RHS Illustrated Dictionary of Gardening PDF

THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
Illustrated
Dictionary of
Gardening
Illustrated
Dictionary of
Gardening
MICHAEL POLLOCK
AND
MARK GRIFFITHS
LONDON • NEW YORK • MUNICH
MELBOURNE • DELHI
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First published by Dorling Kindersley in 2005
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Contents
Foreword 06
A-Z of horticultural and botanical terms and phrases 07
Notes, abbreviations and conversions 08
Pests and diseases: diagnostic charts 839
Visual glossary of plant forms 843
Index of common names 855

Foreword
The RHS is dedicated to encouraging excellence in The RHS is proud of its association with this
horticulture and informing all with an interest in comprehensive guide to horticulture. I warmly
gardening, goals that will be well served by this new commend it to all those gardeners who wish to expand
book. The RHS Illustrated Dictionary of Gardening is their knowledge of this fascinating subject.
derived from The RHS Shorter Dictionary of Gardening,
which was published in 1998 as an abridgement of
the acclaimed four-volume reference work The New
RHS Dictionary of Gardening. It gathers in one volume all
the core horticultural information together with entries
for over 1900 genera of ornamental and culinary
plants. Sir Richard Carew Pole
President
The compilation of The RHS Shorter Dictionary was The Royal Horticultural Society
a major task, and the RHS would like to pay tribute to October 2005
the dedicated work of Michael Pollock, who not only
compiled the horticultural and general entries but has
now also undertaken the meticulous revision and
updating of the whole text for this illustrated edition,
and of Mark Griffiths, who was responsible for all the
plant entries in the original edition.
The introduction of carefully chosen colour

illustrations throughout the text should help this
definitive single-volume dictionary achieve its aim of
enabling a wider audience to have a good
understanding of plants and horticultural processes. It
is written with the interests of vocational and amateur
gardeners in mind, as well as those of horticultural
students and all others concerned with the
development and promotion of horticulture as a
profession and as a fulfilling leisure activity.
Illustrated
Dictionary of
Gardening
A Z
About this book
The horticultural entries of this book cover the principles and Abbreviations used in this book
practice of horticulture, gardening techniques, crops, relevant science cf. : compare subsp./ssp. : subspecies
and terminology, and pests, diseases, and disorders; all of these are cv : cultivar subspp. : subspecies (plural)
now reviewed and revised and supplemented for this edition where cvs : cultivars syn. : synonym
necessary or desirable. Although the entries refer mainly to current f. : forma var. : variety
horticultural practice in Great Britain, consideration has been given q.v. : which see x : hybrid
throughout to other situations, and a few little-used or obsolete terms sp. : species + : graft hybrid (see chimaera)
are included where considered potentially useful. spp. : species (plural)
Limited mention is made of chemical control measures for pests,

diseases, and weeds. This emphasizes the need for environmental Conversions of weights and measurements
responsibility and utmost care in selection and application. Always To convert into multiply by
refer to the product manufacturers’ recommendations for acceptable, millimetres inches 0.039
effective, and safe use of garden chemicals. centimetres inches 0.394
metres feet 3.281
Plant genera and species were originally selected on grounds of metres yards 1.094
widespread cultivation. Each entry gives a brief description with square metres square yards 1.196
guidance on garden merit and preferred growing conditions. Recent
changes to plant nomenclature have been applied in this edition and grams ounces 0.0352
there are some additional ornamental and culinary plant references. kilograms ounces 35.274
kilograms pounds 2.205
Several of the largest genera have been presented in tables for ease of
reference. The botanical plant name appears in bold in the left-hand litres gallons (Imperial) 0.22
column, with any synonyms and common names beneath. General litres gallons (US) 0.264
information appears in an introductory paragraph that covers advice litres pints (Imperial) 1.76
on cultivation and appropriate climatic zones, which are explained litres pints (US) 2.113
under Hardiness on page 358.
Noteworthy cultivars are frequently named in the plant and crop Author’s acknowledgments
entries, but it is recommended that specific, up-to-date guidance is For contributions and advice: Chris Prior, Andrew Halstead, Guy
obtained by consulting current catalogues of nurserymen and Barter, James Armitage and Janet Cubey (all at Wisley) and Vana
seedsmen. Cultivars holding The Royal Horticultural Society’s Haggerty (for the composite illustration of bud stages on page 854).
Award of Garden Merit warrant first consideration. Also, for general guidance and advice, Louise Abbott at DK.
Mike Pollock 2005
Included on pages 839–864 are tables, illustrations, and lists that will
help with the diagnosis of many plant pests and diseases, botanical
descriptions, and common names of plants. These sections form
useful supplements to parts of the main text.
Plant nomenclature
Botanical names adopted in this book have been adjudicated by
members of the RHS Advisory Panel on Nomenclature and
Taxonomy. For the most part, names follow those in the RHS Plant
Finder 2004–2005. The Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of
Garden Merit is awarded to plants judged to have excellent garden
qualities, and the list of AGM plants is continuously expanding. For
information on which plants have received the award readers are
recommended to consult specialist plant and seed catalogues, and the
following books: RHS AGM Plants, which is the complete list and also
available online at www.rhs.org.uk, the RHS Plant Finder, and the
RHS Good Plant Guide.
Climatic zones
Plant entries make mention of climatic zones. These may be given
for a genus as a whole, or for individual species where their hardiness
differs. The zones are an approximate indication of the coldest
climatic band in which the plant will thrive. See Hardiness, p.358.
Abies
A
‘Gold Strike’: more solidly gold-varie- Abies (from Latin, abire, to rise up,
gated); A.schumannii (Central China; referring to the great height of some
slender-branched, arching semi-ever- species). Pinaceae. North Temperate
green to 1.5m (5ft) tall with rose-pink regions. Central America. FIR; SILVER
flowers produced in great abundance FIR. Some 50 species, evergreen, conif-
throughout the summer; hardier erous trees with resinous bark and
than most other species); A.triflora tiered branches in a whorled or cande-
(Himalayas; robust, deciduous shrub labra-like arrangement. The needles
with an upright habit and sweetly are linear and flattened, often keeled
fragrant shell-pink flowers surrounded and with two pale stripes of stomata
by feathery red sepals). beneath, and arranged radially, spirally
or pectinately on the branchlets. The
abaxial of the surface or part of a Abeliophyllum (the foliage of this male cones hang from leaf axils; the
lateral plant organ turned or facing genus was thought to resemble that female cones (described in the table
away from the axis and toward the of Abelia). Oleaceae. Korea. 1 species, below) are ovoid to cylindric and
plant’s base, such as the underside A.distichum, the KOREAN or WHITE appear in spring, standing more or
of a leaf; cf. adaxial. FORSYTHIA, a deciduous shrub to less upright. These trees are mostly
2m (61/2ft), with arching branches and from cool, wet mountainous regions.
Abelia (for Clarke Abel (1780–1826), rather dull, ovate leaves. The flowers Avoid soils that dry out rapidly, and
who discovered A.chinensis). Caprifoli- appear in late winter and early spring exposure to drying winds (A.cephalonica
aceae. East Asia; Mexico. 15 species, on bare, maroon twigs. They resemble and A.pinsapo will tolerate drier and more
evergreen or deciduous shrubs with a forsythia’s in general shape, but are alkaline soils than others). All species
small funnel-shaped flowers through sparkling white and sweetly scented grow best in slightly acidic soils. Most
summer and early autumn. In some (flushed pink in the cultivar ‘Roseum’). resent air pollution, although A.homolepis
species the calyx is showy. Many genus Hardy in zone 7 if planted against a and A.veitchii will survive in cities.
members are not reliably hardy below south-facing wall and given some Plant young trees in autumn or spring
zone 7, but can be grown against support on wires or trellis. Cut back on a well-drained site; select those that
south-facing house walls and in shel- flowered shoots in mid spring. are 60–100cm (24–39in) tall with a
tered, walled gardens. Plant in a sunny Propagate by simple or air layering in single, straight leader (except, of course,
position, protected from harsh winds. autumn or spring, or by half-ripe cut- for dwarf and low-growing cultivars).
Prune early-flowering species immedi- tings in a propagating case in summer. Keep the bole clear of weeds and mulch
ately after flowering, midsummer- and its surrounds. Prune away surplus lead-
autumn-flowering species in early Abelmoschus (from Arabic, ers, also the lowermost branch tiers as
spring. Propagate from semi-ripe or abu-l-misk, ‘father of musk’, alluding they die or attempt to resprout. Abies
ripe-wood cuttings in summer. to the aromatic seeds of A.moschatus). is attacked by adelgids and (in North
A.chinensis (China; spreading, decidu- Malvaceae. Old World Tropics and America) by bagworms and caterpillars
ous shrub to 1.5m (5ft) with pairs of Subtropics. 5 species, annual and of the hemlock lopper. It usually fends
fragrant white flowers surrounded by perennial, downy herbs with large, off fungi, Armillaria included.
rose-tinted calyces from summer to palmately lobed leaves, broadly
autumn); A. ‘Edward Goucher’ (semi- funnel- or dish-shaped flowers close
evergreen hybrid between A. x grandi- in shape to those of Hibiscus (a genus
flora and A.schumannii, with glossy dark in which Abelmoschus is sometimes
green foliage bronze on emergence, included) and podlike fruit. A.moschatus
and lilac-pink flowers with golden is a vibrant half-hardy bedding plant
throats); A.floribunda (Mexico; somewhat for sunny, sheltered situations. Sow
tender evergreen with massed, tubular, seed under glass in early spring. Plant
cherry red flowers in midsummer); out after the last frost.
A. x grandiflora (semi-evergreen hybrid A.moschatus (SILK FLOWER, MUSK
between A.chinensis and A.uniflora with MALLOW; bushy annual to 60cm (24in);
vigorous, arching branches, dark green flowers 8–10cm (3–4in)-long in shades
foliage emerging bronze-pink and of red and cerise, often stained white
turning deep purple-bronze in autumn; at the throat; colour selections include
flowers mildly scented white, pink- ‘Mischief ’ (compact and bushy with
tinged and surrounded by attractive, bright red, white-eyed flowers), ‘Pacific
persistent, pink- or red-purple-tinted Light Pink’ (to 40cm (16in), bushy,
calyces; ‘Francis Mason’: leaves emerg- flowers large, dark pink at rim fading
ing in copper tones turning dark green to pale pink at centre), and ‘Pacific Abies concolor
with gold margins, flowers pale with Orange Scarlet’ (flowers vivid scarlet, This maturing tree shows the conical crown 9
red-bronze sepals; ‘Goldsport’ and white-eyed). habit typical of many Abies species.
Abies
A A BIES
Name Distribution Habit Leaves Cones
A.alba C & S Europe large tree (to 60m) (to 200ft); 3 1
12–3cm (4 ⁄4–1 ⁄4in) long in 2 to 18 x 3.5cm (7 x 11⁄2in),
A.pectinata crown regular; bark grey; horizontal ranks, dark glossy green cylindric, bronze-green
SILVER FIR; CHRISTMAS branches whorled above, silvery-glaucous beneath at first with exserted,
TREE; EUROPEAN reflexed bracts
SILVER FIR Comments: Vulnerable to late spring frosts. Includes ‘Pendula’, medium-sized with
weeping branches, and ‘Pyramidalis’, medium-sized and densely conical.
A.amabilis W N America large tree (to 35m) (to 120ft); to 3.5cm (11⁄2in) long, crowded on to 17 x 7cm (61⁄2 x 23⁄4in),
PACIFIC FIR; crown conic; bark silvery; upper side of branches, pectinate conic-ovoid, purple at first
RED SILVER FIR; branches tiered; buds beneath, dark glossy green above, with concealed bracts
CASCADE FIR very resinous silver-white beneath, orange-scented
if crushed
Comments: Will not tolerate dry and chalky soils. Includes ‘Spreading Star’
(‘Procumbens’), low-growing (to 1m (31⁄4ft) tall), branches wide-spreading, horizontal.
A.balsamea N America medium-sized tree (to 25m) to 2.5cm (1in) long, 2-ranked, glossy to 8 x 2.5cm (3 x 1in),
BALM OF GILEAD; (to 80ft); crown conic; bark dark green above with glaucous patch oblong-cylindric, purple
BALSAM FIR grey; branches ascending at tip, 2 grey-white bands beneath, at first, gummy
strongly balsam-scented
Comments: Ill-suited to dry chalky soils and arid atmospheres. Often seen in the more tolerant, dwarf, flat-topped Hudsonia Group, of which
the dwarf, cushion-like ‘Nana’ is a good selection for a moist, part-shaded position on the rock garden.
A.bracteata California large tree (to 40m) (to 130ft); to 6cm (21⁄2in), 2-ranked, glossy to 8 x 0.5cm (3 x 1⁄4in),
A.venusta crown dense to open, brown; dark green, spine-tipped round to ovoid, golden-
BRISTLE CONE FIR; buds very long and slender green, bracts remarkably
SANTA LUCIA FIR long, exserted,
Comments: Tolerates heat and drought. spine-tipped
A.cephalonica Greece to 40m (130ft); crown conic; to 3cm (11⁄4in), dark, glossy green, to 18 x 2.5cm (7 x 1in),
GRECIAN FIR; branches low, spreading; pale beneath, sharp-pointed, cylindric, tapering, brown
GREEK FIR dark grey arranged around branchlets with bracts exserted
Comments: Disease-resistant and chalk-tolerant; plant where frosts will not damage early new growth. Includes
‘Meyer’s Dwarf ’ (‘Nana’) a broad, low-growing dwarf with short needles.
A.concolor W US large, slow-growing tree to to 6cm (21⁄2in), thick, scattered to 12 x 4cm (43⁄4 x 11⁄2in),
COLORADO FIR; 50m (160ft); crown conic- or in 2 ranks, blue-green cylindric, tapering, pale-
WHITE FIR columnar; bark pale grey; green to purple with
branches whorled, spreading a strong bloom
Comments: One of the finest large conifers – slower-growing in warm climates, favouring cool, airy humid conditions. ‘Argentea’ (‘Candicans’)
has very bright silver-grey or ‘blue’ foliage; ‘Compacta’ (to 2 x 2m) (to 61⁄2 x 61⁄2ft) has an irregular, dense crown and grey-blue needles.
A.concolor Lowiana SW US to 70m (230ft); crown to 6cm (21⁄2in), 2-ranked, grey-green to 9 x 3cm (31⁄2 x 11⁄4in),
Group narrowly conic; trunk green at first
A.lowiana thick; branches short
LOW’S FIR; PACIFIC WHITE
FIR; SIERRA WHITE FIR
10 A.alba A.balsamea A.concolor A.homolepis

Abies
A BIES
A
A.delavayi China, Burma, to 25m (80ft); crown candelabriform; 1
to 4cm (1 ⁄2in), densely arranged to 12 x 4cm (43⁄4 x 11⁄2in),
DELAVAYI’S FIR India branches ascending around branchlets, dark green above, cylindric, dark blue to
silvery beneath, revolute violet ripening black
A.grandis W N America fast-growing to 75m (250ft); crown to 4.5cm (13⁄4in), pectinately to 10 x 3.5cm (4 x 11⁄2in),
GIANT FIR; conic to columnar; bark blistered, arranged, grooved and bright green cylindric, tapering,
GRAND FIR; brown to ridged and grey-brown; above, with 2 glaucous bands bright green at first
LOWLAND FIR branches arching to ascending beneath, very aromatic if crushed
Comments: Somewhat more lime-tolerant than other species, very tall and fast-growing, favours abundant rainfall
and humidity. Lower branches may be pruned out to allow underplanting. ‘Aurea’ has golden-yellow young growth.
A.homolepis Japan to 40m (130ft); crown broadly conic; to 3cm (11⁄4in), densely pectinately to 11 x 3cm (41⁄2 x 11⁄4in),
A.brachyphylla bark yellow to pink-grey, flaky arranged, dark green above, with 2 cylindric, smooth,
NIKKO FIR white bands beneath, tip blunt or cleft gummy, purple at first
Comments: Pollution-tolerant. Includes ‘Prostrata’ (low, spreading); ‘Scottiae’ (dwarf); ‘Shelter Island’ (semi-prostrate,
growth irregular, golden at first); ‘Tomomi’ (growth slender, sparse).
A.koreana S Korea to 15m (50ft); crown broadly conic, to 2cm (3⁄4in), crowded, arranged to 8 x 2.5cm (3 x 1in),
KOREAN FIR compact, bark rough around branchlets, glossy dark green cylindric, apex
above, bright white beneath tapering, purple
Comments: Slow-growing and suitable for smaller gardens, where plants no taller than 1m (31⁄4ft) will produce
cones. Includes ‘Flava’ (‘Aurea’) (very small and slow-growing, leaves yellow-green); ‘Piccolo’ (dwarf, leaves very short,
pointing forwards and upwards); ‘Silberlocke’ (leaves turned upwards showing silver-white undersides).
A.lasiocarpa W N America to 25m (80ft), narrowly conical to 1.5–4cm (5⁄8–11⁄2in), densely 2-ranked to 13 x 3cm (5 x 11⁄4in),
SUBALPINE FIR; columnar, slow-growing; bark thin, or in a loose, brush-like arrangement, cylindric-conic, dark
ALPINE FIR smooth silver pale grey-green, apex blunt or notched purple at first
Comments: Somewhat lime-tolerant; requires a fertile, damp soil. Often sold as an alpine. In drier conditions, very
slow-growing and likely to lose its regular, narrow outline.
A.lasiocarpa var. SW USA bark thick, creamy-white, corky silver-grey

arizonica
A.arizonica
CORKBARK FIR; Comments: Attractive small tree with distinctive bark; makes a good bonsai. Includes
CORK FIR ‘Compacta’, a slow-growing, compact, conical shrub with bright blue-grey leaves.
A.magnifica Oregon, to 60m (200ft), crown narrow-conic; to 4cm (11⁄2in), grey-green to blue- to 25 x 9cm (10 x 31⁄2in),
CALIFORNIAN RED California bark smooth, grey to red-brown, green throughout, densely pectinate, broadly cylindric, purple
FIR; RED FIR; fissured; branches rather curving upwards at first
SILVER TIP FIR short, horizontal
Comments: Very stately, performing best in cool, airy and humid conditions. Used as a Christmas tree in California. Includes the Glauca Group
(leaves very strong blue-green); ‘Glauca Prostrata’ is dwarf, branches spreading.
A.lasiocarpa var. arizonica A.magnifica A.nordmanniana A.pinsapo 11

Abies
A A BIES
A.nordmanniana NE Turkey to 55m (180ft); crown conic 1
to 3cm (1 ⁄4in), glossy, dark green above, to 18 x 4.5cm (7 x 13⁄4in),
CAUCASIAN FIR; to columnar; branches silvery beneath, densely arranged – red tinged green, scales
CHRISTMAS TREE; whorled, downswept forward-pointing and overlapping above long, reflexed
NORDMANN FIR on branchlets, pectinate beneath
Comments: Resilient, disease-resistant species making a dense cone. Includes ‘Golden Spreader’ (dwarf, slow-growing,
spreading, foliage light yellow) and ‘Pendula’ (semi-prostrate, branchlets pendulous).
A.pinsapo S Spain to 35m (120ft); crown broadly to 1.8cm (3⁄4in), often shorter, rigid and to 16 x 3.4cm (6 x 11⁄3in),
SPANISH FIR; conic; branches crowded, densely arranged around branchlets, green bloomed purple
HEDGEHOG FIR whorled; bark smooth then dark green above, silvery beneath at first
rough, rusty brown
Comments: Drought-and heat-resistant, chalk-tolerant and remaining dwarf for years. Includes ‘Aurea’ (slow-growing,
weak, leaves golden); ‘Glauca’ (large, leaves blue-grey); var. marocana (A.marocana) the MOROCCAN FIR, leaves 2-ranked.
A.procera W USA to 70m (230ft); crown conic; to 3.5cm (11⁄2in), arranged along sides and to 23 x 7cm (9 x 23⁄4in),
A.nobilis bark smooth and silver-grey upper surface of branchlets, blue-green oblong-cylindric, purple
NOBLE FIR; at first then blistered and with long-exserted,
CHRISTMAS TREE brown, ultimately fissured reflexed bracts
Comments: Sometimes used as a Christmas tree; includes ‘Glauca’ (leaves blue-grey) and ‘Prostrata’ (dwarf, flat-topped bush, leaves blue-grey).
A.spectabilis Himalayas to 30m (100ft); crown conic, to 5cm (2in), tough 4-ranked, dark green to 15 x 5cm (6 x 2in),
HIMALAYAN FIR broad; branches red brown above, silvery beneath, tip cleft cylindric to oblong-
at first, spreading then ovoid, blue-grey to violet
Comments: New growth badly ascending; bark rough, scaly;
affected by spring frosts. buds large, round
A.veitchii Japan to 35m (120ft); crown to 3cm (11⁄4in), ranked along upper to 7 x 2.5cm (23⁄4 x 1in),
narrowly conic; branches surface of branchlets, forward-pointing, cylindric, purple-blue,
short, spreading; bark grey, glossy dark green above, silver beneath, bract tips exserted
Comments: Pollution-tolerant. smooth above, fluted below apex truncate, cleft
abiotic disorder a description of greening arid banks, retaining walls abscission, abscissing
poor growth or malfunction in plants and rock gardens. In colder areas they (abscising) of leaves, branches and
which is not caused by a living are good basket plants for greenhouses fruits; a separating or falling away,
organism. Abiotic disorder is com- and conservatories. For outdoor use as caused by disintegration of a layer of
monly related to environmental factors tender bedding plants, Abronia should plant tissues at the base of the organ
or nutritional deficiency. be grown from seed each year or (e.g. as the result of environmental
repropagated by cuttings taken from conditions or pollination leading to
abortive of reproductive organs; stock plants overwintered under glass. hormonal action), with a subsequent
undeveloped or not perfectly In frost-free regions, sow seed in situ development of scar tissue or periderm
developed, and therefore barren: of in autumn; elsewhere under glass at at the point of abscission.
seeds; failing to develop normally. 15°C/59°F in spring. Prior to sowing,
soak the seed for 24 hours and remove Abutilon (from the Arabic name
Abronia (from the Greek, habros, the papery husk. Strike softwood for mallow). Malvaceae. Tropics and
‘graceful’). Nyctaginaceae. Western cuttings in sand in spring. subtropics. PARLOUR MAPLE. Some 150
North America, Mexico. SAND A.latifolia (YELLOW SAND VERBENA; species, annual and perennial herbs, or
VERBENA. 35 species, annual or British Columbia south to California; shrubs and trees with ovate and finely
perennial, trailing herbs, often viscid, thick-leaved, clammy trailer with bright toothed to palmately lobed leaves, and
with rounded, fleshy leaves. Small yellow flowers; A.umbellata (PINK SAND nodding, solitary, bell- or bowl-shaped
tubular flowers are carried in stalked, VERBENA, BEACH SAND VERBENA; differs flowers with 5 showy, obovate petals
terminal heads and are often highly from A.latifolia in its narrower leaves, and a distinct staminal column. The
fragrant, becoming more so at night. red-tinted stems and rose-pink flowers); most frequently grown species are
Grow in full sun on rather dry, light A.villosa (resembles a hairy, sticky evergreen shrubs, slender-branched
soils. In virtually frost-free climates they A.umbellata, with flowers of a deeper and more or less glabrous in A. x
12 may become perennial, making leafy pink or rosy-purple; is able to tolerate hybridum, A.megapotamicum, A. x milleri
mats ideal for binding sand or for prolonged drought). and A.pictum; robust and hairy in
Acacia
Acacia (From Greek akakia, a plant

name used by Dioscorides). Legumi-
A
nosae. Subtropical and tropical regions.
WATTLE; MIMOSA. Some 1200 species
shrubs, trees and lianes (those below
evergreen trees). The leaves are
bipinnate, but are sometimes only pre-
sent in juvenile stage and later replaced
phyllodes. The flowers are small and
numerous, usually yellow and packed
in small, powder-puff-like arrange-
ments. These in turn are crowded in
globose or spiciform heads, themselves
arranged in racemes or panicles.
Several species will tolerate frosts:
A.dealbata, A.longifolia, A.baileyana to
Types of abutilon –10°C/14°F, A.saligna to –5°C/23°F.
There are two distinct types of abutilon – spindly, half-hardy shrubs, including A. megapotamicum A.decurrens, A.melanoxylon, A.retinodes and
(left) and the more robust mallow-like species, such as A. vitifolium var. alba (right). A.podalyriifolia have all been successfully
cultivated outside in favoured regions
A.ochsenii, A.vitifolium and their hybrid, Tender abutilons like those of the UK, with the protection of a
A. x suntense. All have attractive flowers, mentioned above are often grown as south- or southwest-facing wall. In cool
complemented in some cultivars within dot plants for summer bedding, or as temperate climates, the smaller Acacia
the first group by variegated leaves. half-hardy specimens for patio pots and species make beautiful specimens for
A. x hybridum (syn. A.globosum; baskets in cool temperate zones. They the cool greenhouse or conservatory,
CHINESE LANTERN, FLOWERING or are also grown permanently in the cool often flowering in winter or early
PARLOUR MAPLE; a varied group of greenhouse, conservatory or the home. spring. A.dealbata, A.melanoxylon,
garden hybrids, erect and spreading A.megapotamicum, however, is hardy to A.longifolia, A.pendula, A.retinodes and
shrubs to 2m (61/2ft); their leaves ovate –10°C/14°F and, if mulched, will A.verticillata are also amenable to tub
or palmately lobed, serrate, often usually regenerate from the base after cultivation under glass. Outdoors, grow
variegated; flowers pendulous, to 7cm hard frosts. It is well worth attempting in a well-drained, neutral to slightly
(23/4in), white, pink, red, yellow, apricot outdoors as a wall shrub in sheltered acid soil in full sun. In zones at the
and orange, sometimes conspicuously situations in zones 7 and over. limits of hardiness, plant near the
veined and almost always slightly The second group of popular base of a sheltered south- or
inflated in appearance). A.megapotam- abutilons comprises those robust, southwest-facing wall.
icum (BRAZILIAN TRAILING ABUTILON; downy shrubs and small trees native Under glass, grow in direct sun in
Brazil; slender-stemmed trailer or semi- to Chile and sometimes included in the a free-draining, sandy, loam-based
climber to 3m (10ft); leaves dark green, genus Corynabutilon. These thrive on medium with leafmould or compost.
cordate-lanceolate; flowers pendulous sheltered, sunny walls in zones 7 and When using fertilizers, it should be
with pale yellow petals encased in a over – A.vitifolium (to 8m (25ft), usually remembered that a number of Acacia
blood red calyx and with a red-black less; leaves large, palmately 3–5–7- species show sensitivity to high levels
column; A. ‘Variegatum’; leaves lobed, coated in grey-white felt; flowers of phosphorus. Try to maintain a mini-
gold-mottled); A.pictum (syn. A.striatum; 5–8cm (2–3in) wide white or purple- mum winter temperature of 5°C/41°F
Brazil; shrub or small tree to 4m (12ft) blue; white-flowered plants include var. and ventilate the plants freely when
with maple-like leaves; flowers solitary, album and ‘Tennant’s White’; ‘Veronica conditions allow. Water moderately
drooping, to 4cm (11/2in) with conspicu- Tennant’: large, lavender blooms amid when in full growth, sparingly in
ously veined, orange-yellow petals; hoary foliage); A.ochsenii (differs from winter. Move pot-grown specimens
‘Aureomaculatum’: leaves gold-spat- A.vitifolium in its 3-lobed leaves, usually out-of-doors for the summer.
tered; flowers dark-veined, coral-red; less downy, leaves always with 3 lobes Propagate Acacia from seed or semi-
‘Thompsonii’: orange-flowered with an and in its smaller, pale lavender to ripe cuttings. Douse seeds with scalding
intricate mosaic of emerald, lime and violet flowers, often spotted at the base water and allow them to soak in the
yellow leaf variegation); A. x milleri within; the hybrid between these cooled liquid for 12–48 hours before
(A.megapotamicum x A.pictum; slender species, A. x suntense includes the white- sowing; viable seeds should swell. and
stemmed, rather loosely upright plants flowered ‘Gorer’s White’ and ‘White thus be identifiable. Germination at
with flowers intermediate between Charm’, the dark purple ‘Jermyns’ and 20–25°C/68–77°F takes 7–20 days.
parents; ‘Variegatum’: leaves marked the violet ‘Violetta’). Increase by soft- Strike semi-ripe heeled cuttings in a
with a gold, cream and jade green wood, greenwood or semi-ripe cuttings sandy propagating mix under mist
patchwork; calyx rosy; petals rich stripped of most of their leaves and or cover with gentle bottom heat, 13
yellow; staminal column dark carmine). inserted in a closed case, under glass. at 15–18°C/60–65°F.
Acacia
A ACACIA
Name Distribution Height & Spread Foliage Flowers
A.baileyana SE Australia 5–10 x 2.5–8m to 5cm (2in), finely bipinnate golden-yellow, strongly fragrant balls
BAILEY WATTLE; (15–30 x 8–25ft) glaucous grey- to blue-green arranged in racemes in winter and spring
COOTAMUNDRA
WATTLE; Comments: An exceptional small tree or multi-stemmed shrub with a compact habit and
GOLDEN MIMOSA neat, feathery foliage (purple-tinted in ‘Purpurea’); thrives on sunny walls in colder areas. Z8.
A.cultriformis New South to 4 x 4m (12 x 12ft) to 3.5 x 1.5cm (11⁄2 x 5⁄8in), clusters of golden yellow balls in spring
KNIFE-LEAF WATTLE Wales undivided, ovate to deltoid,
thinly fleshy, silvery grey
Comments: Multi-stemmed with arching branches; good for screening and dry banks in Z9, elsewhere for very sunny and sheltered sites. Z8.
A.dealbata SE Australia; to 30 x 25m to 12cm (43⁄4in), finely bipinnate, pale gold, intensely fragrant balls in large,
A.decurrens var. Tasmania (100 x 80ft) silver-grey to sea green branching sprays in late winter and spring
dealbata
MIMOSA; SILVER Comments: Very popular shrub or small to medium-sized tree; fast-growing with a narrowly erect, then tiered habit
WATTLE and spreading, feathery foliage. Requires a sheltered, warm position but will regenerate from root suckers if cut down by
frost. Flowers are commonly sold as florist’s mimosa. Z8.
A.decurrens New South to 12 x 10m to 7cm (23⁄4in), finely bipinnate, yellow balls clustered in racemes in late
EARLY BLACK WATTLE; Wales (40 x 30ft) dark green winter and early spring
GREEN WATTLE
Comments: Resembles a deep green A.dealbata; roots and suckers sometimes invasive. A.mearnsii (BLACK WATTLE)
differs in its branchlets which are not grooved and ribbed. Z8.
A. ‘Exeter Hybrid’ garden origin to 6 x 4m (20 x 12ft) undivided, long and narrow on rich yellow, fragrant, in spikes in spring
A. ‘Veitchiana’ arching branches
Comments: (A.longifolia x A.riceana). A free-flowering container or border shrub for the large cool, conservatory. Z9.
A.farnesiana Tropical to 7 x 5m (22 x 15ft) leaves bipinnate, feathery with orange-yellow, fragrant balls throughout
MIMOSA BUSH; America segments to 1cm (1⁄2in) long the year
SCENTED WATTLE;
SWEET ACACIA; Comments: A deciduous, thorny shrub or tree, possibly synonymous with A.smallii,
SWEET WATTLE a tree with which it is often confused and which is held to be hardier. Z8.
A.longifolia Australia, to 7 x 6m (22 x 20ft) to 15cm (6in), undivided, pale to golden yellow spikes along
SALLOW WATTLE; Tasmania oblong-lanceolate, dark green branches in late winter and early spring
SYDNEY GOLDEN
WATTLE
Comments: Fast-growing but short-lived large shrub or tree with tolerant. Similar and sometimes treated as a variety of this species,
a broad open head. Good for screening and soil binding; in coastal A.sophorae (COASTAL WATTLE) is hardier and differs in its shrubby
regions it sometimes becomes semi-prostrate. Drought- and lime- habit, and shorter, broader phyllodes. Z8.
14 A.baileyana A.cultriformis A.dealbata A.decurrens

Acacia
ACACIA
A
A.melanoxylon Tasmania, Australia to 30 x 10m to 14 x 2.5cm (5 ⁄2 x 1in), undivided,
1
pale yellow balls in
BLACKWOOD ACACIA; (100 x 30ft) oblanceolate, dark green branching racemes in spring
BLACK ACACIA
Comments: Similar to A.longifolia, but with pinnate juvenile foliage. Fast-growing, erect tree; responds well to pruning. Z8.
A.mucronata Australia Comments: Similiar to A.longifolia, but with narrower

VARIABLE SALLOW WATTLE phyllodes and looser inflorescences. Z8.
A.paradoxa New South Wales to 5 x 4m (15 x 12ft) 1–3 x 1cm (1⁄2–11⁄4 x 1⁄2in), oblong- yellow, in solitary balls in
A.arreata HEDGE WATTLE; lanceolate, dark green, on densely late winter and spring
KANGAROO THORN and viciously spiny branches
Comments: Flowers when young, making a fine, if thorny container shrub for terraces and conservatories. In warmer areas, a formidable hedge.
Includes the weeping to straggling ‘Pendula’, and var. angustifolia with narrow phyllodes. Z8.
A.pendula E Australia to 6 x 4m (20 x 12ft) to 10 x 1cm (4 x 1⁄2in), undivided, lemon-yellow in short,

WEEPING ACACIA; lanceolate, blue-green cylindrical panicles
WEEPING MYALL
Comments: A very beautiful small tree with weeping habit, silvery foliage and flowers produced throughout the year. Z9.
A.podalyriifolia NE Australia to 6 x 4m (20 x 12ft) to 5 x 2cm (2 x 3⁄4in), undivided, bright yellow, balls in
MOUNT MORGAN WATTLE; rounded to ovate-elliptic, silvery branched racemes produced
PEARL ACACIA; QUEENSLAND grey, white-tomentose from early winter to
SILVER WATTLE early spring
Comments: Handsome large shrub or small tree with silvery foliage; can be trained and pruned. Good for large
containers on terraces and in cool conservatories. Z8.
A.pravissima SE Australia 3–8 x 2–6m to 2 x 1.5cm (3⁄4 x 5⁄8in), undivided, bright yellow, produced in
OVEN’S WATTLE (10–25 x 61⁄2–20ft) deltoid to cuneate, glaucous grey- small clusters in early spring
green with a single spine below
Comments: Small tree or shrub with arching, wand-like branches and the broad apex on the underside
unusually shaped phyllodes. Good for conservatories and sheltered walls
and terraces. Z8.
A.pulchella W Australia to 3 x 2m (10 x 61⁄2ft) finely bipinnate with each bright yellow balls clustered
PRICKLY MOSES segment to 0.5cm (1⁄4in) long 2–3 together
Comments: Small to medium-sized

shrub with prickly branches. Z8.
A.farnesiana A.longifolia A.pravissima A.retinodes 15

Acacia
A ACACIA
A.retinodes S Australia, to 6 x 4m (20 x 12ft) to 18 x 1.5cm (7 x ⁄8in), undivided,
5
small, highly fragrant pale
A.floribunda of gardens Tasmania linear, bright mid-green to grey-green yellow balls freely produced
FLORIBUNDA ACACIA; in large panicles, principally
MIMOSE DE QUATRE Comments: A fairly hardy and lime-tolerant tree with an airy crown of in summer
SAISONS; WATER WATTLE weeping, narrow foliage. An excellent fast-growing, open screen. Flowers last
well when cut. Z8.
A.riceana S Tasmania 2–10 x 1.5–6m to 5.5 x 0.5cm (21⁄4 x 1⁄4in), undivided, pale yellow balls in dense
RICE’S WATTLE (61⁄2–30 x 5–20ft) narrow, dark green and sharply pointed racemes in spring
Comments: A large shrub with slender, arching branches. Distinguished from A.verticillata by the phyllodes, which are clustered, not whorled. Z8.
A.saligna W Australia to 6 x 5m (20 x 15ft) 15–30 x 1–3cm (6–12 x 1⁄2–11⁄4in), deep yellow balls in clusters
A.cyanophylla; A.cyanophyllodes undivided, linear-oblong to in spring
BLUE-LEAVED WATTLE; Comments: Multi-stemmed lanceolate, blue-green
GOLDEN WREATH WATTLE and spreading. Z9.
A.ulicifolia SE Australia to 3 x 2m to 2cm (3⁄4in), undivided, needle-like, solitary, creamy-yellow balls

A.juniperina JUNIPER WATTLE (10 x 61⁄2ft) olive to dark green in spring
Comments: ‘Brownii’ is compact and bushy, to 60cm (24in) tall with large, rich yellow flowerheads. Z9.
A.verticillata SE Australia, to 6 x 4m to 2 x 0.2cm (3⁄4 x 1⁄16in), undivided, pale yellow in short spikes
PRICKLY MOSES Tasmania (20 x 12ft) needle-like, whorled, dark olive green in spring and early summer
Comments: Bushy shrub with dense, prickly growth. A good hedge if pruned, resisting intruders and saline winds. Unpruned, it becomes multi-
stemmed and open with snaking branches and mats of gorse-like foliage. Z8.
Acaena (from the Greek akaina, thorn, 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in)-long; leaflets of a broad, sap green leaves); A.wilkesiana
a reference to the spiny flower- and pale olive to grey-green with a strong, (COPPERLEAF, JACOB’S COAT, BEEFSTEAK
fruiting heads). Rosaceae. Southern red-brown tint, pronounced and persis- PLANT; South Pacific; to 4.5m (15ft);
Hemisphere (those below from New tent in the cultivar ‘Kupferteppich’). leaves saw-toothed, elliptic to ovate,
Zealand). NEW ZEALAND BURR; BIDI- 20cm (8in) long, usually described as
BIDI; SHEEP’S BURRS. Some 100 species, Acalypha (from the Greek for nettle, copper splashed with pink and red;
small, evergreen, perennial herbs and akalephe: Linnaeus thought that the includes forms with leaves bronze-
subshrubs, carpet-forming with pinnate leaves of this genus resembled those maroon edged white to pink, or red
leaves and spring flowers packed in of the stinging nettle). Euphorbiaceae. with bronze and crimson markings, or
burr-like balls to 1.5cm (5/8in) diameter. Tropics. Over 400 species, shrubs, trees red-bronze and very large, to broad
Hardy to 5°C/–15°F or lower if and annual herbs. Provide a minimum and coppery black with twisted, cre-
protected with a dry mulch. Plant temperature of 10°C/50°F, with nate, green and red margins or green
in light shade or full sun in sharply filtered sunlight to medium shade, and stippled and blotched orange and red).
draining neutral to slightly alkaline high humidity. When in growth, water
soils. Increase by division, or by seed plentifully and liquid feed fortnightly. Acanthocereus (from Greek akantha,
sown in a frame in autumn or spring. In winter, keep barely moist. Propagate thorn and Cereus, a related genus –
A. ‘Blue Haze’ (vigorous spreader from semi-ripe cuttings in late summer a reference to the fierce spines). Cac-
to 30 x 100cm (12 x 39in) with long, or from soft cuttings in early spring in taceae. Central and South America.
rooting stems, leaves to 10cm (4in) a closed case with bottom heat. 6 species, large cacti, shrubby,
long, leaflets widely spaced, 0.5–1cm A.godseffiana (New Guinea; to 1.6m clambering or tree-like in habit with
(1/4–1/2in) long, bluntly toothed to lobed, (51/2ft); leaves narrowly ovate, bright ribbed spiny stems and white, funnel-
smooth, grey-green to steel blue or green, usually deeply cut and fringed shaped, nocturnal flowers. Provide a
pewter); A.buchananii (to 4cm (11/2in), and edged, blotched or spattered with minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F,
making close carpets of pea green to ivory, yellow and lime; flowers dull); with filtered sunlight to medium shade
pale grey-green leaves; leaflets fewer A.hispida (CHENILLE PLANT, RED HOT and high humidity. Plant in a loam-
and broader than in A. ‘Blue Haze’, CAT’S TAIL; New Guinea, Malaysia; based, medium-fertility mix high in
downy beneath); A.caesiiglauca (taller to 4m (12ft), resembles a spectacular, sand and grit and with a pH of 6–7.5.
than the last species to 5cm (2in) with woody love-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus Shade in hot weather and maintain
16 larger leaflets of a pale, glaucous blue caudatus) with 50cm (20in)-long, dark low humidity. Keep dry from mid-
and rather downy); A.microphylla (leaves crimson to bright red tassels, and autumn until early spring, except for a
Acer
light misting over on warm days in late

winter. Propagate by detaching rooted
cut, the lobes coarsely toothed but not
spiny; spikes to 1m (31/4ft) with spiny
usually, fleshy parts are distinct from
the pistil, as in the enlarged torus of
A
lengths of stems. purple-red bracts and pale pink flowers); the strawberry.
A.colombianus (syn. A.guatemalensis, A.mollis (South Europe, Northwest
A.pitajaya; Colombia; differs from Africa; leaves glossy dark green, broadly acclimation biological and/or
A.tetragonus in its erect habit and flowers pinnately cut, the lobes wide, toothed physiological modification in plants as
with a perianth tube to 23cm (9in) long); and softly spiny; spikes to 1.5m (5ft) with they adapt to environmental change.
A.tetragonus (syn. A.acutangulus, A.pen- toothed, mauve-tinted bracts and white
tagonus; S US, W Indies, C America; flowers; Latifolius Group includes ‘Oak acclimatization the gradual intro-
gaunt shrub to 3m (10ft) tall with arch- Leaf ’ with large, very broadly and shal- duction of a plant to a different climate
ing stems; flowers to 25cm (10in) long lowly lobed, scalloped leaves); A.spinosus or environment; most commonly used
with a perianth tube to 15cm (6in)). (Mediterranean; leaves dark green, often for the transfer of tender plants from
with sparse silver hairs and obscurely a greenhouse to a frame or the open
Acantholimon (from Greek akantha, silvered veins, 1–3 x pinnately cut, the garden, a process often termed
thorn, and limon, an allusion to the lobes deep, narrow, rigid with sharply hardening off. Also refers to a late stage
related genus Limonium). Plumbagi- spiny margins; spikes to 1m (31/4ft) tall in the process of micropropagation,
naceae. PRICKLY THRIFT. Mediter- with spiny, green-mauve bracts and sometimes known as weaning.
ranean to Central Asia. 120 species, white flowers; Spinosissimus Group-
small, evergreen, tufted, perennial hybrids between this and the previous accrescent growing together or
herbs and subshrubs with hummocks species with larger, softer, but deeply becoming larger or longer with age,
of needle-like leaves and short spikelets cut and sharply spiny leaves – most or after fertilization, as in the
of flowers produced in summer. Suited plants sold as A.spinosus belong here). lantern-like calyx of Physalis.
to rock gardens and alpine troughs, the
following species are cushion-forming, acaricide a chemical used to kill par- accumbent (of cotyledons) lying face
dwarf shrublets. Plant in a warm, asitic mites such as red spider mites. to face, the edges of one side lying
dry position in full sun on a light and against the radicle in the seed.
sharply draining, gritty soil. Where wet acaulescent of a plant whose stem
and cold threaten, these plants succeed is absent or, more usually, appears Acer (the Classical Latin name). Acer-
better in pans or tufa blocks in the to be absent, being subterranean aceae. North and Central America,
alpine house or frame. Propagate by or so short as to be inconspicuous. Europe, North Africa, Asia. MAPLE.
earthing up the bases of older plants: Some 150 species, deciduous or ever-
divide these once roots have formed. Acca Myrtaceae. South America. 2 green trees and shrubs (those here
A.glumaceum (Central Asia; rose species, evergreen shrubs or small trees. deciduous), hardy and grown for their
flowers with white, downy calyces); A.sellowiana (syn Feijoa sellowiana), the foliage which often colours beautifully
A.ulicinum (Eastern Mediterranean PINEAPPLE GUAVA, ranges from South- in autumn, for their bark, which is
to Asia Minor; pink flowers with ern Brazil to Northern Argentina. sometimes attractively marked, and,
white to purple calyces); A.venustum It grows to 6m (20ft) tall with peeling less frequently, for their flowers and
(Asia Minor; pink flowers with grey-brown bark and broadly oblong to fruits. The leaves are most typically
purple-veined, yellow calyces). elliptic, blunt, leathery leaves, dull green broad and palmately cut or lobed, but
above, silvery beneath. Borne singly or may also be ovate or elliptic to lanceo-
Acanthus (from Greek akanthe, thorn). in sparse clusters in summer, the flow- late, with three or no lobes. Small,
Acanthaceae. Old World. BEAR’S ers are some 4cm (11/2in) across and usually yellow-green or red-brown
BREECHES. 30 species, perennial herbs fleshy, with showy crimson stamens. The flowers appear in arching to pendulous
and shrubs with lanceolate to oblance- red-tinted, egg-shaped fruit is edible, as racemes or panicles in spring. The
olate, toothed to pinnately lobed leaves, are the flowers. Hardy to –15°C/5°F fruits hang on slender stalks and consist
and tall spikes of tubular, hooded given full sun, protection from harsh of a pair of winged nuts (samaras),
flowers carried in summer amid heavily winds and a well-drained situation. fused at their ovules, with the wings
veined bracts. All are fully hardy but Propagate by seed or semi-ripe cuttings spreading outwards.
prefer a warm, sunny position on a in a closed case with bottom heat. The following maples (see table
fast-draining soil. Increase by seed or overleaf) are hardy. Most require full
division in early autumn, or take winter accent plant a plant featured in sun or light shade, fertile, well-drained
cuttings of the long, narrow roots. garden design to focus attention on soil, preferably neutral to slightly acid,
A.dioscoridis (Turkey, Iraq, Iran; contrasting colour, texture or form, and ample moisture. The Japanese
leaves grey-green, laciniate to lobed; which may be natural, as with weeping Maples prefer dappled sun or shade,
spikes 30–100cm (12–39in) with incised willow (Salix babylonica), or achieved by shelter and a moist, fertile soil rich in
dull green bracts and purple-pink trimming, as with yew (Taxus baccata). organic matter. They grow well in
flowers); A.hungaricus (syn. A.balcanicus, containers and small spaces. Propagate
A.longifolius; Balkans to Greece; leaves accessory fruit a fruit or aggregate by seed sown when ripe, by softwood 17
dark, glossy green, deeply pinnately fruit in which the conspicuous and, or semi-ripe cuttings, or by grafting.
Acer
A ACER
Name Distribution Habit Bark Leaves
A.buergerianum E.China; small, bushy tree with a to 8 x 10cm (3 x 4in), acutely and
A.trifidum of gardens Korea; low, spreading habit palmately 3–5-lobed, dark green above,
THREE-TOOTHED MAPLE; Japan paler beneath with an entire or finely
TRIDENT MAPLE Comments: An attractive, small maple, useful for toothed margin, turning fiery red to
large containers, patios and bonsai. Z6. orange-yellow in autumn
A.campestre Europe; variable shrub or small somewhat corky, to 8 x 10cm (3 x 4in), bluntly and
FIELD MAPLE; W Asia tree to 12m (40ft) tall with grey-brown palmately 3–5-lobed, dull, dark green
HEDGE MAPLE a rounded, bushy crown above, paler and somewhat hairy beneath,
or an open habit with with an entire to toothed or lobed margin,
twiggy, picturesquely turning clear yellow to amber in autumn;
gnarled branches petioles contain milky sap
Comments: Used in hedging, and a familiar feature of hedgerows. with small, dark green leaves), ‘Postelense’ (small, shrubby, mop-headed
Includes ‘Albovariegatum’ (leaves blotched white), ‘Elsrijk’ (tree with a tree or shrub, leaves yellow at first, then yellow-green with red-tinted
dense, broadly conical crown and small, dark green leaves, good for petioles), ‘Pulverulentum’ (leaves blotched and finely flecked white),
street planting), ‘Nanum’ (‘Compactum’) densely compact and shrubby ‘Schwerinii’ (leaves blood-red at first, turning purple). Z4.
A.capillipes Japan large shrub or small tree young shoots bright red, to 11cm (41⁄2in) long, ovate and acutely
to 13m (43ft) tall with a branches ultimately 3-lobed with a tapering tip and serrate
deep, broad crown of olive green with silvery margins, emerging coral red, becoming
long, spreading, stem-like white stripes jade green with a red-tinted petiole,
Comments: Z5. branches turning orange-red in autumn
A.cappadocicum Caucasus; medium-sized to large tree to 12 x 14cm (43⁄4 x 51⁄2in), broadly and
A.laetum W Asia; to 20m (70ft) tall, often palmately 5–7-lobed, entire, deep glossy
CAUCASIAN MAPLE; Himalaya multi-stemmed green turning yellow in autumn petioles
COLISEUM MAPLE containing milky sap
Comments: Cultivars include ‘Aureum’ (leaves red-tinted at first then branches in a compact, columnar to conical crown and large, dark
gold to yellow-green), ‘Rubrum’ (leaves blood-red at first turning dark green leaves with wavy margins. ssp. sinicum has red-brown, punctate
green), and ‘Tricolor’ (leaves pink at first then pale green marked shoots and conspicuously punctate leaves. Z6.
cream). ssp. lobelii (A.lobelii) grows to 18m (60ft) tall with ascending
A.carpinifolium Japan small to medium-sized tree to 11 x 4cm (41⁄2 x 11⁄2in), obovate with an
HORNBEAM MAPLE to 10m (30ft) tall acute tip, serrate margins and prominent,
pinnate veins, fresh pale to mid green
Comments: Leaves strikingly similar to those of Carpinus betulus (COMMON HORNBEAM). Z5. turning yellow to brown in autumn
A.caudatifolium China; fast-growing, large shrub or green striped white to 10 x 7cm (4 x 23⁄4in), ovate-oblong with
A.morrisonense FORMOSAN Taiwan tree to 8m (25ft) tall, erect three lobes, the midlobe longer and
MAPLE; MOUNT then spreading tapering, margins serrate, emerging red,
MORRISON MAPLE expanding fresh mid-green with red
Comments: Needs moist, fertile soil. Z8. petiole, turning red in autumn
A.caudatum subsp. Japan; small tree to 14cm (51⁄2in) wide, cordate in outline
ukurunduense Korea with 5–7 narrowly ovate, toothed lobes,
A.ukurunduense Comments: Dislikes chalk. Z6. veins impressed above, hairy beneth,
colouring well in autumn
18 A.buergerianum A.campestre A.carpinifolium

Acer
ACER
A
A.circinatum W North to 12m (40ft) tall, habit to 12cm (43⁄4in) wide, almost circular in
VINE MAPLE America variable – in shade, a low- outline with 5–11 lobes and serrate
branching shrub with margins, emerging pink-tinted, hardening
slender, sprawling and bright green and turning amber, flame
snaking stems and intricate and bright red in autumn
twigs; in full sun, a single-
trunked, small tree
Comments: Tolerates dry shade and is an excellent choice for (small, wine red) and fruit (small, deep crimson propellers) are also
underplanting in woodland gardens where the arching to clambering decorative. ‘Monroe’ is small and shrubby, the leaves with five distinct
branches make airy bowers lit with brilliant autumn colour. The flowers lobes with deeply dissected margins. Z5.
A.cissifolium China; small, spreading tree to composed of 3 distinct leaflets to 8cm

Japan 12m (40ft) tall (3in) long, ovate and coarsely toothed,
dark green turning red and yellow
Comments: Needs light shade and a moist, neutral to slightly acid soil. ssp. henryi (A.henryi) has in autumn
grey bark striped with blue-white, and larger, more or less untoothed leaflets, these turn brilliant
crimson in autumn. Drooping catkins of pale gold flowers appear with the red-tinted new leaves. Z6.
A.crataegifolium Japan small tree or large shrub purple-red to grey-green variable, to 8cm (3in) long, ovate with
HAWTHORN MAPLE to 10m (30ft) tall with with silver-white stripes 3–5, shallow lobes and serrate margins,
long, arching branches fresh green to blue-green
Comments: Foliage remarkably like that of the common hawthorn. ‘Veitchii’ has leaves splashed with lime and white, flushed pink at the base. Z6.
A.davidii China shrub or small to medium- smooth, olive green to 15cm (6in) long, ovate to oblong with a
DAVID’S MAPLE; sized tree to 15m (50ft) striped silvery white tapering tip, unlobed or shallowly 3-lobed
SNAKEBARK MAPLE tall, often multi-stemmed with serrate margins, dark glossy green,
or low-branching with turning bright yellow to orange and
long, spreading branches purple-red in autumn
Comments: Ornamental, red-tinted fruits hang in clusters along the branches, leaves turning orange in late autumn). One of the finest
branches in autumn. Includes the cultivars ‘Ernest Wilson’ (compact ‘snakebarks’ is HERS MAPLE, ssp. grosseri (A.grosseri; A.hersii), to 9m
with ascending to arching branches and pale green leaves with pink (29ft) tall with very decorative, white-marbled, grey-green bark and
petioles turning amber in autumn), ‘George Forrest’ (vigorous and lobed or unlobed, ovate-cordate leaves to 7cm (23⁄4in) long; these turn a
open-crowned with long, spreading branches and large, deep green deep, glowing red in autumn. Z6.
leaves with red petioles), and ‘Madeleine Spitta’ (columnar with erect
A.giraldii China medium-sized to large tree young branches flushed to 11 x 15cm (41⁄2 x 60in), with 3 broad
to 18m (60ft) tall with a red to pink and variably and shallow lobes, entire to coarsely
Comments: Z6. spreading crown striped white covered serrate, dark green above, pale blue-green
with grey-white bloom beneath, petiole pink-tinted
A.griseum China small to medium-sized tree twigs slender, dark composed of 3 distinct leaflets to 5cm
PAPERBACK MAPLE to 12m (40ft tall) with brown and hairy; larger (2in) long, ovate-oblong and coarsely
open, conical to columnar branches and trunk toothed, dark green above and glaucous,
Comments: Handsome in summer, crown of spreading then covered in smooth, blue-green beneath, turning purple-red
glowing in autumn; contrasts well with ascending branches glossy, red-brown bark in autumn
hoar-frost and snow in winter. Z5. that splits and peels
A.circinatum A.crataegifolium ‘Veitchii’ A.davidii 19

Acer
A ACER
A.heldreichii SE Europe medium-sized tree to to 13cm (5in) wide, lobes 3–5, oblong-
GREEK MAPLE 16m (52ft) tall lanceolate and deeply toothed, the three
terminal lobes cut almost to base, glossy
Comments: From the Caucasus and SW Asia, RED BUD MAPLE, ssp. trautvetteri (A.trautvetteri) has deep green above, paler and somewhat
red-brown branches with showy red buds in spring; the leaves are large and turn clear yellow in glaucous beneath
autumn; the fruits have conspicuous, red-tinted wings. From the Balkans, ssp. visianii has larger
leaves and fruit. Z6.
A.japonicum Japan large shrub or small to 14cm (51⁄2in) wide, almost circular in
FULL MOON MAPLE; tree to 10m (30ft) with outline with 7–11, ovate to lanceolate,
JAPANESE MAPLE a broad canopy deep lobes, the margins toothed to incised,
bright green gradually flushing wine red
toward summer’s end and colouring deep
crimson in autumn
Comments: Appearing with the new leaves, the flowers are red autumn. The shade-loving cultivar ‘Aureum’ (slow-growing with pale
with yellow stamens and hang in clusters. Includes the cultivars yellow leaves turning chartreuse green in summer) belongs to the
‘Aconitifolium’ (‘Laciniatum’, ‘Filicifolium’) with deeply and finely cut species A.shirasawanum, another Japanese native differing from
leaves and good autumn colour, ‘Green Cascade’, with deeply divided, A.japonicum in its glaucous shoots. All favour a well-drained position
emerald leaves on arching branches, and ‘Vitifolium’ with broadly fan- sheltered from strong winds. Z5.
shaped leaves composed of 10–12 lobes and colouring brilliantly in
A.macrophyllum W N America large, broad-crowned to 28cm (11in) wide, palmately 3–5-

BIG LEAF MAPLE; tree to 30m (100ft) tall lobed, the lobes irregularly toothed to
OREGON MAPLE cut, deep, lustrous green turning orange
Comments: Handsome large tree with drooping clusters of small in autumn
yellow flowers in spring and tawny-bristly fruits. Armillaria-resistant. Z6.
A.maximowiczianum Japan; round-headed small composed of 3 leaflets to 12 x 6cm (43⁄4 x

A.nikoense C China tree to 15m (50ft) tall 21⁄2in), ovate to oblong and entire to
NIKKO MAPLE toothed, dull green above, grey-green
and hairy beneath, turning brilliant flame
Comments: Z5. in autumn
A.mono China; Korea medium-sized tree to to 15cm (6in) wide, palmately 5–7-lobed,
A.pictum 15m (50ft) tall the lobes ovate-deltoid, entire and
apiculate, bright green and smooth,
Comments: var. tricuspis has smaller, glossy, 3-lobed leaves. Z6. turning yellow in autumn
A.monspessulanum SE Europe to small, rounded tree to to 8cm (3in) wide, with 3 deltoid-ovate
MONTPELLIER MAPLE W Asia 12m (40ft) tall with a lobes, margins variably toothed, smooth,
twiggy, dense crown, dark green above, paler and hairless
sometimes a shrub beneath, turning yellow-brown in autumn
Comments: Differs from A.campestre in its hairless leaves and the petioles which lack milky sap; ssp. turcomanicum, however, has leaves with
tawny-hairy undersides and blunt lobes. Forms from rather arid regions are small and shrubby with very neat foliage – var. microphyllum, for
example, is of a suitable scale for dry rock gardens. Z5.
20 A.heldreichii A.japonicum ‘Aconitifolium’ A.negundo ‘Variegatum’

Acer
ACER
A
A.negundo N&C fast-growing, broad- ultimately grey; slender to 20cm (8in) long, pinnately divided into
ASH-LEAVED ELDER; America crowned tree to 20m young shoots are pithy, 3–7, oblong leaflets with toothed to cut
BOX ELDER (70ft) tall, often smooth, green and margins, bright, pale green above and
suckering somewhat glaucous pale beneath
Comments: Includes the cultivars ‘Auratum’ with golden leaves, tassels of pink-tinted flowers. Large trees are sometimes problematic
‘Flamingo’ with leaves edged and splashed pink to white, ‘Elegans’ with especially in warmer regions – seeding and suckering freely, breaking
yellow-edged leaves, and ‘Variegatum’ with broadly white-margined easily and playing host to box elder bugs. Z4.
leaves. var. violaceum has frosted, plum-coloured new shoots and
A.oblongum Himalaya; semi-evergreen or peeling, grey to 12cm (43⁄4in) long, oblong-obovate,

EVERGREEN MAPLE China evergreen shrub or tree usually entire, sometimes 3-lobed, tough-
to 10m (30ft) tall with textured, glossy dark green above,
Comments: New growth emerges bronze- spreading to upswept glaucous beneath
pink. In var. concolor, the leaves are pale branches
green throughout. Z7
A.opalus S Europe medium-sized, rounded to 10cm (4in) wide, with 5, broad and
ITALIAN MAPLE tree to 15m (50ft) tall shallow lobes, glossy dark green above
and downy to glabrous beneath
Comments: var. obtusatum has larger leaves with 5–7, blunt and irregularly toothed
lobes and grey-hairy undersides. Z5.
A.palmatum Korea; Japan medium-sized to large grey to 10cm (4in) wide, rounded in outline,
JAPANESE MAPLE shrub or small tree to palmately and deeply 5–7-lobed, the lobes
8m (25ft) tall with a oblong to lanceolate, finely tapering and
broad tiered crown toothed to dissected, smooth thin-textured,
pale, green, turning gold to bronze
Comments: Small trees and shrubs of great elegance and ideally leaves, the lobes broader and less finely cut than in Dissectum Group;
suited to smaller gardens, especially where a Japanese effect is desired; Linearilobum Group with 5–7, very deep slender and toothed lobes.
they also make good tub and bonsai subjects. Perform best on moist Among the finest cultivars are ‘Bloodgood’ (leaves dark purple-red,
and fertile, neutral to acid soils. Many cultivars developed ranging turning blood red in autumn, fruit red). ‘Butterfly’ (leaves small,
widely in habit, leaf shape and colour. They fall roughly into these deeply cut, emerging pink, turning grey-green with cream margins).
categories: Atropurpureum Group with red-purple leaves turning ‘Osakazuki’ ((Elegans Group) leaves green turning brilliant, fiery red
scarlet in autumn; Dissectum Group, round-fiery red or deep in autumn), ‘Sango-kaku’ (‘Senkaki’) (young branches and twigs coral
headed shrubs with arching branches and leaves scarlet in autumn pink to sealing wax red, in winter especially, leaves mid-green turning
composed of 5–7–9, slender and finely dissected leaflets; Elegans amber in autumn). Z5.
Group (Heptalobum group, Septemlobum Group) with 7-lobed
A.paxii C China slow-growing, small, initially purple to to 7 x 4cm (23⁄4 x 11⁄2in), obovate, usually
evergreen or semi- grey-brown 3-lobed, tough, lustrous light green
Comments: Z8. evergreen tree to 10m above, pale and glaucous beneath
(30ft) tall with a dense,
compact crown
A.palmatum ‘Bloodgood’ A. platanoides ‘Crimson King’ A.pseudoplatanus ‘Brilliantissimum’ 21

Acer
A ACER
A.pensylvanicum N America small tree or shrub to young branches green to 18cm (7in) long, obovate, base
A.striatum 12m (40ft)4 in tall, often to brown striped green subcordate, apex broadly 3-lobed, mid
GOOSEFOOT; MOOSEWOOD; low-branching or multi- and silver-white green turning golden yellow in autumn
SNAKEBARK MAPLE; stemmed with long,
STRIPED MAPLE spreading branches
Comments: Favours neutral to slightly acid soils and grows well in x A.pensylvanicum ‘Erythrocladum’) is vigorous with arching branches
semi-wooded locations. In the cultivar ‘Erythrocladum’ the young streaked green and white, and large, deep green leaves on long, red
branches become bright coral red in winter. A. ‘Silver Vein’ (A.laxiflorum petioles turning bright yellow in autumn. Z3.
A.platanoides N Europe to broad-crowned, large dark grey to 18cm (7in) wide, broad with 5, ovate-
NORWAY MAPLE Caucasus, tree to 30m (100ft) tall deltoid lobes, the tips tapering with sparse
naturalized but sharp, broadly angular teeth, thin-
N America textured and smooth, mid to dark green,
rather glossy above, turning clear yellow
to amber in autumn
Comments: Racemes of bright yellow flowers appear before the ‘Globosum’ (small tree with a mop of short branches), ‘Laciniatum’
leaves. Includes the cultivars ‘Crimson King’ (leaves dark purple-red to (EAGLE CLAW MAPLE, leaf lobes 5 with slender, talon-like tips),
bronze-maroon), ‘Crimson Sentry’ (habit narrowly columnar, leaves ‘Palmitifidum’ (‘Lorbergii’) (leaves with 5 lobes, their tips slender and
deep purple-red). ‘Drummondii’ (leaves green deeply edged creamy pointing upwards) and ‘Schwedleri’ (young growth bright red, turning
white), ‘Emerald Queen’ (vigorous with lustrous, dark green leaves), purple-green, then fiery orange in autumn). Z3.
A.pseudoplatanus Europe to small, untidy and dirty grey to grey-brown to 16cm (6in) wide, cordate in outline
SYCAMORE W Asia, suckering, or large, and flaking with 5, ovate and crenate-serrate lobes,
British Isles single-stemmed and dull dark to mid green above, grey-green
broad-crowned tree beneath, turning yellow in autumn
to 40m (130ft)
Comments: Fast-growing tree, widely naturalized, often to the point and slow-growing, differs from ‘Brilliantissimum’ in its larger leaves
of nuisance. Includes Atropurpureum’ (leaves purple beneath), tinted purple beneath), ‘Purpureum’ (leaves tinted purple beneath), and
‘Brilliantissimum’ (small, slow-growing tree, leaves emerge pink, turn ‘Simon Louis-Frères’ (leaves pink at first, then green splashed white).
yellow-green, then mid green), ‘Leopoldii’ (leaves yellow-pink turning Z5.
green, splashed pink and creamy yellow), ‘Prinz Handjery’ (small
A.rubrum N America large tree to 40m grey to 10cm (4in) long, broadly cordate in
RED MAPLE; (130ft) tall outline, with 5–7, deltoid lobes, toothed
SCARLET MAPLE and tapering, smooth dark green above,
glaucous beneath, turning brilliant scarlet
Comments: Best autumn colour achieved on neutral to acid soils. Cultivars include ‘Columnare’ to yellow in autumn
(habit broadly columnar, fiery red in autumn), ‘October Glory’ (autumn colour deep crimson, long-
lasting), ‘Red Sunset’ (habit dense, erect, leaves bright red in autumn),’Scanlon’ (crown broadly ovate
to conical, good autumn colour), ‘Schlesingeri’ (leaves to 12cm (43⁄4in) long with a truncate base and
3, large lobes, turning scarlet early in autumn). Z3.
A.rufinerve Japan medium-sized tree to green striped white; to 12cm (43⁄4in) long, rounded at base,
12m (40ft) tall young branches with 3, spreading, biserrate lobes in apical
glaucous blue-white half, dark green above, paler and red-
Comments: ‘Hatsuyuki’ (‘Albolimbatum’) has leaves splashed white veined beneath, turning vivid red, gold
at margins and turning red and purple in autumn. Z6. and amber in autumn
22 A.rubrum ‘Schlesingeri’ A.saccharum ‘Temple’s Upright’ A.tataricum ssp. ginnala

Achillea
ACER
A
A.saccharinum N America fast-growing broadly grey to 14cm (51⁄2in) long, with 5 deeply cut lobes
A.dasycarpum; A.eriocarpum and loosely columnar with tapering tips and toothed to cut margins,
SILVER MAPLE tree to 40m (130ft) tall light green above, silvery beneath, turning
yellow in autumn
Comments: Includes f. laciniatum with very deep, slender lobes, the margins finely cut,
and ‘Laciniatum Wieri’ with weeping branchlets and finely dissected leaves. Z3.
A.saccharum N America broad-crowned tree to furrowed, grey to 14cm (51⁄2in) wide, cordate in outline with
ROCK MAPLE; 40m (130ft) tall 3–5, toothed and tapering lobes, thin-textured,
SUGAR MAPLE smooth, dull green above, grey-green beneath,
turning gold, fiery red and scarlet in autumn
Comments: Similar to A.platanoides. Sap source of maple syrup. ssp. nigrum (A.nigrum) is the black maple, to 40m (130ft) tall with
Cultivars include ‘Newton Sentry’ (habit narrowly columnar with deeply fissured, black bark and usually 3-lobed leaves to 14cm (51⁄2in)
short, ascending branches and no distinct leader, leaves turning fiery long, deep, dull green above and grey-green and pilose beneath,
red in autumn), and ‘Temple’s Upright’ (habit narrowly conical to turning yellow in autumn. Z3.
broadly columnar with ascending branches and a distinct leader).
A.tataricum SE Europe large, spreading shrub green obscurely to 10cm (4in) long, ovate and finely tapering,
TATARIAN MAPLE to SW Asia or small tree to 10m striped white on biserrate, bright to dull green above, paler and
(30ft) tall young branches hairy beneath turning yellow in autumn; leaves
on young shoots may be 3-lobed
Comments: From NE Asia, ssp. ginnala (A.ginnala) is the AMUR red fruit. This subspecies includes the cultivars ‘Durand Dwarf ’
MAPLE, a spreading, large shrub or small tree with 3-lobed, toothed (dwarf with dense, red twiglets and small leaves), ‘Flame’ (to 7m
leaves to 8cm (3in) long turning bright red in autumn. Small, fragrant, (22ft) tall with fiery autumn colour), and ‘Pulverulentum’ (leaves
yellow flowers are produced in clusters in spring and are followed by splashed and speckled white). Z4.
A.triflorum Manchuria; small, spreading tree topeeling, grey-brown to 8cm (3in) long, composed of 3, ovate to
THREE-FLOWERED MAPLE Korea 12m (40ft) tall oblanceolate leaflets, dark green above, glaucous
beneath, turning fiery red in autumn
Comments: Differs from A.maximowiczianum in its peeling bark. A choice, slow-growing
small tree with brilliant autumn colour. Z6.
A.truncatum China; small, broad-crowned to 10cm (4in), base truncate, lobes 5, deltoid,
SHANTUNG MAPLE Korea tree to 8m (25ft) tall deeply cut, bright green and smooth above,
paler and hairy beneath
Comments: Attractive yellow-green flowers appear with the leaves. The cultivar ‘Akikaze
Nishiki’ has leaves variably spotted, splashed and stained white. Z6.
A.velutinum Caucasus; large tree to 15cm (6in) wide, base subcordate, broadly
A.insigne Iran and palmately 5-lobed, toothed, bright green
above, paler and softly downy beneath
Comments: var. vanvolxemii: leaves to 30cm (12in) wide, blue-green beneath with hairs on
the veins only. Z5
achene a dry, small, indehiscent fruit finely divided and ferny foliage, and A.clavennae (E Alps, W Balkans; to
with a tight thin pericarp, strictly con- small, button-like flowerheads in 12 x 20cm (43/4 x 8in); carpeting with
sisting of one free carpel as in Ranun- loose clusters or crowded, flat-topped silky-silvery, pinnately lobed leaves to
culaceae, but sometimes applied to corymbs. 8cm (3in) long; flowerheads to 1cm
Compositae with more than one seed. All are summer-flowering, fully (1/2in) diam., bright white with golden
hardy and prefer a sunny, well-drained centres in loose clusters); A.clypeolata
achenocarp any dry indehiscent position. The larger species and culti- (Balkans, Romania; to 40 x 30cm
fruit. vars thrive in the herbaceous or mixed (16 x 12in); semi-evergreen herbaceous
border; the flowerheads are attractive perennial with finely divided, silvery
Achillea (for the Classical hero additions to dried flower arrangements. leaves; flowerheads to 0.8cm (3/8in)
Achilles, said to have discovered the Smaller species are best used on the diam., bright yellow, crowded in
medicinal properties of these plants). rock or dry garden, or planted on flat-topped heads; crossed with
Compositae. North temperate regions. dry banks and walls. Propagate by A.filipendulina to produce A. ‘Coronation
YARROW; MILFOIL. 85 species, perennial division in early spring or autumn; Gold’, vigorous, to 1m (31/4ft) tall with 23
herbs, often aromatic, with entire or take softwood cuttings in late spring. deep golden flowerheads that dry well;
Achillea
A and with A. ‘Taygetea’ to produce WATER PLANT. Central and South achlamydeous of flowers; lacking
‘Moonshine’, with silver leaves and America. 35 species, tender, bushy a perianth.
bright yellow flowerheads); A.filipen- perennials with softly hairy, bushy
dulina (Caucasus, Iran, Central Asia; growth arising annually from acicular of leaves; needle-shaped,
semi-evergreen, herbaceous perennial underground rhizomes clad with fleshy and usually rounded rather than flat
to 100 x 60cm (39 x 24in); leaves green, scales. They are grown for their showy, in cross-section.
hairy, deeply and finely pinnately tubular to funnel-shaped flowers. They
lobed; flowerheads to 0.5cm (1/4in) may be induced to flower at any time acid in gardening mainly applicable
diam., deep gold, crowded in broad, of year. Plant the dormant rhizomes in to soil, potting mixtures and their
flat-topped to domed umbels on long a fibrous potting mix. Grow in humid ingredients, and water having a pH
stalks drying well; includes ‘Altgold’ conditions, minimum temperature scale value less than 7.0; cf. alkaline.
with dark, burnished gold flowerheads. 18°C/65°F, and protect from bright See soils; pH.
‘Gold Plate’ with large, deep gold sunlight. Water sparingly at first,
flowerheads on long, stout stalks; increasingly as the new growth acinaceous of fruit; full of kernels.
crossed with A.ptarmica to produce the emerges. Pinch out the young shoots
creamy yellow-flowered ‘Schwefel- to encourage bushiness and support acinaciform of leaves; shaped like
blüte’); A. x kellereri (A.clypeolata x if necessary. When in full growth, a scimitar.
A.ageratifolia; semi-evergreen perennial Achimenes benefits from a weak, fort-
to 15 x 20cm (6 x 8in) with feathery, nightly feed and frequent misting over Aciphylla (from Greek akis, point,
grey-green leaves and loose clusters of (the latter especially if grown in the and phyllon, leaf, referring to the
daisy-like flowerheads, white to cream home). As the flowers fade and sharply pointed leaves). Umbelliferae.
with pale gold centres); A. x lewisii the foliage deteriorates, water should New Zealand; Australia. 40 species,
(A.clavennae x A.clypeolata; compact be gradually withheld and humidity evergreen perennials grown for their
semi-evergreen perennial to 10 x 20cm reduced. Once the top growth has died rosettes of tough, sword-shaped or
(4 x 8in), with feathery, grey-green off, the rhizomes may be stored compound leaves and spectacular, ter-
leaves; the cultivar ‘King Edward’ completely dry and in their pots at a minal inflorescences – usually a white
has tight corymbs of tiny, buff-yellow minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F. or cream, pyramidal panicle composed
flowerheads); A.millefolium (yarrow; Separate and clean the maggot-like of many compound umbels packed on
erect perennial to 100 x 40cm (39 x rhizomes prior to replanting. These are candelabra-like branches. All of the
40in) with feathery dark green leaves fragile and their inevitable break-up is species described here hail from New
and flat-topped corymbs to 15cm (6in) the principal method of propagation. Zealand. Male plants are usually held
diam., crowded with small, white to A.antirrhina (W. Mexico; to 30cm to flower more reliably and impres-
pink flowerheads; includes ‘Burgundy’ (12in); flowers 4.5cm (13/4in) long, sively than females. They thrive in a
with wine red flowerheads, ‘Fanal’, yellow marked maroon on the exterior sharply draining, gritty soil in full sun.
with snow-white flowerheads in a with a red-stained throat to bright red- In winter they require temperatures no
dense, rosette-like corymb, ‘Forncett orange with a yellow throat); A.erecta lower than –10°C/14°F; protect from
Beauty’ with deep lavender flower- (syn. A.coccinea, A.pulchella; the West overwet conditions (e.g. a mulch of dry
heads, ‘Fire King’ with bright pink Indies, Mexico, Panama; flowers bright bracken or deep gravel around the
flowerheads, the magenta ‘Kelwayi’, scarlet with yellow throats); A.grandiflora crown). Propagate by seed sown under
and the snowy ‘White Beauty’); (Mexico, Honduras; 45cm (18in); leaves glass in late summer or early spring.
A.ptarmica (SNEEZEWORT; erect 4.5cm (13/4in) long, mauve to maroon A.aurea (dense rosettes of sharply
herbaceous perennial to 100 x 75cm with a pink, purple-spotted throat); pointed, sword-shaped or pinnate
(39 x 30in), leaves dark green, lanceo- A.longiflora (Mexico, Honduras; to 60cm leaves to 1m (31/4ft) diam.; flower spikes
late and toothed but not divided; flow- (24in); flowers to 6cm (21/2in), violet, over 1m (31/4ft)); A.colensoi (COLENSO’S
erheads to 0.5cm (1/4in) diam., white maroon, mauve, magenta or white with SPANIARD, WILD SPANIARD; swirling
in frothy corymbs; includes ‘Boule de various markings). Cultivars: ‘Ambroise rosette of leaves to 50cm (20in)-long,
Neige’ with large, snow white, ‘double’ Verschaffelt’ (flowers large, white, coarse, glaucous and rigidly sword-like
flowerheads); A. Summer Pastels heavily veined and blotched deep or pinnate with the lobes sharply
(a seed race of herbaceous perennials purple); ‘Brilliant’ (flowers scarlet): tipped and ribbed in sealing wax red;
with soft, grey-green foliage and ‘Glacier’ (flowers snow white, tinted flowers cream in metre-high towers);
domed corymbs in shades of pink, icy blue); ‘Little Beauty’ (flowers deep A.scott-thomsonii (GIANT SPANIARD; differs
rose, buff, salmon, dull orange, purple pink with a yellow eye); ‘Paul Arnold’ from the last species in its more fre-
and grey-lavender); A. ‘Taygetea’ (erect (flowers dark purple, throat white quently divided leaves to 1.5m (5ft)
perennial to 60 x 50cm (24 x 20in) with tinged yellow with red dots); ‘Peach long, emerging bronze and hardening
feathery, grey-green leaves and flat Blossom’ (habit trailing, flowers peach); pale grey green with the midribs faintly
corymbs of lemon yellow flowerheads). ‘Pearly Queen’ (flowers cream tinged tinted red; flower spikes to 3m (10ft));
pink and lilac); ‘Ruby’ (flowers small, A.squarrosa (SPEARGRASS, BAYONET
24 Achimenes (from Greek chemaino, to ruby red); ‘Show Off ’ (flowers profuse, PLANT; rosette to 1m (31/4ft) across of
suffer from cold). Gesneriaceae. HOT lilac-pink). rigid olive green leaves, sword-like or
Actinidia
2–3-pinnate, each segment ending in a

spine; flower spikes ivory, to 1m (31/4ft)).
yellow with domed to narrowly cylindric
helmets, carried on slender-branched,
A
narrow panicles; subsp. vulparia: syn.
Aconitum (the Classical Latin name, A.vulparia, flowers pale creamy yellow);
from Greek, akoniton). Ranunculaceae. A.napellus (HELMET FLOWER, FRIAR’S CAP,
Northern Hemisphere (temperate BEAR’S FOOT, GARDEN WOLF’S BANE;
regions). MONK’S-HOOD. Some 100 Europe, Asia and N America; erect,
species, biennial or perennial herbs, tuberous perennial to 1.5m (5ft); leaves
often tuberous, with erect to scram- 5–7-parted, lobed and toothed; flowers
bling stems, palmately lobed or cut blue, violet or lilac with domed, hooded
leaves and racemes or panicles of flow- helmets in tall, spire-like panicles in late
ers in summer. The flowers consist of summer; ‘Album’: flowers white).
five petal-like sepals, the upper three Actaea rubra
large and forming a domed helmet and Acorus (Latin name, from the Greek The clusters of decorative fruits for which
extending behind as a spur. All parts of akoron, applied in ancient times to both actaeas are chiefly grown rise up from low
these plants are highly toxic. The fol- Acorus calamus, the sweet flag, and to clumps of divided, elder-like foliage.
lowing are fully hardy and suitable for the superficially similar Iris pseudacorus,
herbaceous and mixed borders, wood- yellow flag). Araceae (Acoraceae). North America). BANEBERRY. 8 species,
land gardens, and (the smaller species) Northern Hemisphere. 2 species, hardy hardy herbaceous perennials grown
for the rock garden. Taller plants may rhizomatous perennial herbs with for their berries and attractive, foliage.
require staking. Grow A.hemsleyanum sword-shaped leaves and inconspicuous Long-stalked, ternately compound
among shrubs or train on pea-sticks. flowers in club-shaped spadices. Both leaves arise in early spring from a thick
Plant all in a moist but well-drained, are fully hardy and suited to the bog buried rhizome; their segments are
fertile soil in full sun or part shade. garden or pond margin. Variegated lanceolate-ovate and usually coarsely
Propagate by division in autumn. forms of A.gramineus have long been toothed. A wand-like stem to 80cm
A.anthora (Galicia; compact, tuberous used as bonsai and, more recently, as (32in) tall follows in spring and
perennial, erect to 60cm (24in); leaves house plants. Plant in a moist or terminates in a spike of small white
dark green, finely cut into numerous saturated, rich soil, or pot in the same. or cream flowers. The fruit is bead-like
narrow segments; flowers yellow or The roots and rhizomes may be cov- and toxic – pearly white with a blue-
purple-blue); A. x cammarum (syn. ered by water. Grow in full or dappled black ‘pupil’ in A.pachypoda, the WHITE
A.bicolor, large group of popular garden sun. Increase by division. BANEBERRY or DOLL’S EYES; bright
hybrids involving A.variegatum and A.calamus (SWEET FLAG, SWEET scarlet in A.rubra, the RED BANEBERRY
A.napellus; to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 10cm CALAMUS, MYRTLE FLAG, FLAGROOT; or SNAKEBERRY. Plant in the wild or
(4in) across and finely divided; flowers northern Hemisphere, deciduous or woodland garden in a humus-rich,
some 4cm (11/2in) long, with high, semi-evergreen; leaves to 150cm (60in) moist soil in part-shade. Increase by
beaked helmets in open, narrowly resembling those of a flag iris, fresh division in spring, or from fresh seed
pyramidal panicles; cultivars include apple green, flushed purple-bronze in (pulp removed) sown in a cold frame.
‘Bicolor’ with white and indigo flowers, ‘Purpureus’, striped cream and yellow A.racemosa (BLACK COHOSH, BLACK
the tall, slender, violet-blue ‘Bressingham in ‘Variegatus’); A.gramineus (E Asia; SNAKEROOT; N America; 80–150cm
Spire’, the dull salmon-pink ‘Carneum’, evergreen, to 50cm (20in) tall; leaves (32–60in); raceme to 90cm (36in),
‘Grandiflorum Album’ with large, white grassy or sedge-like, glossy dark green, erect, slender, branched flowers, fra-
flowers, the deep blue ‘Newry Blue’, tapering finely, in a distinct forward- grant); A.simplex (E Russia, Mongolia,
and the violet-blue ‘Spark’s Variety’); leaning fan; ‘Albovariegatus’: dwarf, Japan; 60–120cm (24–48in); raceme to
A.carmichaelii (Asia, North America; leaves striped white; ‘Oborozuki’: 30 cm (12in), erect to bowed; includes
erect, tuberous perennial to 1.5m (5ft); leaves vibrant yellow; ‘Ogon’: leaves Atropurpurea Group, with forms
leaves 3–5-parted, lobed, toothed; variegated chartreuse and cream; var. having very dark, purple-bronze leaves,
flowers deep purple to blue or white, pusillus: very dwarf – seldom exceeds for example ‘Brunette).
in a dense, erect and narrow panicle; 8cm (3in); ‘Variegatus’: leaves striped
cultivars include the late summer- to cream and yellow). Actinidia (from the Greek, aktis, a
autumn-flowering, azure blue ‘Arendsii’); ray, alluding to the radiating styles).
A. hemsleyanum (syn. A volubile of gardens; acropetalous of organs such as Actinidiaceae. East Asia. 40 species,
Asia; stems slender, twining and scram- leaves or flowers produced, developing largely dioecious, deciduous, woody
bling with much-lobed leaves and or opening in succession from base to climbers grown for their fruit, foliage
racemes of mauve or lilac to green and apex; cf. basipetalous. and small, bowl-shaped, cream flowers.
blue flowers); A.lycoctonum (WOLF’S BANE, Most Actinidia are familiar as orna-
BADGER’S BANE; Europe, N Africa; Actaea (from Greek aktea, the elder mentals in cool temperate gardens.
tuberous perennial to 1.5m (5ft), leaves tree, a reference to the fruit and leaf Strongly twining climbers, they are
dark green, 5–7-parted, lobed and shape). Ranunculaceae. Northern used as wall plants or allowed to 25
toothed; flowers purple to lilac, white or Temperate regions (those below from scramble through old trees and over
Actinidia
A pergolas, where they provide a bold aculeate prickly, bearing sharp abdomen. Many species occur across
covering of handsome leaves measur- prickles. the northern Hemisphere.
ing up to 15cm (6in) long, broadly The SPRUCE GALL ADELGID (Adelges
ovate, tapering and deep, smooth green aculeiform prickle-shaped. abietis) is widespread in Britain, north-
in A.arguta, the TARA VINE or YANG-TAO; ern Europe and North America and
to 20cm (8in) long, broadly elliptic, acuminate of leaves and perianth causes small pineapple-like galls on
blunt, tough and hairy in A.deliciosa segments with the tip or, less shoots of Picea species during the
(syn. A.chinensis), the CHINESE GOOSE- commonly, the base tapering summer. Infested branches become
BERRY or KIWI FRUIT; to 15cm (6in) gradually to a point, usually with stunted and the dried up galls are
long, ovate, tapering finely, emerging somewhat concave sides. unsightly. Winged adults emerge from
chocolate and lime green splashed the galls, and fly to infest other spruce
cream and pink in A.kolomikta; and to acutangular of stems; sharply trees, depositing a cluster of 20–50
12cm (43/4in) long, ovate-oblong, taper- angular. yellow eggs on the needles. After egg
ing, emerging bronze, becoming deep laying, females die in such a position
green flecked or mottled silver or acute of the tips or bases of leaves or that their wings provide protection for
cream in A.polygama, the SILVER VINE. perianth segments where two almost the eggs. Hatched nymphs crawl to the
In sheltered positions, and especially straight or slightly convex sides bases of buds to overwinter, and in
where rapid growth and wood ripening converge to terminate in a sharp point, spring pass through three moults to
can be guaranteed by long, hot sum- the point shorter and usually broader become stem mothers, producing
mers, all of the above will withstand than in an acuminate leaf tip. copious amounts of flocculent, white
winter lows of –17°C/1°F. They grow ‘wool’ amongst which 50 or more
well in part shade, but will require acyclic plant parts arranged spirally, greenish eggs are deposited. Nymphs
ample sunlight for fruit ripening. Plant not in pairs or whorls. emerge after bud burst and crawl
in deep and well drained, loamy soils, between developing needles, where their
rich in organic matter (slightly alkaline Ada (named after the queen of Caria feeding induces pineapple-like galls.
for A.kolomikta; slightly acidic for in Asia Minor). Orchidaceae. South Adelges viridis gives rise to similar galls
A.deliciosa). Prune in winter to clean America. 15 species, epiphytic orchids. on Picea species but emergent winged
out tangled, dead or exhausted stems. Native to the Colombian Andes, forms overwinter on Larix species and
Propagate by semi-ripe cuttings A.aurantiaca is cool-growing (winter reinfest spruce in the following spring.
taken in a case with bottom heat at minimum 10°C/50°F) and produces Adelges abietis causes serious dieback and
20–25°C/70–77°F; also by layering arching, 30cm (12in) sprays of 2.5cm even death of the silver fir (Abies alba)
in winter. (1in)-long flowers in late winter and and Adelges piceae (the BALSAM WOOLLY
Cultivars of A.arguta and A.deliciosa early spring. These are narrow-petalled APHID of North America), which has
grown for fruit production are usually and appear half-closed, ranging in a more conspicuous covering of white
selected for sex (i.e. female) and grafted colour from scarlet to dark or bright woolly wax, attacks Abies alba, A.grandis
on to seedling rootstocks. A small, male orange to cinnabar red. Pot in a and A.procera. The stunted shoots of
scion may then be grafted on to the bark-based orchid mix. Water and affected trees have swellings often
established female scion as an in-built feed frequently when in growth; referred to as gouty galls. Tufts of
pollinator. See kiwi fruit. reduce water supplies once the new white woolly wax are also associated
pseudobulbs are fully formed, only with the LARCH ADELGID (Adelges laricis),
actinomorphic of regular flowers increasing quantities again upon the and to a lesser extent with Adelges cooleyi
possessing radial symmetry, capable of emergence of the flower spikes. Shade on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and
division in two or more planes into from direct sunlight and provide a the SCOTS PINE ADELGID Pineus pini. The
similar halves. humid, cool and buoyant atmosphere bark of Weymouth pine (Pinus strobus)
in summer. Increase by division. is most likely to be infested by Pineus
activator a nitrogenous substance strobi. It is not feasible to control
such as sulphate of ammonia, poultry adaxial of the surface or part of a adelgids on large specimen trees,
manure or a proprietary product, lateral plant organ turned or facing where damage is rarely serious.
applied to plant waste in a compost toward the axis and apex; fluffy white substance
heap to aid decay. Of particular value sometimes used inter- secreted on needles
where non-leafy material is composted changeably with ventral;
during periods of low temperature. cf. abaxial.
Also known as an accelerator
adelgids (Hemiptera: Adelgidae).
active ingredient (abbrev. a.i.) Conifer woolly aphids. Sap-feeding
the biologically active component of insects of conifers, about 1–2mm
a pesticide which is toxic to the pest, (1/16–1/16in) long, similar to aphids but
26 pathogen or weed it is intended to with shorter antennae, and without the
control. horn-like structure at the base of the Adelgids
Adlumia
Infestations on young conifers –

especially Norway spruce (Picea abies),
adherent plant parts usually free or
separate (e.g. petals) but clinging or
silver-rose, turning pearly grey-green);
A.raddianum (syn. A.cuneatum, A.decorum;
A
which is extensively grown for held closely together. Such parts are DELTA MAIDENHAIR FERN; S America;
Christmas trees in the UK – may sometimes loosely described as united fronds to 60cm (24in), narrowly trian-
be prevented by spraying the conifers or, inaccurately, as fused, which is gular, 3-pinnate, pinnules 1cm (1/2in),
with suitable contact insecticides strictly synonymous with coherent. cuneate to rhombic, lobed, pale green
from February to early March. Some authors use this word to describe on very dark stipes; includes ‘Fritz
the fusion of dissimilar parts. Luthii’ with pale green fronds, and the
Adenium (from the Arabic name much-divided and tasselled ‘Grandi-
for this plant, oddaejn (Aden)). Adiantum (from Greek adiantos, ceps’); A.tenerum (BRITTLE MAIDENHAIR
Apocynaceae. Throughout Africa in unwetted or unwettable: the fronds FERN; warm Americas; fronds to
arid places. MOCK AZALEA; DESERT repel water). Adiantaceae. Cosmopoli- 100cm (39in), arching, broadly triangu-
ROSE; IMPALA LILY; KUDU LILY; SABI tan. MAIDENHAIR FERN. 200 species, lar, 3–5-pinnate, pinnules rhombic to
STAR. 1 species, A.obesum; a tender evergreen and deciduous ferns with fan-shaped, sometimes toothed or cleft,
succulent, it produces a swollen caudex short, creeping rhizomes and clumps of stipes black and glossy; includes
dividing into a few crabbed branches fronds. These are usually 1–5-pinnately ‘Farleyense’ FARLEY MAIDENHAIR,
between 1m (31/4ft) and 3m (10ft) tall. compound with slender, dark stipes, BARBADOS MAIDENHAIR, GLORY FERN,
The leaves are oblanceolate to obovate delicate branches and finely textured, with large, fan-shaped, cut and crisped
and are sometimes present only during wedge- to fan-shaped pinnules. A.peda- pinnules); A.venustum (EVERGREEN
a short growing season. The flowers tum and A.venustum are among the most MAIDENHAIR; Asia; fronds to 80cm
are funnel-shaped with five spreading desirable hardy ferns for the cool rock (32in), usually smaller, arching, broadly
lobes, as much as 5 x 6cm (2 x 21/2in), garden or shady border. Plant in a triangular, 3–4-pinnate, pinnules to
and are typically rosy pink or crimson moist soil rich in leafmould. Mulch the 1cm (1/2in), ovate-cuneate, tip rounded,
with a white ‘eye’ and throat. Provide crowns with garden compost and dry finely toothed, coppery at first,
a minimum temperature of 15°C/59°F bracken in winter. The remaining becoming fresh pale green and paler
(these plants in fact thrive in fierce, species are tender foliage plants for the beneath, stipes dark, glossy).
dry heat). Pot in a gritty and sandy home, greenhouse or conservatory.
medium. Water freely during periods With the exception of the warm-grow- adjuvant a substance added to a
of high temperatures, scarcely at all ing A.peruvianum and A.raddianum, they pesticide formulation or mixture to
otherwise. Grow in full sun; keep free need a cool, buoyant atmosphere and a improve its action, by enhancing
of draughts and damp. Increase by minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F. spreading, adherence or penetration,
stem cuttings or seed. Plant in an acid to neutral, well- or by reducing phytotoxicity. Adjuvants
drained mix high in coir, composted include so-called spreaders, wetters and
Adenophora (from the Greek aden, bark and leafmould; water throughout stickers besides surfactants and some
gland, and phoros, bearing – the style the year, but more sparingly in winter, antitranspirants. Many are based on
has a glandular base). Campanulaceae. Remove faded fronds. Propagate by refined mineral oil or vegetable oil,
Eastern Europe to Japan. LADY-BELLS; division when repotting, ideally in and although not pesticides, are subject
GLAND BELLFLOWER. 40 species, hardy spring just before growth begins. to pesticide regulations.
herbaceous perennials. They differ A.capillus-veneris (MAIDENHAIR FERN,
from the closely related Campanula in SOUTHERN MAIDENHAIR, VENUS’ HAIR Adlumia (for John Adlum
their thick, fleshy roots and the swollen FERN; cosmopolitan; fronds to 70cm (1759–1836), US soldier and grape
disk at the base of the stamens. (28in), arching, triangular, 2–3-pinnate, breeder). Fumariaceae. Eastern N
Rosettes of ovate to lanceolate leaves pinnules 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), cuneate to America, Korea. 1 species, A.fungosa
give rise to arching sprays of pendu- flabellate, emerging pale bronze turn- (syn. Fumaria fungosa), CLIMBING
lous, bell-shaped flowers in summer. ing bright lime green; stipe dark brown FUMITORY, MOUNTAIN FRINGE and
Hardy to –15°C/5°F, they thrive in to black); A.pedatum (FIVE-FINGERED ALLEGHENY VINE, an herbaceous,
full sun or part shade. Grow on well- MAIDENHAIR FERN; N America, E Asia; biennial vine grown for its finely cut,
drained, fertile and preferably slightly fronds to 50cm (20in) tall, slender, pale green, ferny foliage and drooping
alkaline soils. Propagate by fresh seed black stipes crowned with five pedately panicles of small, spurred flowers.
sown when ripe or from basal cuttings arranged pinnae, pinnules emerging Produced in spring and summer, these
in spring. bronze-pink turning lime green, to 2cm are close to those of Dicentra in shape
A.bulleyana (W. China; to 1m (31/4ft); (3/4in), obliquely triangular; more and a delicate shade of pink. Hardy
flowers pale blue); A.liliifolia (Eurasia; crowded and blue-green in var. sub- to –17°C/1°F. Sow seed in early spring
to 50cm (20in) tall, hung with fragrant, pumilum (var. aleuticum), ALEUTIAN MAID- in light shade on a cool, moist soil.
white or pale blue flowers); A.potaninii ENHAIR); A.peruvianum (SILVER DOLLAR Allegheny vine makes a low, bushy
(W. China; to 90cm (36in) arching MAIDENHAIR; S America; fronds to 1m plant in its first year; thereafter it
sprays of lavender flowers); A.triphylla (31/4ft) tall, arching, triangular, 1–3-pin- quickly climbs to 4m (12ft). Provide
(to 90cm (36in); flowers pale blue nate; pinnules to 7cm (23/4in), diamond- initial support with brushwood or pea 27
or violet). shaped to semi-circular, emerging soft sticks, then allow the stems to scramble
Adlumia
A through the surrounding vegetation. shrubs grown for their attractive and – a terminal spike or panicle clothed
Self-sows freely. often curiously shaped leaves. Plant with showy bracts. Although small and
in an open medium rich in grit and often concealed, the flowers are usually
adnate a plant feature attached by its sand. When in growth, allow them to brightly coloured.
whole length or surface to the face of become just dry between waterings and Provide a minimum winter tempera-
an organ. feed with a fertilizer high in potassium ture of 10°C/50°F, and bright, filtered
and phosphorus but low in nitrogen. light. Plant in a very free-draining,
Adonis (in Greek mythology, the In the cooler, duller months, maintain bark-based mix which should be
beautiful youth beloved of Aphrodite a minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F, allowed to become almost dry between
and killed by a wild boar: this flower with low humidity and full sunlight; waterings. Alternatively, wrap the
was supposed to spring from his spilt water only to prevent excessive shrivel- sparse and wiry roots in a pouch
blood). Ranunculaceae. Europe, Asia. ling of the leaves. Propagate by leaf of well-rotted garden compost and
20 species, hardy annual or perennial and stem cuttings (fallen leaves will sphagnum moss and attach the plant to
herbs grown for their flowers produced often root and grow spontaneously). driftwood, a bromeliad ‘tree’ or a bark
in spring and summer. The A.cooperi (syn. A.festivus; slab; water by plunging and misting.
stems arise from short, thick PLOVER’S EGG PLANT; clump- Apply a weak liquid feed fortnightly
rhizomes and bear finely cut former with thickly fleshy, in spring and summer. Propagate by
foliage beneath a large, 4–7cm (11/2–23/4in)-long detaching roots and offsets.
solitary, bowl-shaped leaves shaped like A.chantinii (AMAZON ZEBRA PLANT;
flower composed of slightly compressed leaves spiny-toothed, olive green
oblong to obovate petals eggs, grey-green brightly banded silver-grey beneath
around a boss of anthers. speckled red-brown); in an erect funnel; inflorescence 80cm
Plant in moist but well- A.cristatus (leaves broadening (32in) tall, loosely branched and
drained soil in sun or light to a squared tip and flattening clothed with brilliant scarlet bracts,
shade with the crowns at a toward a thin and strongly wavy lowermost bent downwards; flowers
depth of 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in). Adonis annua apical margin); A.maculatus waxy and orange-yellow); A.distichantha
Propagate by fresh seed sown in (leaves broadly oblanceolate to (robust to 1m (31/4ft) with spreading,
pans in the cold frame in summer. obovate to 10cm (4in), rather thinner mid-green, saw-toothed leaves;
A.amurensis (E Asia; perennial to than in the above two species and grey- inflorescence stout-stemmed, roughly
15cm (6in); flowers to 4cm (11/2in) green to olive or dull brown with pyramidal; branches short, covered in
diam., with 20–30, yellow petals, purple-brown blotches, the tip thin, 2-ranked, overlapping, rose pink to lob-
sometimes white, rose, or red-striped; horny-textured and usually wavy). ster red bracts); A.fasciata (URN PLANT;
includes the fringed, creamy ‘Benten’, funnel spreading with broadly strap-
‘Fukurokuju’ with very large, double, adsorption the attachment of an shaped leaves in sea green overlaid and
golden flowers, and the double, yellow ion or molecule to the surface of a banded with frosty scales; inflorescence
to green ‘Pleniflora’; in ‘Ramosa’, the soil particle. See base exchange. 60cm (24in) tall, pyramidal and com-
flowers are double and bronze-red to posed of many overlapping bracts, like
brown); A.annua (PHEASANT’S EYE; adult of leaves; the mature foliage of a candy or flamingo pink torch, picked
Europe to Asia; annual to 40cm (16in); plants which bear leaves of distinctly out with small flowers, shifting with age
flowers to 3cm (11/4in) diam., with scar- different shape when young, such as from pale blue to indigo then dark
let to crimson petals, their black bases eucalyptus, ivy and gorse; cf. juvenile. rose); A. Foster’s Favorite Group (LAC-
forming an ‘eye’; A.aestivalis is similar QUERED WINE CUP; vigorously offset-
and includes forms with yellow flow- adventitious, adventive growth ting, to 60 x 80cm (24 x 32in) with open
ers); A.brevistyla (China, Tibet; perennial which occurs at an unusual location on funnels of glossy garnet leaves and
to 20cm (8in) tall; flowers to 3cm a plant, for example roots arising from pendulous spikes of small red and blue
(11/4in) diam., with some 8 white petals a stem or leaf axil. Also used of non- flowers followed by red berries); A.ful-
tinted blue to lavender on the exterior); native plants introduced accidentally gens (CORAL BERRY; an open but deep
A.vernalis (Europe; perennial to 20cm or deliberately. rosette of mid-green, 35cm (14in)-long,
(8in); flowers to 8cm (3in) diam., with oblong to ligulate leaves, glossy above,
12–20 yellow petals, white in ‘Alba’). Aechmea (from the Greek, aichme, with grey scales beneath; inflorescence
lance head, referring to the hard acute 15–20cm (6–8in) tall, branches slender,
adpressed, appressed used of an apices of the sepals) Bromeliaceae. red clothed with thin, pink bracts; flow-
organ which lies flat and close to the C and S America. 170 species, tender, ers small blue and violet turning deep
stem or leaf to which it is attached. epiphytic, evergreen perennial herbs. pink and followed by bright red fruit);
Tough, strap-shaped leaves are carried A.nudicaulis (rosette loose; leaves
Adromischus (from Greek, hadros, in a stemless rosette, their overlapping 30–80cm (12–32in)-long; black-
thick, and mischos, stem). Crassulaceae. and expanded bases forming a cup or toothed, strap-shaped and arching
28 South Africa. 26 species, low-growing, funnel in which water collects. From from a dark, urn-like base, olive above
frost-tender, succulent herbs and sub- this reservoir, the inflorescence emerges grey-banded beneath; inflorescence
aerobic
unbranched, to 25cm (10in) tall and

