (1923), trade publication included a special feature on the 1 (1), p. 3. Singapore: J. E. Wee for Folk
Singapore Illustrated Weekly (1947), Her 50-storey International Plaza at Anson Road. This Scene Singapore. (Call no.: RSING
World (1960), V.I.P. Magazine: The Prestige is one of Singapore’s first mixed-use developments 781.62 FSS)
comprising both residential and commercial units. 5 Meadows, D.S. (1923, December).
Magazine (1966), The Travellers’ Palm (1967) The building – at a height of 190 metres – was one The mistress art. The Journal of the
and National Pioneer (1969). Black-and- of the three tallest in Singapore at the time. Singapore Society of Architects, p. 13.
white pages featured more prominently as (Microfilm no.: NL16646)
colour printing was very costly in those days. 11. Dewi Majalah Bulanan Wanita (May 1972) 6 Thumbing through... (1960, July). Her
Many of these old magazines have A popular monthly magazine for women, the inau- World, 1, p. 3. Singapore: Straits Times
gural issue interviewed cover girl Rosie Kassim, the Press (Malaya) Ltd. (Call no.: RSING
either ceased publication, changed names bass guitarist of a pop quartet called the Teepees. 052 HW)
or acquired new publishers. Sustaining Other talents featured included Anne Wong, the 7 Meet Violet, the chef. Retrieved from
a publication is often more challenging sole Singaporean woman race car driver at the time; Violet Oon Singapore website; Oon, Jan
than publishing and launching a new one, Sharifah Aini, who came in third at the 1968 Radio and 1987, p. 1.
Television Singapore talentime contest; and
and we applaud those that have stood the singers Nona Asiah and Rahimah Rahim.
test of time. Although quite different in 9
contents, style and readership, National 12. The Food Paper (January 1987)
Pioneer, forerunner of today’s Pioneer Helmed by Violet Oon, the grande dame of Sin-
magazine of the Singapore Armed Forces, gaporean cooking, the monthly magazine hoped
to “excite, titillate and amuse” its readers.7 In
and Her World, Singapore’s oldest wom- this first issue, the magazine takes readers on
en’s magazine, have survived to this day. a whirlwind tour of the best “private hawker
Featured in this essay are just a sam- centres” in Singapore. These included Scotts
pling of titles from a collection of about 700 Picnic Food Court, Forum Galleria’s Rasa Forum
Food Fair, Orchard Food + Plus, Waterloo Food
first-issue publications – from 1923 to 1987 Paradise and Bugis Square Food Centre.
– available in the Legal Deposit Collection of
the National Library, Singapore. The titles
run the gamut from light-hearted fare,
such as fashion, entertainment, art, music, 10
sports and food, to more serious reading
like architecture, building and construction,
business and education.
11
what is the legal deposit?

One of the statutory functions of the
National Library Board Act is Legal
Deposit. Under the act, all publishers,
commercial or otherwise, are required
by law to deposit two copies of every
work published in Singapore with the
National Library within four weeks
of its publication. The Legal Deposit
function ensures that Singapore’s pub-
lished heritage is preserved for future
generations. Legal Deposit also acts
as a repository for published materi-
als, providing exposure via the online
catalogue, PublicationSG: catalogue.
nlb.gov.sg/publicationsg. For more
information, please visit www.nlb.gov.
sg/Deposit.
64 12

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biblioasia Vol.

The Truth About

10Portraits from the

18Secret War Experiments

44Warrior Women: The

50Four Taps: The Story

50 58 been revised. We apologise

All rights reserved.

NL NOTES National Library Board,

ISSN 0219-8126 (print)

60Ramen Teh: Food, War

60 Library. BiblioAsia is distributed to local and international libraries, academic institutions,

(Facing page) Vanda x Miss Joa-

The Vanda Miss Joaquim Story

Is the Vanda Miss Joaquim a human-made hybrid or a happy accident?

FROM Liu first knew of the Lee Brothers Collection

Cheong Suk-Wai is a former lawyer

Dr Yosuke Watanabe, 47, visiting fellow

Lee Meng: Malayan Mata Hari

a UK-bound ship in Penang the following day, a

St John’s Island tives of the local ruler – the Temenggong

transformation from a place of exile to an oasis of idyll.

a timeline of singapore’s chinese renaissance buildings

Meira Chand’s multi-cultural heritage

The Story of Singapore Water NEWater) and desalinated water.2 Together,

循着历史的轨迹，就不难发现这样的发展 发动连署，超过五万人反对大幅调降文言 的代言人，在语言思维结构和生活习惯上 动中，胡适和陈独秀等人倡导白话文改革

Food, War and Memory

2. Student World (Vol. 1, No. 1, 5 May 1958)

3. Tumasek (No. 1, January 1964)

4. Her World (Vol. 1, July 1960)

5. 旋律飞扬 (Xuan Lü Fei Yang) (March 1987)

6. த ிரைமலர் (Thirai Malar) (January 1961)

7. Sub Aqua (Vol. 1, No. 1, August/September 1964)

8. National Pioneer (August 1969)

what is the legal deposit?

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循着历史的轨迹，就不难发现这样的发展发动连署，超过五万人反对大幅调降文言的代言人，在语言思维结构和生活习惯上动中，胡适和陈独秀等人倡导白话文改革