cylinder-shaped with yellow flowers
green in ‘Schwarzkopf ’; variegated
white and cream in ‘Variegatum’);
leaves to 10cm (4in) long – usually
shorter – and arching racemes of
A
borne above brilliant red bracts); A.canariense (CANARY ISLAND AEONIUM, disproportionately large flowers; var.
A.racinae (CHRISTMAS JEWELS; differs GIANT VELVET ROSE; stemless with a rhodosticta: flowers with a red column).
from A. ‘Foster’s Favorite’ in its paler, short, unbranched stem; leaf rosette
red-bronze leaves, red and yellow flow- densely crowded, somewhat cupped/to aeration (1) the exchange of oxygen
ers and vivid ruby red fruit); A.recurvata flat leaves oblanceolate to 20cm (8in) and carbon dioxide between the
(swollen-based, compact rosette of long, mid-green, dewy with tiny, atmosphere and soil, which is
spiny-toothed, arching, narrowly slightly sticky hairs); A.haworthii dependent upon adequate soil pore
triangular leaves, mid-green, sometimes (PINWHEEL; bushy, to 1m (31/4ft) tall spaces; cultivation, organic matter
flushing red toward their bases at with loose rosettes of obovate, acute, content, drainage, plant root and
flowering; inflorescence beacon-like, 5cm (2in)-long leaves, usually glaucous earthworm activity are all important
scarcely clearing the leaves and packed with red margins); A.tabuliforme (leaf influences. (2) the techniques used to
with bright red bracts and small, rosettes to 40cm (16in) across, stemless, relieve compaction, particularly on
purple, pink or red and white flowers). composed of many, overlapping, lawns. See slitting; spiking (q.v.).
petal-like leaves, thinly succulent,
Aegopodium (from Greek aix, a obovate, acute, apple-green and ciliate). aerator a specially designed hand-
goat, and pous, a foot). Apiaceae. operated or mechanical device used
Europe, W Asia. 5 species, fully hardy, Aerangis (from the Greek aer, air, to aerate soil or lawns by slitting or
low-growing perennials. A.podagraria, and angos, vessel). Orchidaceae. Africa, spiking (q.v.).
GROUND ELDER, HERB GERARD, is an Madagascar, Mascarene Islands, Sri
invasive weed of gardens, spreading Lanka. 50 species, epiphytic and litho- aerial roots roots borne wholly
mainly by deep-rooted rhizomes. Up phytic orchids with strap-shaped or above ground, either adventitiously,
to 90cm (36in) in height, with aromatic elliptic leaves in a loose fan or in two as in Hedera, or from the rooting axis,
rootstock. Leaves 1–2-ternate, segments ranks along elongated stems. White or as in many epiphytes.
dentate, ovate, acuminate. Small white ivory, moth-like flowers with long spurs
flowers borne in umbels in early are carried in arching racemes. Provide Aerides (from Greek aer, air, due to
summer. Ground elder (q.v.) colonizes a minimum winter temperature of their apparent ability to thrive on air
rapidly and can choke all but the most 10°C/50°F and semi-shaded, humid alone). Orchidaceae. Tropical and
vigorous plants. A.podagraria ‘Variegata’ and buoyant conditions. Pot in a very subtropical E Asia. 40 species, tender
is a less invasive selection with open, bark-based orchid mix, or attach epiphytic orchids grown for their
cream-splashed leaves. It has merit the plant to a pad of sphagnum moss pendulous racemes of fragrant,
as a groundcover plant on sites where and garden compost and tie it to a spurred flowers. They are tall with
few other species flourish and where suspended raft, cork block or fibre slab. a single erect stem clothed with 2-
its progress can be controlled. Syringe daily during warm weather. ranked, strap-shaped leaves and giving
A.citrata (Madagascar; short- rise to long, aerial roots. Most often
Aeonium (a plant name used by stemmed with broad, 10cm (4in)-long grown is A.odorata, its flowers to 3cm
Dioscorides). Crassulaceae. Canaries, leaves and pendulous 25cm (10in) long (11/4in) wide and ranging in colour from
Madeira, North and East Africa (all racemes packed with rounded 2cm pure white to mauve, but typically
those below from Atlantic Islands). (3/4in)-diam. flowers, deep cream to sparkling white or cream faintly and
30 species, mostly perennial, tender very pale primrose and faintly lemon- minutely spotted rose-purple on the lip
shrubs and subshrubs with strap- to scented); A.ellisii (Madagascar; large and tipped magenta to purple on the
wedge-shaped, succulent leaves in plant with distinct stems to 1m (31/4ft) tepals and spur. Provide a minimum
wheel-like rosettes and small, yellow long; flowers pure white, nocturnally temperature of 10°C/50°F. Plant in a
flowers packed in cymose, terminal fragrant in two ranks along a horizon- coarse, bark-based mix in orchid pots
inflorescences. Provide full sunlight and tal raceme some 40cm (16in) long, or baskets; suspend in a brightly lit,
a gritty, loam-based medium that dries each flower with a spur 15cm (6in) well ventilated position with high
out between waterings. If quite dry, long pointing straight downwards); humidity. Mist daily from late spring
these plants may survive short, light A.fastuosa (Madagascar; dwarf, very to autumn and water twice weekly
frosts and will certainly tolerate a short-stemmed and broad-leaved, by plunging. Reduce water in winter.
minimum of 5°C/41°F. Propagate with 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in)-long racemes of Propagate by detaching rooted offsets
by stem tip or leaf cuttings. sparkling white 5cm (2in)-wide flowers); or by cutting long and old stems into
A.arboreum (stoutly branched, tree- A.kotschyana (Tropical Africa; medium- rooted sections when repotting.
like perennial to 2m (61/2ft) tall, each sized, short-stemmed plant with arch-
branch terminating in a loose rosette ing 40cm (16in)-long sprays of 5cm aerobic used of conditions in which
of leaves to 15cm (6in) long, obovate (2in)-wide, white flowers subtly tinted oxygen is available; or of organisms,
to oblanceolate, glossy, ciliate and mid- salmon pink with spiralling spurs to especially bacteria, requiring oxygen
green, dark purple in ‘Atropurpureum’; 20cm (8in) long) A.luteoalba (Ethiopia to for activity or life. Commonly met with 29
purple-black fading at the base to jade Angola; dwarf, with a few, strap-shaped in descriptions of managing a compost
aerobic
A heap where regular turning encourages calyx green); A. x splendidus (A.parasiticus broad-crowned tree to 30m (100ft) tall;
aerobic conditions and yields a x A.speciosus; differs from A.speciosus in leaflets glossy dark green turning scar-
superior product more rapidly its flowers marked with dark maroon). let in autumn, obovate; flowers yellow);
than by anaerobic means; cf. anaerobic. A.glabra (OHIO BUCKEYE; C and E US;
See compost heap. Aesculus (Classical Latin name for broad-crowned tree or large shrub to
an oak with edible acorns, applied to 30m (100ft) tall; leaflets dark green and
aeroplane house a type of green- this genus by Linnaeus). Hippocas- more or less smooth obovate to elliptic;
house mainly used for commercial tanaceae. N America; Europe; Asia. flowers yellow-green with orange
cropping, superseded by modern BUCKEYE; HORSE CHESTNUT. 15 anthers); A.hippocastanum (HORSE CHEST-
design. Of wooden construction, often species, hardy deciduous trees and NUT; Balkans; broad-crowned tree to
on a low brick wall, 4.3–4.6m (14–15ft) shrubs with large, palmately compound 30m (100ft) tall; leaflets mid- to dark
wide, with gutters 1.8–2m (6–61/2ft) leaves and showy flowers in slender or green, coarse, with impressed veins,
above ground level and a ridge height broad, terminal panicles and obovate; flowers in large, pyramidal
of approximately 3.9m (123/4ft). racemes in late spring spiny green panicles, white blotched rose or yellow,
and summer. The casing splits speckled red and fringed, spring;
Aeschynanthus (from Greek seeds are large and ‘Baumannii’: a vigorous selection with
aischyne, shame, and anthos, flower, woody with a paler double, sterile flowers); A.indica
referring to the red flowers). Gesneri- hilum and enclosed in (INDIAN HORSE CHESTNUT;
aceae. Indomalaysia. 100 species, a more or less spherical Himalaya; broad-crowned
tender, evergreen herbs and subshrubs, case with a thick, spiny, tree to 30m (100ft) tall;
usually trailing or clambering with bumpy or smooth skin. leaflets large, emerging
thinly leathery leaves and showy tubu- Plant in full sun or light bronze-pink, hardening
lar flowers, the upper lip 2-lobed, and shade in a fertile, well- smooth, dark green with
seed
the lower lip 3-lobed. Fine plants for drained soil. Propagate by (“conker”) paler undersides, broadly
baskets and hanging pots in the home, seed sown in autumn, or oblanceolate; flowers
greenhouses and conservatories; mini- by grafting in late winter; similar to A.hippocastanum
mum temperature 18°C/64°F. Provide also by budding in late but fewer on a longer,
bright indirect light and medium to summer. Physiological narrower panicle; includes
high humidity. Plant in a free-draining, scorching of the foliage ‘Sydney Pearce’ a vigorous
fertile mix high in leafmould and com- sometimes occurs in hot, Aesculus selection with larger leaves,
posted bark. Keep moist throughout dry summers – this can be hippocastanum their petioles persistently red-
the year except during cool, dull alleviated by pruning to reduce tinted, and showy, pink-tinted
weather when the plants should be total leaf area, and by irrigation. Some flowers produced in great abundance);
kept rather dry. Root semi-ripe cuttings US species lose their leaves early in the A. x neglecta (A.flava x A.sylvatica; SUNRISE
in spring and summer in a closed case season (i.e. mid- to late summer). HORSE CHESTNUT; SE US; spreading
with bottom heat. A.californica (CALIFORNIA BUCKEYE; tree to 20m (70ft) tall; leaflets emerging
A.marmoratus (syn. A.zebrinus; shrubby California; small tree or spreading pink, hardening pale green, obovate;
trailer with stems to 1m (31/4ft), leaves shrub to 12m (40ft) tall, often multi- flowers yellow suffused red, early
pale green with purple marbling, and stemmed, with grey bark; glossy dark summer; ‘Erythroblastos’ has coral red
stained purple beneath; flowers 3cm green leaflets, narrowly oblong, serrate; new growth, amber autumn colour,
(11/4in) long, olive green flecked flowers in erect plumes, white to cream and peach to pink flowers); A.parviflora
maroon); A.pulcher (ROYAL RED BUGLER; or pink-tinted with rose-mauve fila- (SE US; freely suckering, spreading
trailer with slender, cascading stems to ments, fragrant); A. x carnea (A.hippocas- shrub or low-crowned and multi-
1m (31/4ft) long; flowers deep scarlet tanum x A.pavia; RED HORSE CHESTNUT; stemmed tree to 5m (15ft) tall; leaflets
with a yellow throat, 6cm (21/2in) long, broad-crowned tree to 25m (80ft) tall; large, emerging bronze, hardening dark
calyx smooth, yellow-green flushed red leaflets dark green and more or less green, smooth obovate; flowers in long,
above); A.radicans (LIPSTICK PLANT; smooth, toothed, oblong to obovate, narrowly conical panicles, white with
trailer with cascading stems to 1m often rather puckered and misshapen; showy, pink-tinted stamens); A.pavia
(31/4ft) long, flowers deep scarlet, flowers in loosely pyramidal panicles, (RED BUCKEYE; N America; broad-
blotched yellow in throat, 7cm (23/4in) rose to coral red or scarlet blotched crowned tree or large shrub to 5m
long emerging from green to maroon orange-yellow; includes ‘Briottii’, with (15ft) tall; leaflets dark green and glossy,
calyx cups; A.lobbianus differs in its pale blood red flowers in large pani- obovate, toothed; flowers carmine to
strongly purple-tinted stems, grey- cles); A.chinensis (CHINESE HORSE CHEST- red marked yellow, dark red in
green leaves and deep maroon calyx NUT; China; slow-growing, spreading ‘Atrosanguinea’; A.turbinata (JAPANESE
cups; the flowers are streaked maroon tree to 30m (100ft) tall; leaflets large, HORSE CHESTNUT; Japan; broad-
within); A.speciosus (syn. A.splendens; glossy dark green, toothed, oblong to crowned tree to 30m (100ft) tall;
robust shrubby scrambler to 1.5m (5ft) obovate; flowers in erect spires, white); leaflets large, dark green with paler
30 tall; flowers to 7cm (23/4in), fiery A.flava (syn. A.octandra; YELLOW BUCK- undersides obovate, toothed; flowers
orange-red above, orange-yellow below, EYE, SWEET BUCKEYE; North America; creamy white spotted red).
Agave
aestivation the arrangement of

floral parts within the bud before
Bell- to trumpet-shaped, the flowers
consist of six tepals that meet in a tube
branches and waxy, tubular to
urn-shaped flowers, often beautifully
A
flowering. below and are outspread at their tips. marked and hanging from the axils of
They are slender-stalked and carried leathery leaves. Grow in lightly shaded
Aethionema (from the Greek, aitho, in summer in scapose, rounded umbels. and buoyant, humid conditions, with a
I scorch, and nema, thread or filament). Handsome free-flowering perennials minimum temperature of 5°C/41°F.
Cruciferae. Europe, Mediterranean, suitable for herbaceous borders and Plant in small containers in an acid
W Asia. STONE CRESS. 40 species, containers, they are hardy in zones mix rich in coarse bark and leafmould.
short-lived, semi-evergreen or ever- 6 and over. Grow in full or dappled Water and syringe plentifully through-
green perennial shrublets usually with sun; keep moist in spring and summer, out the growing season, rather less as
small and narrow, slightly fleshy leaves drier in winter, when the crowns bene- the days shorten and the flowers
and dense, terminal racemes of 4- fit from a dry mulch. Propagate by develop and open.
petalled flowers produced in spring and division in spring, but disturb as A.macrantha (NE India; gaunt, arch-
summer. Most are suited to the rock seldom as possible. ing shrub to 2m (61/2ft); leaves to 12cm
garden, although A.grandiflorum (the A.africanus (AFRICAN LILY; BLUE (43/4in), laurel-like; flowers 5cm (2in),
largest of the genus) will grace the fore- AFRICAN LILY; LILY OF THE NILE; to pale candy pink, with dark red chevron
ground of herbaceous borders. Plant 60cm (24in), flowers tubular, to 5cm markings); A.rugosa (syn. Pentapterygium
on a light, free-draining and somewhat (2in) long, deep violet blue; includes the rugosum; Khasi Hills; to 1m (31/4ft) with
alkaline soil in full sun. Hardy to small, white ‘Albus Nanus’, and the rugose leaves to 10cm (4in) long; flow-
–15°C/5°F. Take softwood cuttings in dark blue ‘Sapphire’); A.campanulatus ers white with purple marbling or red
spring, or sow seed in autumn (with (to 100cm (39in), flowers campanulate, banding); A.serpens (Nepal, Bhutan and
many, self-seeding is common). to 3.5cm (11/2in) long, blue to white; North Assam; to 1m (31/4ft); leaves
A.armenum (Armenia; tufted shrublet includes the white var. albidus (Albus), small, crowded; flowers 2cm (3/4in) long,
20cm (8in); leaves glaucous; flowers the lavender-blue, large ‘Isis’, ‘Profu- bright scarlet or fiery red, ivory in
small, pale pink; ‘Warley Rose’: very sion’, free-flowering with pale blue ‘Nepal Cream’, with dark crimson or
compact, leaves blue-grey, flowers rose flowers with darker stripes, and blood red chevrons; this species has
pink; ‘Warley Ruber’: flowers deep rosy ‘Variegatus’ with cream-striped leaves); been crossed with A. rugosa to produce
red); A.grandiflorum (syn. A.pulchellum; A.inapertus (to 180cm (71in), flowers A. ‘Ludgvan Cross’, intermediate
Iran, Iraq; PERSIAN STONE CRESS; loose tubular, to 5cm (2in) long, bright blue between the parents in habit and
subshrub to 45cm (18in); leaves glau- to violet; includes the pale cream leaf form, with white-marked,
cous; flowers pale rose); A.iberideum ‘Albus’); A.praecox (to 100cm (39in) tall, carmine flowers).
(E Mediterranean to the Caucasus; flowers tubular to funnel-shaped, to
compact subshrub to 15cm (6in); leaves 7cm (23/4in) long, bright to pale blue or Agastache (from Greek, aga, very
grey-green; flowers fragrant, white); white; subsp. orientalis: syn. A.orientalis, much, and stachys, spike, referring
A.schistosum (Turkey; erect to 10cm A.umbellatus, smaller and clump-form- to the abundance of flower spikes).
(4in); stems densely branched; leaves ing with stout scapes and pale blue to Labiatae. N America; E Asia. GIANT
leaden grey; flowers fragrant, indigo flowers to 5cm (2in) long; HYSSOP; MEXICAN HYSSOP. 20 species,
rose-pink). includes the white-flowered ‘Albus’, aromatic perennial herbs with clumped
dwarf ‘Nanus’, and ‘Variegatus’ with stems, toothed leaves and tubular,
aetiology see etiology. white-striped leaves). Cultivars ‘Alice 2-lipped flowers whorled in spikes in
Gloucester’ (flowers white); ‘Blue summer. Hardy in zone 8. Plant in full
afoliate leafless. Moon’ (flowers pale blue), the Head- sun in a warm, sheltered situation on
bourne Hybrids (to 1m (31/4ft) tall, free- a free-draining soil. Otherwise grow
after-ripening a period of air-dry flowering and hardy with flowers in in the cool greenhouse or conservatory.
conditioning essential for the shades of blue), ‘Lilliput’ (to 45cm Increase by cuttings in late summer.
germination of some seeds. (18in), small and fine with dark blue A.barberi (Arizona to Mexico; to
flowers), ‘Loch Hope’ (to 120cm (48in) 60cm (24in); leaves zestily aromatic,
agamospermy the development of tall, flowers large, dark blue, crowded grey-green, toothed, to 5cm (2in);
seed without fertilization. A plant in broad umbels), ‘Peter Pan’ (to 30cm flowers rose to purple, but usually
producing seed in this way is called (12in), dwarf and free-flowering with glowing coppery orange with an
an apomict (qv.). mid-blue flowers), and ‘Rancho White’ undertone of pink); A.mexicana (syn.
(30–50cm (12–20in) tall, flowers white). Brittonastrum mexicanum, Cedronella
Agapanthus (from Greek, agape, mexicana; Mexico; to 60cm (24in), leaves
love, and anthos, flower). Liliaceae Agapetes (from Greek, agapetos, lovely toothed, ovate to lanceolate to 6cm
(Alliaceae). South Africa. AFRICAN LILY; or lovable, referring to the flowers). (21/2in); flowers rose to crimson).
BLUE AFRICAN LILY; LILY OF THE NILE. Ericaceae. East Asia, Pacific, Northern
10 species, evergreen or deciduous, Australia. 95 species, evergreen, Agave (from Greek, agauos, admirable,
perennial herbs with short, thick stems, semi-scandent shrubs, many of them referring to the handsome appearance 31
fleshy roots and strap-shaped leaves. epiphytes with slender, arching of the plants in flower). Agavaceae.
Agave
A Americas (those below from SW US to colour for a long time). Compositae. A.commutatum (to 1m (31/4ft); leaves
Mexico). CENTURY PLANT. Some 300 Tropical America. 43 species, annual 13–30cm (5–12in) long, emerald green
species, evergreen perennial herbs with and perennial herbs with button-like banded or spotted yellow-white;
rosettes of succulent leaves and erect flowerheads. A.houstonianum is widely includes ‘Malay Beauty’ with leaves to
spikes or candelabra-like panicles of grown as a half-hardy annual suitable 30cm (12in) long, dark green spattered
tubular, cream to yellow-green flowers. for bedding and containers. It is a grey-green and zoned white, ‘Treubii’
Robust succulents grown for their bushy annual, standing 8–60cm with narrow leaves mottled grey-green
handsome foliage and stately habit. (3–24in) tall with rounded, hairy leaves or silver, and the heavily white-varie-
The smaller species usually reach and a broad cap of tightly packed, gated ‘White Rajah’); A.nitidum (to 1m
flowering size within a decade; larger powder-puff-like flowerheads in various (31/4ft); leaves to 45cm (18in), unmarked
species may require longer. Leaf shades of blue, lilac and lavender. or barred and blotched cream; the
rosettes tend to die after flowering. All Cultivars include the taller ‘Blue cultivar ‘Curtisii’ has leaves marked
require full sun and a fast-draining, Horizon’ and ‘Blue Bouquet’, the low, silver along the main veins; hybridized
gritty soil. Most need a minimum hummock-forming ‘Blue Blazer’, and with A.pictum ‘Tricolor’ to produce
temperature of 7°C/45°F, although ‘Blue Danube’, the pink ‘Bengali’ and ‘Silver King’ with large leaves heavily
A.americana will tolerate lower tempera- ‘Pinkie’, and ‘White Cushion’. Sow streaked silver-white, and ‘Silver
tures and even light and short-lived seed under glass in late winter; plant Queen’ with narrower leaves marbled
frosts if dry. Propagate by basal offsets out in late spring, or sow seed in situ in silvery white); A.pictum (30–50cm
or by plantlets, which sometimes form late spring. Grow in a fertile, moist but (12–20in) tall, with narrowly elliptic
on spent inflorescences. free-draining soil in sun. Pinch out leaves to 16cm (6in) long, lustrous jade
A.americana (CENTURY PLANT; giant faded flowerheads regularly. green blotched silver; includes
rosette of erect to spreading leaves ‘Tricolor’ with deep green leaves
each to 2m (61/2ft) long, rigid, lanceo- agglomerate crowded together spattered silver and yellow-green).
late, grey-green with hooked teeth and in a head, as in the flowers of
terminating in a sharp, dark spine; Scabiosa species. AGM The Award of Garden Merit;
inflorescence candelabra-like, yellow- conferred by The Royal Horticultural
green and 4–10m (12–30ft) tall; aggregate (1) sand, grit or gravel Society on any cultivated plant judged
cultivars with white- and yellow-striped used as an ingredient of rooting or to be of outstanding all round excel-
leaves are available); A.attenuata (clump growing media, or as the basal rooting lence for garden decoration or use in
of 1m (31/4ft)-long, ovate to oblong layer in ring culture of tomatoes; (2) the open or under protection. The
leaves, grey-green with smooth mar- sand, gravel, or ballast used with AGM was reconstituted in 1992 to
gins; after some years, a short, stout cement to make concrete; (3) used of replace a similar award dating from
trunk develops; flowers yellow-green, in soil particles, called crumbs or peds. 1921, which until the change was the
arching racemes to 3m (10ft)); A.filifera highest accolade in a three-tier system
(compact with rosettes to 60cm (24in) aggregate flowers flowers gathered including the respectively lower
wide; leaves narrow, rigid, dark green, together, usually in a tight rounded ranked, and now defunct, awards
marked with chalky white lines and bunch or head as in the family FCC (First Class Certificate) and HC
edged with white fibres; ‘Compacta’: Dipsacaceae without being (Highly Commended). The AGM is
leaves crowded, to 10cm (4in)); A.parryi capitulate (as in Compositae). conferred following recommendation
(low, compact and rounded rosette of by experienced specialists, mostly after
broadly obovate leaves to 40cm (16in) aggregate fruits a collection of field trials. Criteria include: relatively
long, glaucous blue-grey, with short, separate carpels produced by a single easy cultivation; absence of susceptibil-
dark teeth and tipped with a brown flower and borne on a common recep- ity to pests, diseases or disorders;
spine); A.victoriae-reginae (ROYAL AGAVE; tacle, as in the fleshy ‘fruit’ of Rubus. stability of characteristics; and retail
rosettes slow-growing to 60cm (24in) availability. Each Award is accompa-
across, dense and domed; leaves Aglaonema (from Greek, aglaos, nied by a hardiness rating relative to
tongue-shaped, dark green with bright, and nema, thread, referring to cultivation in the British Isles in the
smooth white margins and chalky the bright stamens). Araceae. Tropical scale H1–H4, with H4 the hardiest.
superficial lines). Asia. 21 species, tender perennial See hardiness. AGM plants are identified
herbs, evergreen, with erect to creeping on labels, in lists and in publications by
ageotropic applied to plant parts stems, variegated, oblong to lanceolate the letters AGM and/or a ‘kitemark’
that are negatively geotropic, i.e. leaves and inconspicuous flowers consisting of a two-handled cup trophy.
growing upwards against the influence arranged in a club-shaped spadix and The RHS maintains and makes
of gravity as in the knee roots of the enclosed in a green or white, cowl-like available up to-date lists of AGM
swamp cypress (Taxodium distichum). spathe. Resilient and popular house plants. Awards are periodically
Also known as apogeotropic. plants. Grow in filtered sun or light reviewed and may be rescinded.
shade, with a minimum temperature
32 Ageratum (from Greek, a-, without, of 10°C/50°F. Propagate by stem Agonis (from Greek, agonos, without
and geras, age, the florets retain their cuttings, offsets or division. angles, referring to the softly drooping
Akebia
and flowing branches of some species).

Myrtaceae. Western Australia. 11
Islands, Morocco, Portugal. 15 species,
annual or short-lived perennial herbs
A.genevensis (BLUE BUGLE, UPRIGHT
BUGLE; to 40cm (16in) tall, usually far
A
species, evergreen shrubs and small or subshrubs with thinly fleshy leaves shorter, not stoloniferous, with leaves to
trees with fibrous bark, entire leaves and small, star-shaped yellow flowers in 12cm (43/4in) long; flowers bright blue,
and small, clustered flowers with five, panicles. Plant Aichryson in a sharply to 1.5cm (5/8in) long, amid violet to
rounded petals. Graceful trees for draining, sandy medium, in full sun, blue-tinted leafy bracts; ‘Alba’: flowers
basically frostfree gardens or large, cool with a minimum temperature of white; ‘Rosea’: flowers rosy pink; ‘Tot-
greenhouses and conservatories. Even 7°C/45°F. Increase by stem cuttings. tenham’: flowers lilac-pink; ‘Variegata’:
if cut down by mild frosts, they will A. x domesticum (A.tortuosum x A.punctatum; leaves mottled creamy white);
usually resprout. They tolerate all YOUTH-AND-OLD-AGE. Canary Islands; A.pyramidalis (PYRAMID BUGLE; creeping,
but wet and heavy soils and thrive in subshrub to 30cm (12in), leaves stoloniferous dark green to 10cm (4in)
brilliantly sunny, rather dry conditions. obovate to spathulate, to 1cm (1/2in) long, flowers blue amid leafy, purple-
Propagate as for Eucalyptus. long; grey-green; ‘Variegatum’: leaves tinted bracts in a pyramidal spike to
A.flexuosa (WILLOW MYRTLE, WILLOW white-edged and solid creamy white 15cm (6in) tall; ‘Metallica Crispa’:
PEPPERMINT; to 10m (30ft); boughs on the same plant). leaves iridescent, bronze-maroon with
snaking and arching, branchlets crinkled margins); A.reptans (stolonifer-
pendulous; leaves to 15cm (6in) long, Ailanthus (Latinized form of the ous and carpeting leaves to 8cm (3in)
peppermint-scented, linear silky at native name ailanto, meaning ‘reaching long; flowers azure amid purple-blue-
first; flowers white, 1cm (1/2in)-wide); for the sky’, hence the popular name tinted bracts in spikes to 30cm (12in)
A.juniperina (JUNIPER MYRTLE; more ‘tree of heaven’). Simaroubaceae. E tall; ‘Atropurpurea’; leaves deep
erect and shrubby than A.flexuosa with Asia to Australia. 5 species, deciduous bronze-purple-tinted; ‘Braunherz’: lus-
very slender, sharply pointed leaves). shrubs and trees with pinnate leaves trous dark, purple-black leaves, flowers
and small flowers in terminal panicles deep blue; ‘Burgundy Glow’: leaves sil-
Agrostemma (from Greek, agros, and followed in late summer by very variegated green cream, rose and
field, and stemma, garland). Caryophyl- bunches of red-tinted, oblong samaras. deep red; ‘Catlin’s Giant’: large, luxuri-
laceae. Mediterranean (naturalized A durable, very fast-growing and some- ant purple-brown leaves, flowers blue
Europe, N America). CORNCOCKLE. times invasive tree. Plant on all but the on tall spikes; ‘Jungle Beauty’: leaves
4 species, slender annual herbs, erect driest or most saturated soils in zones 5 dark green to purple-tinted, wavy-mar-
and hairy with narrow leaves and and over; provide some protection from gined; flowers indigo in spikes to 35cm
broadly funnel-shaped, 5-petalled harsh winds. Increase by rooted suckers (14in); ‘Multicolor’: leaves dark green
flowers in summer. Fully hardy. Plant and by seed sown in spring. Selfsown overlaid with red-bronze and splashed
in a sunny position on free-draining, seedlings are common and may be a pink and cream; ‘Rosea’; flowers pink).
rather poor soils. Deadhead regularly. problem. A.altissima (TREE OF HEAVEN;
Sow seed in situ in spring or late China; to 30m (100ft); canopy broad, Akebia (Latinized form of akebi,
summer, or allow a few plants to set much-branched; leaves to 1m (31/4ft) the Japanese name for these plants).
seed and naturalize themselves. long with red-tinted stalks and 15–30 Lardizabalaceae. China, Korea, Japan.
A.githago (to 80cm (32in); flowers white, mid green, lanceolate to ovate leaflets). 2 species, vigorous, woody perennial
rose or magenta; ‘Milas’: plum pink; climbers with slender, twining stems,
‘Milas Rosea’: pale lilac-pink). air-filled porosity (AFP) the digitately compound leaves and unisex-
percentage volume of potting compost ual flowers in short, drooping racemes.
Agrostis (from Greek agrostis, a kind which is occupied by air when the Plant in a moisture-retentive and well-
of grass). Poaceae. Widespread in medium has been saturated and drained soil. Grow in full sun or partial
N Hemisphere. Some 120 species allowed to drain; a measure shade. Although hardy to –20°C/–4°F,
of hardy annual or perennial grasses of aeration. they are sometimes cut down by hard
to 1.5m (5ft), stoloniferous or tufted. frosts and late spring freezes will kill
Grow in well-drained soil in full sun. Ajuga (from Greek a-, not, and zygon, new growth. The flowers, also
Propagate by seed or division. A.tenuis, yoke: meaning obscure but perhaps to produced in spring, are usually
BROWNTOP BENT, A castellana, HIGH- do with the calyx, which is not bilabi- unaffected. Increase by stratified
LAND BENT, and A.stolonifera are com- ate). Labiatae. Europe; Asia. BUGLE. 40 seed or by stem cuttings under mist.
monly used in turf grass mixtures. See species, annual or perennial herbs with A.quinata (semi-evergreen or decidu-
lawns. A.canina (VELVET BENT GRASS), low rosettes of obovate leaves, some- ous; leaves with five, oblong leaflets;
Europe, is cultivated as a tufted, erect, times spreading by stolons, and giving flowers strongly vanilla-scented, deep
slender-stemmed border or wildflower rise in spring and summer to erect plum purple to dark chocolate or
meadow perennial. A.c. ‘Silver Needles’ stems of tubular, 2-lipped flowers in maroon); A.trifoliata (syn. A.lobata; differs
is a noted cultivar having fine leaf whorls among leafy bracts. Excellent from the last species in being largely
blades with silver-margins. low groundcover plants, fully hardy deciduous and possessing three leaflets
and thriving in sun, shade and a wide per leaf their margins sometimes
Aichryson (Classical Greek name for range of soils. Propagate by division or shallowly lobed rather than entire; 33
a related plant). Crassulaceae. Atlantic detaching rooted stolons. flowers smaller, deep vinous purple,
Akebia
A unscented); A. x pentaphylla (leaflets

4–5 (rarely 6 or 7) per leaf; flowers
from white to darkest maroon-black
through yellow, buff, pale rose, deep
surfaces of many plants are frequently
colonized by superficial algae which
faintly scented). pink, and deep red. Full sun is best, are usually harmless except that they
together with shelter from strong can reduce the amount of light avail-
alate winged; usually used of stems, winds. Sow seed in situ on well-drained able to the plant for photosynthesis.
petioles and fruits where the main soil in late summer or spring. Cephaleuros, however, the usual cause of
body is furnished with marginal algal spot, is parasitic and grows within
membranous bands. Alchemilla (from the Arabic name the tissues of its host plant, as well as
for this plant, alkemelych). Rosaceae. on the surface in the form of raised
Albizia (for Filippo degli Albizzi, Cosmopolitan (chiefly Europe and orange or red hairy patches on foliage
naturalist who returned to Florence in Asia). LADY’S MANTLE. 300 species, and shoots. It is sometimes confusingly
1749 from an expedition to Constan- hardy evergreen or semi-deciduous referred to as ‘red rust’. The diseases
tinople with many new seeds). perennial herbs with clumps of slen- caused by Cephaleuros species can be
Leguminosae. Tropics and subtropics. der-stalked, rounded leaves variously unsightly on ornamentals such as
150 species, deciduous to semi-ever- toothed, lobed or palmately cut. Anthurium, Camellia and Magnolia and
green trees, shrubs and lianes with Produced in spring and summer, the damaging to some crop plants includ-
feathery bipinnate leaves and mimosa- flowers are very small, starry, greening avocado, citrus, guava and tea.
like flowerheads consisting of bundles yellow and carried in much-branched Generally, they are only a problem
of showy stamens in powder-puff-like panicles. A.mollis tolerates sun or shade if other factors have weakened plants
balls or cylindrical spikes. A.julibrissin on all but the wettest or driest soils. It and predisposed them to infection. In
will grow outdoors in zones 6 and over can be grown as a type of ‘lawn’, the serious cases control can be achieved
provided the summers are long, hot foliage sheared regularly. A.alpina grows by treatment with copper-containing
and humid enough to ripen the new well in full sun on rock gardens and preparations, subject to local pesticide
growth, or to spur a frosted stump into dry banks. Propagate by seed or by approvals. Removal of infected leaves
rapid resprouting. A.lophantha may division in spring or autumn. and twigs is advisable to reduce the
survive outdoors against sheltered walls A.alpina (ALPINE LADY’S MANTLE; low overall level of inoculum.
in zone 7, but is otherwise for summer mounds of small leaves with five to
bedding or the cool conservatory. Both seven, toothed, lanceolate-obovate algicide a chemical used to control
flower from mid-spring to late summer leaflets, dark green and smooth above, algal diseases and weeds.
and prefer full sun and a fertile, moist silvery-hairy beneath; in gardens, the
soil. Propagate by seed pre-soaked in name A.alpina is often misapplied to alginates seaweed derivatives; used
tepid water for about twelve hours, A.conjuncta, a larger plant with flower- as soil conditioners to enhance crumb
or by semi-ripe cuttings; also by root ing stems to 30cm (12in) tall and leaves stability, and water and nutrient
cuttings in spring. composed of 7–9, lanceolate to elliptic, retention.
A.julibrissin (SILK TREE; Asia; domed toothed leaflets, these are smooth and
or flat-crowned tree to 6m (20ft); flow- mid-green above and silky-hairy Alisma (Classical Greek name for this
erheads ivory to rosy pink, spherical, beneath); A.mollis (LADY’S MANTLE; plant). Alismataceae. North temperate
to 4cm (11/2in) wide); A.lophantha (syn. clump-forming perennial to 40 x 60cm regions; Australia. 9 species, aquatic,
Paraserianthes lophantha; Australia; tree to (16 x 24in) with circular, toothed and perennial herbs making a clump of
4m (12ft); flower spikes to 6cm (21/2in), shallowly lobed leaves to 15cm (6in) long-stalked leaves that remain partly
cylindrical, lime green to gold). across; these are lime to sea-green and submerged or stand clear of the water.
covered in soft, water-repellent down; In summer, many small, 3-petalled
Alcea (from Greek, alkaia, a kind of the plant known as A.mollis ‘Mr flowers are held above the plant on the
mallow). Malvaceae. Europe; Asia. Poland’s Variety’, with more deeply slender, whorled branches of pyramidal
HOLLYHOCK. 60 species, hardy hairy lobed leaves that are hairless above, panicles. WATER PLANTAIN, A.planlago-
biennial or short-lived perennial herbs is properly A.venosa). aquatica, is found in still or sluggish
with broad, rounded to palmately water and swamps throughout the
lobed leaves and tall spikes of algae primitive unicellular or multi- Northern Hemisphere and Africa. The
dish-shaped flowers with five, obovate cellular photosynthetic plants living in leaves are elliptic to ovate or lanceolate,
to cuneate petals. A.rosea (syn. Althaea water or moist environments; often a ribbed, mid-green and up to 30cm
rosea) is a summer-flowering biennial, nuisance in ponds or irrigation systems (12in) long. The panicles stand
sometimes grown as an annual. An old or on damp surfaces. 20–60cm (8–24in) high and swarm
favourite of cottage gardens, the with white flowers on remotely whorled
hollyhock has been much-developed, algal spot a usually red-coloured branches. Hardy in zone 4, used in
resulting in cultivars that range in spotting of foliage encountered in ponds, lakes, ditches and streamsides
height from 1–3m (31/4–10ft), in flower warm, wet regions, caused by algae, planted in a loamy mix in submerged
form from the single to semi-doubles, especially Cephaleuros species. In wet baskets, or directly into the banks and
34 full doubles and peony forms, some tropical climates or under protected bed. Propagate by division, seed, or
with ruffled or lacy petals. Colours run cultivation with overhead watering, the plantlets which form on the panicles.
Allium
alkaline in gardening, mainly

applicable to soil and water having
allelopathy the usually harmful
direct or indirect chemical effects of
and flower border, some of them
excellent for cutting and drying, and
A
a pH scale value greater than 7.0; cf. one plant on another. An example is many smaller species ideal for rock
acid. See soils; pH. the growth-inhibiting effect on other gardens, dry gardens, raised beds,
plants of toxic root exudate and leaf pavement terraces and pot culture.
alkaloids nitrogenous compounds drip from the black walnut (Juglans Species from the Western United States
produced by plants, often as an end- nigra). Chemical diffusions from seeds (e.g. A. campanulatum, A. unifolium) tend
product of nitrogen metabolism. Many or storage organs have been shown to to be brightly coloured in shades of
have medicinal and/or toxic properties be effective against micro-organisms. magenta, pink and red. They are par-
for example morphine, cocaine, nico- However, allelopathic effect is difficult ticularly suitable for hot, dry positions
tine, quinine, colchicine, strychnine. to confirm under natural conditions, in well drained soils. The taller, Central
and is of limited practical significance Asian species (e.g. A.cristophii, A.gigan-
Allamanda (for F. Allamand in gardens. teum) usually produce large, spherical
(1735–1795), Swiss physician and inflorescences atop long, leafless scapes
botanist who collected in Surinam Allium (Latin, allium, the classical as the basal foliage withers. They are
and sent seed of this plant to name for garlic, from the Celtic, all, outstanding when planted among low-
Linnaeus). Apocynaceae. S America. meaning ‘hot’). Liliaceae (Alliaceae). growing shrubs such as Artemisia, Cistus,
12 species, evergreen, usually scandent Northern Hemisphere. ONION. Some Lavandula, Salvia and Santolina, which
shrubs with leathery, oblong to lanceo- 700 species, bulbous perennial and share their liking for arid, stony soils
late leaves and showy funnel-shaped biennial herbs with a characteristic in full sun. To the fore, plant the
flowers. Maintain a humid, buoyant ‘onion’ odour. Solitary or clustered TURKESTAN ALLIUM, A.karataviense,
atmosphere; water and feed freely bulbs produce leaves ranging in shape earlier-flowering with attractive, grey
when in growth; keep barely moist in from grassy to narrowly tubular, to leaves and globes of purple to buff
winter with a minimum temperature lanceolate, to elliptic or ovate. The flowers. Smaller West Asian species
of 13°C/55°F. Shade only from the flowers may be star-shaped or (e.g. A.carinatum subsp. pulchellum,
strongest summer sun. Tie in to sup- campanulate, consist of six tepals A. flavum) need a position at the front
port if necessary. Prune after flowering and are carried in scapose umbels of the border. The smaller clump-for-
– this varies, but most plants in usually in spring and summer. mers are suitable for well-drained
greenhouse cultivation flower from The ornamental species (see table rock gardens in full sun, among them
the late spring through to late winter. overleaf) are grown for their flowers A.mairei and A.oreophilum. Himalayan
Propagate by soft or semi-ripe stem and foliage, but Allium also numbers natives, such as A.beesianum, require
tip cuttings. A.blanchetii (syn. A.purpurea, several important culinary herbs and rather damper, richer soils. Where the
A.violacea; PURPLE ALLAMANDA; erect vegetables – A.cepa (ONION, SHALLOTS), ground is especially heavy and winters
or weakly climbing shrub with downy A.fistulosum (WELSH ONION, JAPANESE are wet and cold, some Californian
leaves and rich rosy-purple flowers to BUNCHING ONION, JAPANESE LEEK), species and dry-growing Asiatics, such
9 x 6cm (31/2 x 21/2in)); A.cathartica A.porrum (LEEK), A.sativum (GARLIC), as the spectacular A.schubertii, are best
(COMMON ALLAMANDA, GOLDEN A.schoenoprasum (CHIVES), A.scorodoprasum grown in pans of gritty soil in full sun
TRUMPET; vigorous climber to 16m (GIANT GARLIC, SPANISH GARLIC), in a well-ventilated cool greenhouse,
(52ft) with glossy leaves and golden A.tuberosum (CHINESE CHIVES, GARLIC alpine house or bulb frame, and kept
yellow flowers to 10 x 12cm (4 x 43/4in) CHIVES, ORIENTAL GARLIC). dry during the winter months; other-
with white markings in the throat; The hardy, perennial ornamentals wise, grow them in raised beds.
‘Grandiflora’: flowers very large and include tall species for the herbaceous Plant bulbs in autumn or early
freely produced; ‘Hendersonii’: flowers spring at approximately one and a
waxy, orange-yellow, tinged bronze half times their depth. Clear the
on tube with white spots in throat; foliage once it has withered. If
‘Nobilis’: very large and robust with decorative, dead flower heads may
outsize pure gold flowers); A.schottii be left until they break up. Propagate
(syn. A.neriifolia; BUSH ALLAMANDA; by offsets, removed when the plants
resembles a more or less self-support- are dormant, or by seed sown in
ing A.cathartica, 1.5m (5ft); flowers, to spring at about 13°C/55°F. Divide
2.5 x 5.5 cm (1 x 21/4in), golden yellow spring-flowering clump-formers in
strongly streaked or stained orange-red summer, summer-flowering clump-for-
to chestnut brown within). mers in spring. Pests and diseases
of Allium crops may also affect
allée a walk or ride cut through dense ornamentals.
woodland, or created by the close Allium cernuum Possible problems: onion flies, stem
planting of shrubs and trees; a feature The dried seedheads of many Allium species eel worm and onion thrips; bacterial
of formal French gardens since the persist through autumn and even into winter, soft rots, onion white rot, rust, smudge 35
16th century. providing long-term decorative interest. and smut.
Allium
A A LLIUM
Name Distribution Flowering time Height Leaves Flowers
A.acuminatum W N America spring 10–30cm 2–4, linear, shorter deep rose pink to purple-pink or white,
(4–12in) than scape 10–30 per 4–6cm (11⁄2–21⁄2in) diam. umbel
A.aflatunense C Asia summer 80–150cm 6–8, 2–10cm pale mauve to violet, small, in dense,
(32–60in) (3⁄4–4in) across, ± 10cm (4in) diam. spherical umbels
Comments: Includes ‘Purple Sensation’ with intense glaucous, far shorter
violet umbels on 1m (31⁄4ft) tall scapes. than scape
A.akaka Turkey, spring 5–15cm 1–3, to 20 x 6cm white to pale lilac pink with red-tinted
Caucasus, Iran (2–6in) (8 x 21⁄2in), oblong- centre, very crowded in spherical 3-
elliptic, grey- green, 10cm (11⁄4–4in diam.), ± stalkless umbels
low-lying
A.atropurpureum S Europe late spring– 4–100cm 3–7, linear, dark purple to near-black in crowded
summer (11⁄2–39in) 15–35cm (6–14in) heads, 3–7cm (11⁄4–23⁄4in) across
diam. umbel
A.beesianum W China late summer 15–20cm 2–4, linear, 15–20cm bright to deep blue, 6–12,
(6–8in) (6–8in), grey-green bell-shaped, nodding
Comments: Includes the white-flowered f. album.
A.caeruleum Siberia, summer 20–80cm 2–4, to 7cm (23⁄4in), cornflower blue, 30–50, small, packed
A.azureum Turkestan (8–32in) linear, 3-angled in a 3-4cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in) diam. umbel on
BLUE ALLIUM a slender scape
A.campanulatum W US summer 10–30cm 2–3, to 30cm pale pink to white, bell-shaped, 15–40
(4–12in) (12in), linear in a 2.5–7cm (1–23⁄4in) diam.,
hemispherical umbel
A.carinatum ssp. C & S Europe; summer 30–60cm 2–4, to 20cm (8in), purple, cup-shaped, to 30, nodding in a
pulchellum Russia; Turkey (12–24in) narrowly linear 2–5cm (3⁄4–2in) diam. umbel
A.pulchellum
Comments: The typical A.carinatum (KEELED GARLIC) differs in bearing bulbils in its umbels.
A.cernuum Canada to summer 30–70cm 4–6, to 20 x 0.7cm deep pink to magenta, more rarely white
LADY’S LEEK; Mexico (12–28in) (8 x 1⁄4in), flat or maroon, cup-shaped, nodding, 10–30
NODDING ONION; per lax, 3–5cm (11⁄4–2in) diam. umbel
WILD ONION
A.cristophii Iran, Turkey, summer 15–50cm 2–7, 15–40 x 1–4cm purple-violet, star-like, with metallic
A.albopilosum C Asia (6–20in) (6–16 x 1⁄2–11⁄2 in), sheen, long- and slender-stalked, very
STAR OF PERSIA glaucous, downy, many in a loose, spherical to
drooping hemispherical umbel to 20cm (8in) diam.
Comments: Inflorescences very attractive when dried. Includes ‘Gladiator’ (to 1.2m (4ft) with large, lilac-mauve flowers), ‘Globus’ (A.cristophii x
A.giganteum: to 35cm (14in), flowers blue in large heads), ‘Lucy Ball’ (to 1.2m (4ft), flowers dark lilac in compact head), ‘Rien Poortvliet’ (to 1.2m
(4ft), flowers lilac).
36 A.acuminatum A.caeruleum A.cernuum A.cristophii

Allium
A LLIUM
A
A.cyaneum China summer 10–45cm 1–3, 15cm (6in), violet-blue to purple veined darker blue,
(4–18in) thread-like, semi- bell-shaped, pendent, 5–18 in a small
cylindric dense umbel
A.cyathophorum China summer 20–40cm 3–6, 18–24 x maroon to dark mauve, bell-shaped,
var. farreri (8–16in) 0.1–0.5cm nodding, 6–30 in a loose umbel
A.farreri (7–10 x 1⁄16–1⁄4in)
A.flavum C Europe to summer 8–30cm to 20cm (8in), lemon-yellow, scented, bell-shaped, nod-
SMALL YELLOW W Asia (3–12in) narrowly cylindric, ding, slender-stalked, 9–60 in hemisphe-
ONION glaucous rical 1.5–3cm (5⁄8–11⁄4in) diam. umbel
Comments: Includes ‘Blue Leaf ’ (‘Glaucum’) with strongly glaucous, blue-

green leaves, and var. minus, a smaller plant with contrasting purple stamens.
A.giganteum C Asia summer 80–200cm 30–100 x 5–10cm lilac, mauve or white, star-shaped, very
GIANT ALLIUM (32–80in) (12–39 x 2–4in), many in a dense, 10–15cm (4–6in)
grey-green, basal diam. umbel
A.insubricum N Italy spring–summer 16–30cm 12–20 x 0.2–0.5cm purple-pink, bell-shaped, rather large
(6–12in) (43⁄4–8 x 1⁄16–1⁄4in), and nodding, 3–5 per umbel
Comments: The very similar A.narcissiflorum 3–4, flat, glaucous
differs in its fibrous bulb sheath.
A.karataviense C Asia late spring 10–25cm 2–3, 15–20cm white to pale purple-pink, star-shaped,
ALLIUM Turkestan (4–10in) (6–8in), broad, very numerous in a crowded spherical
oblong-elliptic to umbel to 20cm (8in) diam.; scape
elliptic, glaucous, purple-tinted
grey-blue tinted
purple, low-lying
A.macranthum W China, summer 20–30cm 15–40 x 0.5cm deep purple, large, bell-shaped, long-
Sikkim (8–12in) (6–16 x 1⁄4in), linear stalked, to 20, nodding in a loose umbel
A.mairei SW China late summer 10–40cm to 25cm x 1cm (10 x white to pink, often spotted red, 2–20,
1
to early autumn (4–16in) ⁄2in), thread-like bell-shaped, held erect in a narrow
umbel on a wiry stalk
A.moly S & SW summer 12–35cm 1–3, 20–30cm golden yellow, star-shaped, fairly
YELLOW ONION; Europe (43⁄4–14in) (8–12in), lanceolate, large, 10–40 in a 4–7cm (11⁄2–23⁄4in)
LILY LEEK glaucous diam. umbel
Comments: Includes ‘Jeannine’, with bright yellow flowers in large umbels, 2 scapes produced per bulb.
A.narcissiflorum N Italy, summer 15–35cm 3–5, 9–18 x pure, bright pink to rosy purple, fairly
A.pedemontanum Portugal (6–14in) 0.2–0.6cm large, bell-shaped, 5–8, nodding
(31⁄2–7 x 1⁄16–1⁄4in),
Comments: See A.insubricum. flat, grey green
A.flavum A.giganteum A.karataviense 37

Allium
A A LLIUM
A.neapolitanum Mediterranean, spring 20–50cm 2, 8–35cm (3–14in), sparkling white, cup- or star-shaped,
A.cowanii S Europe, Asia (8–20in) linear-lanceolate slender-stalked, small, to 40 per
DAFFODIL GARLIC; Minor, N Africa 5–11cm (2–41⁄2in) diam., open,
NAPLES GARLIC hemispherical umbel
Comments: Includes ‘Grandiflorum’ with large, loose umbels of larger flowers, each with a dark eye.
A.oreophilum Turkestan, spring–summer 5–20cm 2, narrow deep pink to rosy purple, broadly
A.ostrowskianum Caucasus, (2–8in) cup-shaped, proportionately large
C Asia (to 2cm (5⁄8in) across) 10 or more
in a loose, spherical umbel
Comments: Includes ‘Zwanenberg’ with deep carmine flowers.
A.schoenoprasum Europe; Asia; spring–summer 10–60cm strong onion- white, pink-mauve or purple, small
CHIVES N America; (4–24in) scented, 1–5, to bell-shaped, crowded in 1.5–5cm
widely 35cm (14in), (5⁄8–2in) diam. spherical umbels
naturalized cylindric, hollow
A.schubertii E Mediterranean early summer 30–60cm 20–45cm (8–18in), white tinted purple or wholly violet,
to C Asia (12–24in) broadly linear to small, narrowly star-shaped in
strap-shaped, spherical umbels to 5cm (2in) diam.,
Comments: Remarkable for its purple flower heads with very unequal, wavy, glaucous but some on far longer, purple-
spoke-like flower-stalks. tinted, radiating stalks
A.scorodoprasum E Europe; spring–summer 25–90cm to 30cm (12in), lilac to purple, small in

SAND LEEK; Caucasus; (10–36in) 2–5, linear hemispherical umbels, many
GIANT GARLIC; Turkey; N Iran replaced by purple bulbils
SPANISH GARLIC Comments: Culinary herb.
A.senescens Europe; N Asia late spring– 7–60cm 4–30cm (11⁄2–12in), lilac, small, cup-shaped in a 2–5cm
GERMAN GARLIC summer (23⁄4–24in) 4–9, flat, narrowly (3⁄4–2in) diam., hemispherical umbel
strap-shaped
Comments: Includes var. glaucum with glaucous grey-green leaves growing in a low, swirling configuration.
A.sikkimense Himalaya; China; summer 10–40cm 2–5, linear, flat, to deep blue or purple, bell-shaped, to
A.kansuense Tibet (4–16in) 30cm (12in) 15 in a small nodding umbel
A.sphaerocephalum Europe; N Africa; summer to 90cm 2–6, 7–35cm purple-pink to maroon, small,
DRUMSTICKS; W Asia (36in) (23⁄4–14in), linear, bell-shaped, packed in a 2–3cm
ROUND-HEADED GARLIC; cylindrical, hollow (3⁄4–11⁄4in) diam., spherical
ROUND-HEADED LEEK Comments: Flowers sometimes replaced by bulbils; umbel atop a wiry scape
white in sspp. arvense and trachypus.
A.unifolium W US early summer to 60cm solitary, grey-green, deep rosy pink, broadly star-shaped,
(24in) linear, flat 5–20 in a (5cm) 2in diam.,
hemispherical umbel
38 A.moly A.neapolitanum A.oreophilum A.schoenoprasum ‘Forescate’

Aloe
allogamy see cross-fertilization. bark dark and sooty in appearance and

the winter buds gummy. The leaves are
temperature 10°C/50°F). Propagate
by offsets, division of rhizomes or
A
allopolyploid a polyploid plant with ovate to orbicular and tough. The male stem cuttings.
sets of dissimilar chromosomes from flowers are small and carried in droop- A.cuprea (leaves to 30cm (12in),
parents of different species, and which ing catkins in winter and (more usually) oblong to ovate, base cordate, green
is fertile as a result of a doubling of the early spring. Female flowers are borne with a purple or coppery iridescent
parental chromosome numbers, for in shorter, broader catkins that become sheen between black-green zones
example swede (Brassica napus small, woody ‘cones’. Alders tolerate around the sunken veins above,
Napobrassica Group) (4 x) derived cold, wind and a wide range of soil red-violet beneath); A.macrorrhiza
from crossing turnip (Brassica rapa types. All are able to thrive in wet, even (GIANT TARO; leaves to 125cm (50in),
Rapifera Group) (2 x) and rape (Brassica waterlogged conditions, A.glutinosa ovate to cordate to sagittate, glossy
napus) (2 x); cf. autopolyploid. especially, but A.cordata will also grow green above with paler veins; widely
on rather dry, poor soils and is proving grown for its edible rhizomes and
allotment (US, community garden) an excellent street tree. Sow seed in shoots; ornamental cultivars include
a piece of land let out by a public autumn, or propagate by budding in ‘Variegata’ with leaves blotched cream
authority for cultivation by an early autumn and cuttings in winter. and dark green, and ‘Violacea’ with
individual or family. In the UK, A.cordata (ITALIAN ALDER; Italy, leaves tinged violet); A.plumbea (similar
usually a plot measuring 29 x 9.25m Corsica; to 30m (100ft), crown ovoid to to A.macrorrhiza but with smaller leaves
(95 x 30ft) contained within a group conic; shoots sticky, red-brown; leaves with wavy margins, dark green tinted
of units. Their provision is catered to 10cm (4in) long, broadly ovate to purple to purple-red or violet-black with
for under numerous Allotment Acts. rounded, base cordate, margins finely dark veins); A.sanderiana (KRIS PLANT;
toothed, leathery, deep, glossy green leaves to 40cm (16in), sagittate with
almond (Prunus dulcis) a deciduous and smooth above, paler beneath, often wavy margins, metallic violet-black
tree native of Asia Minor and parts persisting late into autumn; ‘Purpurea’: or very dark green with silver-white
of North Africa, closely allied to the new growth bronze-purple); A.glutinosa margins and white veins); A.veitchii
peach. The almond is grown for its (COMMON ALDER, EUROPEAN ALDER; (leaves to 90cm (36in), narrowly trian-
nuts or, in cool areas, the attractive Europe to C Asia, N Africa; to 20m gular to sagittate, dark green above,
pink blossom in spring. There are two (70ft), crown narrowly pyramidal; veined and edged grey, red-purple
distinct types: the sweet almond, whose shoots smooth, sticky; leaves to 10cm beneath; petiole with dark bands).
nuts are prized for eating raw or (4in) long, obovate to rounded, base
cooked, and the bitter almond, which tapered, margins wavy to toothed, dark Aloe (from the Greek name, allied
has a poisonous kernel and is used for green and smooth; includes ‘Aurea’: to Hebrew, allal, bitter). Liliaceae
flavouring and in medicines. In ideal new growth yellow ageing yellow- (Aloeaceae). Africa, Madagascar, Cape
situations some cultivars may reach green; ‘Imperialis’: leaves deeply cut); Verde Islands. Some 325 species, ever-
a height of 10m (30ft). Its chilling A.incana (GREY ALDER; Europe; to 30m green perennial herbs, shrubs or trees
requirement is 300–500 hours at below (100ft), crown conical; shoots grey- with succulent leaves. The flowers are
7°C/45°F; early flowering predisposes downy; leaves to 10cm (4in) long, ovate tubular and consist of six tepals; they
the blossom and fruitlets to frost to oval, base rounded to cuneate, are borne at various times of year in
damage. Almond is insect pollinated toothed, dull green above with corru- long-stalked, narrowly conical racemes
and although most cultivars are self- gated veins, paler beneath with grey or candelabra-like panicles. The larger
fertile, cropping is improved where a down; ‘Aurea’: shoots yellow becoming species are fine plants for dry land-
pollinator is grown nearby. Propagation orange-red in winter, catkins are scapes in frost-free gardens, or (where
is usually by budding onto seedling yellow-red; ‘Ramulis Coccineis’: winter frosts are common) cool greenhouses
almond or peach rootstock; cropping shoots and buds red, catkins orange). and conservatories. The climbing
commences within three or four years. A.ciliaris may be used on pergolas and
Almond is best trained and pruned as Alocasia (from Greek a-, without, arbours. Several smaller species, e.g.
a bush peach, removing a proportion and Colocasia, a genus from which this A.aristata and A.variegata, are popular,
of the older wood in spring in favour was split). Araceae. Southeast Asia. resilient house plants; A.bakeri might
of the production of fruit bearing ELEPHANT’S EAR PLANT. 70 species, equally join their ranks. All prefer
one-year-old shoots. large, tender perennial herbs with full sun, a minimum temperature of
Possible problems: birds; peach tuberous or stoutly rhizomatous roots 7°C/45°F, a dry, buoyant atmosphere
leaf curl. and long-stalked heart- to arrow- and a loamy soil high in grit and sand.
shaped leaves. The flowers are borne Water liberally from late spring to early
Alnus (Classical Latin name). in dull, Arum-like inflorescences. Grow autumn, allowing the soil to dry out
Betulaceae. Northern Hemisphere, in a fertile medium rich in humus; between waterings. At other times keep
south to Peru and Himalaya. ALDER. water and feed frequently in spring these plants more or less dry, watering
35 species, hardy deciduous or semi- and summer, providing high humidity only to prevent shrivelling of the
evergreen trees and large shrubs. The and protection from full sunlight. Keep leaves. Propagate by seed, stem cuttings 39
crown is typically ovoid to conical, the barely moist in winter (minimum or offsets. (See table overleaf.)
Aloe
A A LOE
Name Distribution Habit Leaves Flowers
A.arborescens S Africa; erect shrub or tree to 6m (20ft) in terminal rosettes, to to 4cm (11⁄2in) long, scarlet
CANDELABRA ALOE; Zimbabwe; tall with a stout trunk and a 60cm (24in) long, grey- tipped green-white on an
OCTOPUS PLANT; Mozambique; spreading canopy of green and finely tapering unbranched spike to 1m (31⁄4ft)
TORCH PLANT; Malawi candelabriform branches with spiny margins tall in late winter and summer
TREE ALOE
Comments: Large shrub for virtually frost-free gardens or conservatories. Withstands drought, salt spray and very
mild frosts. Includes ‘Spineless’ with grey-blue, spineless leaves, and ‘Variegata’ with leaves striped cream.
A.aristata S Africa stemless forming clusters of to 10 x 1.5cm (4 x 5⁄8in), to 4cm (11⁄2in) long, flame to
TORCH PLANT; dense rosettes. lanceolate, tapering to a bright red in a branched
LACE ALOE slender bristle, strongly inflorescence to 50cm (20in) tall
incurved, green (red-brown in in winter and early summer
Comments: Popular dwarf species suitable for shallow containers in the full sun on poor soils) with
home or glasshouse; used for edging and ground cover in dry, virtually scattered white spots in bands
frost-free regions. and soft, white spiny teeth
A.bainesii S Africa; tree to 18m (7in) tall with a 60–90cm (24–36in) long, to 4cm (11⁄2in) long, rose-tipped
Swaziland; thick, forked trunk and forking sword-shaped, green with green on a branched
Mozambique candelabriform branches scattered, brown-tipped, inflorescence to 60cm (24in)
ending in leaf rosettes white marginal teeth tall, in winter
Comments: Stately, slow-growing tree for hot, dry climates.
A.bakeri Madagascar plant to 25cm (10in) tall with 7–15cm (23⁄4–6in) long, linear- to 3cm (11⁄4in) long, apricot to
fairly slender, sprawling stems lanceolate and finely tapering scarlet grading through orange
in a freely suckering clump with a curving tip and spiny toward yellow-green mouth, on
margins, chocolate to green- an unbranched spike to 30cm
brown banded brick red or (12in) tall in winter
dull pink with scattered green-
Comments: A fine, miniature aloe ideal for pot culture in the home white spots, or (in inferior
where foliage and flowers provide interest throughout the year. Requires forms or if grown in shade),
warm temperatures and is said to favour light shade although leaf colour olive tinted red-brown with
is better in sun. Endangered in the wild, but its generously offsetting habit scattered green-white streaks
should guarantee its spread in cultivation. and spots
A.brevifolia S Africa stemless, forming low groups to 6 x 2cm (21⁄2 x 3⁄4in), to 3cm (11⁄4in) long, pale scarlet
(Cape Province) of compact rosettes triangular-lanceolate, with a green mouth on
glaucous, grey-green with unbranched spikes to 40cm
sparse, soft prickles beneath (16in) tall in summer
and toothed margins
A.ciliaris S Africa slender, scrambling, leafy to 15 x 1.5cm (6 x 5⁄8in), to 3cm (11⁄4in) long, scarlet to
CLIMBING ALOE (Cape Province) stems climbing to a height linear-lanceolate, fresh green yellow-green at mouth on
of 5m (15ft) with white teeth unbranched spikes to 30cm
(12in) tall throughout the year
Comments: An unusual climber, tolerant of rather more shade and moisture than other aloes. Train on
trellis or pillars in the glasshouse or in frost-free gardens.
40 A.arborescens ‘Variegata’ A.aristata A.ciliaris A.distans

Aloe
A LOE
A
A.distans S Africa stems to 3m (10ft) long, to 15 x 7cm (6 x 2 ⁄4in),

3
to 3cm (11⁄4in) long, dull scarlet
JEWELLED ALOE (Cape Province) decumbent, branching lanceolate, glaucous, with pale, or lemon yellow marked orange,
and rooting with clumps raised spots, and yellow-white on a branched inflorescence to
of foliage marginal teeth 60cm (24in) long in summer
A.ferox S Africa stem erect, stout, to 100 x 15cm (39 x 6in), to 3.5cm (11⁄2in) long, scarlet
CAPE ALOE (Cape Province) unbranched, to 3m (10ft) lanceolate-ensiform, thickly to orange on a branched
tall with a large terminal fleshy, blue-green sometimes inflorescence to 60cm (24in) tall
leaf rosette tinted red-brown with sharp, red- winter and spring
brown spines on sinuately
Comments: Provides a strong, vertical accent for xeriscapes and large toothed margins and sometimes
succulent collections under glass. covering surface
A.humilis S Africa stemless, forming offsetting to 10 x 1.8cm (4 x 5⁄8in), ovate- to 4cm (11⁄2in), scarlet to orange
CROCODILE ALOE; (Cape Province) clumps of rosettes lanceolate, tapering, glaucous, on an unbranched spike to
HEDGEHOG ALOE; tuberculate with white marginal 35cm (14in) tall in spring
SPIDER ALOE teeth and incurved tips
Comments: var. echinata (A.echinata) is smaller with soft prickles rather than tubercles on the leaf surfaces;
‘Globosa’ has blue-tinged leaves in a tight, spherical rosette.
A.marlothii S Africa; stem unbranched, 2–4m to 150 x 25cm (60 x 10in), to 3.5cm (11⁄2in) long, orange
Botswana; (61⁄2–12ft) tall lanceolate, grey-green with red- to yellow-orange, tipped red-
Swaziland brown spines and marginal teeth brown to mauve in a
candelabra-like inflorescence
Comments: Slow-growing – small plants are often used in containers and dish gardens. to 80cm (32in) tall in winter
A.plicatilis S Africa much-branched shrub or to 30 x 4cm (12 x 11⁄2in), in two to 5cm (2in) long, scarlet tipped
FAN ALOE (Cape Province) small tree to 5m (15ft) tall flattened ranks making fans at green on unbranched spikes to
the branch tips, strap-shaped 50cm (20in) tall
Comments: Valued for its handsome habit: young plants have a and blunt, smooth blue-green
cleanly symmetrical, icy-blue appearance.
A.saponaria S Africa; stemless, forming suckering to 30 x 8–12cm (12 x 3–43⁄4in), to 4cm (11⁄2in) long, yellow to
A.latifolia; Zimbabwe; clumps of broad rosettes broadly lanceolate, pale to deep salmon pink, orange or scarlet
A.macracantha; Botswana green with dull white, broken on a forking inflorescence
A.picta SOAP ALOE bands and brown marginal teeth 50–100cm (20–39in) tall
Comments: Fast-spreading and soon-congested,
the rosettes may need frequent division.
A.striata S Africa stem stout, to 1m (31⁄4ft) long, to 50 x 20cm (20 x 8in), ovate- to 2.5cm (1in) long, peach-red
A.albocincta; (Cape Province) decumbent, unbranched lanceolate, tapering finely, to coral-red, on a branching
A.hanburyana untoothed, unspotted, blue-green inflorescence to 1m (31⁄4ft) tall
CORAL ALOE Comments: ‘Picta’ (A.striata x A.saponaria) has with white striations (becoming in winter and spring
dark green leaves striped with cream and red-tinted in strong sunlight)
banded yellow-green. and pink to red margins
A.ferox A.saponaria A.striata A.variegata 41

Aloe
A A LOE
A.variegata S Africa; Namibia very short-stemmed, 5–15 x 1.5–5cm (2–6 x ⁄8–2in),

5
to 4cm (11⁄2in) long, flesh
A.ausana each plant composed of triangular in outline and 3-angled with pink to dull scarlet on
PARTRIDGE BREAST leaves tightly packed in margins folded upwards from a sharp unbranched spikes to
ALOE; TIGER ALOE an obscure spiral with keel beneath, thickly fleshy with a hard, 30cm (12in) tall in winter
their expanded bases smooth surface, dark green with white
Comments: A very popular dwarf overlapping blotches arranged in bands, tip sharp,
aloe widely grown as a houseplant. keel and margins horny, white
A.vera Cape Verde stem short or absent, the to 100 x 1.5cm (39 x 5⁄8in), linear- to 3cm (11⁄4in), yellow on
A.barbadensis; Islands; plant a large, sprawling lanceolate, tapering finely, outspread to an unbranched spike to
A.perfoliata Canary Islands; and suckering rosette incurved, fleshy and sappy, olive to dark 90cm (36in) tall produced
BARBADOS ALOE; Mediterranean grey-green, margins slightly pink-tinged throughout the year
CURACAO ALOE; Region; with pale teeth
MEDICINAL ALOE (introduced to
Caribbean and Comments: Long used in traditional medicine for its healing and cleansing properties – uses now
S America) adopted by the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries.
Aloinopsis (from Aloe and Greek to 60cm (24in) tall; flowers 2cm (3/4in)- with opposite or whorled leaves and
opsis, resemblance, on account of these wide, scarlet). terminal spikes or racemes of small
plants’ supposed similarity to Aloe). flowers. From Argentina and Chile,
Aizoaceae. South Africa. 15 species, Alopecurus (from Greek alopekouros, A.triphylla (syn. Lippia citriodora) is
frost-tender, tuberous perennial herbs fox-tail). Gramineae. FOXTAIL GRASS. LEMON VERBENA. It grows to 3m (10ft)
making dense, low clumps of succu- N Temperate regions, S America. tall, but usually makes a lower bush
lent, wedge-shaped leaves. The stalkless 25 species, annual or perennial grasses, resembling a miniature tree with
flowers are daisy-like and yellow to usually low to spreading with loosely gnarled and fibrous bark. Lanceolate,
pink. Grow in full sun in a dry, well- clumped, short culms and narrow, flat to 10cm (4in) long and finely tapered,
ventilated environment with a leaf blades. The flower spikes are the leaves have an intense lemon per-
minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F. narrow, hairy and tightly packed, fume. Small, white flowers are pro-
The compost should be high in sand resembling a fox-brush. The following duced in spikes and panicles in
and grit. Water sparingly from mid- species is fully hardy and will grow on summer. Given good drainage with a
spring to late summer; at other times most soils in sun or part shade. Its warm position on a south-facing wall,
merely mist over on warm, sunny days. variegated form makes bright ground- and protection from harsh winds, it will
Propagate by seed or division. cover, especially if the flower spikes are tolerate temperatures to –10°C/14°F,
A.schooneesii (leaves small, blue-green, removed by shearing over. A.pratensis regenerating from the stem base if
broadly spathulate with thick, rounded (COMMON FOXTAIL, FOXTAIL GRASS, given a deep, dry mulch. Grow in full
tips; flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) wide, LAMB’S TAIL GRASS, MEADOW FOXTAIL; sun. Prune out dead wood and any
yellow tinted red). Europe, Asia, N Africa; clump-forming frosted top growth in late spring,
perennial to 1m (31/4ft) tall in flower, cutting hard back into living wood.
Alonsoa (for Alonzo Zanoni, Spanish usually far shorter; ‘Variegatus’: syn Root basal or nodal softwood cuttings
Secretary for Santa Fe de Bogota about ‘Aureovariegatus’, leaves bright green in early summer in a closed case with
1798). Scrophulariaceae. Tropical boldly edged and striped gold). gentle bottom heat.
Americas. 12 species, small shrubs
or perennial herbs with Nemesia-like Alophia (from Greek a-, without, and alpine (1) plant indigenous to sites at
flowers produced in summer and lophos, crest). Iridaceae. Americas. 4 high altitude, growing between the tree
autumn. For use as a half-hardy annual species, perennial cormous herbs with line and permanent snow line; (2) any
in summer bedding, sow seed in early narrow, plicate leaves and terminal plant suitable for a rock garden.
spring and under glass at 18°C/65°F. racemes of Iris-like flowers in summer.
Alternatively, sow seed in situ in late Cultivate as for Homeria. A. drummondii alpine house a greenhouse used for
spring. For winter flowering under (syn. A.caerulea; US, Mexico; to 40cm the cultivation of alpines and other
glass, sow in late summer. Alonsoa can (16in); flowers to 6cm (21/2in) wide in perennial plants in containers or beds.
also be propagated also by softwood tip shades of violet and indigo fading at Alpine houses are usually unheated,
cuttings of non-flowering shoots in late the centre to white spotted brown). and always freely ventilated.
summer. Under glass or in warm cli-
mates, treat as a perennial, pruning Aloysia (for Maria Louisa (d. 1819), alpine meadow a garden feature
hard and repotting after flowering. princess of Parma and wife of King simulating high-alpine meadow, in
42 A.warscewiczii (syn. A.grandiflora; Peru; Carlos IV of Spain). Verbenaceae. which alpine plants are grown among
MASK FLOWER; a bushy herb or shrub Americas. 37 species, glandular shrubs fine grasses. The term is often used to
Althaea
describe a piece of grassland where a

variety of plants, especially small bulbs,
hardy to –15°C/5°F, especially if
grown in sheltered borders and thickly
tall; leaves olive green to yellow mot-
tled or stained red to purple; includes
A
are naturalized, in a form of wild mulched in winter. Grow in a fertile, dwarf, yellow-leaved ‘Aurea Nana’, and
gardening sometimes called meadow free-draining and moisture-retentive bright red ‘Brilliantissima’); A.ficoidea
gardening. The grass is not mown until soil in sun or part-shade. Propagate by (annual or short-lived perennial wide-
high summer so that the development seed sown when ripe, or by division in spread in S America and erect to 50cm
of bulbous species is not repressed. late summer. Plants may also be grown (20in), or creeping and mat-forming;
under glass for winter flowering. They leaves green blotched red and purple
Alpinia (for Prospero Alpino are excellent cut flowers, and many or yellow, green, red and orange;
(1553–1616), Italian botanist). hybrids in the Princess range are ‘Versicolor’: leaves in copper, blood red
Zingiberaceae. Asia; Australasia. Some grown commercially. and yellow; var. amoena: PARROT LEAF,
species, tender perennial herbs with A.aurea (syn. A.aurantiaca; to SHOO-FLY, JOYWEED, mat-form-
stout, aromatic rhizomes and clumped, 1m (31/4ft); flowers 6–10cm ing with lanceolate to
reedy stems with lanceolate leaves. (21/2–4in) across and alternate elliptic leaves variously
Waxy and shell-like with a showy lip, bright orange to apricot leaves mottled and veined bronze,
the flowers are carried in terminal or deep gold, the inner red, orange, yellow and
racemes, sometimes amid highly tepals spotted maroon to purple).
coloured bracts in summer. Provide a red); A. Ligtu Hybrids
minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F (to 1m (31/4ft); flowers alternate of leaves ,
and a humid, buoyant atmosphere in ranging in colour branches, pedicels
bright, filtered light. Water and feed from carmine to soft arranged in two ranks
freely in spring and summer, sparingly pink, salmon, orange or along the stem (see left),
at other times. Increase by division. yellow, often with yellow rachis, with the insertions of
A.purpurata (RED GINGER; South zones and spotted or feath- the two ranks not parallel but
Pacific; to 3m (10ft) tall with erect, ered maroon to red); A.pelegrina alternating; cf. paired, opposite.
20–50cm (8–20in)-long, torch-like (syn. A.gayana; to 60cm (24in);
spikes of overlapping, purple-red flowers to 10cm (4in) across, alternate host either of two
bracts; flowers small, white; ‘Eileen off-white flushed mauve or pink Anchusa plant species upon which a pest
McDonald’: bracts candy pink; ‘Pink with a darker centre, and inner undulata or disease organism spends part
Princess’: bracts rose; ‘Tahitian tepals stained yellow at base and of its life cycle, for example the
Ginger’: bracts deep scarlet); A.vittata flecked brown to maroon); A.psittacina lettuce/poplar aphid (Pemphigus
(VARIEGATED GINGER; Solomon Islands; (syn. A.pulchella; to 50cm (20in); flowers bursarius) and wheat/barberry rust
to 1.5m (5ft) tall; leaves white- to to 8cm (3in) across, green tipped (Puccinia graminis).
cream-striped; ‘Oceanica’: smaller with scarlet, overlaid with deep wine red,
narrow leaves flashed and striped pure spotted and streaked dark maroon). alternation of generations the
white); A.zerumbet (PINK PORCELAIN LILY, occurrence of strongly differentiated,
SHELL GINGER; South East Asia; to 3m Alternanthera (from Latin alternus, alternating sexual and asexual phases
(10ft); flowers fragrant, waxy to 4cm alternate, and anthera, anther: alternate within the life cycle of organisms (i.e.
(11/2in) long with pink-tinted, white anthers are sterile in most species). the succession of gametophytes and
petals and a ruffled golden lip veined Amaranthaceae. C and S America. sporophytes), as found in Pteridophytes
wine red, inflorescence pendulous, JOSEPH’S COAT; CHAFF-FLOWER; JOY- such as ferns.
lacking showy bracts; ‘Variegata’: WEED; BROAD PATH; COPPERLEAF.
leaves striped and zoned yellow and 200 species, annual or perennial herbs, Althaea (from Greek althaia, a cure)
lime; A.mutica, the SMALL SHELL often with brightly coloured leaves and Malvaceae. W Europe to C Asia.
GINGER, or ORCHID GINGER, resembles with spikes of small flowers. They are 12 species of fully hardy annuals and
a smaller A.zerumbet with more or less used as perennial foliage plants under perennials. Leaves shallowly to deeply
erect inflorescences). glass, as half-hardy annuals outdoors in lobed. Flowers borne in racemes or
zones 9 and under, and, in the tropics panicles, small, pink to blue-purple,
Alstroemeria (for Baron Claus von and subtropics, as permanent edging mid summer to autumn. Distinguished
Alstroemer (1736–1794), Swedish natu- and groundcover. Grow in full or part from closely related Alcea rosea (q.v.)
ralist and pupil of Linnaeus). Liliaceae sun in a moisture-retentive but well- HOLLYHOCK by smaller, usually stalked
(Alstroemeriaceae). S America. LILY OF drained soil. Take nodal cuttings in late flowers.
THE INCAS; PERUVIAN LILY. 50 species, summer to produce stock plants; A.armeniaca, to 1.2m (4ft), flowers
hardy, fleshy-rooted perennial herbs overwinter at 13°C/55°F and water deep rose-pink and A.cannabina, to 1.8m
with erect stems, scattered with ovate sparingly. Root cuttings in spring in a (6ft), flowers lilac to deep pink are both
to lanceolate leaves and crowned with humid, closed case with bottom heat at woody based. A.officinalis (MARSHMAL-
an umbel of slender-stalked, funnel- 25°/77°F. Plant out in early summer. LOW, to 2m (61/2ft), flowers pale lilac-
shaped flowers with six obovate tepals. A.bettzickiana (CALICO PLANT; annual pink, grey stellate leaves, culinary and 43
Beautiful summer-flowering perennials or short-lived perennial to 1m (31/4ft) medicinal uses of roots). All three
Althaea
A species are strongly erect perennials, at 20°C/68°F and plant out after the shaped blooms are 10cm (4in) long,
suitable for mixed herbaceous or damp last frost. In warm regions, sow in situ sweetly fragrant and glowing candy
woodland garden. Best grown in fertile, in spring. pink (white, white-eyed, rose and
moist soil in full sun. Propagate by A.caudatus (LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING, carmine cultivars are also available).
seed. Generally less showy than Alcea. VELVET FLOWER, TASSEL FLOWER; Plant in a deep, fast-draining loamy
40–100cm (16–39in); leaves green, soil in a sheltered position in full sun.
Alyogyne (from Greek aluo, to be at stalks red-tinted; inflorescences tassel- Keep moist, never wet, from winter
a loss, and gyne, woman, the stigma is like, strongly pendulous, to 30cm (12in) until early summer; dry and baked
virtually obscured by many whorled long, crimson to blood red – green in prior to flowering. These bulbs are
staminal filaments). Malvaceae. Aus- ‘Viridis’); A.hypochondriacus (PRINCE’S generally hardy in zones 6 and over,
tralia. 4 species, tender evergreen FEATHER; 40–150cm (16–60in), leaves performing best beneath a wall and
shrubs grown for their Hibiscus-like green; inflorescence dense, composed left undisturbed for many years. Apply
flowers produced throughout the year. of dark crimson spikes, erect and a winter mulch of dry bracken or straw
Grow in full sun in a well-drained grouped together in a broadly pyrami- in cold areas. Propagate by offsets
loamy soil; avoid waterlogged condi- dal panicle; ‘Erythrostachys’: stems and removed during dormancy. The popu-
tions and keep almost dry in winter leaves stained purple, spikes deepest lar tender ‘amaryllis’ is Hippeastrum.
(minimum temperature 5°C/41°F). blood red); A.tricolor (TAMPALA, CHINESE
Increase by seed and semi-ripe cut- SPINACH; to 1m (31/4ft); leaves elliptic to Amberboa (from the Turkish name
tings. A.huegelii (LILAC HIBISCUS; hairy, ovate leaves to 20cm (8in) long; flower for A.moschata). Compositae. Mediter-
upright shrub to 2.5m (8ft) tall with spikes small, red-tinted; a species with ranean to Asia. 6 species, annual and
palmately lobed leaves; flowers shim- edible leaves, it also includes the orna- biennial herbs grown for their large,
mering lilac to intense opal blue, to mentals ‘Joseph’s Coat’, with leaves colourful, cornflower-like flowerheads.
15cm (6in) across, sometimes spotted flushed scarlet, gold, chocolate and An old favourite in cottage gardens,
purple-red at centre). green, and ‘Molten Fire’ with bronze sweet sultan has a long flowering
to maroon leaves flushed scarlet). period and is suitable for cutting.
Alyssum (from Greek a, against, Picked just as they open, the flowers
and lyssa, madness: the herb was x Amarcrinum Amaryllidaceae. dry well in borax. Sow seed in situ in
used against madness and rabies). Garden origin. Intergeneric hybrids full sun in autumn or spring. Protect
Cruciferae. Europe to W Asia. between Amaryllis and Crinum. x A.memo- autumn-sown plants where winter
168 species, annual and perennial ria-corsii combines the habit of Crinum temperatures fall below –10°C/14°F.
herbs and subshrubs with small, moorei with the flowers of Amaryllis A.moschata (syn. Centaurea moschata;
4-petalled flowers in head-like racemes belladonna, bearing large heads of long- SWEET SULTAN; SW Asia; summer-
in summer. Excellent plants for the lived, fragrant and shell pink flowers in flowering annual to 70cm (28in) tall;
rock garden, dry walls and banks, they late summer and early autumn. The flowerheads, fragrant, long-stalked,
are fully hardy and prefer full sunlight foliage persists year-round unless to 7cm (23/4in) with a rich yellow disk
and a free-draining soil. Trim after subjected to severe frost. Grow crowned with outspread, finely cut
flowering. Propagate by cuttings in as for Amaryllis. florets in white, cream, yellow, gold-
spring or seed in autumn. bronze, purple, carmine and pink).
A.montanum (Europe; evergreen, x Amarygia Amaryllidaceae.
tufted perennial to 20cm (8in); leaves Garden origin. Intergeneric hybrids Amelanchier (from amelanchier or
small, grey-hairy, flowers fragrant, between Amaryllis and Brunsvigia. x amelancier, the Provencal name for
bright yellow, to 0.6cm (1/4in) across, in A.parkeri (Amaryllis belladonna x Brunsvigia A.ovalis). Rosaceae. North America;
round-headed racemes); A.wulfenianum josephinae) is the NAKED LADY LILY, inter- Europe; Asia. JUNEBERRY; SARVICE-
(Asia Minor; white-downy, prostrate mediate between the parents, with fra- BERRY; SERVICEBERRY; SHADBUSH;
perennial to 20cm (8in) with small, grant flowers ranging from white to SUGAR-PLUM. 25 species, fully hardy
grey leaves; flowers pale yellow to deep, clear rose, to carmine. x A.bid- deciduous shrubs or small trees with
1cm (1/2in) across in loose corymbs). willii (Amaryllis belladonna x Brunsvigia ori- oval leaves. In spring, erect racemes
A.maritimum (SWEET ALYSSUM) is now entalis) differs in its shorter flowers with of flowers composed of five, white,
treated as Lobularia maritima, and broader tepals. Grow as for Amaryllis. obovate to lanceolate petals appear;
A.saxatile as Aurinia saxatilis. these contrast beautifully with the soft
Amaryllis (the name of a beautiful copper of the new growth. The fruits
Amaranthus (from Greek, a-, with- shepherdess, a character much-cele- are small pomes, frosty blue-black to
out, and maraino, to wither: the dried brated in pastoral poetry). Amarylli- plum purple and offset by the fiery reds
flowers of some species are ‘everlast- daceae. South Africa. 1 species, and oranges of the autumn foliage.
ing’). Amaranthaceae. Cosmopolitan. A.belladonna (BELLADONNA LILY, JERSEY Hardy to –30°C/–22°F. Grow in full
60 species, annual herbs grown for LILY), a bulbous perennial herb with 2- sun or part shade on a neutral to acid
their foliage and catkin-like racemes. ranked, strap-shaped leaves produced soil (A.alnifolia, A.asiatica, and A.ovalis
44 Treat as half-hardy bedding or as pot after the flowers. Carried in autumn tolerate some lime). Propagate by
plants. Sow under glass in early spring atop stout maroon scapes, the funnel- layering, or by division of suckering
Ampelopsis
species from autumn to early spring.

Sow seed when ripe – Amelanchier
soil acidifying, especially applied
continually; where formulated with
flowers in terminal racemes in summer.
Tolerant of poor soils, drought, and
A
hybridizes easily. lime this effect is avoided. lows of –25°C/–13°F, quickly regener-
A.alnifolia (ALDER-LEAVED SERVICE ating if cut down by frost. Plant in sun.
BERRY; N America; suckering shrub or ammonium phosphate an Propagate by seed pre-soaked in hot
small tree to 4m (12ft) tall flowers fra- inorganic source of nitrogen and water for two hours – germination may
grant, in erect racemes; ‘Alta Glow’ phosphate used in concentrated take three to eight weeks. Increase also
columnar with brilliant autumn colour; compound fertilizer and liquid feed. by layering, rooted suckers and semi-
‘Regent’ fiery autumn tints); A.arborea The forms most usually available are ripe cuttings. A.canescens (LEAD PLANT;
(shrub or tree to 20m (70ft) tall; leaves mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP) grey-downy shrub to 1m (31/4ft); flowers
red or yellow in autumn; flowers fra- (NH4H2PO4): 12% N, 61% P, and violet-blue); A.fruticosa (BASTARD
grant, in drooping racemes); A.asiatica di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) INDIGO; to 4m (12ft) tall with smooth
(graceful shrub or small tree to 12m ((NH4)2HPO4): 21% N, 53% P. Both or weakly hairy, glandular growth;
(40ft); leaves turning red-orange in are water soluble. The pH of MAP is flowers deep purple, indigo, pale blue
autumn; flowers in downy racemes); around 3.5 and of DAP around 8.0. or white).
A.canadensis (suckering shrub to 8m
(25ft) tall; leaves, turning orange-red ammonium sulphamate a non-
in autumn; flowers in erect, downy selective inorganic contact herbicide,
racemes to 6cm (21/2in) long); A.laevis useful against annual, soft perennial
(ALLEGHENY SERVICEBERRY; erect shrub and woody weeds. It is effective in
or small tree to 13m (43ft) tall; leaves destroying tree stumps when applied
with fiery tints in autumn; flowers in as crystals to cut surfaces. An interval
nodding racemes to 12cm (43/4in) long); of 8–12 weeks is necessary before
A.lamarckii (graceful, wide-branching replanting treated ground.
shrub or tree to 10m (30ft) tall; leaves
turning brilliant orange-red in autumn; ammonium sulphate an inorganic
flowers in loose racemes to 8cm (3in) fertilizer, commonly known as sulphate
long; ‘Rubescens’: flowers soft pale of ammonia, containing 21% nitrogen.
pink). It is quick acting as a top dressing, and
is also used as an activator for compost
ament see catkin. heaps and as an ingredient of lawn Ampelopsis brevipedunculata
sand. Its use gives rise to soil acidity, Both the leaves and fruit clusters are
American garden a term used in and application to chalky soils may similar to those of Vitis, hence the name
19th century European horticulture for result in loss of nitrogen as ammonia. Ampelopsis, meaning “resembling a grape”.
a collection of trees, shrubs and herbs
native to N America. The term also Amomyrtus (Greek meaning Ampelopsis (from the Greek,
came to be used of moist acid borders. ‘not Myrtus’) Myrtaceae. Southern ampelos, a grape, and opsis, resembling).
S America. 2 species, evergreen shrubs Vitaceae. North America, Asia. 25
ammonia a pungent nitrogen-con- or trees with flaking bark, leathery deciduous shrubs and woody vines.
taining gas (NH3) produced as organic leaves, flowers of five, rounded petals Those described here are fast-growing
matter decomposes. It can be toxic to with a boss of showy stamens, and woody climbers, attaching themselves
plants, but with special soil-injection small, black, edible berries. A.luma by tendrils which lack hold-fasts (thus
equipment may be used on a farm favours virtually frost-free conditions, differing from Parthenocissus). The leaves
scale as a fertilizer. Various ammonium growing well in areas of high humidity are palmately lobed or divided or more
salts are commonly used as fertilizers in full sun or light shade on rich, moist elaborately compound. Small green-
in gardening, for example ammonium soils. For propagation, see Myrtus. white flowers give rise to grape-like
nitrate, ammonium phosphate, A.luma (syn. Myrtus luma; LUMA; PALO fruits by late summer. The following
ammonium sulphate. MADRONO; Chile to 20m (70ft) tall but will tolerate winter temperatures as low
more often a bushy shrub to 4m (12ft); as –25°C/–13°F, especially if given a
ammonification the production leaves ovate to lanceolate, 3cm (11/4in) long, hot summer to ripen their wood.
of ammonia by soil organisms from emerging coppery red before turning New growth is usually damaged by late
organic nitrogen compounds. It is an deep glossy green; flowers creamy frosts. Plant in a sheltered position in
intermediate step in the mineralization white, 1cm (1/2in) across, produced a deep, moderately fertile loamy soil
of nitrogen. See nitrification. in spring and summer). in sun or shade. Provide support.
Propagate by leaf bud cuttings in mid-
ammonium nitrate an inorganic Amorpha (from Greek amorphos, summer; treat with rooting hormone
fertilizer used as a top dressing, shapeless). Leguminosae. N America. and root in a closed case with bottom
containing 35% nitrogen, half as 15 species, aromatic shrubs with glan- heat. Greenwood or semi-ripe cuttings 45
nitrate and half as ammonium. It is dular, pinnate leaves and pea-like taken in summer may also root.
Ampelopsis
A A.aconitifolia (N China, Mongolia; heads). Compositae. Mediterranean. edges of borders. A.tenella, should be
10m (30ft); leaves to 12cm (43/4in) 9 species, annual or perennial herbs allowed to colonize in the bog garden
across, with 3–5, lanceolate to rhom- with finely cut foliage and daisy-like and at the margins of streams and
bic, deeply lobed and coarsely toothed flowerheads produced in summer. ponds in the rockery. Propagate by
segments in a palmate arrangement, Hardy in zone 7. Grow in full sun seed sown in situ in spring or under
more or less smooth and a fresh green on a gritty soil with excellent drainage. glass in late summer; perennial species
becoming red-orange in fall; fruits Remove spent flowerheads. Increase also by cuttings in spring.
small, sloe blue at first, turning orange- by seed sown in situ in spring, by A.arvensis (SCARLET or COMMON PIM-
red in fine autumns); A.glandulosa cuttings, and by rooted stem sections. PERNEL, POOR MAN’S WEATHER GLASS,
var.brevipedunculata (BLUEBERRY IVY; A.pyrethrum var. depressus (syn. A.depressus; SHEPHERD’S CLOCK; Europe; dwarf
China, Japan, Korea leaves palmately Spain, Algeria, Morocco; prostrate, creeping annual; flowers 0.5–1.8cm
3- or, rarely, 5- lobed, 5–15cm (2–6in) short-lived perennial to 5 x 20cm (1/4–3/4in) across, typically bright scarlet,
long, basically ovate-cordate in outline, (2 x 8in); leaves very fine, with silver also white, pink, yellow and sky blue);
toothed, turning from bright mid-green down; flowerheads to 5cm (2in) across, A.monellii (BLUE PIMPERNEL; Mediter-
to red-bronze in autumn; fruits ray florets white above, red-stained ranean; erect perennial or biennial to
turquoise to amethyst; ‘Elegans’: stems beneath, disc florets golden). 50cm (20in); flowers 1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in)
pink-tinted, leaves splashed lime, white across, rich blue above, tinted wine red
or cream); A.megalophylla (China; to anaerobic used of conditions in beneath and at the centre or wholly
12m (40ft); leaves to 80cm (32in), with which oxygen is absent, or of organ- blue or wine red; ‘Phillippii’: flowers
ovate to oblong leaflets arranged pin- isms that function in the absence of large, royal blue); A.tenella (BOG PIMPER-
nately towards the tip and bipinnately oxygen; cf. aerobic. See compost heap. NEL; W Europe; creeping dwarf peren-
toward the petiole; fruit dark purple nial; flowers 0.5–1cm (1/4–1/2in) across,
ripening black; A.chaffanjonii differs in Anagallis (from anagallis, Greek word sweetly scented and pale rose or white
leaves, claret-tinted, not glaucous, for this plant, from anagelao, to laugh; – deep pink in the cultivar ‘Studland’).
beneath, brilliant autumn colour these herbs were said to dispel sadness).
and fruit red ripening black). Primulaceae. PIMPERNEL. Cosmopolitan Ananas (from nana, the Tupi Indian
20 species, hardy annual or perennial word for the fruit of A. comosus).
amphicarpic producing two differ- herbs with creeping to erect stems and Bromeliaceae. S America. PINEAPPLE.
ent types of fruit; sometimes used of ovate to elliptic leaves. Solitary, dish- to 8 species, tender, perennial evergreen
plants bearing two crops per season. cup-shaped flowers with five broad herbs. Dense, cone-like spikes of small
lobes are produced on slender stalks flowers arise from the centre of rosettes
amphicarpogenous producing from the leaf axils in spring and of tough, rigid, sword-like leaves with
buried fruit, as in the peanut summer. Sometimes thought weedy spiny margins. The spikes terminate in
(Arachis hypogaea). and invasive, A.arvensis is often unwel- a tuft of short, leafy bracts (coma), and
come in gardens, but is a bright and swell as they develop, fusing to form an
amphigeal producing two types of delicate groundcover for sunny posi- ovoid, fleshy syncarp (the pineapple
flower, one from the rootstock or stem tions on all but the wettest soils. A.mon- fruit). Grow in full sunlight with a min-
base, the other from the upper stems. ellii favours a warm, rather sandy site imum temperature of 13°C/55°F, and
and is suitable for rock gardens and the in high humidity. Water, syringe and
amplexicaul of a leaf base or
dilated petiole or stipule enlarged and
embracing or clasping the stem. P ROPAGATING A NANAS ( PINEAPPLE )
Amsonia (for Dr Charles Amson, slip or
“sucker”
18th-century physician and scientific shoot
explorer in North America). Apocy-
naceae. South Europe; Asia; North
America. species, perennial herbs and
subshrubs with milky sap. Hardy to
–20°C/–4°F or lower if mulched.
Plant in full sun or light shade. Propa-
gate by division in spring. A.tabernae-
montana (BLUE STAR; SE US; perennial
herb to 1m (31/4ft); flowers starry,
From cuttings From crown shoots
5-lobed pale to slate blue in terminal Shoots developing from leaf Use a sharp knife to scoop out the tuft or “crown shoot” from
parnicles in summer). axils can be detached, dipped a ripe pineapple with about 1cm (1⁄2in) of the fruit attached.
in fungicide, dried for a few Dip in fungicide and allow to dry for several days. Pot the
46 Anacyclus (from Greek an, without, days and then rooted in sandy shoot in a standard cutting compost and provide a minimum
kuklos, ring, a reference to the flower- compost at 21°C (70°F). temperature of 21°C (70°F). Roots should form in a few weeks.
Andromeda
feed liberally when in growth,

especially in hot weather and during
flowerheads somewhat tawny below);
A nepalensis (syn. A.triplinervis var. interme-
A.capensis (S Africa; CAPE FORGET-ME-
NOT; erect, hairy biennial to 60cm
A
fruit development, but allow the soil dia; Himalaya, Western China; to 30cm (24in) flowers in terminal panicles, 1cm
to dry slightly between waterings. Keep (12in) tall; leaves grey-green with white- (1/2in) wide and bright blue with a white
virtually dry and do not mist in cool woolly undersides; flowerheads 1–1.5cm throat; ‘Blue Angel’: flowers ultrama-
dull weather. Propagate by detaching (1/2–5/8in) wide, silvery, 1–4 per stem; rine; ‘Blue Bird’: flowers vivid indigo;
rooted suckers, or by rooting the coma var. monocephala: syn. A.nubigena, low and ‘Pink Bird’: flowers pink); A.leptophylla
in a moist, sandy mix with bottom tufted with white flowerheads, borne subsp. incana (syn. A.angustissima, A.cae-
heat. Plants usually fruit at about one per stem); A.triplinervis (temperate spitosa; Crete; dwarf, tufted perennial to
three years of age. Asia; to 90cm (36in) tall; leaves grey- 8cm (3in), making mounds of clumped,
A.bracteatus (WILD or RED PINEAPPLE; hairy; flowerheads silver-white 1cm narrow and bristly leaves; flowers
to 1m (31/4ft); leaves olive; inflores- (1/2in) wide, crowded in domed clusters). borne 1–3 together on short stalks
cences 10–15cm (4–6in)-long, com- among the leaf bases, 1.5cm (5/8in)
posed of lilac to red flowers and closely anastomosing used of veins form- wide, dark blue with a white throat).
clothed in red-tinted bracts; var. tricolor, ing a network, united at their points
leaves striped cream and yellow and of contact. ancipitous describes stems and fruit
edged with bright red to pink teeth; with two sharp edges.
fruit red-pink, topped with variegated Anchusa (from Greek, ankousa, alka-
coma); A.comosus (PINEAPPLE; seedless, net, a skin paint – some species were androdioecious having male and
edible cultigen taller than the last used to make rouge). Boraginaceae. hermaphrodite flowers on separate
species with grey-green leaves; inflores- Europe; Africa; Asia. ALKANET; plants of the same species, for example
cences 15–30cm (6–12in)-long; flowers BUGLOSS. 35 species, hardy, coarsely marsh marigold (Caltha palustris).
violet-red, with yellow-tinted bracts; hairy annual, biennial and perennial
syncarp large, orange-yellow when herbs grown for their flowers. androecium the male component
ripe, sweetly fragrant; with ‘Porteanus’: Produced in spring and summer, of a flower, the stamen or stamens as
leaves with a central yellow stripe; var. these are funnel-shaped with a whole (see below).
variegatus: leaves striped creamy yellow five, broad and spreading lobes
and sometimes red-pink). and are carried in termi- 6 stamens androgynous
nal or axillary cymes. make up hermaphrodite
Anaphalis (ancient Greek name for a Grow A.azurea in a deep, androecium or, sometimes,
similar plant). Compositae. Temperate fertile soil, well-drained monoecious.
regions. PEARLY EVERLASTING. 100 but moisture-retentive,
species, white-hairy perennial herbs and in full sun. Deadhead Andromeda (for the
with clumps of spreading then erect promptly to maintain a daughter of Cepheus
stems terminating in clusters or flat- tidy habit and promote and Cassiope). Ericaceae.
topped corymbs of flowerheads. These a second flush of bloom. Arctic, temperate North-
consist of small, yellow florets tightly Increase by division or root ern Hemisphere. 2 species,
encased by several series of papery, cuttings in late winter. A.caespitosa Gloriosa dwarf evergreen shrubs, com-
silver bracts. The following are hardy requires a very sunny, well- superba pact or spreading, with short,
and flower between midsummer and drained position on a gritty soil, ideally linear to lanceolate, revolute leaves and
early autumn. They are valued for on the rock garden or in an alpine small, urn-shaped and 5-lobed flowers
their silvery effects and long-lasting sink. It is very intolerant of nodding in clusters at the branch tips
flowerheads. The inflorescences dry cold, overwet conditions. Propagate in spring and summer. Fully hardy,
well if cut just prior to opening. by offsets in summer. Treated as an A.polifolia needs dappled or full sun and
A.margaritacea and A.triplinervis are annual, A.capensis is a fine summer bed- a moist but porous, acid soil. Propagate
suitable for the herbaceous or mixed ding plant, sown in situ in spring. As a by removal of rooted, creeping
border. Smaller and more delicate, biennial, it should be over-wintered in branches and suckers, and by simple
A.nepalensis requires a sunny position on a frost-free greenhouse. layering. A.polifolia (MARSH
a well-drained, gritty soil; var. mono- A.azurea (syn. A.italica; Europe, North ANDROMEDA, BOG ROSEMARY; N
cephala, smaller still, is suited to rock Africa and Western Asia; spreading, Europe, Alps, Carpathians and Russia;
gardens and alpine sink gardens. clump-forming perennial to 0.5m to 12cm (43/4in) forming dense mounds
Increase by division in early spring. (20in) tall; flowers 1cm (1/2in) across, of spreading to erect stems; leaves to
A.margaritacea (N America, Asia and deep blue to violet, in showy, terminal 2cm (3/4in), dark green above with grey-
1
N Europe grows to 80cm (32in); leaves clusters; ‘Dropmore’: to 1m (3 /4ft) tall, white undersides; flowers white to pale
grey-green above, silvery beneath; flowers gentian blue; ‘Little John’: to pink, 0.5cm (1/4in) long in clusters to
flowerheads clothed in pearly white 40cm (16in): flowers small, bright blue; 3cm (11/4in) across; ‘Compacta’: com-
bracts, 1cm (1/2in) wide, in a corymb to 1
‘Loddon Royalist’: to 1m (3 /4ft) tall, pact, leaves grey-green, flowers pink;
15cm (6in) across; var. yedoensis: syn. flowers bright blue flowers; ‘Opal’: ‘Grandiflora’: leaves blue-green, 47
A. yedoensis, leaves narrow, leaves and to 1m (31/4ft) tall, flowers sky blue); flowers large, white tinted pale pink;
Andromeda
A ‘Minima’: dwarf, leaves needle-like, yellow throat); A.hirtella (Pyrenees; part-day sun, on a moist, fertile, loamy
grey-green, flowers pale pink; ‘Nana’: densely tufted and white-hairy; leaves, soil with ample organic matter. A.hupe-
vigorous, dwarf, flowers small, pink, linear; flowers solitary, very short- hensis will tolerate slightly drier and
profuse; ‘Nana: Alba’: small, compact, stalked, white); A.imbricata (syn. A.vandel- sunnier conditions, where it will bloom
leaves silvery beneath, flowers small, lii Alps, Pyrenees; densely tufted, earlier although flowers will be smaller
white, profuse; ‘Red Winter’: tall, leaves forming rounded cushions; leaves, and of lower quality. Propagate by
red-bronze-tinted in autumn/winter). linear to lanceolate, white-hairy; flow- fresh seed sown ripe, by division
ers solitary, short-stalked, white with a or by root cuttings.
andromonoecious having male yellow throat); A.lanuginosa (Himalaya; Tuberous and rhizomatous species
and hermaphrodite flowers on the prostrate, white-hairy perennial; leaves, include the spring-flowering A.blanda,
same plant, for example, horse lanceolate to obovate; scape to 4cm A.nemorosa and A.apennina. They require
chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum). (11/2in); flowers many, pink); A.primu- moist but well-drained, humus-rich soils
loides (Himalaya; stoloniferous; leaves in the rock or woodland garden, but
Androsace (from Greek aner, man, lanceolate to linear, white-hairy; scape tolerate dry conditions during their
and sakos, buckler, from the resem- to 7cm (23/4in); flowers, pink); A.pyre- summer dormancy. Also included in
blance of the anther to an ancient naica (Pyrenees; dense, cushion-forming this category are taller species with a
buckler). Primulaceae. Northern perennial; leaves, linear to oblong, fibrous or slender-rhizomatous root-
temperate regions. ROCK JASMINE. overlapping in columnar shoots; stock (e.g. A.narcissiflora, A.sylvestris).
100 species, hardy annual, biennial flowers, solitary, very short-stalked, These prefer grittier, more freely drain-
or perennial herbs, those here summer- white with a yellow eye); A.sarmentosa ing soil. Light requirements vary from
flowering, alpine perennials making (Himalaya; stolons long; leaves, lanceo- full sun (A.narcissiflora) to light shade
dwarf rosettes or cushions of hairy late to ovate, silvery-hairy, scape to (A.sylvestris). A.nemorosa is sufficiently
foliage. The flowers are usually white 10cm (4in); flowers many, deep pink robust for naturalizing in thin turf, where
or pink, with a short tube and five to brilliant carmine); A.sempervivoides the first cut occurs after foliage die-
broad, outspread lobes; they may be (Kashmir, Tibet; leaves to 0.5cm (1/4in), back. Smaller species, notably A.blanda
solitary and short-stalked or stemless, ovate to spathulate, densely overlap- and its cultivars, are well suited to pot
or carried in long-stalked umbels. ping in stoloniferous rosettes; scapes cultivation for the alpine display house.
Grow in full sun, with an airy, cool to 10cm (4in); flowers, pink); A.villosa Propagate by fresh seed, rhizomatous
atmosphere and on sharply draining, (Europe, Asia; densely tufted with species also by careful division.
soils. A.chamaejasme, A.imbricata and cushion-forming, domed rosettes; Tuberous-rooted plants such as
A.pyrenaica grow best in a slightly acidic leaves, oblong to lanceolate, white- A.coronaria, A. x fulgens and A.pavonina
medium; the remaining species are hairy; scapes to 5cm (2in); flowers flower from spring to early summer and
calcicole. High-altitude alpines such two to three, white with yellow-green are well suited to areas with dry hot
as A.cylindrica, A.hirtella, A.imbricata centres that turn red; var. jacquemontii: summers, where they will grow in light
and A.pyrenaica grow best in the alpine flowers purple-pink). sandy soils: shade in the hottest part of
house or in raised beds that can be the day is appreciated. Plants of this
covered in cold wet weather. Lower- Anemone (From Greek anemos, wind, type require dry dormancy after flower-
altitude species are more tolerant and a name used by Theophrastus and ing. De Caen, Mona Lisa and St Brigid
may be grown in the open in troughs reflected in the popular name ‘wind- anemones are a commercial cut-flower
or on the scree and rock gardens; these flower’). Ranunculaceae. North and crop in milder areas of Europe. Plant in
include A.carnea, A.chamaejasme, A.lanugi- South temperate regions. 120 species, a fertile but light-textured soil in sunny
nosa, A.primuloides and A.sempervivoides. hardy perennial herbs with rhizoma- borders. In cold areas, mulch for winter
Propagate by rooted runners and tous, fleshy, fibrous or woody roots. protection or lift after flowering and
rosettes of stoloniferous and freely off- The leaves are lobed, dissected or com- overwinter dry tubers, plunged in sand
setting species, the remainder by basal pound, rarely entire. Those on the under frost-free conditions. Under glass,
shoot cuttings taken in early summer. stem are often arranged in a whorl give a winter minimum of 10°C/50°F
A.carnea (W Europe; loosely tufted; below the inflorescence. Solitary or and pot up tubers in a sandy loam-
leaves to 2cm (3/4in), linear; scape to in cymes, the flowers are dish- to bowl- based mix of medium fertility for flow-
6cm (21/2in) tall; flowers one to many, shaped and composed of numerous, ering 3–4 months later. A.coronaria may
white or pink); A.chamaejasme (Northern oblong to oblanceolate segments. be flowered under glass almost all year
Hemisphere; loosely tufted and shortly The autumn-flowering species with with successive plantings; tubers of this
stoloniferous; leaves oblong to lanceo- a fibrous root-stock such as A.hupehensis and A. x fulgens deteriorate quickly and
late; scape to 7cm (23/4in); flowers 3–7, occur predominantly in damp open should be replaced every 2–3 years.
white or pink); A.cylindrica (Pyrenees; woodland. This group, which includes Susceptible to anemone and cucum-
densely tufted and cushion-forming; A. x hybrida, is well suited to the ber mosaic viruses; downy mildew, and
leaves to 1cm (1/2in) long, oblong to autumn border and woodland garden. anemone smut which produces
lanceolate, persisting after death to They are valued for the long swellings on the leaf stalks and leaves,
48 form column-shaped shoots; scape to succession of flowers that last well bursting to release black spores.
2cm (3/4in); flowers solitary, pink with when cut. Plant in dappled shade or Seedlings also susceptible to flea beetle.
Anemone
A NEMONE
A
Name Distribution Flowering time Habit Leaves Flowers
A.apennina S Europe early spring to 15cm (6in), leaves divided into 3, solitary, to 3cm (11⁄4in) diam., blue
APENNINE ANEMONE rhizomatous, toothed or lobed or pink- or white-flushed, with
spreading perennial segments 8–23 oblong tepals
Comments: Includes ‘Petrovac’ (flowers rich blue, many-tepalled), and ‘Purpurea’ (flowers soft purple-rose).
A.biflora Iran to Kashmir spring to 20cm (8in), leaves divided into 2–3 together, nodding, 2–5cm
tuberous perennial 3, lobed segments (3⁄4–2in) diam., crimson, orange
or yellow with 5, narrowly
Comments: Requires a warm, dry summer rest. elliptic tepals
A.blanda SE Europe to early spring to 18cm (7in), leaves divided into 3, solitary, to 4cm (11⁄2in) diam., blue,
Cyprus and tuberous perennial lobed segments mauve, white or pink with 9–15
Turkey narrowly oblong tepals
Comments: Includes ‘Ingramii’ ((‘Atrocaerulea’) flowers deep blue), pink), ‘Radar’ (flowers magenta with a white centre), ‘Violet Star’
‘Blue Shades’ (leaves very finely divided, flowers pale to deep blue), (flowers large, amethyst, exterior white), ‘White Splendour’ (flowers
‘Bridesmaid’ (flowers large, pure white), ‘Bright Star’ (flowers bright large, white, exterior pink).
A.coronaria S Europe, spring 20–60cm (8–24in), leaves divided into 3, solitary, to 8cm (3in) diam.,
POPPY-FLOWERED Mediterranean tuberous perennial lobed or toothed or scarlet, blue, pink, white or
ANEMONE cut segments bicoloured with 5–8, oval tepals
Comments: Many cultivars, dividing roughly into two groups: De Caen with single, large, poppy-shaped flowers in white, bright pink, red or
purple with showy black anthers, and St. Brigid with semi-double to double, large flowers in bright pastels, reds, mauves and bicolours.
A. x fulgens C Mediterranean spring to early to 25cm (10in), leaves more or less solitary, to 6cm (21⁄2in) diam.,
SCARLET WIND summer tuberous perennial divided into 3, lobed brilliant scarlet with 15 oblong-
FLOWER and toothed segments obovate tepals, centre black
A.hupehensis China, Japan late summer to 70cm (28in), leaves palmately 3- several together on long, uneven
A.japonica of gardens to autumn fibrous-rooted, lobed to 3-parted stalks in sparse umbels, to 5cm
JAPANESE ANEMONE branching, erect with sharply toothed (2in) diam., white to pink or palest
perennial margins and thin rosy mauve with 5–6 rounded
hairs beneath tepals and golden anthers
Comments: This species is often confused with A. x hybrida; both have ‘Prinz Heinrich’ (stems slender, flowers deep rosy purple with
been called A.japonica. A.hupehensis differs from A. x hybrida in its fertile numerous, flattened tepals). The true Anemone japonica is now treated
pollen and shorter stature. It includes ‘Bressingham Glow’ (to 90cm as A.hupehensis var. japonica. Its flowers have up to 20, pink to rose-
(36in), compact, flowers semi-double, petals fluted, deep pink) and mauve tepals.
A. x hybrida garden origin late summer to 150cm (60in), very similar to as for A.hupehensis but to 8cm (3in)
A.japonica of to autumn fibrous-rooted, A.hupehensis but with diam. with 6–11(–15) tepals
gardens erect, branching larger, very slightly
JAPANESE ANEMONE perennial hairy leaves
Comments: Differs from A. hupehensis in its flowers, usually lacking and elegant with very long flowerstalks, in flower form from single to
fertile pollen and taller stature. Many cultivars ranging in height from double and in colour from white to pale pink to deep rosy mauve.
70–150cm (28–60in), in habit from the bushy and compact to the tall They include ‘September Charm’ with silvery pink flowers.
A.coronaria ‘Lord Lieutenant’ A. x fulgens A.narcissiflora A. pavonina 49

Anemone
A A NEMONE
Name Distribution Flowering time Habit Leaves Flowers
A. x lipsiensis N and C early spring to 15cm (6in), leaves 3-parted in a solitary, to 2cm (3⁄4in) diam., very
A. x seemannii Europe rhizomatous, ruff below flowers, pale yellow with bright gold and
spreading perennial deeply cut and green stamens, tepals 5, ovate-elliptic
Comments: The offspring of A.ranunculoides x A.nemorosa, sharply toothed
a naturally occurring hybrid.
A.narcissiflora Europe, Asia, summer to 60cm (24in), leaves 3–5 parted up to 8 per umbel, to 4cm (11⁄2in),
N America rhizomatous with narrow, deeply white faintly tinted pink or blue
perennial divided and coarsely beneath, with 5–6, obovate,
toothed segments spreading tepals
A.nemorosa N and early spring to 30cm (12in), leaves 3-parted with solitary, to 3cm (11⁄4in) cross, white,
WOOD ANEMONE; C Europe rhizomatous, deeply cut, slender occasionally tinted pink or purple
WINDFLOWER carpeting perennial segments, some with 6–8 (5–12) oblong tepals and
forming a ruff golden anthers
below flower
Comments: Many cultivars including ‘Allenii’ (flowers lilac ‘Vindobonensis’ (flowers cream), ‘Virescens’ (flowers replaced by a
or lavender), ‘Flore Pleno’ (‘Plena’) (flowers white, double), pyramid of small, green, leafy bracts), ‘Wilk’s Giant’ (flowers large,
‘Robinsoniana’ (flowers pearly grey to palest lilac), ‘Vestal’ (flowers single, pure white).
white, centre with a button-like rose of petaloid segments),
A.pavonina Mediterranean early spring to 30cm (12in), leaves 3-parted with solitary, to 10cm (4in) diam., scarlet,
tuberous perennial much-toothed and violet, purple, pink, white or yellow
divided segments with a central boss of black stamens
Comments: Includes the deep salmon-coloured ‘Barr Salmon’, and the ringed with white, petals 7–9,
St. Bavo Group with flowers in coral, rose, lavender and violet. broadly obovate
A.ranunculoides N and early spring to 15cm (6in), leaves 3-parted with solitary, to 2cm (3⁄4in) diam., deep
C Europe rhizomatous, segments much yellow, tepals 5–6, elliptic
spreading perennial divided and toothed
Comments: Includes ‘Pleniflora’ (‘Flore Pleno’), with and held in a ruff
semi-double flowers, ‘Grandiflora’ with larger flowers, and below flowers
‘Superba’ with olive-bronze leaves and bright yellow flowers
A.rivularis N India, late spring, to 90cm (36in), leaves 3, with 3- 2–5 per umbel on slender stalks,
SW China early summer swollen-rooted parted, lobed and 1.5–3cm (5⁄8–11⁄4in) wide, white
erect, branching toothed segments stained lavender beneath, with
perennial 5–8, oval tepals
A.sylvestris N India, late spring, early to 90cm (36in), leaves palmately solitary, nodding, fragrant, 2.5–8cm
SNOWDROP SW China summer swollen-rooted, 3–5-parted, (1–3in) diam., white, tepals
WINDFLOWER erect, branching segments much 5+, elliptic
perennial toothed and divided
Comments: Includes ‘Grandiflora’ (flowers large, nodding and held well above plant, ‘Elisa Fellmann’
((‘Plena’) flowers semi-double), and ‘Macrantha’ (very vigorous, flowers large, nodding, strongly fragrant).
anemone-centred applied to com- perennial herb native to Eastern North rosy pink. Plant in a moist, humus-rich
posite flowers, especially chrysanthe- America. Finely divided, ferny foliage sandy soil, in dappled sun or light
mums and dahlias, where the disc arises in spring from tuberous roots. In shade. Mulch in winter. Propagate
florets are enlarged to form a central spring and early summer, 2–5, 2–3cm from fresh seed in summer, or by
cushion, sometimes of a contrasting (3/4–11/4in)-wide flowers are carried on division of well-established plants.
colour to the ray florets. Also used to slender stalks atop a 10–20cm (4–8in)-
describe peonies and camellias with tall stem and subtended by a com- Anemonopsis (Anemone, a related
petaloid stamens. pound, leafy ruff. They consist of 5–10 genus, and Greek, opsis, resemblance).
cupped, petal-like sepals, white to pale Ranunculaceae. 1 species, A.macrophylla
Anemonella (Latin diminutive form pink. In the cultivar ‘Florepleno’, the (FALSE ANEMONE), a rhizomatous, hardy
of the name Anemone, which this plant flowers are double and white, in perennial herb native to Japan. In
50 resembles). Ranunculaceae. 1 species, ‘Rosea’ pale pink, and in ‘Roseaplena’ summer, the ferny foliage is surpassed
A.thalictroides (RUE ANEMONE), a hardy (‘Schoaff ’s Double Pink’) double and by slender stalks to 80cm (32in) tall and
Anguloa
bearing delicately branched panicles.

The nodding flowers are lavender,
(q.v.), native to southwest Asia, now
widely naturalized in Europe and N
abundant aerial roots. Waxy, star-like
and long-spurred, in shades of white,
A
2–4cm (3/4–11/2in) wide, and consist of America. It grows to 60cm (24in) tall, cream and green, the flowers are
7–10 cupped, petal-like sepals and ten, with leaves to 30cm (12in) composed produced in axillary clusters and
far smaller petals. Plant in damp, cool of many, thread-like segments. sprays. Grow in light shade in a humid
and humus-rich soils in light shade or environment, minimum temperature
dappled sunlight. Propagate by division anfractuose, anfractuous 18°C/65°F. Plant in clay pots or
in spring. describes plant parts that are closely baskets filled with a very open, bark-
or tightly sinuous, or spirally twisted. based medium. Water, feed and syringe
Anemopaegma (from Greek anemos, frequently during warm weather; less
wind, and paigma, sport, referring to Angelica (from the ancient name, often in winter. Increase by offsets and
the way in which the wind plays with Herba angelica, ‘angelic plant’ – the stem cuttings.
the stems). Bignoniaceae. C and S many herbal properties of this plant A.distichum (W Africa; stems to 20cm
America. YELLOW TRUMPET VINE. were said to have been revealed by an (8in) long concealed by the overlapping
40 species, evergreen, woody climbers angel). Umbelliferae. Northern Hemi- bases of two-ranked, short, folded
grown for their showy, tubular to sphere. 50 species, biennial, mono- leaves; flowers small, solitary, white);
funnel-shaped flowers. The leaves con- carpic or perennial herbs, usually tall A.eburneum (Africa, islands in the Indian
sist of 1–2 pairs of smooth, leathery and robust with ternately 2–3-pinnate Ocean; to 1m (31/4ft) tall with strap-
leaflets to 15cm (6in) long and often leaves and small, green-white flowers shaped leaves and arching sprays of
terminate in a coiling tendril. Plant in large, compound umbels. A.archangel- 6cm (21/2in)-wide flowers, green with
in a fertile, loamy medium in large ica is GARDEN ANGELICA, ARCHANGEL or upturned, shell-like white lips, heavily
pots or tubs in the greenhouse or WILD PARSNIP, a monocarpic herb to fragrant at night); A.sesquipedale (COMET
conservatory (minimum temperature 2m (61/2ft) tall, native to Europe and ORCHID; Madagascar; leaves thick,
10°C/50°F), in full sun or part shade. Asia. The 60cm (24in)-long leaves are strap-shaped; flowers starry, ivory,
Propagate by softwood cuttings. smooth and dark green with toothed, thickly waxy in texture, to 18cm (7in)
A.chamberlaynii (Brazil; leaf tendrils oblong segments. The umbels are across, spicily scented at night with a
usually 3-branched; flowers 5cm (2in)- 12–25cm (43/4–10in) wide, massed spur some 30cm (12in) long).
long, rich golden yellow); A.chrysoleucum with white or yellow-green flowers
(Mexico to N Brazil; differs from the and carried on stout stalks. angular, angulate of plant parts
first species in its unbranched leaf Young stems of angelica are crystal- with laterally projecting angles, as in
tendrils and larger (6–10cm (21/2–4in)), lized and used for confectionary longitudinally ridged and angled stems.
fragrant flowers borne 1–3 (not 2–8) decoration; they are also eaten fresh,
per axil; these are yellow and usually cooked as for asparagus, or boiled with Anguloa (for Don Francisco de
stained white with orange or purple- rhubarb to alleviate its tartness. Fresh Angulo (fl.1790), Spanish naturalist).
brown markings in the throat). or dried, the leaves are used in herbal Orchidaceae. South America. CRADLE
tisanes. The flowers are a valuable ORCHID; TULIP ORCHID. 10 species, ter-
anemophily wind pollination. nectar source for bees. A stately addi- restrial or epiphytic orchids with large
tion not only to the herb garden, but pseudobulbs and long, ribbed leaves.
also to green/white borders and bed- Borne in spring and summer, the flow-
ding schemes. Angelica will usually die ers are large and solitary, arising on
after setting seed, but may perform thick stalks alongside the new growth.
as a perennial if the flowerheads are They consist of broad and waxy,
removed soon after fading in summer. strongly cupped tepals which cradle a
Sow seed in situ when ripe. small, tongue-like lip. Most are strongly
scented of chocolate and oil of winter-
angiosperms plants with their seeds green. Grow in humid, well-ventilated
enclosed in an ovary, i.e. flowering and lightly shaded conditions, mini-
plants as opposed to gymnosperms, mum winter temperature 9°C/48°F.
Anethum graveolens which are non-flowering plants with Pot annually in late winter in an open
The leaves of this umbelliferous herb, dill, naked seeds. mix with sphagnum moss and perlite.
are used for flavouring. It makes a pretty Water and feed liberally while the new
addition to an informal planting. Angraecum (Latinized form of the growth develops. Once the new
Malay name anggrek or angurek, used pseudobulbs are complete (usually
Anethum (from Greek anethon, dill). for epiphytic orchids with aerial roots). early autumn), allow the plants to dry
Umbelliferae. Old World. 2 species, Orchidaceae. Tropical and South out thoroughly between waterings and
annual and biennial herbs scented of Africa; Indian Ocean Islands. 150 keep in cool, bright conditions;
anise with very finely divided leaves species, tender, epiphytic orchids usu- increase water and temperatures when
and small, yellow flowers in compound ally with leathery leaves arranged in the new growth appears. Increase by 51
umbels. A.graveolens is the herb DILL two ranks along erect stems and with backbulbs and division.
Anguloa
A A.brevilabris (flowers to 10cm (4in) anion exchange capacity the and roots of plants growing in temper-
deep, tepals olive, interior densely ability of a soil to adsorb negatively ate zones. The rings are due to a
spotted dark blood red, lip short, pale charged ions known as anions. seasonal rhythm in the growth of
barred blood red with small lateral A measure of the retention and cambium, which is greatest in the
lobes); A.clowesii (flowers to 10cm (4in) availability of such nutrients as spring and gradually falls off towards
deep, tepals lemon to canary yellow); phosphate, sulphate and molybdate. dormancy. The cycle is repeated each
A.hohenlohii (syn. A.ruckeri of gardens; year, so that annual rings provide a
flowers to 12cm (43/4in) deep, tepals Anisodontea (from Greek, anisos, means of calculating the age of trees
olive, interior densely spotted and unequal, and odous, tooth, referring to especially. Also known as growth rings.
stained dark blood red, lip red, larger the unequal projections on the meri-
than in A.brevilabris, with distinct, carps). Malvaceae. South Africa. 19 annual shoots shoots that live for
outspread lateral lobes); A. x ruckeri species, evergreen shrubs or shrubby one year only, produced by herbaceous
(A.clowesii x A.hohenlohii; flowers to 10cm perennial herbs with lobed leaves. Soli- perennial plants, most bulbs and
(4in) deep, tepals dull yellow to olive, tary, cymose or racemose, the flowers some shrubs.
interior yellow spotted blood red); have five spreading, broadly obovate
A.uniflora (flowers to 10cm (4in) deep, petals and are produced in spring and annular, annulate ring-shaped;
tepals white faintly flushed rose); summer. Grow in full sun or light used of organs or parts in a circular
A.virginalis (flowers to 8cm (3in) deep, shade. Maintain a minimum winter arrangement or forming rings.
tepals white, interior dotted and lined temperature of 5°C/41°F with good
faintly with pale rose, lip with a kinked ventilation, and water plentifully when annulus (1) the corona or rim of the
base, spotted red). in growth. Propagate by greenwood or corolla in Asclepiadaceae; (2) in ferns,
semi-ripe cuttings in summer. an elastic ring of cells that partially
Anigozanthos (from Greek anisos, A.capensis (woody-based, bushy invests and bursts the sporangium
unequal and anthos, flower, referring perennial to 1m (31/4ft) tall; flowers at dehiscence.
to the unequal perianth lobes). 1.5–3cm (5/8–11/4in) wide, pale to deep
Haemodoraceae. Australia. KANGAROO magenta with darker veins and a basal Anoda (from Greek a-, without, and
PAW; CAT’S PAW. 11 species, evergreen blotch); A. x hypomadarum (hybrid of Latin nodus, joint: the pedicels lack a
or semi-deciduous perennial herbs with unknown parentage; slender-branched node). Malvaceae. Tropical and sub-
grassy or iris-like leaves in basal fans or shrub to 3m (10ft) tall; flowers 2–3cm tropical Americas. 10 species, annual
clumps and long-stalked spikes or pani- (3/4–11/4in) (wide and white or pale pink and perennial herbs and subshrubs
cles usually in spring and summer. The with deep purple veins merging in a with hastate, unlobed or lobed leaves
flowers are tubular, split on the curving basal blotch). and flowers with five, obovate petals
lower side and with five short and carried one to two per axil in erect
acute lobes peeled back on the arching annual a plant that completes its life racemes in summer. Grow under glass
upper side. They are covered in dense cycle of germination, flowering and (minimum temperature 7°C/45°F) in
and usually colourful felty hairs. Grow seeding within one growing season. sun in a well-drained, gritty compost.
in full sunlight in a freely draining acid Represented, as examples, in the flower Water moderately in winter. Alterna-
mix. Provide a rather dry, airy atmos- garden by cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) tively, treat as a half-hardy annual
phere and a minimum temperature of and in the vegetable garden by lettuce grown in a sunny, sheltered situation.
5°C/41°F. Water freely during warm (Lactuca sativa). Propagate from seed sown in situ in late
weather, sparingly in winter. Propagate annual rings spring or, earlier, under glass. A.cristata
by division in spring. (erect to sprawling annual or short-
A.flavidus (TALL KANGAROO PAW; lived perennial herb to 1.5m (5ft) tall;
flowers 3–5cm (11/4–2in) long and typi- flowers 1.5–5cm (5/8–2in) wide, white,
cally lime green densely covered with lavender or purple-blue; ‘Opal Cup’:
sulphur yellow felt with orange anthers, flowers silvery lilac with an iridescent
arranged on the ascending branches sheen and mauve veins: ‘Snowdrop’:
of erect panicles that stand between flowers pure white).
one and two metres tall; red, pink, buff
and orange forms also occur); A.mangle- Anomatheca (from Latin anomalus,
sii (flowers arranged in two rows at the abnormal, and theca, a case, referring to
tip of a 30–100cm (12–39in) spike, the warty capsule). Iridaceae. Central
7–12cm (23/4–43/4in) long, yellow-green and South Africa. 6 species, cormous
to emerald with bright red hairs perennial herbs grown for their flowers.
toward the base); A.rufits (RED KANGA- Cultivation as for Babiana. A.laxa
Cross-section, trunk of Pinus muricata
ROO PAW; differs from A.flavidus in flow- (Lapeirousia laxa, L.cruenta; S Africa,
ers, arranged on outspread branches, annual rings clearly defined rings Mozambique; leaves sword-shaped,
52 and basically olive, thickly covered in of secondary xylem evident in trans- exceeded in summer by a loose, erect
blood red felt with green anthers). versely cut woody stems (see above) to horizontal raceme some 30cm (12in)
anthocyanins
tall; flowers 2.5cm (1in) wide with a

straight perianth tube and two groups
America. CATS’ EARS; EVERLASTING;
PUSSY TOES; LADIES’ TOBACCO. 45
anther cap in orchids, the cap-like
case enclosing the pollinia.
A
of three segments, typically red with species, small, often woolly perennial
purple-red markings at the base of the herbs with leaves in basal rosettes and anther sac a sac-shaped unit con-
lower three segments; warty seed cap- discoid, solitary or clustered flower- taining pollen bearing sacs disposed
sules split to reveal red-brown seeds). heads on erect stems in summer. Frost- in two lobes; the tissues separating the
hardy but intolerant of wet and cold members of each pair usually break
Anopterus (from Greek ano, combined. Plant in full sun. Propagate down prior to anthesis, giving rise to
upwards, and pteron, wing, referring by division in spring. A.dioica (Europe, a biloculate (two-celled) anther.
to the winged seeds). Grossulariaceae. N America, N Asia; creeping, ever-
Australia; Tasmania. 2 species, evergreen; leaves, spathulate, 0.5–4cm Anthericum (from the Greek
green trees and shrubs with leathery (1/4–11/2in)-long covered in silvery hairs; antherikos, the flowering stem of the
leaves and racemes of bell-shaped, flowerheads to 0.5cm (1/4in) across in asphodel). Liliaceae (Anthericaceae).
6-parted flowers. Grow in sheltered, a terminal cluster resembling tiny Southern Europe; Turkey; Africa (those
humid locations in zone 8, or in a cool everlastings, usually white with a below from Southern Europe). 50
greenhouse and conservatory. Plant in silvery pink tint, although deep rose species, fleshy-rooted, rhizomatous
a neutral to acid, sandy mix in bright, in the compact cultivar ‘Nyewoods perennial herbs with clumps of grassy
filtered light or part shade. Propagate Variety’, rose-pink in ‘Rosea’ and or strap-like leaves and slender, erect,
by semi-ripe cuttings in summer. A.glan- deep blood red in ‘Rubra’). simple to branching spikes of six-
dulosus (TASMANIAN LAUREL; shrub or parted, starry white flowers. Fully
small tree to 10m (30ft) tall; leaves anterior of the surface or part of an hardy, plant in sun. Where tempera-
6–18cm (21/2–7in)-long, lanceolate to organ turned away from or furthest tures fall far below –10°C/14°F, or
elliptic leathery, toothed; flowers 2cm from the axis and projecting forward winter conditions are wet, apply a dry
(3/4in) wide, waxy white to pale rose, in or toward the base or (in the case of mulch. Propagate by seed, or by divi-
10cm (4in)-long racemes in late spring). a flower) any subtending bract; close sion in spring. A.liliago (ST BERNARD’S
to abaxial but broader in definition, LILY; to 90cm (36in) tall with usually
Anredera (name derivation meaning not only ‘beneath’ but also unbranched racemes of 2cm (3/4in)-
unknown). Basellaceae. South America lower (of two, as in the lower lip of a wide flowers in early summer);
(naturalized Southern Europe). 10 bilabiate flower) or furthest as in the tip A.ramosum (slightly shorter than the first
species, woody to herbaceous climbers of an organ, cf. posterior. species with much-branched stems of
arising from tuberous roots, with thinly flowers in summer; leaves grey-green).
fleshy leaves and small flowers in Anthemis (the Greek name for this
axillary spikes and racemes. Grow in herb, from anthemon, flower). Composi- anthesis the expansion or opening
full sun and with a minimum winter tae. Mediterranean to Western Asia. of a flower; the period in which the
temperature of 5°C/41°F and sturdy DOG FENNEL 100 species, hairy, aro- anthers and stigmas become functional,
support for the heavy climbing growth. matic perennial herbs and subshrubs enabling fertilization to take place.
Cut back the previous year’s growth to with finely cut leaves and long-stalked,
just above ground in spring. Propagate daisy-like flowerheads. Evergreen, anthocorid bugs (Hemiptera:
by division of tubers in spring, and by hardy and summer-flowering. Plant Anthocoridae). Small, usually preda-
tubercles which may form in the leaf in full sun. Propagate by division in cious insects, about 2–4mm (1/16–1/8in)
axils. A.cordifolia (syn. Boussingaultia autumn or spring, and by basal cuttings long, mostly black or brown and
cordifolia, B.gracilis var. pseudobaselloides; in spring or late summer. resembling small capsid bugs. Anthocoris
MIGNONETTE VINE; MADEIRA VINE; A.punctata subsp. cupaniana (S Europe nemorum preys on aphids, scale insects,
vigorous, herbaceous vine; leaves to 6m and N Africa; woody-based perennial gall-midge larvae, small caterpillars,
(20ft) fleshy, bright green and smooth, making a dense and springy carpet of thrips and mites. Adults consume
heart-shaped; flowers fragrant white silvery leaves; flowerheads 6cm (21/2in)- around 50 fruit-tree red spider mites
flowers in drooping spikes in late wide, white with yellow centres); per day, or 500–600 aphids during the
summer; plants named A.baselloides A.tinctoria (DYER’S CHAMOMILE, YELLOW lifetime of one individual. A.nemorum
are often A.cordifolia. True A.baselloides CHAMOMILE; Europe, W Asia; erect, and A.nemoralis are important predators
differs in its simple, not 3-lobed style). clump-forming, sparsely hairy to of the aphid Pemphigus bursarius, which
woolly perennial to 60cm (24in) tall; lives during the spring in galls on the
antemarginal used of veins, sori leaves ferny, mid-green; flowerheads petioles of poplar leaves before migrat-
and other leaf features lying within, to 3cm (11/4in)-wide, white to golden ing to the roots of outdoor lettuce.
or extending just short of, the margin. or pale cream with golden centres). Anthocorids enter the galls and a single
For A.nobilis, see Chamaemelum nobile. nymph can rapidly kill the whole aphid
Antennaria (from Latin antenna: the colony, which averages 100 individuals.
pappus hairs of male flowers resemble anther the pollen-bearing portion of
insect antennae). Compositae. North- the stamen, either sessile or attached anthocyanins pigments frequently 53
ern Temperate Regions; Asia; South to a filament. found in cell sap, and responsible for
anthocyanins
A red, blue and intermediate colours in over, and is a widespread problem on with hygiene measures, including the
flowers, foliage and stems. the Pacific Coast of the US, but rare collection and destruction of diseased
in regions of low rainfall. fruit and foliage.
anthracnose A group of fungal DIGITALIS ANTHRACNOSE (C.fuscum) In the US, PRIVET ANTHRACNOSE
diseases usually caused by Colletotrichum Causes damping-off of seedlings on and TWIG BLIGHT are widespread and
species, characterized by black, sunken foxgloves and other Scrophulariaceae. serious diseases on Ligustrum and the
lesions on which pustules of mucilagi- It may also cause serious damage to dogwoods. They are controlled by the
nous spores are produced. older plants as small purple-brown use of resistant species and the
ANTIRRHINUM ANTHRACNOSE spots on leaves, and lesions on stems destruction of diseased foliage.
(Colletotrichum coccodes) affects green- and petioles. It is seed-borne and may Since spores are produced in a
house-grown antirrhinums under damp be prevented by hot-water treatment mucilaginous mass and dispersed by
growing conditions; it also occurs on of seed. water, anthracnose diseases are encour-
plants outdoors at the end of summer. HOLLYHOCK ANTHRACNOSE aged by wet conditions and are particu-
Leaf and stem lesions can result in the (C.malvarum) is a serious disease in larly common in rainy climates, where
collapse of plants. North America, but less damaging in control by spraying is difficult. Where
BEAN ANTHRACNOSE (C.lindemuthi- Europe. Seedlings are blighted and chemical treatments can be used,
anum) is a major disease of haricot older leaves and stems show black copper-based and other general fungi-
beans which can also affect scarlet spotting and blotching. Abutilon, Lavatera cides are usually effective. The level
runners, lima beans, cowpeas, broad and Malva can also be infected. of disease can be reduced by crop
beans and other legumes. Particularly STEM ANTHRACNOSE (C.truncatum) is a rotation, the use of healthy seed, and
damaging in wet conditions and under serious seed-borne disease of soy beans careful disposal of crop residues, on
protected cultivation, it is readily in the southern US. Reddish lesions which the fungus is able to continue
spread by rain-splash, overhead irriga- occur on stems, leaves and pods, and to grow at the end of the season.
tion and cultural operations. Symptoms if infection is heavy plants are stunted
are circular brown to black spots on or killed. Anthriscus (from Greek, anthriskos,
pods developing a pinkish ooze of Anthracnose of many plants is chervil). Umbelliferae. Europe; N
spores in damp weather, which leads to caused by Glomerella cingulata (anamorph Africa; Asia. 12 species, hardy annual,
seed-borne infection, the usual route Colletotrichum gloeosporioides). In tropical biennial and perennial herbs with fine,
for introduction into gardens. and subtropical areas it has an ternately divided leaves and in spring
BRASSICA ANTHRACNOSE extremely wide host range as a and summer, small, white to cream
(C.higginsianum) is a seed-borne disease pathogen, as a secondary fungus fol- flowers in compound umbels.
which can damage Chinese cabbage, lowing other infections, injury or stress, A.cereifolium is the herb CHERVIL, (q.v.).
mustard greens, turnips and other and as a saprophyte. It is a common A.sylvestris is a beautiful addition to the
brassicas in warmer areas of the US. cause of leaf lesions, shoot dieback wild garden, where it will naturalize
CLIVIA ANTHRACNOSE (C.gloeosporioides) (withertip) and fruit spotting. In addi- itself, making banks of soft, foamy
may be the fungus responsible for the tion to anthracnose, the fungus causes flower. It will grow on most soils in
reddish spots commonly seen on Clivia cankers and fruit rots. The following sun or part shade. Increase by seed
foliage. No control is usually needed. are among the many anthracnose-type sown in situ.
CUCURBIT ANTHRACNOSE diseases caused by G.cingulata. A.cereifolium (CHERVIL; annual to
(C.lagenarium or C.orbiculare) attacks all Fruit spotting of avocado, banana, 60cm (24in) tall; leaves bright green,
above-ground parts of cucurbits; it is guava, loquat, mango and papaya is a delicately scented of aniseed);
particularly serious on protected serious problem for which control mea- A.sylvestris (COW PARSLEY, KECK; inedi-
cucumbers and on watermelons. sures include hot fungicidal dips, fruit ble biennial or perennial to 1m (31/4ft)
Cucumber seedlings may suffer from wrapping on the tree, treatment with tall with spreading, ferny foliage and
damping-off. Pale green leaf spots fungicidal waxes and gamma radiation. lacy flowerheads borne in spring;
occur later, which enlarge, dry up and The natural microflora on fruit inhibit ‘Moonlit Night’: foliage solidly deep
may kill whole leaves. Sunken lesions germination and penetration of spores, bronze-purple, flowers white;
are produced on stems and on develop- and encouraging these flora may lead ‘Ravenswing’: foliage purple-black,
ing fruits, causing cracking. Poorly ven- to development of a biological control. flowers off-white – both cultivars come
tilated conditions encourage spread of MANGO ANTHRACNOSE may infect more or less true from seed).
the disease. On watermelons, leaves fruits so badly that they drop before
develop small black spots which spread ripening or degenerate on the tree. It Anthurium (from Greek, anthos,
until the foliage becomes black and remains quiescent until fruit ripening flower, and oura, tail, referring to the
shrivelled. Fruits may be covered with after harvest, when it can cause serious tail-like spadix). Araceae. Tropical
numerous sunken lesions and also losses during shipment and at point of Americas. FLAMINGO FLOWER; TAIL
suffer sunburning as a side-effect of sale. Fruit set may also be badly FLOWER. Perhaps 900 species, tender,
defoliation. The disease can become affected by earlier blossom blight. evergreen, perennial herbs, many epi-
54 epidemic in conditions of high rainfall There is varietal resistance. Control phytic, with climbing stems or, as is the
and temperatures of 24°C/75°F and with fungicide needs to be combined case of those below, a short, rooting
antitranspirant
stem bearing a clump of long-stalked,

leathery leaves. Produced throughout
yellow); A.montana (spreading, woody-
based perennial to 30cm (12in) tall
antipetalous opposite to or super-
posed on a petal, i.e. not alternate.
A
the year, the flowers are very small and with grey-green to mid-green leaves
packed in a slender spadix backed by a composed of many leaflets; flowers Antirrhinum (from Greek anti,
showy, shield-like spathe. Grow in dap- pale pink marked red, opposite, and rhis, snout, referring to
pled sun or shade with a minimum tail-like in dense heads; ‘Rubra’: the corolla shape). Scrophulariaceae.
temperature of 15°C/59°F and spadix leaves grey, flowers SNAPDRAGON. Temperate regions. 40
medium to high humidity. crimson). species annual and perennial herbs and
Plant in small pots con- subshrubs with tubular, 2-lipped flow-
taining an open, neu- antibiotics sub- ers solitary in the leaf axils or in termi-
tral to acid, soilless stances produced by nal racemes; these have a billowing
mix high in coarse micro-organisms, upper lip and a tongue-like lower lip
bark and leafmould. especially fungi and with a conspicuous, bearded palate.
Keep moist at all actinomycetes, which The typical A.majus is short-lived with
times, never water- are toxic to other a woody base and rather ragged habit.
logged. Apply a micro-organisms. As a Most cultivars, however, are treated as
weak liquid feed spin-off from medical annuals or biennials and retain their
monthly. Propagate research, streptomycin vigour and bushiness; they range in
by rooted offsets. and terramycin have height from tall (to 1m (31/4ft)), to inter-
A.andraeanum (Colom- been used to control bac- mediate (to 45cm (18in)) and dwarf
bia and Ecuador; to 60cm terial disease and downy (to 30cm (12in)). The larger cultivars
(24in) tall; spadix white to mildew in plants, but this are suitable for cutting. In addition to
yellow, tapering, pointing Anthurium practice is questionable on these, more conventional snapdragons,
downwards toward the tip andreanum public health grounds. Antibi- new races of pendulous hybrids are
of a 6–15cm (21/2–6in)-long, otics specifically developed to becoming popular. These have grey-
heart-shaped, puckered spathe in control plant diseases include actidione green foliage and a loose, cascading
bright waxy red; cultivars with white, (against powdery mildews, leaf spots habit ideal for hanging baskets and
flamingo pink, golden, vermilion and and some rusts) and kasugamycin containers. Examples include the deep
scarlet spathes are available); (against bacterial and fungal disease). rose and yellow ‘Rose Pink’ and
A.crystallinum (Panama to Peru; leaves The use of antibiotics for the con- ‘Primrose Vein’, white flushed yellow
30–50cm (12–20in)-long, broadly trol of plant pathogens requires a thor- and rose, combed with red. Grow in
heart-shaped, soft, bronze-pink at first ough understanding of the implications full sun on a fertile, well-drained soil.
becoming deep, satiny emerald green for human health. Deadhead regularly. Sow seed in situ
overlaid with glistening, silver-white in late spring, or take cuttings in
veins; spadix purple-brown backed antidesiccant see antitranspirant. spring or early autumn.
by a narrow, purple-red spathe); A.majus (SNAPDRAGON; SW Europe,
A.scherzerianum (Costa Rica; to 30cm Antigonon (from Greek, anti, against, Mediterranean; erect, shrubby peren-
(12in); spathe elliptic to ovate, glossy and gonia, an angle, referring to the nial to 1m (31/4ft); flowers in narrow,
scarlet to orange-red; spadix to 12cm flexuous stems). Polygonaceae. Central terminal racemes, tubular some 5cm
(43/4in) long, orange-red, spiralling; America. 3 species, rampant perennial (2in) long with two distinct lips and
‘Atrosanguineum’: spathe deepest blood vines, usually tuberous-rooted, with an enlarged palate; typically purple
red ‘Rothschildianum’: spathe red axillary, tendril-tipped racemes of or pink, but the many seed races now
spotted: white, spadix yellow; ‘Wardii’: small flowers with colourful papery available encompass plants with white,
spathe large, deep burgundy). sepals. A vivid, fast-growing climber yellow, apricot, orange, flame, rose,
which, in frost-free gardens, will red and purple flowers, some with
Anthyllis (the classical name). Legu- quickly cover any support or structure. mixtures of colour and differently
minosae. Mediterranean. 25 species, Elsewhere, it should be grown in the toned lips or palates; flower forms
annual and perennial herbs or shrubs cool greenhouse or conservatory or, range from small (3cm (11/4in)) to large
with pinnate leaves and heads of pea- in zones 8 and 9, outdoors in very (7cm (23/4in)), single and straight-tubed
like flowers in spring and summer. sheltered positions as a deciduous to penstemon- and trumpet-shaped,
Hardy to at least –10°C/14°F, but perennial with a thick mulch in winter. peloric and double).
resentful of cold and wet. Plant in full Grow in full sun. Increase by division
sun. Propagate by semi-ripe cuttings, or seed. A.leptopus (CORAL VINE, antisepalous opposite to or super-
or by detaching rooted branches. CONFEDERATE VINE, MEXICAN CREEPER, posed on a sepal, i.e. not alternate.
A.hermanniae (domed, bushy peren- CHAIN OF LOVE, ROSA DE MONTANA,
nial to 1m (31/4ft) tall with a tangle of QUEEN’S WREATH; Mexico; to 12m antitranspirant a chemical prepa-
spreading, spiny-tipped, grey-hairy (40ft); flowers coral pink, white in ration applied to aerial parts of plants
branches; leaves trefoil-like or reduced ‘Album’, hot pink to crimson in ‘Baja to reduce water-loss from foliage and 55
to a single, bright green leaflet; flowers Red’, produced chiefly in summer). shoots by sealing stomatal pores. Emul-
antitranspirant
A sions of plastic polymers are commonly MOUND ANT (L.flavus) has similar-sized growth. Both species flower at various
used on newly transplanted evergreen workers which are mostly pale yellow. times of year. A.squarrosa bracts are a
woody plants to aid establishment. This species produces ant hills which long-lasting attraction. Cut back and
Some contribute a protectant effect can reach the size of mole hills. repot after flowering. Root tip cuttings
against pests and diseases. Also known PHARAOH’S ANT (Monomorium pharaonis) in a sandy mix in humid conditons.
as an antidesiccant. is a ubiquitous species, having been A.aurantiaca (Mexico, Colombia;
spread throughout the world by ship- shrub to 1m (31/4ft), the finest form is
antrorse turned, curved or bent ping. Workers are red-yellow and about ‘Roezlii’ (FIERY SPIKE) with leaden,
upward or forward, toward the apex; 2mm (1/16in) long. Pheidole species are puckered leaves marked with silver
cf. retrorse. of comparable size, but workers are veins; flowers brilliant scarlet, emerging
darker brown and the genus is notable from overlapping purple-tinted bracts
ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) a in having a soldier caste, equipped with in 4-sided spikes to 18cm (7in) long);
very large family of small social insects, enlarged mandibles. RED ANTS (Myrmica A.squarrosa (ZEBRA PLANT, SAFFRON
which live in nests containing wingless species) are common in gardens; the SPIKE; Brazil; shrub to 2m (61/2ft) tall
infertile females and at least one fertile workers are larger than those of Lasius but usually sold and kept small, newly
female or queen. During summer, and able to sting. LEAF CUTTING ANTS propagated, bushy plants; stems
usually in hot humid weather, winged (Atta species) occur in South America purple-tinted; leaves to 25cm (10in)
males and females swarm in mating and the southern states of the US, long, glossy dark green with sunken
flights; fertilized females shed their where they are sometimes serious pests herring-bone veins heavily outlined in
wings and choose a suitable site to of tree crops and ornamentals; they cut white or gold; flowers maroon-flecked
establish a new nest. Some queens leaf pieces from a wide range of plants yellow, peeping from overlapping, waxy,
are capable of living for over 15 years. and carry them back to their nests, yellow bracts of 20cm (8in)-long
Ants feed on sugary substances such sometimes virtually defoliating individ- 4-sided spikes: ‘Leopoldii’: leaves
as nectar, as well as on oil-rich seeds, ual trees. A fungus on the decaying leaf dark green, veined pure white, flowers
other ants and small invertebrates. fragments provides food for the ants. yellow amid maroon bracts).
Many species have a close association Ants are best controlled by destroy-
with aphids, scale insects and mealy- ing the nest with boiling water or aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae and
bugs, imbibing their excreted honey- appropriate residual insecticides. other families) small, soft-bodied, sap-
dew; for some sap-feeding insects this is Where nests are inaccessible, insecti- feeding insects, about 1–5mm (1/16–1/4in)
an essential service. Ants assist aphids cides should be applied around the long, with relatively long legs and
by warding off predators and parasites, entrance holes and along pathways; antennae and a pair of horn-like struc-
and there is evidence that they are proprietary baits may tures (the siphunculi) on the
capable of transporting aphids to also be used, but back of the abdomen;
better feeding sites. these may need GREENFLY, BLACKFLY,
Plants are seldom attacked directly frequent renewal. PLANT LICE, and
by temperate species of garden ants, BLIGHT are other
but seed collecting is common, particu- apetalous lacking descriptions for aphids.
larly oil-rich seeds such as Buddleja, petals. They may be black,
Meconopsis, Primula, Rhododendron and green, yellow, pink or
Viola. Worker ants move along defined apex the growing point grey; in some, such as the
pathways between the nest and food of a stem or root; the tip WOOLLY APHID, the body is
source, laying down trail pheromones of a plant organ or struc- obscured by a covering of
to mark the route. When nests are built ture, most commonly white waxy filaments.
mouthparts
under plants, extensive tunnelling and used of a leaf tip. pierce plant Aphids feed by inserting
loosening of the soil around roots can surfaces to sucking mouthparts into the
cause plants to wilt, especially those Aphelandra (from suck sap phloem of plants: the resulting
growing in free-draining soils and in Greek, apheles, simple, and injury takes various forms
pots. Excavated soil is usually deposited aner, andros, man: the anthers Aphids including leaf curling, stem
on the surface, so that low-growing are one-celled). Acanthaceae. on rose distortion, galling, malformed
plants may become partially buried; Tropical America. 170 species, tender fruits, defoliation and, with root-feed-
this can be especially troublesome evergreen shrubs and subshrubs with ing aphids. wilting and root splitting.
on lawns. tough, ovate to elliptic leaves and ter- Indirect damage is caused by the
The COMMON BLACK ANT (Lasius minal spikes of tubular 2-lipped flow- copious excretion of honeydew, which
niger), with workers about 4mm (1/8in) ers amid overlapping bracts. Grow in coats underlying foliage and becomes
long, is prevalent in gardens through- bright, filtered light or light shade with infected by fungal sooty moulds, so that
out Europe and strains occur in North a minimum temperature of affected leaves carry out their normal
America. Nests are found beneath 13°C/55°F. Pot in a soilless, free-drain- functions less efficiently.
56 plants, stones, pavements and masonry, ing mix; keep moist throughout the Most aphids have a single host or a
in banks and old tree stumps. The year and feed fortnightly when in narrow range of host plants. Summer
Aponogeton
colonies usually consist of winged and

wingless females that produce live
when growth is dormant. In spring and
summer aphids are readily susceptible
Asia. 20 species, annual, biennial and
perennial herbs. See celeriac, celery.
A
young without fertilization. Winged to a number of contact and systemic
aphids are weak fliers, but can be car- insecticides, and early and repeated apogeotropic see ageotropic.
ried by air currents for long distances. treatment is necessary. The instructions
Migratory species can find alternate provided with proprietary products apomixis, apomict generally used
hosts in this way and although mainly must be followed, especially with regard to describe the process of reproducing
a minority group, are significant plant to approval for use on and persistence without the fusion of gametes (asexu-
pests. They include the BLACK BEAN in edible crops. The choice and appli- ally), which is also sometimes referred
APHID (Aphis fabae), which overwinters cation of chemical sprays should have to as parthenocarpy. A plant in which
as eggs on Euonymus and Viburnum regard for useful predators and para- seeds or seed-like structures develop
opulus and migrates in late spring to sites. Aphids have many natural from such unfertilized cells is termed
beans and other hosts, and the LET- enemies including ladybirds, lacewing an apomict, and its offspring are usually
TUCE ROOT APHID (Pemphigus bursarius), and hoverfly larvae, and braconid and uniform. The phenomenon is common
which migrates from poplar to the chalcid wasps, some of which can be in plants such as Rubus, Hieracium
roots of lettuces and sow thistle. Like purchased for biological control. and Taraxacum.
many other aphids, they produce Aphids may be attacked by insect feed- The term apomict is sometimes used
sexual forms in autumn, and fertilized ing fungi, and one of these, Verticillium to describe the product of other asexual
females lay shiny black eggs on the lecanii, has been used to control certain (vegetative) means of increase, as an
stems of woody plants. Some aphids species on greenhouse plants. alternative to the term clone.
overwinter as active stages. See blackfly, root aphids, woolly aphid.
Many aphids, particularly the Aponogeton (from Aquae Aponi, the
PEACH-POTATO APHID (Myzus persicae). Aphyllanthes (from Greek, aphyllos, Latin name for the healing springs of
are vectors of viruses such as bean leafless, and anthos, flower, referring to Bagni d’Abano, plus Greek geiton, a
yellow mosaic, cauliflower mosaic, the rush-like stems). Liliaceae (Aphyl- neighbour. This name was originally
dahlia mosaic, lettuce mosaic, pea leaf- lanthaceae). SW Europe; Morocco. applied to another aquatic, Zannichellia).
roll, plum pox, potato leaf-roll, tomato 1 species, A.monspeliensis, a perennial Aponogetonaceae. Old World Tropics
aspermy and tulip-breaking virus. herb with a mop of wiry and chalky, and Subtropics. 44 species, aquatic
M.persicae overwinters either as eggs leafless stems to 30cm (12in) long picked perennial herbs with bottom-rooting,
on peaches or nectarines, or as active out in late spring and summer with tuberous rhizomes and submerged or
stages under glass or outdoors in 2cm (3/4in)-wide, 6-parted, lilac to bright floating, long-stalked, oblong to oval
warmer countries. In summer, sparse blue flowers. Hardy to –5°C/23°F. leaves. Small, often fragrant flowers
colonies occur on a wide range of Plant in sheltered sunny niches on the are produced in summer on forked,
ornamentals and vegetables both rock garden on a well-drained, humus- spike-like racemes held just clear of the
outdoors and under glass. Two other rich, sandy soil. Propagate by division. water. A.disachyos will tolerate lows to
Myzus species, the SHALLOT APHID –5°C/23°F and needs fairly deep, still
(M.ascalonicus) and the VIOLET APHID aphyllous lacking leaves. water in full sun. Plant in spring into
(M.ornatus) also attack a wide range the pond floor or in baskets of sticky
of host plants. Other common apical borne at the apex of an organ, loam plunged to a depth of 25–60cm
polyphagous species include the farthest from the point of attachment; (10–24in). Grow A.madagascariensis in
MOTTLED ARUM APHID (Aulacorthum pertaining to the apex. warm greenhouse ponds and aquaria
circumflexum), a yellow aphid with a dark that do not fall below 24°C/75°F. Plant
horse-shoe-shaped mark on the apical dominance suppression of in a mix of loam, sand and leafmould
abdomen, which is widespread on the growth of lateral buds by a shoot with a deep top-dressing of fine gravel.
greenhouse and house plants; the tip, or apex. The dominance of the Propagate both species by division
green-yellow greenhouse and POTATO apical meristem accounts for the in spring.
APHID (A.solani), which occurs in upward growth of most plants, which A.distachyos (CAPE PONDWEED, WATER
Europe, Kenya, Japan, New Zealand, may be suppressed by natural plant HAWTHORN; South African; leaves float-
Peru and the US and attacks vegetables growth processes or by stopping or ing, bright green to 25cm (10in) long;
and ornamentals both outdoors and pruning to produce branched, bushy flowers sweetly scented and with
under glass; and the POTATO APHID or low growth. An apical bud is the purple-brown to black anthers in two
(Macrosiphum euphorbiae), which is green terminal or topmost bud on a stem. rows, one along each 10cm (4in) branch
or pink and attacks vegetables and of a pinnately lobed, waxy white,
ornamentals in Europe, Asia, Australia apicule a short sharp but not rigid forked raceme); A.madagascariensis
and the Americas. point terminating a leaf, bract or (Madagascar; leaves 10–50cm (4–20in)
Aphids that overwinter in the egg perianth segment. long, lanceolate to oblong, fully sub-
stage on deciduous trees and shrubs, merged, leaf veins prominent, closely
especially fruit plants, can be controlled Apium (Classical Latin name for this woven – the tissue that would normally 57
by the application of a winter wash plant). Umbelliferae. Europe; temperate connect them is absent or transparently
Aponogeton
A thin, leaving a beautiful emerald (24–311/2in) per annum. Trees must be espalier and fan forms); and MM111
latticework). afforded relative freedom from frost, (vigorous, making large trees on good
and shelter from strong wind. Fertile soils and moderately sized trees on
appendage secondary part or soil to a depth of 60cm (24in) is ideal, poor soils).
process attached to or developed from and free drainage essential. Natural Apples may be trained in various
any larger plant organ, for example, hybridization has been an important forms to suit garden size and layout;
the leafy appendages terminating the source of good cultivars: the widely the commonest choice is the dwarf
lower inflorescence bracts of some grown dessert apples ‘Cox’s Orange bush and cordon but dwarf pyramid,
Heliconia species or the whisker-like Pippin’ and ‘Golden Delicious’ origi- spindle bush, fan and pole are all
appendages of a Tacca inflorescence. nated as chance seedlings. Many intro- suitable. Vertically trained cordons,
ductions result from the efforts of with one or two stems, are known as
appendiculate furnished with amateur selectors and breeders, but minarettes; the Ballerina series, bred
appendages. there are scientifically based breeding to be trained as vertical stems, has
programmes throughout the world compact fruiting spurs and few long
appendix a long, narrowed develop- which continue to produce new sideshoots; the limited number of
ment of the spadix in Araceae. cultivars by traditional methods and by available cultivars require little summer
relatively new techniques such as the pruning. Standard and half standard
applanate of plant parts, flattened. irradiation of propagating material to trees are more challenging to manage
induce genetic change. Malus baccata in small gardens. Apple cultivars are
apple (Malus domestica) The many features in breeding schemes to improve not consistently self-fertile and depend
cultivated forms are derived from hardiness and disease resistance. on cross-pollination by insects and
hybridization between Malus sylvestris Propagation is by budding or graft- local advice should be sought on
and M.pumila, both widespread in ing; the choice of rootstock influences compatibility and flowering time prior
Southwest Asia, M.sylvestris (WILD CRAB) the ultimate size of a tree. Commonly to selection.
being common in Western Europe used are M27 (extremely dwarfing; an Plant in early winter at distances
including Britain. There is evidence excellent choice for vigorous cultivars depending on rootstock, cultivar and
that apples were a human foodstuff as and container-grown trees; requires local conditions. The following range
early as 6500 BC, and of their progres- very good soil and permanent staking); is a general guide for garden purposes:
sive introduction through the Middle M9 (very dwarfing and widely used; bushes, 3–5m (10–15ft) stations in rows
East, Egypt, Greece and Western trees usually come into bearing within 5–6m (15–20ft) apart; cordons, 75cm
Europe, whence their cultivation 3 or 4 years to produce a high percent- (30in) apart in rows 1.8m (6ft) apart;
spread throughout the world during age of good-sized fruit; requires dwarf pyramids 1.2m (4ft) apart in
the colonial period. permanent staking); M26 (dwarfing; a rows 2m (61/2ft) apart; spindle bushes,
Good quality fruit production good choice for average soil conditions; 2m (61/2ft) apart in rows 4m (12ft)
requires high summer temperature trees usually come into bearing within apart; fans and espaliers, 3.5m (111/2ft)
together with moderate, evenly 4 years); MM106 (semi dwarfing; suit- apart on dwarfing rootstocks and 4.5m
distributed rainfall of 600–800mm able on most soils; often used for (15ft) apart on more vigorous ones.
Flowers and fruit are produced on
shoots two or more years old and on
short spurs on the older wood; fruit
thinning is essential where heavy crops
are likely. Established trees of trained
forms such as cordons, espaliers and
dwarf pyramids require pruning
during late summer, cutting back later-
als of the current season’s growth to
three leaves above the basal cluster
where they arise direct from the main
stem, or to one leaf in the case of
shoots arising from existing side shoots
or spurs. Secondary growth from later
in the season is pruned in the winter,
together with essential thinning and
training. Free-growing forms such as
bushes, spindle bushes and half-stan-
dards are winter pruned to stimulate
Apple espalier growth the following season, and to
58 Apple trees trained in restricted forms, especially as cordons, fans, or espaliers (pictured here) remove dead and crossing shoots and
make attractive garden features. maintain shape. Vigorously growing
Aquilegia
trees should be pruned more lightly

than weak ones, which will benefit
hand pollination by lightly touching the
open flowers with a camel-hair brush
They consist of five petal-like sepals,
often spreading to reflexed, and five
A
from tip pruning of branch leaders by or rabbit’s tail around midday. Flowers petals pointing forwards in a cup and
up to a quarter of their length and the and fruit are borne on shoots of the projecting behind as slender, nectar-
shortening of selected laterals. Success- previous year and on spurs on older filled spurs. They are fully hardy, but
ful pruning requires practice, and a wood. To encourage spur formation, species from the Southwest US prefer
basic understanding of growth habit developing laterals should be pinched a warm and sheltered situation and are
and performance: continual hard back to 7.5cm (3in), or where growth intolerant of overwet winter conditions
pruning usually results in limited fruit- is vigorous to 14cm (51/2in); subsequent – as are A.alpina, A.jonesii, and A.viridi-
ing. Notable cultivars include: Dessert, sublaterals should be shortened back flora, which are smaller plants suited to
early, ‘Discovery’, ‘Laxton’s Epicure’; to one leaf. Shoots needed to fill spaces protected niches in the rock garden or
midseason, ‘Ellison’s Orange’, ‘James must be tied in whilst still pliable. pots in the alpine house. Grow in full
Grieve’; late ‘Ashmead’s Kernel’, ‘Pixie’. Possible problems: birds, scale sun on any fertile, free-draining soil.
Culinary, early, ‘Emmeth Early’, insects; bacterial canker (see bacterial Sow seed in situ in spring or autumn.
‘Grenadier’; mid season, ‘Golden Noble’, diseases), Eutypa canker (see canker), These plants hybridize freely and are
‘Peasgood’s Nonsuch’; late, ‘Bramley’s peach leaf curl, rust, silverleaf. in any case highly variable. Unless kept
Seedling’, ‘Lane’s Prince Albert’. far apart or painstakingly pollinated,
Possible problems: aphids, capsid Aptenia (Greek apten, wingless; the seed races and cultivars are unlikely to
bug, codling moth, saw fly, tortix moth, valves of the seed capsules lack wings). come true from seed, although a few,
winter moth; brown rot, canker, crown Aizoaceae. South Africa. 2 species, like A.vulgaris ‘Nora Barlow’, are
gall, fireblight, powdery mildew, scab; dwarf succulents with bushy, trailing reliable. Susceptible to mildew.
bitter pit. stems and fleshy leaves. Small, daisy- A.alpina (ALPINE COLUMBINE;
like flowers are produced during warm Alps;15–80cm (6–32in) tall; flowers
appressed see adpressed. and sunny spells throughout the year. nodding, sepals bright blue to violet,
Useful for edging, groundcover and to 4cm (11/2in) long, petals shorter and
approximate of plant parts drawn baskets in frost-free gardens and, paler, sometimes white, spurs straight
very closely together, sometimes elsewhere, for outdoor summer display, or curved, to 2cm (3/4in)); A.alrata (Alps,
confused with proximate. and for the cool greenhouse. Pot in Apennines; to 80cm (32in) tall; flowers
a sandy, loam-based mix; water nodding, rich purple-violet to darkest
apricot (Prunus armeniaca). Found in moderately in spring and summer, very maroon, sepals to 4cm (11/2in), petals
the wild throughout Central Asia but sparingly in winter. Position in full sun shorter, spurs to 1cm (1/2in), hooked);
probably originating in China. Apricot or light shade. Propagate by stem tip A.coerulea (ROCKY MOUNTAINS
cultivation in England is documented cuttings at any time of year. A.cordifolia COLUMBINE; W US; to 60cm (24in) tall;
from around the mid 16th century, (syn. Mesembryant-hemum cordifolium; flowers erect, sepals to 4cm (11/2in),
and trees were distributed during the dwarf bush or cushion to 12 x 40cm blue, pink or white, petals shorter,
18th and 19th centuries to flourish in (43/4 x 16in); leaves mid to bright green, white or cream, spurs to 5cm (2in),
warmer climates, including Southern oval to heart-shaped, 0.5–1.5cm straight or curved; includes the snow-
Europe, Australia and the US, where (1/4–5/8in) long; flowers 1cm (1/2in) across, white ‘Candidissima’, long-spurred
there are now considerable areas of purple-red; ‘Variegata’: leaves blue and white ‘Heavenly Blue’, ‘Hele-
commercial plantation. Apricots need bordered cream). nae’, a vivid blue cross with A.flabellata,
a warm, sunny, sheltered position and the pale pink ‘Coral’, and ‘Rostern’
in cool temperate areas do best where aquatic a plant growing in water. with carmine and cream flowers);
fan-trained against a tall south-facing Aquatics are often divided into floating A.canadensis (CANADIAN COLUMBINE,
wall. They may be similarly trained plants, submerged or oxygenating MEETING HOUSES, HONEY-SUCKLE; east-
under greenhouse protection, and this plants, and marginals. ern N America; 30–60cm (12–24in)
is the most promising method for tall; flowers nodding; sepals to 1.5cm
gardens in northerly latitudes. Since Aquilegia (from Latin aquila, eagle, (5/8in), not reflexed, red, petals to 1cm
apricot is one of the earliest flowering alluding to the aquiline spurs). Ranun- (1/2in), yellow, spurs to 2.5cm (1in),
fruits, protection from frost damage culaceae. COLUMBINE, MEETING straight, red); A.chrysantha (GOLDEN
with temporary wall covers is desirable HOUSES, GRANNY’S BONNETS, HONEY- COLUMBINE; SW US; 30–100cm
in cool areas. Even with care, cropping SUCKLE. N Hemisphere) 70 species, (12–39in) tall; flowers held horizontally,
is usually variable in the UK. short-lived, evergreen perennial herbs, sepals to 3cm (11/4in), yellow sometimes
Propagation is effected by grafting with a short, erect rhizome becoming tinged pink, petals shorter, yellow, spurs
onto ‘St Julien A’ plum rootstock or woody, and a clump of rather ferny, 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in), curving outwards;
seedling apricot or peach. The dwarf- ternately divided leaves, basically trian- includes the creamy white ‘Alba’, the
ing rootstock ‘Pixy’ is a possibility but gular in outline with wedge-shaped to double-flowered ‘Florepleno’, large,
double working with ‘St Julien A’ is rounded leaflets, their margins often cleft primrose yellow ‘Grandiflora Sul-
necessary to overcome incompatibility. or cut. The flowers appear in summer, phurea’, and large, golden ‘Yellow 59
Apricots are self-fertile but benefit from one to several atop a slender stem. Queen’); A.flabellata (E Asia; 20–50cm
Aquilegia
A (8–20in) tall; flowers nodding, reflexed sepals

and spurs give
another group of Among susceptible ornamentals are
sepals to 2.5cm (1in), cultivars, variously Forsythia, jasmine, privet, Sambucus and
impression of
blue-purple to lilac bird in flight called ‘Woodside’ or Syringa. Most strains of the virus are
or white, petals Vervaeneana Group spread by the root feeding of Xiphenema
shorter, white or has leaves variegated diversicaudatum, a free-living, plant-para-
pale lilac tipped lime and gold). sitic soil nematode. Nematodes acquire
yellow-white, spurs and transmit the virus very rapidly:
to 2cm (3/4in), curving; Arabis (from Greek they survive in soil for a long time,
var. pumila ‘Alba’ is arabia, Arabia). Cruciferae. remaining infective, and cannot be
dwarf and white-flow- North America, Europe, eradicated easily. Infected plants must
ered); A.formosa (WESTERN Asia. ROCKCRESS. 120 be removed; where appropriate, plant
COLUMBINE; western species, small, hardy, virus-free stocks, on new sites. See virus.
N America; 50–100cm annual to perennial
(20–39in) tall; flowers nod- herbs with spathulate Arachnis (from Greek arachnis, spider,
ding, sepals to 2.5cm (1in), to obovate leaves, referring to the appearance of the
red, petals shorter, yellow, often toothed and flowers). Orchidaceae. SE Asia.
spurs stout, straight, red; hairy, and 4-petalled SCORPION ORCHID. 7 species, tender
includes dwarf forms with flowers in racemes evergreen orchids with tall, slender
paler, or white flowers, the in spring and scrambling stems clothed with strap-
double, red ‘Rubraplena’, and summer. Suitable for the rock shaped leaves. Carried in slender
var. truncata (syn. A.californica), a garden, dry walls and the racemes and panicles throughout the
tall plant with flame-coloured alpine house. Grow in full sun year, the flowers are waxy and consist
sepals and very short golden Aquilegia on a fast-draining, loamy soil of five, narrowly oblanceolate, curving
petals). A.jonesii (Rocky Moun- ‘Crimson Star’ with added grit. Propagate by tepals and a small, tongue-like lip. The
tains; to 10cm (4in) tall, flowers softwood cuttings in summer in a flowers are long-lived, last very well
erect on short, slender stems, sepals to sandy mix in a shaded frame, or by when cut and are common in floristry.
1.5cm (5/8in), blue to purple, petals division or seed in spring and autumn. Cultivation as for Vanda but with a
shorter, blue, broad, spur to 1cm (1/2in), Attacked by arabis midge: affected minimum temperature of 15°C/59°F,
incurved); A.longissima (SW US, to parts should be destroyed. full sun and high humidity. A.flos-aeris
100cm (39in); flowers erect, sepals A.alpina (Europe; 5–40cm (2–16in); (flowers to 7cm (23/4in) across, dark
2.5cm (1in), yellow sometimes tinged flowers white or, rarely, pink; includes green, cream, pale rust or dull, fiery
red, petals same length as sepals, small, large, white, rose and variegated orange with broad, maroon to fox red
yellow, spurs to 15cm (6in) long, very cultivars); subsp. caucasica (syn. A.albida; or chocolate bands).
slender, straight to drooping); A.scopulo- South Europe; similar to A.alpina, with
rum (W US; 10–20cm (4–8in) tall; flow- grey-green leaves; flowers white to arachnoid interlaced with a cobweb
ers erect, sepals to 2cm (3/4in), blue to pink; includes cultivars with variegated of fine white hair, as in the leaves of
white, sometimes red, petals shorter, leaves and double flowers); A. x arendsii some tightly growing succulent
white to pale yellow, spur 3–5cm (a garden hybrid between A.aubretoides rosette plants.
(11/4–2in), straight, blue to red); A.viridi- and A.alpina subsp. caucasica with rose-
flora (Siberia, China; 15–30cm (6–12in); red flowers; includes several cultivars Aralia (from the French-Canadian
flowers to 3cm (11/4in) nodding, fra- with flowers ranging through pink, red, name aralie). Araliaceae. Asia; Ameri-
grant, sepals to 2cm (3/4in), green, lilac and maroon); A.blepharophylla cas. 40 species, evergreen or deciduous
petals shorter, chocolate to maroon); (California; to 10cm (4in); flowers trees, shrubs, climbers and suckering
A.vulgaris (COLUMBINE, GRANNY’S BON- rose-purple; includes white and herbs, often with prickly stems and
NETS; Europe, naturalized N America; carmine cultivars); A.ferdinandi-coburgi leafstalks and 1–3 x pinnately com-
30–70cm (12–28in) tall; flowers nod- (Bulgaria; to 20cm (8in) tall; flowers pound leaves. The flowers are small,
ding, blue to purple, red or white, white; includes cultivars with ivory-, green-white and produced in abundant
sepals to 2.5cm (1in), petals shorter lime- and gold-variegated leaves). umbels on large panicles in spring and
usually white to yellow, petals shorter, summer. Plant in full sun or light shade
spurs to 2cm (3/4in), strongly hooked; arabis mosaic virus a disease in a sheltered postion on a freely drain-
many cultivars and seed races devel- which affects many different plants but ing but moist and fertile loam. The
oped with yellow, white, pink, rose, red- is actually insignificant on Arabis. It following species is fully hardy but will
purple, lilac, mauve, sky blue and dark causes raspberry yellow dwarf disease, produce taller stems and more luxuri-
blue flowers, some bicoloured, double, where leaves show yellow spots and ant foliage in warm, protected loca-
or lacking spurs; one of the most yellow vein clearing; affected plants tions. Old or cold-damaged stems will
intriguing cultivars is ‘Nora Barlow’ x are stunted and produce few fruits. die and should be cut out cleanly at
pom-pom flowers with ragged sepals It is one of several viruses that affect the base. They will be replaced by
60 and petals in pale red or pink edged rhubarb and strawberry with a yellow new suckers. Propagate by division of
lime green and fading to cream; leaf mosaic and general stunting. clumps, removal of rooted suckers and
Arbutus
root cuttings potted in early spring and

rooted in heat. A.elata (syn. ANGELICA
scale-like, olive to grey-green); A.hetero-
phylla (syn. A.excelsa; NORFOLK ISLAND
Asia Minor. MADRONE, MADROÑA,
STRAWBERRY TREE. 14 species, ever-
A
TREE; syn. A.chinensis; E Russia, China, or HOUSE PINE; Norfolk Islands; to green trees and shrubs with flaking
Korea, Japan; clump-forming sucker- 60m (200ft) tall, strongly pyramidal; to peeling bark, tough-textured, dark
ing, deciduous shrub to 10m (30ft); branches out-spread, whorled, clothed green leaves and small, lily-of-the-
stems narrow, pithy, sparsely branched, with scale-like leaves to 0.6cm (1/4in) valley-like flowers in racemes and
erect and spiny; leaves to 1.5m (5ft) long; juvenile plants have soft, slender panicles. The fruits are globose and
long, triangular in outline, bipinnate branches covered in needle-like, grey- fleshy, usually warm, glowing red and
with toothed mid to grey-green leaflets green leaves. These are marked silver- textured with small, prismatic bumps.
to 12cm (43/4in) long; inflorescence white in ‘Albospica’, golden-striped A.unedo and A. x andrachnoides are hardy
creamy-white, to 1m (31/4ft), assuming in ‘Aureovariegata’ and blue-green to –15°C/5°F; A.andrachne and A.men-
a pink tint as the summer advances; in ‘Glauca’). ziesii to –10°C/14°F. All prefer full sun,
fruit glossy, purple-black; ‘Albovarie- an acid to neutral soil, and shelter from
gata’: syn. ‘Variegata’, leaflets edged Araujia (from the Brazilian cold, drying winds. Propagate by basal
white; ‘Aureomarginata‘: leaflets vernacular name for this plant). Ascle- cuttings taken in late winter; or by
edged yellow.) piadaceae. South America. 4 species, simple layering. Seed sown with the
evergreen, woody-based perennial flesh removed and stratified for 4–6
araneous see arachnoid. climbers grown for their flowers pro- weeks at or just above freezing point
duced in summer. Provide a minimum will usually germinate when brought
Araucaria (from the Arauco Indians temperature of 10°C/50°F. Plant in a under glass.
of Central Chile, to whose territory moist, fertile soil; provide ample A.andrachne (GRECIAN STRAWBERRY
A.araucana is native). Araucariaceae. humidity and bright, filtered light. TREE; SE Europe, Asia Minor; spread-
SW Pacific; S America. 20 species, Propagate by tip cuttings. A.sericifera ing tree or large shrub to 12m (40ft)
evergreen, coniferous trees with erect (syn. A.sericofera; CRUEL PLANT; climbing tall with peeling, red-brown bark;
stems, resinous bark and whorled to 10m (30ft); flowers to 3cm (11/4in) leaves to 10cm (4in) long, oval to
branches in a candelabra-like head, diam., fragrant, salverform, white oblong, entire, dark green above, paler
each branch with pinnately arranged, sometimes striped maroon within). beneath; flowers in late spring, dull
drooping to ascending branchlets white in erect panicles to 10cm (4in)
clothed with scale- or needle-like, arborescent with the habit or long; fruit orange, granular, 1.5cm
overlapping leaves. The following are stature of a tree. (5/8in) diam.; many plants cultivated
widely grown and will withstand harsh under this name are A. x andrachnoides);
winds, full sun and all but the wettest arboretum a garden or park chiefly A. x andrachnoides (a naturally occurring
or driest soils. Only A.araucana is fully devoted to a collection of trees and hybrid between the last species and
hardy. Young plants of A.heterophylla shrubs. Planted since ancient times, A.unedo; spreading tree or large shrub
make attractive house and conserva- arboreta became popular in Europe to 10m (30ft) with rusty red, peeling
tory plants. Increase by seed. in the late 18th century and have since bark; leaves to 10cm (4in) long, oval
A.araucana (syn. A.imbricata; MONKEY served scientific as well as amenity to elliptic, finely serrate, dark green
PUZZLE TREE, CHILE PINE; Chile, Patag- purposes. above, paler beneath; flowers in late
onia; trunk columnar, dark, to 30m autumn or spring, ivory to white in
(100ft) tall with a head of drooping arboriculture the science and nodding panicles; fruit to 1cm (1/2in)
then ascending branches with rope-like practice of tree growing, especially diam., smoother than in A.unedo);
branchlets densely covered in 2–7cm the establishment and maintenance A.menziesii (MADRONE; W US; tree to
(3/4–23/4in)-long, triangular, dark green, of trees and shrubs in amenity and 30m (100ft) with peeling red bark;
tough and sharp-tipped leaves); ornamental areas. leaves to 15cm (6in) long, elliptic to
A.bidwillii (BUNYA BUNYA; Queensland; ovate, blunt, entire or sometimes
narrow to broadly domed tree to 45m arbour a shady enclosure or retreat serrate on young plants, dark green
(150ft) tall with whorls of spreading surrounded by trees or shrubs or trellis above, glaucous beneath; flowers in late
branches hung with weeping branch- clad with climbing plants, often at the spring, white in erect, pyramidal pani-
lets; juvenile leaves 2–5cm (3/4–2in) end of, or in conjunction with, a per- cles to 15cm (6in) long; fruit to 1.5cm
long, oblong to lanceolate, sharp-tipped gola. Known in the Middle Ages as (5/8in) diam.); A.unedo (STRAWBERRY
glossy and arranged in a spiral, adult herbers, they were then often extended TREE; S Europe to Asia Minor, Eire;
leaves shorter, ovate, sharp-tipped very to form long tunnel arbours. In 16th- shrub or small, broad-crowned tree to
tough and overlapping); A.cunninghamii century usage the term also meant a 10m (30ft) tall, with coarse, flaking,
(Northern Australia, New Guinea; herb or flower garden, grassy sward red-brown bark; leaves to 7cm (23/4in)
HOOP or MORETON BAY PINE; to 60m or orchard, and in the 18th century long, elliptic to obovate, serrate, glossy
(200ft) tall with spreading to upswept included garden-houses. dark green above, paler beneath; flow-
branches bare at their bases and tufted ers appear in late autumn, cream to
with drooping twigs at the tips: leaves Arbutus (the Classical Latin name). white, pink or red-stained (f. rubra) in 61
1–2cm (1/2–3/4in)-long leaves needle- to Ericaceae. N and C America, Europe, drooping panicles to 7cm (23/4in) long;
Arbutus
A fruit to 2cm (3/4in) diam., surface rough (11/4in), obovate, dark green above, flowerheads to 7cm (23/4in) diam., white
and granular, edible). paler beneath, often turning red in to purple-red with a blue to blue-red
winter; flowers white tinted pink; centre).
arcade a series of trained-plant includes several ground-smothering
arches forming a decorative garden cultivars with bright, glossy foliage and arcuate curved downwards, bow-
feature; a pergola walk. Arcades are pink to white flowers, e.g. ‘Point Reyes’, shaped, usually applied to a smaller,
often constructed by training tree fruits ‘Radiant’, ‘Vancouver Jade’; the Cali- more rigid structure than would be
to meet at the top. fornia native, A.hookeri, MONTEREY described as arching, for example the
MANZANITA, is sometimes treated as column of an orchid.
Arctostaphylos (from Greek arktos, a subspecies of A.uva-ursi; it forms a
bear, and staphule, fruit: bears are said dense mound 10–100cm (4–39in) high arcure an unusual and decorative
to eat the berries). Ericaceae. Northern with shining bright green leaves to 2cm system of training fruit trees, used
Hemisphere. BEARBERRY; MANZANITA. (3/4in); white or pink flowers, one of the especially for apples and pears, and
50 species, evergreen or semi-evergreen best ground-cover cultivars is ‘Mon- involving bending branches to form
shrubs and small trees with small, urn- terey Carpet’). tiers of spur-bearing loops.
to bell-shaped flowers in terminal
racemes and panicles and spherical, Arctotheca (from Greek arktos, bear, Ardisia (from Latin, ardis, a point,
red to purple-black or brown berry-like and theke, chest). Compositae. South referring to the acutely pointed
fruit. The following are hardy and Africa. 5 species, stemless to creeping anthers). Myrsinaceae. Asia, Australa-
prefer full sun on a moist, acid soil. perennial herbs with lyrate to pinnately sia, Americas. 250 species, evergreen
Propagate by simple layering in spring, lobed leaves and daisy-like flowerheads. trees, shrubs and subshrubs with
or by severing rooted stems of trailing In frost-free regions, the following whorled, tough leaves, small 5-parted
species; also by semi-ripe cuttings species is used for covering dry, sunny flowers in stalked, axillary clusters and
in summer. banks and rock gardens; in cooler berry-like fruit. A.crenata is grown as
A.alpina (syn. Arctous alpinus; ALPINE zones, it is treated as an annual. Sow a potplant in the cool greenhouse,
BEARBERRY, BLACKBEARBERRY Circum- seed in situ in spring. A.calendula (CAPE conservatory or home. It needs bright,
polar regions; dwarf, creeping shrub to WEED; fast-spreading groundcover; filtered light. Grown as a standard, up
15cm (6in) tall; leaves to 3cm (11/4in), flowerheads to 5cm (2in) diam., bright to one metre tall with a clear stem, this
oblanceolate, finely serrate, fresh green yellow, on stalks to 50cm (20in) tall). species tends quite naturally to display
in summer, red in autumn; flowers its fruit in a ring of trusses below a
white flushed pink); A.diversifolia (syn. Arctotis (from Greek, arktos, bear, and mop of deep green growth, making a
Comarostaphylis diversifolia; SUMMER ous, ear). Compositae. South Africa. beautiful houseplant particularly at
HOLLY; California; erect shrub to 4m AFRICAN DAISY. 50 species, annual or Christmas. A.japonica will tolerate mild
(12ft) tall; leaves 3–8cm (11/4–3in), perennial herbs with low rosettes of frosts and makes handsome ground-
oblong to broadly elliptic, toothed to grey-scurfy, pinnately lobed leaves and cover for lightly shaded, moist and
entire, glossy; flowers white); A.man- bright, daisy-like flowerheads in fertile sites in zones 8 and 9. Trim over
zanita (MANZANITA; California; shrub or summer. Use as half-hardy bedding in spring. Can be propagated either by
tree erect to 6m (20ft), with purple-red plants, repropagated annually by stem seed sown in spring, or by semi-ripe
bark and a gnarled habit; leaves to 5cm cuttings taken in late summer and cuttings in summer.
(2in), broadly ovate, pale to grey-green; overwintered in a heated greenhouse, A.crenata (syn. A.crenulata, A.crispa;
flowers white to pink in drooping pani- or raised from seed in spring. Grow in Asia; CORALBERRY, SPICEBERRY; shrub
cles); A.nevadensis (PINEMAT MANZANITA; full sun on a light, fast-draining soil. to 2m (61/2ft) tall; leaves 6–20cm
W US; mat-forming, to 40cm (16in) A.fastuosa (syn. Venidium fastuosum; (21/2–8in) long, elliptic to narrowly obo-
tall; leaves to 3cm (11/4in), lanceolate to CAPE DAISY; leaves grey-white-hairy; vate, deep, glossy green with finely
obovate with a short, distinct tip, light flowerheads to 8cm (3in) diam., ray flo- wavy-toothed margins, edged creamy-
green; flowers white to pink); A.nummu- rets orange, purple-brown at base, disc white in ‘Variegata’; flowers white to
laria (FORT BRAGG MANZANITA; Califor- florets maroon to black); A. x hybrida pink in clusters at the end of slender
nia; mat-forming or rounded shrub; (syn. x Venidioarctotis hybrida; garden stalks among and beneath the leaves;
leaves to 1.5cm (5/8in), elliptic to ovate, hybrids between A. fastuosa and berries coral-pink to scarlet); A.japonica
shiny; flowers white); A.patula (GREEN A.venusta; leaves covered with thin, (MARLBERRY; China, Japan; low,
MANZANITA; California; erect shrub to grey-white felt; flowerheads to 10cm spreading shrub with creeping and
2m (61/2ft) tall; leaves to 5cm (2in), (4in) diam., on stalks to 20cm (8in) tall, rooting stems and erect shoots to 40cm
broadly oval to oblong, blunt and ranging in colour from grey-blue to (16in) high; leaves 5–7cm (2–23/4in)-
rounded, thick-textured; flowers pink, white, cream, apricot, peach, yellow, long, oval to ovate, glossy dark green,
in broad panicles); A.uva-ursi (COMMON orange, bronze, carmine and wine red, sharply toothed; flowers white to pale
BEARBERRY, HOG CRANBERRY, MOUNT- usually with darker centres); A.venusta pink on short racemes; cultivars exist
IAN BOX; N America, N Europe, N (syn. A.stoechadifolia; BLUE-EYED AFRICAN with leaves variously toothed and
62 Asia; mat-forming shrub with creeping DAISY; to 60cm (24in) tall; leaves with frilled and marked white, cream,
and rooting stems; leaves to 3cm grey-white hair especially beneath; gold and pink).
Ariocarpus
Arenaria (from Latin arena, sand –

the plants grow in sandy places).
positae. Canary Islands. Some 23
species, perennial, half-hardy subshrubs
vide a minimum temperature of
13°C/55°F, and full sun or bright, fil-
A
Caryophyllaceae. Widespread, espe- or shrubs with entire to dissected leaves tered light. Propagate by seed sown in
cially in northern temperate regions. and slender-stalked, daisy-like flower- spring in a heated case, or by softwood
SANDWORT. 160 species, low-growing, heads from late spring to autumn. cuttings with bottom heat in spring.
hardy perennial herbs with white, usu- Marguerites are bright and trouble-free A.nervosa (syn. A.speciosa WOOLLY MORN-
ally 5-petalled flowers. Suitable for perennials for frost-free gardens or cool ING GLORY, India, Bangladesh; to 10m
sunny positions on fast-draining soils. greenhouses and conservatories. They (30ft); leaves coated beneath in silver
Propagate by division, seed or (larger are equally among the finest half-hardy hairs; flowers 7cm (23/4in)-long flowers
species) by softwood cuttings of basal bedding or container plants for tubular to funnel-shaped, lavender with
shoots in early summer. summer display in cooler regions. a deep mauve throat and silkily hairy).
A.balearica (W Mediterranean Grow in full sun on a well-drained soil.
Islands; mat-forming; flowers to 1cm Deadhead regularly. Take stem cuttings Argyroderma (from Greek, argyros,
(1/2in) diam., white); A.montana (SW in autumn and overwinter them in a silver, and derma, skin, referring to the
Europe; grey-green and downy with frost-free greenhouse in zones 8 and silvery leaf surface). Aizoaceae. South
prostrate shoots; flowers 2–4cm under. Unless growing them to achieve Africa. 10 species, evergreen perennial
(3/4–11/2in) diam., white, similar to height for training as standards, pinch herbs with very succulent, smooth,
Cerastium, but with entire, not cleft out young plants to promote bushiness grey-green leaves in pairs with their
petals); A.purpurascens (Pyrenees, N and plant them out in mid-spring. bases fused. These leaf pairs may be
Spain; loosely tufted with branching A.frutescens (syn. Chrysanthemum borne on dwarf shrubs or in stemless
stems ascending to 10cm (4in); flowers frutescens; MARGUERITE; Canary Islands; clusters or be solitary, and are often
to 2cm (3/4in) diam., pale purple, pink a subshrub or shrub to 2m (61/2ft) tall partially buried. Daisy-like flowers
or white; A.tetraquetra (Pyrenees, N with finely pinnatisect, grey-green appear in the cleft between the leaves.
Spain; small, grey-green cushion-form- leaves to 10cm (4in) long and white The following should be cultivated as
ing; flowers very short-stalked, to 1cm flowerheads to 6cm (21/2in) across with for Conophytum.
(1/2in) across, white, with four petals). bright yellow centre). Cultivars: ‘Chelsea A.delaetii (syn. A.blandum; stem largely
Girl’ (to 70cm (28in), leaves very fine, subterranean; leaves semi-ovoid; flow-
areole a small area or space, often flowerheads white, single), ‘Jamaica ers white, purple or yellow); A. fissum
between anastomosing veins; also a Primrose’ (to 1m (31/4ft), leaves grey- (syn. A. brevipes; mat-forming; leaves to
depression or elevation on a cactus green, coarsely cut, flowerheads large, 12cm (43/4in) long, yellow-green, finger-
stem, bearing spines. single, golden), ‘Levada Cream’ (flow- shaped; flowers with outer petals
erheads single, long-stalked, primrose purple or yellow, inner petals white);
Argemone (from Latin, argema, eye to cream), ‘Mary Cheek’ (to 40cm A.pearsonii (syn. A.schlechteri; leaves semi-
cataract: the genus was once used as a (16in), leaves fine, flowerheads double, globose with a narrow fissure; flowers
treatment for this condition). Papaver- pink), ‘Mrs E. Sander’ (compact, leaves with outer petals purple, white or,
aceae. Americas. PRICKLY POPPY; ARGE- blue-grey, flowerheads small, double, rarely, white, inner petals yellow
MONY. 28 species, annual or perennial pom-pom-like, pure white), ‘Peach or white).
herbs and one shrub; the prickly stems Cheeks’ (low and spreading, flower-
contain yellow or orange latex. The heads single to double, peach pink to Ariocarpus (from Aria, a genus now
leaves are glaucous and lobed with white with a yellow centre), ‘Petite included in Sorbus, and Greek, karpos,
fiercely prickly margins. Poppy-like Pink’ (to 40cm (16in), compact, leaves fruit, from a supposed resemblance
flowers are composed of usually six, fine and slightly fleshy; flowerheads between the fruits of these genera).
broadly wedge-shaped petals and single, pale pink with a golden centre), Cactaceae. Texas, Mexico. 6 species,
appear in summer. The seed pods are ‘Powder Puff ’ (miniature with fine slow-growing cacti with thick rootstocks
fiercely prickly. Sow under glass in foliage and double, rather ragged-look- and unbranched, usually hemispherical
early spring and plant out after the last ing pink flowerheads), ‘Rollason’s Red’ to broadly conical stems. They are cov-
frosts in a sunny, well-drained position. (to 40cm (16in), leaves coarse, flower- ered in large tubercles, usually spineless
Seed may also be sown in situ in late heads single, ray florets crimson to and bear openly funnelform flowers in
spring. A.mexicana (DEVIL’S FIG, MEXI- scarlet, gold at the base, forming a autumn and winter. Grow in full sun
CAN POPPY, PRICKLY POPPY; SW US, C bright ring around the dark red disc). with a dry, buoyant atmosphere and a
America, W Indies; annual to 1m minimum temperature of 5°C/41°F.
(31/4ft); leaves glaucous blue-green with Argyreia (from Greek, argyreios, sil- Plant in a gritty compost with a pH of
silvery white flashes on the veins and very, referring to the silver-hairy under- 6–7.5; water liberally but intermittently
spiny-lobed margins; flowers 5–7cm surfaces of the leaves of some species). in spring and summer; keep dry from
(2–23/4in)-wide bright to pale yellow, Convolvulaceae. Tropical Asia to Aus- mid-autumn to early spring except for
white or pale tangerine). tralia. 90 species, perennial, evergreen, a light misting on warm days. Propa-
woody or woody-based climbers with gate by seed. Faster growth rates can
Argyranthemum (from Greek, argy- large, rounded to heart-shaped leaves be achieved by grafting of young 63
ros, silver, and anthemos, flower). Com- and showy funnel-shaped flowers. Pro- plants. A.fissuratus (stem to 10cm (4in)
Ariocarpus
A diam., with prominent triangular (Japan; spathe 20cm (8in) long, tube expands and curves over like a cowl;
tubercles, grey-green to grey-brown, dark, satiny maroon to black outside spadix purple-green, protruding).
each deeply fissured so as to resemble and snow white within, blade erect,
scales, and wrinkled with a woolly ovate, acuminate, purple-green striped aristate of a leaf apex abruptly
groove above; flowers to 4cm (11/2in) green-white within, far darker beneath terminated in a very slender, pointed
diam., magenta). and striped silvery white; spadix termi- continuation of the midrib. It may
Fleshy yew fruits nates just above the rim of the also mean awned.
aril a generally are correctly spathe in a bright white knob);
named “arils”
fleshy appendage of A.triphyllum (JACK-IN-THE- Aristea (from Greek arista, a point,
the funiculus or hilum, PULPIT, INDIAN TURNIP; East- referring to the leaves). Iridaceae.
partially or entirely ern North America; spathe to Africa; Madagascar (those below from
enveloping the seed. 15cm (6in) long and yellow- South Africa). 50 species, rhizomatous,
green to purple, striped evergreen perennial herbs, clump-
arillate possessing an green or white with an forming with erect, grassy to sword-like
aril; more loosely, erect to arching, tapering leaves and, in summer, tall, narrow
any outgrowth or limb, the spadix nar- panicles bearing spikes of short-lived,
appendage on rowly club-shaped, green 6-parted flowers. Grow in a well-
the testa. to purple and protruding drained, acid medium. Position in part
from the tube). shade or bright, filtered light; provide
Arisaema (from Arum a minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F,
and Greek haima, blood red, Arisarum (from Greek good ventilation and plentiful water
a reference to the red- arisaron, the name for A. vul- when in growth. In mild locations in
blotched petioles of some gare). Araceae. Mediter- zones 7 and 8, they may survive frosts,
species). Araceae. N America, ranean; Southwest Europe; especially if dry and mulched. Propa-
Africa, Asia. 150 species, Atlantic Islands 3 species, gate by division after flowering, or by
tuberous or thickly rhizoma- tuberous or rhizomatous seed in sown spring at 20°C/68°F.
tous deciduous perennial perennial herbs, deciduous A.ecklonii (to 90cm (36in) tall with
herbs with trifoliate to or semi-evergreen with slender- lax clusters of blue flowers to 3cm
palmately or pedately compound, stalked, arrow-shaped, dark (11/4in) across); A.major (syn. A.thyrsiflora;
long-stalked leaves. Produced in Taxus green leaves borne close to the to 1m (31/4ft) tall with dense clusters
spring and early summer, the baccata ground, and low-lying inflores- of mauve to pale blue flowers to 5cm
small flowers are packed on a spadix cences produced in spring. These con- (2in) across).
which bears a terminal appendage sist of a spathe, tubular below and
and is enclosed in a showy, pitcher-like hooded above with a finely tapering Aristolochia (from Greek aristos,
spathe with a hooded to erect, ovate tip, the whole surrounding a slender best, and lochia, childbirth – because
to lanceolate blade. They favour light spadix. They tend to lie beneath or just of its foetus-shaped flowers, A.clematitis
shade and moist (but never wet) acid above the dense cover of foliage. was used in medieval times as an
to neutral, soils rich in sand and leaf- Hardy to –10°C/14°F, or lower if abortifacient and birth-inducer.
mould. Those described here are hardy mulched. A.proboscideum requires a Aristolochiaceae. Cosmopolitan. BIRTH-
in zone 7 but may deteriorate when moist soil in dappled sunlight or full WORT; DUTCHMAN’S PIPE. 300 species,
planted in regions with prolonged hard shade. A.vulgare prefers a sunnier, evergreen or deciduous woody or
frosts and wet winters. Mulch thickly in slightly drier location on a gritty soil. herbaceous, twining climbers and erect
winter. Propagate by seed sown when Propagate by division when dormant herbaceous perennials. Produced in
fresh in the cold frame, or by separat- (for A.proboscideum this is late summer; spring and summer, the flowers are
ing offsets and cormels produced by for A.vulgare, late spring). axillary and pitcher-like with a swollen,
long-established plants. A.proboscideum (MOUSE PLANT; Italy inflated base which narrows to a
A.candidissimum (China; spathe and Spain; rhizomatous; spathes slender tube curving upwards to an
8–15cm (3–6in) long, tube pale green 6–10cm (21/2–4in) long; white and bul- expanded limb. The hardy species are
striped white, limb white striped or bous at the base, chocolate-brown to deciduous or semi-evergreen. Grow
zoned cool, candy pink, ovate to orbic- maroon-black above where a hooded A.clematitis in full sun on a well-
ular and slightly hooded with a tapered blade narrows sharply to a long and drained, fertile and free-draining soil.
tip); A.griffithii (Himalaya; spathe blade upturned tip (the mouse’s ‘tail’); spadix In exposed positions, the stems may
large, broad, in pearly grey with deep purple-brown, white-tipped, fully require some support. Propagate by
purple interior and green, netted veins, enclosed); A.vulgare (FRIAR’S COWL; division or cuttings in early spring.
arching forward and curving over itself, Mediterranean, Canaries, Azores; A.macrophylla and A.sempervirens favour a
undersurface dull purple overlaid with tuberous; spathes 4–6cm (11/2–21/2in)- sheltered position on a rich, moist soil,
an intricate network of green veins; long, silver-white striped purple-brown the first in dappled sun or semi-shade,
64 spadix largely hidden, but ending in at base, solid metallic maroon to violet- the second in full sun. Support on trel-
long, slender appendage); A.sikokianum black above where the hooded blade lis, walls, pergolas or tree trunks. The
Armeria
tender species are evergreen or briefly

deciduous. A.fimbriata and A.littoralis
A.gigas; PELICAN FLOWER; Central
America; tender woody climber to 15m
to Aegean; hardy, woody-based climber
to 5m (15ft); flowers yellow-green
A
require a moist, fertile soil in bright, (50ft); flowers to 300cm (10ft) long striped purple, to 5cm (2in) long, base
filtered light with a minimum tempera- (including tail), base flask-shaped, heav- swollen, tube slender, erect, expanding
ture of 10°C/50°F. Train on wires or ily veined, white to buff or yellow- to a short, acute, erect limb); A.trilobata
pergola; cut back hard in early spring. green, curving upwards in a short, (syn. A.macroura; Central America;
The remaining species need a mini- erect tube which becomes sac-like then tender woody climber; flowers to 25cm
mum temperature of 15°C/59°F, expands into a broadly heart-shaped, (10in) long including tail, olive green
bright, filtered light and high humidity. downward-pointing limb to 50cm veined and tipped brown to maroon,
Grow in moist and fertile, loamy soils (20in) across and tipped with a spi- base swollen then narrowing and curv-
and prune back hard after flowering. ralling, ribbon-like tail to 2m (61/2ft) ing upwards to an erect tube with a
Most Aristolochias have malodorous long; the limb is white to olive, buff or distinct rim and erect lid tipped with
flowers; although magnificent, the rust heavily veined in dark brown-red, a long, downward-spiralling tail).
larger-flowered species can make a maroon or purple); A. x kewensis (A.labi-
confined space almost unbearable. ata x A.trilobata) garden hybrid interme- Aristotelia (for Aristotle). Elaeo-
Propagate climbers by softwood cut- diate between parents); A.labiata (syn. carpaceae. Australasia; S America. 5
tings – hardy species in midsummer, A.brasiliensis; ROOSTER FLOWER; South species, evergreen or deciduous trees
tender species in early spring using a America; tender woody climber to 10m and shrubs with small flowers in axil-
rooting hormone and bottom heat. (30ft) tall; flowers to 20cm (8in) long, lary clusters or panicles followed by
Multi-stemmed plants can also be cream to buff or brick red, mottled glossy berries. Hardy to –10°C/14°F.
divided. Seed needs three months strat- olive and yellow and veined red-brown Plant in a slightly acid soil in sun;
ification at 5°C/41°F, or may be sown to chestnut, base flask-shaped, tube protect from winds. Propagate by
when ripe in autumn after soaking in short, slender, erect expanding in 2- ripewood cuttings, seed, or by
warm water for 48 hours. Surface sow lipped blade, lower lip beak-like, lance- simple layers.
under cover at 25°C/77°F. olate and forward-pointing with the A.chilensis (Chile; evergreen shrub or
A.clematitis (BIRTHWORT; Europe; margins almost touching and rimmed, tree to 5m (15ft); leaves to 10cm (4in)
E N America; hardy, erect herb to 1m upper lip equal in length or slightly long, ovate, toothed, glossy dark green,
(31/4ft) tall; flowers to 4cm (11/2in) long, longer, broadly spathulate with margins marked white in ‘Variegata’; flowers
yellow-green, slender with an erect, ruffled and hanging downwards); A.lit- green-white; fruit purple-black);
triangular limb); A.cymbifera (Brazil; toralis (syn. A.elegans; CALICO FLOWER; A.fruticosa (New Zealand; MOUNTAIN
tender, woody climber to 10m (30ft); South America, naturalized Central WINEBERRY; small evergreen shrub with
flowers to 20cm (8in) long, basically America and Southern US; tender, intricate, wiry branches, narrow leaves,
dirty white, base flask-like heavily mot- woody-based climber to 6m (20ft) tall; very small flowers and red to purple-
tled maroon, tube short and erect, limb flowers to 10cm (4in) long, base flask- black fruit); A.serrata (New Zealand;
divided into two lips, lower short and shaped, white, narrowing and curving NEW ZEALAND WINEBERRY; deciduous
beak-like, marked maroon to violet, to white tube supporting a broad, shrub or tree to 8m (25ft) tall; leaves to
upper far longer and ruffled, hanging heart-shaped to reniform limb which 10cm (4in) long, ovate, deeply serrate;
over the lower and expanding to a points upwards and is golden-throated flowers pale pink in crowded panicles;
broad, blunt lobe intricately veined in and white overlaid with rich, velvety fruit dark red, ripening black).
purple or maroon); A.fimbriata (Brazil; purple mottling); A.macrophylla (syn.
tender, herbaceous or woody-based A.durior; DUTCHMAN’S PIPE; E US; aristulate bearing a small awn.
climber to 2m (61/2ft); leaves bright hardy, woody-based climber to 9m
green veined yellow or silver; flowers to (28ft) tall; flowers to 4cm (11/2in) long, Armeria (a Latinized form of the old
6cm (21/2in) long, base swollen and green spotted purple-brown and yellow, French vernacular name for sweet
rounded, tube olive, short, erect, base swollen, tube curving upwards like William, armoires, to which this genus
expanding to a round or reniform limb a pipe, limb with three spreading, was thought to bear some resem-
with a deeply fringed margin and vel- rounded to acute lobes stained blance). Plumbaginaceae. Europe; Asia
vety maroon veined gold); A.gigantea maroon); A.ringens (C America; tender Minor; North Africa; Americas (Pacific
(syn. A.clypeata; Panama; tender woody woody climber; flowers to 28cm (11in) coast). THRIFT; SEA PINK. Some 80
climber to 10m (30ft); flowers to 30cm long, mottled red, yellow and green species, low-growing, tufted, evergreen
(12in) long, base buff, flask-shaped and heavily veined red-brown to purple, perennial herbs or subshrubs with
prominently veined, tube short and base swollen and flask-shaped, tube short-branching, cushion- to hum-
curving upwards to an inflated flesh- slender, short and curving upwards, mock-forming stems terminating in
coloured sac, limb very broadly ovate limb divided into two lips, upper erect packed rosettes of very narrow, dark
to triangular with a shortly tapering, and forward-pointing, spathulate with a green leaves. Produced throughout the
ribbon-like tip, held upwards and open frilled margin, lower longer and for- year but chiefly in spring and summer,
like a scoop, white to ivory or yellow- ward-pointing, chute-like, shaped like a the flowers are small, pink to white and
orange, very heavily veined or blotched tongue with its margins slightly 5-parted and carried amid chaffy 65
maroon to blood-red); A.grandiflora (syn. inrolled); A.sempervirens (Mediterranean bracts in dense heads atop slender,
Armeria
A erect stalks. The most commonly laces, which grow through the topsoil rhizomorphs through the soil by means
grown species are A.alpina, A.arenaria, to infect new host plants. A large of a barrier made by burying heavy
A.juniperifola (syn. A.caespitosa), A.maritima dead tree or stump can be a source of gauge plastic sheeting, vertically, at
and A.pseudarmeria. The flowerstalks rhizomorphs for many years, possibly least 0.5m (20in) deep in light soil or
range in height from 6 to 30cm (21/2 to having died from other causes and later 1m (31/4ft) deep in clay soil. A narrow
12in). They prefer a fast-draining colonized by honey fungus. Spores ditch, the bottom of which is culti-
sandy soil in full sun, and are suitable from toadstools can theoretically infect vated, or a strip of ground which can
for exposed positions in the rock newly exposed stumps, but this means be deeply cultivated are other means
garden, on dry banks and walls, espe- of spread is unimportant. Trees and of isolation.
cially in coastal regions. Although fully shrubs growing in gardens developed The following lists of plants moresus-
hardy, they dislike cold, wet conditions, in or near to woodland, orchards or ceptible or resistant to the disease are
but do need ample moisture in spring. hedgerows are more likely to be based on records kept at Wisley by the
Propagate by seed or division in attacked, particularly if growth is Royal Horticultural Society. More sus-
early spring. weakened for any reason. ceptible: Acer (except A.negundo) Araucaria
The disease is incurable. In wood- araucana, Betula, Buddleja, Ceanothus, Cedrus,
armillaria root rot HONEY land, control is neither practicable nor Chamaecyparis, Cotoneaster, Crataegus, x
FUNGUS; BOOTLACE FUNGUS, a notori- necessary. In parkland or arboreta, Cupressocyparis leylandii, Cupressus, Forsythia,
ous lethal root rot of trees, shrubs and trees should not be planted within 9m Hamamelis, Hydrangea, Juglans regia,
some herbaceous plants. Armillaria (28ft) of an infection site, and removal Laburnum, Ligustrum, Malus, Paeonia, Picea
mellea is mostly responsible for infec- of the stump and root system of dis- omorika, Pinus (except P.patula), Prunus
tions of broad-leaved trees and shrubs eased trees is worthwhile. In gardens, (except P.spinosa), Pyracantha, Pyrus,
in gardens; A.ostoyae is the main cause orchards and other closely-planted Rhododendron, Ribes, Rosa, Rubus, Salix,
of death from this disease in conifers. areas disease control depends on the Sequoiadendron giganteum, Syringa, Thuja
First signs of infection may be a discol- removal of all infected material. Mea- plicata, Ulmus, Viburnum, Vitis, Wisteria.
oration of foliage and progressive sures need to be taken to prevent the More resistant: Abelia, Abeliophyllum,
dieback of shoots, but symptoms only disease spreading by removing all Abies alba, A.grandis, A.procera, Abutilon,
become visible when the fungus has infected root and stump material. Acer negundo, Actinidia, Ailanthus altissima,
invaded a significant part of the root Dead, dying and adjacent plants Akebia, Albizia, Aloysia, Arbutus menziesii,
system, and death can then follow should be removed with as much of Aristolochia, Aronia, Artemisia, Aucuba,
rapidly. Other signs of infection may the root system and surrounding soil as bamboos, Buxus sempervirens, Callicarpa,
be an exceptional show of flowers, pre- possible and the site refilled with soil Callistemon, Calycanthus, Caragana, Carpen-
mature autumn colour, leaf-fall, and from a non-woodland source. The use teria, Carya, Castanea, Catalpa, Celastrus,
splitting of bark at or just above of chipping as a means of stump dis- Celtis, Ceratostigma, Cercidiphyllum, Cercis,
ground level, sometimes accompanied posal goes some way towards eliminat- Cestrum, Chaenomeles, Chionanthus, Clema-
by a gummy exudate. If bark is lifted ing the food source. Any chippings that tis, Clethra, Colutea, Corokia, Coronilla, Cot-
away from the collar and main roots, may be contaminated with fungus inus coggygria, Cunninghamia, Daboecia,
flat, often fan-shaped sheets of white should be destroyed and not used as Deutzia, Diervilla, Drimys, Elaeagnus,
fungal growth and/or flat black-brown mulch. There is no risk of infection Embothrium, Enkianthus, Erica, Exochorda,
strands may be present. The fungus resulting from the use of commercial Fabiana imbricata, Fagus sylvatica,
also penetrates and decays the wood, in wood and bark mulches. Composted Fothergilla, Fraxinus excelsior, Fremontoden-
which narrow black ‘zone lines’ occur. bark used for soil mixes is considered dron, Gaultheria, Gleditsia, Grevillea,
In late summer or autumn toad- to be quite safe. Griselinia, Hakea, Halesia, Halimium,
stools may emerge in dense clusters If a neighbouring source of infec- Hebe, Hedera, Helianthemum, Hippophae,
around the base of dead tree stumps or tion cannot be removed, it may be pos- Hoheria, Hypericum, Indigofera, Itea, Jas-
other infected plants. These are sible to prevent the spread of minum, Juniperus, Juglans hindsii, Kerria,
extremely variable in size and colour, Koelreuteria, Lagerstroemia, Larix, Laurus
black/brown strands
but the cap and stalk are typically on bark underside nobilis, Lavatera, Leptosper-
honey-coloured at some stage of mum, Leucothoe, Lindera,
growth. The cap may be up to Lithospermum, Lomatia,
23cm (9in) in diameter, the Lonicera nitida, Maackia,
gills are white and there is Maclura, Mahonia aquifolium,
a whitish ring attached to Menziesia, Morus, Myrica,
the upper part of the Myrtus, Nandina, Nothofagus,
stalk. The fungus can Nyssa, Oemleria, Ostrya, Paliurus,
spread by contact Parahebe, Parrotia, Passiflora, Paulownia,
between diseased and healthy roots; it Armillaria mellea Phillyrea, Phlomis, Photinia, Phygelius,
also survives in dead tree stumps and Honey fungus produces distinctive black Phyllodoce, Physocarpus, Pieris, Pileostegia,
66 roots, from which it sends out long “bootlace” growths that spread through the Pinus patula, Pittosporum, Plagianthus,
black rhizomorphs resembling boot- soil to new hosts. Podocarpus, Polygonum baldschuanicum,
Artemisia
Prunus spinosa, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Ptelea,

Pterocarya, Pterostyrax, Punica, Pyrus, Pyra-
Aronia (from aria, the Classical Greek
name for whitebeam, Sorbus aria).
mixed border, but work especially well
in warm sunny places often on poor
A
cantha, Quercus, Rhamnus, Rhus, Robinia, Rosaceae. North America. CHOKE- soils. They prefer full sun and a fast-
Romneya, Ruscus, Ruta, Sambucus, Santolina, BERRY. 2 species, hardy deciduous draining, gritty, neutral to alkaline soil.
Sarcococca, Sciadopitys, Shepherdia, Sophora, shrubs with elliptic to oblong or Clump-formers can be cut back in
Stachyurus, Staphylea, Stephanandra, Stew- oblanceolate, wavy-toothed leaves, early spring; more shrubby types
artia, Styrax, Symphoricarpos, Symplocos, corymbs of small, white to pink flowers should be pruned only sparingly and
Tamarix, Taxus, Teucrium, Tilia, Ulex, Vac- in summer, and red, purple or black then to remove frost-damaged or
cinium, Yucca, Zelkova, Zenobia. berry-like fruit. Cultivate as for the exhausted growth. Mulch at the limits
In the US the following other trees smaller Amelanchier species. of hardiness. Low-growing and truly
and shrubs are reported to show resis- A.arbutifolia (to 2m (61/2ft) tall; leaves prostrate plants, such as A.caucasica,
tance: French pear, fig, persimmon and dull, turning scarlet in autumn; flowers A.schmidtiana and A.stelleriana ‘Mori’
the rootstock Myrobalan 29; Acacia in grey-hairy corymbs; fruit bright red; grow well on sunny rock gardens, dry
decurrens var. mollis, A.verticillata, Berberis ‘Brilliant’: scarlet autumn colour and banks and walls. Propagate by division
darwinii, B.thunbergii, B.wilsoniae, Euony- fruit); A.melanocarpa (differs from the last in spring or autumn, or (shrubby
mus japonicus, Ilex aquifolium, Ligustrum species in its shiny leaves turning red- species) by softwood or heeled, semi-
japonicum, Prunus ilicifolia, P.lyonii, Pyra- brown in autumn, its glabrous corymbs ripe cuttings in summer. The following
cantha coccinea ‘Lalandei’ and Spiraea of and its black fruit). are hardy in zone 7, or lower still if
prunifolia. The grading of plants as mulched in winter.
resistant or susceptible depends on dis- Arrhenatherum (from Greek arren, A.abrotanum (SOUTHERNWOOD; origin
ease records which are continually male, and ather, bristle, a reference to uncertain, naturalized in South and
being added to, and these lists should the awned male flowers). Gramineae. Central Europe; erect to 1m (31/4ft),
not be regarded as definitive. Europe; Africa; Asia. OAT GRASS 6 stems clumped, more or less woody;
species, perennial grasses with slender, leaves olive to dull grey-green, very
Armoracia (Classical name for erect to spreading culms and narrow finely cut into many slender lobes);
horseradish). Cruciferae. Europe; Asia. leaves, bearing airy panicles of papery, A.absinthium (ABSINTHE, COMMON
3 species, fully hardy perennial herbs long-awned florets in summer. Some- WORMWOOD, OLD MAN, LAD’S LOVE;
with deep taproots, coarse, basal leaves what invasive and not entirely orna- Europe, Asia; bushy erect, woody-
and small, white flowers in racemes mental, the typical A.elatius is seldom based, to 1m (31/4ft) tall; leaves finely
and panicles. A.rusticana is HORSERAD- cultivated, although the panicles are 2–3-pinnately cut, silver-hairy; the
ISH (q.v.). The cultivar ‘Variegata’, with attractive if cut and dried. A.‘Variega- cultivar ‘Lambrook Silver’ is massed
leaves splashed cream and white, is tum’ is, however, one of the purest- with very fine, silver-grey foliage);
sometimes grown as an ornamental. white of the variegated grasses. It A.arborescens (Mediterranean; erect to
requires regular division and replanting sprawling shrub to 1m (31/4ft) tall with
Arnebia (from the Arabian name). to maintain quality and vigour. Fully grey-green, finely cut foliage; ‘Faith
Boraginaceae. Europe; North Africa; hardy, it will grow on any moderately Raven’: somewhat hardier with silver-
Asia. PROPHET FLOWER; ARABIAN PRIM- fertile soil in sun or part shade. It suf- white leaves); A.armeniaca (syn.
ROSE. 25 species, bristly-hairy hardy fers in regions with long, hot summers A.canescens; Russia, Caucasus, Iran;
annual or perennial herbs with 5- and may enter dormancy. A.elatius erect, bushy, 30–100cm (12–39in) tall
lobed, cup- to funnel-shaped flowers in (Avena elatior is the FALSE OAT, FRENCH with silver-hairy, grey leaves cut into
simple or branched cymes in spring RYE; tussock-forming and to 1m (31/4ft) many filigree-like lobes); A.caucasica
and summer. Plant in full sun or part tall with loose, purple-tinted and lus- (syn. A.assoana, A.pedemontana; Spain to
shade in a sheltered position in a cool, trous panicles; ‘Variegatum’: leaves Ukraine; tufted, prostrate subshrub to
moist but well-drained soil rich in edged and striped pure white). 30cm (12in) tall with silver-white, ferny
humus and high in grit. Propagate by foliage); A.frigida (Russia; woody-based,
seed sown in situ. Artemisia (for Artemis, Greek god- tufted and mat-forming, to 50cm (20in)
A.densiflora (Greece, Turkey; peren- dess of chastity). Compositae. North- tall with finely pinnately to palmately
nial to 40cm (16in) tall, velvety and ern Hemisphere; South America; cut leaves, grey-white with linear lobes);
bristly with yellow flowers to 4.5cm South Africa. WORMWOOD; SAGEBRUSH; A.lactiflora (WHITE MUGWORT; China;
(13/4in) long); A.pulchra (Caucasus, Iran, MUGWORT; LAD’S LOVE; OLD MAN. 300 vigorous, erect perennial with clumped,
Asia Minor; a perennial to 40cm (16in) species, aromatic annual, biennial and usually herbaceous stems and large,
tall with flowers to 2.5cm (1in) long, perennial herbs and subshrubs (those jaggedly cut dark green leaves; the
rich yellow with purple-black spots on here usually perennial subshrubs and flowerheads are grey-white and carried
the lobes). shrubs), with entire to toothed or lobed in massive panicles; ‘Guizhou’ is
leaves often covered in short, silvery strongly flushed purple to maroon with
aroid A plant belonging to the family hair, and button-like, yellow and grey white flowerheads; ‘Variegata’ has
Araceae, characterized by an inflores- flowerheads carried in terminal grey-cream variegated leaves); A.ludovi-
cence made up of a spadix and spathe, racemes and panicles. The larger ciana (WESTERN MUGWORT, WHITE 67
for example Arum and Zantedeschia. species and cultivars will grace any SAGE, CUDWEED; West US, Mexico;
Artemisia
A erect and bushy, woody-based peren- (24in), white to glaucous beneath; flow- articulate, articulated of stems
nial herb to 1m (31/4ft) tall with ers white, 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in) wide, on and stalks; jointed; possessing distinct
clumped stems and grey-silver, lanceo- panicles to 30cm (12in) across standing nodes or joints, sometimes swollen at
late leaves entire to jaggedly toothed or on stout scapes to 1m (31/4ft) tall). their attachment and breaking easily.
divided; includes the finely cut ‘Silver
Frost’ and ‘Silver King’, the jagged artichokes a group of three types of Arum (Latinized form of the Greek
‘Silver Queen’ and ‘Valerie Finnis’; var. perennial vegetable plant. The GLOBE name for these plants, aron). Araceae.
albula has virtually white leaves, whilst ARTICHOKE (Cynara cardunculus Scoly- Europe: Asia. 26 species, hardy, tuber-
var. latiloba has silver leaves with broad, mus Group) is not known in the wild ous perennial herbs with hastate to
sharp lobes); A.pontica (ROMAN WORM- and probably derived from the cardoon sagittate leaves and inconspicuous flow-
WOOD; Europe; erect, bushy perennial (C.cardunculus). It is a herbaceous peren- ers arranged on a spadix terminating
to 80cm (32in) tall with clumped stems nial grown in the vegetable garden in a cylindric, club-shaped or tapering
and feathery, sage green to pewter grey mainly for the fleshy basal portions of appendix and surrounded by a cup- or
leaves; ‘Old Warrior’: to 50cm (20in). the scales and the ‘heart’ or base of the hood-like spathe. Most of the following
densely bushy and neat with very finely flower, all of which are boiled. The species will tolerate cold to
cut sage green to hoary grey foliage); young shoots, blanched by covering for –5°C/23°F; A.italicum and A.mac-
A. ‘Powis Castle’ (garden origin, proba- six weeks with black polythene, may be ulatum are fully hardy. A.pictum
bly A.arborescens x A.absinthium; vigorous, used in salads. Globe artichokes are and A.rupicola fare better in the
erect to spreading shrub or subshrub to best replanted every three years by cold greenhouse, alpine house or
1m (31/4ft) with silver filigree leaves): suckers taken from well-perform- bulb frame. Most prefer a shel-
A.schmidtiana (Japan; prostrate, carpeting mother plants in spring; tered, warm position in full or
or mound-forming subshrub to 60cm plant 90cm (36in) apart each dappled sun. Keep moist during
(24in) tall with silver-grey, finely cut, way. Safeguard from frost the growing season (usually early
downy leaves; the dwarf, cushion-form- damage by covering with a autumn to late spring), but drier
ing ‘Nana’ is an excellent rock or sink 30cm (12in) layer of straw. during the summer resting
garden plant, likewise the low, hardy JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE period. A.italicum and A.macula-
and bright grey-white ‘Silver Mound’); (Helianthus tuberosus), native tum are easier to please and
A.stelleriana (BEACH WORMWOOD, OLD to North America, is a will grow in shade and perma-
WOMAN, DUSTY MILLER; NE Asia, E herbaceous perennial nent moisture. The first is an
US; erect to arching, bushy, woody- 2–3m (61/2–10ft) high, invaluable foliage plant for the
based perennial to 60cm (24in) tall related to the sun- winter garden, its brilliant
with silver-white-hairy leaves, deeply flower (H.annuus). hood-like fruiting heads giving way to
lobed, toothed or entire; ‘Boughton It is grown mainly spathe tufts of marbled leaves. Sow ripe
Silver’: compact, hardy and prostrate for its edible tubers, seed, cleansed of pulp, in a gritty
flower-
with off-white to silver-white leaves cut harvested in bearing medium in autumn, or divide
into fairly broad, dissected lobes, may autumn; they have the spadix plants after flowing. The berries
be deciduous). appearance of knobbly are toxic.
potatoes, 7–10cm (23/4–4in) A.creticum (Crete; spathe pro-
Arthropodium (from Greek arthron, long and 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in) in duced in spring, to 20cm (8in),
joint, and pous, foot: the pedicels are diameter, which are peeled and Arum bright yellow to yellow-green or
jointed). Liliaceae (Asphodelaceae). boiled. Rich in inulin rather than maculatum white, recurved, spadix tapering,
Australasia. 12 species, evergreen or starch, the tubers are a suitable yellow or, rarely, purple);
deciduous perennial herbs with narrow source of carbohydrate for diabetics. A.dioscoridis (Cyprus to Turkey, Middle
leaves in clumps or rosettes and starry, They are best replanted annually in East; spathe produced in spring, to
6-parted flowers in racemes or pani- spring, 8cm (3in) deep, at 40–50cm 40cm (16in), green suffused and
cles. In zones 7 and over, plant in full (16–20in) stations in rows 90cm (36in) blotched deep, satiny maroon, more or
sun or part-shade on a fast-draining apart. Plants are also grown in gardens less erect, spadix cylindric, purple-
but permanently damp soil high in to form temporary shelter screens. black); A.italicum (S and W Europe;
leafmould and grit. Mulch A.cirrhatum CHINESE ARTICHOKE (Stachys affinis), leaves appearing in autumn and winter,
in cold winters. Increase by division. a native of the Far East, is a herba- to 35cm (14in), glossy mid to dark
A.candidum (deciduous; small clumps ceous perennial 30–45cm (12–18in) green, often heavily marbled cream to
of finely grassy dull green leaves to high, grown for its small edible tubers white or yellow on veins–plants
20cm (8in) long; flowers white, to 1cm produced on a creeping root system, described as ‘Marmoratum’, or, erro-
(1/2in) wide, on thread-like stalks in a with a flavour similar to Jerusalem neously, ‘Pictum’ – spathe produced in
loose, erect panicle; ‘Maculatum’: artichoke. Plant tubers in spring spring, to 40cm (16in), yellow-green or
smaller, leaves dull flesh pink mottled 7–8cm (23/4–3in) deep and 30cm green-white, faintly edged purple-red,
and spotted olive to bronze); A.cirratum (12in) apart each way. They may erect, hooded, spadix club-shaped,
68 (RIENGA LILY; ROCK LILY; evergreen; be over-wintered in the ground in yellow; fruiting head an oblong mass of
leaves narrowly lanceolate, to 60cm all but the severest winters. showy orange-red berries); A.maculatum
Asclepias
(LORDS-AND-LADIES, CUCKOO-PINT,
JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT; Europe; leaves
of sword-shaped leaves. Flowers are
produced after long, hot summers in
Asarum (from Classical Greek name
asaron). Aristolochiaceae. Asia; N Amer-
A
often spotted purple-black; spathe pro- terminal, silky plumes. Plant in a fer- ica; Europe. 70 species, low-growing,
duced in early spring, to 25cm (10in), tile, moist but well-drained loamy soil evergreen perennial herbs with spicily
pale, pearly green-white, often tinted in full sun. In frost-free regions, growth aromatic rhizomes and heart- to
purple-red especially on margins and is fast, continuous and spreading. Else- kidney- or arrow-shaped leaves borne
with faint purple-red blotches, erect, where, the canes are usually killed or at close to the ground. The purple-brown
hooded, spadix club-shaped, purple- least stripped by hard frosts – protect flowers appear in spring. Solitary and
red or, rarely, yellow; berries orange- the crowns with a thick, dry mulch and short-stalked, they lie between the
red); A.pictum (W Mediterranean Is; sacking. Cut out dead or damaged leaves and consist of a fleshy cup with
leaves appearing in autumn, shimmer- canes in spring. Increase by division. three, tail-like lobes at its rim. The fol-
ing dark green with fine silver-green A.donax (Mediterranean; canes to 6m lowing are hardy in zone 6. Grow in
veins; spathe produced in autumn, to (20ft), stout; leaves 60cm (24in), rough- the wild or woodland garden, or as a
25cm (10in), dark, satiny purple-red, edged, grey-green, arching; flower groundcover among shrubs. Plant in
erect, hooded and stout, spadix club- spikes pearly pink becoming grey- moist but porous soil rich in leafmould
shaped, maroon-black); A.rupicola (W white; ‘Macrophylla’ larger with in dappled sunlight to deep shade.
Asia, SW Mediterranean; spathe pro- purple-tinted stems and broader, Increase by division of well-established
duced in spring and early summer, to blue-green leaves; var. versicolor. syn. clumps in spring.
40cm (16in), green to purple-red or ‘Variegata’, leaves striped and edged A.arifolium (SE US; leaves 16–20cm
maroon, paler with at base, very off-white). (6–8in), triangular to sagittate, blunt,
narrow and erect, spadix tapering, marked light green or silver between
green-white at base and maroon Asarina (from a Spanish vernacular veins); A.asaroides (Japan; leaves 8–12cm
above). For A.dracunculus, see Dracunculus name for Antirrhinum, which it resem- (3–43/4in), broadly ovate, blunt, spot-
vulgaris; the white arum lily is Zant- bles). Scrophulariaceae. Mexico; SW ted); A.blumei (Japan; leaves 6–10cm
edeschia aethiopica. US; S Europe. TWINING SNAPDRAGON. (21/2–4in), hastate to ovate, acute to
16 species, sprawling or twining peren- blunt, dark green with white veins);
Aruncus (Classical name for these nial herbs sometimes grown as annuals. A. canadense (WILD GINGER, eastern N
herbs). Rosaceae. Northern Temperate Flowers produced in spring and America; leaves 6–10cm (21/2–4in),
Regions. GOAT’S BEARD. 2 species, summer, axillary, tubular to funnel- broadly reniform, apex acuminate,
hardy perennial herbs, clump-forming shaped with two lips and a distinct dark green, usually lost in winter);
with slender-stalked, pinnate to ter- palate. Essentially tender, with a mini- A.europaeum (ASARABACCA, W Europe;
nately compound, ferny leaves com- mum temperature requirement of leaves 2.5–10cm (1–4in), reniform to
posed of dark green, ovate and 5°C/41°F. In favoured locations in cordate, blunt, dark glossy green);
coarsely toothed leaflets. Small, off- zone 8, they may, however, survive out- A.hartwegii (W US; leaves to 10cm (4in),
white flowers are borne in frothy, doors as herbaceous perennials – this is cordate to ovate, acute, dark green to
plume-like panicles in summer. Hardy certainly true of A.procumbens which bronze, mottled silver); A.shuttleworthii
to –15°C/5°F, grow in moist soil in fil- overwinters successfully on sheltered (SE US; leaves 5–10cm (2–4in),
tered sun or light shade. Propagate by rock gardens. Otherwise grow outdoors orbicular to cordate, mid-green
division in autumn or early spring, or as half-hardy annuals. Provide support marked silver); A.virginicum (SE US;
by seed in autumn. A.dioicus (A.sylvester; in the form of pea sticks, canes or leaves 5–12cm (2–43/4in), orbicular to
Europe to S Russia; to 2m (61/2ft) tall surrounding vegetation. In the cool cordate, dark green with purple or
smaller forms include the Japanese var. greenhouse or conservatory grow in silver mottling).
astilboides, and ‘Kneiffii’, a vigorous pots and train on trelliswork or a
plant with narrow and gracefully cut wigwam of bamboo canes. Grow in Asclepias (from the Greek god of
leaflets, and delicately branched, full sun or part shade; ventilate, water medicine, Asklepios, referring to the
creamy panicles, growing up to 1m and feed freely in summer; keep barely medicinal properties of some species).
(31/4ft) in height. moist in winter; cut back in early Asclepiadaceae. Americas; South
spring. Increase by seed grown under Africa. SILKWEED; MILKWEED. 108
Arundinaria (from Latin arundo, glass in spring. species, annuals and perennials, herbs,
reed). Gramineae. SE US. 1 species. A.filipes (Antirrhinum filipes; YELLOW subshrubs and shrubs, exuding milky
See Bamboos. TWINING SNAPDRAGON; SW US; sap if damaged, some tuberous-rooted.
glabrous, sometimes glaucous twiner; Carried in spring and summer in
Arundo (from Latin arundo, reed). flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) long, yellow dense, flat-topped, umbellike cymes,
Gramineae. Warm regions of the Old spotted black on palate); A.procumbens the flowers are small and starry with
World. GIANT REED. 3 species, very (Antirrhinum asarina; SW Europe; five, spreading and pointed lobes and a
large, rhizomatous perennial grasses, woody-based, glandular hairy trailer; central corona – a crown of five,
evergreen in mild climates, more or less flowers to 3.5cm (11/2in), white veined hooded lobes often differently
deciduous elsewhere. Tall and cane- purple-rose, lips pale yellow or pale coloured. The pods are slender and 69
like, the stems bear two alternate ranks pink, palate yellow). case-like or resemble a balloon; they
Asclepias
A disperse silk-tasseled seeds. A.curassarica sometimes shrubby or climbing, with gently twining, 60–150cm (24–60in)
and A.physocarpa should be grown in full thick rhizomes or root tubers and tall; cladophylls to 3cm (11/4in) long,
sun with a minimum temperature of clumped, tough and slender stems. narrowly ovate with tapering tips,
7°C/45°F. Keep almost dry in winter. These are clothed with needle- or leaf- glossy green and long-lasting; foliage
Short-lived and fast-growing, these like cladophylls, subtended by the offered by florists under the name
shrubs are best replaced every two to sharp, scale-like true leaves. With the SMILAX); A.densiflorus (tuberous, making
three years with new plants grown exception of the two hardy species, all a clump of erect to sprawling stems to
from seed sown in late winter in a listed here are evergreen and hail from 1m (31/4ft) tall, with whorled branches
heated case. They are plagued by Africa. Small, green-white flowers are dense with linear cladophylls to 1cm
whitefly under glass. The remaining, followed by glossy red to black berries. (1/2in) long and bright emerald green;
hardy perennial species are handsome EDIBLE ASPARAGUS (A.officinalis) has ‘Myersii’: syn. A.meyeri, A.myersii, FOX-
additions to the herbaceous border been used for over 2000 years, first as a TAIL FERN, erect with short, compact
and the wild garden where they attract medicine and then as a food. Grown lateral branches dense with cladophylls
bees and butterflies. Plant in full sun. for its edible shoots or ‘spears’. This and creating soft, ferny cylinders;
Increase by division in early spring. species and the ornamental A.verticilla- Sprengeri Group: syn. A.sprengeri,
A.curassavica (BLOOD FLOWER, SWAL- tus are hardy, requiring full sun and a EMERALD FERN, looser, airy, emerald
LOW WORT; S America; annual or freely draining, deep soil; A.verticillatus green foliage on gracefully arching
short-lived perennial subshrub to 1.5m needs the support of surrounding vege- stems); A.drepanophyllus (tuberous,
(5ft) tall; flowers bright orange red with tation or trellis. making a dense clump of sprawling to
yellow centres); A.hallii (W US; tuber- Plant edible asparagus in spring as arching, thinly woody stems 1–10m
ous perennial to 1m (31/4ft) tall; flowers one-year old crowns, raised from seed; (31/4–30ft) long; cladophylls tough, nar-
deep pink); A.physocarpa (syn. Gomphocar- set 10cm (4in) deep at 30–40cm rowly oblong, 2–7cm (3/4–23/4in) long
pus physocarpus; SWAN PLANT; S Africa; (12–16in) stations, in rows 60cm (24in) and dark green); A.falcatus (SICKLE
willowy, erect short-lived shrub to 2m apart. Plants may be grown on the flat THORN; differs from the last species in
(61/2ft) tall; flowers cream to green- or, preferably, in ridges to aid drainage its longer, slightly curving cladophylls
white; fruit to 6cm (21/2in) wide, and weed control; earth-up in the with a distinct midrib); A.officinalis
rounded and inflated, pale, translucent autumn after planting. Plants are (EDIBLE ASPARAGUS; Europe, C Asia, N
green covered in soft spines and hang- dioecious; males produce higher yield Africa; fleshy-rooted herbaceous peren-
ing from a curving stalk that resembles and do not give rise to troublesome nial to 1.5m (5ft) tall making a clump
a swan’s neck); A.syriaca (North Amer- seedlings; male plants can be selected of finely branched, plume-like stems
ica; tuberous perennial, 1–2m in the second year in the seed bed, and clothed with very fine, thread-like
(31/4–61/2ft) tall; flowers pink to mauve there are all-male clones available cladophylls); A.setaceus (syn. A.plumosus;
or white); A.tuberosa (BUTTERFLY WEED; through micropropagation. Close erect to climbing evergreen with very
INDIAN PAINTBRUSH; US; tuberous planting gives higher yield. Cutting can slender stems ranked with horizontal
perennial, 1–2m (31/4–61/2ft) tall; flowers take place one year after planting, over branches of very fine, short, dark green
flame red, vermilion, orange or gold, a 3–4 week period; but it is better to cladophylls – the asparagus fern of
sometimes scented, sometimes pink or leave beds uncut for at least two years florists); A.verticillatus (SE Europe to
bicoloured). from planting to build up strong Siberia; differs from A. officinalis in its
crowns, after which harvest can be very long stems (scrambling to 2m
aseptate of fruit; lacking partitions made over an 8–10 week period. (61/2ft)) and black, not red berries).
or divisions. Spears are cut about 20cm (8in) long; Pests: asparagus beetle.
green when allowed to develop above
asexual lacking sexual characteristics the surface or mostly white when cut asperous, asperulous of plant
or (of reproductive processes) occurring from more deeply earthed crowns. In surfaces; rough, coarse, sharp.
without the fusion of gametes. The autumn cut the tall stems of fern-like
description includes apomixis and foliage down to within 2cm (3/4in) of Asperula (from Latin, asper, rough).
mechanical methods of propagation ground level; mulch the rows with Rubiaceae. Europe; Asia; Australia.
such as grafting, cuttings and division. rotted organic matter. Beds can remain WOODRUFF. 100 species, annual and
productive for many years. perennial herbs or dwarf shrublets
ashes coke or coal ash is sometimes The remaining species are tender. with narrow leaves and terminal clus-
used to lighten heavy soils but may During the colder months, when ters of small, 4-parted flowers in
contain impurities; it is also used for growth virtually ceases, reduce water summer. Fully hardy but intolerant of
surfacing standing ground or in plunge and withold fertilizer. Bright, filtered damp winter conditions, it should be
beds for pots. Fresh dry wood ash is a light is ideal, but most will tolerate light grown on fast-draining soils in full sun
useful fertilizer. See wood ash. or even heavy shade. Provide a mini- on the rock garden, in sink gardens or
mum temperature of 7°C/45°F. Propa- in the alpine house. Increase by divi-
Asparagus (Classical name for this gate by division. sion, by seed or by soft cuttings in early
70 plant). Liliaceae (Asparagaceae). Old A.asparagoides (syn. A.medeoloides, summer. A.arcadiensis (syn. A.suberosa of
World. 300 species, perennial herbs, Medeola asparagoides; stems erect to gardens, (Bulgaria. Greece; perennial,
Aster
making a tufted clump of frosted

growth to 10cm (4in) tall; flowers
(Convallariaceae). E Asia. 8 species,
tender, evergreen perennial herbs with
smooth, glossy texture; cultivars are
available with fronds short or long,
A
bright pink clustered on an elongated thick, creeping rhizomes and erect, broad or narrow and with margins
spike to 5cm (2in) long). For A.odorata long-stalked, lanceolate to elliptic wavy, toothed, crested, crisped or cut,
see Galium odoratum. leaves. Cup-like and 6–8-lobed, the and sometimes forking at the tips);
fleshy flowers arise along the rhizome A.trichomanes (MAIDENHAIR SPLEENWORT;
Asphodeline (related to Asphodelus). and open at soil level. Grow in filtered fronds 6–30cm (21/2–12in)-long, with
Liliaceae. (Asphodelaceae). Mediter- sunlight to deep shade. Keep moist dark, wiry stalks ranked with small,
ranean to Caucasus. JACOB’S ROD. 20 throughout the year; apply a weak feed broad and leathery, dark green leaflets).
species, more or less deciduous, rhi- fortnightly in spring and summer.
zomatous perennial or biennial herbs Maintain a minimum winter tempera- Astelia (from Greek a-, without, and
producing an erect stem in spring and ture of 5°C/41°F. Propagate by divi- stele, a pillar: some species are epiphytic
summer, clothed with slender leaves sion in spring. A.elatior (CAST IRON and thus unable to prop themselves
and terminating in a tall spike of 6- PLANT; BAR ROOM PLANT; BEER PLANT; up). Liliaceae (Asteliaceae). Australasia,
parted flowers among thin-textured China; leaves smooth, deep green, to Polynesia, Réunion, Mauritius, Falk-
bracts. Hardy to –15°C/5°F. Grow in 60cm (24in) tall; flowers 2–3cm land Islands. 25 species, evergreen
full sun or dappled shade in a low- to (3/4–11/4in)-wide, cream mottled purple- perennial herbs with clumps of sword-
medium-fertility, freely draining soil. red. ‘Variegata’: leaves long, striped like, ribbed leaves and inconspicuous
Propagate by division or by seed sown creamy yellow; ‘Variegata Exotica’ flowers crowded in long-stalked pani-
in a sandy mix in the cold frame. leaves boldly streaked white). cles. Hardy in zones 7/8 if grown in a
A.liburnica (C Europe, Balkans; sheltered position and mulched in
perennial to 60cm (24in) tall; stem leafy Asplenium (from the Greek name, winter. Otherwise grow in containers
below; flowers 3cm (11/4in) long and asplenon, derived from a-, without, and and overwinter in a frost-free green-
yellow striped green); A.lutea (KING’S splen, spleen; these ferns were thought house. Plant in a gritty, acid soil. Posi-
SPEAR, YELLOW ASPHODEL; Mediter- effective against complaints of the liver tion in full sun. Keep moist but avoid
ranean; perennial to 1m (31/4ft) tall; and spleen). Aspleniaceae. Cosmopoli- overwet winter conditions. Increase by
stem clothed throughout in fine, grey- tan. SPLEENWORT. 700 species, ever- seed or division. A.nervosa (New
green leaves and ending in a spike of green ferns with short rhizomes and Zealand; leaves 50–200cm (20–80in)
fragrant flowers each to 3cm (11/4in) fronds in rosettes or tufts. Hardy long linear to lanceolate, covered in
long and golden yellow). species include A.scolopendrium and A.tri- brilliant silvery chaff; flowers green to
chomanes, both of which will grow in a purple-bronze; fruit orange to red).
Asphodelus (from the Greek name wide range of garden situations,
for these plants, asphodelos). Liliaceae although the former prefers some Aster (from Greek aster, a star, refer-
(Asphodelaceae). Mediterranean to shade and moisture and the latter dis- ring to the shape of the flowers). Com-
Himalaya. 12 species, thickly rhizoma- likes wet. Among tender Asplenium positae. Americas; Europe; Asia;
tous hardy herbs, perennial or annual species are two very popular and Africa. Some 250 species, mostly
with slender, grassy leaves and spikes of resilient house plants, A.bulbiferum and perennial herbs and subshrubs, rhi-
starry, 6-parted flowers in late spring A.nidus. The first will thrive in cool, zomatous or fibrous-rooted with erect,
and summer. Of the following, the first airy and shaded conditions; the second clumped stems and white to pink, red,
is suited to scree or rock gardens, or to prefers warmth and humidity, but will lilac, mauve or blue, daisy-like flower-
the alpine house, the others to the cope with minimum temperatures of heads in summer and autumn. A large
herbaceous border. Grow in full sun. 7–10°C/45–50°F and dry air. Both genus which includes low-growing
Increase by seed. need a porous, soil-free potting mix, montane natives for the rock garden to
A.acaulis (N Africa; low-growing permanently damp but never wet, and tall back border perennials, with a
perennial with a stemless spike of protection from strong sunlight. Propa- large number of the North American
green-striped, white or pale pink flow- gate all species by division; A.bulbiferum species, such as A.acuminatus, A.cordifolius
ers held low in the leaf rosette); A.aes- by plantlets; A.scolopendrium from spores. and A.divaricatus, suited to naturalizing
tivus (syn. A.microcarpus; Canaries, A. bulbiferum (HEN-AND-CHICKENS, in the wild and woodland garden and
Mediterranean, Turkey; branching MOTHER FERN; fronds to 60cm (24in), other informal situations. Most asters
perennial to 2m (61/2ft) tall with tan olive to jade green, very finely cut and thrive in sun or semi-shade in any
striped, white flowers); A.albus (C and bearing plantlets); A.nidus (BIRD’S NEST moderately fertile, well-drained soil
S Europe; erect perennial, sometimes FERN; fronds 30–80cm (12–32in) long, that retains sufficient moisture through-
branched, to 1m (31/4ft) tall with white broadly oblanceolate, thin-textured, out the growing season. The rock
or pale rose flowers with deeper pink uncut and glossy light green with black garden species, generally flowering
stripes). midribs); A.scolopendrium (syn. Phyllitis in early summer, include the very
scolopendrium; HART’S TONGUE FERN; low-growing types such as A.alpigenus,
Aspidistra (from Greek aspidion, a fronds 20–40cm (8–16in), lanceolate to A.himalaicus, A.tongolensis and A.bellidias-
small, rounded shield, referring to narrowly spear-shaped, undivided and trum together with taller species such as 71
the shape of the stigma). Liliaceae tough, light olive to dark green with a A.farreri, A.souliei and A.yunnanensis.
Aster
A The many varieties of A.alpinus, with A. Propagation is usually by division, ally grouped as A. x arendsii and range
x alpellus, are also suited in scale to the but also possible by soft cuttings in in height from 50 to 100cm (20 to
larger rock garden and can be useful in spring. A number of cultivars come 39in), in colour, from white to darkest
smaller gardens. Where space is lim- approximately true from seed; most red, flowering from mid spring to late
ited, the European and Asiatic species species can be raised from seed but summer. Smaller species and forms like
are slower growing and less rampant Aster hybridizes freely and seedlings A.chinensis ‘Pumila’ and A.simplicifolia
than their American counterparts. may not come true. may be used in alpine troughs, beside
Selections from the A.amellus cultivars, Aster may be affected by grey mould, rock garden pools or in pans. Plant in
in a height range of about 50–60cm leaf spots, sclerotinia rots, and aster spring or autumn in rich, moisture-
(20–24in), suit the front of sunny wilt; powdery mildew may strike, retentive soil (pH 5–7) and part-shade.
borders with well-drained, moderately especially in hot dry summers; modern Mulch with dry bracken or straw in
fertile soils; plants benefit from division varieties of A.novi-belgii are particularly winter, and with leafmould and garden
every third or fourth year in spring to susceptible. Selection of resistant culti- compost in early spring. Cut to ground
avoid overcrowding and reduce losses vars is the preferred means of control, level in late winter; lift and divide every
from verticillium wilt. Hybrids of A. x followed by treatment with appropriate three to four years in spring.
frikartii and A.sedifolius are slightly taller. fungicide at the first signs of infection,
A.thomsonii ‘Nanus’ is more compact and regular treatment at fortnightly Astilboides (from Astilbe and Greek
and is floriferous over exceptionally intervals thereafter as necessary. – eides, resembling) Saxifragaceae.
long periods; these plants appreciate Remove and burn affected foliage N China. 1 species A.tabularis; fully
similar treatment and conditions as for in autumn. hardy, clump-forming perennial.
A.amellus. Leaves peltate, broadly-lobed, dentate,
The huge range of tall, clump-form- Asteranthera (from Greek aster, star, softly hairy on slender petioles to 90cm
ing, late summer and autumn flowering and anthos, flower, referring to the (3ft). Flowers numerous, small white, in
asters, derived largely from the NEW flower shape). Gesneriaceae. 1 species, plume-like panicles to 1.5m (5ft);
ENGLAND ASTER, A.novae-angliae and the A.ovata, an evergreen, woody-based early/mid summer. Grow in cool
MICHAELMAS DAISY, A.novi-belgii, thrive scrambler native to Chile and climbing moist, humus-rich soil, in partial shade.
in rich, fertile and moisture-retentive to 4m (12ft). The stems are slender and Increase by seed or division.
soil, in full sun or part shade. Top dress picked out with small, downy leaves.
with garden compost after cutting back The flowers appear singly or in pairs in Astrantia (this name has two possible
in later autumn after flowering. Flower summer and are bright red, to 6cm derivations – from Greek aster, referring
quality and good health are maintained (21/2in) long, with a narrow tube widen- to the starry flowerheads, or from the
by frequent division and replanting of ing to a 2-lipped limb to 3cm (11/4in) Mediaeval Latin magistrantia, ‘master-
the more vigorous growth at the out- across, the lower lip marked yellow. wort’, from magister, master). Umbellif-
side of the clumps, every second or Plant outdoors in zones 7 and over in a erae. Europe to Asia. MASTERWORT.
third year in autumn or spring. Tall sheltered, sunny position on an acid 10 species, fully hardy evergreen or
cultivars need staking in more carefully soil. Keep moist but never waterlogged. semi-deciduous perennial herbs, with
tended areas of the garden and this Mulch in winter. Propagation is by palmate or palmately lobed, toothed
must be done early in the season, using semi-ripe cuttings, simple layering, or leaves arising from a short, woody rhi-
peasticks or other grow-through sup- by division. zome. Produced in spring and summer,
port which will be obscured by the sub- the flowers are small, white to green
sequent growth. A.ericoides and its Astilbe (from Greek, a-, without, and and carried on long-stalked umbels.
cultivars, with slender-branched stems stilbe, brightness, a reference to the These are surrounded by a collar of
of small, starry flowerheads bring light dullness of the leaves of the type papery, green-white bracts with
effects to the sunny border with drier species). Saxifragaceae. E Asia; N toothed margins, the whole resembling
soils and have the advantage of being America. 12 species, hardy, deciduous a larger flower. Grow in full sun or part
largely self supporting and rarely need- perennial herbs, rhizomatous and shade. Increase by seed or division in
ing division. forming dense clumps, with slender- early spring.
A.divaricatus can be used to similar stalked, 1–3-ternately compound leaves A.major (GREATER MASTERWORT; C
airy effect and is best left to flop grace- composed of elliptic to ovate, toothed and E Europe; 25 to 80cm (10 to 32in);
fully over lower plants at the front of leaflets. Small, white, cream, pink or umbels to 3.5cm (11/2in) across, bracts
the border. A.lateriflorus, holding its deep red, the flowers are crowded in lanceolate, white netted olive green or
minute flowerheads in horizontally dense, plumelike panicles. For wood- pale pink and coarsely toothed; subsp.
branching sprays, suits similar soils and land and water garden or moist bor- involucrata: bracts larger, deeply cut;
situations. A.macrophyllus, though its ders. In some, the young, coppery ‘Shaggy’: syn. ‘Margery Fish’, bracts
small flowers are not in the first order foliage is handsome; flowering begins deeply cut, pink-white; ‘Sunningdale
of merit, is particularly useful for natu- in early summer with A.japonica and Variegated’: leaves yellow-cream-varie-
ralistic plantings in dry soils in shade, hybrids, extending to late summer gated); A.maxima (S Europe, Caucasus;
72 where the heart-shaped leaves and run- flowerers like A.chinensis. The many to 90cm (36in) tall; bracts pink-tinted,
ning root form good groundcover. commonly available cultivars are usu- elliptic – white in the cultivar ‘Alba’,
Atriplex
dark pink in ‘Hadspen Blood’, a very

showy hybrid with A.major).
flowers to 2.5cm (1in) across appear in
summer. Grow in a lime-free soil in full
available with fronds variously forked,
bunched, crested, crisped and fringed –
A
sun or part shade. Provide good venti- one of the most remarkable is ‘Frizel-
Astrophytum (from Greek aster, star, lation and a minimum winter tempera- liae’ (TATTING FERN), with long, narrow
and phyton, plant). Cactaceae. US ture of 3–5°C/37–41°F. Propagate by fronds in which the segments are
(Texas); Mexico. 4 species, tender, seed or semi-ripe cuttings in summer. reduced to widely spaced balls of
perennial cacti with an unbranched, parsley-like growth); A.niponicum (syn.
dome- to ball-shaped stem, ribbed and Athrotaxis (from Greek athroos, A.goeringianum; E Asia; fronds 10–30cm
sometimes spiny and marked with a crowded, and taxis, arrangement, refer- (4–12in)-long, broader than in A.filix-
pattern of chalky white scales. star-shaped ring to the disposi- femina, of a heavier texture and dark
Provide a minimum temper- profile tion of the leaves green with a bronze-purple tint, espe-
ature of 5°C/41°F and and cone scales). cially when young; var. pictum: PAINTED
a dry, buoyant Cupressaceae. Tas- LADY FERN, JAPANESE PAINTED FERN,
atmosphere in full mania. 3 species, fronds emerging purple-bronze, turn-
sun. Plant in a evergreen conifers ing dull aquamarine with silver-grey
gritty, low- to with fissured, flak- flush along the purple-tinted veins).
medium-fertility mix. ing bark and small,
Keep dry from mid- subulate or scale-like Atriplex (from the Greek name for
autumn to early leaves overlapping or these plants). Chenopodiaceae. Cos-
spring except for a spreading on erect mopolitan. ORACH; SALT BUSH. 100
light misting on branchlets. The cones are species, evergreen shrubs or annual
warm, sunny days. small and spherical. The herbs, often with a grey or silver-white
Water moderately in Astrophytum following favour equable, mealy coating, and small flowers in
summer. Propagate by seed. myriostigma rainy areas in zones 7–9. dense panicles. A.hortensis is a fast-
A.asterias (SEA URCHIN, SILVER Plant in a moist, humus-rich soil in full growing hardy annual with edible,
DOLLAR CACTUS; stem circular, flat- sun or part shade with shelter from spinach-like foliage. The red-flushed
tened to hemispherical, to 15cm (6in) harsh winds. Propagate by cuttings. forms are very decorative. Sow seed in
wide with broad low, spineless ribs; A.selaginoides (KING WILLIAM PINE; to situ in spring. Unattended, these plants
flowers yellow sometimes tinted red); 30m (100ft) tall with a broadly conical will seed themselves. A.halimus is fully
A.myriostigma (BISHOP’S CAP, BISHOP’S crown and red-brown bark falling away hardy and tolerates saline conditions,
MITRE; stem rounded to domed, to in shreds; leaves to 1cm (1/2in), spread- drought and fierce winds. The remain-
20cm (8in) wide with prominent and ing and subulate, the outer surface ing species are fine, silver shrubs for
faceted, spineless ribs, the whole cov- bright green, the inner marked with very dry, windy, saline or alkaline situa-
ered in minute, chalky scales; flowers two white lines); A.cupressoides (SMOOTH tions and are useful fire-retardants and
gold with a yellow-orange heart); TASMANIAN CEDAR; to 16m (52ft); leaves windbreaks. All need a warm, dry and
A.ornatum (stems spherical to column- scale-like; the hybrid offspring of these sheltered position on sharply draining
shaped, 15–100cm (6–39in) tall with two is A. x laxifolia, SUMMIT CEDAR, soils. Increase by softwood cuttings
six to eight deep, wing-like and spiny hardier than either parent and with in summer.
ribs, dark green and lined with silvery fresh, yellow-green new growth). A.canescens (FOUR-WING SALTBUSH;
white, dot-like scales; flowers, brilliant to 2m (61/2ft) tall, broadly spreading;
yellow). Athyrium (from Greek athoros, good leaves to 1.5cm (5/8in) long, linear to
at breeding, referring to the diverse narrowly oblong, silvery grey); A.halimus
asymmetric, asymmetrical (1) of forms of the sori). Athyriaceae. (TREE PURSLANE; S Europe; semi-
a leaf margin or the shape of an inflo- Cosmopolitan. 100 species, evergreen evergreen, bushy perennial shrub to
rescence that is irregular or unequal in or semi-deciduous ferns with 2–3-pin- 2m (61/2ft) tall; leaves tough, ovate-
outline or shape, (2) of a flower inca- nately divided fronds. A.filix-femina and rhombic to hastate, pewter grey to
pable of being cut in any vertical plane A.nipponicum are popular garden plants. silvery white); A.hortensis (MOUNTAIN
into similar halves. Both species prefer light shade and a SPINACH, ORACH; Asia, widely
humus-rich, moist and slightly acid soil; naturalized elsewhere; annual herb
Atherosperma (from Greek, ather, they will, however, tolerate some chalk to 2m (61/2ft) tall with arrow-shaped,
bristle, and sperma, seed). Monimiaceae. and full sun, provided that the roots leaves; var. rubra: leaves strongly
Australia. 1 species, A.moschatum (AUS- are cool and damp. Fully hardy, they purple-red-tinted – selections include
TRALIAN SASSAFRAS, TASMANIAN SAS- nonetheless benefit from a dry winter ‘Cupreatorosea’ with red-tinted leaves
SAFRAS), a spreading, evergreen tree to mulch. Increase by division in early burnished with copper, and ‘Rosea’
25m (80ft) tall with nutmeg-scented, spring. with pale rose leaves veined dark
lanceolate leaves to 10cm (4in) long, A.filix-femina (LADY FERN; northern purple-red); A.hymenelytra (DESERT
glaucous to glossy above and white- temperate regions; fronds 20–100cm HOLLY; low, compact to 1m (31/4ft) tall;
downy beneath with toothed or entire (8–39in) long, light-textured and a soft, leaves rhombic to oblong or bluntly 73
margins. Creamy white, cup-shaped pale green; numerous cultivars are hastate, coarsely toothed, silver-white,
Atriplex
A tough and holly-like); A.lentiformis spring and summer. Plant in a sunny, ‘Viridis’, the narrow-leaved ‘Salicifolia’,
(QUAIL BUSH; WHITE THISTLE; broadly well-drained position, e.g. walls, dry and the dwarf ‘Nana’; cultivars include
spreading, to 3m (10ft) tall, spiny; banks, paving, edging and the rock ‘Bicolor’ (leaves with a central yellow
leaves oblong to ovate-deltoid, silver- garden. Shear off flowered growth. blotch and large teeth), ‘Crotonifolia’
grey; subsp. breweri lacks spines and is Increase by semi-ripe cuttings in early (female, leaves finely speckled and
virtually evergreen). autumn or seed sown in situ in blotched gold), ‘Gold Dust’ (female,
late spring. leaves speckled gold), ‘Sulphurea’
attapulgite a clay mineral, which A.deltoidea (Aegean; sprawling cush- (leaves edged pale yellow), and ‘Varie-
after calcining and crushing can be ions of bristly, mid-green, rhomboid to gata’ (female, leaves spotted and
used as an ingredient of potting media. ovate leaves, the margins entire or blotched yellow). The berries last from
Its physical properties are similar to sparsely toothed; flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) late summer to early spring, sometimes
sand, but it has a higher buffering across, mauve to lilac, pink or purple- longer. Typically bright scarlet and
capacity. red; this species has silver-white- and about 1cm (1/2in) wide, they are also
gold-edged cultivars, some with minute known in white and yellow forms (f.
attenuate of the apex or base of a leaves; A. x cultorum includes garden leucocarpa, f. luteocarpa), whilst the varie-
leaf, sepal, petal, stem or bulb; tapering hybrids close to A.deltoidea, but ranging gated selection ‘Fructualbo’ has yellow-
finely and concavely to a long drawn in flower shape and size from the small white to pale buff fruit).
out point. and single to the large and semi-
double, and in colour through deep auger a T-shaped metal hand tool
aubergine (Solanum melongena). EGG- violet to royal purple, mauve, lilac, about 1m (31/4ft) long with the lower
PLANT, a short lived perennial treated magenta, carmine and rose pink). 15cm (6in) of the main stem twisted
as an annual, it is 60–70cm (24–28in) into a wide thread. It is used to collect
high and is grown for its two-locular auctoris, auctorum (abbrev. auct., cores or twists of soil from various
fruits. Of various shape and size, these auctt.) Latin ‘of an author’, ‘of authors’. depths for inspection or analysis.
are 5–15cm (2–6in) long and 3–6cm A formula used in full botanical cita-
(11/4–21/2in) in diameter, yellow, black, tions to show when a name has been aural screen a planting of trees and
white or purple in colour, and may be applied by authors to the wrong entity. shrubs designed to reduce noise, espe-
fried or roasted. Probably originating It is used usually with the ‘non’ formula cially traffic noise; the best effect is
in India, but also found in Southeast to contrast it with the true type of the obtained with tall evergreen species
Asia and China, the aubergine was plant as would be embodied by the cor- planted more than one row deep.
introduced into Europe in the 13th rect author citation. For example, by
century. Betula platyphylla auct. non Sukachev, we auricle an ear-like lobe or outgrowth,
In warm climates, sow seeds in a indicate that some authors call what is often at the base of an organ (i.e. a
sheltered place; transplant seedlings to in fact B.mandschurica by a valid name leaf), or the junction of leaf sheath and
ridges or raised beds either 50–60cm belonging to a wholly different plant blade in some Gramineae.
(20–24in) apart each way or spaced (the type named by Sukachev). This
60–75cm (24–30in) stations in rows formula is sometimes used interchange- auriculas a group of distinctive
75–90cm (30–36in) apart. In temperate ably with ‘hort.’ and ‘misapplied’. primulas believed to arise from the nat-
areas, raise seedlings in a greenhouse ural hybrid Primula x pubescens, the prog-
at a minimum temperature of Aucuba (from the Japanese name for eny of two variable high-alpine crevice
15°C/59°F; grow to maturity under this plant). Cornaceae (Aucubaceae). plants P.auricula and P.rubra. The two
protection in beds, growing bags or East Asia. 3 species, evergreen shrubs pigments, flavone and hirsutin, pro-
25–30cm (10–12in)-diam. pots at a and small trees with green branches, duce a wide range of colours in the
maintained temperature of star-shaped maroon-green flowers and progeny, only true blue being absent.
25–30°C/77–86°F. Stop to encourage attractive berries. Plant in part-sun or Auriculas have been documented since
bushy growth, and stake; fruit is shade on most soils. Male and female the mid 16th century, when they were
harvested when fully coloured, plants are needed for berrying. Once valued for medicinal purposes and
80–120 days from transplanting. established, Aucuba will withstand hard were introduced into the north of
Possible problems: aphids, red spider frost, some drought and heavy atmos- England by Huguenot silk weavers.
mite, whiteflies; grey mould. pheric pollution. Prune to size in Auricula societies flourished in Eng-
spring. Propagate from seed and suck- land in the late 18th century, running
Aubrieta (for Claude Aubriet ers in spring or from basal cuttings of shows with strict rules and displays of
(1668–1743), French botanical artist). the current year’s growth in autumn. ‘stage auriculas’ shown in tiny theatres
Cruciferae. Europe to Central Asia. A.japonica (SPOTTED LAUREL; China, against a black velvet back-drop, often
AUBRETIA. 12 species, cushion- or mat- Japan; broad, rounded shrub to 4m with mirrors. They are now divided
forming, evergreen, hardy perennial (12ft) tall; leaves 10–25cm (4–10in) into four classes, Shows, Alpines, Dou-
herbs with small leaves and clusters or long, elliptic to narrowly ovate, more bles and Borders, and are much grown
74 short racemes of 4-petalled flowers or less toothed, thick and deep glossy for exhibition, from unheated green-
throughout the year, but chiefly in green, unmarked in the cultivars houses or frames. Hardy to –14°C/7°F,
awn
grey-green leaves and broad panicles of

pale yellow flowers; ‘Citrina’: lemon
autumn colour Prior to discarding
their foliage in autumn, deciduous trees
A
yellow; ‘Dudley Nevill’: rich cream and shrubs and most herbaceous
tinted apricot; ‘Gold Dust’: deep gold; perennials of temperate regions set in
‘Variegata’: grey-green leaves with motion a process of transferring from
yellow-white margins). their leaves useful materials such as
carbohydrates for storage in stems or
Austrocedrus (from Latin auster, the underground parts. To assist this func-
south wind, and Cedrus, cedar). Cupres- tion, accessory materials contained in
saceae. Chile; Argentina. 1 species, the sap are called into use. Some of
A.chilensis (syn. Libocedrus chilensis), these materials are colourless but
CHILEAN CEDAR, an evergreen conifer- anthocyanin, which often features, is
ous tree to 15m (50ft) tall. The crown is red where sap is very acid, blue in the
loosely ovoid to narrowly conical or absence of acidity, and violet in the
columnar. Dark brown to orange-grey, intermediate condition. As chlorophyll
Auricula primula ‘Adrian’ the bark falls away in narrow shreds. degenerates it gives rise to yellow
Striking petal patterning and, often, a mealy Scale-like dark green leaves with white grains. Combinations of these and
white farina (q.v.) characterize this undersides overlap in four ranks along other materials impart a range of
attractive, if demanding, group of primulas. flattened, feathery branches. The cones colour to the leaves of plants
are small, ovoid to oblong and mid- approaching dormancy.
they require good drainage and a dry brown. Hardy in zones 7 and 8, the The timing and habit of autumn
atmosphere in winter. Cultivars are Chilean cedar prefers a cool, humid colour depends upon the species; its
propagated by offsets between spring and sheltered location on a moist, intensity and duration is influenced by
and late summer and are hybridized by sandy and humus-rich soil. It suffers in soil and atmospheric moisture (for
hand pollination. Fresh seed germinates hot weather and drying winds. Increase example, colours are rarely strong fol-
best and most flower by the second by seed and cuttings. lowing a dry period), by temperature
spring from sowing. Grow outdoor (early frost hastens leaf fall) and by
types in raised beds rich in humus, author in taxonomy, the first worker light (transmission of colour is greatest
tender cultivars singly in pots, protect- validly to publish a new name or com- in bright sunshine). Good autumn
ing buds from frost and strong sun- bination for a taxon. The author name, colouring species can be found among
shine. Repot annually after flowering. usually abbreviated, follows that of the Acer, Amelanchier, Berberis, Betula,
Possible problems: aphids, root taxon in a botanical citation. For exam- Carpinus, Cornus, Euonymus, Liquidambar,
aphids, woolly aphids, fungus gnats, red ple, Physalis alkekengi L., where L. stands Liriodendron, Parrotia, Sorbus and
spider mite, slugs, vine weevil; root rots. for Linnaeus. The author citation can Viburnum.
be qualified to denote a misapplied
auriculate, auricled of the base of name (e.g. Physalis alkekengi hort, non L., auxins a group of plant growth sub-
a leaf blade or perianth segment pos- which describes a name wrongly used stances (hormones) naturally synthe-
sessing two rounded, ear-shaped lobes by some growers for a plant more cor- sized in meristematic tissues, concerned
that project beyond the general outline rectly named P.alkekengi var. franchetii), or with root and shoot elongation, apical
of the organ. used in a double citation to indicate dominance and root initiation in cut-
that a name first described at one rank tings, etc. The main naturally-occur-
Aurinia (from Latin, aureus, golden, (here a species) has been relegated to ring auxin is ß, indole acetic acid (IAA)
referring to the flowers of A.saxatilis). the status of variety within another
Cruciferae. Central Europe east to species, for example Physalis alkekengi available water capacity a mea-
Ukraine and Turkey. 7 species, woody- var. franchetii (Mast.) Mak. In this case sure of the water in soil available to
based biennial and perennial herbs Makino, has reduced Masters’s species plants; expressed as a percentage of
with sprawling to mound-forming P.franchetii to a variety of P.alkekengi. The the volume of soil; that which is held
branches, oblanceolate leaves and convention is also used when a name is between field capacity and permanent
racemes or panicles of small, 4-parted transferred to a different genus entirely. wilting point.
flowers in spring and early summer.
Fully hardy and ideal for rock gardens, autoecious completing the entire life avocado pear see Persea.
dry walls and banks. Grow in full sun cycle on one kind of host; cf. heteroecious.
in well-drained, poor to medium-fertil- awl-shaped of plant features; nar-
ity soils. Increase by greenwood cut- autogamous self-fertilizing. rowly wedge-shaped and tapering
tings in early summer in a shaded cold finely to a point, subulate.
frame, or from seed in autumn. Cut autopolyploid a polyploid with
back after flowering. A.saxatilis (syn. multiple chromosome sets derived awn a slender sharp point or bristle-
Alyssum saxatile; evergreen perennial from a single individual or species; like appendage found particularly on 75
to 40 x 30cm (16 x 12in) with downy, cf. allopolyploid. the glumes of grasses.
awned
A awned see aristate. scorch and drop if exposed to harsh

cold winds. Plant in sun or light shade
other times they float on the surface of
standing water or colonize saturated
axial relating to the axis of a plant. in a deep, humus-rich soil. Prune after mud. Their small bodies consist of
flowering only to remove overcrowded, forked or feather-shaped rhizomes
axil the upper angle between an axis exhausted or badly placed branches. from which hang thread-like roots. The
and any offshoot or lateral organ aris- Propagate by semi-ripe cuttings in a ‘fronds’ are reduced to minute scales
ing from it, especially a leaf. closed case with bottom heat, or by which overlap closely in two ranks
simple layering of the past season’s along the rhizome branches. A.filicu-
axillary situated in, or arising from, growth. loides (syn. A. caroliniana) is often grown
or pertaining to an axil. For example, A.dentala (small tree to 2m (61/2ft); in ponds and freshwater aquaria.
an axillary inflorescence arises from the leaves elliptic, toothed, dark glossy to Native to the warm Americas, it is now
junction of a petiole and the stem, 3.5cm (11/2in) long; fruit yellow); A.inte- widely naturalized in the waterways,
whereas a terminal inflorescence grows grifolia (tree-like shrub, usually to 5m lakes and ditches of most temperate,
directly from the apex of the stem. (15ft) tall with 4cm (11/2in)-long oval subtropical and tropical regions in the
leaves more or less untoothed; flowers Northern Hemisphere. Each plant
axis a notional point or line around or yellow; fruit glaucous black; var. body is some 1.5 x 1.8cm (1/2 x 3/4in)
along which organs are developed or browneae: leaves larger, obovate with a with water-repellent ‘fronds’ to 1mm
arranged, whether a few apical teeth; ‘Varie- (1/16in) long of a soft pea green. It will
stem, stalk or clump; gata’: leaves smaller proliferate with remarkable speed,
thus the vegetative variegated with pale forming a velvety emerald skin that
or growth axis and pink and creamy may become a nuisance. In hot sun-
the floral axis white); A.lanceolata: shine, times of drought and with the
describe the config- (shrub or small tree onset of autumn, the fronds take on a
uration and devel- to 6m (20ft) tall; rusty tint before becoming a deep fox-
opment of buds and leaves toothed, glossy or blood red. Azolla can be grown out-
shoots and flowers dark green, lanceo- doors in ponds in zones 7 and over.
respectively, and any late, on slender arch- Where frosts occur, it will sink into
stem or point of origi- ing branches; flowers winter dormancy, resurfacing in spring.
nation on which they are ochre-yellow, fragrant; By midsummer, it may be necessary to
found. fruit violet-black); skim off surplus growth if other aquat-
A.microphylla (tree to 8m ics are not to be choked and the pond
AYR abbreviation for ‘all axillary buds (25ft) tall with fan-like life below sealed in darkness.
year round’; applied to the in leaf axils sprays of branchlets
continuous flower production Quercus petraea densely ranked with Azorella (diminutive of Azores,
of greenhouse chrysanthemums, very small, rounded, dark green application uncertain). Umbelliferae.
especially by the manipulation leaves – edged pale yellow in the culti- South America; Antarctic Is; New
of day length. var ‘Variegata’ – flowers yellow-green, Zealand. 70 species, dwarf, carpeting
strongly scented of vanilla; fruit blood or hummock-forming perennial ever-
Azara (for J.N. Azara (1731–1804), red); A.petiolaris (tree to 5m (15ft) tall green herbs with tufted rosettes of
Spanish patron of botany). Flacour- with glossy, 4cm (11/2in)-long, ovate to small leaves and, in summer, stalkless
tiaceae. South America (those below elliptic, toothed leaves on distinct umbels of small flowers. Hardy to
from Chile). 10 species of evergreen stalks; flowers pale yellow, richly –17°C/1°F, and suitable for perfectly
trees and shrubs grown for their attrac- scented, carried on short cylindrical drained but moist, sunny positions on
tive habit and foliage (usually neat, spikes in late winter and early spring; the rock garden, scree, raised bed or
dark glossy green and gracefully dis- fruit purple-black with a plum-like sink garden. Propagate by division or
posed on arching or fan-like branches) bloom); A.serrata (shrub to 4m (12ft) seed. The following plant is sometimes
and axillary clusters of small flowers high with 6cm (21/2in)-long oblong to confused with Bolax gummifera (syn.
with crowded yellow stamens. Free- elliptic, toothed leaves of a deep, shin- Azorella glebaria). A.trifurcata (Chile,
standing, they nonetheless benefit from ing green; flowers small, golden, clus- Argentina; forming dense cushions or
the protection of a south-facing wall or tered, in each leaf axil; fruits black or mats; leaves 0.6–1cm (1/4–1/2in) long,
fence in zones 7 and 8: this will show white). leathery and dark glossy green to grey-
their habit to best advantage and green with three distinct teeth at their
encourage free flowering and the pro- Azolla (from Greek, azo, to dry up, tips; flowers yellow).
duction of attractive small berries. ollymi, to kill: these plants are killed by
A.petiolaris and A.microphylla withstand drought). Azollaceae. Cosmopolitan.
temperatures to –15°C/5°F; A.serrata to MOSQUITO FERN; WATER FERN; FAIRY
–10°C/14°F; A.lanceolata to –5°C/23°F. MOSS. 8 species, aquatic ferns. They
76 Other species will not tolerate heavy are usually perennial, surviving cold
frosts and the leaves of all species will periods as submerged fragments. At
Bacopa
B
erosion control in even the driest loca-
tions. Prune all species where necessary
in early spring. Propagate by softwood
or semi-ripe cuttings.
B
B.halimifolia, (GROUNDSEL-TREE or
COTTON-SEED TREE; Eastern US
to the West Indies; fast-growing,
deciduous shrub to 3 x 3m (10 x 10ft);
branches angled, scurfy; leaves 3–7cm
(11/4–23/4in), obovate, coarsely toothed;
in autumn, flowerheads give way to
masses of silver-white down); B.pilularis
Babiana (Latinized form of the (COYOTE BUSH, DWARF CHAPARRAL-
Afrikaans bobbejaan, baboon: baboons Babiana rubrocyanea BROOM; California; fast-spreading
are said to eat the corms). Iridaceae. The baboon flowers require winter protection groundcover shrub to 50cm (20in) tall
Africa (those below from South Africa). in frost-prone climates. Corms may be lifted by 2m (61/2ft) across; branches resinous,
BABOON FLOWER. Some 60 species, and stored, or plants given a thick mulch. tangled; leaves 1–4cm (1/2–11/2in)-long
cormous perennials grown for their obovate, sawtoothed, bright green and
brilliantly coloured flowers produced 5cm (2in) long in shades of red or tough-textured; ‘Centennial’: a cross
in spring and summer. They seldom maroon, closely 2-ranked on with B.sarothroides, heat-resistant and
exceed 20cm (8in) in height and pro- unbranched spikes to 20cm (8in) tall in narrow-leaved; ‘Pigeon Point’: to 1 x
duce a flattened fan of plicately ribbed, summer); B.rubrocyanea (to 20cm (8in), 4m (31/4 x 12ft) fast-growing with larger,
often hairy, lance-shaped leaves in flowers 4cm (11/2in)-diam. funnel- to light green leaves; ‘Twin Peaks’: a small
spring. This gives rise to an erect, dish-shaped flowers with spreading leaved, slow-growing selection, male
simple or branched spike of up to ten tepals, royal blue in their upper half, and thus free from the cotton down
flowers, dish-shaped with six broadly deep wine red below); B.stricta (to 20cm which can in this species become a nui-
elliptic tepals in the majority of species, (8in), flowers funnel- to disk-shaped sance); B.sarothroides (DESERT BROOM; to
irregular and tubular with narrow with broad tepals in shades of purple, 2m (61/2ft), with no or very few leaves
tepals in species formerly included in mauve, blue and yellow, sometimes and bright green branches covered in
Antholyza. mixtures thereof); B.thunbergii (syn. snow white pappus in winter).
Baboon flowers are usually Antholyza plicata, to 60cm (24in), flowers
described as frost-tender, requiring 5–6cm (2–21/2in), tubular, curving in bacillus thuringiensis a bacterium
container-treatment much like that for shades of bright red or deep pink used for biological control, mainly of
Freesia and a minimum temperature of stained green). caterpillars.
10°C/50°F. They certainly respond
well in such conditions and make baccate of fruit; berry-like, backbulb a dormant pseudobulb
attractive spring-flowering pot plants with a juicy, pulpy rind. retained after active growth of usually
for the cool greenhouse, conservatory only one season.
and home. Most can equally be grown Baccharis (for Bacchus, god of
outside where winter temperatures do wine). Compositae. GROUNDSEL TREE. backcross a cross made between a
not fall much below –5°C/23°F, in a Americas. Some 350 species, hardy hybrid plant and a plant genetically
warm, sunny position in a free-drain- evergreen or deciduous shrubs adapted identical to one of the hybrid’s parents.
ing, light but fertile soil. Outdoors, to dry exposed conditions with tough, This procedure is used in breeding pro-
plant deeply (i.e. to 10cm (4in)) and small, toothed leaves, or few or no grammes for a number of seed raised
give a thick winter mulch of bracken leaves and photosynthetic stems generations with the object of concen-
litter or leafmould. Alternatively, lift instead. Large clusters of small discoid trating desirable characters into an
corms in autumn and overwinter, flowerheads are followed by copious individual line.
cleaned and dry, in frost-free condi- quantities of downy pappus. Grow in
tions. Replant or pot up in early spring full sun in well-drained soil (minimum backyard garden in the US a
in equal parts loam, leafmould and temperature –15°C/5°F). B.halimifolia garden at the rear of a dwelling, usu-
sand. Feed pot-grown plants prior to will tolerate dry soils and saline, windy ally enclosed with direct access from
flower formation. Propagate by offsets. exposures; an excellent coastal shrub, it the living quarters. Also known as a
B.plicaia (to 20cm (8in), flowers can be pruned to a hedge. B.pilularis is yard garden.
slightly irregular, fragrant, funnel- a fine open groundcover for binding
shaped, to 4cm (11/2in) diam., in shades impoverished soils in dry, sunny Bacopa (from the South American
of pale blue, violet and white with exposures, the cultivar ‘Twin Peaks’ name). Scrophulariaceae. WATER
mauve and yellow blotches at the base especially. An annual shearing will HYSSOP. 56 species, aquatic or semi-
of the lower tepals); B.ringens (syn. improve its density. B.sarothroides is ideal aquatic perennials with creeping to 77
Antholyza ringens, to 20cm (8in), flowers for xeriscapes and for screening and erect stems. Small, campanulate flow-
Bacopa
ers are produced singly in the axils of Many bacterial diseases are dispersed drop out to give a ‘shot hole’ symptom.
B thinly fleshy leaves. Plant in aquaria or

at the margins of ponds and lakes.
Cuttings of stem tips will root in warm
through infected plants and propagat-
ing material; many are seed borne or
in accompanying debris; others are
Bacterial canker of poinsettia
(Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens pv.
poinsettiae) is a serious disease in which
water or wet loam, at a temperature of soil-borne but generally do not survive water-soaked streaks occur on stems
20°C/68°F or over. long in the absence of plant debris. and petioles, often extending to cause
B.caroliniana (N America; leaves Bacterial blight is the common leaf-blotching and complete defolia-
2.5cm (1in), entire, ovate, scented of name for a bacterial disease causing tion. BACTERIAL CANKER OF TOMATO
lemon; flowers blue); B.monnieri (Trop- widespread blackening of leaves and (Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiga-
ics; succulent, with obovate to spathu- shoots. Examples include LILAC BLIGHT nensis) is a vascular wilt disease in which
late leaves to 2cm (3/4in) long sometimes (Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae), which deep cankers may be produced on the
notched at the tips; flowers white to also affects Forsythia and can cause stems. The bacteria are seed- and soil-
pale blue). blossom blight of pears. A number borne, and outdoor crops are most
of plants can be attacked by other seriously affected. CITRUS CANKER
bacteria single-celled, microscopic pathovars (pv.) of P.syringae, the diseases (Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri) is a
organisms lacking a true nucleus and usually being referred to as bacterial major disease thought to have origi-
chlorophyll. Most bacteria are sapro- leaf spots, such as blight of mulberries nated in Asia, and has been subject to
phytic and beneficial, breaking down (Morus species) caused by Pseudomonas strict quarantine measures for many
organic matter in soil or fixing nitro- syringae pv. mori, and PEA BLIGHT years. Eradication campaigns have
gen, but some are pathogens. (P.syringae pv. pisi), a serious seed-borne been successful following outbreaks in
disease which has only recently become Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
bacterial diseases bacterial infec- established in Britain. HALO BLIGHT and the US, but the disease has
tions cause many different symptoms in (Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola) is a become established in several South
plants, including seedling blights, leaf seed-borne disease of French and American countries. Affected plants
spots or blotches, shoot blight, wilting, sometimes runner beans causing pale show branch cankering and the smaller
scabs, galls, cankers and rots. The same areas on leaves, stems and pods. shoots, foliage and fruit are also
pathogen may cause different symp- Bacterial blight of walnuts (Juglans regia) attacked. There are several strains of
toms on its host, depending on climatic is caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. different pathogenicity to citrus culti-
conditions or the stage in the host’s juglandis, which in the UK is mainly a vars. BACTERIAL CANKER OF POPLARS
development at which infection takes disease of nursery stock but can also (Xanthomonas populi) produces a cream-
place. In warm, moist conditions bacte- affect the fruits. An important bacterial coloured bacterial slime which oozes
rial cells can multiply extremely rapidly blight affecting many rosaceous trees is from cracks in young shoots in spring;
and this accounts for the destructive- FIREBLIGHT (Erwinia amylovora). large cankers may develop on branches
ness of many bacterial diseases and Bacterial canker manifests itself and stems. Black poplars, including the
their common occurrence in warm cli- as sunken necrotic lesions of stem Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra var. ital-
mates especially. Among the hundreds tissue. Cankers are often limited in size ica), are resistant to the disease.
of kinds of bacteria known to cause by a host reaction so there may be Bacterial leaf and stem rot
plant diseases, some have a wide host some malformation and outgrowth (Erwinia chrysanthemi pv. dieffenbachiae) is
range, for example the CROWN GALL of the surrounding bark. Pseudomonas a widespread cause of brown leaf spot-
bacterium (Agrobacterium tumefaciens), syringae pv. mors-prunorum is the cause ting and stem rot of Dieffenbachia
whilst others, such as that causing of bacterial canker of Prunus species, species.
HYACINTH YELLOWS (Xanthomonas especially cherries and plums, although Bacterial leaf spot is caused by
campestris pv. hyacinthi), are restricted almonds, apricots, peaches, nectarines Pseudomonas and Xanthomonas species,
to a narrow range of host species. and ornamental species are also sus- and can give rise to leaf spots and
The local spread of bacteria over ceptible. During autumn or winter, other symptoms on various plants.
short distances is effected principally bacteria from the leaves infect stem LEAF SPOT OF ANTIRRHINUMS
by rain and wind. Bacteria on the tissue through wounds or leaf scars. (Pseudomonas syringae pv. antirrhini) causes
surface of an infected plant disperse Unfolding leaves are yellow, often pale green leaf spots on seedling leaves
in rainwater, which is broken up into narrow and curled, and may wither which become brown and sunken in
droplets and carried by the wind to and die during the summer. Infection the centre and may coalesce, leading to
other plants. Storms provide ideal spreads in spring to produce shallow, total collapse. It is seedborne and simi-
conditions for the epidemic spread of depressed cankers; branches usually lar to diseases caused by Pseudomonas
bacterial diseases, as potential hosts show a characteristic flattening on one species on Lobelia, Primula, Tagetes and
will be likely to have waterlogged and side. Affected branches may be killed Viola; LEAF SPOT OF DELPHINIUMS
wounded tissues which are highly and gum may exude from the lesions. (P.syringae pv. delphinii) results in large
susceptible to infection. Some diseases No new cankers are formed in summer, black blotches on the leaves, stems and
are transmitted by insects and other but by then the leaves have been flower buds of some cultivars. ANGULAR
78 animals, including humans, and longer- attacked and develop circular brown LEAF SPOT OF CUCURBITS (P.syringae pv.
distance spread is effected in this way. spots. The centres of these spots often lachrymans) results in small, irregular,
bamboos
water-soaked spots which enlarge to the fully fed larvae pupate in late mostly with paired leaves and whorled,
become angular in shape between leaf
veins. The affected tissue, which may
exude drops of liquid containing
summer. Adult males, mostly black
with almost transparent wings, fly to
cocoons containing wingless females,
two-lipped tubular flowers cupped by
enlarged calyces in summer. Grow in
sunny, sheltered situations on well
B
bacteria, dries out, causing holes in the which die within the cocoons after egg- drained soils in zones 7 and over. Bal-
leaves. Small spots may also develop laying. The larvae emerge in spring. lota may require some protection where
on the fruit and cause it to rot. LEAF Remove and destroy the bags contain- the temperature frequently falls below
BLOTCH OF MAGNOLIAS may be caused ing eggs in winter or apply a contact –10°C/14°F: frosts tends to kill off the
by P.syringae. LEAF SPOT OF BERBERIS is insecticide in spring just after the soft top growth. Cut back or thin out
caused by P.syringae pv. berberidis. LEAF young larvae hatch. dead wood in spring before new
SPOT OF BEGONIAS (Xanthomonas growth commences. Propagate by
campestris pv. begoniae) gives rise to small Baileya (for L.H. Bailey (1858–1954), softwood or semi-ripe cuttings in
translucent spots on the underside of US botanist and horticulturist). Com- spring and early summer.
leaves and the spots may enlarge and positae. Western North America. 3 B.acetabulosa (Eastern Mediterranean,
merge so that the leaves turn brown species, hairy annual or perennial Greece; stems woolly, erect, ranked
and die. LEAF SPOT OF IVY (Xanthomonas herbs with daisy-like flowerheads car- with crenate, rounded to heart-shaped
campestris pv. hederae) may be trouble- ried from spring until early autumn. leaves to 5cm (2in) long; flowers lilac-
some in greenhouses and during prop- Grow in full sun. Sow seed in situ in pink, backed by a white-felted dish-
agation, when humidity is high and late spring or, in cool climates, under like calyx to 2cm (3/4in) diameter;
moisture persists on foliage. glass in late winter for planting out in B.pseudodictamnus (S Aegean; smaller,
Apart from copper preparations, late spring. B.multiradiata, (DESERT more rounded than the last species,
most fungicides are ineffective against MARIGOLD; annual to 35cm (14in) tall with ovate to cordate, virtually entire
bacteria and control is best effected by with entire or pinnately divided grey leaves and far smaller calyces; ‘All
an integrated programme of measures leaves and bright yellow flower heads Hallow’s Green’: smaller still, with
intended to break the cycle of disease, to 5cm (2in) diam.). finely downy foliage in soft lime green).
involving: (a) the exclusion of the dis-
ease by the use of healthy seed and ball (1) the mass of roots and growing bamboos A group of long-lived
planting material, the destruction of medium at the base of plants lifted grasses of the subfamily Bambusoidae,
infected tissue, plant debris and volun- from the open ground or removed comprising about 90 genera and 1000
teer plants, general cleanliness and from pots; (2) a condition of rose flow- species; with natural habitats ranging
measures to ensure that contaminated ers in which the expanded bud decays from 50°N in Japan to 47°S in Chile,
tools, implements, and containers are before opening; (3) a class of dahlias at altitudes from sea level to 4,000m
not brought onto the site; (b) the pre- with rounded flower heads larger (13,000 ft) and therefore variously
vention of damage to plants by cultural than pompons. hardy in gardens. Bamboos differ from
or harvesting operations, particularly other grasses in having silica-rich culms
during wet weather; (c) the use of ballbarrow a wheelbar- and stalked leaves joining the
resistant selections if available; (d) the row with a large, usu- leaf sheaths. They vary
control of possible insect or other ally pneumatic ball in height from a few
animal vectors. for the wheel. centimetres to 40m
(130ft). Flowering is
bacteriophage a virus that infects balled and uncommon. When
bacteria. wrapped a it does occur, the
description of plants plants may be
bagasse the fibrous residue of sugar lifted from the open seriously weakened.
cane processing, used as a ground ground where the Seed production is
mulch or as an ingredient of potting root ball is wrapped correspondingly rare
media. in fabric for protec- and propagation is
tion during trans- best done by division.
bagging hook a sickle-shaped grass- port. Also known root ball Outside the cool, temper-
cutting tool with a short handle. as burlapped. lifted with ate West, bamboos are an
surrounding important source of construc-
soil
bagworm (Thyridopteryx ephemerae- Ballota (from tion material, food and medi-
formis) a destructive garden insect famil- ballote, the Greek cine. In gardens throughout
iar in N America, where its larvae name for black the world many bamboo
devour the leaves of many trees and horehound, B.nigra). species are grown to pro-
shrubs, especially conifers. They feed Labiatae. Europe, vide ornamental screens
within spindle-shaped cases up to Mediterranean (chiefly), and groundcover. The
50mm (2in) long, composed of plant West Asia. 35 species, peren- Balled and ripened culms make excellent 79
foliage tied together with silk, in which nial herbs, subshrubs and shrubs, wrapped plant supports. (See table overleaf.)
bamboos
B BAMBOOS
Name Distribution Habit Culms Leaves
Bambusa multiplex S China 3–15m (10–50ft), densely 1–4.5cm (1⁄2–13⁄4in) diam., arching with 2.5–15 x 0.5–1.5cm (1–6 x
1
B.glaucescens; B.nana; clump-forming prominent nodes and many branches ⁄4–5⁄8in), in two rows, rather
B.argentea; HEDGE BAMBOO silvery beneath
Comments: Much used in subtropical and tropical Asia for hedging. culms golden, leaves larger. ‘Riviereorum’ (CHINESE GOODDESS
Good bonsai. ‘Alphonso Karrii’: culms and branches striped orange- BAMBOO): culms delicate, somewhat sinuous, leaves small. ‘Silver
yellow and green, tinged pink when young ‘Golden Goddess’: small, Stripe’: large, culms and leaves striped yellow or white. Z8/9.
Bambusa oldhamii China, Taiwan 6–15m (20–50ft), thickly stout, 3–13cm (11⁄4–5in) diam., with 15–30 x 3–6cm (6–12 x
Sinocalamus oldhamii clump-forming, erect white powder below nodes and 11⁄4–21⁄2in), tough and broad
CLUMPING GIANT TIMBER with dense foliage short branches
BAMBOO; OLDHAM
BAMBOO Comments: Much used in warm places for screening. Z9.
Bambusa ventricosa S China 8–20m (25–70ft), densely 3–5.5cm (11⁄4–21⁄4in) diam., smooth 10–20 x 1.5–3cm
BUDDHA’S BELLY BAMBOO clump-forming and green to yellow-green (4–8 x 5⁄8–11⁄4in)
Comments: In containers or on poor soils, culms seldom exceed 2m (61⁄2ft) and develop swollen internodes, considered ornamental. Z9.
Bambusa vulgaris so widely culti- 5–25m (15–80ft), densely 5–25cm (2–10in) diam., smooth with 10–25 x 1.8–4cm
COMMON BAMBOO vated in clump-forming prominent nodes (4–10 x 3⁄4–11⁄2in)
S Asia that its
natural habitat Comments: Used for light timber, paper pulp and edible young
is obscure shoots. ‘Vittata’: culms and leaves striped green and yellow. Z9.
Chimonobambusa long cultivated 2–3m (61⁄2–10ft), running 1–2cm (1⁄2–3⁄4in) diam., round in section, 7.5–16 x 0.5–1.5cm
marmorea in Japan, rhizomes making large, sheaths marbled purple or pink-brown (3–61⁄2 x 1⁄4–5⁄8in)
Arundinaria marmorea native country sometimes invasive stands with white spots when young, densely
uncertain of widely spaced culms leafy with many branches Comments: Z6.
Chimonobambusa SE China, 2–10m (61⁄2–30ft), run- 1–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in) diam., green, square 10–29 x 2–7cm (4–11 x
quadrangularis Taiwan, natu- ning rhizomes with well- in section with 4 angles and thorn-like 3
⁄4–23⁄4in), dark green.
Arundinaria quadrangularis ralized Japan spaced, strongly erect root protuberances at nodes
SQUARE BAMBOO culms and soft tiers of Comments: Z6.
branches
Chimonobambusa China (Yunnan, 2–6m (61⁄2–20ft), running, 1–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in) diam., dull to glossy 5–15 x 0.5–2.5cm (2–6 x
tumidissinoda Sichuan) erect to spreading above olive to sap green, basically narrow but 1
⁄4–1in), finely tapering and
Quiongzhuea tumidinoda with outspread branches bulging like a spinning top at each thin-textured, mid green
and graceful foliage node; branches slender above, grey-green beneath
Comments: A very elegant bamboo valued for its unusual culms; requires a moist, fertile soil in a sheltered situation. Z6.
Chusquea coronalis C America to 6m (20ft), forms clumps; 0.5–2cm (1⁄4–3⁄4in) diam., slender with 2.3–7 x 0.3–0.8cm
culms arch or spraw rings of fine branches (1–23⁄4 x 1⁄8–3⁄8in)
Comments: Distinguished from C.culeou by the branches, which completely encircle the culms, and the leaves without tessellate veins. Z7.
Bambusa multiplex Chimonobambusa Chimonobambusa

80 quadrangularis tumidissinoda
bamboos
BAMBOOS
B
Chusquea culeou Chile 4–6m (12–20ft), stately, large 1.5–3cm (5⁄8–11⁄4in) diam., with solid 6–13 x 0.5–1.5cm
clumps with distinctively pith, pale papery sheaths and slender, (21⁄2–5 x 1⁄4–5⁄8in)
‘whorled’ branches rather short branches crowded in alter-
nating semi-circles
Comments: Differs from C.coronalis in the branches on one side of each node only and the leaves with tessellate veins. ‘Tenuis’ (var. tenuis; C.bre-
viglumis) grows to 2m (61⁄2ft) with narrower culms spreading outwards at 45º from a narrow-based clump. Z7.
Dendrocalamus SE Asia 15–40m (50–130ft), giant 15–35cm (6–14in) diam., green to 20–55 x 3–12cm
giganteus clump-former with a strong yellow-green, very stout with prominent (8–22 x 11⁄4–43⁄4in)
Sinocalamus giganteus V-shaped outline from base nodes and large sheaths
GIANT BAMBOO and arching upper reaches
hung with light branches
Comments: A spectacular giant for subtropical and tropical gardens, large warm glasshouses and the atria of public buildings. Z10.
Drepanostachyum E Himalaya 2–6m (61⁄2–20ft), densely 1.5–2.5cm (5⁄8–1in) diam., slender, white- 11–35 x 1–2.5cm
falcatum clump-forming and slow- powdery at first becoming glossy yellow (41⁄2–14 x 1⁄2–1in)
Arundinaria falcata; growing with bushy branches at nodes
Chimonobambusa falcata;
Sinarundinaria falcata; Comments: Intolerant of wet/cold conditions and temperatures below –6ºC/21ºF. Best grown in large tubs of fer-
Thamnocalamus falcatus tile, sandy loam kept evenly moist in the cool conservatory. D. khasianum differs in its culms coloured a rich, pol-
ished coppery red. Z8.
Fargesia China 3–5m (10–15ft), makes a neat, 0.4–0.8cm (1⁄8–3⁄8in) diam., with numer- 5–17 x 0.5–2cm
dracocephala (Sichuan) fountain-like clump with arch- ous branches at first growing close to (2–61⁄2 x 1⁄4–3⁄4in), held
ing top and branches internodes, then spreading or drooping horizontally in a frond-
Comments: Z6. like arrangement
Fargesia murieliae C China 3–4m (10–12ft), clump-form- 0.4–1cm (1⁄8–1⁄2in) diam., white-powdery 6–15 x 0.5–1.8cm
Arundinaria murieliae; ing with culms gently arch- at first, soon yellow-green, then yellow (21⁄2–6 x 1⁄4–3⁄4in),
Arundinaria spathacea; ing outwards from a narrow with pale brown sheaths gradually stand- apple green, tip finely
Fargesia spathacea; base and making a light, airy, ing away from culms tapering
Sinarundinaria murieliae; arching top
Thamnocalamus spathaceus
UMBRELLA BAMBOO Comments: Z5.
Fargesia nitida C China 3–4m (10–12ft), clump- 0.4–0.8cm (1⁄8–3⁄8in) diam., grey-powdery 4–11 x 0.5–1.1cm
Arundinaria nitida; forming with graceful, slen- at first then lined or tinted purple-brown (11⁄2–41⁄2 x 1⁄4–1⁄2in),
Sinarundinaria nitida der culms bowed outwards with purple-green sheaths dark green, flickering
FOUNTAIN BAMBOO from a narrow base and in the breeze
weighted with airy, drooping
branches
Comments: Includes ‘Eisenach’ (to 2m (61⁄2ft), culms strongly erect, arching, pearly grey-powdery), ‘Nymphenburg’ (culms dull grey-green,
black-tinted with prominent nodes), ‘Ems River’ (to 4m (12ft), culms weeping). Z5/6.
almost black, very hardy), ‘Maclureana’ (to 6m (20ft), culms strongly
Chusquea culeou Fargesia nitida Phyllostachys aureosulcata var.

aureocaulis 81
bamboos
B BAMBOOS
x Hibanobambusa Japan 2–5m (61⁄2–15ft), rhizomes 1–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in) diam., erect to 15–25 x 3.5–5cm
tranquillans running in warm, wet and arching at apex (6–10 x 11⁄2–2in), dark
Phyllostachys tranquillans; fertile conditions, otherwise green, tough, glossy
Semiarundinaria tranquillans making open clumps with
INYOU-CHIKUZOKU rather sparse branches
Comments: Possibly a hybrid between Phyllostachys and Sasa. Includes ‘Shiroshima’ with culms, sheaths and leaves striped white and yellow. Z8.
Himalayacalamus C Himalaya 5–10m (15–30ft), makes a 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in) diam., yellow-green 7–16 x 0.8–2.7cm
falconeri V-shaped clump of elegant with a purple ring below the nodes (23⁄4–6 x 3⁄8–1in)
Arundinaria falconeri; slender culms and abundant
Drepanostachyum falconeri; feathery foliage
Sinarundinaria falconeri;
Thamnocalamus falconeri Comments: ‘Damarapa’: (syn. Arundinaria hookeriana of gardens; Sinarundinaria hookeriana of gardens); culms
emerging pink striped lime green then turning deep amber or red-brown with irregular, dark olive stripes.
Requires a sheltered, warm site on a moist, fertile, sandy soil rich in leafmould. In cold regions, grow in tubs in
the cool conservatory. Z8.
Himalayacalamus E Himalaya 6–9m (20–28ft), tall, 1.5–3cm (5⁄8–11⁄4in) diam., blue- to 18 x 2cm (7 x 3⁄4in),
hookerianus V-shaped clump-former green, thickly white-powdered at first very graceful, appearing
Arundinaria hookeriana; with a blue-grey ring below nodes, misty blue en masse and
Chimonobambusa hookeriana; later yellow-green or purple-red at a distance
Drepanostachyum hookerianum;
Sinarundinaria hookeriana Comments: The name Arundinaria hookeriana, properly a synonym of this species, is often misapplied to Himalay-
BLUE-STEMMED BAMBOO acalamus falconeri ‘Damarapa’ (q.v.). Z8.
Indocalamus latifolius E China 0.5–1m (11⁄2–31⁄4ft), rhizome to 0.5cm (1⁄4in) diam., slender and 10–40 x 1.5–8cm
Arundinaria latifolia running in warm, wet condi- sparsely branched (4–16 x 5⁄8–3in),
tions, otherwise slowly build- spreading, mid to
ing a spreading, mound-like deep green; veins
Comments: Z7. clump not tessellated
Indocalamus tessellatus C China, 1–2.5m (31⁄4–8ft), rhizomes 0.5–1.5cm (1⁄4–5⁄8in) diam., slender to 60 x 10cm (24 x 4in),
Arundinaria ragamowskii; Japan running or growing slowly and sparsely branched spreading to drooping,
Sasa tessellata; Sasamorpha to make spreading, rather mid to dark green with
tessellata untidy, mounded clumps tessellated veins
Comments: The largest leaves of any bamboo listed here – an exotic and luxuriant screen or mounded, tall groundcover; also good for contain-
ers. Z7/8.
Otatea acuminata Mexico to 2–8m (61⁄2–25ft), clump- 2–4cm (3⁄4–11⁄2in) diam., ulti- 7–16 x 0.3–0.5cm
O.acuminata ssp. aztecorum; Nicaragua forming with very graceful mately weeping (23⁄4–6 x 1⁄8–1⁄4in),
Arthrostylidium longifolium; foliage on slender culms that numerous, pendulous
Yushania aztecorum arch almost to the ground
MEXICAN WEEPING BAMBOO
Comments: Plant outdoors only in regions with short-lived frosts; otherwise suitable for the cool glasshouse or conservatory. Once established,
will cope with drier conditions than most bamboos. Z9.
82 Phyllostachys bambusoides Phyllostachys bambusoides ‘Allgold’ Phyllostachys flexuosa

bamboos
BAMBOOS
Name Distribution Habit Culms Leaves B
Phyllostachys aurea SE China, 2–10m (61⁄2–30ft), strongly erect runner 3
2–5cm ( ⁄4–2in) diam., smooth, 5–15 x 0.5–2cm
FISHPOLE BAMBOO; Japan with dense foliage; may remain a green then brown-yellow with (2–6 x 1⁄4–3⁄4in)
GOLDEN BAMBOO; clump-former in cold climates short, crowded internodes at base
Comments: Makes a good screen or hedge and will tolerate some striped; ‘Violascens’ (Phyllostachys violascens): to 6m (20ft) tall, culms stout,
drought. ‘Albovariegata’: culms slender, leaves striped white; green striped purple, ultimately stained grey-purple to violet, leaves
‘Holochrysa’: culms yellow sometimes striped green, leaves sometimes large, rather glaucous beneath. Z6.
Phyllostachys NE China 3–10m (10–30ft), vigorous, erect runner 1–4cm (1⁄2–11⁄2in) diam., yellow- 5–17 x 1–2.5cm
aureosulcata with dense foliage (may remain in green with a distinct yellow (2–61⁄2 x 1⁄2–1in)
YELLOW GROOVE BAMBOO clump in colder climates) groove, often flexuous below
Comments: Good hedging bamboo. f. aureocaulis, syn. f. spectabilis: culms yellow marked with a green groove. Z6.
Phyllostachys China, Japan, 3–30m (10–100ft), strongly erect and 15–20 cm (6–8in) diam., stout, 9–20 x 2–4.5cm
bambusoides widely grown running, forming large groves of well- green, with heavily marked sheaths (31⁄2–8 x 3⁄4–13⁄4in)
P.mazellii; P.reticulata elsewhere spaced culms decked with airy foliage.
GIANT TIMBER BAMBOO; In colder climates it will remain
JAPANESE TIMBER BAMBOO in a clump
Comments: Includes ‘Albovariegata’ (leaves marked white), ‘Castillo- with golden-yellow culms sometimes striped green), ‘Marliacea’ (culms
nis’ (culms yellow with a green stripe), ‘Castillonis Inversa’ (culms green green, internodes strangely wrinkled). Z7.
with a yellow stripe), ‘Holochrysa’ (‘Allgold’) (smaller and more open
Phyllostachys edulis China, intro- 3–27m (10–81ft), rhizomes running, form- 4–30cm (11⁄2–12in) diam., very 5–12 x 0.5–2cm
P.heterocycla f. pubescens; duced Japan ing large groves of stout, erect, grey-green thick, grey and velvety when (2–43⁄4 x 1⁄4–3⁄4in)
P.pubescens; P.mitis of gardens culms with small feathery leaves; in young, ultimately green or almost
MOSO BAMBOO colder climates, will remain in a clump orange with white powder below
nodes, curved near base; sheaths
Comments: ‘Bicolor’: culms striped yellow; f. heterocycla: syn. P.heterocycla, heavily mottled brown
TORTOISESHELL BAMBOO, lowest culm internodes short, distorted and bulging to
one side. Z7.
Phyllostachys flexuosa China 2–10m (61⁄2–30ft), rhizomes running, 2–7cm (3⁄4–23⁄4in) diam., erect 5–15 x 1.5–2cm
making open groves of erect to arching then arching, green-yellow (2–6 x 5⁄8–3⁄4in)
culms with feathery foliage; remains becoming darker (almost black)
Comments: Z6. clump-forming in colder climates with age, smooth with white
powder below nodes
Phyllostachys nigra E & C China 3–10m (10–30ft), running with fairly 1–4cm (1⁄2–11⁄2in) diam., green at 4–13 x 0.8–1.8cm
BLACK BAMBOO dense culms erect then arching first, typically turning glossy black (11⁄2–5 x 3⁄8–3⁄4in),
above; remains in a tight clump in the second year with some bright green,
in colder climates grey-white powder below nodes thin-textured
Comments: A beautiful and popular bamboo for sheltered borders are green to yellow-green. The culms are variably marked dark purple-
and large containers. The blackest form is f. nigra with glossy, pure brown on green in f. punctata; in ‘Boryana’ they are green blotched
black culms; it includes the cultivar ‘Othello’ with tightly clumped brown. Z7.
culms that are jet black even in their first year. In f. henonis the culms
Phyllostachys nigra Phyllostachys nigra f. henonis Phyllostachys viridiglaucescens 83

bamboos
B BAMBOOS
Phyllostachys sulphurea E China 4–12m (12–40ft), running, 0.5–9cm (1⁄4–31⁄2in) diam., 6–16 x 1.5–2.5cm
making groves of erect ultimately yellow, sometimes (21⁄2–6 x 5⁄8–1in)
Comments: f. viridis (P.mitis; P. ‘Robert Young’; culms; remains clumped striped green, sheaths thick,
P.viridis) is a larger plant with green culms; it seldom in colder climates spotted and blotched brown
thrives in cold climates. Z7.
Phyllostachys E China 4–12m (12–40ft), running, 1–5cm (1⁄2–2in) diam., 4–20 x 0.6–2cm
viridiglaucescens forming a dense stand of smooth, with white waxy (11⁄2–8 x 1⁄4–3⁄4in)
P.elegans erect to arching culms; powder below nodes, often
often remains clumped curved at base; sheaths large,
Comments: Z8. in cooler climates with dark spots and blotches
Pleioblastus origin unknown, to 1m (31⁄4ft), running, 0.5–1cm (1⁄4–1⁄2in) diam, thin, 14–22 x 1–2cm (51⁄2–9 x
argenteostriatus long cultivated forming erect stands of sparsely branched 1
⁄2–3⁄4in), pale to mid green
P.chino var. argenteostriatus; in Japan dense slender culms striped creamy white
Arundinaria argenteostriata;
Nippocalamus argenteostriatus;
Sasa argenteostriata Comments: Attractive medium-height groundcover, best cut back every 1–2 years in spring. Z7.
Pleioblastus chino C Japan 2–4m (61⁄2–12ft), running 0.5–1cm (1⁄4–1⁄2in) diam., 12–25 x 1–3cm
P.maximowiczii; Arundinaria and somewhat invasive slender and sparsely (43⁄4–10 x 1⁄2–11⁄4in)
chino; Nippocalamus chino making dense stands of branched
lax, reedy stems
Comments: Includes the narrow-leaved, erratically white-striped f. angustifolius (P.angustifolius) and f. gracilis
(P.chino ‘Elegantissimus’) which differs in its reliably white-striped, slender leaves, not hairy beneath. Z6.
Pleioblastus gramineus Japan, E China 2–5m (61⁄2–15ft), running, 0.5–2cm (1⁄4–3⁄4in) diam., 15–30 x 0.8–2cm (6–12 x
Arundinaria graminea making dense stands of freely branches 3
⁄8–3⁄4in), narrow and
slender culms finely tapering
Comments: A graceful, medium-sized bamboo with long narrow leaves. Z7.
Pleioblastus humilis C Japan 1–2m (31⁄4–61⁄2ft), running 0.2–0.3cm (1⁄16–1⁄8in) diam., 10–25 x 1.5–2cm
Arundinaria humilis; Nippocalamus makes a dense stand of reedy, branching throughout (4–10 x 5⁄8–3⁄4in)
humilis; Sasa humilis erect slender stems
Comments: Useful medium-height groundcover. Responds well to clipping or even mowing in spring and early summer. var. pumilis
(Sasa pumila; Arundinaria pumilia; Arundinaria gauntlettii) is more sturdy and compact with very fresh green foliage. Z6.
Pleioblastus pygmaeus origin obscure, 10–20cm (4–8in), run- 0.1–0.2cm (1⁄32–1⁄16in) diam. 2–4 x 0.2–0.5cm (3⁄4–11⁄2 x
Arundinaria pygmaea; Nippocalamus long cultivated ning, making dense, short 1
⁄16–1⁄4in), arranged in two
pygmaeus; Sasa pygmaea in Japan thickets of soft, slender ranks, the tips sometimes with-
DWARF FERN-LEAF BAMBOO culms ering and becoming papery
white in hard winters
Comments: A charming miniature bamboo useful for somewhat taller and very vigorous with leaves arranged
containers, the margins of small ponds and for ground- in two distinct ranks at the culm tips. Both respond well
cover. The cultivar most often grown is ‘Distichus’ to trimming or mowing. Z6.
84 Pleioblastus pygmaeus ‘Distichus’ Pleioblastus variegatus Pleioblastus viridistriatus

bamboos
BAMBOOS
Name Distribution Habit Culms Leaves B
Pleioblastus simonii C&S 3–8m (10–25ft), running, but 1.2–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in) diam., 13–27 x 1.2–2.5cm
Arundinaria simonii; Nippocala- Japan usually remaining confined stout but thin-walled with (5–11 x 1⁄2–1in), taper-
mus simonii to a clump of erect, elegant white waxy powder below ing finely, somewhat
SIMON BAMBOO culms with arching branches nodes and persistent sheaths glaucous beneath
and airy foliage that stand away from the
culms as branches develop
Comments: Includes ‘Variegatus’ (P.simonii var. heterophyllus; Arundinaria simonii var. albostriata; Arundinaria simonii var.
striata), less robust, with variable leaves, some narrow, some broad and many white-striped. Z6.
Pleioblastus variegatus probably a selection 20–75cm (8–30in), running, 0.2–1cm (1⁄16–1⁄2in), typi- 10–20 x 0.7–1.8cm
P.fortunei; Arundinaria of the green-leaved but usually making loose cally very thin with a (4–8 x 1⁄4–3⁄4in), taper-
fortunei; Arundinaria var. viridis, itself of clumps of slender culms few erect branches ing finely, dark green to
variegata; Nippocalamus unknown origin but sea green with white to
fortunei; Sasa variegata widely cultivated cream stripes of vary-
DWARF WHITE-STRIPED BAMBOO in Japan ing breadth
Comments: One of the finest and most widely grown variegated bamboos, a semi-dwarf making miniature stands of bright foliage. Once estab-
lished, it responds well to trimming. Also suitable for bonsai treatment and use in cut flower arrangements. Z7
Pleioblastus origin obscure, natu- 1–3m (31⁄4–10ft), running 0.2–0.4cm (1⁄16–1⁄8in) diam., 12–22 x 1.5–3.5cm
viridistriatus ralized in Japan but usually making a loose, slender, reedy and sparsely (43⁄4–9 x 5⁄8–11⁄2in),
P.auricomus; Arundinaria mound-like clump of grace- branched softly hairy, emerald
auricoma; Arundinaria ful stems green with brilliant
viridistriata; Sasa auricoma yellow stripes
Comments: Very colourful small bamboo for ground cover or specimen planting. Cut hard back in spring every year.
The leaves of ‘Chrysophyllus’ are a striking pure gold. Z7.
Pseudosasa amabilis S China, widely cul- 5–13m (15–43ft), running, 2–7cm (3⁄4–23⁄4in) diam., 10–35 x 1.2–3.5cm
Arundinaria amabilis tivated throughout making dense thickets of tall, thick-walled with hairy, (4–14 x 1⁄2–11⁄2in)
LOVELY BAMBOO; SE Asia erect then arching culms; in persistent sheaths and
TONKIN CANE colder climates, more likely usually 3 branches
to remain in a clump per nodes
Comments: A very handsome bamboo producing long, rigid culms widely used for canes. It suffers in cold and windy
conditions and favours moist, fertile and sheltered locations in zones 8 and 9. Z8.
Pseudosasa japonica Japan, 3–6m (10–20ft), running, 1–2cm (1⁄2–3⁄4in) diam., thin- 20–36 x 2.5–3.5cm
Arundinaria japonica; Korea making dense stands of walled with persistent, thick (8–14 x 1–11⁄2in), taper-
Sasa japonica ARROW BAMBOO erect then arching culms sheaths and, usually, one ing finely, tough, two-
with resilient foliage, clump- branch per node thirds of undersurface
forming in colder climates glaucous (thus distin-
guished from Sasamor-
Comments: One of the most commonly grown bamboos, excellent for large gardens pha borealis)
and for screening; it resists high winds and will tolerate poor soils, dry or saturated. Z6
Pseudosasa japonica Sasa veitchii Semiarundinaria fastuosa 85

bamboos
B BAMBOOS
Sasa nipponica Japan 50–80cm (20–32in), running, 0.2–0.4cm (1⁄16–1⁄8in) 8–20 x 1.4–3cm (3–8 x
forming loose stands or clumps diam., tinted purple, 1
⁄2–11⁄4in), thin-textured
Comments: A handsome medium-sized of graceful culms nodes glabrous, promi-
bamboo with a distinctive habit: a hand-like nent, not branched
arrangement of broad leaves atop narrow,
crowded culms. A rampant spreader. Z7.
Sasa palmata Japan 1.5–4m (5–13ft), running, forming 0.2–0.5cm (1⁄16–1⁄8in) 25–40 x 5–9.5cm (10–16 x
S.paniculata; S.cernua; S.senanensis a thicket of slender culms topped diam., often streaked 2–33⁄4in), tapering finely,
with a canopy of luxuriant foliage purple, branches few tough, bright shinning green
with a yellow-green midrib
Comments: A handsome medium-sized bamboo with a distinctive habit: a hand-like
arrangement of broad leaves atop narrow, crowed culms. A rampant spreader. Z7
Sasa veitchii Japan 80–150cm (32–60in), gently run- to 0.5cm (1⁄4in) diam., 15–25 x 3.2–6cm (6–10 x
S.albomarginata ning, forming low thickets of out- purple-lined, glaucous, 11⁄4–21⁄2in), lanceolate-ovate,
spread foliage more or less glabrous dark green with a yellow-
green midrib, the margin
Comments: Excellent medium-height groundcover or a low, loose hedge. The broad, ribbed leaves are especially withering and becoming
attractive in winter, when they develop ivory, parchment-like margins. Z7. papery-white
Sasaella masumuneana Japan 0.5–2m (11⁄2–61⁄2ft), running, 0.3–0.4cm (1⁄8–1⁄6in) 10–19 x 1.5–3.5cm
Arundinaria atropurpurea; forming low thickets of slender, diam., sheaths (4–71⁄2 x 5⁄8–2in), glabrous,
Sasa masumuneana branching culms topped with a sparsely bristly sheaths lined purple
graceful, nodding canopy
Comments: Includes ‘Albostriata’ with leaves striped white turning to yellow, and f. aureostriata with leaves striped yellow. Z7.
Sasaella ramosa Japan 1–1.5m (31⁄4–5ft), running and ram- 0.3–0.4cm (1⁄8–1⁄6in) 10–20 x 1.4–3cm
Arundinaria vagans; Sasa ramosa pant, forming low thickets of diam., sometimes purple, (4–8 x 1⁄2–11⁄4in), hairy
broadly branching, slender culms sheaths lacking bristles beneath, margins withering,
Comments: Z7. topped with narrow, nodding leaves becoming white and parch-
ment-like
Semiarundinaria fastuosa S Japan 3–12m (10–40ft), clump-forming 2–7cm (3⁄4–23⁄4in) diam., 9–21 x 1.5–2.7cm
Arundinaria fastuosa; Arundinaria with plum-coloured new growth hollow, lined purple-brown, (31⁄2–8 x 5⁄8–1in)
narihira; Phyllostachys fastuosa and tall erect culms glabrous with white
powder below nodes;
Comments: Survives lows of –22ºC/–8ºF. Plant on moist rich soils in a sheltered sheaths thick with shining,
position. Only the upper reaches of the culms are furnished with foliage, making this wine-coloured insides
bamboo especially suitable for underplanting with low shrubs and perennials. Z7.
Shibataea kumasasa China, Japan 0.5–1.8m (11⁄2–6ft), running but 0.2–0.5cm (1⁄16–1⁄4in) diam., 5–11 x 1.3–2.5cm (2–41⁄2 x
1
Phyllostachys kumasasa; appearing clumped and making slender, green, with very ⁄2–1in), elliptic-ovate, dark
Phyllostachys ruscifolia a compact ‘bush’ of broad, short branches throughout to bright glossy green,
bright green foliage borne along culms
Comments: Dwarf to medium-sized shrubby bamboo, not unlike clipping over in spring and is even trimmed into rounded shapes in
Ruscus. Excellent high groundcover or low hedging; responds well to some Japanese gardens. Requires a moist, fertile, sheltered position. Z6.
86 Shibataea kumasasa Thamnocalamus tessellatus Yushania anceps

Banksia
BAMBOOS
B
Sinobambusa tootsik China 5–12m (15–40ft), running, and 2–6cm (3⁄4–21⁄2in) diam., 8–20 x 1.3–3cm
sometimes rampant, forming smooth, with hairy sheaths (3–8 x 1⁄2–11⁄4in),
light, elegant groves tapering finely
Comments: A graceful bamboo requiring a moist fertile soil, dappled sun and a humid atmosphere. Will not tolerate hard frosts and harsh winds. Z7.
Thamnocalamus NE Himalaya 3–10m (10–30ft), vigorously 1–6cm (1⁄2–21⁄2in) diam., 6.5–13.5 x 0.6–1.8cm
aristatus clump-forming, erect yellow-green speckled brown (21⁄2–51⁄4 x 1⁄4–3⁄4in), with
T.spathiflorus ssp. aristatus; with age, nodes with white hairy callus at base of stalk
Arundinaria aristata waxy bloom below; branches
red-lined, sheaths sometimes
Comments: An excellent hardy bamboo for screening or waterside plantings. Z7. with dark markings
Thamnocalamus Tibet 3–4m (10–12ft), erect, forming a 1–2cm (1⁄2–3⁄4in) diam., blue- 4.5–9 x 0.5–1cm
crassinodus V-shaped clump with very grace- green with thick white- or (13⁄4–31⁄2 x 1⁄4–1⁄2in),
Fargesia crassinoda ful, feathery foliage on spreading, blue-grey bloom at first, later grey-green
fine branches smooth, purple- or yellow-
green, nodes swollen; sheaths
Comments: ‘Kew Beauty’, with very slender branches and small narrow leaves large, parchment-like
is one of the most elegant hardy bamboos. Z7.
Thamnocalamus NW Himalaya Comments: Differs from T.aristatus in its slightly flexuous grey culms bloomed white at first
spathiflorus and later flushed pink in strong sunlight; the leaves are grey-green with no callus at the base
Arundinaria spathiflora of the stalk. Z7.
Thamnocalamus S Africa 2.5–7m (8–22ft), clump-forming 1–6cm (1⁄2–21⁄2in) diam., pale 5–21 x 0.5–2cm
tessellatus or (in warm climates) running green, nodes tinted purple- (2–8 x 1⁄4–3⁄4in), finely
Arundinaria tessallata and invasive; pink-streaked shoots pink; sheaths large, papery, tapered, dark green
become tall, erect culms with white; branches short,
Comments: A striking and robust bamboo dense whorls of short branches red-tinted, many per node
for mild climates or cool glasshouses. Z8.
Yushania anceps C & NW 2–5m (61⁄2–15ft), forms an erect 0.5–1.2cm (1⁄4–1⁄2in) diam., 6–14 x 0.5–1.8cm
Arundinaria anceps; Himalaya to spreading clump with arching smooth; branches pendulous, (21⁄2–51⁄2 x 1⁄4–3⁄4in),
Arundinaria jaunsarensis; branches above not developing in first year; mid-green, smooth, stalks
Chimonobambusa jaunsarensis; sheaths soon falling sometimes purple-tinted
Sinarundinaria anceps
Comments: Popular medium-sized bamboo, resembles a larger, clump-forming Fargesia. ‘Pitt White’ (Arundinaria
nitikayamensis) grows to twice the height of the type and is exceptionally graceful, if less hardy. Z7.
Yushania maling NE Himalaya 3–10m (10–30ft), erect, 2–5cm (3⁄4–2in) diam., rough 8.5–1.8 x 0.8–1.6cm
Arundinaria maling; Fargesia clump-forming when young, sheaths persistent (31⁄3–3⁄4 x 1⁄3–3⁄5in), slightly
maling; Sinarundinaria maling rough-textured
Comments: Z7.
Bambusa (from the Malay vernacu- tened, woody capsules which slow-release fertilizer devoid of
lar name). Gramineae. Tropical and gape like duck bills or oysters superphosphate. Application
subtropical Asia. 120 species, tender, amid the bristly remnants of of sulphate of iron may wean
clump-forming bamboos. See bamboos. the flower cone. They thrive shy-flowering plants. Water
in sheltered locations in zone moderately in growth,
Banksia (for Sir Joseph Banks 9 and will tolerate short-lived scarcely at all in winter.
(1743–800), British botanist who first frosts to –7°C/19°F if quite Prune only to remove dead
collected these plants). Proteaceae. AUS- dry. In less favoured locations, growth or to cut flowers and
TRALIAN HONEYSUCKLE. Australia. 50 they need a minimum temperature seedheads for decoration. Increase
species, tender trees and shrubs, ever- of 7°C/45°F and the protection of by seed. (See table overleaf.)
greens with leathery leaves and, in a greenhouse or conservatory. Grow
spring and summer, long-styled flowers in full sun in a free-draining sandy, Banksia seedhead
in dense terminal spikes which resem- slightly acid soil low in nutrients In the wild, the flattened, bill-like seeds
ble brilliantly coloured, whiskery cones. (especially nitrates and phosphates). of Banksia may open following a bush 87
Also decorative, the seeds ripen in flat- Under glass ventilate liberally. Use fire; an environmental adaptation.
Banksia
B BANKSIA
Name Habit Leaves Inflorescence
B.ashbyi spreading tall shrub or 10–30cm (4–12in), linear, wavy-serrate bright orange, 15–20cm (6–8in) long
ASHBY’S BANKSIA tree to 8 x 3m (25 x 10ft)
B.baueri compact, low shrub to 4–13cm (11⁄2–5in), oblong cuneate, serrate, orange-brown to grey, to 20 x 13cm
WOOLLY BANKSIA 2m (61⁄2ft) brown-green at first (8 x 5in), woolly
B.baxteri spreading shrub to 4 x 4m 7–17cm (23⁄4–61⁄2in), rusty brown then bright globose 5–8cm (2–3in) diam., red-
BAXTER’S BANKSIA (12 x 12ft) green, divided into triangular lobes brown to green with yellow styles
B.blechnifolia prostrate, spreading shrub 25–45cm (10–18in), erect, long-stalked cylindrical, to 16cm (6in), red-pink,
to 50cm (20in) tall and fern-like, appearing basal, deeply borne at ground level
8–22-pinnately lobed
B.brownii tall shrub to 4 x 2m to 11cm (41⁄2in), feather-like, soft-textured, 15–20cm (6–8in), oblong-cylindrical,
FEATHER-LEAVED BANKSIA (12 x 61⁄2ft) whorled, white beneath with narrow, curv- flowers cream below, grey-brown above
ing segments
B.coccinea shrub to small tree, 2–5 to 9cm (31⁄2in), oblong, dentate, velvety to 20cm (8in), globose, grey with
SCARLET BANKSIA x 1–15.5m (61⁄2–15 x pink brown at first, then dark green above, scarlet styles
31⁄4–50ft) silver beneath
B.dryandroides dense, spreading shrub, to to 17cm (61⁄2in), broadly linear with pinnate to 3cm (11⁄4in) diam., spherical, pale
DRYANDRA-LEAVED BANKSIA 1 x 1.5m (31⁄4 x 5ft) triangular segments brown to dull orange
B.ericifolia compact shrub to 5m to 2cm (3⁄4in), narrowly linear to 30cm (12in), cylindrical, orange-red
HEATH-LEAVED BANKSIA (15ft) tall to russet or grey with orange styles
B. ‘Giant Candles’ compact shrub to to 4.5cm (13⁄4in), linear, revolute, to 40cm (16in), deep orange
(B.ericifolia x B.spinulosa) 4m (12ft) slightly toothed
BULL BANKSIA
B.grandis tall, robust tree to to 45cm (18in), deeply lobed, pink-brown to 40cm (16in), yellow, cylindrical
10m (30ft) at first, then bright green
B.hookeriana multi-stemmed bushy to 20cm (8in), narrow-linear, finely toothed, to 15cm (6in), cylindrical, woolly
HOOKER’S BANKSIA shrub to 1.2m (4ft) rusty brown at first white becoming orange
B.integrifolia low shrub to large to 10cm (4in), whorled, elliptic to cylindrical, 10–12cm (4–43⁄4in) long,
COAST BANKSIA tree, up to 25m (80ft) obovate, entire, velvety, green with pale yellow in late summer to winter
white reverse or light brown
B.laevigata bushy shrub to 3.5m (11ft) to 14cm (51⁄2in), broadly linear or narrowly tightly spherical, yellow and brown
TENNIS BALL BANKSIA obovate, toothed, rusty brown at first
B.laricina rounded shrub to 1.2m (4ft) to 1.5cm (5⁄8in), narrowly linear spherical, yellow to red-brown
ROSE BANKSIA
88 B. baxteri B. ericifolia B. serrata

bark beetles
BANKSIA
Name Habit Leaves Inflorescence B
B.marginata low shrub or tree to 1.5–6cm (5⁄8–21⁄2in), linear to cuneate, entire 5–10cm (2–4in), cylindrical, yellow
SILVER BANKSIA 12m (40ft) or serrate
B.media dense shrub 2–5(–10)m 5–12cm (2–43⁄4in), cuneate, toothed, pale 10–15cm (4–6in), cylindrical, form-
SOUTHERN PLAINS BANKSIA (61⁄2–15(–30)ft) brown at first ing a bright yellow dome
B.nutans compact, rounded shrub 1.2–2cm (1⁄2–3⁄4in), linear, blue-green, cylindrical, nodding, green ageing
NODDING BANKSIA to 1m (31⁄4ft) revolute pink-purple then rusty brown and
onion-scented
B.occidentalis erect, bushy shrub to 10–13cm (4–5in), linear, whorled, silver to 14cm (51⁄2in), cylindrical, red
RED SWAMP BANKSIA 3 x 3m (10 x 10ft) beneath
B.pulchella small, spreading shrub 1cm (1⁄2in), linear to 2.5cm (1in), cylindrical,
TEASEL BANKSIA to 1m (31⁄4ft) orange-brown
B.quercifolia erect shrub to 3 x 2m 3–15cm (11⁄4–6in), cuneate, serrate to 10cm (4in), narrowly cylindrical,
OAK-LEAVED BANKSIA (10 x 61⁄2ft) red and green opening rusty brown
B.repens prostrate, creeping to 30cm (12in), erect, irregularly lobed, rusty to 10cm (4in), cylindrical, pink brown
CREEPING BANKSIA brown at first
B.serrata small tree, 2–15m (61⁄2–50ft) to 15cm (6in), narrowly obovate, to 15cm (6in), cylindrical, green-
SAW BANKSIA strongly serrate yellow to cream, sometimes blue-
grey in bud
B.speciosa large shrub or tree to 40cm (16in), linear, grey-green, silver to 12cm (43⁄4in), squat, rounded,
SHOWY BANKSIA to 6m (20ft) beneath, deeply incised white opening yellow-green
B.verticillata spreading shrub or small to 9cm (31⁄2in), oblong, dark green, silver to 20cm (8in), cylindrical, yellow
GRANITE BANKSIA tree to 4m (12ft) beneath
B.victoriae tall, rounded shrub to 20–30cm (8–12in), broadly linear with deep, to 12cm (43⁄4in), cylindrical, white
WOOLLY ORANGE BANKSIA 5m (15ft) sharply pointed lobes opening orange and hairy in bud
B.violacea low shrub to 1.5m (5ft) to 2cm (3⁄4in), linear to 6cm (21⁄2in) diam., spherical, purple
VIOLET BANKSIA
Baptisia (from Greek, bapto, to dye, barbate bearded, with hairs in long bark the outermost protective tissue
some species yield an indigo substitute). weak tufts. of woody plants. Shredded bark can be
Leguminosae. US. FALSE INDIGO, WILD used as a soil conditioner, as a surface
INDIGO. 17 species, hardy tap-rooted barbed of bristles or awns with short, mulch, and as the sole or a constituent
perennial herbs usually with three- stiff lateral or terminal hairs which ingredient of growing media.
parted leaves and erect, terminal are hooked sharply backward or
racemes of pea-like flowers. Plant in a downward. bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolyti-
deep, well-drained, neutral to acid soil dae). Small, dark-coloured, cylindrical
in full sun. Propagate from seed sown barbellae short, stiff hairs, for beetles, up to 6mm (1/4in) long, adapted
ripe in the cold frame, or by careful example, those of the pappus in for burrowing in wood. Adults excavate
division in late winter (plants resent Compositae. tunnels, usually in the sapwood just
disturbance). B.australis, (BLUE FALSE beneath the bark, especially
INDIGO; summer-flowering perennial, bare-root applied to plants that of trees that are sickly or
75–150cm (30–60in) tall; flowers pale which are lifted with little or dying. Typically, a large number
violet to indigo marked white, to 1.5cm no soil around their roots; of beetles invade simultane-
(5/8in) diam.; seed pods inflated grey, as from nursery rows, ously in response to an aggrega-
attractive in dried flower arrangements). where the specimens may tion pheromone. The FRUIT
be referred to as bare-root BARK BEETLES (Scolytus rugulosus 89
barb a hooked semi-rigid hair. transplants. Adult bark beetle and S.mali) are sometimes
bark beetles
found in gardens, infesting fruit trees imum temperature of 7°C/45°F. Prop- base dressing an application of
B and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna). Ips

species are pests of forest conifers
throughout the northern Hemisphere.
agate from semi-ripe or softwood cut-
tings in a closed case with bottom heat.
B.cristata (PHILIPPINE VIOLET; SE Asia;
organic manure or processed fertilizer
incorporated into the soil prior to
sowing or planting, with the aim of
In Europe and North America the ELM bristly shrublet to 1m (31/4ft); flowers improving its fertility.
BARK BEETLES (S.scolytus and S.multistria- 3–5cm (11/4–2in), violet-blue to pink,
tus) are serious pests of elm (Ulmus borne amid spiny sepals); B.lupulina (HOP- base exchange a process of impor-
species) as they are vectors of Dutch HEADED BARLERIA; Mauritius; leaves tance in fertilizer application whereby
elm disease. The SHOT-HOLE BORER with a white or pink midvein and hop- a soil retains bases available as a salt
(Xyleborus dispar), a European species, like spikes of yellow flowers); B.obtusa (S. solution in soil water while giving up
infests many trees and, in contrast to Africa; spreading unarmed shrublet with an equivalent amount of bases which
Scolytus species, tunnels extensively into elliptic leaves to 7cm (23/4in) long and form new salts in solution. For exam-
the heartwood. The only feasible way loosely arranged axillary clusters of 3cm ple, the application of lime sets free
of controlling bark beetles in gardens is (11/4in)-long mauve flowers). insoluble potassium occurring naturally
to cut and burn infested trees and in clay soil in exchange for insoluble
branches. In forests, traps containing barrier banding see grease banding calcium which is retained. See cation
aggregation pheromones may be used. exchange capacity.
basal plate the compressed stem
bark-bound used of trees with hard within a bulb from which the leaves base fertilizer see base dressing
bark which prevents girth expansion. arise as scales.
See slitting. basic slag a waste product from the
basal rot (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. nar- lining of blast furnaces. Once an
bark house a rustic garden house cissi) a progressive rotting of narcissus important insoluble phosphate fertil-
made of timber with bark still bulbs after flowering caused by a spe- izer, containing between 7% and 22%
attached, featured in some Victorian cialized form of the widespread soil phosphoric acid with calcium, magne-
gardens. fungus F.oxysporum. The rot can be sium and some trace elements.
detected by softness, usually at the base
of a bulb, and the dark coloration of basifixed of a plant organ; attached
the fleshy scales seen when the bulb is by its base rather than its side or top,
cut transversely. It should be distin- as in an anther joined to the filament
guished from damage by stem and bulb by its base.
eelworm (Ditylenchus dipsaci), where the
rotted tissue is in concentric rings. Cul- basil (Ocimum basilicum) an aromatic
tivars vary in susceptibility. The fungus annual or short-lived perennial used as
is capable of surviving in soil for many a herb, for its clove-like flavour, in
years in the absence of a narcissus salads, sauces and liqueurs. It reaches
crop. Infection can occur at any time 20–60cm (8–24in) in height, and is
but particularly via dying roots as tem- suitable for container growing. In cool
peratures rise in spring. Its progress is temperate climates basil is best treated
greatly influenced by temperature as a tender annual, raised under pro-
Bark ringing during growth, harvesting and storage, tection in spring. Plant out after frost
Continuous parallel cuts are made through the most severe attacks occurring at risk into a sheltered, sunny position,
bark and cambium. The wound is protected about 25°C/77°F. Control measures in 15cm (6in) apart. For winter use
with tape after removing the band of tissue. gardens should include rejecting dis- indoors sow in early summer and pot
eased bulbs, rotating the planting site, up; and after light trimming bring
bark ringing excising with a sharp lifting early and avoiding long exposure indoors in late summer.
knife a narrow ring of bark around the to sunshine, and storage at no more
trunk or limb of, usually, a fruit tree, to than 17°C/63°F. Post harvest dipping basing up building up a low ridge of
arrest vegetative growth. of bulbs in fungicide may be beneficial, soil in a complete circle around the
subject to local pesticide approvals. base of a plant in order to retain
Barleria (for Jacques Barrelier applied water.
(1606–1673), French botanist). Acan- basal stem rot (Pythium species) a
thaceae. Old World Tropics and Sub- soil-borne pathogen of chrysanthe- basionym a taxonomic term; the
tropics. 250 species, tender evergreen mums, also transmitted by contami- ‘base name’ of a taxon that has been
herbs and shrubs grown for their tubu- nated water and tools. Control is by transferred by a later author from one
lar, 5-lobed flowers. In zones 9 and 10, strict hygiene, use of mains water, ster- rank to another within a species, or to
these plants grow well in full sun or ilization of soil and compost, and use a new species or genus altogether. For
90 part shade planted in a moist, fertile, of soil drench fungicide, subject to example, in 1964 Cullen and Heywood
loamy soil. Under glass, provide a min- local pesticide approvals. judged that Paeonia arietina (published
beans
by Anderson 146 years earlier) was in gardens and elsewhere under glass bean seed fly (Delia platura) a small
fact a subsp. of Paeonia mascula. P.arietina
Anderson became P.mascula subsp. ari-
etina (Anderson) Cullen and Heywood.
(minimum temperature 7°C/45°F).
They flower at various times of year,
depending on location; flowers are
fly similar to the cabbage root fly.
The white, legless maggots, which are
up to 9mm (3/8in) long, eat germinating
B
The original name is now the basionym most often seen, however, from late French and runner bean seeds and
or base name of the new combination autumn to spring. Use B.corymbosa, seedlings.
and synonymous with it. To make this B.galpinii and B.vahlii as climbers or Affected crops may fail to emerge
change clear and to indicate that the wall shrubs; the others as free-standing or be distorted and/or blind shoots
type of Cullen’s and Heywood’s arietina specimen shrubs and trees. Under may be produced. Conditions unsuit-
is one and the same as Anderson’s, the glass, pot in tubs or beds and avoid able for rapid germination increase
basionym author is cited in parentheses. overwet conditions in winter. B.vahlii the risk of damage. There may be
may require some shading if its large three or four generations of maggots
basipetalous developing from apex leaves are not to fade and scorch. during the summer but damage is
to base, as in an inflorescence where Prune to restrict size or to thin out usually confined to the spring period.
the terminal flowers open first, cf. congested growth after flowering. Prop- Control by raising plants in cell
acropetalous. agate by seed, simple layering or graft- modules.
ing. Insert semi-ripe cuttings with the
basiscopic of ferns; directed towards leaves removed in moist sand in a beans a variable group of plants in
the base of a frond; the first lateral closed case with bottom heat. the family Leguminosae, grown in
vein or leaflet on a pinna branching off B. x blakeana (B.purpurea x B.variegata; most cases for their edible seeds
in a downwards direction. HONG HONG ORCHID TREE; S China; and/or seed pods.
deciduous or evergreen umbrella-shaped The BROAD BEAN (ENGLISH BEAN,
bass, bast the strong inner fibrous shrub or tree to 12m (40ft); flowers EUROPEAN BEAN) (Vicia faba) is an erect
bark of lime trees and similar fibres, narrow-petalled mauve, rose or bright hardy annual. The seeds, which may
once widely used as a horticultural red, to 15cm (6in) across); B.corymbosa be eaten when immature, are produced
tying material. (syn. B.glauca of gardens; B.scandens of in large fleshy green pods which may
gardens; PHANERA VINE; S China; liane, also be consumed whole at an early
Bassia (for Ferdinando Bassi climbing by tendrils; flowers fragrant, stage of development when 5–7.5cm
(1710–1774), Italian botanist). white to pink); B.forficata (syn. B.candicans; (2–3in) long. Sow selected cultivars in
Chenopodiaceae. Warm temperate S. America; evergreen to deciduous autumn for earliest cropping in the fol-
regions. 26 species, annual herbs or shrub or small tree to 10m (30ft) tall lowing year or successionally from
herbaceous perennials. Bassia quickly with gnarled, leaning trunk and thorny spring throughout summer. Sow direct
makes a dense miniature ‘tree’ ideal for branches; flowers narrow-petalled, 15cm to a depth of 5–7.5cm (2–3in) or in
bedding schemes as a dot or back- (6in)-diam., cream to snow-white; will containers under protection for plant-
ground plant or the centrepiece of withstand some frost in zone 9 and very ing out. Rows should be 45cm (18in)
container plantings. Sow seed under sheltered locations in zone 8); B.galpinii apart with plants at 15cm (6in) final
glass in early spring; plant out in sun (syn. B.punctata; PRIDE OF THE CAPE, stations.
after the last frost. Alternatively, sow CAMEL’S FOOT or RED BAUHINIA; Africa; The FRENCH BEAN (HARICOT,
seed in situ in late spring. B.scoparia (syn. evergreen or semi-deciduous, spreading DWARF, COMMON, KIDNEY, SNAP,
Kochia scoparia; SUMMER CYPRESS, BURN- or climbing shrub to 3m (10ft); flowers STRING AND FLAGEOLET BEAN) (Phaseolus
ING BUSH; annual 60cm (24in), with a orange or fiery red with ruffled petals); vulgaris) is a tender annual including
bushy spire of linear leaves turning B.purpurea (SE Asia, confused with B.var- bushy or climbing cultivars, mostly
from apple green to purple-red in late iegata, from which it differs in its oblance- grown for their round or flat fleshy
summer; f. trichophylla: particularly fine olate, rosy purple petals which do not pods or their semi-mature (flageolet) or
foliage, flushing deep blood red). overlap one another); B.vahlii (MALU mature (haricot) seeds. Sow in situ to a
CREEPER; India; a robust liane, climbing depth of 5cm (2in) successionally from
Bauhinia (for Johann Bauhin to 35m (120ft); leaves 30cm (12in). late spring when soil temperature has
(1541–1613) and Caspar Bauhin diam., kidney-shaped, downy; flowers reached 10°C/50°F and the risk of
(1560–1624), Swiss botanists. The two- ruffled, cream or white, to 5cm (2in) frost has passed Alternatively, sow in
lobed leaves characteristic of this genus diam.); B.variegata (syn. B.purpurea; BUT- containers under protection for plant-
symbolize the brothers’ relationship). TERFLY or ORCHID TREE, MOUNTAIN ing out in rows 45cm (18in) apart with
Leguminosae. Tropics and Subtropics. EBONY; E Africa; broadly spreading plants at 30cm (12in) final stations.
ORCHID TREE. 250–300 species, ever- more or less deciduous shrub or tree to The optimum temperature range for
green or deciduous shrubs, lianes and 12m (40ft); flowers pale pink to magenta growth is 16–30°C/61–86°F.
trees, often thorny and with large, or indigo or white). The RUNNER BEAN (SCARLET
rounded, 2-lobed leaves and showy, 5- RUNNER, CASE KNIFE BEAN) (Phaseolus
petalled flowers with long stamens. beak a long, pointed, horn-like coccineus) is a tender climbing perennial
The following are commonly grown projection; particularly applied to treated as an annual in gardens and 91
outdoors in subtropical and tropical the terminal points of fruits and pistils. grown for its seed pods, which are
beans
edible when young. Sow in situ 5–7.5cm summer, 8–13cm (3–5in) long and beetles (Coleoptera) Beetles consti-
B (2–3in) deep from late spring when the

risk of frost has passed. Alternatively,
sow in containers under protection for
broadly funnel-shaped with wavy-mar-
gined lobes).
tute the largest order of the animal
kingdom. They have forewings modi-
fied to form hardened wing cases
planting out in rows 60cm (24in) apart, bedding the planting in outdoor beds (elytra), which are held flat over the
with plants at 15cm (6in) stations. of mostly greenhouse-raised flowering body when the beetle is not in flight,
Plants can be trained up support struc- and foliage ornamentals for display. protecting the membranous hindwings
tures such as 2.5m (8ft) poles or canes Half-hardy annuals are widely used as and abdomen. The immature larvae
erected in parallel rows and tied in summer bedding plants, but also are generally soft-bodied grubs of very
pairs at the top or in groups of four to perennials; spring and winter bedding different appearance and habit to
form wigwams. Strings or net may also displays are possible using hardy adults, and pass through a non-feeding
be used. Non-climbing or dwarf culti- plants. Carpet or tapestry bedding is pupal stage before becoming adult.
vars are available, and climbing culti- a specialized form made popular in Many beetles are major agricultural or
vars may be kept dwarf by pinching off Victorian gardens. It involves high den- horticultural pests, feeding on plants or
developing shoots to produce an early sity planting of low growing species to on stored seeds; some are scavengers
low-yield crop. create often intricate patterns. Such (e.g. dung beetles); others are useful
Other cultivated beans include: beds may be raised and sloped and predators on other pests; many more,
COWPEA, CHERRY BEAN (Vigna unguicu- growth is contained by shearing or including the fire-flies, are of no eco-
lata); YARD-LONG BEAN, ASPARAGUS pinching. nomic importance. See bark beetles; blister
BEAN, PERU BEAN, SNAKE BEAN (V.unguic- beetles; chafer beetles; Colorado beetle; flea
abnormal
ulata ssp. sesquipedalis); CATJANG (V.u. ssp. bedeguar a moss-like mossy beetles; ground beetles; Japanese beetle; lady-
cylindrica). The MUNG BEAN (Phaseolus gall of roses, also known growth birds; leaf beetles; lily beetle; longhorn
aureus) is grown for its edible shoots. as Robin’s pincushion, beetles; pollen beetles; rove
The BUTTERBEAN (Phaseolus lunatus) is caused by the larvae beetles; sap beetles; wire-
similar to the LIMA BEAN (P.lunatus syn. of the gall wasp worms.
P.limensis) but smaller and more heat- Rhoditis rosae.
resistant. The WINGED BEAN (Psophocar- beetroot (Beta vul-
pus tetragonolobus) has edible pods and, bed system garis subsp. vulgaris)
in some cultivars, roots rich in protein. the arrange- a biennial grown as
The DOLICHOS BEAN, HYACINTH BEAN ment of an annual vegetable
(Lablab purpureus) requires a temperature usually closely- for its edible swollen
range of 18-30ºC (64-86ºF) and high spaced plant rows, hypocotyl or ‘root’, which
humidity to produce crops of bean especially of vegeta- is typically bright red
sprouts, edible pods and mature seeds. bles, in narrow beds throughout. It is sometimes
Cultivation is described under the most conveniently included in ornamental
entries for these plants. Possible prob- 1.2m (4ft) wide. For Bedeguar borders. Harvested ‘seed’
lems: aphids, root aphids, bean seed fly, temperature and drainage consists of a dried flowerhead
slugs, thrips, weevils; halo blight, advantage beds may be of raised or cluster which contains two or three
chocolate spot (see botrytis). construction, contained by timber true seeds; single-seeded or monogerm
or brick walls to a height up to 30cm cultivars reduce the need for thinning.
beard (l) an awn; (2) a tuft or zone of (12in) and slightly wider at the base Sow seed 2cm (3/4in) deep. For the earli-
hair as on the falls of bearded irises. than at the surface. est crops, choose bolt-resistant cultivars,
sown in rows 18cm (7in) apart with
Beaumontia (for Diana Beaumont bee plant a plant particularly plants at 10cm (4in) final stations. Sow
(d. 1831) of Bretton Hall, Yorkshire, attractive to bees, such as Buddleja main crops in rows 20cm (8in) apart
England). Apocynaceae. East Asia. davidii, Cotoneaster horizontalis and Alcea with plants at 5cm (2in) final stations.
9 species, evergreen twining shrubs rosea, the hollyhock. To advance the first harvest date, plants
with funnel- to bell-shaped, five-lobed may be raised under protection in cells
flowers. Beaumontia requires hot, moist beetle mites (Acarina: Cryptostig- for transplanting or sown under cloches
conditions in summer and cool, dry mata) red-brown or black mites impor- or plastic film. Mature roots may be
conditions in winter (minimum temper- tant in the breakdown of woodland stored in clamps or in boxes of sand,
ature 7°C/45°F). Grow in full light in a litter. Several species feed on algae and free from frost, for extended season use.
fertile but well drained medium. Root lichen, and some are arboreal, such as
heeled, semi-ripe cuttings in a heated Humerobates rostrolamellatus. They con- Begonia (for Michel Begon
case in late summer. B.grandiflora gregate on bark and may be mistaken (1638–1710), Governor of French
(EASTER LILY VINE, HERALD’S TRUMPET, for red spider mite eggs, but are larger Canada, patron of botany). Begoni-
MOONFLOWER, NEPAL TRUMPET and paler red. Perlohmannia dissimilis aceae. Tropics and Subtropics, espe-
92 FLOWER; to 5m (15ft); flowers fragrant, can damage the underground parts cially the Americas. Some 900 species,
waxy white, produced in spring and of potatoes, tulips and strawberries. perennial herbs grown for their foliage
Begonia
and flowers. They may be fibrous- or 2. Rex and rhizomatous Low on and staking as required. Flowerbuds
tuberous-rooted, with thick, creeping
rhizomes or low to trailing or erect,
fleshy stems and a more or less bushy
evergreens with thick, creeping to
ascending rhizomes. The leaves are
usually lanceolate to broadly ovate and
develop three per axil – pinch out all
until a strong head of foliage has been
achieved. With large-flowered cultivars,
B
habit. Most are evergreen, although often brilliantly coloured. Popular pinch out the two outer buds in each
the tuberous species dieback in winter. house plants. Provide a minimum tem- truss of three: these are female and
The leaves range widely in shape, but perature of 13°C/55°F with ample seldom so large and showy as the cen-
are commonly asymmetric with one humidity during warm weather and tral male which should be encouraged
side slightly larger or more oblique light to heavy shade. Water carefully, to develop to its full potential. Foliage
than the other, especially at the base. especially in cool weather, and never fades and flowering ceases in autumn,
They are thinly succulent, sometimes allow water to rest on the crown or when plants should be dried off. Once
hairy, and often marked. Borne in axil- leaves. Propagate by division of rhi- the dead topgrowth has fallen away,
lary clusters and cymes or showy pani- zomes or leaf cuttings. store the tubers dry in their pots or in
cles, the flowers too are slightly fleshy; 3. Semperflorens A group of boxes of sawdust at 7°C/45°F. Propa-
the males consist of two sets of two hybrids with fibrous roots, low, gate in spring by detaching and rooting
sepals, while female flowers comprise clumped and bushy stems, rounded unwanted sideshoots, or by division of
sets of two to six. waxy leaves and clusters of small, tubers (bisect longitudinally with a
For the most part, begonias are brightly coloured flowers. These are sharp, clean knife; dust the cut surfaces
highly susceptible to frost and, indeed, the bedding begonias, essentially with flowers of sulphur); also by seed.
to any sudden drop in temperature. perennial but commonly treated as Not all tuberous begonias produce
Members of the Semperflorens and half-hardy annuals. Sow seed under the distinctive, corm-like tubers of the
Tuberous groups are, however, familiar glass in early spring at a temperature type whose cultural regime is outlined
sights in cool temperate gardens, where of 25°C/77°F; plant out in sunny or above. These are described as semi-
they are used as half-hardy annuals in lightly shaded positions after the last tuberous. In some, for example, B.dregei
bedding, baskets and windowboxes. frosts. Plants may be re-used if lifted in and B.sutherlandii, the tuber is a thick-
B. grandis subsp. evansiana has proved autumn, overwintered in dry, frost-free ened stem and not all of the topgrowth
hardy year-round in zone 7, given a conditions, and pruned, divided and is lost in winter. These plants and their
thick winter mulch and a sheltered restarted in a moist, fertile medium at hybrids (e.g. B. ‘Weltoniensis’) are usu-
position. All favour a fertile, porous 15°C/59°F in spring. Especially vigor- ally grown year-round under glass or in
medium, moist but never wet, and rich ous or attractive examples might the home. They require a dry winter
in leafmould, composted bark and equally be potted up in autumn and rest in their pots and should be repot-
sand. Feed actively growing plants fort- brought into the home for winter dis- ted in spring into a rather gritty
nightly with a high-potash fertilizer. play. Propagate by seed, division or medium. Propagate by stem cuttings
Avoid wetting the foliage and try to stem cuttings. and by bulbils, which sometimes form
prevent sun scorch. In cultural terms, 4. Shrub-like Evergreens with in the growth axils.
the genus can be divided into six main fibrous roots and clumped, bushy stems 6. Winter-flowering Evergreen
groups as follows: that tend to remain rather succulent. and low-growing with slender stems
1. Cane-stemmed Tall evergreens Some, for example B.metallica and and showy flowers produced from late
with fibrous roots and erect, branching B.scharfii, make fine house plants. autumn to early spring. This group is
stems, slender and cane-like with Grown for their foliage and flowers, the sometimes included among the Tuber-
prominent nodes, and fleshy becoming members of this group range widely ous begonias, but can itself be split into
thinly woody. The leaves are usually in origin and appearance. Their Hiemalis types (with single to fully
large and lanceolate to ovate with an requirements are basically the same as double flowers in a wide range of
obliquely heart-shaped base. Small but for the Cane-stemmed begonias, but colours), Rieger begonias (improved
cheery flowers are carried in drooping, with rather higher temperatures and plants of the Hiemalis type, widely
slender-stalked panicles. These are humidity. grown as winter-flowering potplants for
excellent greenhouse and house plants 5. Tuberous Deciduous with a the home), and Cheimantha types with
– a common sight, for example, in large, rounded tuber and annual, suc- single, white or pink flowers and
office buildings. culent stems, thick or slender, erect or derived from B.dregei and B.socotrana.
Provide a mimimum temperature of pendulous. Grown mostly for their Provide a miminum temperature of
10°C/50°F and bright light, not direct showy flowers. Grown under glass or 15°C/59°F (not much higher in
sunlight. New canes arise from the base treated as half-hardy ‘annuals’ (B. winter), with bright, indirect light, low
of the plant and may require staking Tuberhybrida hybrids) planted out humidity and a buoyant atmosphere.
and some pinching to promote bushi- in late spring in dappled sun or light Ensure that these plants are consis-
ness – they tend to last for two to three shade. Start tubers into growth in early tently moist, but never wet. Cut back
years and should then be cut out spring on trays of moist coir in a flowered stems. Increase by stem cut-
cleanly at the base. Propagate by tip shaded greenhouse at a temperature of tings or by rooted stems detached
cuttings in spring or by division of 15°C/59°F. Once growth has begun, during repotting. 93
large clumps. pot into the normal medium, potting (See table overleaf.)
Begonia
B EGONIA
B Name Distribution Habit Leaves Flowers
B.albopicta Brazil fibrous-rooted with clumped, to 8cm (3in) long, obliquely ovate- small, green-white
GUINEA-WING BEGONIA erect, cane-like stems to 1m lanceolate, tip acuminate, margins (pale rose in the culti-
(31⁄4ft) tall, succulent and simple somewhat toothed and wavy, var ‘Rosea’)
at first, becoming much- glossy dark green spotted silver-
Comments: Group 1. branched and slightly woody white above
B.bowerae Mexico creeping-rhizomatous, low 2.5–5cm (1–2in) long, oval, light small, palest pink
EYELASH BEGONIA and bushy emerald to lime green with irregu-
lar green-brown marginal mark-
Comments: Group 2. Includes ‘Major’ with larger, rather faintly marked leaves, ings and eyelash-like marginal
and var. nigromarga with emerald leaves marked dark brown, and pale marginal hairs. hairs
Cane-stemmed group garden origin fibrous-rooted with tall woody, 10–30cm (4–12in) long, but small, pink to white
ANGELWING BEGONIAS cane-like stems, erect and usually large, obliquely ovate to in nodding panicles
branching with prominent nodes lanceolate, base rounded to heart-
shaped, apex acuminate, margins
wavy to toothed, waxy, variously
coloured and marked
Comments: Group 1. A large and varied group of hybrids, mostly satiny maroon-black with wavy margins, contrasting beautifully with
large, sturdy and long-lived plants excellent for interiors and attractive small, shell pink flowers); B. ‘Pinafore’ (leaves small to medium-sized,
in leaf and flower. Some of the finer cultivars include B. ‘Edinburgh dark green and glossy above, red-tinted beneath, margins wavy, flowers
Brevimosa’ (leaves large, very shiny, deep cerise with broad zones of deep salmon pink); B. ‘Pink Spot Lucerne’ (leaves medium-sized,
maroon-black along impressed veins); B. ‘Good ‘n’ Plenty’ (leaves large, slightly angled, deep olive with cerise spots and a pale margin); B.
satiny purple-black with lilac-pink spots and wavy margins); B. ‘President Carnot’ (leaves large, green with paler spots, flowers pink in
‘Lucerna’ (leaves large, olive green spotted silver, flowers deep pink); B. large panicles); B. ‘Snowcap’ (leaves small, very dark olive green with
‘Orpha C. Fox’ (leaves medium-sized, dark silky green with zones of dense silver-white spots).
silver-grey between veins); B. ‘Papillon’ (leaves small to medium-sized,
B.carolineifolia Mexico; ascending to erect with very to 30cm (12in) across, palmately small, pale fleshy pink
Guatemala stout, fleshy and thin-barked compound with 5–9 lanceolate to in branching cymes
cylindrical stems covered in obovate leaflets in a circular
prominent leaf scars arrangement, these with toothed
or slashed, wavy margins, smooth,
Comments: Group 2. mid to deep green
B. x cheimantha garden origin fibrous-rooted with robust, rounded with a cordate base large, pink in loose, pink-
BLOOMING FOOL BEGONIA; (B.dregei x branching stems to 35cm and toothed margins, smooth stalked cymes in winter
CHRISTMAS BEGONIA; B. socotrana) (14in) long bright green
LORRAINE BEGONIA
Comments: Group 6. Cultivars include ‘Gloire de Lorraine’ with rounded bright green leaves and white to pale pink
flowers, the lilac-pink ‘Love Me’, ‘Marjorie Gibbs’ with a profusion of pale pink bloom offset by dark green, rounded
leaves, and ‘White Marina’ with pale green leaves and large white flowers edged soft pink.
B.coccinea Brazil fibrous-rooted with robust, to 15cm (6in) long, obliquely small, pink with a
ANGEL-WING BEGONIA erect, cane-like stems oblong to ovate, serrate, deep, large, coral-red ovary,
glossy green and somewhat glau- profuse, in spring
Comments: Group 1. cous above, red-tinted beneath
94 B.bowerae B. ‘Orpha C. Fox’ (Cane-stemmed ) B.dregei

Begonia
B EGONIA
Name Distribution Habit Leaves Flowers B
B.corallina Brazil fibrous-rooted with cane-like to 20cm (8in) long, lanceolate, many, large, coral
stems erect to 3m (10ft) glossy green with white spots above, red, pendent
red beneath
Comments: Group 1. Includes two cultivars with sweetly scented flowers, the white ‘Fragrans’, and the pale rose ‘Odorata’.
B.cubensis Cuba stems erect, branched, to 5cm (2in) long, obliquely ovate, small, white
CUBAN HOLLY; HOLLY-LEAF brown-hairy acuminate, toothed, glossy dark green
BEGONIA above, veins brown-hairy beneath
Comments: Group 4.
B.dichroa Brazil roots fibrous; stems cane-like, 15–30cm (6–12in) long, obliquely orange to salmon
erect to spreading, woody, ovate-oblong, base cordate, apex pink with white
branched, to 35cm (14in) long acuminate, margins somewhat ovaries in nodding
undulate, smooth, bright green umbels
Comments: Group 1. with silver-white spots
B.dregei S Africa tuberous or semi-tuberous with to 8cm (3in) long, maple-like, i.e. small, white, pendent
GRAPE-LEAF BEGONIA; succulent stems to 1m (31⁄4ft) tall ovate-rhombic and shallowly
MAPLE-LEAF BEGONIA palmately lobed, toothed, pale green
with purple veins and pewter spots
Comments: Group 5. In var. macbethii, the leaves are smaller, much incised above, purple-bronze beneath
with deep green veins.
B. x erythrophylla creeping, creeping, rhizomatous, to to 15cm (6in) long, almost round, base small, pink, many in
B. x feastii BEEFSTEAK BEGO- rhizomatous, 20cm (8in) tall cordate but appearing peltate, thick, panicles held clear
NIA; KIDNEY BEGONIA to 20cm olive green above, purple-red beneath, of foliage
(8in) tall margins and petiole with white hairs
Comments: Group 2. Includes ‘Bunchii’ (LETTUCE-LEAF BEGONIA) with bright green leaves with ragged and crested margins, and ‘Helix’
(WHIRLPOOL BEGONIA; POND-LILY BEGONIA) with the basal leaf lobes spiralled.
B.foliosa Colombia; fibrous-rooted, stems to 1m 1–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in) long, ovate-oblong, small, white
FERN BEGONIA; Venezuela (31⁄4ft) tall, slender, cane-like, slightly toothed, glossy dark green,
FERN-LEAVED BEGONIA branching, erect to arching many in 2, close ranks Comments: Group 1.
B.fuchsioides Venezuela fibrous-rooted, stems to 1.5m 2–5cm (3⁄4–2in) long, oblong, toothed, to 3cm (11⁄4in) across,
B.foliosa var. miniata; (5ft) tall, slender, cane-like, tinted pink at first later dark green, in bright rosy pink to
CORAZON-DE-JESUS; branching, erect to arching 2 ranks coral red, hanging
FUCHSIA BEGONIA on pink stalks
Comments: Group 1.
B.gracilis var. martiana Mexico; tuberous, stem erect to 100cm small, orbicular to lanceolate, base large, pink, fragrant
B.martiana HOLLYHOCK Guatemala (39in), succulent, usually cordate, succulent, crenate, pale green,
BEGONIA unbranched with bulbils borne in axils Comments: Group 5.
B.foliosa B.grandis subsp. evansiana B.listada 95

Begonia
B B EGONIA
B.grandis ssp. E Asia tuberous with erect to arching to 15cm (6in) long, obliquely ovate, to 3cm (11⁄4in) wide,
evansiana stems to 1m (31⁄4ft) tall, these base cordate, apex acuminate, veins fragrant, white or
B.evansiana HARDY BEGONIA produced annually, red-tinted prominent, the upper surface rather pink, nodding in
and lightly branched corrugated and pale bronzy olive to branching cymes
lime green, the lower surface red-tinted
Comments: Group 5. Hardy outdoors in Z7 and over – plant in a sheltered, sunny or semi-shaded position in a fertile, humus-rich, moist but
well-drained soil. In late summer and autumn, bulbils form at leaf axils and may be detached and grown on in the cool glasshouse. Mulch crowns
thickly before the first frosts.
B.heracleifolia Mexico to rhizome stout, succulent, creeping to 30cm (12in) across, orbicular in out- pink, packed atop
STAR BEGONIA; Belize line, base cordate, deeply palmately an erect, hairy stalk
STAR-LEAF BEGONIA lobed, lobes 7–9, lanceolate, margins
wavy, toothed and hairy, bronze-green
Comments: Group 2. ‘Sonderbruchii’ has deeply cut leaves streaked bronze; above, red beneath with green
var. nigricans has leaves edged dark olive to black; var. punctata has leaden, blotches along veins and tufts of hair;
black-green leaves blotched black. petiole blotched red, hairy
B. x hiemalis garden origin fibrous-rooted to semi-tuberous obliquely oval single or double,

WINTER-FLOWERING BEGO- (B.socotrana x B. with fleshy stems white to pink,
NIAS Tuberhybrida yellow, orange or
hybrids) Comments: Group 6. Rots off easily – water from below. ‘Krefeld’ has red, in winter
mid green leaves and profuse orange to crimson flowers in winter. or year-round
B.listada Brazil fibrous-rooted with erect, to 6cm (21⁄2in) long, obliquely ovate- few, white, to 5cm
branching stems to 30cm (12in) lanceolate, base unequally cordate, (2in) across, red-
toothed, downy, velvety olive green hairy
with a lime to gold zone along midrib
Comments: Group 4. and red hairs beneath
B.manicata Mexico rhizomatous with fleshy, erect to obliquely ovate-cordate, to 16cm (6in) small, pale pink
decumbent stems to 60cm (24in) long, toothed and ciliate, glossy light with winged, pink
green above, red-tinted and weakly ovaries, many
hairy on veins beneath; leaf stalk with together in panicles
a stiff collar of red hairs at its summit in early spring
Comments: Group 2. ‘Aureomaculata’ (LEOPARD BEGONIA; leaves blotched white or flushed red); ‘Aureomaculata Crispa’
(leaves pale green marbled yellow, margin ruffled, becoming pink in sun); ‘Crispa’ (leaves pale green with crisped and
ruffled, hairy margins).
B.masoniana New Guinea low-growing with a creeping, to 20cm (8in) long, obliquely ovate- small, green-white
IRON GROSS BEGONIA fleshy rhizome cordate, margins toothed and hairy, many together on
surface covered in bumpy bristles, pale an erect stalk in
green with a broad, dark brown to spring and summer
black areas along the main veins
Comments: Group 2. A popular houseplant. forming a cross-like marking
96 B.manicata B.masoniana B.metallica B.nelumbiifolia

Begonia
B EGONIA
B.mazae Mexico fibrous-rooted with trailing, to 12cm (43⁄4in), often smaller, rounded to 1.5cm (5⁄8in) across,
fleshy stems to heart-shaped, toothed, shiny green white spotted red,
with red-bronze markings or veins fragrant, many
Comments: Group 2. A good basket plant. Includes cultivars ‘Nigricans’ with above, red beneath together in winter
dark and burnished leaves, and ‘Stitchleaf ’ with pale green, heart-shaped leaves and spring
with dark purple ‘stitches’ along the margins.
B.metallica Brazil fibrous-rooted, silver-hairy, erect to 15cm (6in) long, obliquely ovate, to 3.5cm (11⁄2in)
METAL-LEAF BEGONIA and branching, to 1.5m (5ft) tall apex acuminate, base cordate, margins across, pale pink to
wavy and toothed, bronze-green with rose, many together
silver hairs and metallic purple veins from summer
Comments: Group 4. to autumn
B.nelumbiifolia Mexico to rhizome short and stout, decum- to 30cm (12in) across, rounded, to 1.5cm (5⁄8in) across,
LILY PAD BEGONIA Colombia bent to ascending peltate, margin toothed and hairy, white or pale pink in
bright green, on long, hairy stalks long-stalked clusters
Comments: Group 2. in winter and spring
B.olsoniae Brazil fibrous-rooted, compact and to 20cm (8in) across, obliquely white to pale rose,
shrubby, to 15cm (6in) tall rounded to heart-shaped, silky, one to a few together
bronze-green with pale green, white on long, arching
Comments: Group 4. A good basket plant. or pink veins stalks in winter
B.partita S Africa shrubby, to 20cm (8in) tall from to 6cm (21⁄2in) long, variably 3-lobed, small, white
a swollen base usually with small lateral lobes and a
far longer, finely tapering midlobe,
Comments: Group 5. Requires a free-draining, rather gritty soil, full sun and smooth pewter grey
good ventilation; can be given a dry winter rest.
B.paulensis Brazil rhizome creeping to ascending, to 20cm (8in), oblong, acuminate, 3.5–5cm (11⁄2–2in)
fleshy, downy peltate, margin toothed, surface puck- across, white with red
ered, glossy mid green with hairs, many together
Comments: Group 2. a network of white veins on a tall stalk
B. ‘Phyllomaniaca’ a Brazilian stem erect to 60cm (24in) tall, to 20cm (8in) long, obliquely cordate, to 2.5cm (1in) across,
CRAZY-LEAF BEGONIA hybrid (B.incar- branched and hairy with many margin slightly lobed, toothed and pink on erect stalks
nata x B.mani- buds and leafy outgrowths hairy, upper surface glossy with many in winter
cata) leafy outgrowths
Comments: Group 4. Well-grown plants assume a remarkable, ‘ragged’ appearance, as if strewn with leaf fragments.
B.prismatocarpa Guinea rhizomatous, stems creeping to 5cm (2in) long, very obliquely bright yellow, pro-
and rooting ovate-cordate to rounded, margin duced throughout the
wavy-toothed and 2–3-lobed, hairy year
Comments: Group 2. ‘Variegation’ has leaves marked yellow-green and clear yellow flowers produced in great abundance.
B.olsoniae B.prismatocarpa B.pustulata ‘Argentea’ B. ‘Princess of Hanover’ (Rex) 97

Begonia
B B EGONIA
B.pustulata Mexico; rhizomatous, low-growing to 15cm (6in) long, often shorter, obliquely small, rose pink, in
Guatemala and broadly ovate, base cordate, apex summer
acuminate, margin finely toothed, upper
surface velvety with a dense pattern of small
Comments: Group 2. ‘Argentea’ has very dark green leaves with a blisters, dark green faintly veined silver
heavy pattern of silver flashes along the veins. above, red-tinted beneath
B.radicans Brazil rhizomatous with scrambling, to 7cm (23⁄4in) long, obliquely ovate to to 2.5cm (1in)
B.undulata of gardens erect to pendulous, white-spot- oblong, apex acuminate, margins wavy, across, coral pink to
SHRIMP BEGONIA ted stems to 2m (61⁄2ft) long red-tinted at first, becoming grey-green brick red in dense,
with white spots nodding clusters,
Comments: Group 1. ‘Purpurea’ has persistently bronze-red-tinted leaves. usually in winter
B.rex Assam rhizome thick and fleshy, buried to 25cm (10in) long, obliquely ovate, apex to 5cm (2in) across,
KING BEGONIA; to creeping acute, base cordate, margins wavy with pale pink, a few
PAINTED LEAF BEGONIA small, hairy teeth, surface puckered and together in winter
sparsely hairy, rich metallic green with a and early spring
Comments: Group 2. A popular houseplant and the parent of many broad silver zone above, purple-red beneath
hybrids, most of which are sold as B.rex, but strictly belong to the B. Rex
Cultorum hybrids.
B. Rex Cultorum garden origin rhizomes thick, fleshy, creeping 10–30cm (4–12in) long, obliquely ovate to white to pink or red
hybrids (B.rex crossed to erect oblong-lanceolate, base cordate to rounded, in small clusters,
B.rex of gardens with related apex acute to acuminate, margins toothed to seldom seen
BEEFSTEAK GERANIUM; Asiatic species) jaggedly lobed, smooth to hairy, dark green
REX BEGONIA to wine red or bronze patterned or zoned
silver-white, leaden grey, red, purple or black
Comments: Group 2. A large and popular group of hybrids widely silver at its edges and deepening to burgundy at its centre, margins bur-
grown as houseplants, includes ‘Black Knight’ (leaves large, black-red gundy), ‘Princess of Hanover’ (leaves large with spiralling basal lobes,
with rows of pink dots), ‘Duartei’ (leaves large with spiralling basal emerald green with silver bands edged dark red and covered in fine,
lobes, darkest green edged purple-black with silver streaks), ‘Helen pink hairs), ‘Raspberry Swirl’ (leaves medium-sized, rounded with over-
Lewis’ (leaves medium-sized to large, silken dark purple with silver lapping basal lobes and jagged margins, silver edged purple-red with a
bands), ‘Fireworks’ (leaves large, maroon marked white blending to purple-red centre radiating along veins as a raspberry red blotch), ‘Roi
purple between veins), ‘Merry Christmas’ (syn. B.ruhrtal, leaves large, des Roses’ (leaves medium-sized, pale pink mottled silver), and ‘Wood
deep green flecked pink with a large central cherry red zone fading to Nymph’ (small, leaves rounded, rich brown speckled silver).
Rhizomatous garden origin low-growing plants with fleshy, 3–25cm (11⁄4–10in) long, ranging widely white, pink, or red
group creeping to erect rhizomes in shape, colour and texture
Comments: Group 2. Large and disparate group of hybrids, making lobed, deep jade green patterened with darkest olive), ‘Mac’s Gold’
good houseplants. Includes ‘Aries’ (leaves medium-sized to large, broad (leaves small to medium-sized, star-shaped, yellow with chocolate
and shallowly palmately lobed, maple-like, downy emerald green with brown marks), ‘Munchkin’ (leaves medium-sized, rounded, deep
chocolate markings toward margins), ‘Beatrice Haddrell’ (leaves bronze, smooth, margins much-toothed, ruffled, crested and densely
medium-sized to large, incised, dark green with paler veins, flowers ciliate), ‘Norah Bedson’ (leaves medium-sized, rounded, bright green
pale pink), ‘Bethlehem Star’ (leaves small, black with a fine cream, cen- with dark brown markings, flowers pink), ‘Oliver Twist’ (leaves
tral star, flowers cream spotted pink), ‘Bokit’ (leaves ovate, spirally medium-sized, rounded, twisted and puckered, olive green, margins
twisted, yellow-green striped brown, flowers white flecked pink), ‘China crested and covered in massed, red-tinted hairs), ‘Scherzo’ (leaves small,
Doll’ (compact, leaves cool green with red-brown mottling, flowers light soft lime green with dark brown, stitch-like marks along margins),
pink), ‘Little Darling’ (leaves very small, ovate, acute, toothed and ‘Silver Jewel’ (leaves blistered, rich green streaked silver, flowers white).
98 B. ‘Bethlehem Star’ (Rhizomatous) B.scharffii B. Cocktail Series (Semperflorens)

Begonia
B EGONIA
B. ‘Ricinifolia’ garden origin (B.her- rhizome thickly succulent to 30cm (12in) long, round small, white to pale
BRONZE-LEAF BEGONIA; acleifolia x B.peponifo- and creeping to ascending in outline with 5–7 lobes, rose, many together
CASTOR-BEAN BEGONIA; lia) dark bronze-green above, on tall stalks
STAR BEGONIA Comments: Group 2. purple-red beneath
B.scharffii Brazil fibrous-rooted, shrubby, to 25cm (10in) long, obliquely to 5cm (2in) across, pale
B.haageana stems erect, white-hairy, ovate, apex acuminate, base cor- pink with pink hairs in
to 1m (31⁄4ft) tall date, margin shallowly lobed, large, nodding clusters
bronze-green with red veins throughout the year
Comments: Group 4. above, red-tinted beneath
B. Semperflorens- garden origin, roots fibrous, stems 5–10cm (2–4in) long, rounded, 1–3.5cm (1⁄2–11⁄2in)
Cultorum hybrids hybrids derived from clumped, fleshy and brit- smooth and glossy, thinly fleshy, across, single or double,
B.semperflorens of gardens; B.cucullata var. hookeri tle, bushy, 15–40cm bright green to red-tinted or white, pink or red, a few
B. x semperflorens-cultorum; B.schmidtiana, B.fuch- (6–16in) tall purple-bronze, (variegated in together in axillary clus-
BEDDING BEGONIA; sioides, B.gracilis, the Calla-lily begonias) ters throughout year but
WAX BEGONIA B.minor and B.roezlii chiefly in summer
Comments: Group 3. Large group of small, bushy and free-flowering dark pink, very double), ‘Curly Locks’ (leaves bronze, flowers yellow
perennials usually called B.semperflorens and used as half-hardy bedding. and pink), ‘Dainty Maid’ (leaves green, flowers white edged salmon),
Single-flowered selections include the green-leaved ‘Derby’ (flowers ‘Old Lace’ (leaves bronze, flowers rosy red, very double and lacy), and
profuse, pale coral), Frilly Dilly Mixed (leaves bright green, flowers ‘Pink Wonder’ (leaves green, flowers pink and rounded, abundant).
white, pink and red with frilly tepals), ‘Red Ascot’ (leaves emerald One of the best variegated cultivars is ‘Charm’ (leaves bright green
green, flowers dark crimson), and ‘Viva’ (flowers pure white). Bronze- blotched gold and cream, flowers single, pale pink, ever-blooming).
leaved and single-flowered selections include the Cocktail Series.
Double-flowered cultivars include ‘Bo Peep’ (leaves bronze, flowers
B.serratipetala New Guinea fibrous-rooted and to 4cm (11⁄2in) long, obliquely rose pink to purple-red,
shrubby with arching ovate, apex acuminate, margins sometimes with toothed
stems to 60cm (24in) long lobed, sharply toothed and crisped, tepals, throughout
deep olive to metallic bronze-red the year
Comments: Group 4. with raised pink spots
Shrub-like group fibrous-rooted and bushy 10–30cm (4–12in) long, of various white, pink or red
with erect to pendulous, shapes and hues, hairy or smooth
branching, fleshy stems
Comments: Group 4. Large and varied group making good house- younger leaves glowing pink to peach with green veins, flowers white),
plants, including ‘Dancing Girl’ (leaves variously shaped, spotted and ‘Thurstonii’ (leaves medium-sized to large, obliquely ovate-lanceolate,
streaked silver), ‘Gloire de Sceaux’ (leaves small, rounded, deep metal- metallic bronze-green with darker impressed veins), ‘Tiny Gem’ (leaves
lic bronze, flowers dark to pale pink, scented), ‘Ingramii’ (leaves small very small, crinkle-edged, deep green, flowers candy pink), ‘Withla-
to medium-sized, mid green, flowers candy pink, produced in abun- coochee’ (leaves small, oblong-ovate, very velvety, dark emerald to
dance), ‘Midnight Sun’ (outer, older leaves moss green, inner and grey-green with white hairs, flowers pearly white).
B.solananthera Brazil rhizomatous, stems to 8cm (3in) long, broadly ovate, to 2cm (3⁄4in) across,
trailing to scrambling, apex acuminate, margins angled, white tinted rose, fra-
to 80cm (32in) long glossy deep green, paler beneath grant, in short, nodding
clusters in winter and
Comments: Group 6. A beautiful, winter-flowering basket plant for the warm glasshouse or home. early spring
B.serratipetala B. ‘Ingramii’ (Shrub-like) B. ‘Roy Hartley’ (Tuberhybrida) 99

Begonia
B EGONIA
B Name Distribution Habit Leaves Flowers
B.stipulacea Brazil fibrous-rooted, stems cane-like, to 15cm (6in) long, obliquely to 1.5cm (5⁄8in) across,
B.angularis; B.zebrina erect to spreading or pendulous, ovate, apex acuminate, glossy many, white or pink in
to 2.5m (8ft) long with grey-white veins above, dull winter or early spring
Comments: Group 1. red beneath
B.sutherlandii S Africa tuberous, stems red, slender, trailing to 15cm (6in) long, obliquely to 2.5cm (1in) across,
lanceolate, margin toothed to orange to orange-red
Comments: Group 5. An excellent basket plant. Somewhat hardier than many lobed, bright green or sometimes in pendulous bunches
Begonias, it will overwinter in frost-free conditions if dry. ‘Bulbils’ may form in olive with a red tint to veins and in summer
the axils of old stems and can be potted up and grown on. petiole
B. Tuberhybrida garden origin, tubers usually large and circular, 6–20cm (21⁄2–8in) long, obliquely 4–20cm (11⁄2–8in) across,
hybrids hybrids between compressed with a central depres- ovate to lanceolate, base rounded single to semi-double or
B. x tuberhybrida; the Andean species, sion above, stems fleshy and to cordate, apex acute to acumi- double, tepals smoothly
B.tuberosa of gardens B.boliviensis, B.clarkei, branching, erect to arching or nate, margins toothed to cut, rounded to fringed,
TUBEROUS BEGONIAS B.davisii, B.pearcei, pendulous veins usually prominent, smooth frilled, cut-edged or
B.veitchii and, possi- to lightly hairy, pale green to ragged, many colours
bly, B.frobelii and dark green
B.gracilis
Comments: Group 5. A very wide range of hybrids grown in pots ‘Can-Can’ (double, peach to apricot, edged warm red), ‘City of Bal-
under glass or in the home, and outdoors in containers and borders for larat’ (double, deep orange), ‘Masquerade’ (double and ruffled, white
half-hardy summer display; the pendulous cultivars and some members edged rosy red), ‘Midas’ (double, pale gold), and ‘Roy Hartley’ (double,
of the Multiflora Group are excellent plants for hanging baskets. Culti- salmon pink to deep rose). The Multiflora Group covers smaller, bushy
vars include the pendulous ‘Apricot Cascade’ (flowers double, deep plants with numerous small to medium-sized flowers, among them
apricot), ‘Bridal Cascade’ (flowers white edged pink), ‘Crimson Cas- ‘Flamboyant’ (leaves narrow, bright green, flowers single, scarlet),
cade’, ‘Gold Cascade’ and ‘Orange Cascade’. The largest-flowered ‘Helene Harms’ (flowers bright yellow, semi-double), and ‘Madame
selections include ‘Billie Langdon’ (double and rose-like, pure white), Richard Galle’ (flowers small, double, apricot).
B.versicolor China rhizome short, creeping 7–12cm (23⁄4–43⁄4in) across, salmon pink or red in
FAIRY-CARPET BEGO- obliquely ovate to broadly clusters on long, white-
NIA oblong, margins finely toothed hairy stalks throughout
and hairy, emerald to apple the year
green with silver-white markings
and red veins above, red
Comments: Group 2. beneath
B.vitifolia Brazil fibrous-rooted, stems fleshy, to 30cm (12in), ovate to rounded small, white on erect stalks
B.palmifolia smooth, erect to 1.2m (4ft) tall in outline, hairy, margins toothed
and broadly lobed, bright to
Comments: Group 1. deep green and shining
B. ‘Weltoniensis’ garden origins tuberous or semi-tuberous with to 8cm(3in) across, ovate, apex many, pink or white, in
GRAPEVINE BEGONIA; (B.dregei x B. fleshy, branching stems, erect to acuminate, margins toothed to summer
MAPLE-LEAF BEGONIA sutherlandii) 1m (31⁄4ft) shallowly lobed, dark glossy green
tinted or veined purple-red Comments: Group 5.
Belamcanda (Latinized form of this (31/4ft); flowers short-lived, 4cm (11/2in)- spring-flowering hardy bulbous peren-
plant’s vernacular names, balamtandam wide, produced in succession from mid- nials similar to Muscari, but often larger
(Malayalam) and malakanda (Sanskrit)). summer to autumn, ranging in colour with looser racemes of tubular to cam-
Iridaceae. E Europe; Asia. 2 species, from tawny yellow to deep orange panulate rather than squatly urceolate
rhizomatous perennial herbs very simi- spotted or blotched red, maroon or flowers. Cultivate as for Muscari.
lar to Iris and grown for their flowers purple; seed capsules split open to B.atroviolacea; (Russia and
and attractive seeds. The leopard lily is reveal blackberry-like clusters of glossy Afghanistan; spike conical, 8–30cm
hardy to –15°C/5°F, or lower still if black seeds). (3–12in) tall packed with nodding,
given a dry winter mulch. Plant in sun violet-black flowers); B.hyacinthoides (syn.
or light shade. Propagate by seed sown Bellevalia (for Pierre Richer de Bell- Strangweja spicata; Greece; raceme cylin-
in spring, or by division in spring or eval (1564–1632), who founded the dric to 15cm (6in) tall; flowers pale
early autumn. B.chinensis (BLACKBERRY Montpellier botanic garden in 1593). blue, veined with darker blue); B.para-
100 LILY, LEOPARD LILY; Russia to Japan; Liliaceae (Hyacinthaceae). Mediter- doxa (syn. B.pycnantha; Muscari paradoxum;
hardy, deciduous perennial to 1m ranean to W and C Asia. 45 species, Muscari pycnanthum; Russia and Turkey;
Berberis
to 40cm (16in); raceme conical crowded solid surface used as a work table for plant were thought similar to those of
with nodding, dark blue flowers).
bell glass a bell-shaped thick-glass

potting and propagating operations.
beneficial insects Many species of

Berberis). Flacourtiaceae. Chile. CORAL
PLANT. 2 species. B.corallina, an ever-
green woody-based perennial climber
B
cloche placed over plants to advance insects are beneficial as predators, par- to 5m (15ft), with holly-like leaves.
growth or sometimes as an aid to prop- asites or pollinators. From midsummer to autumn, rounded,
agation. Developed in France in the Most predatory insects are general 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in)-wide coral-red flowers
17th century, bell glasses are usually feeders, preying as adults or larvae on hang on slender stalks. Although hardy
about 38cm (15in) high and 43cm several different types of insect and to –10°C/14°F, it suffers badly from
(17in) wide. Versions manufactured in other small organisms, thereby con- wind scorch and prolonged frosts and
moulded plastic are available. tributing to natural pest control. They may require protection in the form of
usually have fast-moving hunting skills a hessian drape and a thick mulch.
Bellis (from the Latin bellus, pretty). and their mouthparts are adapted for Plant in a cool, semi-shaded and shel-
Compositae. Europe; Mediterranean; biting and chewing or lacerating prey. tered position in a moist but porous,
W Africa. DAISY. 7 species, small, hardy Although most capsid bugs are plant neutral to acidic soil rich in decayed
annual or perennial herbs grown for feeders, some (especially the BLACK- vegetable matter. Propagate by semi-
their flowerheads. Although hardy to at KNEED CAPSID Blepharidopterus angulatus) ripe cuttings in a closed case with
least –15°C/5°F, the perennial culti- are predacious, feeding significantly on bottom heat, or by simple layering.
vars of Bellis perennis are mostly grown fruit tree red spider mite. The related
as biennials. They are used in carpet ANTHOCORID BUGS are also important Berberis (from berberys, the Arabic
bedding, for border and path edging predators. DRAGONFLIES (Odonata) take name for the fruit). Berberidaceae.
and in containers, especially where their prey on the wing, including Europe, Asia, Africa, Americas. BAR-
winter colour is wanted. Plant mosquitoes, beetles and BERRY. 450 species, fully hardy ever-
in sun or part shade in soil wasps. LACEWINGS green or deciduous shrubs grown for
that does not dry out in (Neuroptera), some foliage, flowers and fruit. The stems
summer. Dead head GALLMIDGE LARVAE have thin grey-brown bark and yellow
often to prolong flower- (Diptera: Cecidomyi- wood and are armed with sharp spines.
ing. Sow seed in early idae) and HOVERFLY The leaves are small, thin to tough and
summer to plant out in LARVAE (Diptera: Syr- sometimes sharply toothed. Some
late summer or autumn. phidae) are important deciduous species and cultivars colour
For winter flowers in pots, predators of aphids. Most brilliantly in autumn. Small, cream to
grow on in a low-fertility, of the remaining predators yellow or fiery orange flowers are pro-
loam-based mix in a cold frame Bellis are beetles (Coleoptera), includ- duced in axillary clusters, racemes or
and bring under glass in autumn; perennis ing carabid or GROUND BEETLES, panicles, usually in spring and summer.
provide a winter temperature of and the staphylinid, or ROVE BEETLES, Berries range in colour from creamy
4–7°C/39–45°F and brisk ventilation. which are general predators of small yellow to pink, red, purple or blue-black.
B.perennis (ENGLISH DAISY; perennial insects and other small invertebrates. Berberis species are widely used in
often treated as a biennial; leaves The GLOWWORM (Lampyris noctiluca) has gardens for hedging and specimen
1–6cm (1/2–21/2in), obovate to spathu- larvae which feed on snails. Various planting in lawns, borders and the rock
late; scapes to 5cm (2in) tall; flower- species of LADYBIRD BEETLES are garden. Plant in any well-drained soil
heads 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in)-wide with important predators of aphids, mealy- in full sun or light shade. Prune out
yellow disc florets and white ray florets, bugs, scale insects and spider mites, exhausted or congested stems in late
often stained rose pink or red; a wide both as adults and larvae. winter; trim evergreen hedges after
range of cultivars is available with Most parasitic insects with plant- flowering, deciduous hedges in late
flower colour pure white to deep feeding hosts are more correctly called winter. Propagate by seed cleansed of
cherry red. There are double-flowered parasitoids. They are found in several flesh and sown in a seedbed outdoors
and variegated-leaf selections; flower- families of Hymenoptera, and include in late winter (offspring may be vari-
heads may be up to 7cm (23/4in) wide ICHNEUMON WASPS, CHALCID WASPS able); or by heeled nodal and basal cut-
and stem length up to 12cm (43/4in). and BRACONID WASPS. Only the larvae tings treated with a rooting hormone in
are parasitic, and they tend to be more a cold frame in early autumn. Treated
belvedere see gazebo. host specific than predators. with a rooting hormone, mallet cuttings
Another beneficial function carried will root under mist in summer. Multi-
bench, benching a narrow table- out by insects is pollination. Bees are stemmed plants can be earthed-up
like structure of wood or metal upon the most valuable and abundant and encouraged to produce rooting
which plants in containers are set out pollinators; other contributors stems which may be detached and
within a greenhouse. It may have a include hoverflies and blowflies. grown on in autumn or spring. Some-
solid or slatted surface and is also times affected by bacterial leaf spot.
referred to as staging. A potting bench Berberidopsis (Berberis and Greek Some species are alternate hosts for 101
may be of similar construction, with a opsis, resemblance; the leaves of this rusts. (See table overleaf.)
Berberis
B B ERBERIS
Name Distribution Habit Leaves Flowers Fruit
B.aggregata W China densely branched, to 2.5cm (1in) long, oblong- pale yellow in erect, to 0.7cm (1⁄4in) long,
B.geraldii spiny, deciduous shrub ovate, base cuneate, apex rounded panicles to ovoid, pale red
to 2m (61⁄2ft) tall obtuse, margin toothed, olive 3cm (11⁄4in) long in
above, glaucous beneath, late spring
Comments: Parent of many hybrids including ‘Crimson Bead’ fiery red to crimson in
with dark carmine fruit in pendulous trusses, and ‘Sibbertoft autumn blue-white
Coral’ with coral red bloomed fruit. Z7.
B.buxifolia Chile spiny, dense, evergreen to 2.5cm (1in) long, obovate, deep orange-yellow, to 0.8cm (3⁄8in), glo-
B.dulcis; B.microphylla or semi-evergreen blunt, mucronate, tough, dark 1–2 per axil in late bose, dark purple,
MAGELLAN BARBERRY shrub to 3m (10ft) tall green above, glaucous beneath spring grey-pruinose
Comments: Includes ‘Aureomarginata’ with leaves edged gold, and ‘Nana’, a sparsely flowered dwarf form. Z5.
B.calliantha Tibet spiny evergreen shrub holly-like, to 6cm (21⁄2in) relatively large, to 1cm (1⁄2in) long,
to 70cm (28in) tall; long, oblong-elliptic, sharply yellow, 2–3 per axil ovoid, purple-black,
young stems red-tinted toothed, deep, glossy green in late spring glaucous
above, pale and glaucous
Comments: Z7. beneath
B.candidula W China evergreen, dense to 3cm (11⁄4in), elliptic-ovate, small, yellow to 1cm (1⁄2in) long,
B.hypoleuca of gardens; rounded shrub sparsely toothed, shiny dark stained red, 1 per ovoid, grey-pruinose
B.wallichiana var. 50–100cm (20–39in) tall green above, pale beneath axil in late spring
pallida Comments: Z5.
B.x carminea garden deciduous shrubs, erect to 3cm (11⁄4in) long, obovate, yellow, in panicles to 0.8cm (3⁄8in) long,
(B.aggregata x B.wilso- origin to domed, seldom more or less toothed, pale to 5cm (2in) long oblong-ovoid, pink
niae) exceeding 2m (61⁄2ft) beneath in spring and to scarlet
early summer
Comments: Vigorous garden hybrids valued for their colourful fruits large, rounded, cloudy white turning shiny red), ‘Pirate King’ (vigorous,
borne in profusion in autumn; they include the cultivars ‘Barbarossa’ branches pendulous, fruit bright orange), and ‘Sparkler’ (fruit conic,
(stems to 2m (61⁄2ft) tall, twigs red-tinted, leaves entire, fruit abundant, tinted tangerine). Z6.
scarlet), ‘Buccaneer’ (leaves narrow, entire, more or less persistent, fruit
B.coxii E Himalaya spiny evergreen shrub to 6cm (21⁄2in) long, elliptic- pale yellow, rela- to 1cm (1⁄2in) long,
to 1.5m (5ft) tall ovate with incurved teeth, tively large, to obovoid, glaucous
glossy dark green above, 6 per axillary clus- blue-black
Comments: Z6. white and pruinose beneath ter in late spring
B.darwinii Chile; Patag- spreading and sucker- holly-like, to 2cm (3⁄4in) long, orange-gold often to 0.7cm (1⁄4in) long,
onia ing, evergreen, spiny obovate, tough, with 1–3 spiny tinted red in pendu- globose, blue-pruinose
shrub to 2m (61⁄2ft) tall teeth per side, glossy dark lous racemes to 10cm
green above, paler beneath (4in) long in spring
Comments: Includes cultivars ‘Flame’ (flowers vivid dark orange), flowers in pendulous, red-stalked clusters. The cultivars ‘Nana’ (dwarf
and ‘Gold’ (flowers vivid gold). The hybrid between B.darwinii and with small leaves and sparse flowers), and ‘Prostrata’ (dwarf and semi-
B.valdiviana is ‘Goldilocks’ (see below), a large, vigorous shrub with erect prostrate with dull green leaves, red flower buds and profuse flowers)
to arching branches, large, spiny, glossy dark green leaves and golden strictly belong to B. x stenophylla. Z7.
102 B.buxifolia B. x carminea ‘Buccaneer’ B. ‘Goldilocks’ B.empetrifolia

Berberis
B ERBERIS
Name Distribution Habit Leaves Flowers Fruit B
B.empetrifolia Chile; evergreen, spiny, to 1cm (1⁄2in) long, elliptic small, deep to 0.7cm (1⁄4in) long,
B.revoluta Argentina arching to semi- but strongly revolute, thus yellow, paired, globose, glaucous
prostrate shrub to appearing narrow, in late spring blue-black
30cm (12in) tall mucronate, dark green
Comments: Z7. above, pruinose beneath
B.gagnepainii W China evergreen, spiny to 4cm (11⁄2in) long, lanceo- bright yellow, to to 1cm (1⁄2in) long,
shrub with sucker- late, apex tapering finely, 7 per cluster in ovoid, purple-black,
ing, slender stems undulate with to 10 teeth per early summer pruinose
erect to 1.5m (5ft) side, matt grey-green above,
tall yellow-green beneath
Comments: Includes var. lanceifolia ‘Fernspray’ compact with long, narrow and undulate, pale green leaves, and ‘Robin Hood’, low-growing
and rounded, to 1m (31⁄4in) tall, leaves tinted dark red with age. Z5.
B. x hybridogagnepainii garden varied range of more or less ovate with close to B.gagne- purple-black,
B. x media; B. x wokingensis; origin evergreen spiny spiny margins painii grey-pruinose
(B.verruculosa x B.gagnepainii) shrubs
Comments: A large complex of hybrids including ‘Chenaultii’ untoothed leaves colouring brilliantly in autumn and sometimes persis-
(B.chenaultii, to 2.5m (8ft) tall, leaves to 3cm (11⁄4in) long, lanceolate, tent), and ‘Red Jewel’ (differs from ‘Park Juweel’ in its broader leaves
undulate, spiny shining above, pruinose beneath, flowers golden assuming deep, purple-red tints. Z5.
yellow), ‘Park Juweel’ (small, low, dense and thorny with more or less
B.jamesiana SW China erect, deciduous, obovate, entire or slightly pale orange in globose, opaque
spiny shrub to 2m toothed toward apex, thick, pendulous white ripening
(61⁄2ft) tall olive green above, grey-green racemes to translucent pink
beneath, colouring vividly 10cm (4in) long
B.julianae W China evergreen, fiercely to 10cm (4in), obovate, ser- yellow, faintly to 0.8cm (3⁄8in) long,
spiny, bushy shrub rate, tough, dark green above, fragrant in axil- oblong, black, glau-
erect to 4m (12ft) paler beneath, tinted bronze- lary clusters in cous
red when young early summer
Comments: Good hedging shrub; includes ‘Dart’s Superb’ (spreading, leaves small), ‘Lombart’s Red’ (leaves red beneath), and ‘Nana’ (dwarf). Z5.
B.linearifolia Chilean evergreen, erect to to 5cm (2in) long, narrowly orange in clus- to 1cm (1⁄2in) long,
Andes arching and rather obovate-oblanceolate, entire ters in late ellipsoid, black,
spiny, rangy, shrub with strongly revolute margins spring and late glaucous
Comments: Includes the large-and free- to 1.5m (5ft) tall and a sharp tip, dark green summer
flowering red-yellow ‘Jewel’ and the large-and above, pale beneath
orange-flowered ‘Orange King’. Z6.
B. x lologensis garden evergreen, spiny, to 3cm (11⁄4in) long, obovate- orange-yellow to 0.7cm (1⁄4in) long,
(B.darwinii x B.linearifolia) origin medium-sized spathulate, entire and/or in umbel-like ovoid, glaucous
shrub toothed, tough, dark green clusters purple-blue
Comments: Includes ‘Apricot Queen’ (growth erect, flowers orange) and ‘Stapehill’ (flowers orange-yellow tinted fiery red). Z6.
B.gagnepainii var. lanceifolia B.julianae B.linearifolia ‘Jewel’ 103

Berberis
B B ERBERIS
B. x ottawensis garden origin deciduous, erect shrub, 2–6cm (3⁄4–21⁄2in), obovate pale yellow red
(B. thunbergii x very vigorous and sucker- to elliptic-ovate, blunt to to golden to
B. vulgaris) ing with large spines and acute, soft, mid green with drooping racemes
(sometimes) expanded slightly paler undersides,
spiny stipules colouring well in autumn
Comments: Very robust and fast-growing, includes two purple-leaved green leaves, spathulate-orbicular, very finely serrate to entire and
forms often confused with each other – f. purpurea, to 2m (61⁄2ft) tall to 6cm (21⁄2in) long, subtended by large 3-parted thorns and spiny stip-
with deep and solid purple-red leaves, obovate-elliptic, entire and to ules. Z5.
4cm (11⁄2in) long; ‘Superba’, to 3m (10ft) tall with wine-red tinted, pea
B.poiretii N China deciduous or semi-ever- to 4cm (11⁄2in), narrowly yellow flushed red narrowly oblong,
green shrub to 1m (31⁄4ft) oblanceolate, acuminate, in pendent racemes pale red
tall with angular, more or with wavy margins and in late spring
Comments: Z5. less spiny branches fine teeth
B.prattii W China deciduous, spiny shrub to 4cm (11⁄2in) long, whorled, yellow in erect or to 0.6cm (1⁄4in) long,
to 3m (10ft) tall obovate, obtuse, entire to drooping panicles ovoid, coral pink
sparsely serrate, glossy olive
green above, grey-pruinose
Comments: Z5. beneath
B. x rubrostilla garden origin deciduous, spiny, erect to to 2cm (3⁄4in) long, pale yellow in to 1.5cm (5⁄8in)
B. ‘Rubrostilla’; arching shrub to 1.5m oblanceolate with to 6 umbel-like clusters long, ovoid, scar-
(B.aggregata x B.wilso- (5ft) tall teeth per side, grey-pru- in late spring and let, glossy
niae) inose beneath early summer
Comments: Large-fruited and showy especially in autumn. Includes ‘Chealii’ (fruit garnet red),
‘Cherry Ripe’ (fruit pink-white ripening scarlet), ‘Crawleyensis’ (leaves larger, fruit large, scarlet. Z6.
B.sargentiana W China evergreen, spiny shrub to 10cm (4in) long, elliptic, pale yellow in clus- to 0.6cm (1⁄4in) long,
to 2m (61⁄2ft) tall acute with to 25 teeth per ters in early purple-black,
side, thick, dark glossy summer oblong, glossy
green above with impressed
Comments: Z6. veins, yellow-green beneath
B. x stenophylla garden origin evergreen shrub to 3m to 2cm (3⁄4in) long, liner- golden, solitary, to 0.7cm (1⁄4in)
(B.darwinii x B.empet- (10ft) tall with slender, arch- lanceolate, mucronate, in clusters, or in long, globose,
rifolia) ing branches entire, tough, margin revo- racemes in late purple-black
lute, dark green above, pale spring and often
and glaucous beneath again later in
the year
Comments: A resilient and varied group of hybrids used for speci- (flowers cream-white), ‘Etna’ (stems many, arching, covered in dense,
men plantings, hedging, screening and high, impenetrable ground dark green leaves and clusters of brilliant, orange-red flowers), ‘Irwinii’
cover; popular cultivars include ‘Compacta’ (dwarf, compact), ‘Coral- (syn. B. x irwinii, small and compact with golden yellow flowers), ‘Pink
lina Compacta’ (dwarf, compact, flowerbuds coral-tinted opening Pearl’ (leaves splashed ivory and rose, flowers ivory, coral and orange),
burnt orange), ‘Crawley Gem’ (low-growing with many slender and ‘Semperflorens’ (flowers red-orange to tangerine, long-lasting and pro-
arching stems and red-tinted orange-yellow flowers), ‘Cream Showers’ duced late in season). For ‘Nana’ and ‘Prostrata’ see B.darwinii. Z5.
104 B. x lologensis ‘Stapehill’ B. x stenophylla ‘Corallina Compacta’ B.thunbergii ‘Atropurpurea Nana’

Bergenia
B ERBERIS
B.thunbergii Japan deciduous, spiny suckering, to 2cm (3⁄4in) long, ovate to yellow tinted red, to 0.8cm (3⁄8in) long,
bushy shrub to 1m obovate, blunt, olive-green clustered in umbel- ellipsoid, glossy red
(31⁄4ft) tall above, grey-tinted beneath, like racemes
scarlet to fiery red in autumn
Comments: Compact shrub with superb autumn colour, excellent for purple), ‘Kelleriis’ (leaves mottled silvery white, this colour flushing
low hedging. Includes cultivars ‘Atropurpurea’ (medium-sized shrub, pink to dark rose in autumn; ‘Silver Beauty’ is similar but smaller),
foliage purple to purple-red), ‘Atropurpurea Nana’ (dwarf, foliage ‘Kobold’ (dwarf, dense and domed with green leaves and bright red
purple-red), ‘Aurea’ (leaves yellow, becoming lime green), ‘Golden fruit), ‘Pink Queen’ (leaves red-purple flecked grey and white), ‘Red
Ring’ (leaves purple-red edged gold), ‘Green Carpet’ (low and spread- Pillar’ (densely branched dwarf, erect shrub with purple-red leaves),
ing, leaves green turning red in autumn), ‘Harlequin’ (compact, leaves ‘Rose Glow’ (small with new foliage purple mottled silver-white and
small, mottled pink), ‘Helmond Pillar’ (narrowly upright, leaves dark rose pink). Z4.
B.verruculosa W China evergreen spiny shrub to to 2cm (3⁄4in) long, obovate- golden, solitary neat and slow-grow-
1.5m (5ft) tall with arching, elliptic, more or less or paired to 1cm ing.
warty stems toothed, glossy dark green (1⁄2in) long, ovoid
above, white beneath or pyriform,
purple-black,
Comments: Z5. frosted
B.vulgaris North Amer- deciduous, spiny suckering to 6cm (21⁄2in) long, small, yellow-white to 1cm (1⁄2in) long,
COMMON BARBERRY ica; Europe; shrub to 2m (61⁄2ft) tall obovate-elliptic, serrulate, in pendent oblong, bright to
W Asia matt green racemes to 6cm dull red, translucent
(21⁄2in) long
Comments: Wood once harvested for tooth picks and, being bright yellow, held to be a cure for jaundice. The fruits are edible and especially
sweet in the cultivar ‘Dulcis’; ‘Asperma’ is seedless. ‘Alba’ is white-fruited, ‘Lutea’ yellow-fruited. Selections for leaf colour include ‘Atropurpurea’
with wine-red leaves and the silver-edged ‘Marginata’. Z3.
B.wilsoniae W China deciduous, thorny mound- to 3cm (11⁄4in) long, obovate small, pale yellow, to 0.6cm (1⁄4in)
forming shrub to 1m (31⁄4ft) to linear-oblong, entire, to 6 per cluster diam., coral pink,
tall mucronate, grey-green globose
turning scarlet in autumn
Comments: var. stapfiana has spathulate leaves with grey undersides ‘Coral’ (fruit conic, scarlet), ‘Ferax’ (fruit oblong-ovoid, scarlet), ‘Fire-
and vivid scarlet fruit. Among the finest cultivars are ‘Joke’ (hardy and ball’ (fruit conic, vermilion), ‘Stonefield Surprise’ (shoots red-tinted,
vigorous with a profusion of large, red-flushed pink fruit), and flowers and fruit small), and ‘Tom Thumb’ (small, shoots yellow leaves
‘Orangeade’ (semi-prostrate, spreading, fruit orange and pink). Wisley broad, persisting). Z6.
hybrids closest to B.wilsoniae include ‘Comet’ (fruit rounded, scarlet),
berceau a trellis arch covered by (syn. B.volubilis; SUPPLEJACK or VINE B.ciliata (W Pakistan to Nepal; leaves
climbing plants. RATTANY; US, Mexico, Guatemala; dif- to 35cm (14in), hairy with ciliate mar-
fers from the last species in its slightly gins, flushing deep red-bronze in cold
Berchemia (for M. Berchem, 17th- larger, elliptic leaves marked cream to weather; flowers nodding, rose-tinted
century French botanist). Rhamnaceae. white in ‘Variegata’; oblong fruit turns white, on stalks to 30cm (12in)); B.cordi-
Asia; Africa; Americas. 20 species, from plum blue to black in autumn). folia (Siberia and Mongolia; leaves to
mostly deciduous, woody climbers with 40cm (16in), smooth with sunken veins
twining stems and very small, white Bergenia (for Carl von Bergen and wavy, toothed margins; flowers
flowers in short panicles and racemes, (1704–1759, author of Flora Francofur- rose or magenta on 30–45cm (12–18in)
followed by fleshy fruits in autumn. tana (1750). Saxifragaceae. East Asia. stalks); B.purpurascens (E Himalaya;
Hardy to –15°C/5°F. Grow in sun or SOW’S EARS. 8 species, hardy evergreen leaves to 25cm (10in), dark, shining
light shade. Provide support or allow to rhizomatous perennial herbs with broad green turning deep purple-red in
scramble through trees and shrubs. and leathery leaves, and scapose cymes autumn and winter; flowers deep, rosy
Propagate from seed sown in autumn of 5-parted, cup-shaped flowers from red on stalks to 40cm (16in) high);
or spring, by semi-ripe stem cuttings or late winter to spring. Once established, B.stracheyi (Afghanistan to Tibet; leaves
root cuttings in winter; also by simple they will thrive in damp or rather dry to 20cm (8in), smooth except for
layering. situations, in light shade or full sun. downy margins, flushing dark garnet in
B.racemosa (Japan and Taiwan; to 4m Mulch annually in late winter with winter; flowers fragrant, pale rose to
(12ft); leaves 6cm (21/2in)-long, ovate to well-rotted garden compost mixed with white in nodding clusters). Cultivars –
cordate, splashed creamy white in ‘Var- a little slow-release organic fertilizer. ‘Abendglut’: to 40cm (16in), with leaves 105
iegata’; fruit red to black); B.scandens Divide in autumn or spring. large, tinted red; flowers dark red;
Bergenia
‘Ballawley’: glossy, purple-flushed in oblong, upper surfaces downy and greenhouse or conservatory. Increase
B winter; flowers purple-crimson;

‘Morgenröte’: small; flowers large,
cherry pink, produced twice a year;
vivid green with streaks of silver-white,
or overlaid with a copper lustre, or,
again, satiny bottle green veined silver;
by seed or division in spring.
Beta (from Celtic bett, red) Chenopo-

B. x schmidtii (B.ciliata x B.crassifolia: their undersides are deep purple-red: diaceae; Europe and Mediterranean. 6
leaves smooth, bluntly toothed flowers, flowers magenta). species of perennial or biennial, hardy,
rose pink; ‘Silberlicht’: leaves large; glabrous herbs. Roots often swollen.
flowers white, later tinted palest pink; Berzelia (for Berzelius, a Swedish Leaves flat, usually entire, often glossy,
‘Sunningdale’: rounded, bronze-red chemist of the early 19th century). long petioles, green or reddish purple.
leaves in autumn and winter; flowers Bruniaceae. South Africa. 12 species, Flowers small, hermaphrodite cymes.
deep lilac pink. evergreen shrubs grown in the cool Several seeds form a seed ball giving
greenhouse or conservatory for their more than one seedling on germination.
Berkheya (for M.J.L. de Berkhey, heather-like habit and small flowers in Of food crop or ornamental interest are
Dutch botanist). Compositae. South globose heads. Plant in a well-drained, B. vulgaris ssp. vulgaris BEETROOT (q.v),
Africa. Some 80 species, perennial neutral to acid medium rich in organic grown for its edible roots, B.v. ssp. cicla
herbs, subshrubs and shrubs with matter. Position in full sun; ventilate var. flavescens, SWISS CHARD (q.v), grown
daisy-like flowerheads. Plant Berkheya freely. Keep the roots cool and moist in for its edible leaves and midribs and
on fertile, well-drained soils in a shel- summer, drier in winter, maintaining a ornamental value. B.v. ssp. cicla var.
tered, sunny position in zones 8 and minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F. cicla, SPINACH BEET (q.v), syn. PERPET-
over. Propagate by division in spring. Sow seed in spring or root semi-ripe UAL SPINACH, also has edible leaves.
B.macrocephala (Natal; erect perennial to cuttings during late summer. B.lanugi-
1m (31/4ft); leaves are deeply lobed, nosa (to 2m (61/2ft); the leaves are betanin pigment responsible for
spiny; flowerheads to 6cm (21/2in), ray downy, needle-like; flowers minute, colour in red beets.
florets rich yellow, disc florets orange- white in summer).
yellow, produced during summer in Betula (the Classical Latin name).
branched inflorescences). Beschorneria (for Friedrich Betulaceae. Temperate and Arctic N
Beschorner (1806–1873), German Hemisphere. BIRCH. Some 60 species,
berry a baccate, indehiscent fruit, botanist). Agavaceae. Mexico. 10 fully hardy deciduous trees and shrubs
one- to many-seeded; the product species, very large, evergreen, perennial grown for their graceful habit, bark,
of a single pistil. Frequently applied herbs with tough, sword-shaped leaves foliage and catkins. The habit ranges
to any pulpy or fleshy fruit. far exceeded by scapose panicles of from erect and conical or pyramidal to
6-parted, tubular flowers in late spring slender and weeping. The bark is usu-
and summer. The following species is ally papery, the thin older bark peeling
hardy in zone 7 if planted on a well- to expose chalky white to glossy red
drained soil in a sheltered, sun-baked new bark; the oldest bark (i.e. that on
position. Propagate by division, or by bole) becomes sooty grey and riven.
rooted offsets in spring. B.yuccoides The leaves are mostly ovate and thin-
(leaves grey-green, to 1m (31/4ft) long in textured with toothed margins. Small
an open rosette; panicle to 2m (61/2ft), tightly packed in male or female
stalk and bracts glaucous, coral to catkins and, the flowers appear in late
Berries of sealing wax red, flowers pendulous, autumn but do not open until spring
Sorbus aucuparia 7cm (23/4in)-long, yellow-green). (in the following descriptions, the
catkins of the species below are female
Bertolonia (for A. Bertoloni Bessera (for W.S.J.G. von Besser and measured at fruiting unless other-
(1775–1869), Italian botanist). Melas- (1784–842), Austrian-Polish botanist). wise stated; produced in late winter
tomataceae. South America. 14 species, Liliaceae (Alliaceae). Mexico. 1 species, and spring, the ornamental male
tender perennial herbs with decorative, B.elegans (CORAL DROPS), a frost-tender, catkins tend to be longer, narrower and
thinly succulent leaves and one-sided cormous perennial herb with narrow pendulous with green-gold anthers).
cymes of rosy-purple flowers. Plant in leaves. In summer, a loose umbel of Plant in full sun on any fertile,
shallow pots, terraria or bottle gardens 10–30 pendulous flowers is carried moist, but well-drained soil. Propagate
in a porous, soilless mix. Keep moist atop a slender scape, 100cm (39in) tall. by ripe seed; by side-veneer grafts in
and humid in shade or filtered light; The flowers are campanulate, to 4cm late winter in a cold greenhouse; by
minimum temperature, 15°C/59°F. (11/2in) long, bright red to purple-red green-wood cuttings in early to mid-
Draughts, cold and damp, and expo- veined green on the exterior, ivory summer; or by semi-ripe cuttings in
sure of wet foliage to sun are all delete- veined or edged scarlet on the interior. late summer under mist or in a closed
rious. Propagate by stem or leaf Plant in full sun in a sheltered postion. case. Attacked by bracket fungi (enter-
cuttings in a sandy propagating mix in Where frosts are hard, mulch thickly in ing by bark wounds and resulting in
106 a closed case. B.marmorata (Brazil; ever- winter, or lift and store dry in a cool older stems’ snapping in their upper
green to 20cm (8in); leaves ovate to place. Alternatively, grow in a cool reaches); also by mildew and birch rust.
Betula
B ETULA
Name Distribution Habit Bark Leaves Catkins B
(in the following descriptions, the catkins are female and measured at fruiting unless otherwise stated; produced in late winter
and spring, the ornamental male catkins tend to be longer, narrower and pendulous with green-gold anthers)
B.albosinensis China open-crowned, clear glaucous grey-white at first 4–7cm (11⁄2–23⁄4in) long, 3–4cm
CHINESE RED BIRCH stemmed, medium-sized then peeling, thin and cop- narrowly ovate, acumi- (11⁄4–11⁄2in) long,
tree, 18–25m (60–80ft) tall pery pink to orange-red nate, biserrate, glossy ovoid-cylindric,
light green pendulous
Comments: var. septentrionalis differs in its orange-pink to red bark bloomed violet-white
and peeling in shaggy rolls; the leaves are longer and narrower, dull green and drooping. Z7.
B.alleghaniensis Eastern North open-branched tree, thin, crisped or curled, 6–12cm (21⁄2–43⁄4in), 2.5–3cm
B.lutea America 20–30m (70–100ft) tall, tinged yellow or grey, ovate to ovate-oblong, (1–11⁄4in) long,
YELLOW BIRCH often multi-stemmed peeling in translucent acute, coarsely biserrate, thickly cylindri-
sheets and yellow-brown dull green, silky hairy cal, erect
where exposed beneath, turning yellow
B.dahurica NE Asia medium-sized tree, thick, peeling in curling 5–10cm (2–4in) long, 2–2.5cm
B.davurica 15–30m (50–100ft) tall flakes, brown tinged grey, ovate-rhombic, serrate, (3⁄4–1in) long,
ASIAN BLACK BIRCH becoming silver-grey and acute, dark green and narrowly
rugged with age; twigs glabrous above, glandu- oblong,
hairy at first, dark grey, lar-punctate beneath drooping
Comments: Z3. resinous with white glands
B.ermanii NE Asia graceful, vigorous tree peeling, creamy yellow to 5–10cm (2–4in), deltoid- 2–3cm
ERMAN’S BIRCH; or large shrub to 25m white with pale brown cordate, coarsely serrate, (3⁄4–11⁄4in) long,
GOLD BIRCH; (80ft) tall, usually lenticels, or red-brown, apex cuspidate, with ovate-ellipsoid,
RUSSIAN ROCK BIRCH widely spreading orange-brown to purple- scattered glands erect
brown on young branches;
Comments: ‘Grayswood Hill’ is a selected form of this species, twigs hairless, glandular-
sometimes offered under the name B.costata. Z2. warty when young
B. ‘Fetisowii’ C Asia graceful, narrow- chalky white, peeling, Comments: Z4.

(hybrid origin) crowned tree colourful on trunk
and branches
B.fontinalis NW America shrub to 6m (20ft) tall, or smooth, lustrous 2.5–5cm (1–2in) long, to 3cm (11⁄4in)
B.occidentalis tree to 12m (40ft) tal dark bronze rhomboid-ovate, apex long
AMERICAN RED acute, biserrate, dark dull
BIRCH; green above, paler beneath,
WATER BIRCH slightly hairy above, soon
hairless beneath, turning
Comments: Needs moist but not saturated conditions. Z3. yellow in autumn
B.lenta Eastern shrub or narrowly polished red-brown to 6–12cm (21⁄2–43⁄4in) long, 2–3.5cm
CHERRY BIRCH; North North upright tree to 25m purple-black, fissured, ovate-oblong, biserrate, (3⁄4–11⁄2in) long,
SWEET BIRCH (80ft) tall not peeling, aromatic acute to acuminate, oblong-ovoid,
glossy green above, paler erect
Comments: Z3. beneath, gold in autumn
B.albosinensis B.alleghaniensis B.ermanii B.lenta 107

Betula
B B ETULA
B.maximowicziana Japan fast-growing tree to thin, peeling in strips, 8–14cm (3–51⁄2in), broadly 3–7cm (11⁄4–23⁄4in),
MONARCH BIRCH 30m (100ft) tall with tinged orange-brown, ovate, base cordate, apex pendulous
an open crown grey and pink-white; acute to acuminate, dark
branches and twigs dark green turning clear yellow
red-brown, shiny in autumn sometimes with
Comments: Resistant to bronze birch borer. Z6. red veins
B.nana subarctic prostrate to ascend- dull brown, rather hairy 0.5–1.5m (11⁄2–5ft) long, to 1cm (1⁄2in) long,
DWARF BIRCH regions ing shrub or dwarf at first suborbicular to reniform, ovoid, erect
tree 0.5–1m apex rounded, crenate,
(11⁄2–31⁄4ft) tall dark green tinged yellow
or red in autumn
Comments: Charming dwarf, tree-like shrub, especially attractive in suitable for rock and bog gardens, acid borders, light woodland and
early spring when the twigs are bright with fresh new leaves and squat, wild gardens. Z2.
yellow-brown catkins. Prefers moisture and will tolerate extreme cold;
B.nigra E US fast-growing tree to thick, peeling in shaggy 7–9cm (23⁄4–31⁄2in) long, 2.5–4cm (1–11⁄2in)
BLACK BIRCH; RED 20m (70ft) tall, with scales, pink-brown on ovate-rhombic, biserrate, long, cylindric,
BIRCH; RIVER BIRCH a pyramidal crown young trees, on older glossy green above, pale erect
or multi-stemmed trees very dark red and glaucous beneath,
tinged black yellow in autumn
Comments: Prefers moist soil; resistant to bronze birch borer. ‘Heritage’ is a vigorous selection with peeling, light brown to cream bark and
glossy, dark green leaves. Z4.
B.papyrifera N America; open-branched, bright white, dull white or 4–9cm (11⁄2–31⁄2in), broadly 3–4cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in)
CANOE BIRCH; PAPER Greenland round-headed tree dull grey-brown, smooth, ovate, apex acute, biserrate, long, cylindric,
BIRCH; WHITE BIRCH to 30m (100ft) tall peeling in papery layers; ciliate, with dark, glandular pendulous
branchlets red-brown spots beneath
Comments: Similar to B.pendula but taller with a more open and less weeping crown. Z2.
B.pendula Europe to tree to 30m (100ft) thin, peeling and silvery 3–7cm (11⁄4–23⁄4in) long, 1.5–3cm (5⁄8–11⁄4in),
COMMON BIRCH; W Asia with a slender, open white when young, thick, broadly ovate-deltoid to cylindric, pendulous
EUROPEAN WHITE crown weeping fissured and ashy black rhombic, biserrate, thin
BIRCH; SILVER BIRCH; branches and very with age especially at viscid when young, smooth
WARTY BIRCH slender, pendulous base of trunk; twigs
branchlets bumpy with glands
Comments: Very widely planted and naturalized tree; popular culti- and purple-red leaves; favours cooler climates); ‘Laciniata’ (similar to
vars include ‘Dalecarlica’ (SWEDISH BIRCH; tall, slender tree, branches ‘Dalecarlica’ and often grown under that name but more markedly
weeping; leaves deeply cut); ‘Fastigiata’ (erect, medium-sized tree with weeping and with less deeply cut leaves); ‘Tristis’ (tall and graceful with
closely upright branches; ‘Obelisk’ is similar but narrower still); a narrow crown and weeping branches); ‘Trost’s Dwarf ’ (dwarf shrub
‘Golden Cloud’ (small tree with arching branches and golden leaves, or tree seldom exceeding 1m (31⁄4ft), with arching branches and small,
requires shelter, light shade and good water supplies); ‘Purpurea’ (slow- dissected leaves, good for bonsai, alpine troughs and rock garden);
growing, slender and weeping tree with white bark, purple-black twigs ‘Youngii’ (small, weeping tree with a dome-shaped crown). Z2.
108 B.nana B.papyrifera B.pendula ‘Youngii’ B.utilis var. jacquemontii

bigeneric hybrid, bigener
B ETULA
B.platyphylla Siberia to open-crowned tree pure chalky white, not fis- 4–7cm (11⁄2–23⁄4in) long, tri- to 3cm (11⁄4in)
B.mandshurica Manchuria, to 20m (70ft) tall suring at base; twigs angular-ovate, apex shortly long, pendulous
MANCHURIAN BIRCH Korea, Japan brown, warty and resinous acuminate, coarsely serrate,
hairless
Comments: Differs from typical B.pendula in its unfissured, white B.mandshurica var. japonica, JAPANESE WHITE BIRCH), has larger leaves,
bark and larger leaves, and from the solidly white-barked B.pendula var. sometimes finely hairy beneath and catkins to 5cm (2in) long. Z2.
lapponica in its acutely, not bluntly, toothed leaves. var. japonica (syn.
B.szechuanica W China tree to 25m thin, peeling, chalky pure 5–12cm (2–43⁄4in) long, 3–5cm (11⁄4–2in)
B.mandshurica var. (80ft) tall white; twigs shortly ovate-cordate to deltoid, long, pendulous
szechuanica; acuminate, dark grey to apex serrate, blue-green
B.platyphylla var. red brown with pale above, glaucous beneath
szechuanica Comments: Z6. resinous warts
B.utilis Himalaya tree to 20m (70ft) thin, peeling in horizon- 5–12cm (2–43⁄4in) long, to 3.5cm (11⁄2in)
HIMALAYAN BIRCH tall, usually single- tal papery flakes, pink to ovate-acuminate, serrate, long, cylindric,
stemmed with a orange-brown, bloomed dark green above, paler spreading to nod-
broad, open crown white; twigs red-brown beneath, tough, smooth ding
in autumn above, somewhat hairy
beneath, yellow in autumn
Comments: var. jacquemontii (syn. B.jacquemontii) differs in its pure, with clear trunks, ellipsoid to conical crowns and handsome leaves –
startling white bark; the shoots and buds lack resin (thus distinguished ‘Jermyns’ has brilliant white bark and showy male catkins to 15cm
from var. occidentalis). It includes some of the finest silver-bark (6in) long; ‘Silver Shadow’ has the brightest white bark and large, deep
birches, medium-sized, relatively slow-growing and long-lived trees green and rather drooping leaves. Z7.
Biarum (name used by Dioscorides TICKSEED; BEGGAR’S TICKS; STICK- and petals that form two points or lobes.
for a similar aroid). Araceae. Mediter- TIGHT; BUR-MARIGOLD; PITCHFORKS;
ranean; W Asia. 15 species, hardy or SPANISH NEEDLES. 200 species, hardy Bifrenaria (from the Latin bi-, twice,
slightly frost-tender tuberous, perennial annual and perennial herbs and shrubs and frenum, bridle, a reference to the
herbs with spathes in subtle or sinister with simple or pinnate leaves and daisy- double band by which the two pollinia
tones, and foul-smelling, similarly like flowerheads. Grow in any moder- are connected). Orchidaceae. South
coloured spadices. The inflorescence ately fertile, moisture-retentive soil in America. 16 species, tender epiphytic
usually emerges in spring or autumn, sun. Propagate by seed sown in situ in orchids with fragrant and long-lasting
unaccompanied by leaves and sitting spring, or (perennial clones and ‘Golden flowers in spring and summer. Pot in a
directly on the soil. Plant in a light, Goddess’) by division in early spring. very open, bark-based mix. Grow in full
fertile and very well drained soil in B.ferulifolia (syn. B.procera; Southern sunlight and with high humidity. Water
full sun (minimum winter temperature United States to Guatemala; bushy, and feed copiously while in growth.
–5°C/23°F). Wet winter conditions are annual or perennial herb to 1m (31/4ft) Once pseudobulbs have developed fully,
usually lethal to this plant. Flowering is tall; foliage is finely divided; flowerheads impose a cooler, drier atmosphere
unlikely unless a dry, warm summer are yellow, to 5cm (2in) across, especially (minimum temperature 7°C/45°F) and
dormancy can be ensured. Propagate large and golden in the cultivar ‘Golden reduce water to a daily misting. Recom-
Biarum by seed sown under cover Goddess’, produced from midsummer to mence watering when new growth
during autumn, or by division when late autumn). appears. Increase by division. B.harriso-
dormant. niae (Brazil; flowers thickly waxy, 7cm
B.davisii (Crete, S Turkey; spathe biennial a plant that flowers and seeds (23/4in) across; tepals oval, ivory or rich
squat, pitcher-like, to 8cm (3in) long, in the second season following germina- cream cupping a frilled and hairy, dark
cream flecked pink-brown or dull tion, such as Canterbury bells (Campan- rose or blood red lip).
mauve); B.eximium (S Turkey; spathe ula medium). Some biennials are treated
10cm (4in), recurved, oblong to ovate as annuals, for example carrot (Daucus big bud a condition of blackcurrants
in velvety purple-black); B.tenuifolium carota subsp. sativus). in which the buds become swollen and
(Portugal to Turkey; spathe lanceolate, fail to develop, caused by the BLACK-
recurved to 30cm (12in) long, dark biennial bearing relating to fruit CURRANT GALL MITE (Cecidophyopsis ribis),
purple). plants which produce little or no fruit in which also transmits reversion disease.
alternate years, as a result of a natural
Bidens (from Latin bi-, twice, and characteristic or an inducing factor. bigeneric hybrid, bigener a plant
dens, tooth, referring to the biaristate resulting from cross-pollination between 109
fruit). Compositae. Cosmopolitan. bifid of deeply cleft leaves, bracts, sepals parents of different genera.
Bignonia
Bignonia (for the Abbé Bignon herbs with narrow, tough and saw- pink flowers and is more productive of
B (1662–1743), Librarian to Louis XIV).

Bignoniaceae. Southeastern US. 1
species, B.capreolata, the CROSS VINE,
toothed leaves in a funnel-based rosette
and tubular flowers in an erect or arch-
ing, terminal raceme or panicle clothed
seed. Bindweed is difficult to control
because of its depth of rooting, and
frequent and careful forking out and
QUARTER VINE or TRUMPET FLOWER, a with colourful bracts. Position in hoeing off is necessary to weaken and
woody, evergreen climber grown for its bright, filtered light or light shade; eradicate it. Glyphosate and glyphosate
flowers, produced in summer. The minimum temperature 7°C/45°F. trimesium are effective as foliage-
leaves consist of a pair of leaflets Water and feed generously during applied total weed killers.
sometimes separated by a coiling ten- warm weather; keep barely moist at
dril. The flowers are 4–5cm (11/2–2in) other times. Increase by division or bine a term sometimes used to
long, funnel- to trumpet-shaped, deep offsets. describe climbing stems, especially of
orange to scarlet (rich purple-brown to B.chlorosticta (RAINBOW PLANT; Brazil; beans, peas and hops.
blood red in the cultivar ‘Atrosan- to 50cm (20in) tall with white-marked,
guinea’). Grow in a well-drained, red-brown leaves and an arching to binomial a taxonomic term for the
fertile medium in full sun; minimum nodding raceme of blue-tipped, sul- basic unit of naming in botany com-
temperature –5°C/23°F. Water and phur flowers amid broad, lobster red prising a generic name and a species,
feed generously when in growth and bracts); B.nutans (FRIENDSHIP PLANT, cultivar, group or hybrid epithet
spray and ventilate freely under glass. QUEEN’S TEARS; Brazil to Northern describing and distinguishing the indi-
Tub cultivation will restrict the roots Argentina; freely clump-forming, to vidual belonging to that genus. Buddleja
and encourage flowering. Cut back the 40cm (16in) tall with narrow, plain alternifolia, Buddleja ‘Petite Indigo’, Bud-
previous season’s growth in spring. green leaves and an arching to nodding dleja Davidii Group and Buddleja x weye-
Propagate by layering, or by leaf bud raceme of yellow-green flowers tipped riana are all examples of binomials.
cuttings rooted in a closed case with slate-blue amid narrow, flamingo pink
bottom heat. bracts); B.pyramidalis; E Brazil; to 60cm biodynamic gardening a system
(24in) tall with lanceolate, purple- akin to organic gardening, first advo-
bilabiate a flower possessing two lips, flushed leaves banded white beneath cated in the 1920s by Rudolph Steiner.
as in the corolla of Labiatae and Acan- and an erect, pyramidal inflorescence The philosophy perceives plant life as
thaceae. with red or orange-pink, violet-tipped essentially self-sustaining. It places
flowers amid bright rose bracts); emphasis on skilful handling of
Billardiera (for J.J.H. de Labil- B.sanderiana (Brazil; to 60cm (24in) tall manures through composting, and on
lardiere (1755–1834), French explorer with green leaves clouded with grey- symbiotic relationships between plants
and botanist). Pittosporaceae. Aus- white and a compound, nodding inflo- and insects. The plant is considered as
tralia. 8 species, perennial, woody- rescence of indigo-tipped, lime green a whole and there is a holistic
based evergreen climbers grown for flowers between bright rose bracts); approach to its well-being. The con-
their pendulous flowers and glossy, B. x windii (ANGEL’S TEARS; B.decora x cept of biodynamic gardening incor-
oblong to globose berries in late B.nutans; differing from the latter in its porates a theory of interplanetary
summer and autumn. Plant in a moist broader, spreading leaves obscurely influence on plant life.
neutral to acid medium with a cool banded grey beneath and larger floral
rootrun and protection from scorching bracts); B.zebrina (S Brazil to N biological controls strictly, the
sunlight. Hardy in mild areas of zone 7 Argentina; to 1m (31/4ft) tall with an control of pests and weeds by the use
if planted on a sheltered, sunny wall open rosette of bronze-tinted and of other living organisms such as para-
and mulched thickly in winter. Train silver-banded leaves and an arching to sites, predators or pathogens. More
on wires or trellis. In colder regions, nodding raceme of sulphur flowers generally, the term includes specially
grow in a cool greenhouse or conserva- clothed with large, papery, pink bracts). devised cultural practices and host
tory. Propagate by seed sown when resistance. It embraces both the
fresh or stem cuttings in early summer; billhook, bill a heavy-duty trim- encouragement of natural pest control
also by simple layering. B.longiflora ming implement of variable design; and the introduction of artificially bred
(APPLEBERRY, BLUEBERRY, PURPLE basically a wide blade fashioned into a beneficial organisms, including insects
APPLE-BERRY; to 2m (61/2ft); leaves hook at the top. A long-handled ver- such as parasitoids and predators,
narrow, dark green; flowers slender, to sion is called a slasher. predacious mites, insect-feeding fungi,
3cm (11/4in) long in shades of green- bacteria, and insect viruses. Selected
yellow, later dull pink to pale mauve; bindweed the popular name for two plant-feeding insects are being used
berries cobalt blue to indigo, pink, climbing perennials with funnel-shaped increasingly for weed control. In
mauve or white). flowers that occur as invasive weeds in refined biological control natural ene-
gardens. HEDGE BINDWEED (Calystegia mies are introduced from a pest’s
Billbergia (for J.G. Billberg sepium) is the stronger stemmed of the centre of origin and only relatively
(1772–1884), Swedish botanist). two producing large white, occasionally small numbers need to be released
110 Bromeliaceae. C and S America. 54 pink, flowers. FIELD BINDWEED (Con- because, providing the environment is
species, epiphytic, evergreen, perennial volvulus arvensis) bears small white and favourable, they should multiply and
bitter pit
be self-perpetuating and reduce the the nectar of flowers; mulching with spring; and flowers of many plants
pest to a non-damaging level. In
common practice, biological control
always requires repetitive action by
organic materials provides shelter for
useful predators such as rove and
ground beetles; and insectivorous birds
damaged in spring and summer. Crocus,
Primula, polyanthus, lettuce, peas,
runner beans and freshly sown lawn
B
humans; it involves the release of nat- such as tits can be encouraged with seed are particularly vulnerable. WOOD
ural enemies at times when pest num- nest boxes. See cultural controls; integrated PIGEONS and FERAL PIGEONS eat seeds
bers rise to critical levels, or any pest management. of beans, peas and other crops and
method that avoids destroying natural strip bush fruits. Brassicas are particu-
enemies or provides more favourable biorational pesticides pathogens larly subject to attack, both as young
conditions for them to flourish. and parasites of pest species, naturally plants and during winter, when they
Biological control agents available to occurring chemicals, and pest growth may be completely defoliated. Other
gardeners include a chalcid wasp (Encar- regulators used in biological control or birds causing damage in gardens, espe-
sia formosa) for the control of whitefly integrated pest management systems. cially to fruits, include TITS, BLACK-
under glass; the lady-bird beetle (Crypto- BIRDS, STARLINGS and JAYS.
laemus montrouzieri), which is used against biotic disease a parasitic disorder The only certain way to protect vul-
mealybugs; the gall-midge (Aphidoletes caused by a living organism such as a nerable crops is to cover them with
aphidimyza) whose larvae attack aphids; virus, bacterium or fungus. 2cm (3/4in)-mesh netting or purpose-
the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis, built fruit cages. Black cotton can be
each leaflet in
which controls red spider mites under turn divided strung along seed rows or strands criss-
glass; the nematode Phasmarhabditis her- (bipinnate) crossed above new-sown lawns, cro-
maphrodita against slugs; and the bac- cuses and primulas in flower; it can
terium Bacillus thuringiensis, used for also be wound among the branches
controlling moth and butterfly cater- of fruit trees to deter bullfinches. Nylon
pillars. Other biological controls of pests thread, which does not decay and
are the fungus Verticillium lecanii, can readily trap birds, must not
if permitted for use, against be used. Strips of narrow plas-
greenhouse whitefly and aphids, tic ribbon made taut above crops
and the parasitic nematodes Stein- to vibrate in the wind may deter birds
ernema krausei and Heterorhabditis megidis, by the ultrasonic sounds produced.
used against vine weevil grubs. Some Scaring devices such as traditional
diseases of plants can be controlled bio- scarecrows, glitter strips, windmills and
logically by the introduction of fungi; for first division into imitations of predators can be effective
example, Phlebia (Peniophora) can be used leaflets (pinnate) initially; however, they need to be
Single leaf of
as a competitive invader of cut tree Gleditsia triacanthos changed or repositioned frequently.
stumps, and protects against later inva- Techniques such as distress-call trans-
sion by destructive decay fungi such as bipinnate of compound leaves where missions are unsuitable in built-up
Fomes bracket fungi – a technique now both primary and secondary divisions areas; trapping, shooting or nest
well-established in forestry practice. are pinnate. destruction are also not applicable to
Trichoderma viride, if permitted for use, most gardens. Chemical repellents are
works both as a parasite of the silver leaf birds Most birds are welcome in gar- restrictive, usually erratic in perfor-
pathogen (Chondrostereum) of plums and dens but some cause a considerable mance and subject to weathering.
also as an ‘antagonist’ producing antibi- amount of damage. The BULLFINCH
otics which protect the host tree against (Pyrrhula pyrrhula) which for most of the biserial arranged in two rows.
infection. Trichoderma shows promise year feeds on seeds from weeds and
for controlling other tree diseases such as trees, often attacks the flower buds of biserrate doubly serrate, i.e. with
Dutch elm disease. top and bush fruits. Plum, pear, cherry toothed teeth.
Most gardens, with a mixed flora of and gooseberry are attacked from late
trees, shrubs, flowers, vegetables and autumn to early spring when the buds bisexual of flowers, with both sta-
fruit, encourage the establishment of are dormant; apple and blackcurrant mens and pistils; of plants, with perfect
natural pest enemies by providing a are at risk in spring after the buds have (hermaphrodite) flowers.
variety of food, shelter and reproduc- opened. Ornamental cherry, crab
tive sites, particularly if spraying with apple, almond, Forsythia and Amelanchier biternate with compound leaves ter-
chemicals is restricted. Gardeners are also subject to attack. Barren shoots nately divided but with each division
should be aware of the presence of with flowers at the tip indicate that itself ternately compound.
natural predators in their gardens and bullfinches have been at work. The
take measures to encourage them. HOUSE SPARROW (Passer domesticus) is bitter pit a disorder of apple and
Sometimes it is possible to augment usually more destructive in urban pear fruits, expressed as sunken spots in
resources such as food, shelter and areas: plums, currants and goose- the skin with small brown areas below 111
reproductive sites: hoverflies feed on berries may be disbudded in late the lesions and scattered throughout
bitter pit
the flesh. It results from disease from the old ones. diameter of the host twigs produce
B induced calcium defi-

ciency probably con-
nected with water
Notable cultivars
include: early, ‘Bedford
Giant’; midseason/late,
spores. Control by cutting out knotted
stems before spring; spray trees with
copper or lime-sulphur just before
shortage, and may only ‘Fantasia’, ‘Loch bud break.
become apparent in Ness’.
store. Its incidence can Possible problems: black leg a term used for certain
be reduced by spraying aphids, leafhopper, plant diseases in which the base of the
brown
calcium nitrate, timely spots raspberry beetle; stem turns black. In black leg of pota-
watering and mulching. in flesh spur blight virus. toes, caused by the bacterium Erwinia
carotovora subsp. atroseptica, inward curl-
bitter rot most commonly Bitter pit blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) ing and yellowing of leaflets is followed
used to refer to the round, in apple a deciduous shrub 1.2m (4ft) by wet black decay at the base of stems.
brown, sunken lesions occurring on high, grown for the juicy, many-seeded Only healthy tubers should be saved as
fruits of apple, pear and quince late in berries that develop in bunches from seed. Black leg of beetroot and sugar
the season and after harvest; caused by pendent racemes. It grows wild in beet (Pleospora bjöerlingii) causes stems of
the fungi Glomerella cingulata or Pezicula central and eastern Europe and in young seedlings to become blackened
species. Concentric rings of white to northern and central Asia as far as and shrivelled; it is seed-borne but not
pink pustules of spores develop on the the Himalayas. Most cultivars are usually a problem in gardens. Black leg
lesions. The fungi are present in the self fertile. of pelargoniums, in which cuttings or
small cankers which appear on The blackcurrant grows most satis- plants die from root and stem decay, is
branches. Spores from these are factorily in the cool moist climates of typically caused by Pythium species, but
washed on to fruits and enter the Europe, Canada and New Zealand, other fungi such as Rhizoctonia solani and
lenticels, eventually causing rot as the where the requirement of low temper- Thielaviopsis basicola, like the bacterium
fruits mature. Damaged fruits should ature to break dormancy is best met, Xanthomonas campestris pv. pelargonii, cause
not be stored; fruits in store should be though the flowers are susceptible to similar symptoms. Cuttings should be
frequently examined. spring frost. It is little grown in the US taken from healthy stock and plants
G.cingulata also causes similar rot on because the plant is an alternative host grown in sterilized compost; fungicide
cherries, cranberries, grapes (RIPE ROT), to white-pine blister-fungus. soil drenches may be effective, subject
and peaches. Plant two-year-old certified bushes to local pesticide approvals. BRASSICA
1.5–1.8m (5–6ft) apart each way CANKER (Leptosphaeria maculans) is also
bizarre a type of carnation with depending on potential vigour, and cut referred to as black leg.
patches of two or more colours on a down all shoots to one bud above
differently coloured background. ground level after planting. The best black mildew parasitic fungi, mostly
quality fruit is borne on one-year-old of warm climates, which form dark
blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) the true wood: the structure of established superficial mycelium on foliage. See
blackberry of Europe, as distinct from bushes should be thinned by about one sooty mould.
the North American dewberry (q.v.) third each year, pruning out two-and
(which describes trailing Rubus species three-year-old shoots as near as possi- black root rot (Thielaviopsis basicola). a
native of the eastern states) and the ble to the base of the stool. Propagate disease that attacks many different veg-
upright-growing highbush or erect from hardwood cuttings. Notable culti- etables and ornamentals causing black-
blackberries. They are grown for their vars include: early, ‘Boskoop Giant’; ening of roots and often stem base
glossy black aggregate fruits, picked mid-season, ‘Ben Lomond’, Ben Sarek’; infection. Affected seedlings are stunted
with the plug intact. Most are self fer- late, ‘Jet’. and chlorotic, and may be killed out-
tile and flowering is usually late enough Possible problems: aphids, big bud right. Drenches of systemic fungicide
in spring to avoid frost damage. Plant mite, capsid bug; American gooseberry can give some control. Because the
one- or two-year-old plants shallowly, mildew (see powdery mildew), grey fungus is soil-borne it can best be
2.5–3m (8–10ft) apart for erect culti- mould, leaf spot, reversion. avoided by growing seeds in sterilized
vars, 3.5–4.5m (11–15ft) apart for trail- compost and by careful hygiene. The
ers; cut back to a bud 20–30cm blackfly any species of aphid (q.v.) fungus is also the cause of specific cherry
(8–12in) above soil level after planting. characterized by black colouring. It replant disease, which results in poor
Trailing blackberries require support, commonly refers to the BLACK BEAN growth and cropping; it can be over-
such as a line of upright posts bearing APHID (Aphis fabae). come through soil fumigation. In black
four parallel wires spaced 30–45cm root rot of cucurbits the fungus Phomopsis
(12–18in) apart, with the lowest 1m black knot (Apiosporina morbosa) a seri- sclerotioides causes black spots on roots
(31/4ft) from ground level. Fruit is pro- ous disease of Prunus species especially which eventually rot, causing plants to
duced on second-year canes. New plum in North America. Black masses wilt. It can be controlled by soil fumiga-
112 canes should be tied in away from the of fungus tissue form on infected tion and systemic fungicide drenches,
fruiting canes to reduce the spread of stems, and knots up to four times the subject to local pesticide approvals.
Blechnum
black rot a term for several diseases R.bracteata seems to be resistant to all species, ferns with rather leathery, pin-
including black rot of brassicas (Xan-
thomonas campestris pv. campestris). The
latter is uncommon in the UK, but can
races of the pathogen. Severe spring
pruning to remove infected shoots is of
more practical control value than leaf
nate leaves in a rosette. The spore-
bearing (fertile) fronds arise in
midsummer and create a strong con-
B
occur in warm conditions if the seed is collection; fungicide sprays are effective trast with the sterile foliage, being
infected. Young plants may be killed in if applied regularly throughout the longer and rigidly erect with modified,
the seedbed following blackening of growing season. rust-brown pinnae. B.penna-marina is
the cotyledons. On older plants, V- hardy in zone 6 and over and a charm-
shaped yellow areas with dark veins blade the thin, expanded part of a ing groundcover for damp rock gar-
develop at leaf margins and leaves may leaf or petal, also known as the lamina, dens and the drier fringes of the bog
become desiccated. The petioles and excluding the petiole, stipe or claw; (in garden. B.spicant is hardy in zone 4, a
stems, when cut, may show a black the strap-shaped leaves of certain superb strong green accent for stone
ring of vascular tissue. The disease is monocots, i.e. grasses, orchids and walls and banks and the woodland
seed-borne and can also survive on bromeliads) the part of a leaf above garden, especially in winter; propagate
crop debris. It is spread mainly by rain the sheath. by division in early spring. B.tabulare is
splash. Control by crop rotation, rather frost-tender: in zones 7 and
destruction of crop residues, and use of blanching the practice of excluding below, it needs a protected position and
healthy seed. The same bacterium light from parts of plants, so as to a deep mulch in winter. Plant all three
causes a similar disease of wallflowers. make vegetables, such as celery, leeks, in a sheltered situation in shade or dif-
Black rot of carrots (Alternaria radicina) chicory and endive more palatable. It is fused light; the soil should be damp
commonly causes damping-off of also practised to induce root formation and cool, neutral to acid and rich in
seedlings, leaf and stalk spots and a from shoots, for example in propagat- garden compost, leafmould and grit.
slow developing dry rot of stored roots. ing plum and cherry rootstocks. Resul- The tender B.brasiliense and B.gibbum
Celery, dill and parsley can also be tant growth is devoid of chlorophyll, need a minimum temperature of
affected by the same seed-borne and white or cream in colour. 10°C/50°F. Plant them in an open
fungus. GRAPE BLACK ROT (Guignardia medium rich in bark and leafmould;
bidwellii) causes shrivelled and black- blanketweed filamentous algae keep away from draughts and bright
ened fruit. It overwinters on mummi- which form dense masses in ornamen- sunlight; water and syringe throughout
fied berries from which spores are tal pools. Their development is encour- the year (the trunks especially). Propa-
produced in spring, when they start to aged where water is shallow, rich in gate all species by offsets or division.
infect new growth. Red-brown dead nutrients or supports imbalanced plant B.brasiliense (Brazil and Peru; trunk
spots, up to 5mm (1/4in) in diameter and animal life. Control measures stout, erect, to 30cm (12in) tall
with minute black fruiting bodies include constant removal by hand, and crowned with a shuttlecock of oblong
develop on the foliage, purple-black the immersion of loose bundles of to lanceolate fronds to 90cm (36in)
lesions on shoots and tendrils. The rot barley straw at 10g per cubic metre (2/5 long with many linear to lanceolate
can be of major importance particu- ounce per 35 cubic feet). pinnae to 15cm (6in) long, wavy, finely
larly in humid regions. Control mea- toothed, emerging a deep, burnished
sures include the disposal of fallen Blechnum (from Greek blechnon, a bronze, hardening glossy, dark green);
mummified grapes and fungicide fern). Blechnaceae. Cosmopolitan. 200 B.gibbum (syn. Lomaria gibba; MINIATURE
treatment.
black spot (Diplocarpon rosae) a BLANCHING CURLY ENDIVE

common disease of roses. Black spots
appear on leaves and radiating strands
of mycelium beneath the cuticle give
the characteristic fringed border to
young spots. Spots may coalesce until
large areas of the leaf are blackened
and the rest turns yellow, resulting
in premature leaf-fall. Warm moist
conditions favour the disease and the
spores overwinter on stem and bud
scale lesions and fallen leaves. The
ascospore-producing stage develops on
fallen leaves in the US, but does not
usually occur in Britain. Rose cultivars
vary in susceptibility but because there
1 To partially blanch the heart of an
endive plant, lay a side or dinner plate
over the centre, making sure the leaves are
2 After about 10 days, the central leaves
should have turned white, and have a
sweet taste in contrast to the more bitter,
are many races of the fungus none is dry. For total blanching, invert a bucket greener leaves. Harvest them when ready 113
immune, although among rose species, over the whole plant. as once blanched, they soon deteriorate.
Blechnum
TREE FERN; Fiji; trunk narrow, black- pleated leaves. Produced in summer in include the STRIPED BLISTER BEETLE
B fibrous; to 1m (31/4ft) tall topped with

rosettes of 30–90cm (12–36in)-long
fronds, pinnae closely ranked, linear to
slender loose racemes, the flowers con-
sist of five oblong to oblanceolate
tepals and a frilly lip. Hardy in zone 7.
(Epicauta vittata), the SPOTTED BLISTER
BEETLE (E. maculata) and the BLACK BLIS-
TER BEETLE (E.pennsylvanica). Numbers
oblong, undulate, to 10cm (4in) long, Plant in early spring in a soil rich in can be reduced by spraying with locally
lime to mid-green); B.penna-marina (cool leafmould and garden compost. Keep approved contact insecticides.
regions of S America and Australasia; moist and sheltered in sun or light
dwarf fern seldom exceeding 15cm shade. In winter protect the crowns blocking the technique of compress-
(6in) tall with loose and suckering with a thick mulch of coir and bracken ing growing media into variously
rosettes of spreading, linear fronds with or leaf litter, or lift the ‘corms’ and shaped blocks in which to raise plants.
many bluntly ovate to oblong pinnae store frost-free in slightly damp saw-
0.5–1cm (1/4–1/2in) long); B.spicant (DEER dust. Propagate by division. B.striata bloom (1) pertaining to flower or
FERN, HARD FERN; Northern Hemi- (syn. B.hyacinthina; China, Tibet and blossom; (2) the white or blue powdery
sphere; dense clumps of arching, dark Japan; to 60cm (24in); flowers 2–3cm or waxy coating on some leaves and
emerald fronds to 60cm (24in) long, (3/4–11/4in) across, candy pink, rose, fruits; (3) the rapid proliferation of
with slightly curving, lanceolate to magenta or pale mauve, lip lined with algae in still water.
oblong pinnae to 2cm (3/4in) long); pure white, frilly crests; white-flowered
B.tabulare (syn. B.chilense, B.cordatum, and variegated forms also occur). Bloomeria (for H.G. Bloomer
B.magellanicum; Southern Hemisphere; (1821–1874), Californian botanist). Lil-
rhizomes thick, almost trunk-like, loose bletting the process of over-ripening iaceae (Alliaceae). SW US; Mexico. 3
rosettes of lanceolate fronds to 1m fruits such as medlars and figs to a pre- species, hardy, bulbous, perennial herbs
(31/4ft) long, these emerge pink-bronze ferred condition for harvest. grown for their long-stemmed heads of
and harden sea green with lanceolate, star-shaped flowers produced in late
undulate and serrate pinnae). blight a term used loosely of plant spring. Plant in a well-drained soil in a
disease or severe pest infestation caus- sheltered, sunny place. Bloomeria
bleeding the continuous flow of sap ing withering and rapid death of plant becomes dormant in summer. Propa-
from the cut surface of a plant, as parts. It is more correctly applied to gate by seed or division in late summer
occurs in grapevines (Vitis species) disease infections such as POTATO and autumn. B.crocea (syn. B.aurea; to
pruned in late winter. BLIGHT caused by Phytophthora infestans; 30cm (12in) tall; flowers 2.5cm (1in)-
POTATO AND TOMATO EARLY BLIGHT wide, dark-striped, golden).
bleeding canker a bark disease of (Alternaria solani); RASPBERRY CANE
non-coniferous trees, especially apple, BLIGHT (Leptosphaeria coniothyrium); HALO blossom-end rot a common non-
beech, horse chestnut, lime and maple. BLIGHT of beans (Pseudomonas syringae parasitic disorder of tomatoes and pep-
It is usually caused by Phytophthora cacto- pv. phaseolicola); FIREBLIGHT of pear and pers. On tomato fruit it first shows as a
rum but also by P.citricola and P.syringae. other rosaceous trees (Erwinia small water-soaked bruise at the blos-
The same fungi also cause phytoph- amylovora); and SPINACH BLIGHT, which som end; as ripening progresses, the
thora root rot. A gummy liquid, which is caused by the cucumber mosaic lesion darkens and becomes leathery
dries to form a black shiny crust, oozes virus. See bacterial blight. and sunken, but not soft. The rest of
from lesions on the collar, trunk or the fruit is lighter coloured than
branches; dieback occurs if stems are blind, blindness used of a plant normal at the stem end. In peppers,
girdled. Affected tissue should be cut where growing points or flowers fail to lesions are liable to develop fungal or
away down to healthy wood using a develop. Blindness may be due to bacterial rots. Blossom-end rot is
cutting tool sterilized with sodium growth or environmental factors, or caused by calcium deficiency in fruits
hypochlorite (diluted to give 1% avail- physical damage including pest or dis- but can be brought on by irregular
able chlorine), and a strip of healthy ease attack. watering. Plants most susceptible are
bark should be removed from around those grown with ammonium rather
the edge of the original lesion. Result- blister beetles (Coleoptera: than nitrate fertilizer, or grown in an
ing wounds can be treated with a Meloidae) soft-bodied beetles up to acid medium, or subjected to periods
recommended fungicide, and later 20mm (3/4in) long with long legs and
with wound sealant. antennae; they range in colour from
red-yellow to blue- or green-black, some leathery
sunken
Bletilla (diminutive form of the name with white stripes or spots, and the head patch at
Bletia, a related genus, named for Luis is wider than the thorax. Their name blossom
Blet (fl. 1794), a Spanish apothecary derives from the blister-forming fluid end
who kept a botanic garden at Algeci- excretion containing cantharidin. They
ras). Orchidaceae. E Asia. 10 species, are not a problem in Europe, but in
deciduous, near-hardy terrestrial North America large numbers can defo-
114 orchids with subterranean, corm-like liate vegetables and ornamentals over a
pseudobulbs and narrowly lanceolate, short period in late summer. Examples Blossom-end rot
Bomarea
of drought or waterlogging when fruit dense cushion ultimately to 1m (31/4ft)

is starting to develop.
blossom fall also known as petal

across, with jade green, 3-lobed leaves
2–6mm (1/16–1/4in) long). B
fall. See bud stages. bole the main stem of a tree or other
arborescent plant.
blossom wilt see wilt.
bolting the premature production
blown used of a flower beginning of flowers, especially of vegetables;
to wither. usually triggered by environmental or
cultivation factors.
blueberry (Vaccinium species) The
most important in gardens is the HIGH- Boltonia (for James Bolton (c 1758–
BUSH BLUEBERRY developed from Vac- 1799), British botanist). Compositae.
cinium corymbosum and V.australe, natives N America; Asia. FALSE CHAMOMILE.
to eastern North America. A deciduous 8 species, hardy, perennial herbs with
shrub usually 1.5–1.8m (5–6ft) high in Blueberries panicles of daisy-like flowerheads in
cultivation, the highbush blueberry is Blueberries will only thrive in an acid soil. autumn. Plant on any moderately fer-
grown for the blue-black, wax-covered, Fruits are particularly attractive to birds, tile soil in full sun or dappled shade.
globose berries which may be up to so netting is essential. Stake in exposed positions. Divide and
2cm (3/4in) across; they are borne in replant regularly. B.asteroides (to 2m
clusters and selectively picked. Plants bulb species; infection occurs through (61/2ft) tall; flowerheads 2cm (3/4in)-wide
are self-fertile and decorative both in small wounds while bulbs are in the with white, rosy mauve or purple ray
flower and in autumn foliage, but the soil. The rot develops rapidly in stor- florets and yellow disc florets; var.
minimum cold requirement of 800 age, especially under conditions of latisquama: flowerheads larger, darker;
hours below 7.2°C/45°F limits the cli- high humidity and lower temperature. ‘Nana’ and ‘Snowbank’: white, the
matic range for successful growing. An Careful handling and the provision of former a dwarf selection, the latter
acid soil is essential, the optimum pH adequate storage conditions, as well as attaining 2m (61/2ft)).
range being 4.3–4.8. Their shallow dipping in a systemic fungicide are pre-
rooting habit calls for regular watering ventive measures. Penicillium expansum Bomarea (for Jacques Christophe
during fruit development and for causes rotting of apples in storage. The Valmont de Bomare (1731–1807),
surface mulching, and fruit must be store should be cool and well-venti- French patron of science). Liliaceae
protected from birds. Highbush blue- lated, contact between individual fruits (Alstroemeriaceae). S America. 100
berries are grown as stooled bushes avoided, and damaged fruit removed. species, tender or near-hardy tuberous-
planted 1.5m (5ft) apart each way. The Citrus fruits are commonly affected by rooted, twining perennial herbs with
best fruits are produced on two- or the post-harvest rots GREEN MOULD terminal umbels of brightly coloured,
three-year-old shoots. Pruning in the (P.digitatum) and the less serious BLUE tubular to campanulate flowers to 6cm
first three years should be light; there- MOULD (P.italicum). A devastating downy (21/2in) long. Grow with the support of
after, cut out the oldest unproductive mildew disease of tobacco (Peronospora wire or trellis, in a light, fertile, loam-
wood, removing about one quarter of tabacina) is also referred to as blue based mix. Provide good ventilation, a
the bush annually. Propagate from mould. minimum temperature of 5°C/41°F
summer softwood cuttings. Notable and bright, filtered light. Water and
cultivars include: early, ‘Earliblue’, mid- bog garden an area in which the feed plentifully when in growth; keep
season, ‘Berkeley’, late, ‘Coville’. damp, often acidic conditions of nat- almost dry in winter. Propagate by divi-
Possible problems: aphids, birds; ural wetlands is recreated, and where sion in late winter, or by seed germi-
grey mould. plants native to such places may be nated at 23°C/73°F. Several species
cultivated. have proved hardy in sheltered sites in
blueing the process of making red or Zone 7, especially when thickly
pink hydrangeas turn blue; achieved by Bolax (from Greek bolax, clod). mulched in winter.
lowering soil pH level to facilitate the Umbelliferae. S America. 2 species, B.caldasii (syn. B.caldasiana,
uptake of aluminium or by applying evergreen, cushion-forming perennials B.kalbreyeri; flowers orange-red to bright
aluminium sulphate or a proprietary grown in rock gardens, alpine sinks, yellow flecked green, brown or red);
product. tufa and pans in the alpine house for B.cardieri (flowers with mauve to pink
their massed rosettes of very small, tepals tipped bright green and spotted
blue mould the visible growth of dark green leaves. Fully hardy, they darker mauve or green); B.edulis
blue or blue-green fungus spores of require a moist, gritty soil in full sun. (flowers pink with the inner tepals
those Penicillium species responsible for Propagate by detaching rooted rosettes. yellow-green flecked purple-pink);
storage rots. Penicillium corymbiferum and B.gummifera (syn. Azorella glebaria; South B.patacocensis (flowers with orange to 115
other species affect many ornamental America and the Falklands; forms a crimson outer tepals and inner tepals
Bomarea
yellow to crimson tipped orange and The aim of bonsai is to create on a most young plants are large enough to
B flecked chocolate or violet); B.racemosa

(flowers with brown-spotted, yellow to
scarlet inner tepals); B.shuttleworthii
miniature scale a picture of what one
sees in nature using living plants with
the container a key element. Most
be repotted and trained; usually the
young tree will begin to look like a
bonsai when it is five years old. Bonsai
(flowers with orange-red outer tepals people identify woody plants most can be started from rooted cuttings
spotted at their tips, and yellow inner readily as bonsai, but some perennial which is quicker than seed and ensures
tepals tipped green with a red midrib herbs are of importance and may that new plants will have the same
and dark spots above). appear in advanced Western collec- characteristics as the parent. Aerial
tions, among them terrestrial orchids, and ground layering are also suitable
bone manure an additive used to grasses, the smaller bamboos, ferns and methods.
improve soil fertility, made from crushed mosses. Pots and repotting Pots used for
animal bones, that typically contain Among woody subjects many bonsai are usually made from frost-
25% phosphate and 1–5% nitrogen, conifers are grown, and Juniperus is proof ceramic materials such as
with some calcium. It should be steril- especially prized. Other trees and stoneware. They must always have
ized to eliminate pathogens and han- shrubs commonly chosen are Acer drainage holes. Dark containers com-
dled with suitable precautions to avoid palmatum, Pinus, Ulmus and Zelkova, plement a mass of foliage, a light
inhalation and other personal contact. Ginkgo, Lespedeza, Prunus and Wisteria. colour a more delicate, open branch
Bone meal is a finely ground form. Woody bonsai are trained to one of structure. A rugged tree looks good in a
the traditional styles. These imitate the simple, angular container; an elegant
Bongardia (for Heinrich Gustav growth forms of trees and shrubs in bonsai may look better in a rounded
Bongard (1786–1839), German nature. Bonsai can be created from and more elaborate pot. Shallow pots
botanist). Berberidaceae. W Asia. 1 large well-established trees and shrubs are usually used for trees with slender
species, B.chrysogonum, a tuberous, cut down to the appropriate height and trunks, and deeper ones for trees with
perennial herb. Pinnate leaves to 25cm regrown and shaped into the desired thicker and older trunks and for a
(10in) long arise in early spring from a style or young grown from seeds and bonsai that has part of its foliage
large, tuber; the grey-green leaflets are cuttings and trained to the size falling below the line of the container.
themselves lobed and marked purple- required. To reduce a container-grown Tall pots are used for trees that hang
red. In late spring, a red-tinted panicle plant to a bonsai style can be achieved downwards in the cascade style.
arches over the leaves, bearing golden in two or three hours but take years of Young conifers usually need repot-
flowers. Hardy in zone 8. Plant deeply training to become good bonsai. Grow- ting every 2–3 years and older conifers
in a very free-draining, sandy and ing from seed gives maximum control every 3–5 years; young deciduous trees
gritty soil in full sun. Keep moist from but is slow. It will be 2–3 years before should be repotted annually and older
winter to early summer; dry at other deciduous bonsai every 1–2 years.
times. Sow seed in autumn: a minute Spring is generally the best time to
tuber develops at first, pulling itself restricted repot although it may also be done in
deep into the soil. growth mid-autumn.
miniaturizes
leaves Potting media A suitable compost
boning rods T-shaped wooden is made from one part leafmould or
devices, typically 90cm (36in) long, well-rotted garden compost, one part
used in land levelling. Sightings are loam and one part sharp sand. Most
made across three rods in a straight bonsai prefer a slightly acid soil of pH
line, manoeuvred to establish 6.0 to 6.5. For Juniperus species and
a level. Pinus species the compost may contain
as much as 75% sharp sand, and for
bonsai the ancient Japanese fruiting and flowering plants and most
art of container cultivation of the deciduous trees up to 50% loam
incorporating miniaturiza- may be used. For deciduous trees, start
tion. ‘Bonsai’ means a feeding when buds open in spring right
plant in a pot, and through to autumn. Evergreens should
originally described the be lightly fed from mid-winter, increas-
practice of taking speci- ing the rate from summer until mid-
mens from the wild and Bonsai silver birch autumn. Liquid fertilizers can be used:
maintaining them in the home or a high-nitrogen product during the
garden with the essence of their wild- early part of the growing season and a
ness preserved or recreated. Grad- high-potash one during the latter half.
ually potting, pruning, pinching Fruiting and flowering trees should be
and wiring became the rule and fed extra potash, but hold back any
116 led to the cult of the miniatur- feeding when the trees are in flower or
ized tree. fruit. Incorporating slow-release fertil-
Borassus
izer into the potting compost is a suit- source, mist regularly and provide good leaves in two ranks and spherical
able method choosing the long-acting
(8–9 months) and lower-nitrogen
formulations.
natural lighting. During winter bonsai
may be protected in sheds or green-
houses just above freezing point. Alter-
umbels of slender-stalked flowers. The
pedicels are long, becoming longer still
in fruit, when the whole, globe-like
B
Pruning is done to reduce the size natively, the pots may be planted in inflorescence breaks free and is blown
of the trunk and branches, to obtain sheltered parts of the open garden. across the plains. Dried, these flower-
proportion and shape and to clean out Where neither is practicable, take heads make attractive decorations.
congested growth. Special bonsai tools precautions to protect the pots from Plant in early spring with the bulb’s
make pruning and trimming easy; frost-damage and the plants from phys- shoulders and neck exposed. Maintain
always make a clean cut a little above a iological drought. a minimum winter temperature of
bud, and make large cuts at the rear of Chrysanthemum bonsai A fully 7°C/45°F with full sunlight and a dry,
the tree so that the wound will not be mature chrysanthemum bonsai can be airy atmosphere. Water liberally from
visible. Pinching back, or soft pruning, achieved in 12 to 14 months, shaped the emergence to the withering of the
encourages denser growth and foliage. into one of the traditional bonsai leaves; thereafter, keep dry in a hot,
Cutting the first flush of leaves will styles, especially informal upright and sunny place. Propagate by offsets or
reduce the size of leaves in successive cascade. There should be many small from ripe seed sown in sand at
flushes and is often done for deciduous flowers of the same size, one per stalk, 20°C/68°F. B.disticha (CAPE POISON
species. Vigorously growing species blooming simultaneously. The bonsai BULB; South African; leaves 30cm
may need annual root pruning, and may be kept for many years but is most (12in) long, blue-green and wavy-mar-
mature, old bonsai may require root commonly repropagated gined; inflorescence short-stemmed,
pruning occasionally for re-invigora- annually. 30cm (12in) wide, composed of
tion. The best time to root-prune most Cuttings are taken 5cm (2in) wide, pink
trees is in early spring. About one third from the mature stems flowers on rigid,
of the soil is removed from the outside of very compact, small- ray-like pedicels
of the root-ball and roots cut back flowered cultivars in early to 10cm (4in)).
with scissors before replanting in fresh September and will root
soil in the same container. in two to three weeks. Borago (perhaps from
Training generally involves wrap- These are potted up edible Latin, burra, a hairy
ping wire around the trunk or in 10cm (4in) pots. flowers garment, referring to the
branches to hold a position for several In mid-winter select bristly-hairy leaves).
months. Copper wire is firmer, holds the two most vigorous Boraginaceae. Europe. 3
the shapes of branches better and is shoots and prune back species, annual or perennial herbs.
used for conifers and evergreen shrubs all others to the main stem. BORAGE has a long history in
where it may take slightly longer for Prune back the original stem, herbalism. The 16th-century
the position to set. Aluminium wire is 1.5cm (5/8in) at a time for the herbalist Gerard claimed a syrup
more pliable and is more suitable for next month. Pot on about every Stem of of its flowers ‘purgeth melan-
deciduous trees. Plastic-covered wire 45 days, until the final 30cm borage choly and quieteth the phrenet-
is available, also bare metal wire (12in) diameter size is reached in icke and lunaticke person.’ The
wrapped in thin paper. Wire conifers late summer; root-prune as necessary. cucumber-flavoured leaves are eaten
and evergreen shrubs in winter and Top dress in late winter-early spring raw in salads, added to cool drinks and
deciduous trees in late spring. Hold with a solid fertilizer and begin liquid cooked as for spinach. The flowers are
back on watering prior to wiring and feeding as the growing season progresses also used in salads, or frozen in ice
feed well for several weeks thereafter. until colour can be seen on buds. cubes for summer drinks. Sow seed
Ageing or Jin is an attempt to Training by wiring can begin in late in situ in spring in full sun. B.officinalis
mimic storm damage or extreme old winter using copper wire wrapped in (BORAGE; annual to 60cm (24in) tall,
age by killing certain sections of paper to protect the delicate growth. In densely bristly-hairy; flowers star-
branches or trunks and stripping them mid-spring and every 25 days or so shaped, sky blue or cobalt with a cone
of bark. Select a branch, strip it of thereafter pinch the tips of the shoots of purple-black scales at the centre).
foliage and bark. A variation on Jin is to control overall growth and shape the
sharimiki, in which only a strip of bark plant. A final overall pinching is done Borassus (from Greek borassos, the
is removed from live wood on a branch in late summer. Select one bud from immature spadix of the date palm).
or a trunk, leaving the bonsai with a each of the clusters and remove all Palmae. Africa; SE Asia to New
dramatic slash of silver-white on others. Blooms open in mid-autumn. Guinea. 7 species, tall palms with stout,
healthy wood. ringed, solitary stems and rounded to
General care Traditional bonsai Boophone (from Greek bous, ox, and wedge-shaped, palmate leaves with
are outdoor subjects and may be phone, murder, a reference to the toxic spiny petioles and rigid, blue-green
brought indoors for display but only foliage). Amaryllidaceae. S and E blades divided to at least half their
for two days followed by six days out- Africa. 6 species, deciduous, perennial depth into narrow segments. Provide a 117
side. Indoors, protect from any heating herbs with large bulbs, strap-shaped minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F.
Borassus
Sow seed on a moist, sandy mix at high and the development of hollow stems SPOT (B.fabae) of broad bean, SNOW-
B temperatures. B.flabellifer (PALMYRA

PALM, TODDY PALM, WINE PALM, DOUB
PALM, LONTAR PALM; to 20m (70ft);
in brassicas is the symptom most com-
monly met with in gardens.
DROP GREY MOULD (B.galanthina),
HYACINTH FIRE (B.hyacinthi), LILY LEAF
SPOT (B.elliptica), NARCISSUS SMOULDER
trunk swollen at the base or middle; Boronia (for Francesco Borone, 18th- (B.narcissicola), ONION NECK ROT (B.allii),
leaf blades to 3m (10ft) long, divided century Italian botanist). Rutaceae. PEONY BLIGHT (B.paeoniae) and TULIP
into some 80 segments). Australia. Some 95 species, winter- and FIRE (B.tulipae).
spring-flowering aromatic evergreen The relationships between the asex-
borax a salt containing boron and shrubs with small, 4-petalled, star- or ual fungal states classified as Botrytis and
sodium; used for the correction of bell-shaped flowers usually solitary and Monilia, their sexual states in the fungal
boron deficiency and sometimes as an nodding from the axils of fine, simple genera Botryotinia and Monilinia, and the
insecticide or to kill persistent weeds. or compound leaves. Plant in a free- related genus Sclerotinia, are incom-
draining, lime-free medium. Keep just pletely known. Many are important
Bordeaux mixture the first univer- moist in winter and maintain a mini- plant pathogens known predominantly
sal fungicide, the result of a serendipi- mum temperature of 7°C/45°F. Cut or exclusively from their asexual or scle-
tous discovery by Pierre Millardet, a flowered stems hard back. Root semi- rotial states. The genus Sclerotium also
professor of botany at Bordeaux Uni- ripe cuttings in late summer under mist contains sclerotium-producing plant
versity. In 1882, while walking in the or in a case with bottom heat. pathogenic fungi, whose relationships
vineyards of the Medoc, where the B.heterophylla (RED BORONIA, KALGAN; are diverse and sometimes unknown.
newly introduced vine downy mildew densely twiggy shrub to 2m (61/2ft) tall, See chocolate spot, neck rot. Fungicides can
(Plasmopara viticola) was devastating the leaves needle- and feather-shaped; give effective control, subject to local
crop, he noticed that vines near the flowers fragrant cup-shaped, pink or pesticide approvals. Botrytis fungi pro-
path were free from disease. He found scarlet); B.megastigma (SCENTED or duce tough, seed-like resting structures
that it was the practice for growers to BROWN BORONIA; slender, cypress-like in diseased plant tissue; avoid contami-
sprinkle a mixture of copper sulphate shrub, 1.5–3m (5–10ft) tall; leaves nating the soil with these.
and lime (calcium hydroxide) on plants strongly aromatic, needle-like; flowers
to discourage pilfering; those which bell-shaped, chocolate brown on the bottle garden a garden, usually of
had been so treated had escaped infec- exterior, primrose yellow on the inte- small slow-growing plants, made in a
tion. Bordeaux mixture is a suspension rior, sweetly scented). bottle, carboy or other glass container.
of a flocculent precipitate of insoluble
copper hydroxide and calcium sul- bosket, boskage a plantation or bottom heat warmth applied from
phate. It can be useful against a wide thicket of trees in a park or garden; below, in a frame or propagator, to
range of pathogens, including bacteria sometimes containing walks and advance growth or aid rooting and ger-
and fungi, but it is not generally effec- garden features. Often a backdrop mination. Traditionally produced from
tive against powdery mildews or all to a parterre. decomposing organic matter but today
rusts. However, its use is no longer per- usually provided through special elec-
mitted in the UK. Legality of use else- bossed see umbonate. trically heated cables. See hotbed.
where is subject to local approvals.
Containers used for preparing the mix- bostryx a uniparous helicoid cyme, bottom-worked see low-worked.
ture and the spraying equipment must i.e. a cyme producing one axis with
be able to resist its corrosive effect, and each branching; often botuliform sausage-shaped.
brass and plastic are suitable. Propri- used interchangeably decayed petals
of pelargonium
etary formulations of Bordeaux mix- with helicoid cyme. Bougainvillea (for L.A. de
ture are available with appropriate Bougainville (1729–1811),
recommendations for use. botrytis fungi of the genus French navigator. He
Botrytis are responsible embarked on a voyage
border a strip of cultivated ground, for many diseases of of discovery to the
often backed by a wall or hedge, in field crops, fruits, veg- South Seas in 1768).
which plants are grown. Commonly etables and ornamen- Nyctaginaceae. South
used of such an area containing tals worldwide, mainly in America. 14 species,
herbaceous plants, but by no means cool temperate regions. mostly woody climbers,
exclusively so. They cause many and evergreen or briefly
varied diseases including deciduous, many with stout
borecole an alternative name for damping-off and rots of flow- thorns. The leaves are ovate to elliptic.
curly or Scotch forms of kale (Brassica ers, fruit, stems, roots, and stor- Small, tubular, yellow-white flowers are
oleracea Acephala Group). See kale. age organs. The most common produced amid clusters of brilliant,
disease is the ubiquitous GREY papery, leaf-shaped bracts. Although
118 boron an essential trace element. Its MOULD (q.v.) caused by B.cinerea. frost-tender, these spectacular climbers
deficiency is predisposed by high pH, Other diseases are CHOCOLATE Botrytis have become a common feature of
Boykinia
gardens in the Mediterranean and in thorns; inflorescence bracts purple- spreading lobes, produced throughout
California where, once established in a
sunny, sheltered spot, they survive
freezing temperatures. In these and
pink, to 6cm (21/2in) long; perianth tube
obscurely angled, hairy); B. Spec-
toglabra group (B.spectabilis x B.glabra,
the year. Provide a minimum winter
temperature of 7°C/45°F, medium
humidity and filtered sunlight. Propa-
B
warmer regions, Bougainvillea is unsur- cultivars ranging in habit from low and gate by softwood cuttings in spring, or
passed for covering trellis and pergolas; spreading to bushy and erect, to tall by semi-ripe cuttings in summer.
it can also be trained as a standard and arching, leaves small, grey-green B.longiflora (syn. B.humboldtii; to 1m
and, in the more shrubby cultivars and downy or large, dark green and (31/4ft) tall, with fragrant, pure white
derived from B.glabra, be planted as an glossy, some cream-, white- and yellow- flowers to 9cm (31/2in) long); B.ternifolia
informal hedge. In warm, wet climates, variegated forms; inflorescence bracts (syn. B.jacquinii; weak-stemmed shrub to
it remains evergreen. range from the small, persistent and 1m (31/4ft) tall with 3cm (11/4in) long
B.glabra and its offspring tend to densely clustered (‘double’) to large, flowers in red, pink, rose and coral);
flower continuously and are best grown crêpe-like and short-lived, in colour B.triphylla (to 1m (31/4ft); flowers orange-
where they experience virtually no dry from white to lilac, shell pink, rose, red, to 3cm (11/4in), very close to B.terni-
season, or can be watered and fed deep cerise, garnet, purple-red, crim- folia).
throughout the year. Within this group, son, magenta, to bronze-red, brick red,
very young plants will flower and are coral, flame, vermilion, orange, apricot bower a shady recess in a garden.
ideal for container cultivation. and pale yellow). See arbour.
B.spectabilis and its hybrids require a
dry season to induce flowering–under boulingrin a sunken grassed area at Bowiea (for James Bowie
glass, water and feed plentifully at first the centre of a bosket or dell. (c1789–1869), a Kew gardener who
to produce strong growth, then reduce collected plants in South Africa and
supplies to promote flowering. In an bourse in apples and pears, the Brazil). Liliaceae (Hyacinthaceae).
open garden, grow in full sun on a swollen stem at the base of a flower Southern and tropical Africa. 3 species,
rich, well-drained soil. Plants of the cluster, which may carry wood or fruit tender, bulbous herbs. The following
B.spectabilis alliance will hook them- buds. Also known as a cluster base or species is a bizarre addition to the suc-
selves to trees, beams and rafters; oth- knob. culent collection, grown either in the
erwise, they require regular tying to a cool greenhouse (minimum tempera-
strong support frame-work. Under Bouteloua (named for the brothers ture 7°C/45°F) or indoors on a bright,
glass, they need a minimum night tem- Boutelou, Claudio (1774–1842) and draught-free windowsill. Plant in a very
perature of 7°C/45°F. Plant in a Esteban (1776–1813), Spanish sandy and gritty, loam-based medium
moderately fertile gritty, loam-based botanists). Gramineae. US; Central with the upper half to three quarters of
medium in pots, tubs or beds with a America; West Indies. 39 species, the bulb exposed. Position in full sun-
confined rootrun. Provide support. In annual or perennial grasses with one- light in a dry, airy atmosphere. Water
early spring, spur prune established sided panicles, the branches short, spi- sparingly to encourage sprouting. As
specimens (not B.peruviana which cate and closely aligned along the the new stem emerges, provide support
resents pruning) and remove any dead underside of the summit, thus resem- in the form of a small trellis, wire
or exhausted wood. Pot-grown plants bling the teeth of a comb. The flower mesh, or dead twigs. Water whilst the
may be moved outside in warm sum- heads are suitable for drying. Easily stem develops. Once growth and fruit-
mers. Root greenwood cuttings in late grown in zones 5 and over in full sun. ing are finished, reduce the water,
summer with bottom heat at Propagate by seed sown in situ or in allowing the stem to die off. Keep vir-
20°C/68°F. Air layer in spring. pots under glass in spring, or by divi- tually dry until the next growth flush
B.glabra (PAPER FLOWER; The Brazil; sion. B.gracilis (syn. B.oligostachya; BLUE begins, watering only to prevent exces-
thick-stemmed climber to 15m (50ft); GRAMA GRASS, MOSQUITO GRASS; sive shrivelling of the bulb. Increase by
inflorescence bracts white to deep perennial; flowering stems to 60cm seed. B.volubilis (CLIMBING ONION;
magenta, sometimes outliving the flow- (24in), the inflorescence occupying the bulb wide, fleshy, green; leaves narrow,
ers; perianth tube five-angled and cov- topmost 5cm (2in) and angled at 45°, dark green, usually present only in
ered in short hairs); B.peruviana (Peru; florets hanging (or seeming to hover) young plants; stem to 1m (31/4ft), slen-
stoutly thorny with smaller bracts than below the spikelets that clothe the der, succulent, translucent green, twin-
B.glabra (to 10cm (4in) long), and the ‘comb’ of branches). ing and branching freely and
perianth tube, smooth and only intricately; flowers green-yellow, mal-
obscurely five-angled; the hybrid Bouvardia (for Charles Bouvard odorous).
between these two species, B. x buttiana, (1572–1658), physician to Louis XIII
produces smaller bracts (to 5cm (2in)) and Keeper of the Jardin du Roi, Boykinia (for Samuel Boykin
in shades of rose, magenta and fiery Paris). Rubiaceae. Subtropical and (1786–1848), planter, physician and
orange; the perianth tube is angled, tropical Americas. 30 species, perennial naturalist from Georgia, US). Saxifra-
hairy and waisted below the middle); herbs or shrubs, frost-tender and grown gaceae. North America; Japan (those
B.spectabilis (syn. B.brasiliensis; Brazil; for their clusters of narrowly tubular below from Western N America). 9 119
robust climber with large, hooked flowers, each with a limb of four species, hardy perennial herbs, mostly
Boykinia
rhizomatous and hairy with rounded, 12cm (43/4in) long, and clusters of Senecio buchananii; robust, to 1.5m (5ft);
B long-stalked leaves and panicles of

small, five-parted flowers in summer.
Plant in damp, acid soils in light shade.
small, green-white flowers).
Brachyscome (from Greek brachys,

leaves 2.5–5cm (1–2in), broadly oblong,
smooth above, silver-hairy beneath;
flowerheads yellow to cream);
Divide in late winter. short, and kome, hair, referring to the B.compacta (syn. Senecio compactus; to 1m
B.aconitifolia (leaves 4–8cm short pappus hairs). Compositae. (31/4ft); leaves 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in), obovate
(11/2–3in) long, rounded to kidney- Australasia. 70 species, annual and to oblong, wavy-edged, white-hairy
shaped, lobed and toothed; stalks perennial herbs or shrublets with beneath; flowerheads yellow); B.
to 18cm (7in) long; flowers white slender-stalked, daisy-like flowerheads Dunedin Group (hybrids between
in 15–80cm (6–32in)-tall panicles); in spring and summer. A tender peren- B.compacta, B.greyi and B.laxifolia shrubs
B.jamesii (syn. Telesonix jamesii; differs nial useful for edging, bedding and to 2m (61/2ft) tall with elliptic to oblong
from the last species in its smaller, baskets and often treated as a half- leaves to 5cm (2in) long, emerging
toothed rather than lobed leaves and hardy annual. Sow seed under glass silvery or white, hardening dull to
crimson flowers). in autumn, or in situ in spring; alterna- lustrous sea or grey-green above, white-
tively, take stem cuttings in early spring scurfy beneath; flowerheads bright
boysenberry see hybrid berries. from stock plants cut back hard, potted yellow; the most commonly grown
up and overwintered in frost-free selection is ‘Sunshine’, syn, Senecio greyi
Brachycereus (from Greek conditions. B.iberidifolia (SWAN RIVER of gardens, described above; ‘Moira
brachys, short and Cereus). Cactaceae. DAISY; bushy, to 40cm (16in) with very Read’ has variegated leaves); B.greyi
Galapagos Islands LAVA CACTUS. finely cut foliage; flowerheads fragrant, (to 2m (61/2ft); leaves 4–8cm (11/2–3in),
1 species, B.nesioticus, a shrubby cactus 1cm (1/2in)-wide, sky to deep blue with ovate to oblong, tough, silver-scurfy
to 60cm (24in) tall and spreading to a yellow centre, also white, pink, lilac beneath; flowerheads bright yellow –
2m (61/2ft) across in clumps of erect, and deep mauve). the true plant is rare in gardens and
ribbed and cylindrical, 3–5cm the name is often misapplied to B.
(11/4–2in)-wide stems covered in Brachyglottis (from Greek brachys, ‘Sunshine’); B.hectoris (syn. Senecio
yellow spines. The large flowers short, and glottis, tongue, referring to hectoris; to 4m (12ft); leaves to 20cm
are creamy-white and narrowly the short ray florets). Compositae. (8in), oblanceolate, coarsely toothed
funnel-shaped. Plant in an acid, gritty New Zealand; Chatham Is; Tasmania. and pinnately cut at base, thinly white-
and sandy, loam-based medium. Grow 30 species, evergreen trees, shrubs, hairy beneath; flowerheads white);
in full sun in a dry, airy environment, climbers and perennial herbs, usually B.huntii (syn. Senecio huntii; RAUTINI;
minimum temperature 10°C/50°F; with grey-woolly foliage and panicles of compact shrub or tree to 6m (20ft);
water very sparingly in winter. yellow to cream, daisy-like flowerheads. leaves to 10cm (4in), lanceolate to
Propagate by stem cuttings. Most were formerly included in the oblong, tawny-hairy at first: flower-
genus Senecio. Many Brachyglottis species heads yellow); B.kirkii (syn. Senecio kirkii;
Brachychiton (from Greek brachys, are adapted to thrive in exposed, Senecio glastifolius; KOHURANGI; to 3m
short, and chiton, outer garment, a ref- coastal situations, notably B.buchananii, (10ft); leaves 4–10cm (11/2–4in) long,
erence to the seed coat). Sterculiaceae. B. ‘Leonard Cockayne’, B.monroi, obovate to oblong, wavy-toothed to
Australia; Papua New Guinea. 31 B.rotundifolia and B. ‘Sunshine’. The last entire, fleshy; flowerheads white);
species, tender, evergreen or deciduous is one of the most widely planted B.laxifolia (syn. Senecio laxifolius; resem-
trees and tall shrubs, often with swollen silver-leaved shrubs and seems tolerant bles B.greyi, but with smaller, pointed
trunks, grown for their large panicles of of all but the wettest darkest spots. leaves); B. ‘Leonard Cockayne’ (B.greyi x
small cup-shaped to tubular flowers Smaller species, such as B.bidwillii and B.rolundifolia; spreading with wavy-
produced in spring and summer. Large B.compacta, suit the large rock garden or edged, grey-green leaves to 15cm (6in)
and woody, the beaked fruits are used silver border in a sheltered position. long, silver beneath; flowerheads
by dried flower arrangers. Grow in an B.hectoris favours protected, semi- yellow); B.monroi (syn. Senecio monroi;
acid soil in full sun; minimum tempera- wooded places. All prefer full sunlight. to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 4cm (11/2in),
ture 7°C/45°F, or cooler (–4°C/25°F) Hardiness varies: B. ‘Sunshine’ with- obovate to oblong, wavy and crenate,
for short periods if well-established and stands lows to –5°C/5°F with little silver-felted beneath; flowerheads
dry. Propagate by seed or ripewood damage. B.monroi will take –0°C/14°F bright yellow); B.perdicioides (syn. Senecio
cuttings. and B.compacta and B.rotundifolia perdicioides; RAUKUMARA; to 2m (61/2ft);
B.acerifolius (syn. Sterculia acerifolia; 5°C/23°F. B.kirkii, B.perdicioides and leaves 2.5–5cm (1–2in), oblong to
FLAME TREE, FLAME KURRAJONG; B.repanda are frost-tender (minimum elliptic, finely crenate, thin-textured,
deciduous tree to 30m (100ft); leaves to 3°C/37°F). Deadhead regularly. Propa- smooth, dull green; flowerheads to
25cm (10in), ovate to palmately lobed; gate by seed or semi-ripe cuttings. 1cm (1/2in) diam., yellow); B.repanda
flowers bright red or orange, on bare B.bidwillii (syn. Senecio bidwillii; (syn. B.rangiora; Senecio repanda; PUKA-
branches); B.populneus (syn. Sterculia compact, to 60cm (24in); leaves to 2cm PUKA; RANGIORA; to 6m (20ft); leaves to
diversifolia; BOTTLE TREE; KURRAJONG; (3/4in), elliptic to oblong, smooth above, 25cm (10in), broadly oblong to elliptic,
120 evergreen tree to 20m (70ft) with a silver-or buff-hairy beneath; flower- with large, wavy teeth, mid to sea
swollen trunk, poplar-like leaves to heads inconspicuous); B.buchananii (syn. green above, silver-scurfy beneath;
Brahea
flowerheads inconspicuous, bracing The provision of artificial Heliconia, or the thin scale-like stem
mignonette-scented; ‘Purpurea’: leaves
purple above; ‘Variegata’: leaves stip-
pled yellow, grey-green and cream);
support to tree branches, using cables
or metal rods.
bracts of many herbaceous spcies. In
the developing shoots of members of
the last category, a progression from
B
B.rotundifolia (syn. Senecio reinoldii; Senecio bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) an inva- bract to true leaf can be seen as the
rotundifolius; MUTTONBIRD SCRUB; to 6m sive fern which spreads as a weed by shoot develops.
(20ft), dense, rounded; leaves to 10cm means of its thick, fleshy, brown
(4in), broadly ovate to rounded, tough, underground stems. Persistent removal bracteate possessing or bearing
white-felted beneath; flowerheads of frond growth will weaken the stand, bracts.
yellow). For B. ‘Sunshine’ see above and is best done by cutting in early
under B. Dunedin group. summer and again as regrowth bracteole a secondary or miniature
emerges a few weeks later. Glyphosate bract, often borne on a petiole or sub-
Brachysema (from Greek brachys, and glyphosate trimesium are effective tending a flower or inflorescence.
short, and sema, standard, referring to herbicides against bracken. Fronds can
the very short standard of the flower). be composted, used as a surface mulch bract scale in conifers, the scale of a
Leguminosae. Australia. 15 species, or for insulating tender plants against female cone that subtends the seed-
shrubs with clusters of pea-like flowers winter cold. bearing scale.
in spring and summer. Plant in a free-
draining, loamy and sandy soil in full bracket fungi (Aphyllophorales: Brahea (for Tycho Brahe
sun; minimum temperature 7°C/45°F; Basidiomycetes). The fruiting bodies (1546–1601), Danish astronomer and
water moderately in spring and summer, of various saprophytic or parasitic pioneer of science). Palmae. Central
scarcely at all in winter. Avoid fertilizers fungi, which form bracket-like America (those listed below are from
containing phosphorus. Propagate by projections on infected trees or on Mexico and Baja California). 12
seed in spring, or from semi-ripe cut- deadwood. The structures may be species, slow-growing palms with stout,
tings in a closed case; also by layering. annual (and usually produced in columnar trunks clothed in fibres and
B.celsianum (syn. B.lanceolatum; SCIMITAR autumn) or perennial. large, fan-shaped leaves cut into many,
FLOWER, SWAN RIVER PEA; spreading to narrow segments. The inflorescences
prostrate evergreen shrub to 2m (61/2ft), braconid wasps (Hymenoptera: are large, drooping and much-
stems flattened, green, ribbon-like; Braconidae). Small wasps with rela- branched, bearing many, small, cream
leaves lanceolate; flowers scarlet to tively long antennae and wings, and a flowers. The following two species
6cm (21/2in)-long with a sharply distinct dark area about half-way along thrive on parched, rocky soils in full
curved keel). the front margin of the forewing. sunlight and will tolerate several
Closely related to ichneumon flies. degrees of frost if dry and well-estab-
Brachystelma (from Greek brachys, Females parasitize many insects, lished. Increase by seed.
short, and stelma, garland, referring to particularly caterpillars of butterflies B.armata (BLUE HESPER PALM, MEXI-
the dense inflorescence). Asclepi- and moths, and lay eggs in their CAN BLUE PALM, SHORT BLUE HESPER,
adaceae. Tropical and South Africa. bodies. Cotesia glomerata is a familiar BLUE FAN PALM, GREY GODDESS; to 10m
100 species, perennial herbs usually parasitoid of caterpillars of the large
with swollen, turnip-like roots or cau- cabbage white butterfly (Pieris brassicae),
dices bearing short-stalked clusters of and up to 150 fully fed larvae
five-parted flowers. Many species are emerge from the collapsed skin of
grown in succulent collections; the the host and pupate together in
true
best-known is probably the South conspicuous sulphur-yellow cocoons. leaves petal-like
African B.barbariae with a flattened Several braconids species are used bracts are
caudex to 10cm (4in) wide. The flow- for biological control of pests, for modified
leaves
ers are produced before the leaves in a example, some Aphidius and Praon
dense, hemispherical umbel to 12cm species infest aphids.
(43/4in) wide. They are malodorous and
a dirty purple-brown with yellow bract a modified protective leaf
centres and tawny spots. Very slender, associated with the inflorescence
the 2.5cm (1in)-long petals stand erect (clothing the stalk and subtend-
and joined at the tips in a cage- or ing the flowers), with buds,
lantern-like structure. Plant in a gritty and with newly emerging
medium; do not bury the caudex. shoots and stems. Bracts
Place in full sunlight in dry, airy condi- exhibit varying degrees of
tions with a minimum temperature of reduction, from the leafy Bracts on
8 °C/46°F. Water sparingly when in inflorescence bracts of Cornus kousa var.
growth; keep dry when dormant. Euphorbia pulcherrima to the chinensis 121
Propagate by seed. navicular bracts of
Brahea
(30ft); foliage silver-blue; inflorescence orchids with ovoid to cylindrical LIFLOWER, PERENNIAL BROCCOLI, see
B to 4m (12ft) long, very showy); B.bran-

degeei (SAN JOSÉ HESPER PALM; to 30m
(100ft) with pale, grey-green leaves to
pseudobulbs, strap-shaped leaves and
racemes of flowers with very long, slen-
der tepals and a shorter, trowel-shaped
cauliflower), Capitata Group (CABBAGE
q.v), Gemmifera Group (BRUSSELS
SPROUTS q.v), Gongylodes Group
1.5m (5ft) long). lip. Pot in a very open, bark-based mix. (KOHLRABI q.v), Italica Group (CAL-
Grow in cool to intermediate condi- ABRESE, SPROUING BROCCOLI, ASPARA-
Brassavola (for A.M. Brasavola tions (minimum winter temperature GUS BROCCOLI, CAPE BROCCOLI, see
(1500–1555), Venetian botanist. His 7°C/45°F) with high humidity. Admit broccoli); B.r. Periviridis Group (MUSTARD
name is spelt with one ‘S’, that of the full sunlight except in the hottest SPINACH, KOMATSUMA, SPINACH MUS-
genus with two). Orchidaceae. Central months, when the plants should be TARD, TENDERGREEN) see oriental greens;
and South America; West Indies. 30 shaded, freely syringed and ventilated. Tronchuda Group (PORTUGUESE CAB-
species, evergreen, epiphytic and Water and feed liberally when in BAGE, see cabbage). Ornamental cultivars
lithophytic orchids with more or less growth; reduce temperatures and keep of B.oleracea are grown as annual bed-
pendulous, pencil-thin pseudobulbs ter- almost dry once the new pseudobulbs ding plants, for their rosettes of green,
minating in a single, tough, narrow leaf are developed. Increase by division. cream, red or pink foliage; B.rapa Chi-
and solitary or clustered flowers, often B.caudata (tepals to 18cm (7in), pale nensis Group (CHINESE WHITE CABBAGE,
nocturnally scented and in shades of yellow-green to yellow-orange marked PAK CHOI, see cabbage); B.r. var. nipposinica
white, cream and pale green; the tepals red-brown, lip paler and spotted red- (MIZUNA GREENS, KYONA see oriental
are slender, the lip is funnel-shaped. brown); B.lawrenceana (tepals to 7cm greens). B.r. Pekinensis Group (CHINESE
Provide a minimum temperature of (23/4in), green-yellow, spotted maroon at CABBAGE, CHINESE LEAVES, see cabbage);
7°C/45°F, with bright light and a the base, lip white to pale lime); B.verru- B.r. Rapifera Group (TURNIP q.v)
buoyant, humid atmosphere. Plant in cosa (tepals to 12cm (43/4in), pale lime
baskets or small pots containing a very green spotted chocolate or black at the brassicas a term commonly used as
open, bark-based medium, or attach to base, lip white, spotted red-brown at a collective description for edible plants
rafts and bark slabs against pads of the base and scattered with green within the genus Brassica (q.v).
moss and leafmould. While in growth, warts).
water and feed frequently, allowing the cruciform x Brassocattleya (Brassavola (or
medium to dry between drenchings; Brassica (a name used flower Rhyncholaelia) x Cattleya).
syringe daily in hot weather. Except for by Pliny). Cruciferae. Orchidaceae. Garden
misting to prevent the shrivelling of Mediterranean to temper- hybrids ranging widely
leaves and pseudobulbs, withhold water ate Asia. 30 species of in habit and size from
for one to two months on completion annual or biennial the dwarf and tufted to
of new pseudobulbs. Recommence glabrous herbs, occasion- the tall and rangy, with
watering when root and shoot activity ally perennial, rarely subshrubs. the ellipsoid to cylindrical
resumes. Propagate by division. Most erect, branching pseudobulbs and tough
B.cordata (flowers 4.5cm (13/4in)-wide, and tap-rooted. Leaves oblong to elliptic leaves
vanilla-scented, tepals lime green to simple oblong characteristic of
ivory, lip bright white); B.cucullata (flow- ovate-rounded, Cattleya. The flowers
ers fragrant with long and drooping glaucous. Flowers yellow, Brassica are Cattleya-like, but have
tepals, to 7cm (23/4in), very narrow and yellow-white, rarely white, borne oleracea very ruffled lips; they vary
ivory, lip cream, fringed at its base, in terminal racemes. The following from small and neat to exception-
tapering narrowly at the tip); B.flagel- species are of particular horticultural ally large and frilly, in shades of white,
laris (leaves and pseudobulbs pendu- interest and there is reference to their pink, magenta, purple, red, orange,
lous, long and whip-like, picked out cultivation under the various main bras- apricot, yellow and lime green. Many
with 6cm (21/2in)-wide flowers, the sica crop entries. B.carinata (TEXSEL grexes are available. Cultivation
tepals spreading and pale cream, the GREENS, ABYSSINIAN CABBAGE, as for Cattleya.
lip white stained lime green in the ETHIOPIAN CABBAGE, see cabbage); B.juncea
throat); B.nodosa (LADY OF THE NIGHT; (MUSTARD CABBAGE see oriental greens); x Brassolaeliocattleya (Brassavola
flowers to 7.5cm (3in) wide with nod- B.napus (RAPE) which, densely sown, pro- (or Rhyncholaelia) x Laelia x Cattleya).
ding, green, ivory or white tepals and a duces fast-establishing seedlings for soil Orchidaceae. Garden hybrids ranging
white lip stained green and spotted incorporation as a green manure (see in habit from dwarf to medium-sized
maroon at the throat). For B.digbyana green manuring); B.n. Napobrassica Group or large, squat, robust or reedy. Flowers
and B.glauca see Rhyncholaelia. (SWEDE q.v.); B.oleracea (WILD CABBAGE) slender and starry to buxom and lacy
has evolved numerous selections, grown in shades of white, rose, magenta,
Brassia (for William Brass, 18th-cen- mainly as vegetable crops, classified in mauve, red, orange, apricot, yellow,
tury botanist who collected in Guinea Groups, including: Acephala Group green or cream, often flushed, veined
and South Africa). Orchidaceae. Cen- (KALE, COLLARD, see kale), Alboglabra or marked a different colour. Many
122 tral and South America. SPIDER Group (CHINESE BROCCOLI CHINESE grexes are available. Cultivation is the
ORCHID. 25 species, tender epiphytic KALE, see broccoli), Botrytis Group (CAU- same as for Cattleya.
broccoli
break, breaking (1) the growth conditions thereafter. Sow seed in situ
made from an axillary bud, especially
in chrysanthemums and carnations, as
a result of pinching out the growing
in early spring, or divide B.media.
B.maxima (syn. B.major, GREAT
QUAKING GRASS, PUFFED WHEAT;
B
point or as a natural occurrence; (2) a annual to 60cm (24in); spikelets on
stage in the opening of buds; see bud thread-like branches, each to 2.5cm
stages; (3) a mutation or sport seen in (1in) and olive to straw-coloured tinged
flowers, often characterized by streaks red-brown or purple); B.media
or flecks, and possibly virus induced. (COMMON QUAKING GRASS, COW
QUAKES, DODDERING DICKIES, LADY’S
breastwood shoots growing HAIR GRASS, PEARL GRASS and TOTTER;
outwards from espalier or other perennial to 1m (31/4ft) tall; spikelets to
wall-trained trees. 1cm (1/2in), ovate to deltoid, often tinted
purple, in erect panicles to 18cm (7in));
Breynia (for. J.P. Breyn, 17th-century B.minor (LESSER QUAKING GRASS; annual
German botanist). Euphorbiaceae. to 60cm (24in) with spikelets to 0.5cm
Tropical Asia; Pacific Islands; (1/4in) long, remarkably airy and deli-
Australia. 25 species, evergeen shrubs cate in the cultivar ‘Minima’).
and trees with small, usually 2-ranked Colour break in tulip
leaves and inconspicuous flowers. Plant Petal colour variation in this Parrot Group broadcasting the scattering of seeds
in any moderately fertile, soilless or tulip ‘Estella Rijnveld’ is referred to as a evenly over a seed bed rather than
loam-based mix; position in dappled break. Breaking may arise from breeding, sowing in drills.
sunlight or light shade; minimum natural occurrence or virus infection.
temperature 7°C/45°F. Propagate by broadleaf, broad-leaved a tree or
soft cuttings in early summer. B.nivosa Europe; Aegean. 2 small, perennial, shrub with broad flat leaves as opposed
(syn. B.disticha; SNOW BUSH; shrub to bulbous herbs grown for their flowers to needles. Commonly used to mean a
1.5m (5ft); leaves 1.5–2cm (5/8–3/4in) which are produced in spring and non-coniferous tree.
long in two ranks giving the branches resemble miniature bluebells
a ferny appearance, densely mottled, (Hyacinthoides). Plant in full sun or light broad mite see tarsonemid mites.
spattered and zoned white, often with shade in any well drained soil; mini-
the veins picked out in emerald green; mum temperature –15°C/5°F. Propa- broccoli (Brassica oleracea Italica
‘Atropurpurea’: leaves rich purple- gate by division of established clumps Group); a name used in the UK to
red; ‘Roseapicta’: leaves mottled pink as the foliage withers in early summer. describe purple and white sprouting
and red). B.amethystina (flowers bright blue, indigo broccoli; the more dwarf, green sprout-
or white); B.fastigiata (flowers, lilac, ing broccoli is usually known as cal-
Briggsia (for Munro Briggs Scott lilac-pink or white). abrese. In parts of Britain the term
(1889–1917), botanist) Gesneriaceae. broccoli is often used incorrectly to
India to China. 23 species, rhizoma- brindille a thin lateral shoot of a refer to large-headed white cauliflower
tous, near-hardy perennial herbs grown fruit tree, 7.5–30cm (3–12in) long and (Botrytis Group) maturing in winter. In
for their stalked cymes of tubular, two- usually terminating in a fruit bud. N.America the term broccoli refers to
lipped flowers produced in summer. all sprouting types in the Italica Group
Suitable for the alpine house or frame, Briza (Classical Greek name for a and to large-headed, winter-maturing
or for very sheltered positions on the grass, probably rye). Gramineae. Cos- white cauliflower (Botrytis Group)
rock garden in zone 8. Plant in pans, mopolitan (mainly northern temperate which can only be grown in climati-
raised beds or rock crevices in a neutral regions). QUAKING GRASS. 12 species, cally favourable areas. Sprouting broc-
to acid soil rich in leafmould. Keep annual or perennial hardy grasses with colis, including calabrese, differ from
moist from spring to autumn. Provide erect, open panicles, their branches cauliflower in their more divided
full sun except where likely to scorch or very fine and hung with ovate spikelets, leaves, and the developing terminal
dry the plants excessively (i.e. under the lemmas large, papery and overlap- and axillary flower-buds – the primary
glass in summer). Propagate from seed. ping in two ranks giving the spikelet edible parts – form less dense heads.
B.muscicola (China, Bhutan and Tibet; the appearance of a rattlesnake’s tail. Raise PURPLE and WHITE SPROUTING
leaves woolly in a stemless rosette; Among the most graceful of ornamental BROCCOLI (ASPARAGUS BROCCOLI, CAPE
flowers pale yellow, the interior grasses, Briza has a pearly, translucent BROCCOLI) in a seedbed or in modules
orange-yellow marked purple). quality. The parchment flowerheads under protection, from mid April-late
are used in dried flower arrangements. May sowings; plant out June or July,
Brimeura (for Maria de Brimeur, Grow in full sun in any moderately fer- 60cm (24in) apart each way. Plants grow
a 16th-century Dutch aristocrat tile soil, chalkland included; ample to 90cm (36in) tall and may require
who loved flowers). Liliaceae moisture is required until the flower- staking. The main season is from Feb- 123
(Hyacinthaceae). Mediterranean; SE heads are developed, rather drier ruary to late May. Purple forms tend to
broccoli
be hardier, larger and more prolific to 2.5cm (1in) long on 7–30cm
B than white forms.

CALABRESE makes a smaller, com-
pact plant to 60cm (24in) tall and is not
(23/4–12in)-tall scapes.
See also Dichelostemma and Triteleia.
reliably hardy. For summer to autumn bromeliads members of the family

harvesting sow successionally in situ Bromeliaceae, e.g. Aechmea, Ananas,
from late March to early July; thin to Billbergia, Bromelia, Cryptanthus, x Crypt-
15cm (6in) stations in rows 30cm (12in) bergia, Dyckia, Fascicularia, Guzmania,
apart; raising in modules for trans- Neoregelia, Nidularium (see right) Pitcairnia,
planting is possible but less reliable. Puya, Tillandsia, Vriesea.
Late summer sowings may be
overwintered for spring maturing Bromelia (for Olaf Bromel
under protection, or grown outdoors (1639–1705), Swedish botanist).
in mild winter areas. Bromeliaceae. Central and South
Following cutting of the central America. 47 species, perennial herbs,
head subsequent side shoots are regu- usually terrestrials with spreading
larly snapped off in tight bud. rosettes of rigid and spiny, sword-like
CHINESE BROCCOLI, CHINESE KALE leaves and showy flowerspikes in spring
closely resembles sprouting broccoli. and summer. Grow in full sun, mini-
An oriental brassica grown for its mum temperature 7°C/45°F, in a very Nidularium regeliodes
flavorous, leafy, flowering shoots. Sow open medium. Water, feed and syringe The name of this classic bromeliad genus
late spring to early autumn in rows liberally in warm weather; keep virtu- refers to the “nest” of leaves formed around
30cm (12in) apart (for large plants), or ally dry in winter. Propagate by offsets. the vibrant flower spikes.
10cm (4in) apart (for small plants), or B.balansae (HEART OF FLAME; leaves
raise in modules. Thin to or plant out flushing brilliant scarlet at the heart nial, 1–3m (31/4–10ft) tall with sea
30cm (12in) or 13cm (5in) apart of the rosette in the flowering season; green foliage and fine, purple-tinted
depending on size of plants required. inflorescence torch-like, densely spikelets in gracefully arching panicles).
Harvest within 10 weeks, as for branched, to 1m (31/4ft), with white-
calabrese. Can similarly be raised edged, rosy flowers guarded by Broussonetia (for Pierre Marie
under cover for winter use. outward-curving, scarlet bracts). August Broussonet (1761–1807),
PERENNIAL BROCCOLI is a form of Professor of Botany at Montpellier).
cauliflower (q.v) in the Botrytis Group Bromus (from Greek bromos, oat). Moraceae. East Asia; Polynesia. 8
of Brassica oleraceae (B.o.) Alboglabra Gramineae. BROME, CHESS. N Temper- species, deciduous trees or large shrubs
Group. Possible problems: aphids, cab- ate Regions. 100 species, annual, with large, entire to lobed leaves, small,
bage caterpillars, cabbage root fly, flea biennial or perennial grasses with loose male flowers in catkins and female
beetle, turnip gall weevil (see weevils); erect culms, narrow leaves and long- flowers in globose heads. Tolerant
clubroot, leaf spot. awned spikelets in graceful panicles in of dry, poor soils, heat and pollution,
summer. The following are fully hardy. Broussonetia will thrive where
Brodiaea (for James Brodie, Scottish With the exception of the shade-loving temperatures do not often fall below
botanist). Liliaceae (Alliaceae). W US. B.ramosus, they will grow in most situa- –5°C/23°F; elsewhere it will need a
15 species, deciduous, cormous peren- tions but prefer sun and a free-draining sunny, sheltered site and may be killed
nial herbs with narrow leaves often soil. Increase by seed or by division. to the ground by frost (it suckers freely).
withering before the inflorescence The flowerheads of all except Propagate by semi-ripe, heeled cuttings
expands in early summer. The flowers B.madritensis are suitable for drying. in late summer under mist or in a
are funnel- or bell-shaped and carried B.briziformis (Europe, Temperate closed case, or from hardwood and
on slender stalks in lax, scapose Asia; annual or biennial to 60cm root cuttings in winter, or by layering
umbels. Hardy in zone 8. Grow in sun (24in), with loosely pyramidal panicles in spring.
on light, fertile, sandy loams. Keep hung with Beiza-like spikelets); B.inermis B.papyrifera (PAPER MULBERRY; China
moist when in growth; dry and warm (Europe, Temperate Asia; creeping and Japan; broad-crowned tree to 15m
after flowering. Propagate by division perennial erect to 1m (31/4ft); panicles (50ft) tall, or, a spreading shrub to 3m
of established colonies, removal of drooping; ‘Skinner’s Gold’: leaves (10ft); leaves 7–20cm (23/4–8in) long,
offsets or seed sown when ripe. The striped gold, seed heads golden); ovate, often toothed, ‘tattered’ or
HARVEST BRODIAEAS, B.coronaria (syn. B.madritensis (COMPACT BROME, STIFF 3–lobed and variably so on the same
B.grandiflora, B.howellii) and B.elegans BROME, WALL BROME; Mediterranean; plant; female plants produce orange-
produce 2–12, 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in)-long, annual erect to 60cm (24in) with very red ball-like fruits; ‘Billardii’: leaves
purple-blue to deep mauve flowers, the fine, feathery arching panicles tinted are much dissected; ‘Laciniata’: leaves
first on a scape to 30cm (12in), the pink to wine-red); B.ramosus (WOOD reduced sometimes to small remnants
124 second to 50cm (20in). B.minor pro- BROME, HAIRY BROME; Europe, N of blade hanging on the tip of the
duces pink to deep violet blue flowers Africa, SW Asia; clump-forming peren- midvein; ‘Variegata’: leaves are
brown rot
splashed white or yellow; ‘Leucocarpa’: except for occasional mistings on warm fructigena, primarily a disease of apples
fruit white.
Browallia (for Johan Browall

days. Propagate by seed or cuttings of
detached branches. B.hertlingiana (syn.
Azureocereus hertlingianus; Peru; erect and
and pears, is of Eurasian origin and is
still mainly restricted to the Old World.
It sporulates abundantly on affected
B
(1705–1755), Bishop of Abo, Sweden, tree-like, ultimately to 8m (25ft); stems fruit, forming raised masses of fungal
a defender of Linnaeus’ system of to 30cm (12in) wide, glaucous blue tissue in concentric rings covered with
plant classification). Solanaceae. South with 18 wavy ribs; spines 5cm (2in), buff-coloured spores. There is a danger
America. AMETHYST FLOWER; BUSH tawny; flowers white to pink). of introducing this species into Ameri-
VIOLET. 3 species, tender annual and can and Australian orchards.
perennial herbs or shrubs with trum- brown coal see lignite. M.laxa is thought to have originated
pet-shaped flowers. Grow in a shaded, in Eurasia but now has a worldwide
humid environment (minimum temper- brown rot A fungal disease of tree distribution. Its fawn-grey spores form
ature 10°C/50°F). For summer flowers, fruits especially, caused by species of less luxuriantly and it is mainly a dis-
sow seed in early spring; for winter Monilinia, which also attacks flower spurs ease of Prunus, causing BLOSSOM
display, sow seed in late summer or cut causing blossom wilt. There are differ- BLIGHT and canker rather than fruit
back, repot and feed the strongest, ences in biology and world distribution rot; a form of this species is particu-
existing plants. Take short, soft cuttings of these fungi, but the general pattern larly pathogenic to apples and pears.
of cultivars in spring or late summer. of disease development is the same. Fruits infected before maturity shrivel
Browallia is usually treated as an Most damage is caused to fruit while it on the tree and are the principal means
annual, but may persist for some years is still on the tree, although post-harvest whereby the brown rot fungus, having
if regularly pruned, fed and repotted, rotting can also be a serious problem. overwintered in them, is able to infect
B.speciosa especially. Blossoms of fruit trees may also be blossom in spring. Mummified fruits
B.americana (syn. B.elata; bushy, attacked by the disease, which subse- infected by M.fructicola give rise to the
annual or short-lived perennial to quently causes cankers on fruit spurs ascospore-producing sexual stage of
60cm (24in) tall; flowers blue to violet and smaller branches, resulting in crop the fungus in spring; this provides an
or white to 2.5cm (1in); includes the loss and providing a source of inoculum additional opportunity for dispersal of
cultivars ‘Caerulea’ (flowers sky blue), for further infection. Symptoms of the disease, as well as the possibility of
‘Compacta’ (habit small, compact), infection on fruit are soft brown rotten genetic change in the fungus’ virulence
‘Grandiflora’ (B.grandiflora) and ‘Major’ and fungicide tolerance. The sexual
(flowers larger), and the dwarf ‘Nana’); stage of the life cycle is rare in the
B.speciosa (syn. B.gigantea; shrubby fungal other two species of Monilinia.
fruiting
perennial to 1m (31/4ft); flowers to 4cm bodies in Control measures include:
(11/2in) in shades of blue and violet with concentric (a) reducing the over-win-
a white eye; many cultivars developed rings tered inoculum by disposing of
in shades of white, pale blue, mummified fruits, dead spurs and
royal blue, indigo, violet and branches; (b) a fungicidal spray
lilac; ‘Major’: SAPPHIRE programme from blossom time
FLOWER, flowers large, where the disease is established, espe-
purple-blue); B.viscosa cially on peaches, subject to local pesti-
(annual to 60cm (24in) tall; flowers cide approvals; (c) the prevention of
to 3cm (11/4in) violet-blue with a white fruit damage by insects; (d) avoiding
eye; ‘Alba’: flowers white; ‘Sapphire’: harvesting in wet weather; (e) careful
sapphire blue). handling of fruits.
Other brown rot fungi are M.aucu-
Browningia (for W.E. Browning, Brown rot in pear pariae, which causes a fruit rot and
Director of the Instituto Ingles at San- foliage blight of Sorbus commixta in
tiago, Chile). Cactaceae. South Amer- areas which spread quickly, and on blos- Europe and Japan; M.johnsonii, CRATAE-
ica. 7 species, shrubby to tree-like cacti som, brown spotting of petals followed GUS LEAF BLOTCH and BLOSSOM BLIGHT,
with spiny, strongly ribbed, cylindric by shrivelling of the whole flower. which is widespread; M.kusanoi, blight of
stems and nocturnal, tubular to fun- M.fructicola, which is native to North flowering cherry in Japan; M.linhartiana,
nelform flowers. Large but slow-grow- America and is particularly damaging QUINCE FRUIT ROT in Turkey; M.oxycocci,
ing, this cactus is usually offered as an to peaches and other stone fruit, is the CRANBERRY HARD ROT; and M.vaccinii-
unbranched stem to 1m (31/4ft) tall. most important of the brown rots; it corymbosi, BLUEBERRY BROWN ROT or
Provide a minimum temperature of now occurs also in South America, MUMMY BERRY, in North America.
10°C/50°F. Plant in a neutral to Australia and New Zealand. Infected Other diseases referred to as brown rot
slightly acid medium high in grit and fruits form abundant tufts of powdery are (Pseudomonas solanaceanum) bacterial
sand. Shade in hot weather and main- ashy-grey spores, sometimes in concen- wilt of potatoes; ORCHID LEAF SPOT dis-
tain low humidity. Keep cool and dry tric rings. European stone fruit growing ease such as Erwinia cypripedi; and decay 125
from mid-autumn to early spring could be at risk from this disease. M. caused by certain wood-rotting fungi.
Brugmansia
Brugmansia (for Sebald Justin Brug- in summer, the flowers are fragrant, on stout, red-tinted scapes. After flow-
B mans (1763–1819), Professor of Nat-

ural History at Leiden). Solanaceae.
South America. ANGEL’S TRUMPET.
tubular with five broad lobes. Grow in a
humid, lightly shaded environment with
a minimum temperature of 13°C/55°F.
ering, the individual flower stalks
extend after the fashion of Boophone.
Cultivation as for Boophone, although
5 species of shrubs or small trees. Pro- Plant in a slightly acid mix; water and these bulbs have proved slightly more
duced in summer, the large, pendulous, feed generously during periods of hardy, sometimes surviving in very
trumpet-shaped flowers widen to a warm weather and active growth, sunny, sheltered positions outside in
pleated, 5-pointed limb. The following sparingly at other times. Propagate zone 8, protected in winter with a deep
species were formerly included in the from greenwood cuttings in a case with mulch or framelights.
genus Datura, a genus now limited to bottom heat in spring and summer. B.josephinae (syn. B.gigantea;
short-lived or annual shrubby herbs B.lactea (JAZMIN DEL MONTE; Peru; JOSEPHINE’S LILY; scape to 90cm (36in)
with very similar but less markedly shrub to 3m (10ft) tall with intensely tall with many, 6cm (21/2in)-long, crim-
pendulous flowers. Grow in full sun or fragrant, waxy ivory flowers to 7.5cm son flowers each on slender, ray-like
light shade in a fertile, loamy medium. (3in) across); B.pauciflora (syn. B.calycina; stalk); B.orientalis (syn. B.multiflora; differs
Water and feed generously when in Brazil; bushy shrub to 3m (10ft) tall; in its hairy rather than glabrous leaves,
growth. In winter, they should be kept flowers purple with a white eye ringed its shorter scape and flower stalks and
frost-free and almost dry. Prune hard in lavender blue to 7cm (23/4in) across; the flowers to 7cm (23/4in) long and
in early spring. Propagate by semi-ripe, ‘Floribunda’: YESTERDAY-TODAY-AND- pink or scarlet).
heeled cuttings in late summer. TOMORROW; flowers violet with small
B.arborea (syn. Datura cornigera; to 4m white centre, fading to lavender then brushwood killer a herbicide used
(12ft); flowers to 15cm (6in), white, only white over a period of three days; on woody perennial weeds.
slightly pendent; this name is often ‘Macrantha’: probably synonymous
misapplied to B. x Candida, which has with B.grandiflora, a more luxuriant Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea
far larger, pendulous flowers); B.aurea shrub, with flowers to 5 x 8cm (2 x 3in) Gemmifera Group) a tall biennial
(to 10m (30ft); flowers to 24cm (10in), in deep purple with a white to lavender grown mostly as a winter vegetable for
nocturnally fragrant, white to golden throat and also fading through lilac to its small cabbage-like axillary buds. It
yellow); B. x Candida (B.aurea x white over a period of days). has a loose head of large leaves which
B.versicolor, fast-growing to 5m (15ft); may also be harvested like cabbage. It
flowers to 32cm (121/2in) fragrant, Brunnera (for Samuel Brunner is widely grown in Britain, and mainly
creamy yellow becoming pure white, (1790–1844), Swiss botanist). Boragi- in California within the US.
rarely pink; double-flowered, pure naceae. Eastern Europe to Siberia. 3 Sow 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in) deep in a
white forms include ‘Double White’ species, hardy, rhizomatous perennial seedbed from mid March to mid April,
and ‘Knightii’); B. x insignis (B.suaveolens herbs with broad, coarsely hairy leaves transplanting to 60cm (24in) each way
x B.versicolor, resembles B.suaveolens but and, in spring and early summer, erect, from mid May to the end of June.
with longer flowers (to 38cm (15in)) in terminal panicles of small forget-me- Stopping the plants by removing the
white, pink, salmon or apricot with not-like flowers. Plant in a humus-rich, growing tip was once recommended
narrower corolla lobes); B. x rubella moist soil in dappled sun or full shade for advancing maturity and improving
(B.arborea x B.sanguinea; to 3m (10ft); with some protection from harsh sprout quality but is no longer neces-
flowers to 15cm (6in), red-flushed); winds. Propagate by division in autumn sary because of the improvement in
B.sanguinea (RED ANGEL’S TRUMPET; or root cuttings in early spring. B.macro- cultivars, particularly F1 hybrids.
to 10m (30ft); flowers to 25cm (10in), phylla (to 50cm (20in); leaves ovate to Possible problems: aphids, cabbage
yellow-green at base, then yellow deep- cordate to 15cm (6in) long; flowers caterpillars, cabbage root fly, flea
ening to scarlet or orange-red at limb); clear blue; ‘Dawson’s White’ and ‘Var- beetle, turnip gall weevil (see weevils),
B.suaveolens (to 5m (15ft); flowers to iegata’: leaves variegated white; ‘Had- whiteflies; clubroot, leaf spot.
30cm (12in), strongly nocturnally spen Cream’: leaves splashed cream;
fragrant,white to pale yellow or pink); ‘Aluminium Spot’ and ‘Langtrees’: brutting a partial breaking of hazel-
B.versicolor (to 5m (15ft); flowers to leaves spotted silver; ‘Betsy Bowring’: nut or fruit tree shoots, leaving the
50cm (20in), white sometimes becom- flowers white). ends hanging, to prevent late summer
ing orange or peach; often mislabelled growth. See hazelnuts.
B.arborea; the popular ‘Grand Marnier’ Brunsvigia (for Karl Wilhelm Ferdi-
with soft apricot flowers is derived from nand, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg bryobia mite see red spider mites.
this species, as are the salmon ‘Charles (1713–1780), patron of the arts and
Grimaldi’ and the cream to pink sciences). Amaryllidaceae. South bryophytes small multicellular lowly
‘Frosty Pink’). Africa. 20 species, deciduous perennial plants, belonging to the division
herbs with large bulbs and broadly Bryophyta; mostly living on land and
Brunfelsia (for Otto Brunfels, strap-shaped leaves to 90cm (36in) long represented by mosses and liverworts.
16th-century botanist and physician). emerging after the flowers. Produced in
126 Solanaceae. Tropical America. 40 late summer, the flowers are funnel- bubbler a water-feature device
species, shrubs and small trees. Borne shaped and carried in spherical umbels whereby a low pressure jet of water is
Buddleja
propelled through the centre of a mill- Propagate by heeled, semi-ripe cuttings

stone, cobblestones etc. to create a
gentle flow.
in the cold frame, or, B.alternifolia, hard-
wood cuttings in autumn. Pinch out
new plants to encourage branching.
B
buccae the lateral sepals (wings) in B.alternifolia (China; deciduous shrub
the flowers of Aconitum and allies. or small tree to 9m (28ft); branches
slender, weeping; leaves narrow, dark
bud blast (Pycnostysanus azaleae) a green, to 7cm (23/4in) long, silvery in
fungal disease of Rhododendron species the cultivar ‘Argentea’; flowers fra-
characterized by drying and silvering grant, lilac-purple flowers to 1cm (1/2in)
of buds. It is associated with the rhodo- long, in dense clusters on the previous
dendron leafhopper. The removal of year’s wood); B.asiatica (E Asia; ever-
infected buds is a useful control green, winter-flowering shrub or small
measure, but only practicable on a tree; branches long, spreading and
small scale. The incidence of the woolly; leaves narrowly lanceolate, with
disease can be limited by the use of white-felted undersides; flowers white,
recommended insecticides, applied at fragrant, to 0.6cm (1/4in) long, in dense,
10–14 day intervals from early August, Bud blast of rhododendrons drooping, narrow panicles); B.colvilei
to control the leafhopper. Symptoms are blackened buds with a silvery (Himalayas; summer-flowering ever-
coating. The condition is caused by a green, shrub or small tree to 6m (20ft)
bud burst see bud stages. combination of fungus and insect attack. tall with large, dark green leaves;
flowers 2.5cm (1in) wide, showy,
bud drop the shedding of flower cool greenhouses and conservatories. bell-shaped, gathered in lax, drooping
buds, particularly by tuberous bego- Grow all in fertile, well-drained soils trusses to 20cm (8in) long, rose-purple
nias, lupins, sweet peas, runner beans in full sun and with protection from to crimson or maroon or deep red in
and tomatoes. It is most often caused strong winds. Plant tender species in the cultivar ‘Kewensis’); B.crispa (North-
by low night temperature or waterlog- tubs or borders, ideally near a wall to ern India; bushy, deciduous shrub to
ging, or draught under glass. provide support for their wand-like 3m (10ft) tall with thickly white-felted
branches and with good ventilation branches and grey-woolly, wavy-toothed,
budding a technique of grafting (q.v.) and abundant water supplies except triangular to ovate-lanceolate leaves;
using a single bud, for propagating a in cool weather. flowers fragrant, lilac with orange or
wide range of woody plants. Much is made of the differing prun- white throats are in bluntly pyramidal
ing requirements of buddlejas. If the panicles); B.davidii (BUTTERFLY BUSH,
budding knife a knife designed plants are growing and flowering well, SUMMER LILAC; China, Japan; ever-
for bud-grafting, commonly termed there is really little need to prune them; green, spreading shrub or tree to 4m
budding. It is usually made with a since they do, however, produce a good (12ft) tall; leaves lanceolate, dull to dark
part of the blade or handle modified deal of short-lived wood and are easily green above and felty beneath; flowers
for lifting bark. damaged by freezing weather, the fol- fragrant, 1cm (1/2in)-long, in dense,
lowing guidelines may be of use – narrowly conical panicles; typically
Buddleja (for Adam Buddle prune B.asiatica, B.crispa, B.davidii, deep lilac with an orange-yellow throat,
(1600–1715), amateur botanist and B.fallowiana, B. x lewisiana, B.lindleyana, there are many cultivars ranging in
cleric). Loganiaceae. Asia; America; B. ‘Lochinch’, B.madagascariensis and colour through white (‘Peace’, ‘White
Africa. 100 species, evergreen or decid- B. ‘West Hill’ in spring, cutting back Bouquet’, ‘White Cloud’, ‘White
uous shrubs and trees, usually downy either to near ground level or to within Profusion’) to pink (‘Charming’, ‘Pink
or felty, with narrow, pith-filled 5cm (2in) of a permanent woody Delight’, ‘Pink Pearl’), magenta, (‘Dart-
branches, lanceolate to ovate leaves framework established in the first few moor’), lilac (‘Fascinating’, ‘Fortune’),
and panicles of 4-lobed, tubular flow- years after planting by cutting back mauve (‘Amplissima’, ‘Veitchiana’),
ers from late spring to autumn. selected stems to half their length. darkest purple (‘Black Knight’,
B.alternifolia, B.davidii, B.globosa, B. B.alternifolia and B.colvilei flower on the ‘Dubonnet’), violet (‘Empire Blue’,
‘Lochinch’, B. ‘West Hill’ and B. x weye- previous season’s growth and should be ‘Fromow’s Purple’, ‘Ile de France’,
riana are hardy to –15°C/5°F and, if pruned after flowering: cut back old, ‘Magnifica’) and purple-red (‘Border
cut to the ground, will usually regener- flowered shoots to the desired shape Beauty’, ‘Royal Red’), usually with an
ate. B.colvilei, B.crispa, B.fallowiana and and remove dead, diseased and con- orange-yellow throat; in ‘Harlequin’,
B.lindleyana are usually damaged by gested branches. B.globosa and B. x weye- the leaves are variegated ivory and the
temperatures below –10°C/14°F and riana flower on growth which emerges flowers a deep purple-red; variety nan-
grow best against a sheltered, south- from terminal buds on the previous hoensis: low-growing, elegant shrub with
facing wall in zones 7 and 8. B.asiatica, year’s wood: unless a major assault slender branches, smaller and narrower
B. x lewisiana and B.madagascariensis are is needed, remove only weak or leaves and panicles of fine blue-mauve 127
frost-tender and should be grown in exhausted branches in early spring. flowers (white in ‘Alba’) includes
Buddleja
‘Nanho Blue’ with powder blue flowers Asia. 15 species, hardy, bristly annual daceae, and some bulbs of other fami-
B and ‘Nanho Purple’ with orange-eyed,

violet flowers); B.fallowiana (Burma,
Western China; robust, deciduous
or perennial herbs with erect to
decumbent stems and cymes of 5-
lobed, blue or white flowers in spring
lies. The adult is a stout hairy fly, about
15mm (5/8in) long, resembling a small
bumble bee, but with one pair of wings
shrub to 5m (15ft) tall with stout, and summer. Grow on a moist but and short antennae. Fertilized females
white-woolly branches and crenate, well-drained, neutral to alkaline soil in produce about 40 eggs, normally
ovate to lanceolate leaves grey above part-shade. Mulch in very cold areas. deposited singly on the neck of host
with white-woolly undersides; flowers Propagate by division. B.purpureocaerulea plants. The legless grub crawls down
fragrant, 1cm (1/2in)-long, lavender or (syn. Lithospermum purpureocaeruleum; W the outside of the bulb, enters through
white with orange throats; crossed with Europe to Iran; rhizomatous perennial, the basal plate and eats out the central
B.davidii, producing ‘Lochinch’, a grey- 25–70cm (10–28in) tall with narrow portion of the bulb. When fully fed,
downy, vigorous, bushy shrub with leaves to 8cm (3in) long; flowers to the cream-white maggots are up to
fragrant, violet flowers with a deep 1.5cm (5/8in), emerging red-purple, 18mm (3/4in) long. The bulbs are usu-
orange eye, and ‘West Hill’ with becoming bright blue). ally killed, although daughter bulbs
narrow, arching panicles of pale lilac new foliage often remain unharmed and produce
flowers with a gold to bronze eye, both leaves emerging thin leaves known as ‘grass’.
flowering in late summer and autumn); SMALL NARCISSUS FLIES (Eumerus
fleshy scale leaves apical
B.globosa (ORANGE BALL TREE; Chile, contain food flower bud species) are widespread in Europe and
Argentina, Peru; semi-evergreen erect reserves North America. They are smaller,
shrub or tree to 6m (20ft); leaves wrin- about 6mm (1/4in) long, with three pairs
kled, glossy, dark green; flowers honey- tunic of crescent-shaped, white markings on
scented, yellow-orange in tight, 2cm a black, hairless abdomen. The legless
(3/4in)-wide balls); B. x lewisiana (B.asiat- larvae are 8mm (3/8in) long when fully
ica x B.madagascariensis; includes ‘Mar- fed, and there are usually several per
garet Pike’, a large shrub with long, bulb. In most cases damage by Eumerus
felty branches and dense racemes of species is secondary.
pale yellow flowers in winter); B.lind- Infested bulbs should be removed
leyana (evergreen shrub to 2m (61/2ft) basal and burnt. Fill in the holes left at the
with slender, arching branches, pale stem plate soil surface as the foliage begins to die
green, elliptic to lanceolate leaves to down to deter flies from reaching the
Cross-section through Hippeastrum bulb
12cm (43/4in) long and narrow spikes of necks of the bulbs. Dusting the soil sur-
curving, 1.5cm (5/8in)-long, purple-violet bulb a modified bud, usually subter- face with contact insecticide at the
flowers in summer); B.madagascariensis ranean, consisting of a short thickened same time is helpful. Covering bulbs in
(Madagascar; evergreen sprawling to stem, serving as a storage organ. There June-early July with a fine-mesh float-
semi-scandent shrub producing 25cm are two principal kinds, (1) naked, ing mulch will exclude egg-laying
(10in)-long panicles of orange-yellow composed of free, overlapping scaly females.
flowers in winter); B. x weyeriana (B.glo- modified leaves, all of them fleshy, for
bosa x B.davidii; intermediate between example, Lilium; (2) tunicated, with bulb frame an all-glass frame used
parents; includes ‘Golden Glow’, thin, membranous, fibrous or reticu- by specialist growers to provide a dry
orange-yellow flushed lilac, and lated outer and fleshy concentric inner environment for bulbs in their resting
‘Sungold’, deep orange). layers, for example, Allium. The ‘solid period.
bulb’ is a corm.
bud scales the coverings of a bud. bulbiferous bearing bulbs or bulbils.
bulb fibre a growing medium for
bud stages the phases through which bulbs in containers, traditionally made bulbiform in the shape of, or
flower buds and flowers progress. from 6 parts peat, 2 parts crushed resembling, a bulb.
These have established descriptions in oyster shell and 1 part crushed
fruit plants, for example, breaking, bud charcoal, by volume. bulbil, bulblet a small bulb or bulb-
burst, and have relevance to the timing like growth, arising from a leaf axil or
of sprays or other treatment for control bulb flies (Diptera: Syrphidae) in place of flowers in an inflorescence.
of pests and diseases. Bud stages on species of plant-feeding hoverflies, of
various fruits are illustrated on p.854. which the most injurious is the LARGE bulbiliferous bearing bulbils.
NARCISSUS FLY (Merodon equestris). First
budwood, bud stick a plant shoot recorded in England in 1869, it is Bulbocodium (from Greek bolbos,
from which buds are obtained for thought to have originated in southern bulb, and kodya, capsule). Liliaceae
budding. Europe and has now spread to many (Colchicaceae). S and E Europe. 2
parts of the world, including America. species, hardy, perennial, cormous
128 Buglossoides (Buglossum and -oides, Its principal host is Narcissus, but it also herbs. Apparently stemless flowers with
‘resembling’). Boraginaceae. Europe; attacks other members of Amarylli- 6, erect to spreading oblong to lanceo-
Buphthalmum
late tepals emerge in early spring with maroon hairs, lateral sepals larger, bumble bees (Bombus species)
before or with narrow leaves. Cultivate
as for the smaller Colchicum species.
B.vernum (flowers 1–3, 5cm (2in)-wide
cream to olive, striped or speckled rose,
wine red or maroon, curving forward
and together in a shoe-like form, lip very
widely distributed, fat-bodied, hairy
insects up to 25mm (1in) long, with
membranous wings and waisted
B
with spreading, rose to magenta tepals; small, maroon); B.longissimum (SE Asia; abdomens. Females have heavily
B.versicolor differs in its smaller flowers). flowers large in an umbel, dorsal sepal fringed hind tibiae for carrying
and petals short, cream lined purple- pollen. They are basically dark in
Bulbophyllum (from Greek bylbos, red, lateral sepals to 20cm (8in) long, colour, with horizontal bands or
bulb, and phyllon, leaf, referring to the white to cream striped rosy purple, patches of yellow or orange, and
pseudobulbs which usually bear a curving inwards and together, tapering sometimes white hairs. They are
single leaf). Orchidaceae. Tropics and finely, lip short, tongue-like); B.medusae social insects, building annual
subtropics. 1,200+ species, evergreen, (Southeast Asia; flowers in a dense colonies in underground cavities,
epiphytic and lithophytic orchids, small umbel, white to ivory lightly spotted and are valuable pollinators. Unlike
plants with creeping rhizomes carrying rose or maroon at the centre with very hive bees, they are able to forage in
rounded to ovoid pseudobulbs each ter- long (to 15cm (6in)), finely tapering lat- less favourable weather conditions.
minating in single or paired, oblong to eral sepals drooping in a ghostly mop). All bumble bees are able to polli-
elliptic, thinly fleshy leaves. Produced nate flowers with a short corolla but
throughout the year, the flowers vary bulb planter a tool consisting of a only those with long tongues, such
greatly in size, colour and shape – they hollow cylinder on a handle; used to as Bombus hortorum, can pollinate
may be solitary or borne on racemes remove plugs of soil prior to planting flowers with long corolla tubes.
or slender-stalked umbels. The dorsal bulbs. It is sometimes called a trans- Short-tongued bumble bees often
sepal and petals are usually short, ovate planter or, in the US, a turf plugger. bite a hole at the base of the corolla
to lanceolate and can be fringed or of such plants as beans, sweet peas,
tufted with hairs and ribbons, the bulb scale a component of a bulb. antirrhinums and aquilegias to
lateral sepals longer, linear to lanceo- obtain nectar. The timing of pesti-
late and often twisted downwards and bulb scale mite see tarsonemid mites. cide sprays should take account of
together; the lip is small, fleshy and bumble bee activity.
sometimes hinged. bulb scaling a method of propagat-
Grow in an open, bark-based mix in ing bulbs, such as lilies, from the outer
small, shallow pots or baskets, or attach scales of a mother bulb; see cuttings.
to rafts, branches and cork slabs
against pads of moss. Provide bright, bulky organic matter high-
humid conditions (minimum tempera- volume animal or plant waste, usually
ture 10°C/50°F). Water and mist freely low in nutrient content, used to main-
when in growth; at other times, merely tain or improve fertility and moisture
mist to prevent shrivelling of pseudo- holding in soils through incorporation
bulbs. Propagate by division. or surface mulching.
B.barbigerum (W and C Africa; flow-
ers to 2cm (3/4in) across, several in erect bullace (Prunus institia) a type of plum
racemes, tepals red-green, lip deep bur- producing small rounded fruits varying
gundy, long and projecting forwards in colour from almost black through red
with a dense beard of glossy hairs); to pale green-yellow. Native to Britain
B.guttulatum (India; flowers to 4cm and across Europe to Asia Minor; closely
(11/2in) across, several in an umbel, tepals allied to the damson but with more
broad, yellow or pale green speckled rounded fruits that are not as distinc-
purple, lip short, pale purple; B.umbella- tively purple. Plums and damsons have
tum differs in larger flowers in cream or so evolved that they have surpassed the Buphthalmum salicifolium
ivory overlaid with fine lines of rose- bullace in cultivation, and it is now The flowers of the yellow ox-eye daisy can
purple spots, lip rose-purple); B.lobbii most widely represented by its near rel- be more than 5cm (2in) in diameter, borne
(India to Philippines; flowers solitary, to ative the small-fruited Mirabelle plum on tall, slender stems. It makes an excellent
10cm (4in) across, waxy, red to dull of France. Notable cultivars are ‘White cut flower.
ochre or pale yellow sometimes speck- Bullace’ and ‘Mirabelle de Nancy’.
led or veined red-brown, lateral sepals Possible problems: aphids, bacterial Buphthalmum (from Greek bous,
large and curving outwards like horns). canker; silver leaf. ox, and opthalmos, eye, referring to
B.longiflorum (Africa, Asia, Australasia, the wide, eye-like flowerheads).
Polynesia; flowers produced freely, to bullate where the surface of an organ Compositae. Europe; W Asia. 2
2cm (3/4in) long in a semi-circular umbel, (usually a leaf) is ‘blistered’ or puckered species, hardy, perennial herbs
dorsal sepal and petals small, pink to (i.e. with many superficial interveinal grown for their daisy-like flower- 129
brown or olive speckled deep red, tipped convexities). heads produced in summer. Plant in
Buphthalmum
medium- or low-fertility soils in full sun glaucous sage green; flowerheads lime 75cm (30in)-long, glaucous, grey-green;
B in the herbaceous border or wild

garden. Stake in exposed or over-fertile
conditions. Propagate by division.
green to gold; ‘Green Gold’: bright
green leaves, bracts lime, flowers
golden yellow.
fruit yellow to bright red.
Butomus (from Greek bous, ox, and

B.salicifolium (OX EYE DAISY, YELLOW OX temno, to cut, a reference to the sharp
EYE; forming a clump of metre-tall Burgundy mixture a fungicide sim- leaf margins which render this plant
willowy stems with slender, 10cm (4in)- ilar to Bordeaux mixture, except that unusable as cattle fodder). Butomaceae.
long, oblong to lanceolate leaves; sodium carbonate is used instead of Europe; Asia. 1 species, B.umbellatus
flowerheads 5–7cm (2–23/4in) wide, calcium hydroxide, giving a precipitate (FLOWERING RUSH, WATER GLADIOLUS,
typically golden yellow). of basic copper carbonate. Its use is of GRASSY RUSH), a hardy, summer-flower-
historic interest only. ing deciduous, aquatic perennial to 1m
Bupleurum (from Greek boupleuros, (31/4ft) tall with rush-like leaves and
‘ox-rib’, a name given to another burlap see hessian. scapose, umbels of slender-stalked, rosy
plant). Umbelliferae. Europe; Asia; pink flowers each to 3cm (11/4in) diam.
Northern US; Canary Islands; South burlapped see balled and wrapped. Pot in a rich, sandy and loamy mix and
Africa. HARE’S EAR; THOROW-WAX. cover with up to 25cm (10in) depth of
100 species, annual and perennial burr, bur a prickly fruit, usually water in an open, sunny pond, lake or
herbs and shrubs with entire, leathery adapted for distribution on the coats or a half barrel. Propagate by division in
leaves and, in summer, small yellow feet of animals. spring.
flowers in slender-rayed, compound
umbels. Sow seed of herbaceous bush (1) a low shrub with branches butterflies (Lepidoptera). Butterflies
species in spring on well-drained soils arising initially from ground level or generally differ from moths in having
in sunny borders, meadow gardens and from a short leg; (2) used of tomatoes clubbed antennae and slender bodies,
the fringes of woodlands and shrub- which have a determinate habit. and in their diurnal activity, although
beries. Thorow-wax will naturalize these distinctions are not definitive.
itself in favourable locations. B.falcatum bushel an outmoded measure of Most are welcome visitors to gardens
and B.petraeum are suitable for sunny volume equivalent to approximately with the exception of CABBAGE WHITE
banks, large rock gardens and dry bor- 0.04m3 (1.5cu ft). Horticulturally signif- BUTTERFLIES (Pieris species), the larvae
ders on very well-drained soils in zones icant in the formulae of John Innes of which cause extensive damage to
7 and over. They suffer in cold, damp Seed and Potting composts. A bulk of the foliage of brassicas and garden nas-
conditions. Propagate by division or about one bushel is contained in a box turtiums (Tropaeolum species) (See cab-
seed in early spring. In a sheltered, of dimensions 25cm x 25cm x 55cm bage caterpillars). Butterflies contribute to
sunny position, the shrubby B.fruticosum (10in x 10in x 22in). pollination whilst visiting flowers as
will survive temperatures as low as nectar feeders and find Buddleja species
–15°C/5°F. It tolerates poor, rather bush fruit a group description of and Sedum spectabile particularly attrac-
dry soils and is an excellent evergreen currants, gooseberries and blueberries. tive. Caterpillars of the RED ADMIRAL
for training on walls and allowing to c.f. cane fruit. (Vanessa atalanta) and TORTOISESHELL
trail over walls and banks. It grows (Aglais urticae) feed upon stinging nettle
well on the coast. Prune out exhausted bush tree a trained form of top (Urtica dioica).
or frost-damaged growth in spring. fruits, usually having a stem 60–90cm
Propagate by semi-ripe cuttings in (24–36in) high with the main branches buttoning a disorder of cauliflower
summer. arising fairly close together to form in which underdeveloped curds form
B.falcatum (SICKLE-LEAVED HARE’S the head. flowers on immature plants. It is usu-
EAR; woody-based, metre-high peren- ally caused by a temperature or water
nial with scimitar-like leaves to 10cm Butia (the vernacular name in Brazil). associated growth check.
(4in) long); B.fruticosum (SHRUBBY HARE’S Palmae. S America. YATAY PALM; JELLY
EAR; slender-branched, evergreen PALM; PINDO PALM. 12 species, palms buttress the supporting outgrowths
shrub, to 2 x 2m (61/2 x 61/2ft), with erect with short to columnar trunks, large of the bole of certain trees; produced
to sprawling branches clothed with dull pinnate leaves and spikes of small either as a result of fused, flange-like
or sea green, oblanceolate leaves to yellow flowers followed by egg-shaped, aerial roots or a fluted or swollen
8cm (3in) long with grey undersides); edible fruit. Plant on any well-drained trunk. Produced usually to contend
B.petraeum (ROCK HARE’S EAR; woody- soil in full sun or light shade with plen- with saturated or shallow-rooting
based perennial to 30cm (12in) tall, tiful water. Once established, it will conditions.
making low rosettes of narrow, glau- take periods of drought and low tem-
cous, 20cm (8in)-long leaves); B.rotundi- peratures to –2°C/28°F. Propagate by Buxus (the Classical Latin name for
folium (THOROW-WAX; annual or seed. B.capitata (to 6m (20ft) tall) with a the box tree). Buxaceae. Europe; Asia;
short-lived perennial to 60cm (24in) stout trunk armoured with husky peti- Africa; C and S America. BOX; BOX-
130 tall; leaves rounded, clasping to perfoli- ole bases; leaves 1–2m (31/4–61/2ft) long WOOD. 70 species, slow-growing, ever-
ate and pink-tinted at first becoming and erect to strongly arching, segments green shrubs and small trees, usually
Byblis
with small, tough, deep green leaves insularis with bright green, oblanceolate medium-sized, ovate, glossy, bright
and inconspicuous clusters of yellow-
green to cream flowers. The most
important species is B.sempervirens, used
leaves); B.microphylla (long grown in
Japan, this plant has never been found
in the wild; compact, rounded or semi-
green leaves; the cultivar most com-
monly used for formal edging); B. sinica
var. insularis (CHINESE BOX, China,
B
for hedges, edging, screens and topiary prostrate shrub to 1m (31/4ft) tall with Japan, Taiwan, spreading and lax
and, in its pendulous or prostrate thin-textured, obovate or bluntly lance- shrub or small tree to 6m (20ft), leaves
forms, for specimen plantings. The olate leaves, 1–1.75cm (1/4–3/4in) long; to 3cm (11/4in) long, obovate to oblong,
varieties and cultivars of B.microphylla var. japonica: habit open, spreading; blunt to retuse and revolute, leathery,
with distinctively thin-textured leaves branches thicker, 4-angled, leaves ovate olive green; cultivars ‘Compacta’: dwarf,
and compact habit can be put to simi- to elliptic, leathery; var. koreana: lax, slow-growing, rounded with very small
lar uses. B.balearica and B.wallichiana are spreading small, leaves deep green, leaves, good for rock garden or alpine
subject to injury in the most severe sometimes bronze in winter; B.semper- trough; ‘Curly Locks’: like ‘Compacta’
winters in zones 5–8. Shade-tolerant, virens (COMMON BOX; Europe, W Asia, but with many, tiny accessory leaves;
Buxus nonetheless prefers sunlight for at N Africa; shrub or tree to 8m (25ft) tall, ‘Filigree’: procumbent, leaves round,
least part of the day, although the often multi-stemmed with age and pale sea green; ‘Green Gem’: very
foliage can be scorched by long expo- developing attractively snaking trunks hardy, dwarf, rounded, with bright
sure to bright sun and harsh winds. and tiered, weeping branches if grown green, narrow leaves; ‘Green Pillow’:
Prune in spring to remove dead or in sheltered conditions; leaves 1–3cm like ‘Compacta’, dome-forming with
unwanted growth or to stimulate new (1/2–11/4in) long, oval to oblong bluntly dark green leaves; ‘Kingsville Dwarf ’:
shoots. Clip hedges and topiary to elliptic, tough, dark, glossy to leaden very slow-growing with minute leaves;
shape in summer. Propagate by heel green above and paler beneath; cultivars ‘Richard’: low, bushy, leaves oblong,
cuttings in autumn or by nodal cuttings ‘Agram’: columnar, leaves elliptic, notched, thick, wavy-edged, bright
in spring. notched, medium-sized, dark, glossy green; ‘Tide Hill’: low and broad with
B.balearica (BALEARIC BOXWOOD; green; ‘Arborescens’: large shrub or glossy lanceolate leaves; ‘Winter Gem’:
Balearics, Spain, North Africa; an erect small tree with large, deep green leaves; compact with oval, deep green leaves
shrub or small tree ultimately attaining ‘Argenteovariegata’: habit spreading, that keep their colour well in winter);
10m (30ft); leaves to 4 x 2cm (11/2 x leaves tinted grey, edged cream; B.wallichiana (HIMALAYAN BOX; shrub or
3
/4in), broadly oblong to oval, leathery, ‘Aureovariegata’: bushy, medium to small tree to 10m (30ft) tall; lax and
bright to deep green above, paler large shrub, leaves marked pale gold; open in habit, its long branches bear-
beneath); B.harlandii (a tender shrub ‘Elegantissima’: slow-growing, ing dark green, narrowly oblong to
native to Hong Kong and South China compact dome, leaves small, somewhat lanceolate leaves to 6cm (21/2in) long).
and rare in cultivation; this name is misshapen, edged cream; ‘Notata’:
applied in gardens to a dwarf, compact topmost leaves of new shoots tipped- Byblis (named after Byblis, grand-
and domed selection of B.sinica var. golden yellow; ‘Handsworthiensis’: daughter of Apollo, who fell in love
erect to spreading, large, leaves with her twin brother and, on his
rounded to oblong, tough, dark green; desertion, wept so profusely she was
‘Bullata’: large, dense and spreading, turned into a fountain – these plants
leaves large, puckered; ‘Latifolia Macu- glisten as if drenched with dew).
lata’: dense, mound-forming, leaves Byblidaceae. Australia; New Guinea.
large, blotched yellow, especially on 2 species, carnivorous herbs with
new shoots; ‘Longifolia’: large shrub or slender, woody-based stems, long,
small tree of elegant habit with sprays thread-like leaves covered with sticky
of large, narrow leaves, ‘Angustifolia’ is glands and solitary, 5-petalled, flax-like
very similar; ‘Marginata’: large, erect, flowers. Plant in a sandy, peat- and
leaves medium-sized, puckered, green sphagnum-based mix in summer; keep
splashed and edged yellow; ‘Myosotidi- damp in winter and wet (the pot base
folia’: erect, slow-growing, compact immersed) in summer. Always use
and twiggy with small, dark leaves; rainwater. Provide full sunlight, a
‘Pendula’: large, open shrub or small humid, well-ventilated atmosphere
tree with pendulous branches; ‘Pros- and a minimum temperature of
trata’: vigorous, medium-sized shrub 10°C/50°F. Propagate B.gigantea by
with strongly spreading branches; ‘Ros- root and stem cuttings. Surface-sow
marinifolia’: dwarf, compact, leaves seed of B.liniflora thinly in spring into
narrow, small, deep sage green; ‘Rotun- the final container – it is best allowed
difolia’: small and slow-growing with to grow en masse.
Clipped box rounded leaves; ‘Salicifolia’: differs B.gigantea (perennial to 60cm (24in);
The small, closely spaced leaves of Buxus and from ‘Longifolia’ in weeping branches flowers sky blue, lilac, mauve or pink
its slow, compact growth makes it ideal for and narrower leaves; ‘Suffruticosa’: flowers); B.liniflora (annual, to 25cm 131
clipping into both geometric and novel shapes. dwarf or small, compact shrub with (10in); flowers bright blue or pink).
C3 plants, C4 plants
C
maximises use of a growing site and Sow in situ 13mm (1/2in) deep, succes-
allows for manipulation of harvest date. sionally from spring to late summer, in
CHINESE CABBAGE (CHINESE LEAVES) rows 30cm (12in) apart; thin to stand
C (Brassica rapa Pekinensis Group) is a

biennial grown as an annual. It has
large, deeply veined leaves with a
2.5cm (1in) apart. Alternatively, seed
may be broadcast, or sown for trans-
planting in rows 30cm (12in) apart,
prominent, edible midrib, forming a 8–30cm (3–12in) apart, depending on
dense, compact head. The typical the size of plant required. Plants will
barrel type is 20–25cm (8–10in) high, regenerate if cut, and may be grown
with tight heads; the cylindrical type is under cover to extend the season. See
38–45cm (15–18in) high, and greener, oriental greens.
with a loose habit; used mainly as an Possible problems: aphids, cabbage
C3 plants, C4 plants plants in excellent cut-and-come-again salad caterpillars, cabbage root fly, whiteflies,
which the first products of photosyn- vegetable. Most cultivars are best sown flea beetle, turnip gall weevil (see
thesis contain three or four carbon in situ in early summer for maturing in weevils); clubroot, downy mildew.
atoms respectively. early autumn, or raised earlier in mod-
ules under protection for planting out. cabbage caterpillars the larvae of
C:N ratio see carbon/nitrogen ratio. They can be grown under cover to various pests that commonly attack all
extend the season. Space 30–40cm leafy brassicas. The CABBAGE MOTH
cabbage a collective name for several (12–16in) apart each (Mamestra brassicae) has green or brown
caterpillars
types of plant within the genus Brassica way. Chinese cabbage feed in colonies larvae up to 35mm (11/2in) long; there is
grown as vegetables for their edible tends to bolt when at first one generation, active from July
leaves. raised at low temper- to September. The caterpillars
CABBAGE (Brassica oleracea Capitata ature, and when often bore into cabbage
Group) probably originated along the transplanted or hearts, but also feed on
Mediterranean coast, where wild forms deprived of water. other vegetable and
still occur, and was known to the CHINESE ornamental plant
ancient Greeks for its medicinal prop- WHITE CABBAGE foliage. They
erties. A biennial grown as an annual, (PAK-CHOI) (Bras- pupate in the soil.
it forms round or pointed compact sica rapa Chinensis The LARGE CABBAGE
heads; the leaves are green or red, Group) is a bien- WHITE BUTTERFLY
smooth or wrinkled. Cabbage is the nial grown as an (Pieris brassicae) has
most widely cultivated of the brassicas annual, closely hairy yellow larvae up
in the UK, but selection and breeding related to Chinese to 45mm (13/4in) long,
have led to types suited to conditions cabbage. It is upright and with black markings;
worldwide. In temperate climates, fresh does not form a compact head; Large cabbage there are two genera-
harvest is possible year round by grow- the leaves are spoon-shaped white caterpillars tions, active from June
ing cultivars of different maturity with thick, broad, white stems. to July and August to October.
groups and with successional sowing. There are numerous cultivars, some They feed in groups on outer leaves
Cultivars are conveniently grouped 10–15cm (4–6in) high, which should be at first, but later tend to separate. The
according to season of maturity, but closely planted. They are tolerant of a SMALL CABBAGE WHITE BUTTERFLY
there is much overlap: spring cabbage wide range of climatic conditions, but (Pieris rapae) has green larvae up to
(April–May, often harvested before must have a regular supply of water. 30mm (11/4in) long, with a velvety cov-
heading as greens); summer cabbage PORTUGUESE CABBAGE (Brassica ering of hairs. There are two genera-
(June–August, including red cabbage); oleracea Tronchuda Group) is an annual tions, active from May to June and from
autumn cabbage (September–October); non-heading, transitional type between July to September, and the caterpillars
winter cabbage (November–March, kale and ordinary cabbage; the leaves often bore into cabbage hearts. Butter-
including January King type, very are large with prominent white flies of both species also attack other
hardy savoys with crinkly leaves, and midribs. Grow as for cabbage, raising Cruciferae, and pupate on plant stems,
Dutch winter white). All have similar from a seedbed in spring; plant fences and in sheltered places. Cater-
cultivation requirements and are 50–60cm (20–24in) square. pillars of the DIAMOND-BACK MOTH
usually sown 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in) deep TEXSEL GREENS (ABYSSINIAN or (Plutella xylostella) are often troublesome.
(in July–August for spring cabbage, ETHIOPIAN CABBAGE) (Brassica carinata), Inspect plants regularly for infesta-
March–May for the other crops) in is fast-growing, with shiny leaves that tion. Control by hand-picking. Alterna-
rows 15cm (6in) apart. Transplant to have a flavour reminiscent of spinach. tively, use a bacterial spray of Bacillus
10–40cm (4–16in) final spacings in The young leaves and stems are used thuringiensis, or an approved chemical
rows 30–60cm (12–24in) apart, as as a cooked vegetable, the flower buds insecticide. Caterpillars of P.brassicae
132 recommended for the chosen cultivar. and young leaves eaten raw, and the are sometimes parasitized by the
Raising in modules under protection seeds crushed for use as a condiment. braconid wasp (Cotesia glomerata).
Caladium
cabbage root fly (in the US, CAB- and Sri Lanka. They are predomi- eral, unbranched and free-flowering
BAGE MAGGOT) (Delia radicum) a widely nantly of cylindrical or globose habit shoots from a single rootstock. Propa-
distributed fly, similar in size to a house and bear spines, but a few genera, such gate by seed, pre-soaked in warm water
fly, the larvae of which are destructive
pests of cabbage, calabrese, cauliflower,
Brussels sprouts, radish, turnip, swede
as Schlumbergera, have spineless leaf-like
stems while the genus Pereskia has
barely succulent stems and large, ‘leafy’
for 24 hours, or by softwood cuttings in
a case with bottom heat.
C.decapetala (MYSORE THORN; prickly
C
and kohlrabi, the ornamentals leaves. Apart from flower characters, climber or shrub to 3m (10ft) tall; flow-
Matthiola, Alyssum, Arabis, Draba and they most are reliably distinguished ers pale yellow, red-spotted; stamens
Lunaria, and cruciferous weeds. The from other succulent plants by cushion- slender, downy, pink or red; includes
legless white larvae grow up to 8mm like growths called areoles, from which var. japonica, with 4cm (11/2in)-wide,
(3/8in) long and feed on roots near the branches, small, succulent leaves, golden flowers and bright scarlet
taproot, causing collapse; they may spines and flowers emerge. Possible stamens); C.gilliesii (syn. Poinciana gilliesii;
tunnel through leaf midribs and the problems: fungus gnats, mealybug, red POINCIANA, BIRD-OF-PARADISE; angular
buttons of Brussels sprouts. There are spider mite, scale insects, vine weevil; shrub or small tree to 4m (13ft); flowers
two or three generations per year in rots. (2) a class of dahlias. See dahlia. bright yellow; stamens scarlet, 7cm
temperate regions, four in warmer (23/4in) long); C.mexicana (MEXICAN BIRD-
zones. The off-white, oval eggs are laid Caesalpinia (for Andrea Cesalpini OF-PARADISE; thornless shrub or small
at the base of the plant, just below the (1519–1603), Italian botanist, philoso- tree to 10m (33ft); flowers in dense
soil surface; they hatch in 3–7 days. pher and physician to Pope Clement clusters 3cm (11/4in) wide, petals pale
Control by placing 10cm (4in)- VIII, author of De Plantis (1583) and gold marked orange-red at the base;
diameter discs of thin, durable material other botanical works). Leguminosae. stamens yellow); C.pulcherrima (FLAM-
or proprietary mats around stem bases. Tropics and subtropics. 70 species, BOYANT TREE, BARBADOS PRIDE,
Growing under horticultural fleece stops trees, shrubs and perennial herbs, some PARADISE FLOWER, PEACOCK FLOWER
adult flies laying eggs near the plants. climbing, some thorny. The bipinnate BARBADOS FLOWER FENCE; shrub/small
There are no pesticides approved for leaves are composed of many small tree to 10 x 10m (33 x 33ft); flowers 4cm
the control of this pest in UK gardens. leaflets; they persist in warm, humid (11/2in) wide in apricot, orange and
conditions, but usually fall in cool, dry flame; stamens bright red, to 8cm (3in)
Cabomba (native name in Guiana). winters. In spring, summer or year- long). Royal poinciana is Delonix regia.
Cabombaceae. Tropical and subtropi- round, the showy flowers are borne in
cal America. 7 species, aquatic peren- terminal racemes and panicles and caespitose tufted, growing in small,
nial herbs with clumps of long, consist of five, rounded petals and a dense clumps.
submerged to floating stems and cleft cluster of long, protruding stamens.
to finely divided leaves in whorls or With the exception of C.decapetala caisse de Versailles a large
pairs. Grow in pools or freshwater var. japonica, these shrubs are tender. wooden container for a tender tree, for
aquaria where the temperature does Killed to the ground by frost, they may overwintering in an orangery and then
not fall below 5°C/41°F. Propagate by regenerate if dry, mulched and shel- moving outside in summer.
stem cuttings inserted into the pool or tered, and might be attempted out-
tank bed in spring and summer. C.car- doors in very favoured locations in caked see cap.
oliniana (FANWORT, FISH GRASS, WASH- zones 8 and 9. Otherwise, grow under
INGTON GRASS; SE US; leaves 2–7cm glass in large tubs or calabrese see broccoli.
spines
(3/4–23/4in), bright green, fan-shaped, arise from borders with a mini-
divided into thread-like areoles mum winter tempera- Caladium (Latinized form of the
segments). ture of 7°C/45°F. Malay name kaladi). Araceae. ANGEL’S
waxy cuticle
minimizes Water and feed WINGS, ELEPHANT’S-EAR. Tropical S
cactus (1) any water loss generously in spring America. 7 species, tuberous perennial
member of the and summer; keep herbs with large, slender-stalked leaves,
family Cactaceae, almost dry in winter. often beautifully veined and patterned,
which is the best Outdoors, plant on and dull green, Arum-like inflores-
known of over 40 water- well-drained soils in full cences. Used in frost-free climates for
families belonging to storing sun and away from strong year-round bedding, elsewhere for
the range of plants tissue winds. C.decapetala needs to summer bedding and for display in the
known as succulents. be trained against a wall or greenhouse and home. It is usually
Cacti are natives of pergola; the other species bought as a pot plant in full leaf and
hot, dry regions of the can be used as free-standing will remain in glory for six to eight
New World, with the specimens, wall shrubs, months after which the foliage tends to
one exception of Rhip- screens or stooled back. die back. Store dormant tubers almost
salis baccata, which also Cut down in spring, C.pul- dry in their pots or sawdust at a mini-
occurs spontaneously Cross-section, golden barrel cherrima responds quickly mum temperature of 13°C/55°F. 133
in Africa, Madagascar, cactus (Echinocactus grusonii) in hot summers, with sev- Check for signs of decay; if necessary,
Caladium
dust with fungicide. Bring the tubers pearly pink or purple-bronze panicles; calcarate furnished with a spur.
into growth in early spring at ‘Karl Foerster’: tall erect, with upright,
23°C/73°F, having repotted them into red-bronze to buff panicles; ‘Over- calcareous used of alkaline soils that
C a porous but moisture-retentive soilless

medium (that said, Caladium seems to
thrive in wet and heavy soils in hot cli-
dam’: to 1m (31/4ft), arching, leaves
white-striped).
contain chalk or limestone.
Calceolaria (from Latin calceolus, a

mates or hot seasons such as the New Calathea (from Greek kalathos, slipper, referring to the shape of the
York summer). Grow in bright, indirect basket: the flowers are surrounded by flower). Scrophulariaceae. SLIPPER
light with high humidity and a mini- bracts, as if in a basket). Marantaceae. FLOWER, SLIPPERWORT, POCKETBOOK
mum temperature of 18°C/64°F. Tropical America. Some 300 species, FLOWER, POUCH FLOWER. C and S
Water, syringe and feed frequently in evergreen perennial herbs with long- America. 300 species, annual, biennial
warm weather. For summer bedding, stalked, ovate to oblong-lanceolate and and perennial herbs, subshrubs and
place outdoors in early summer. often colourful leaves, mostly 20–35cm shrubs, generally with hairy stems and
Reduce water as the leaves begin to (8–14in) long. The flowers are small, leaves. The slipper-like flowers are usu-
fade. Propagate prior to repotting by usually white to cream with a pink to ally borne in stalked cymes in spring
separation of small tubers or by cutting mauve tint, and carried among bracts and summer (winter if grown under
the parent tubers into sections (dust cut on a spike or raceme. Provide a mini- glass). They consist of a rounded and
surfaces with a fungicide). mum temperature of 15°C/59°F and inflated corolla with a short, rim-like
C.bicolor (to 90cm (36in) tall with light to deep shade in a humid, draught- upper lip and a larger, puffy and
20–50cm (8–20in)-long, heart- to free environment. Plant in a soilless pouch-shaped lower lip.
arrow-shaped leaves of a soft, slightly mix high in bark, leafmould and sand. The low-growing, alpine species
quilted and chalky in texture, oriented Keep evenly moist, never wet, through- need full sun, a cool, buoyant atmos-
downwards on the petioles and vari- out the year. Increase by division. phere and a sharply draining acid soil
ably spotted, veined, blotched, zoned C.crocata (ETERNAL FLAME; Brazil; high in grit. Although frost-hardy, they
or solidly stained white, rose pink or leaves dark green with a grey feathered are intolerant of wet, cold conditions
blood red on a lime or grey-green pattern above, purple beneath; flowers and are usually short-lived outdoors
background; now incorporated in this orange-red in spikes with showy orange unless planted in a sheltered rock
species are C.marmoratum, with leaves bracts); C.ecuadoriana (RED ZEBRINA, TIG- garden niche or sink and given cloche
marbled white, ivory and grey, and RINA; Ecuador; leaves dark green with protection in winter. Alternatively, grow
C.picturatum, with rather narrow, spotted midrib and veins pale lime to yellow in the alpine house or cold greenhouse.
leaves. The many hybrids between these above, purple-red beneath; flowers The larger perennial species (C.integrifo-
former species were grouped under the yellow-orange amid green bracts); lia, C.pavonii) require a fertile, lime-free
names C. x hortulanum and C. x candidum, C.lancifolia (RATTLESNAKE PLANT; Brazil; medium in the cool greenhouse or
now also synonyms of C.bicolor. They leaves narrow, wavy, pale yellow-green conservatory with good light and
range in height from 15 to 100cm (6 to with a dark midrib and margins and ventilation; keep almost dry in winter.
39in); in leaf size from 8 to 30cm (3 to alternating, small and large, dark Sow seed of the showy garden hybrids
12in); in leaf shape from narrowly blotches along veins above, purple- (C. Fruticohybrida Group, C. Herbeo-
lance-shaped to broadly heart-shaped; tinted beneath); C.lindeniana (Brazil, hybrida Group) under glass in summer
and in colour from almost pure white Peru; leaves dark green with olive, or spring and grow on with a mini-
through cream and grey to pink and feathered zones along the midrib and mum temperature of 10°C/50°F. For
red to the deepest burgundy, and com- on margins above, purple-tinted bedding and window box displays,
binations thereof in washes, spots, beneath); C.makoyana (PEACOCK PLANT, plant out in late spring. Propagate
veins, tints and suffusions). CATHEDRAL WINDOWS, BRAIN PLANT; Calceolaria by seed, basal cuttings or
Brazil; leaves pale green, feathered division.
Calamagrostis (from Greek kalamos, cream with dark, oblong blotches along C.arachnoidea (Chile; rhizomatous,
a reed, and agrostis, a kind of grass). veins and a dark border above, purple tufted perennial herb to 60cm (24in)
Gramineae. REED GRASS. Temperate beneath); C.majestica (syn. C.ornata; tall, covered in silver down; flowers to
northern Hemisphere. 250 species, Brazil; leaves glossy green above, dull 1cm (1/2in) in diameter, dull violet-
clump-forming, perennial grasses with purple beneath; includes ‘Albolineata’, purple, very rounded, clustered on
reed-like stems, slender leaves and silky with fine white lines along lateral veins, slender stalks); C.biflora (Chile,
flowers in plume-like panicles in ‘Roseolineata’, with fine pink lines Argentina; perennial herb with low-
summer. Hardy in zone 4. Grow in full along veins, and ‘Sanderiana’, with lying rosettes of hairy leaves; flowers
sun or light shade on any moist but broader, glossy leaves, olive green with 2cm (3/4in) in diameter, bright yellow
well-drained soil. The flowerheads can white and pink markings); C.zebrina spotted red within and carried two or
be used in dried-flower arrangements. (ZEBRA PLANT; Brazil; leaves deep vel- more together on stalks to 20cm (8in)
Increase by division. C. x acutiflora vety green with broad chartreuse tall); C.darwinii (S Patagonia, Tierra
(C.arundinacea x C.epigejos; FEATHER REED stripes along lateral veins above, del Fuego; dwarf perennial herb with
134 GRASS; erect to 2m (61/2ft) with lax, purple-tinted beneath; includes several low-lying tufts of small, glossy leaves;
arching foliage and soft, silvery to cultivars with silver-grey markings). flowers solitary to 3cm (11/4in) long and
Calla
basically yellow-ochre, the upper lip calcicole a plant that favours or tol- plants). Compositae. Mediterranean,
short and hooded, the lower lip large, erates a soil with a high lime content, Macaronesia. MARIGOLD. 20 species,
triangular and with a white band on its for example, Syringa; sometimes called a annual and perennial herbs, often glan-
inner rim and stained and spotted ruby
red; C. ‘Walter Shrimpton’ is a hybrid
between this species and C.fothergillii, of
calciphile. dular and aromatic, with flat, wide
flowerheads with strap-shaped ray flo-
rets. Treated as a hardy annual, Calen-
C
greater vigour and with rather longer, dula is used for bedding, borders and
sac-like flowers in rich ochre, exten- window boxes. Sow in situ in spring or
sively spotted red-brown with a broad autumn in a sunny position on free-
white band like a clerical collar); draining soils. For prolonged blooming,
C.fothergillii (Falkland Islands, Patago- deadhead or sow successionally.
nia; dwarf perennial herb with low- C.officinalis (RUDDLES, COMMON
lying leaf rosettes; flowers solitary, to MARIGOLD, SCOTCH MARIGOLD, POT
3.5cm (11/2in) long sulphur yellow MARIGOLD; hardy, muskily scented
spotted or streaked ruby red below); annual or perennial of obscure origin,
C. Fruticohybrida Group (a popular now widespread through cultivation, to
group of rather shrubby hybrids, 70 x 40cm (28 x 16in), with flowerheads
usually grown under glass or treated to 7cm (23/4in) wide in shades of orange
as half-hardy annuals and differing Calcifuge plants and yellow, produced from late spring
from the next group in their smaller, Rhododendrons (here R. ‘Berryrose’) are the to autumn; many seed races are avail-
less puffy flowers, which are usually classic calcifuge, or lime-hating plants; others able—dwarf races (to 30cm (12in))
carried in dense, stalked clusters; many include heaths and heathers and Pieris spp. include Bon Bon (early-flowering, vivid
cultivars and seed races are available, orange), Dwarf Gem and Fiesta;
ranging in colour from yellow to calcifuge a plant that will not grow among the taller races (to 60cm (24in))
orange and bronzy red, often spotted normally in soil with a high lime are the pompon-centred Kablouna and
or stained); C. Herbeohybrida Group content, for example, Rhododendron; the quilled, ‘cactus-bloomed’ Radio;
(a group of popular hybrids grown commonly called a lime-hater or some- colour ranges from the bright yellows
under glass and often treated as annu- times a calciphobe. of Sun Glow and Lemon to the vivid
als or biennials; they have a soft and orange Orange Prince and the red-
bushy growth habit with broad leaves calcium a macronutrient that is tinted Indian Prince; larger-flowered
and large heads of showy, strongly essential for plant growth. Calcium is seed races include the rich orange,
inflated flowers in tones of pale yellow, found in, or applied to, soils mainly as 45cm (18in)-tall Mandarin Flower
gold, tangerine, scarlet ruby red, chalk, limestone, magnesian limestone Hybrids and the mixed orange, yellow
maroon and bronze, which are often or gypsum. Its concentration in soil and apricot of Pacific Beauty Mixed
spotted or stained in a darker shade determines acidity or alkalinity, which and Art Shade Mixed; in Japan, the
and sometimes scented); C.integrifolia is measured on the pH scale. marigold has been developed as a cut
(Chile; erect to sprawling perennial flower, giving rise to tall, strong-
subshrub to 1.5m (5ft), covered in calcium carbonate the chemical stemmed and fully ‘double’ selections
clammy hairs; flowers small, yellow, constitutent of chalk and limestone. like ‘Early Nakayasu’; three old and
clustered in short, branched cymes; See lime. dependable cultivars are ‘Chrysantha’,
var. viscosissima: larger, with very sticky with ‘double’ bright gold flowerheads,
leaves); C.pavonii (Ecuador, Peru; scan- calcium hydroxide hydrated or ‘Prolifera’, with proliferous flower-
dent, buff-hairy, perennial subshrub to slaked lime, a relatively expensive but heads, and ‘Variegata’, with leaves var-
1.5m (5ft); leaf bases broadly winged quick-acting form of lime. iegated yellow).
and connate; flowers yellow sometimes
marked purple-red in large cymes); calcium nitrate an inorganic fertil- Calla (from Greek kallos, beauty).
C.polyrhiza (Chile, Patagonia; prostrate izer combining calcium and ammo- Araceae. Temperate regions. 1 species,
perennial herb with small, rounded, nium nitrate (15.5% nitrogen). A C.palustris (BOG ARUM, WATER ARUM), a
hairy leaves, long-stalked flowers soli- non-acidifying source of nitrogen, it is perennial, marginal to aquatic herb
tary, to 3cm (11/4in) long and yellow recommended for the treatment of with creeping, green rhizomes and
with purple spots); C.tenella (Chile; bitterpit of apples and pears. smooth, heart-shaped leaves to 8cm
creeping to mat-forming perennial (3in) across. Minute, green flowers are
herb; leaves small; flowers relatively calcium oxide quicklime, made by carried in spring on a creamy, club-
large, rounded and open, golden yellow heating limestone. It is caustic and shaped spadix. This is loosely sur-
with a few orange-brown flecks, in dangerous to handle. See lime. rounded by a white spathe to 6cm
short-stalked clusters). (21/2in) long. Decorative, red berries
Calendula (from Latin, calendae, the follow in late summer. Hardy in cli-
calceolate slipper-shaped; resembling first day of each month – a reference mate zone 4. Plant in full sun at the 135
a round-toed shoe in form. to the long flowering period of these muddy margins of ponds and lakes.
Calla
Allow the rhizomes to creep toward the ferny foliage; flowerheads 7cm (23/4in) full sun and cool, dry winters (mini-
water. Propagate by division in early wide, with bright crimson stamens). mum temperature 7°C/45°F). Propa-
spring. gate by detaching rooted lengths of
C Calliandra (from Greek kalos, beauti-

ful, and aner, man, a reference to the
Callicarpa (from Greek kalos, beauti-
ful, and karpos, fruit). Verbenaceae.
Subtropics and tropics. 140 species,
stem or plantlets formed on stolons;
increase also by stem cuttings.
C.elegans (stems to 30cm (12in) long;
beautiful stamens). Leguminosae. trees and shrubs, usually deciduous and leaves loosely 2-ranked, 2.5–10cm
POWDER PUFF TREE. Tropics and sub- covered with felty or scurfy hair. The (1–4in) long and dull green, finely
tropics. 200 species, trees, shrubs and leaves are oblong to elliptic-lanceolate striped silver-white above, purple-tinted
perennial herbs with bipinnate leaves and the flowers small and beneath); C.fragrans (bold rosette of
and stalked, terminal and axil- dull, borne in compact, 30cm (12in)-long, mid-green leaves –
lary flowerheads. The corolla axillary cymes. They are striped in the cultivar ‘Melnickoff ’ –
is small and scarcely followed in late summer giving rise to leafy stolons bearing
distinguishable, but by clusters of brilliantly miniature plants); C.navicularis (growth
the stamens are coloured, bead-like of two types – succulent, keel-shaped
many, colourful and berries; these last well leaves to 3cm (11/4in) long overlapping
slender, making, into early winter. in short, bulb-like shoots, or more
en masse, a powder- Hardy to –18°C/0°F, remotely disposed along creeping
puff-like ball. they will usually stolons, leaves smooth, mid-green
The following resprout if cut down by above and striped or stained purple
species are hard frosts. Plant in beneath); C.repens (syn. Tradescantia
evergreen and full sun, away from ‘Little Jewel’; mat-forming trailer with
autumn- to spring- strong winds, on fer- dense, glossy, deep green, ovate leaves
flowering, although tile, well-drained soils, to 2.5cm (1in) long).
they may become at with ample moisture in
least semi-deciduous spring and summer. Callistemon (from Greek kallos,
in arid seasons out- Propagate by seed or beauty, and stemon, stamen). Myrtaceae.
doors and may flower short, heeled cuttings Australia. BOTTLEBRUSH BUSH. 25
sporadically throughout Callicarpa bodinieri taken in early spring. species, shrubs and small trees, ever-
the year under glass. Grow var. giraldii ‘Profusion’ C.americana (southern green with slender, arching branches
in full sun in a loamy medium N America, West Indies; much- and narrow leaves; these emerge pink
with extra sand and grit. Provide branched shrub to 3m (10ft) tall with and silky and harden leathery, smooth
a minimum winter temperature of red-purple, hairy twigs; leaves colour- and dark green. Produced in summer,
5°C/41°F. Water and syringe freely ing bronze, pink and flame in autumn; the flowers consist of bundles of long
in summer. Keep rather dry in winter. fruit 6mm (1/4in)-wide in shades of rose- and spreading stamens. They are held
Prune if necessary, after flowering. An pink, red-violet and blue-mauve – off- flush with the branch on one- to two-
excellent choice for indoor bonsai. white in ‘Lactea’); C.bodinieri var. giraldii year-old wood in a cylindrical arrange-
Propagate from seed soaked in warm (BEAUTYBERRY; China; 3m (10ft)-tall ment – the whole resembling a
water for 24 hours then sown in a shrub with slender, spreading branches bottlebrush. The following are hardy in
moist, sandy mix at 23°C/73°F. clothed in tawny hair; leaves turning zone 7, or in favoured locations in zone
C.eriophylla (MOCK MESQUITE, purple-red to amber in autumn; fruit 6. C.sieberi will thrive in most regions in
MESQUITILLA, FAIRY DUSTER; California 2–3mm (1/16–1/8in)-wide, shining zone 6. Plant in full sun on a fast-
to Mexico; spreading shrub to 1 x 1.5m amethyst purple or deep mauve – draining soil, ideally with the shelter
(31/4 to 5ft) with 2.5cm (1in)-long leaves abundant and violet in ‘Profusion’). of a south-facing wall. Avoid pruning
composed of many tiny leaflets; flower- if possible. Propagate by semi-ripe
heads 2–3.5cm (3/4–11/2in) wide, with Callisia (from Greek kallos, beauty). cuttings in summer.
red to rosy pink or white stamens); Commelinaceae. Subtropical and tropi- C.citrinus (CRIMSON BOTTLEBRUSH;
C.haematocephala (PINK POWDER PUFF; S cal America. 20 species, tender peren- medium shrub to small tree; leaves
America; flat-topped, spreading shrub nial and annual herbs (those listed here lemon-scented if crushed; flowers
or tree to 6m (20ft), usually less in are perennial). Trailing and rooting, bright crimson with dark anthers;
cultivation; leaflets to 7cm (23/4in), thinly succulent stems are clothed in ‘Splendens’: dense spikes of carmine
emerging bronze-pink and hardening slightly fleshy, ovate to lanceolate flowers); C.linearis (NARROW-LEAVED
mid-green; flowerheads 6–9cm leaves. Small, white to pink and three- BOTTLEBRUSH; medium-sized shrub;
(21/2–31/2in) wide, white at the base of petalled flowers are produced through- leaves narrow; flowers dull red with
the stamens deeping through pink to out the year. C.elegans and C.repens are gold anthers); C.pallidus (LEMON BOT-
vivid red at their tips); C.tweedii fine plants for baskets and hanging pots TLEBRUSH; medium to tall shrub; flow-
(TRINIDAD, MEXICAN or BRAZILIAN and should be treated as for tender ers cream to yellow-green with yellow
136 FLAMEBUSH; warm Americas; spread- Tradescantia species. The remaining two anthers); C.rigidus (STIFF BOTTLEBRUSH;
ing, shrub to 2m (61/2ft) tall with fine, species prefer a gritty, loamy medium, small- to medium-sized shrub with
Calochortus
hard-edged leaves; flowers deep red); shaped, to 0.5cm (1/4in) long and borne Once established, this a remarkably
C.salignus (PINK TIPS, WILLOW BOTTLE- at the leaf axils, forming long and slen- drought-tolerant conifer. It will also
BRUSH, WHITE BOTTLEBRUSH; tall shrub der racemes on the branch tips. They survive harsh winds and poor soils.
to medium-sized tree with papery
white bark and narrow leaves; flowers
green-white, pink, red or rosy mauve);
differ from the flowers of Erica in the
calyx, which is typically pink and virtu-
ally conceals the corolla. This plant is
Propagate as for Chamaecyparis. The
genus is Armillaria-resistant.
C.decurrens (syn. Libocedrus decurrens;
C
C.sieberi (ALPINE BOTTLEBRUSH; erect to immensely variable, with over a thou- INCENSE CEDAR; western N America;
spreading, tall to dwarf shrub, with sand cultivars recorded. They range in broadly conical to pyramidal tree to
dense, short, pointed leaves; flowers height and habit from low and creep- 45m (150ft) tall with deeply fissured
cream to yellow); C.speciosus (ALBANY ing, to compact and domed to tall and red-brown bark and fans of rich green
BOTTLEBRUSH; erect, medium-sized cypress-like, in flower colour from pure foliage; cones 2.5cm (1in) long, oblong,
shrub with prominently veined, rigid white to pale pink, rose, lilac-pink, carried erect on pendulous shoots; size
and spreading leaves; flowers deep red magenta, salmon, crimson and mix- and habit vary according to climate –
or white with golden anthers); C.subula- tures thereof. Many are excellent dense and fastigiate in warm, moder-
tus (arching shrub to 1.5m (5ft) with foliage plants, colouring especially well ately dry summers and cool or cold
hard-pointed, narrow leaves; flowers in winter and early spring, with leaves winters, dense and broadly ovoid in
crimson); C.viminalis (WEEPING BOTTLE- ranging through deep emerald green to cool, wet summers and mild winters,
BRUSH; small shrub or tree with cascad- yellow, gold, orange, flame, bronze, broadly conic and open with level
ing branches; flowers bright red; ‘Red rusty red and purple-red. Fully hardy. branches in cold wet winters and hot,
Cascade’: strongly weeping, flowers Plant on sandy, well-drained, acid soils dry summers; ‘Aureovariegata’:
rose-red). in full sun. Further requirements as for medium-sized, foliage spattered with
hardy Erica species. yellow-cream; ‘Compacta’: habit glo-
Callistephus (from Greek kallos, bose to columnar, densely branched;
beauty and stephos, crown, referring to ‘Depressa’: dense, globose, dwarf,
the fruit appendages). Compositae. tinted bronze in winter; ‘Glauca’:
China. 1 species, C.chinensis (CHINA foliage glaucous, tinted blue-grey;
ASTER), an erect and bushy annual ‘Intricata’: dwarf, compact, with tortu-
herb to 80cm (32in) tall with coarsely ous branches, foliage tinted brown in
toothed, ovate leaves to 8cm (3in) long. winter; ‘Riet’: globose, dwarf, seldom
Produced in summer and autumn, the exceeding 75cm (30in)).
flowerheads resemble large daisies or
chrysanthemums. To 12cm (43/4in) Calochortus (from Greek kalos,
across, they are typically white to pale beautiful, and chortos, grass, referring to
mauve or violet with a central disc of the grassy leaves). Liliaceae (Calochor-
yellow. Seed races range in flower Callused pruning wound taceae). N America to Guatemala
form from single to double, anemone- Callus tissue forms across wounds to prevent (those listed here are from the SW US,
centred to quilled, in colour from white entry by harmful pathogens. Careful pruning principally California). 60 species, bul-
to cream, palest pink, flamingo pink, helps this process occur as quickly as possible. bous perennial herbs with grassy leaves
deep rose, magenta, apricot, peach, and erect, branched stems bearing
salmon, scarlet, crimson, lilac and deep callus an abnormal or isolated thick- showy flowers in spring and summer.
purple, and in habit from dwarf and ening of tissue, either produced in They fall into three groups: GLOBE
compact to tall and long-stalked. Sow response to wounding or abscission or TULIPS or FAIRY LANTERNS with several,
seed under glass in early spring or out- as a surface feature of leaves and peri- nodding, globose to campanulate flow-
doors in late spring. Plant out after the anth segments. It is important in prop- ers; STAR TULIPS, with erect, campanu-
last frosts in full sun on a well-drained, agation by cuttings and in one method late to cup-shaped flowers, usually with
fertile soil. Stake taller cultivars. Dead- of tissue culture (see micro-propagation). the petal margins rolled outwards and
head regularly. Callus tissue may also occur as protu- (in C.tolmiei) covered in hairs; and
berances on the lips of many orchid MARIPOSA LILIES, with large, cup-
Calluna (from Greek kallunein, to flowers. shaped flowers on tall stems. Calochortus
beautify, referring to its use as a brush flowers consist of three, narrow sepals
or broom). Ericaceae. N America, Calocedrus (from Greek kalos, beau- and three broad petals with a semi-cir-
Azores, N and W Europe to Siberia. tiful, and kedros, cedar). Cupressaceae. cular zone in their lower half that may
1 species, C.vulgaris (LING, SCOTS Western N America, E Asia. 3 species, be differently coloured, hairy and
HEATHER), a low and bushy evergreen large evergreen, coniferous trees with marked with a dark, glandular patch.
shrub to 60cm (24in) tall with many, flattened sprays of small, scale-like Although happiest in climatic zone
tiny, scale-like leaves overlapping on leaves and rounded to oblong, red- 9, Calochortus may survive outdoors in
the narrow, upright branches. Pro- brown cones. Fully hardy. Plant in any favoured locations in zones 7 and 8.
duced in summer and autumn, the but the wettest and heaviest soils in full Plant in a deep, freely draining, sandy 137
flowers are shortly tubular to bell- sun. Water young plants in dry climates. soil in a sheltered position in full sun.
Calochortus
Keep just damp in autumn and winter, MARIPOSA TULIP; 20–60cm (8–24in); deep red with golden anthers); C.san-
moist in late winter and spring. After flowers 5–10cm (2–4in) in diameter, guineus (BLOOD RED NET BUSH; much-
flowering, keep dry until mid-autumn, white to yellow or purple or dark red, branched, dwarf to medium-sized
C allowing the foliage to wither and the

soil to bake. In many places, these con-
ditions are more easily achieved in a
petals bearded below, with a dark red-
brown spot); C.vestae (similar to C.venustus,
petals white to purple-tinged streaked
shrub; inflorescence to 10cm (4in), sta-
mens to 2.5cm (1in), not equal, deep
red with golden anthers); C.validus (BAR-
raised bed with covers, or in pots and with red to purple near base and each RENS CLAW FLOWER; erect, rounded,
pans in the alpine house or bulb frame. with a central brown spot edged with medium-sized shrub (i.e. to 2m (61/2ft));
Leave the bulbs in the ground or in yellow); C.weedii (30–60cm (12–24in); inflorescence to 5cm (2in) long, sta-
their containers during dormancy. flowers erect, campanulate, petals to mens to 4cm (11/2in) long, of equal
Propagate by ripe seed in the cool 3cm (11/4in), deep yellow with purple length, rich red with golden anthers);
greenhouse or frame, by offsets when dots or margins, bearded and fringed). C.villosus (SILKY NET BUSH; downy,
dormant, or from bulbils which some- upright to spreading, small to medium-
times form in the leaf axils. Calomeria (from Greek, kalos, beau- sized shrub; branches hairy; inflores-
C.albus (WHITE GLOBE LILY, FAIRY tiful, and meris, part, in reference to the cence to 10cm (4in), stamens equal,
LANTERN; 20–80cm (8–32in); flowers capitula). Compositae. Africa, Mada- bright red with golden anthers).
to 6cm (21/2in) in diameter, petals gascar, Australia. 14 species, annual to
broad, white, bearded with a deep red- perennial herbs with small, button-like Caltha (name of a yellow flower, used
brown spot); C.amabilis (GOLDEN FAIRY flowerheads in large, much-branched by Virgil and Pliny). Ranunculaceae.
LANTERN; 10–30cm (4–12in); flowers panicles in summer. A spectacular Temperate regions. 10 species, peren-
to 5cm (2in) in diameter, petals golden biennial grown in the cool greenhouse nial herbs with long-stalked, rounded
yellow, fringed, bearded); C.amoenus (minimum temperature 7°C/45°F) or to reniform leaves and cymes of butter-
(PURPLE GLOBE TULIP; like a shorter in subtropical bedding schemes. Sow cup-like flowers composed of broad,
C.albus, with nodding, deep rose or seed in summer under glass. Grow on petal-like sepals in yellow or white.
mauve flowers); C.barbatus (to 60cm in individual pots in a fertile, loam- Fully hardy and spring flowering, they
(24in); flowers nodding, campanulate, based mix in a well-ventilated, sunny will grow in sun or part shade in moist
to 5cm (2in) in diameter, petals yellow, greenhouse. Water moderately when in or saturated soils (neutral to acid for
often tinted rose or mauve, bearded growth, scarcely at all in winter. Pot on C.leptosepala). They thrive at the mar-
and fringed); C.clavatus (50–100cm to flower in large containers, or plant gins of ponds, streams and lakes and
(20–39in); flowers erect, cup-shaped, outdoors in a warm and sunny position may even be partially submerged. The
8–10cm (3–4in) in diameter, bright in late spring. Support with canes. smaller cultivars are suitable for damp
yellow, lower half of petals covered in C.amaranthoides (syn. Humea elegans; positions in the rock garden. Propagate
hairs and bounded by a dark brown INCENSE PLANT, PLUME BUSH; Australia; by division in spring, or from fresh seed
arc); C.kennedyi (to 50cm (20in); flowers robust and intensely aromatic biennial sown in late summer in the cold frame.
campanulate, erect, 5–10cm (2–4in) in or perennial to 2m (61/2ft) or taller; C.leptosepala (N America; to 30cm
diameter, petals rich orange to vermil- flowerheads small, red-brown to pink, (12in) tall; flowers white with a golden
ion with a glossy, black gland and hairs massed on the cascading branches of a boss of stamens); C.palustris (KINGCUP,
toward the base); C.luteus (similar to broad panicle). MARSH MARIGOLD, MEADOW BRIGHT;
C.venustus with erect, campanulate dark northern temperate regions; variable,
yellow flowers with dark brown mark- Calothamnus (from Greek kalos, from 10–80cm (4–32in) tall, low and
ings and hairs toward base of petals); beautiful, and thamnos, bush or shrub). compact to tall and rangy; flowers rich
C.splendens (LILAC MARIPOSA; 20–60cm Myrtaceae. Western Australia. NET golden yellow sepals; includes creeping,
(8–24in); flowers erect, campanulate, BUSH. 25 species, small to large ever- alpine and very large forms; ‘Flore-
5–10cm (2–4in) in diameter, petals pale green shrubs with wand-like branches pleno’ has fully double flowers).
pink with fine teeth and hairs); C.super- clothed in papery bark and rigid,
bus (similar to C.venustus, flowers cam- narrow, terete or flat leaves. The flow- Calycanthus (from Greek kalyx,
panulate, petals white, cream or yellow, ers grow directly from the old wood calyx and anthos, flower – the sepals
streaked purple at base usually with a and below the new growth, forming a and petals are alike). Calycanthaceae.
brown or maroon spot surrounded with stemless, crowded spike or cluster China, US. ALLSPICE, SPICE BUSH. 6
yellow); C.tolmiei (syn. C.maweanus; CAT’S composed of long, brilliantly coloured species, spicily aromatic, deciduous
EARS, PUSSY EARS; 5–30cm (2–12in); stamens, the whole resembling a one- shrubs, to 4m (12ft) tall, with dull to
flowers open-campanulate, erect or sided Callistemon inflorescence. The fol- glossy dark green, elliptic to obovate
spreading, 2–5cm (3/4–2in) in diameter, lowing species should be cultivated as leaves and solitary flowers in summer.
white or cream often tinged rose or for Callistemon but kept rather dry and These are composed of numerous, sim-
purple, petals hairy and fringed); C.uni- frost-free in winter. ilar sepals and petals, oblong to
florus (syn. C.lilacinus; STAR TULIP; stem C.quadrifidus (COMMON NET BUSH, oblanceolate and spreading. Fully
very short, flowers 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in) 2–3m (61/2–10ft), upright to spreading; hardy, they will thrive on most fertile,
138 in diameter, petals pale lilac, sometimes flower spikes to 20cm (8in) long, sta- moist, but well-drained soils in sun or
toothed and bearded); C.venustus (WHITE mens to 2.5cm (1in), of equal length, part shade. Increase by seed harvested
Camellia
from the distinctive, goblet-shaped cap- blue, larger and deep blue in the culti- C.japonica at –13°C/9°F. At a tempera-
sules in autumn, or by softwood cut- var ‘Zwanenburg’); C.leichtlinii (flowers ture of –22°C/–8°F, considerable
tings in summer. 4–8cm (11/2–3in) across, creamy white, damage can be expected to established
C.fertilis (SE US; leaves more or less
smooth beneath; flowers to 5cm (2in) in
diameter, purple-red to maroon, slightly
blue or violet, carried on a raceme to
120cm (48in) tall; in this species, the
tepals always twist together as they
plants; smaller ones are liable to ‘bark-
split’ and can be cut to the ground;
such plants should be pruned back to
C
fragrant; includes the dwarf ‘Nanus’, wither: this never happens in C.cusickii just above ground level; most will re-
and ‘Purpureus’, with leaves tinted and only sometimes in C.quamash; grow. If severe frost persists, and espe-
purple beneath); C.floridus (syn. C.sterilis; includes ‘Plena’ and ‘Semiplena’, with cially if it is accompanied by strong
CAROLINA ALLSPICE, STRAWBERRY SHRUB; creamy white flowers, double and semi- winds, even large plants will be killed.
SE US; leaves hairy beneath; flowers to double respectively; subsp. suksdorfii As the term ‘camellia house’ would
5cm (2in) in diameter, dark maroon, ‘Blauwe Donau’, with dark blue flow- suggest, most will thrive in an unheated
strawberry-scented); C.occidentalis (CALI- ers, and subsp. suksdorfii ‘Electra’, with glasshouse, given a cool root-run,
FORNIAN ALLSPICE, SPICE BUSH; distin- rich blue flowers to 10cm (4in) across); excellent ventilation and protection
guished from C.fertilis by the summer C.quamash (syn. C.esculenta; flowers from scorching sun. Free drainage is
buds that are concealed by petiole 2–7cm (3/4–23/4in) wide, white to pale very important. Where soils are very
bases; flowers to 7cm (23/4in) in diame- violet or blue, carried loosely on impermeable or alkaline, raised beds
ter, maroon fading to yellow, fragrant). racemes to 60cm (24in) tall; includes can be made of slightly acid sand,
‘Orion’, with a denser raceme and sandy compost or light topsoil, topped
calyptra a hood or cap-like structure flowers that are deep purple in bud, up with a moderately acid mulch. If
ending a circumscissile calyx or pyxis. opening dark, steely blue). necessary, prune in spring after flower-
ing and before growth starts. Neglected
calyx a collective term for the sepals, cambium secondary or inner meris- large plants can be rejuvenated by hard
(separate or united) that form the outer tem that increases the girth of a plant pruning, although a season’s flowering
whorl of the perianth or floral envelope. stem or root by adding vascular tissue. will be lost. Increase by semi-ripe cut-
tings of the current season’s growth.
Camellia (for Georg Kamel [Camel- Insert them into a moist, fine mix
sepals that lus] (1661–1706), Moravian Jesuit who under mist, glass or polythene, after
protected bud travelled in Asia and wrote a history of being wounded and dipped into a hor-
remain once
petals drop the plants of Luzon published in 1704 mone rooting powder. Some cultivars,
by John Ray). Theaceae. Asia. particularly those of C.reticulata, dislike
About 250 species, evergreen root disturbance and are best rooted
shrubs or trees with elliptic to directly into small individual pots. Side
lanceolate, tough and shiny leaves. The or cleft grafting is also used for these
flowers are solitary or clustered, bowl- and especially for promising new culti-
shaped and composed of 5–12, broad, vars. Most new cultivars are raised
Calyx silky petals and a central boss of from seed. Fresh seed germinates easily,
golden stamens. Camellias need cool especially with bottom heat.
Camassia (from quamash, so-named winters and many will tolerate moder- Camellias are affected by a number
by Native Americans for whom the ate frosts but they must have good of pests. Scale insects are often the
bulbs of C.quamash were an important drainage, plenty of organic matter in most important and the sooty mould
foodstuff). Liliaceae (Hyacinthaceae). the soil, and a pH between 5 and 7. they engender is a serious disfigure-
Americas (those listed here are from C.japonica prefers the more acid end of ment. Diseases include the soil-borne
western N America). CAMASS, QUA- this range, most other species nearer to Phytophthora cinnamomi. Plants grafted
MASH, CAMOSH. 6 species, deciduous, neutral. They need warmth and some onto C. sasanqua are virtually immune.
bulbous perennial herbs with narrow sunlight in late summer to form flower Camellia dieback, Glomerella cingulata, is
leaves and, in late spring and early buds which open during the following chiefly a problem with C. sasanqua and
summer, tall spikes of white, blue or autumn, winter or spring. In cold cli- C. x williamsii on very acid soils. In
violet, star-like flowers with six, linear mates, the flowers and young growth areas where dieback is endemic, spray
to oblong tepals. Plant in a deep, mois- may be damaged by cold winds and after pruning and treat cuttings and
ture-retentive and fertile soil in full sun late frosts. Partial shade tempers late grafts before use by soaking in a fungi-
or light shade. Where temperatures fall frosts and hot sun; this is especially cidal solution. Widespread in the Far
below –15°C/5°F for long periods, important for young plants. If their East and North America, flower blight,
mulch the crowns thickly. Propagate by roots are cool, established bushes of Ciborinia camelliae, is spread by affected
seed, by offsets or by division of estab- many cultivars of C.japonica and most flowers. The recommended treatment
lished clumps in autumn or early of C.reticulata and C.sasanqua will flour- is to remove lower branches, clear all
spring. ish in full sun in all but very hot cli- vegetation beneath the bushes, apply a
C.cusickii (raceme dense, standing to mates. C.japonica is the hardiest species. dry mulch and spray with fungicide. 139
1m (31/4ft); flowers 5cm (2in) wide, pale Damage can occur in some forms of (See table overleaf.)
Camellia
C AMELLIA
Name Distribution Habit Leaves Flowers Flowering time
C C.chrysantha S China open shrub or

tree to 5m
(161⁄2ft)
10–17cm (4–63⁄4in), oblong-
lanceolate, acuminate, dark
green, tough
cup-shaped, single; petals
2–5cm (3⁄4–2in), 9–11,
pure yellow
spring
C.cuspidata W China bushy shrub, erect 5–7.5cm (2–3in), elliptic to cup-shaped, single; petals early spring
to 3m (10ft) lanceolate, acuminate to 6–7, to 3cm (11⁄4in), white
caudate, serrulate, bronze at
first, later dark, glossy green
C.granthamiana Hong Kong open shrub to to 10cm (4in), elliptic to oblong- fragrant, saucer-shaped, late autumn
3m (10ft) elliptic, bluntly acuminate, single; petals 8, to 7cm
bluntly toothed, glossy deep (23⁄4in), white, broad and
green with impressed veins cleft at tips
C.hiemalis erect, bushy 6–9cm (21⁄2–31⁄2in), oblong- fragrant, cup-shaped, semi- late autumn
(C. japonica x shrub or tree to lanceolate, serrulate double; petals 7, to 3.5cm to winter
C. sasanqua) 3m (10ft) (11⁄2in), white, pink or red
C.honkongensis Hong Kong bushy shrub or to 12cm (43⁄4in), oblong-elliptic, cup-shaped, single; petals late spring
tree to 10m (33ft) tip shortly tapered, iridescent 6–7, 3cm (11⁄4in), broad and
bronze at first, hardening dark, blunt or cleft, deep crimson
glossy green with velvety undersides
C.japonica Japan shrub or small 5–10cm (2–4in), broadly elliptic saucer-shaped, single to late winter to
C.hozanensis tree to 10m (33ft), to elliptic-oblong, apex briefly double; petals typically 5–6, early spring
usually less in acuminate, finely toothed, rigid to 4cm (11⁄2in), red, broad
gardens and glossy dark green and rounded to cleft
Comments: The common camellia of gardens, with over 2000 picotee forms. The stamens are typically golden and showy, but may be
cultivars varying greatly in habit, hardiness, leaf shape and colour. replaced to varying degrees by petaloid growths. The Higo Japonicas
The flowers range in type from formal to semi-doubles, peony-, rose- are an ancient group of cultivars developed in Japan and characterized
and anemone-forms, and in colour from pure white to pale pink, deep by large and single, flat flowers with bosses of golden anthers or
rose, crimson and velvety scarlet, including bicolours, striped and petaloids.
C. x maliflora erect, bushy and 3.5–5cm (11⁄2–2in), oblong- dish to cup-shaped, semi- spring
(parentage obscure) densely leafy shrub elliptic to broadly lanceolate, double; petals and petaloids
to 2.5m (8ft) apex bluntly acute to numerous, to 2cm (3⁄4in)
acuminate, finely toothed, across, blush rose, often
thin-textured, mid-green white at centre with deeper
rose margins
C.oleifera China, bushy shrub or 4–9cm (11⁄2–31⁄2in), elliptic to fragrant, cup-shaped, single; early spring
Indochina small tree to 7m oblong-acuminate, apex acute petals 5–7, to 3.5cm (11⁄2in),
(23ft) or acuminate, finely toothed, obovate with rounded, cleft
dark green tips, white, sometimes
Comments: FORTUNE’S YELLOW CAMELLIA is the cultivar flushed pink
‘Jaune’, with white petals and a dense boss of yellow petaloids.
140 C.japonica ‘Alexander Hunter’ C.reticulata ‘Miss Tulare’ C.saluenensis

Camellia
C AMELLIA
Name Distribution Habit Leaves Flowers Flowering time
C.reticulata China loose-branched
shrub or tree to
15m (50ft)
8–12cm (3–43⁄4in), broadly
elliptic to oblong-elliptic,
apex acute to shortly
saucer-shaped, single; petals
5–6, to 5cm (2in), broad and
often cleft, crimson to rose
spring
C
acuminate, finely toothed, pink or white (in the typical
Comments: Over 400 cultivars and hybrids, ranging in tough, dark green plant, now known as
flower form from cupped to bowl-shaped, single to double, ‘Captain Rawes’, the flowers
some with wavy petals and petaloids. Colours from white were semi-double, very large
to pale rose, deep pink, crimson and dark cherry red. and carmine)
C.rosiflora China spreading shrub 4–8cm (11⁄2–3in), elliptic, saucer-shaped, single; petals spring
to 1m (31⁄4ft) bluntly acuminate, finely 6–9, to 1.8cm (3⁄4in), some-
toothed, dark green times notched, pale rose
C.saluenensis W China bushy shrub to 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), oblong- cup-shaped, single; petals early spring
5m (161⁄2ft) elliptic, apex acute to blunt, 6–7, to 3cm (11⁄4in), broadly
finely toothed, glossy dark oval, notched, shell pink to
green with conspicuous veins deep rose, or white
Comments: Includes cultivars with semi-double and rosebud-like flowers, some with ruffled or irregular petals, in shades of white and pale pink
tinted or veined with darker rose, also solid pale pink and coral.
C.sasanqua Japan erect, bushy shrub 3–8cm (11⁄4–3in), elliptic to fragrant, dish- to cup-shaped, autumn
or small tree to oblong, acute to cuspidate, single to semi-double; petals
5m (161⁄2ft) finely toothed, bright 6–8, to 3.5cm (11⁄2in), rounded
glossy green to notched, white to rose
Comments: Many cultivars are available including plants with a cupped to spreading, single to double, in tones of white, pink, salmon,
compact and densely bushy habit and handsome foliage, especially cerise and red, often with one of these colours tinting, edging or
when newly emerged. The flowers range from small to large, tightly overlaying a paler background.
C.tsaii Burma, shrub to 3m (10ft) 6–9cm (21⁄2–31⁄2in), oblong- cup-shaped, single; petals 5, spring
N Vietnam, lanceolate, apex acuminate or 2cm (3⁄4in), broad, entire to
W China caudate, finely toothed and cleft, white
somewhat undulate, dark glossy
green, bronze-tinted with age
C. x vernalis erect shrub to 3.5–7.5cm (11⁄2–3in), elliptic- fragrant, dish- to cup-shaped, late winter
(C.japonica x C.sasanqua) 3m (10ft) oblanceolate, apex bluntly single to semi-double, white
tapered, finely toothed, bright, sometimes suffused pink or
glossy green solid rose to red
C. x williamsii erect to spreading 7–10cm (23⁄4–4in), elliptic to cup-shaped, single, 5–12cm early spring
(C.saluenensis x C.japonica) shrub to 4m (13ft) oblong-lanceolate, shallowly (2in–43⁄4in) diam., white
and finely toothed, bright, flushed rose or pale rose
shining green with deeper centres
Comments: Many cultivars are available, including singles, semi-doubles and doubles, anemone- and peony-forms, in shades of white, pink, rose
and red, sometimes tinted with a deeper shade. ‘Golden Spangles’ has deep pink flowers and yellow-green-variegated leaves.
C.sasanqua ‘Narumigata’ C.tsaii C. x williamsii ‘Anticipation’ 141

Campanula
Campanula (diminutive form of the and gritty alpine mix with plentiful toward the margin without forming
Latin campana, a bell, alluding to the water in spring and summer, and to be loops.
shape of the flower). Campanulaceae. kept dry but not arid in winter. Propa-
C BELLFLOWER. Temperate N Hemi-

sphere. Some 300 species, annual,
biennial or perennial herbs varying
gate biennials by seed, perennials by
seed, division and basal cuttings;
smaller alpines can also be propagated
canal a narrow, rectilinear stretch of
water. Canals are a feature of western
and Mogul formal gardens and are
greatly in habit and size. The flowers by the removal of rooted offsets. (See often associated with fountains.
are typically bell-shaped and produced table opposite.)
in spring and summer. With very few canaliculate channelled with a long,
exceptions, C.isophylla, C.pyramidalis and campanulate of a corolla; bell- concave groove, like a gutter.
C.vidalii among them, most are reliably shaped; a broad tube terminating in a
hardy to between –15 and –20°C/5 to flared limb or lobes. Canarina (from the habitat of
–4°F, although several alpine species C.canariensis). Campanulaceae. Canary
dislike a combination of winter cold Campsis (from Greek kampsis, bend- Islands, tropical E Africa. 3 species,
and wet. The larger perennials are ing: the stamens are curved). Bignoni- fleshy-rooted, scrambling, perennial
invaluable in the herbaceous and aceae. E Asia, N America. TRUMPET herbs differing from Campanula in their
mixed border. These include lower- CREEPER. 2 species, deciduous vines 6-parted flowers and berry-like fruit.
growing species for the foreground of clinging by means of aerial roots. The Provide a minimum temperature of
borders, such as C.carpatica and the leaves are pinnate with saw-toothed, 7°C/45°F, full sun and an airy atmos-
slightly taller and invasive C.glomerata. ovate to lanceolate leaflets. Borne in phere. Water moderately during the
C.persicifolia, reaching almost 1m (31/4ft) summer in terminal cymes or panicles, growing and flowering period (late
in height, is especially elegant. The the flowers are large and funnel-shaped autumn to mid-spring) and provide
clump-forming, deeply rooting C.latifo- with five short, spreading lobes. Plant support. Keep just dry during summer
lia, and the undemanding C.lactiflora in full sun or light shade in a warm, dormancy and remove faded growth.
are among the tallest hardy species. sheltered position on a medium- to Increase by seed, division or basal cut-
They may need staking in exposed high-fertility, loam-based soil with plen- tings. C.canariensis (syn. C.campanula;
positions, but otherwise need only a tiful water in spring and summer. CANARY ISLAND BELLFLOWER; to 1.5m
moderately fertile and well-drained soil C.grandiflora is hardy to –10°C/14°F, (5ft); leaves hastate, serrate to sinuate;
in sun or light shade. Many of the C.radicans to –20°C/–4°F. Hardiness is flowers large, pendulous, waxy, orange-
long-stemmed perennials make beauti- improved in places where summers are yellow striped blood red to maroon,
ful cut flowers. Magnificent but slightly long and hot enough to ripen new bell-shaped, with an upturned rim).
frost-tender, C.pyramidalis is more safely wood fully. Train on walls, fences,
grown in the cool greenhouse or con- trellis and trees. Propagate Campsis by candelabriform of branching pat-
servatory in cool temperate regions, simple layering or by semi-ripe to terns and stellate hairs; candelabra-like,
and may be moved out of doors for the hardwood cuttings in a cold frame in with tiered whorls or ranks of radiating
summer months. This species, C.iso- autumn. or divergent branches.
phylla and C.vidalii need a moist but C.grandiflora (syn. C.chinensis; China,
freely draining, medium-fertility, loam- Japan; to 6m (20ft) tall with few or no cane the slender stem of a clump-
based potting mix, bright indirect light aerial roots; flowers to 5 x 6cm (2 x forming perennial, produced annually
and good ventilation with a winter 21/2in), orange outside and deep yellow and usually completing its development
minimum of 7°C/45°F. C.medium is a inside; includes the hardier ‘Thun- within a year or two. Canes are typi-
biennial, usually sown in summer for bergii’, with orange flowers produced cally rather hard and jointed and may
early summer bloom in the following later in the season); C.radicans (SE US; be hollow and silica-rich as in bam-
season; plants are overwintered in situ differs from the last species in its abun- boos, woody as in Rubus, or fleshy as in
or lifted and overwintered in the cool dant aerial roots and larger flowers, Dendrobium.
glasshouse. Alternatively, seed sown pale orange with a yellow interior and
under glass in late winter/early spring flame to scarlet lobes; includes f.flava, cane fruit a collective term for rasp-
will flower in its first year. with large flowers of a solid rich yellow, berry, blackberry and hybrid berries, cf.
Many of the smaller species suit rock ‘Praecox’, with scarlet flowers, and bush fruit.
gardens, troughs and dry stone walls. ‘Speciosa’, shrubby and weakly climb-
Most make few demands other than a ing, with small, flaming orange flow- canescent hoary, or becoming so;
gritty, well-drained, moisture-retentive, ers); C. x tagliabuana (hybrid offspring of densely covered with short, grey-white
neutral or limy soil, in sun or light C.grandiflora and C.radicans; the best- pubescence.
shade. C.morettiana is suitable for tufa known is ‘Madame Galen’, with deep
rock plantings and deserves protected apricot to salmon flowers to 8cm (3in) cane spot (Elsinoe veneta) a fungus
cultivation in the alpine house. Other across and dark green foliage). causing spotting of the main stems,
delicate species requiring protection leaves and flower stalks of cane fruits,
142 from winter wet include C.betulifolia, camptodromous describing vena- especially in wet seasons. The spots are
C.raineri and C.zoysii. These need a lean tion in which the secondary veins curve purple, later turning grey with purple
Campanula
C AMPANULA
C.alliariifolia Caucasus,
Asia Minor
hairy, erect perennial
to 70cm (28in)
to 8cm (3in), cordate, hairy campanulate, blue or white with bearded
lobes, nodding in erect racemes C
C.barbata Norway, tufted, short-lived lanceolate to strap-shaped, hairy campanulate with ciliate lobes, lavender
BEARDED BELL-FLOWER Alps perennial or biennial to white, nodding in one-sided racemes
to 50cm (20in)
C.betulifolia Armenia perennial with erect, ovate to lanceolate, toothed tubular-campanulate, erect to nodding,
then arching, white to pink with a deep pink flush on
purple-tinted stems the exterior
to 30cm (12in)
C.carpatica Carpathian clump-forming heart-shaped to ovate, crenate broadly campanulate, blue or white,
CARPATHIAN Mountains perennial to large, erect, solitary and long-stalked
BELLFLOWER 40cm (16in)
Comments: Includes cultivars with flowers in shades of white, pearl, lilac, lavender and blue.
C.cochleariifolia Europe tufted and creeping small, broadly heart-shaped to campanulate, solitary, nodding, blue to
C.pusilla dwarf perennial ovate, toothed pearl or white
FAIRIES’ THIMBLES
Comments: Includes cultivars ranging in flower colour from pale to deep blue, silver-blue to pure white, some double.
C.elatines Adriatic tufted, compact rounded to heart-shaped, finely campanulate to rotate and starry, with
ADRIATIC BELLFLOWER Coast perennial to toothed deflexed lobes, blue or white in loose
15cm (6in) spikes or panicles
C.garganica Italy close to C.elatines ovate to cordate star- to bell-shaped, in shades of

lavender blue
Comments: Includes cultivars with white, pale lilac, lavender and deep mauve blue flowers;
‘Dickson’s Gold’ has golden leaves and blue, star-shaped flowers; ‘W.H. Paine’ has erect, starry
flowers, strong lavender blue with white centres.
C.glomerata Europe, bristly-hairy perennial oblong to ovate or lanceolate, violet-blue to white, broadly tubular,
CLUSTERED Temperate erect to 75cm (30in) wavy-toothed in dense, terminal heads subtended
BELLFLOWER Asia by bracts
C. x haylodgensis garden sprawling, tufted rounded to ovate or heart-shaped, campanulate, large, pale blue or white
C.carpatica x origin perennial to toothed
C.cochleariifolia 15cm (6in)
Comments: Includes double-flowered cultivars.
C.isophylla N Italy dwarf, trailing or broadly ovate to cordate, toothed campanulate to star-shaped, violet to
ITALIAN BELLFLOWER creeping perennial pearly grey or white, large, in erect,
FALLING STARS loose clusters
Comments: Includes cultivars with white-variegated and grey-downy leaves and flowers in shades of blue and white.
C.carpatica ‘Jewel’ C.glomerata ‘Superba’ C.isophylla C.latiloba ‘Hidcote Amethyst’ 143

Campanula
C AMPANULA
C C.lactiflora Caucasus
Comments: Includes cultivars with

erect perennial with
branching stems to
1.5m (5ft)
ovate to oblong, toothed broadly campanulate, milky blue fading to
a white centre, erect in a broad, leafy
panicle
white, lilac and violet flowers.
C.latifolia Europe to erect, unbranched, ovate to oblong with a heart- cup- to bell-shaped, pale blue to lavender,
Asia finely hairy perennial shaped base, toothed, hairy in axils or terminal clusters
to 1m (31⁄4ft)
Comments: Includes cultivars with white, indigo, purple and lilac flowers.
C.latiloba Siberia differs from C.persicifolia deep blue, lavender or white

in its broadly
lanceolate leaves on
narrowly winged stalks
C.medium S Europe hairy, erect, much- elliptic, hairy more or campanulate to urceolate with the lobes
CANTERBURY BELLS, branched biennial less toothed forming a curved-back rim, blue, lavender,
CUP AND SAUCER to 90cm (36in) tall mauve, pink, pale rose, cream or white,
sometimes with an enlarged calyx - the
Comments: Many seed races and cultivars. ‘saucer’ to the corolla ‘cup’, borne in
terminal racemes and panicles
C.morettiana N Italy, dwarf, tufted, hairy heart-shaped, crenate, more campanulate to funnel-shaped, violet-blue
Alps perennial or less smooth to white, solitary, erect
C.persicifolia Europe, erect, glabrous lanceolate to narrowly broadly campanulate, blue or white,
WILLOW BELL, N Africa, perennial to oblong, crenate, dark green nodding in a slender, terminal raceme
PEACH BELLS W Asia 70cm (28in)
Comments: Includes many cultivars – among them plants with flowers ranging from pure white to pink, lilac, indigo and darkest blue, some double.
C.portenschlagiana Europe tufted, downy perennial cordate to rounded, toothed funnel-shaped to campanulate with
with sprawling to short, deflexed lobes, deep lavender in
Comments: Includes cultivars with ascending stems to loose panicles
white, pale violet and vivid blue flowers. 25cm (10in) long
C.poscharskyana Balkans similar to funnelform to star-shaped, Comments: Includes cultivars with white,
C.portenschlagiana but lavender to violet pink, lavender and deep violet flowers.
less coarse with more
finely tapering and
toothed leaves
C.pulla E Europe short-lived, tufted very small, rounded to funnelform to campanulate, dark violet,
perennial to 12cm spathulate, toothed, glossy, solitary, nodding on slender stalks
(43⁄4in) tall, spreading in rosettes
by underground
runners
144 C.poscharskyana C.raineri C.takesimana ‘Elizabeth’ C.zoysii

canker
C AMPANULA
C.pyramidalis
CHIMNEY
BELLFLOWER
Europe biennial or short-lived
perennial attaining 2m
(61⁄2ft) in flower with a
heart-shaped broadly campanulate, fragrant, pale blue
to white C
stout base and a spire-
like or narrowly
pyramidal heavily Comments: A spectacular half-hardy plant best grown under glass or
branched inflorescence moved outdoors in summer to a very sheltered location.
C.raineri Switzerland, tufted perennial to 8cm obovate, toothed, grey broadly campanulate, large, erect, solitary,
Italy (3in), spreading by pale lavender blue
underground runners
C.rotundifolia N Hemisphere tufted perennial erect rounded to cordate, campanulate, white to deep blue or indigo,
BLUEBELL, HAREBELL to 45cm (18in) wavy-edged slender-stalked, solitary or few
C.takesimana Korea erect perennial to ovate to cordate, toothed tubular to campanulate, large, pendulous
60cm (24in) and lantern-like, lilac to white spotted dark
mauve-pink within, on an arching,
branched inflorescence
C.trachelium Europe, N erect, bristly-hairy ovate to cordate, tubular to campanulate, blue-purple to lilac
NETTLE-LEAVED Africa, Siberia red-tinted perennial crenate, bristly in dense panicles
BELLFLOWER, to 1m (31⁄4ft)
THROAT-WART
Comments: Includes white and blue, double-flowered cultivars.
C.vidalii Azores evergreen subshrub to narrow, glossy dark green campanulate to urceolate, waxy, dusky pink
Azorina vidalii 50cm (20in) tall to white, hanging in arching panicles
Comments: Tender.
C.zoysii Italian Alps tufted perennial to obovate to rounded cylindric to urceolate, pendulous, clear blue
10cm (4in) to pale mauve
margins, becoming sunken with the elliptical in shape as they grow, the Pearmain’ and ‘Spartan’. N.galligena can
outer tissue cracked. Die-back of canes bark shrinks in concentric rings, and also affect ash, beech, hawthorn,
and fruit infection may occur. Severely the branch usually swells; the stem may poplar and Sorbus species.
infected canes should be cut out and become girdled and die back. Spores Gibberella baccata f.sp. mori causes die-
burnt; where regularly a serious prob- infect bark through leaf scars or back of young shoots on mulberry; cut
lem a recommended fungicide spray wounds caused by frost, pruning, or out affected parts.
should be applied repeatedly, pests and diseases. Fruits are sometimes GARDENIA CANKER (Phomopsis garde-
commencing when the buds infected: the rot starts around the eye niae) enters through small wounds.
are early developed. sunken and extends. Cut off and burn small Swollen brown lesions occur near soil
lesion affected branches and spurs; level and may girdle the stem, resulting
canker a general term on larger branches, pare in death. Obtain cuttings from healthy
for a sunken necrotic back to healthy tissue using plants and raise in a sterile medium.
lesion of a root or stem, a knife sterilized in sodium ROSE CANKER is commonly caused
usually of a woody plant, hypochlorite; burn the par- by Leptosphaeria coniothyrium, but Cryp-
often with malformation ings and protect the wounds tosporella umbrina, Clethridium corticola and
and outgrowth of the sur- with a proprietary canker Coniothyrium wernsdorffiae can be
rounding bark. It is caused paint. A systemic fungicide involved. They enter through pruning
by a variety of fungi and programme for the control wounds. Protect larger cuts with canker
bacteria. of scab and mildew should paint, and spray with an approved
APPLE AND PEAR CANKER also keep canker in check. fungicide at pruning time.
(Nectria galligena) is a fungus Wet, heavy soil aggravates CYPRESS CANKER (mainly Seiridium
that kills twigs and fruit spurs canker, especially on sus- cardinale) is recorded throughout the
and often forms deep cankers ceptible apple cultivars such world, and is usually referred to as
on older branches. The as ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’, CORYNEUM CANKER. Members of the 145
cankers elongate and become Canker ‘James Grieve’, ‘Worcester Cupressaceae vary in susceptibility: the
canker
Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa), EUTYPA CANKER and die-back common on oilseed rape (Brassica napus)
Italian cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) (Eutypa lata), also known as DEAD ARM and often affects broccoli (B.oleracea
and Leyland cypress ( x Cupressocyparis or DYING ARM, is a serious disease of Italica Group) and Brussels sprouts
C leylandii) are highly susceptible; the

Lawson cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoni-
ana) and Thuja plicata are relatively
the grapevine (Vitis species) and of
apricot (Prunus armeniaca) in Europe,
Australia, North America and South
(B.oleracea Gemmifera Group), espe-
cially when grown from home-saved
seed. Elongated, sunken lesions dotted
resistant; Juniperus sabina and Thuja occi- Africa. Phomopsis viticola is a common with black fungal bodies occur at
dentalis are resistant. In Britain, the dis- secondary invader of dead arm infec- ground level, and small, circular brown
ease is most severe on the Monterey tion. Several strains of E.lata occur, all spots on leaves. On swedes (B.napus
and Italian cypresses. The first symp- pathogenic to the grapevine but of dif- Napobrassica Group) and turnips
toms are fading and death of old ferent degrees of virulence to apricot. (B.rapa Rapifera Group), the canker
foliage at branch ends in spring, fol- The fungus is widespread as a sec- causes a dry rot on roots. The fungus is
lowed by the death of new growth and ondary organism on the dead twigs of seed-borne; commercial seed will nor-
dying back of branches. Infection of woody plants such as apple, ash, mally be derived from healthy crops
bark and sapwood results from injury hawthorn and ivy, which act as a con- and treated with fungicide.
to twigs, branches or the main stem. stant source of infection. The fungus is BLACK CANKER of parsnips is caused
Cankers may be 10–15cm (4–6in) long not usually seen on vines less than by Itersonilia pastinacae and Phoma
and 25mm (1in) wide; they become seven years old. First symptoms are species. Lesions on roots spread and
sunken as the rest of the stem contin- weak growth of the new season’s shoots develop into black rot around the
ues to grow. On young, vigorous trees, in mid-spring; the leaves are small and shoulder and crown. On black fen soils,
resin exudes from the margins of distorted and may become yellowed canker may also be caused by Mycocen-
lesions. Young trees with main-stem and spotted. The vascular tissue of trospora acerina, where the rot is purple
cankers can be killed within a year; dying branches shows dead areas rather than black. An orange-brown
multiple cankers on older trees can beneath pruning wounds; death of canker with roughened skin is caused
result in death within 5–10 years. The these branches (dead arm) occurs the by other weakly parasitic soil-inhabit-
canker is spread locally by water splash following year. Symptoms on apricots ing fungi. Spores of Itersonilia arise
or during cultural operations. All are cankers on branches, usually with from leaf spots and are washed into
infected branches should be cut out gumming, resulting in dead foliage that the soil to cause original infection.
well below the cankers, and badly remains attached to the tree until winter; Earthing up roots, rotation and close
affected trees removed. death of the branch follows. Remove spacing are useful control measures.
CANKER STAIN of Platanus (Ceratocystis and burn dead wood during dry spells; The cultivar ‘Avonresister’ is resistant
fimbriata f.sp. platani) is a lethal disease of treat pruning wounds with fungicide or to all three types of canker. See bleeding
the London plane (P.acerifolia) in North antagonistic fungus immediately after canker.
America. It is spreading in Europe, but pruning. Pneumatic secateurs with a
is not recorded in the UK. Infection spraying attachment combine pruning cankerworm see winter moths.
enters through wounds in the bark or and treatment operations.
sapwood, and can also be introduced BOX CANKER and BLIGHT is caused Canna (a Classical name for a type of
from diseased trees on saws, ropes and by Pseudonectria rousseliana and Cylindro- reed). Cannaceae. New World subtrop-
even wood-protection paints. Several cladium buxicola. Affected plants are slow ics and tropics. 9 species, tender or
species of Nitidulid sap beetles have to start into growth in the spring, and semi-hardy perennial herbs, deciduous
been reported as carriers. Symptoms foliage becomes straw-coloured; dis- to evergreen with fleshy rhizomes,
are darkly stained lesions in underlying eased leaves and branches are covered broad leaves, and, in late spring and
layers of bark and sapwood. Infected with pink fungal spore pustules. summer, erect to arching, terminal
sapwood dies and bark develops cankers. Cankers develop on main stems and racemes and panicles of showy flowers
Vertical spread is rapid, up to 3m (10ft) branches, often following winter injury. with three sepals, three petals, and one
a year. External symptoms are long, Remove all cankered stems and dead to four staminodes, some of them
shrunken, often cracked cankers follow- foliage, and apply an approved garden petal-like.
ing the grain of the wood. Infected tis- fungicide. Cultivars of C. x generalis are excel-
sues are killed and rapidly invaded by ELAEAGNUS CANKER (Phomopsis lent plants for the cool greenhouse or,
secondary wood-rotting fungi. Fully elaeagni) is a serious fungal disease of outdoors, in tubs and bedding displays,
grown trees decline following infection, Elaeagnus angustifolia, which is widely massed or as dot plants. Plant in a rich,
with thinning and yellowing of foliage planted in North America. It is preva- loamy, moist soil in full sun. Where
over a period of years, resulting in lent on nursery plants. Other species of frosts are common and hard, lift the
dieback and eventual death. Young fungi also cause cankers of Elaeagnus in rhizomes once the top growth has
trees of pole size may die within two the US. withered and overwinter them, cool
years. There is no cure for infected CANKER OF BRASSICAS (also known but frost-free, in barely damp wood
trees. Remove diseased trees as soon as as BLACK LEG) is caused by Leptosphaeria shavings or vermiculite. In early spring,
146 they are identified; protect healthy trees maculan. Symptoms include damping- start the rhizomes into growth in pots
from injury; and disinfect pruning tools. off as well as stem canker. It is very in warm, humid conditions. Plant out
caprification
in late spring. In favoured districts in Cantua (‘cantua’ is the Quecha name pinched when 30cm (12in) high to
zones 7 and over, plants might be for C.buxifolia). Polemoniaceae. Tem- induce branching. Water sparingly and
risked outside all year in a sunny, shel- perate S America. 6 species, evergreen apply liquid fertilizer as for tomatoes
tered position with a thick mulch in
winter. C.indica can be similarly treated,
but prefers a warmer and damper site
shrubs with tubular, 5-lobed flowers in
pendulous, terminal corymbs in late
spring and summer. In Mediterranean-
after the first flowers are set. Fruits on
plants outdoors may be slow to ripen;
they are ready to harvest when golden
C
and will take some shade. It seldom type climates, Cantua will grow in the yellow, and the sweet, distinctive
survives heavy frosts. Under glass, it is open border or year round in tubs on flavour improves where left for a week
an attractive plant for large containers the terrace. In zones 6 to 8, it requires or two on the plant. The cultivar
and beds, remaining in leaf and flower the protection of a sheltered, south- ‘Goldenberry’ produces large fruits.
throughout the year if encouraged to facing wall; alternatively, grow in bor-
form large clumps and given a mini- ders and tubs in the cool greenhouse or capillarity the movement of
mum temperature of 10°C/50°F. conservatory. Under glass grow in sun, liquid as a result of surface tension.
C.iridifolia grows best in a humid green- water plentifully in spring and summer, Capillarity is of horticultural relevance
house with a minimum temperature of sparingly in winter. Root semi-ripe cut- to the availability of soil moisture and
18°C/64°F. It needs plenty of head- tings in a closed case with bottom heat. the functioning of certain watering
room and a moist, fertile, loamy C.buxifolia (SACRED or MAGIC FLOWER systems.
medium. At high temperatures, this OF THE INCAS; Peru, Bolivia, Chile;
species thrives in saturated conditions erect to spreading shrub 1–5m capillary (1) slender and hair-like;
and associates well with other large, (31/4–15ft) tall, flowers 6–8cm (21/2–3in) much as filiform, but even more deli-
tropical and subtropical marginals, e.g. long, narrowly trumpet-shaped, the cate; (2) pertaining to capillarity (see
Cyperus and Thalia. Propagate all by tube pink to purple with yellow stripes, above). Capillary watering applies to the
division in spring. Soak seed of species the spreading lobes cerise to crimson or irrigation of container-grown plants,
in warm water for 24 hours or make a scarlet). utilizing the property of upward move-
small nick in the seed coat prior to ment of water from a wetted mat or
sowing in a soilless medium at cap, capping (1) the formation of an sand bed. A capillary bed is a specially
20°C/68°F. impermeable crust on a soil surface, constructed ground-level bed, usually
C. x generalis (syn. C. x orchiodes; usually due to the impact of rain drops of fine sand, used especially for the
CANNA LILY; garden hybrids derived on weakly structured, fine-textured capillary watering of container-grown
from a number of species and much soils. Capping can reduce water infil- ornamentals. A capillary bench is a care-
interbred, ranging from 30–130cm tration and aeration and form a barrier fully levelled greenhouse bench covered
(12–54in) and from low and clump- to emerging seedlings. A capped sur- by a capillary mat (usually made of
forming to tall and single-stemmed; face may alternatively be referred to as synthetic fibre or wool) or sand, used
leaves 30–80cm (12–32in) long, broadly caked. (2) a layer of soil or plastic for capillary watering of pot plants.
ovate to narrowly oblong, blue-green to sheeting placed over a compost heap.
jade striped gold, from bronze to capitate (1) arranged in heads, as in
purple-red to chocolate veined fiery cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) the inflorescence of Compositae; (2)
orange; flowers large and ruffled (to a half-hardy perennial up to 1m terminating in a knob or somewhat
8cm (3in) in diameter) or small and (31/4ft) in height, native to spherical tip.
spidery, white, cream, yellow, orange, Tropical South America;
peach, coral pink, vermilion, scarlet, grown as an annual for capitulum a head of
blood red, or combinations thereof in its edible, golden, densely clustered and
patches, spots and streaks); C.indica cherry-sized fruits that sessile or subsessile
(syn. C.musifolia; INDIAN SHOT; C and S are borne within per- flowers or florets on
America; 0.5–2m (12/3–61/2ft); smooth, sistent lantern-shaped a compressed axis,
mid-green leaves to 50cm (20in) long, calyces. It may be characteristically found
usually with red-purple stained sheaths grown in sheltered sites in members of the daisy
or midribs; flowers, to 6cm (21/2in) outdoors, or under family, Compositae.
across, with narrow segments in shades greenhouse protection in
of scarlet and orange, marked yellow border soil or pots. Sow caprification cross-
and held among purple-red bracts; seeds 6mm (1/4in) deep, in Cape pollination in the fig (Ficus
includes ‘Purpurea’, to 2m (61/2ft) tall, pots or trays, in gentle heat gooseberry carica), accomplished by
with large, paddle-like purple-bronze during spring. Seedlings are the FIG WASP (Blastophaga
leaves and small, scarlet flowers); C.irid- pricked out into small pots or other psenes), which breeds inside the wild
ifolia (Peru; 1–3m (31/4–10ft) leaves to modules, and planted out when estab- form or caprifig. On emergence, with
1m (31/4ft) broadly oblong, blue-green; lished, 75cm (30in) apart in ground pollen adhering to its body, the wasp is
flowers to 6cm (21/2in), with curving, beds or into 25cm (10in) pots. Support attracted to the inflorescences of
narrowly lanceolate segments in shades individual plants with canes 75cm female figs and transfers pollen on con- 147
of deep pink or orange). (30in) out of the ground. Plants may be tact. Caprification is a necessary
caprification
process for certain cultivated figs, such plants, others pass the winter as adults pericarp (wall
of seed
as the ancient ‘Smyrna’ grown for in sheltered situations. Emergent capsule) carpel wall
drying, but modern cultivars are nymphs resemble the adults but are along which
C self-fertile.
Capsicum (from Greek kapto, to bite,

smaller, sexually immature and wing-
less. Most capsids are plant feeders;
some are largely predacious,
capsule splits
referring to the bitingly hot taste of including the BLACK-KNEED

chilli). Solanaceae. Tropical America. CAPSID (Blepharidopterus angulatus)
PEPPER; GREEN PEPPER, BELL PEPPER, and FLOWER BUGS (Anthocoris species).
CHILLI PEPPER. 10 species, shrubby, Plant-feeding species infest a wide
annual to perennial herbs grown for range of fruit, vegetable, woody and
their edible fruits – these are large, herbaceous plants. Shoots become
chambered berries with thick, sweet to distorted or blind; leaves become feathery
bitingly pungent rinds. The two princi- puckered with irregular-shaped holes bracteoles
pal crop species are C.annuum (CAP- developing around the punctures; Capsule, Nigella damascena
SICUM, RED PEPPER, SWEET PEPPER, blooms may be malformed or aborted;
PAPRIKA), and C.frutescens (HOT PEPPER, and fruits of apples and pears develop capsule a dry, dehiscent seed vessel.
SPUR PEPPER, TABASCO PEPPER), both raised corky patches.
much-developed and highly varied. See The principal European species Caragana (Latinized form of
peppers. Some ornamental (and inedible) are the TARNISHED PLANT BUG (Lygus karaghan, Mongolian name for
cultivars are grown, usually as annuals rugulipennis), which is green mottled C.arborescens). Leguminosae. E Europe,
for container display in the home and with red-brown, and mostly attacks C Asia. PEA TREE, PEA SHRUB. 80
cool greenhouse, and for summer bed- ornamentals; the COMMON GREEN species, very hardy deciduous shrubs
ding. They are listed below. Sow seed CAPSID (Lygocoris pabulinus), which is and small trees, with neat, pinnate
in spring with a minimum temperature bright green with darker markings, and leaves; the leafstalks are often sharply
of 10°C/50°F. Grow in a fertile, loamy is particularly injurious to soft and top tipped and persist as spines. Small,
medium with plentiful water in full sun. fruit, but also attacks ornamentals; the pea-like flowers are borne singly or in
Syringe in summer to promote fruit set POTATO CAPSID (Calacoris norwegicus), clusters during spring. These plants will
and discourage red spider mite. which is similar to the common green survive a wide range of conditions,
C.annuum – ‘Holiday Cheer’ (bushy capsid in colour and found chiefly on except wet and shade. Top-grafted on
with a dense head of round fruits turn- potatoes and a range of Compositae; stocks of the typical plant, the weeping
ing from green to cream, yellow and and the APPLE CAPSID (Plesiocoris rugicol- filigree-leaved cultivars of C.arborescens
red), ‘Holiday Time’ (bushy with a lis), which is similar to the common are beautiful small trees, although they
dense head of conical fruits turning green capsid in colour, and mainly are more prone to damage by cold and
from green to yellow, red, and, some- attacks apples and soft fruits. wind. Propagate from seed sown when
times, purple), ‘Piccolo’ (slender and In North America, the name tar- ripe or after being pre-soaked in warm
tree-like in outline, with small leaves nished plant bug is applied to Lygus water. Caragana can also be propagated
variegated cream, dark and pale green lineolaris, a capsid similar in biology by taking softwood and semi-ripe
and purple, small, mauve flowers and and appearance to the European cuttings during summer.
round, purple-black fruits); C.frutescens – species but which has 3–5 generations C.arborescens (SIBERIAN PEA TREE;
‘Chameleon’ (low and bushy with fruits each year, depending on latitude. It tree-like shrub to 6m (20ft) tall with
turning from yellow to purple, then attacks a range of garden plants, dark green leaves composed of eight to
red), ‘Long Gold Spike’ (fruits conical, particularly apples, peaches and straw- twelve leaflets; flowers pale yellow;
gold to brick red, erect in a spire-like, berries, which become misshapen. includes ‘Lorbergii’, with very slender,
branching head to 1m (31/4ft) long; a The FOUR-LINED PLANT BUG (Poecilocap- ribbon-like leaflets); C.frutex (RUSSIAN
fine plant for cut displays in autumn). sus lineatus) is yellow-green with four PEA SHRUB; upright, suckering shrub to
dark stripes running lengthwise down 3m (10ft) tall; leaves with four leaflets;
capsid bugs (Hemiptera: Miridae) the back. There is one generation each flowers yellow; includes ‘Globosa’,
insects up to 6mm (1/4in) long, with year, and it overwinters in the egg more rounded and compact).
relatively long probosci, legs and stage. It attacks woody and herbaceous
antennae. Adults have hardened plants, especially currants. Weeds serve Caralluma (from carallum, name
forewings that lie flat and cover the as alternative hosts to capsids and given to C.adscendens by the Telugas of
membranous hindwings and they vary should be destroyed. Using a recom- Coromandel, India). Asclepiadaceae.
in colour from green to red-brown. All mended insecticide, apples and pears Spain, Africa, India, Burma. Some 80
are elusive and deceptively common. should be sprayed at petal fall, and species, clump-forming, leafless peren-
The cylindrical curved eggs are either susceptible ornamental plants at the nial herbs with erect to sprawling, suc-
deposited on the surface of plants or first sign of capsid presence. The level culent stems, angled and with rows of
148 inserted into plant tissue. Some species of damage to vegetables does not usu- teeth or tubercles. Often malodorous,
overwinter in the egg stage on woody ally warrant control. the flowers are fleshy and star- to cup-
Cardiospermum
shaped with five, acute lobes in spring scaly, creeping rhizome; leaves digi- nutrient- and humus-rich soil that
and summer. Cultivation as for Stapelia. tately lobed with five, lanceolate to remains cool and moist. The bulbs
C.adscendens (India, Burma, Sri ovate, toothed leaflets; flowers to 3cm perish after flowering but are replaced
Lanka; stems to 60cm (24in); flowers
outspread to bell-shaped, erect to pen-
dulous, to 2cm (3/4in) wide, green to
(11/4in) across, rose to pale lilac or white
in congested racemes); C.pratensis
(LADY’S SMOCK, CUCKOO FLOWER;
by daughter bulbs that take three to
five years to reach flowering size. The
seed capsules are large and attractive,
C
tawny or chestnut, spotted or striped widespread in Europe; 6–30cm bursting in autumn to release many
purple, often hairy); C.europaea (N (21/2–12in) tall, clump-forming; leaves papery seeds – these will germinate
Africa, S Europe; stems to 15cm (6in); in a loose rosette, pinnate with small, where they fall or in a cool, shaded
flowers to 2cm (3/4in) wide, spreading to broad leaflets; flowers to 2cm (3/4in) in frame. Seed-grown plants may take
campanulate, yellow to red-brown with diameter, white veined to flushed pale seven years to flower, but tend to be
purple bands, more or less hairy); rose to lilac, in slender, erect racemes; taller and more robust than vegeta-
C.joannis (Morocco; stems to 10cm includes the double-flowered ‘Flore- tively propagated plants.
(4in); flowers to 2.5cm (1in), bell- to pleno’); C.trifolia (C and S Europe; The most popular species is C.gigan-
star-shaped, olive-yellow, spotted red, 10–30cm (4–12in) tall, with a creeping teum from Himalaya, Burma and
lobes marked purple with small hairs rhizome; leaves neat, composed of China. It grows to 4m (12ft) tall with a
on margins). three, broad and toothed, dark green clump of basal leaves to 45cm (18in)
leaflets; flowers to 2cm (3/4in) in diame- long, and stem leaves diminishing in
carbon/nitrogen ratio the ratio of ter, white or pink, in racemes atop size toward its summit. The fragrant
the weight of carbon (C) to the weight slender, bare stalks). flowers are regularly funnelform, to
of nitrogen (N) in plant material (vari- 20cm (8in) long and marked maroon
ably 10–100:1 depending on age and inside. The Chinese C.cathayanum is
type) and in soil (typically 10–15:1). shorter than C.giganteum (to 1.5m (5ft))
The C/N ratio influences the respec- and also differs in having leaves absent
tive rates of decomposition of carbon from the lower part of the stem, but
and nitrogen in compost heaps. Where scattered in its upper two thirds. The
the ratio is high, as in woody debris or flowers are 10cm (4in) long, irregularly
straw, decomposition is slow, nitrogen is funnelform and cream tipped and spot-
depleted and a supplementary dressing ted purple. The Japanese C.cordatum
is advisable. grows to 2m (61/2ft) tall, with leaves
arranged in a loose whorl in the lower
carbonate of lime see calcium car- half of the stem and 15cm (6in)-long,
bonate. irregularly funnelform, cream flowers
blotched yellow and spotted red-brown
Cardamine (diminutive form of at the base within.
Greek kardamomon, a name used by
Dioscorides for cress). Cruciferae. N Cardiospermum (from Greek
Hemisphere. BITTERCRESS. 150 species, kardia, heart, and sperma, seed: the seed
perennial or annual herbs (those listed is marked with a heart-shaped white
here are hardy perennials) with racemes spot). Sapindaceae. Tropical Africa,
or panicles of 4-parted flowers in spring America, India. 14 species, slender-
and early summer. Plant in semi-wooded Cardiocrinum giganteum stemmed herbs or shrubs climbing by
locations and herbaceous borders var. yunnanense tendrils. The leaves are usually biter-
(C.enneaphylla, C.pentaphylla), or in shaded The spectacular giant or Himalayan lily must nately compound with toothed or pin-
rock gardens, borders and woodland have deep, rich soil and a shaded position. nately cut leaflets. In summer, small,
(C.trifolia), or naturalize in long, damp 4-petalled flowers are followed by
turf (C.pratensis). They favour cool, moist, Cardiocrinum (from Greek kardia, inflated capsules. They require frost-
fertile soil. Increase by division or seed in heart, and krinon, lily). Liliaceae (Lili- free conditions, although C.halicacabum
autumn; C.pratensis also by leaf cuttings. aceae). E Asia. GIANT LILY. 3 species, is often grown as a half-hardy annual,
C.enneaphylla (syn. Dentaria enneaphylla; spectacular perennial herbs, with the seed sown under glass in early
W Carpathians, E Alps, S Italy; single, stout stems arising from annu- spring or in situ in early summer. Grow
10–35cm (4–14in) tall, with a scaly, ally produced bulbs, glossy, deep green in full sun or shade in a fertile, loam-
fleshy rhizome; leaves pinnately lobed, heart-shaped leaves and, in summer, based medium with ample moisture;
each leaflet ovate to lanceolate, large, funnel-shaped, white flowers provide support. Both species can also
toothed; flowers to 3cm (11/4in) across, with six tepals. Suited to the woodland be propagated by softwood cuttings in
white to cream, nodding in a congested garden or a shady, moist border among spring.
raceme); C.pentaphylla (syn. Dentaria pen- shrubs, the giant lily is hardy to C.grandiflorum (HEARTSEED; tropical
taphylla; mountains of W and C –10°C/14°F, but fares better if thickly America and Africa; perennial, herba- 149
Europe; 15–60cm (6–24in) tall, with a mulched in winter. Plant in a deep, ceous vine climbing to 8m (25ft); leaves
Cardiospermum
to 20cm (8in) long, hairy beneath; flow- sow. C.atrata, C.grayi and C.riparia can very slender, arching to drooping in a
ers fragrant, cream, to 1cm (1/2in) wide; be used to colonize the margins of pale green mophead, sometimes taking
fruit smooth, triangular-ovoid, to 7 x water and bog gardens. The broad- on red-bronze tints in cold weather;
C 4cm) (23/4 x 11/2); (C.halicacabum; BALLOON

VINE, HEART PEA; tropical Asia, Africa
and America, naturalized southern US,
leaved sedges, C.plantaginea and
C.siderosticha, are handsome ground-
cover for damp and shaded borders.
includes forms with deep bronze leaves,
and ‘Frosted Curls’, with very narrow,
hair-like, curling and tangled leaves,
Australia; vine to 3m (10ft); differs from The narrow-leaved Japanese sedge bronze-green to bleached grey-green at
the first species in its smooth leaves to grasses (C.hachijoensis, C.morrowii and tips in winter); C.conica (Japan, S Korea;
12cm (43/4in), smaller, white and scent- C.oshimensis) thrive in similar conditions, tufted, to 50cm (20in) tall; leaves to
less flowers and very inflated capsules, but will also take more light and less 0.4cm (1/8in) wide, dark green, rigid,
bladder-like, bristly and to 2.5 x 2.5cm water. C.fraseri naturalizes well in light, flat, rough; includes ‘Snowline’, small,
(1 x 1in)). acid woodland and the bog garden, neat, with arching leaves dark green
making a carpet of white, button-like edged white, and ‘Variegata’, with
flowerheads in early spring. The leaves variegated white); C.elata (TUFTED
bronze and copper New Zealand SEDGE; Europe; tussock-forming,
sedges favour a sheltered position in 20–100cm (8–39in) tall; leaves fine,
zones 7 and 8, with full sunlight, on to 0.6cm (1/4in) wide, folded in section,
acid, gritty, moist soils. C.atrata and the glaucous; includes ‘Aurea’, with leaves
more tender C.baccans produce attrac- edged yellow, ‘Bowles Golden’, with
tive fruiting heads (jet black and brick golden yellow leaves edged green, and
red respectively). The palm sedges, ‘Knightshayes’, with yellow leaves);
C.muskingumensis and C.phyllocephala, C.firma (Europe; to 20cm (8in) tall,
make dense stands of reedy stems, densely tufted, mat-forming; leaves to
hardy in zone 7 and ideal for stark 10cm (4in), narrow, rigid, pointed,
modern landscapes. The variegated blue-green; includes ‘Variegata’, with
C.phyllocephala ‘Sparkler’ is an excellent leaves striped creamy yellow); C.flagellif-
container plant for the cool green- era (New Zealand; resembles a taller,
Cardoon house, likewise C.brunnea ‘Variegata’. coarser C.buchananii; leaves whip-like,
Grown particularly for its edible blanched Propagate all by division in early spring. pale bronze to tawny brown, arching to
stems. A worthy border perennial on account C.atrata (BLACK SEDGE, JET SEDGE; form a low dome); C.grayi (GRAY’S
of its deep blue flowers and dark foliage. Europe; clump-forming, to 60cm (24in) SEDGE, MACE SEDGE; N America;
tall; stems dark below; leaves slender, clump-forming, 30–100cm (12–39in)
cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) a herba- pale blue-green; female spikes to 5cm tall; leaves flat, to 1cm (1/2in) wide, pale
ceous perennial, to 2m (61/2ft) high, (2in), rounded to oblong, purple-black); green, margins rough; female spikes to
closely related to the GLOBE ARTICHOKE C.baccans (CRIMSON-SEEDED SEDGE; 3cm (11/4in) wide, round and spiky,
(Cynara cardunculus Scolymus Group) India to China; loosely tufted to 1m resembling a mace); C.hachijoensis
and grown for its edible hearts and (31/4ft) tall; leaves to 1cm (1/2in) wide, (Japan; differs from C.morrowii in nar-
fleshy petioles which are sometimes leathery, flat, deep green; in fruit, rower, softer leaves; for the cultivars
blanched. Serve raw or boiled. Sow female spikes resemble tight clusters of ‘Evergold’ and ‘Variegata’, see under
seed 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in) deep in rows orange-red berries); C.berggrenii (New C.oshimensis and C.morrowii respectively);
1.5m (5ft) apart; thin to final spacings Zealand; broad, low and tufted with C.morrowii (Japan; resembles C.oshimensis
of 50cm (20in). short, linear leaves that may be metallic but with slightly wider leaves with
Possible problems: aphids, slugs. grey-brown, bronze, glaucous and, in rough margins; includes ‘Fisher’s
some selections, distinctively narrow); Form’, large, with leaves striped cream,
Carex (from Greek keiro, to cut, allud- C.brunnea (Japan, Australia; stems slen- and ‘Variegata’, with leaves narrowly
ing to the sharp leaf margins). Cyper- der, tufted, 30–90cm (12–36in) tall; striped white near margins – this culti-
aceae. Cosmopolitan. SEDGE. Some leaves to 0.5cm (1/4in) wide, yellow- to var is often included in C.hachijoensis);
1000 species, evergreen, rhizomatous bright green, robust; spikes nodding; C.muskingumensis (PALM SEDGE; N Amer-
or tufted, perennial herbs with short or includes ‘Variegata’, small, with leaves ica; stems narrowly cane-like, erect,
distinct and slender stems, usually long, broadly edged yellow); C.buchananii tufted, to 1m (31/4ft) tall, ranked with
narrow and grass-like leaves and very (LEATHERLEAF SEDGE; New Zealand; spreading to arching, slender, bright
small, grain-like flowers in male or densely tufted, 10–70cm (4–28in) tall; green leaves; includes ‘Wachtposten’
female spikes arranged together in a leaves very slender, straight and erect syn. ‘Sentry Tower’, a particularly fine
panicle. All prefer a moist, neutral to to outward-leaning and arching, often form, with long stems and shining,
slightly acid soil with a high organic curling and whip-like at tips, pink- deep green leaves); C.oshimensis (JAPAN-
content. The very hardy weeping orange to red-green below to copper or ESE SEDGE GRASS; Japan; to 30cm
sedges, C.pendula and C.pseudocyperus, bronze above); C.comans (NEW ZEALAND (12in) tall, densely tufted, making a
150 grow well at the waterside or even par- HAIRY SEDGE; New Zealand; densely spilling, hair-like tussock; leaves fine
tially submerged, and will soon self- tufted, 6–40cm (21/2–16in) tall; leaves and narrow, smooth, deep, glossy
carnation
green, typically with narrow white cylindrical; includes ‘Variegata’, with cover. In zones 8 and below, grow in
margins; includes ‘Aureavariegata’, striped or almost wholly white tufted the cool greenhouse or conservatory. It
with leaves with a broad, central, leaves); C.siderosticha (to 10cm (4in) tall, responds well to frequent clipping and
golden stripe, ‘Evergold’, with leaves
with a creamy yellow central stripe –
this cultivar is often included in C.hachi-
with smooth, lax, strap-shaped leaves
in clumps, emerging pink turning
bright green; includes ‘Variegata’, with
hard pruning. Propagate by heeled,
semi-ripe cuttings of side shoots rooted
in a warm case.
C
joensis – and ‘Variegata’, with leaves leaves edged and striped white); C.unci- C.macrocarpa (syn. C.grandiflora; NATAL
with a central white stripe); C.pendula folia (New Zealand; spreading or PLUM; S Africa; shrub or tree to 9m
(WEEPING SEDGE, PENDULOUS SEDGE; loosely tufted, to 10cm (4in) tall; leaves (28ft) tall; branches tipped with formi-
Europe; clump-forming, to 1.5m (5ft) very narrow, curving, with curly tips, dable forked spines and clothed with
tall; leaves to 2cm (3/4in) wide, long and pink to red-brown). glossy green leaves to 6cm (21/2in) long;
finely tapering, coarse; spikes to 8cm flowers to 5cm (2in) wide, white and
(3in) long, cylindrical, pendulous on carina keel, (1) the anterior petals of jasmine-scented; fruits plum-shaped
slender-branched, arching panicles); a papilionaceous flower; (2) the keel of and bright red to purple-black, 2–5cm
C.petriei (New Zealand; resembles a the glume in flowers of Gramineae; (3) (3/4–2in)-long, edible; ‘Horizontalis’:
smaller C.buchananii, with narrower, the midvein of a leaf, petal or sepal, NATAL CREEPER, dense and trailing,
pinker leaves and stouter spikes); prominent to ridged beneath. leaves very small, fruit vivid scarlet).
C.phyllocephala (Japan; stems tufted,
cane-like, to 45cm (18in) tall, with long, carinate of a leaf, bract or perianth carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) The
narrowly strap-shaped leaves at their segment; boat-shaped or, more usually, wild ancestor of the border and per-
summit; includes ‘Sparkler’, with lime keeled, with a line or ridge along the petual flowering carnations originated
to dark green leaves striped and edged centre of its dorsal surface. in the Pyrenees and has been cultivated
white); C.pilulifera (PILL SEDGE; dwarf, in western Europe since the 15th cen-
tufted, to 30cm (12in) tall; leaves very Carissa (based on an Indian name). tury. The modern classification of
fine; spikes in a small head; includes Apocynaceae. Old World tropics and show carnations includes Selfs (all
‘Tinney’s Princess’, with very small subtropics. 20 species, evergreen shrubs colours except blue); White-, Yellow-
leaves striped creamy yellow); C.plan- and small trees with intricate, often and Apricot-ground Fancies; Other
taginea (N America; tufted, to 35cm spiny branches, glossy, ovate to oblong Fancies; White- and Yellow-ground
(14in) tall; leaves broadly strap-shaped, leaves and clusters of star-shaped, Picotees; Other Picotees; Cloves. Fan-
ribbed; spikes purple); C.pseudocyperus fragrant flowers. These have a slender cies are striped, flaked, or suffused with
(CYPERUS SEDGE; temperate regions; corolla tube expanding to a spreading one or more contrasting or blended
resembles a smaller, softer C.pendula limb of five, oblong to obovate lobes; colours. Cloves may be of any colour
with coarser spikes; to 80cm (32in) tall; they are followed by colourful, succu- but must possess a strong clove scent.
leaves flat, to 1cm (1/2in) across, bright lent fruit. Grow on most well-drained, Border carnations are grown as
green; spikes to 5cm (2in) long, green- moderately fertile soils in full sun or annuals or perennials for cutting or
brown pendulous on arching stems); light shade. Tolerant of light frost, garden decoration and are 40–60cm
C.riparia (Northern Hemisphere; to 1m wind, salt spray and short-lived (16–24in) high; they flower prolifically
(31/4ft) tall, fast-spreading; leaves flat, to drought, it makes an excellent speci- in midsummer and prefer a cool tem-
1.5cm (5/8in) wide; spikes to 10cm (4in), men planting, screen, hedge or ground- perature climate. Grow unstopped but
C ARNATION PETAL PATTERNING
Self Fancy Picotee

“Self”-coloured carnations such as ‘Golden Streaking and mottling characterizes the Picotees (here ‘Eva Humphries’) have a delicate
Cross’ have completely plain, unmarked petals. petals of fancies such as ‘Forest Treasure’. but well-defined band on the petal margins. 151
carnation
staked. Propagate perennial beds by shade in summer. Disbud to leave 3–4 carnivorous plant a plant adapted
layering every three or four years, soon buds per stem. Propagate by cuttings in to attract, capture and digest small
after flowering. Plant out in autumn or winter or by layers in summer. See pinks. creatures for its own nutritional bene-
C early spring 38–45cm (15–18in) apart

each way. When grown as annuals, sow
seed in early spring under protection at
Possible problems: aphids, carnation
tortrix moth, scale insects, thrips; grey
mould, rust, wilt, virus.
fit. Recognized in 450–500 species
within the families Sarraceniaceae,
Nepenthaceae, Cephalotaceae, Droser-
16°C/61°F. aceae, Byblidaceae, Lentibulariaceae,
Perpetual flowering carna- Carnegiea (for Andrew Carnegie Dioncophyllaceae, Roridulaceae and
tions are grown primarily as fragrant (1835–1919), philanthropist, steel mag- Bromeliaceae, carnivorous plants thrive
cut flowers. They require light, airy, nate and patron of science). Cactaceae. in moist acidic conditions. The adapta-
greenhouse protection for good quality 1 species, C.gigantea (SAGUARO), from tion serves to provide a protein source
and a winter minimum temperature the southwestern US and northern of nitrogen in habitats where the nutri-
of 4–7°C/40–45°F. They are raised Mexico. This giant cactus grows to ent is otherwise deficient. Their prey is
from cuttings, potted into 8cm (3in)- 16m (52ft) tall with a trunk some 75cm predominantly insects (hence the
diameter containers and stopped at (30in) thick. For many years it remains common description, insectivorous
eight or nine pairs of leaves. Selected unbranched, as a deeply ribbed column plant) but may include protozoa, spi-
side shoots are stopped thereafter. Grow with grey-brown spines to 7cm (23/4in) ders, crustaceae, amphibians and even
on in 15cm (6in)-diameter pots for the long. Produced at the column’s summit small mammals.
first year, then pot up into 21cm (8in)- in spring and summer, the white, There are four trapping mecha-
diameter pots and stand on a deep funnel-shaped flowers are some 10cm nisms: (1) the snap-trap, with hinged
gravel base. Support with 1.2m (4ft) (4in) long and open at night. Edible, leaves resembling an open jaw, as in
canes and wire hoops. Disbud for large red-green fruit split jaggedly from top VENUS’ FLY TRAP (Dionaea muscipula), to
blooms, leaving only the crown bud; to bottom, revealing bright red pulp. which the prey are attracted by pig-
for sprays, remove only the crown bud. When they finally appear, the branches ment and secretion; (2) suction, as in
American spray carnations are few and erect, resembling the main Utricularia species, where the trap is a
are grown for commercial cut flower stem. Grow in a frost-free garden or a small bladder with appendages and
production and originate in Connecti- heated greenhouse (minimum tempera- mouth covered by a trap door; a par-
cut from selected crosses. Culture is as ture 10°C/50°F) in a gritty and sandy, tial vacuum arising in the closed blad-
for perpetual flowering carnations loam-based medium, pH 6–7.5. Under der keeps the trap shut. The finely
except that the crown buds are always glass, admit full sunlight except in very balanced mechanism is disrupted by
removed to induce sprays. hot weather and maintain low humid- the prey, which is then drawn into the
Malmaison carnations The ity and good air circulation. Keep dry open receptacle in a flow of air or
name alludes to the resemblance of the from mid-autumn to early spring, except water; (3) pitfall traps, as in Sarracenia,
blooms to the Bourbon rose ‘Souvenir for a light misting on warm days in late where modified leaves form pitchers
de la Malmaison’. They were first winter. Branch cuttings will root but are into which insects are lured and then
raised in France in 1857 from a seed seldom available. Being endangered in trapped by surface hairs and wax; (4)
mutant, and bud sports followed. the wild, saguaro is best raised from flypaper traps, as in the SUNDEWS
Cultivation is as for perpetual flower- seed sown on a fine, sandy medium in (Drosera species), where insects are
ing carnations but they require more a heated case. It is very slow-growing. attracted to glistening glands on leaf
C ARNIVOROUS PLANT TYPES
Snap-trap (Dionaea muscipula) Pitfall (Sarracenia sp.) Flypaper (Drosera capensis)

Highly specialized hinged leaves snap shut Prey lured to the pitchers falls into a “well” Lured by a sweet, glistening secretion, prey is
152 when an insect’s presence is detected. filled with a solution of digestive enzymes. held fast in its stickiness and engulfed.
carrot
and stem surfaces; they are over- newly planted hornbeam hedges to en masse and for a short time in hot,
whelmed by copious secretions of grow for two seasons, pruning hard bright weather. These succulents will
sticky fluid and then digested. For culti- thereafter in late winter and trimming thrive on most well-drained soils (sand
vation details refer to the above genera
and Byblis, Cephalotus, Darlingtonia,
Drosophyllum, Heliamphora, Nepenthes, Pin-
in late summer. Sown in autumn in an
open bed, ripe seed will germinate the
following spring. Taken in late summer,
included) in full sun. They withstand
drought, mild frost, high temperatures
and salt spray and are excellent
C
guicula. wounded and treated with a rooting groundcover for dry and impoverished
agent, cuttings will root in a closed case areas in Mediterranean and subtropical
carotenoids yellow, orange, or red or under mist. gardens. Their fleshy, carpeting growth
pigments, including carotene and C.betulus (COMMON HORNBEAM; has made them an invaluable fire break
xanthophyll, that are associated with Europe, Asia Minor; broad, pyramidal- in some dry regions. In cold-winter
chlorophyll and responsible for these to irregular-crowned tree to 20m (70ft) regions, grow in beds, tubs or large
colours in many plant parts. with a fluted trunk and grey bark; pots in the greenhouse and move out-
leaves 6–12cm (21/2–43/4in) long, dentate doors for the summer months; avoid
carpel a female sporophyll, a simple and bright to mid-green, becoming cool, wet conditions. Propagate by
pistil or one element of a compound amber to clear yellow in autumn; detaching rooted lengths of stem.
pistil bearing an ovule. ‘Columnaris’: similar to ‘Fastigiata’, but C.chilensis (syn. Mesembryanthemum
slow-growing, dense, compact and aequilaterale; western US to Mexico and
Carpenteria (for Professor William columnar; ‘Fastigiata’: medium-sized, Chile; leaves 5cm (2in)-long, straight
Carpenter (1811–1848), Lousiana narrowly pyramidal and erect, becom- and 3-sided; flowers faintly fragrant,
physician). Hydrangeaceae. California. ing broader with age; ‘Frans Fontaine’: 6cm (21/2in) wide, rosy purple); C.edulis
1 species, C.californica (TREE ANEMONE), similar to the last but retaining narrow, (syn. Mesembryanthemum edule; HOTTEN-
an evergreen shrub to 2m (61/2ft) tall fastigiate habit; ‘Incisa’: with small, TOT FIG, KAFFIR FIG; South Africa;
with glossy, elliptic to oblong leaves to narrow leaves with one or a few deep leaves to 8cm (3in), dull, dark green,
10cm (4in) long. Produced in summer, indentations; ‘Pendula’: dwarf and tapering and curving toward tip; flow-
the fragrant flowers are 5–7cm domed with strongly weeping ers 7–9cm (23/4–31/2in) wide, pale yellow,
(2–23/4in) across, pure white, with five branches; ‘Purpurea’: leaves tinted becoming flesh-coloured then bright
to seven, spreading petals and a central purple at first; ‘Variegata’: leaves spo- pink; fruit fleshy, edible, top-shaped).
boss of golden stamens. Plant in full radically marked creamy white); C.car-
sun with shelter from strong winds on a oliniana (syn. C.americana; AMERICAN carrier an inert material used to
well-drained soil. It will tolerate occa- HORNBEAM, BLUE BEECH; eastern N facilitate the application of a pesticide.
sional lows to –15°C/5°F if grown on America and C America; grey-barked,
a warm, south-facing wall and mulched spreading tree to 13m (43ft) tall with carrot (Daucus carota subsp. sativus) a
in winter. It withstands dry conditions. arching branches; leaves to 20cm (8in) biennial, widely grown in temperate
Propagate by seed in spring and long, toothed and dark to glaucous and tropical regions as an annual for its
autumn, or by basal ripewood cuttings blue-green, assuming red-orange tints edible root. Widely distributed through
in spring and greenwood cuttings in in autumn); C.japonica (JAPANESE HORN- cultivation, it probably originated in
summer (both rooted in a case with BEAM; widely spreading tree or small Afghanistan from a dark-rooted type,
bottom heat). shrub to 15m (50ft) tall with scaly, grey spreading to China by the 13th or 14th
bark; leaves 5–10cm (2–4in) long, century, and to Western Europe by the
carpet bedding see bedding. downy, with small teeth and deeply 15th century. Yellow and white mutants
impressed veins giving a corrugated arose; the familiar orange, due to the
Carpinus (Classical Latin name). appearance, emerging with a red tint presence of beta carotene, derives from
Betulaceae. Europe, E Asia, N and C and opening deep green); C.turczaninovii selections made in the Netherlands
America. HORNBEAM. 35 species, (China, Japan, Korea; small, shrubby around 1600.
mostly deciduous trees with slender tree to 12m (40ft) tall with slender Carrot is a cool-season crop, best
branchlets and ovate to cordate leaves, branches and red-tinted new growth; grown at a mean temperature range
usually toothed and with ribbed veins. leaves, to 6cm (21/2in) long, and serrate). of 16–18°C/61–64°F; temperatures
Inconspicuous female flowers are car- above 29°C/84°F give rise to reduced
ried in pendulous, hop-like catkins clus- Carpobrotus (from Greek karpos, top growth and increased root flavour,
tered with narrow, leafy bracts; these fruit, and brota, ‘edibles’: some species while below 16°C/61°F roots become
persist and are an attractive feature of have fleshy edible fruit). Aizoaceae. long, tapered and of poor colour.
the tree. C.betulus can be used for South Africa, Australia, Mexico, Chile, Sow successionally in situ from March,
formal hedging, informal screening, widely naturalized elsewhere. ICE 2cm (3/4in) deep in rows 30–37cm
and for pleaching. It and the remaining PLANT. 30 species, mat-forming succu- (12–141/2in) apart with roots thinned
species are fine specimen trees, flour- lents with creeping, slightly woody to 2–5cm (3/4–2in) apart; early crops
ishing on most soils, especially chalk. stems, narrow, cylindrical to 3-sided, can be sown in rows 15cm (6in) apart.
Although all are fully hardy, late frosts thickly fleshy leaves, and flushes of Earliest maturity is achieved from 153
may damage the new growth. Leave short-stalked, daisy-like flowers opening sowings made under glass, plastic
carrot
cloches or fleecy or perforated poly- Carthamus (from Arabic, qurtom, a thick-skinned, green drupe, ovoid to
thene film; remove covering at six true and Hebrew, qarthami, to paint, refer- rounded and splitting into four valves
leaves. Late supplies can be maintained ring to the dye extracted from the containing sometimes edible nuts. The
C by storing in the sown site, which must

be well-drained and covered with straw
in severe winter weather; alternatively,
florets of C.tinctorius). Compositae.
Mediterranean, Asia. 14 species,
annual and perennial herbs with spiny
following species are fully hardy and
valued for their majestic habit, autumn
colour and fruit (which needs long, hot
store in clamps outdoors or cover with to pinnately cut leaves and terminal summers to ripen). Plant in full sun or
sand in boxes kept in a cool dry place. heads of small florets surrounded by light shade, on a deep, moist and fertile
Cultivars are grouped on the basis spiny bracts. C.tinctorius, SAFFLOWER soil. All but the youngest saplings will
of maturity date, size, and root shape, or FALSE SAFFRON, is a W Asian annual suffer if transplanted. Propagate by
as follows: Amsterdam Forcing (early, with erect, spiny-leaved stems to 1m seed sown ripe or stratified over winter
small to medium size, slender, cylindri- (31/4ft) tall. Produced in late summer for spring-sowing. Increase edible nut-
cal); Nantes (mid-season, medium size, and autumn, the flowerheads are bearing cultivars by splice or veneer
broader and longer than Amsterdam 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in) wide and composed grafting on stocks of C.cordiformis.
Forcing, cylindrical); Chantenay (main- of bright orange-yellow florets in a C.cordiformis (BITTERNUT, SWAMP
crop, medium size, broader and shorter thistle-like involucre surrounded by HICKORY; NE US; to 28m (92ft) tall;
than Nantes, conical); Berlicum (late, leafy, spiny bracts. The flowerheads are bark smooth then fissured, young
large, cylindrical); Autumn King (very good for cutting and dry well if taken branches rusty-hairy; leaflets 7–13cm
late, very large and long, conical). when still in bud. Sow seed in situ after (23/4–5in), 5–9, ovate to lanceolate, mid-
Possible problems: aphids, carrot the last frosts. green turning bright yellow in autumn;
fly; virus. fruit rounded, to 3cm (11/4in), nuts
cartilaginous hard and tough in bitter); C.glabra (PIGNUT, SMALL-
carrot fly (in the US, texture, but flexible. FRUITED HICKORY, BROOM HICKORY;
CARROT RUST FLY) (Psila NE US; to 30m (100ft) tall; bark grey,
rosae) a shiny-black fly, up Carum (Latin form of the furrowed; leaflets to 15cm (6in), 3–7,
to 1cm (1/2in) long, with grubs bore Greek name, karon: C.carvi was ovate to lanceolate, dark green turning
yellow legs; its larvae into root extensively grown in Caria, a yellow and orange in autumn; fruit
are a pest of the carrot, district in Asia Minor). rounded to pear-shaped, to 2cm (3/4in),
principally, but also of Umbelliferae. Temperate and nuts bitter); C.illinoinensis (PECAN; E US
celery, parsnip and parsley. subtropical regions. 30 species, and Midwest to Texas and Mexico; to
Taproots and lateral roots are perennial and biennial, tap- 50m (160ft); leaflets to 15cm (6in),
damaged, foliage yellows, and rooted herbs with finely 2–3- 11–17, oblong to lanceolate; fruit to
plants wilt and may die; there pinnately divided leaves and 7cm (23/4in), oblong with a thin, brown
are often extensive rust-coloured compound umbels of small shell and edible nuts; many commercial
tunnels in the taproot. flowers in summer. CARAWAY, cultivars are available, bred for fruit,
There are two generations per C.carvi, is a Eurasian biennial suitability as pollinators, and disease-
year, three in a favourable cli- to 60cm (24in) tall, cultivated in and climate-tolerance); C.ovata (SHAG-
mate. Oval white eggs are laid the herb garden for its aromatic BARK HICKORY; E US; to 40m (130ft);
in the soil surface around the leaves, its roots (sometimes pre- bark grey, shaggy; leaflets to 15cm
host plant and hatch within pared as for parsnip) and, princi- (6in), 5, oblong to obovate, acuminate,
seven days. The colourless Carrot fly pally, for its small, narrow, dark green turning golden-yellow in
larvae become creamy damage liquorice-flavoured seeds. It will autumn; fruit to 5cm (2in), thin-shelled,
white and up to 1cm (1/2in) grow in full sun on any well- nuts edible; numerous cropping
long when fully fed. drained, deep and moderately fertile cultivars are available).
Avoid damage from the first genera- soil, including heavy clay. Harvest seed
tion by sowing after mid-May; damage in mid- to late summer as the flower- caryopsis of Gramineae; a one-
by the second generation can be heads begin to dry off and the seed celled, one-seeded, superior fruit in
avoided by lifting an early-sown crop darkens. Sow seed in situ when ripe which the pericarp and seed wall are
before late August. Other preventive or in early spring. adherent.
measures include the use of less sus-
ceptible cultivars, such as ‘Flyaway’, Carya (from Greek karya, a nut- Caryopteris (from Greek karyon, nut,
‘Resistafly’ and ‘Sytan’, open sites, bearing tree). Juglandaceae. HICKORY, and pteron, wing, referring to the
avoidance of the need to thin, growing PECAN. US, China. 25 species, large winged fruit). Verbenaceae. E Asia.
under horticultural fleece, or planting deciduous trees, with smooth, brown BLUE BEARD. 6 species, deciduous herbs
in blocks surrounded by a 60cm (24in)- to grey twigs and pinnate leaves. and shrubs with aromatic leaves and
high polythene barrier to deflect egg- Produced in spring, the flowers are clusters of small flowers in late summer
laying females. There are no pesticides inconspicuous – the males borne and autumn. Grow in full sun on any
154 approved for the control of this pest in in branched, drooping catkins; the light, well-drained and moderately fer-
gardens of the UK. females in a terminal spike. The fruit is tile soil. Where temperatures fall below
Cassiope
–10°C/14°F for prolonged periods, cool weather. Propagate by seed sur- peach or light yellow, white or cream,
provide a deep winter mulch and the face-sown on damp sand in a heated in erect racemes to 25cm (10in) long);
protection of a sheltered, south-facing case, or, for C.mitis, by offsets. C.javanica (PINK SHOWER, RAINBOW
wall. Cut back hard to a woody frame-
work in spring (plants growing in areas
with severe winters are often killed to
C.mitis (BURMESE FISHTAIL PALM,
CLUSTERED FISHTAIL PALM, TUFTED
FISHTAIL PALM; clumped stems, 3–12m
SHOWER; SE Asia; to 25m (80ft) tall;
flowers to 7cm (23/4in) wide, crimson to
pale pink or buff, in rigid, corymbose
C
the ground and should be pruned that (10–40ft) tall; leaves 1–4m (31/4–12ft) racemes to 10cm (4in) long); C.lepto-
low, effectively becoming ‘herbaceous’ long, erect to spreading, with 10–30cm phylla (GOLD MEDALLION TREE; Brazil;
perennials). Propagate by semi-ripe or (4–12in)-long, deltoid, light green seg- to 15m (50ft); flowers deep yellow, 3cm
green wood cuttings rooted in a sandy ments); C.urens (WINE PALM, JAGGERY (11/4in) wide, carried in densely packed,
mix in a case with bottom heat. PALM, TODDY PALM; differs in its taller terminal racemes to 25cm (10in) long);
C. x clandonensis (syn. C.incana, C.mong- and stouter, solitary stem (to 12m C.moschata (BRONZE SHOWER; tropical
holica; slender-branched, bushy shrub, (40ft)), outspread to arching leaves and Americas; to 20m (70ft); flowers to 3cm
to 1.5 x 1m (5 x 31/4ft); leaves to 10cm drooping, dark green segments). (11/4in) wide, bronze or golden yellow,
(4in), toothed, sage- to grey-green often veined red in loose racemes to
above, silver to white beneath; flowers cascade (1) a small waterfall, espe- 30cm (12in) long). Many ornamental
lavender to deep blue; cultivars cially one of a series. Cascades are Cassia species are now included in the
include: ‘Arthur Simmonds’, very important artificial features in formal genus Senna.
widely grown, resilient, with compact gardens, often in the form of a long
spikes of bright blue flowers; ‘Dark series of steps and usually in combina- Cassiope (for Cassiope, wife of
Knight’, of low and spreading habit, tion with fountains and other water- Cepheus, King of Aethiopia, and
with silvery leaves and deep blue flowers; works; (2) a form of chrysanthemum; mother of Andromeda). Ericaceae.
‘Ferndown’, with very deep blue-violet (3) a training style in bonsai. Europe, Asia, N America. 12 species,
flowers; ‘Heavenly Blue’, with deep hardy, dwarf evergreen shrubs, with
blue flowers; ‘Kew Blue’, with silvery Cassia (from Greek kasia in slender, creeping to erect stems clothed
leaves and flowers of a deep Cambridge Dioscorides). Leguminosae. Tropics. with small overlapping, scale-like leaves,
to lavender blue; ‘Longwood Blue’, to SHOWER TREE. 535 species, semi-decid- thus appearing heath- or clubmoss-like
60cm (24in) tall, with silvery leaves and uous or evergreen trees, shrubs and in appearance. In spring, the solitary
sky blue flowers; ‘Worcester Gold’, with herbs with pinnate leaves and broadly flowers nod on thread-like stalks; they
golden leaves and deep lavender flow- 5-petalled flowers with long stamens in are small and bell- to urn-shaped with
ers); C.incana (syn. C.mastacanthus; racemes or panicles principally in four to six, pointed lobes. Plant in a
COMMON BLUE BEARD, BLUE SPIRAEA; spring and summer. Tender. Plant in moist, acid soil, rich in sand and leaf-
China, Japan; to 1.5m (5ft) tall, grey- full sun or light shade on a free-drain- mould. They prefer full sunlight but
felted shrub; leaves toothed; flowers ing, moderately fertile, sandy loam. will suffer in scorching conditions.
blue to mauve, white in the cultivar They prefer infrequent but deep water- A shallow winter mulch of ground
‘Candida’); C.mongolica (N China, Mon- ing and will tolerate some drought. leafmould and garden compost will
golia; smaller than C.incana and weaker Under glass, these are attractive encourage the sprawling stems to layer
in appearance; flowers deep blue). flowering shrubs, blooming when and rejuvenate themselves and will
young and responding well to hard protect young shoots. Propagate by
Caryota (from Greek karyon, nut). pruning in early spring. Provide a semi-ripe cuttings in summer; also by
Palmae. SE Asia to the Pacific Islands minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F, detaching rooted stems.
and Australia (both species listed here filtered sunlight and a fertile, sandy C.fastigiata (Himalaya; to 30 x 20cm
are from SE Asia). FISHTAIL PALM. 12 medium. Water and feed generously in (8 x 12in); flowers bell-shaped, white
species, medium-sized to large palms warm weather; keep almost dry in 8mm (3/8in) across with curving lobes,
with single or clump-forming trunks winter. Propagate by seed or by semi- on red or green stalks); C.lycopodioides
and large, bipinnate leaves; these are ripe cuttings in sand in a closed case (NE Asia to Alaska; to 10cm (4in) tall;
triangular in outline and consist of with gentle bottom heat. flowers 8mm (3/8in) long, white or pink
many wedge- to diamond-shaped C.fistula (syn. C.excelsa; GOLDEN and bell-shaped with slightly curving
leaflets that have a distinctive ragged or SHOWER TREE, PURGING CASSIA, INDIAN lobes on thread-like, red-tinted stalks);
cleft edge (hence ‘fishtail’). Large, LABURNUM, PUDDING PIPE TREE; Asia, C.mertensiana (WHITE HEATHER; N
branched inflorescences ultimately bear the warm Americas, Australia and the America; 15–30cm (6–12in) tall;
plum-shaped, irritant fruit. Provide a Pacific; tree to 20m (70ft); flowers flowers 6mm (1/4in)-wide, bell-shaped,
humid environment, protection from 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in) wide, vivid yellow, white, on slender, red-tinted stalks);
scorching sunlight and a minimum sweetly scented, carried in dense C.selaginoides (Himalaya; to 25 x 15cm
temperature of 10°C/50°F. Plant in a drooping racemes to 40cm (16in) long); (10 x 6in); flowers bell-shaped, white or
medium containing composted bark, C.grandis (PINK SHOWER, HORSE CASSIA, pink-tinged to 1cm (1/2in) wide with 5,
leafmould, and clay or polystyrene APPLEBLOSSOM CASSIA; tropical Ameri- curving lobes); C.tetragona (Arctic Circle
granules and well-rotted manure; keep cas; to 30m (100ft); flowers to 2.5cm and N Europe; to 30cm (12in); flowers 155
moist and regularly syringed, except in (1in) wide, pink fading to orange-pink, pendulous, bell-shaped, 6–8mm
Cassiope
(1/4–3/8in) across, white or pink-tinged that have arisen from infected mature to 3cm (11/4in), 1–4 per 5–8cm (2–3in),
and 4–5-lobed; C.wardii (Tibet; flowers trees and that in turn await death slender-spiny burr; large-fruited selec-
white, urn-shaped, some 8mm (3/8in) through reinfection. C.sativa is also tions include ‘Nanking’, and the small,
C long with five lobes, tinted red inside at

the base, on short stalks).
susceptible but survives in the cooler
summers of northern Europe and has
yet to be affected in the British Isles.
sweet-fruited ‘Kelsey’, which is resistant
to chestnut-blight; C.ozarkensis (OZARK
CHINKAPIN; differs from C.pumila in its
Castanea (the Classical Latin name Species from E Asia (the blight’s place smooth, not hairy shoots and its larger
for these trees, after Castania, a town of origin) are largely resistant, as are leaves – to 23cm (9in) long); C.pumila
in Thessaly famous for them). hybrids between them and the western (ALLEGHENY CHINKAPIN; eastern US; a
Fagaceae. N America, Europe, Asia. species (e.g. Dunstan Hybrid Chest- suckering shrub or small tree, 4–10m
SWEET CHESTNUT, CHINKAPIN. 12 nuts). Fruit are sometimes affected by (12–30ft) tall; leaves oblong to ovate, to
species, hardy, deciduous trees and chestnut weevils, which lay their eggs on 15cm (6in) long, smooth above and
shrubs with grey to black, smooth to the developing fruit in summer. Having pale-hairy beneath with short teeth and
furrowed bark, oblong to lanceolate or bored into the burr and fed on the 4cm (11/2in), slender-spiny burrs; var.
oval, usually toothed leaves and small, developing kernel, the weevils pupate ashei: COASTAL CHINKAPIN, leaves
white to yellow-green, muskily scented in the soil beneath the trees and it is at densely hairy beneath, burrs with short
flowers in long catkins in summer. this stage that they are most easily spines); C.sativa (SWEET CHESTNUT,
The fruit are ovoid to triangular, glossy treated. The two-lined chestnut borer SPANISH CHESTNUT; Europe, N Africa,
brown, edible nuts, one to several tunnels under the bark and may cause W Asia; broad to columnar, to 40m
enclosed in a spiny case (burr) that severe damage to small or weak trees. (130ft) tall; leaves to 25cm (10in),
splits open in late summer. Chinkapins are hardy and useful in oblong to lanceolate, deep, glossy
The genus divides into two groups large gardens, grown for their foliage green, smooth above, initially hairy
on the basis of habit – true chestnuts and spreading habit. They are able to beneath, with remote, bristly teeth;
are large trees, usually single-stemmed withstand wet and acid conditions, fruit to 3cm (11/4in) long, 1–5 per
unless damaged by the elements or adapting well to the wild or woodland 4–7cm (11/2–23/4in), slender-spiny burr;
grazing animals or coppiced by man or garden and to lakesides, and are an includes the ornamental cultivars
chestnut blight; chinkapins (chinquap- excellent, soil-enriching understorey for ‘Asplenifolia’ and ‘Laciniata’, with
ins) are smaller and shrubby. C.crenata, impoverished and sandy coniferous finely cut leaves, ‘Albomarginata’, with
C.dentata, C.mollissima and C.sativa woodland. white-edged leaves, ‘Variegata’, with
belong to the first group, while C.alnifolia (BUSH or TRAILING yellow-edged leaves, ‘Heterophylla’
chinkapins include C.alnifolia, C.pumila CHINKAPIN; SE US; a suckering, with leaves of varying shapes, sizes,
and C.ozarkensis. spreading shrub to 1m (31/4ft) tall; teeth and lobing, and ‘Holtii’, with a
Chestnuts are attractive, drought-tol- leaves oblong to elliptic, toothed, 12cm narrowly conic crown; the finest fruting
erant and hardy trees, grown for their (43/4in) long, glossy dark green above, clone is generally thought to be
large, bright green leaves (yellow-brown tawny-hairy beneath with short-spiny ‘Marron de Lyon’, bearing large, sweet
in autumn), their pleasing, if rather burrs); C.crenata (JAPANESE CHESTNUT; fruit even when young).
rank-smelling, catkins, their nuts, eaten Japan; spreading, short-trunked, to
roasted or candied, and for timber. 20m (70ft) tall; leaves to 15cm (6in), Castanopsis (Castanea, and Greek,
Where fruit is the main objective, only oblong, glabrous above, grey-downy opsis, resemblance). Fagaceae. E Asia.
C.crenata and C.sativa are well-adapted beneath with small, bristly teeth; Some 110 species, evergreen trees and
to cool-summer regions, but all grow fruit to 4cm (11/2in), 1–4 per 4–8cm shrubs with scaly bark and leathery
and fruit well in climates such as those (11/2–3in)-wide, slender-spiny burr; leaves. Inconspicuous flowers are borne
of the eastern US. Individual trees are crossed with C.dentata to produce in catkins and followed by nuts con-
usually self-sterile and two or more blight-resistant clones such as ‘Essate- tained by prickly cupules. Hardy in cli-
clones should be near each other to Jap’ and ‘Sleeping Giant’); C.dentata mate zone 7, but thriving in regions
ensure a good seed set. Grow in well- (syn. C.americana; AMERICAN SWEET with long, hot and humid summers;
drained, neutral to slightly acid deep CHESTNUT; eastern US; to 45m (150ft) elsewhere, plant it in a sheltered and
loams (dry and highly acidic, sandy tall, but often smaller and multi- warm location. Grow in full sun on a
soils included). Propagate by seed in stemmed due to chestnut blight; leaves fertile, moist and acid to neutral soil.
autumn (most species hybridize freely), to 20cm (8in) long, oblong to lanceo- Increase by seed. C.cuspidata (SE China,
or by budding in summer or grafting in late, dull green, glabrous throughout S Japan; tree to 25m (80ft) with spread-
winter on to stocks of C.crenata and with large, glandular teeth on margins; ing to pendent branches and dark grey
C.sativa. fruit to 3cm (11/4in), 2–3 per long-spiny, bark; leaves to 9cm (31/2in), ovate to
The greatest threat to chestnuts is 5–7cm (2–23/4in) burr); C.mollissima oblong with a long, drawn-out apex,
the chestnut blight. Introduced acci- (CHINESE CHESTNUT; China, Korea; to thick, tough, entire, glossy dark green
dentally to the US at the turn of the 20m (70ft) tall, broad-crowned and above, bronze beneath).
century, it has devastated the native stout-trunked; leaves to 20cm (8in),
156 C.dentata, a species now often to be seen oblong to lanceolate to elliptic, downy castor meal a by-product of the
only in the form of suckering stands beneath at first, with bristly teeth; fruit manufacture of castor oil, used as an
Catananche
organic fertilizer with an analysis of hairy, dark green; cones 2–4cm stains in the throat; includes ‘Aurea’,
5–6% nitrogen, 1–2% phosphate and (3/4–11/2in), glossy dark brown to black). with large, yellow to lime leaves, and
1% potash. ‘Nana’, UMBRELLA CATALPA, often mis-
Casuarina (the long, drooping

branchlets were thought to resemble
Catalpa (from ‘catawba’, the vernac-
ular name of this plant among the
Native Americans of Carolina and
named C.bungei, with a dense, broad
mop of small leaves, usually top
grafted for use as a closely pruned,
C
the tail feathers of the cassowary Georgia). Bignoniaceae. N America, ball-headed standard); C.bungei (N
(Casuarius)). Casuarinaceae. Australia, Cuba, E Asia. 11 species, hardy decid- China; differs from C.bignonioides in its
Pacific. BEEFWOOD, BULL OAK, uous trees with large, ovate to cordate more triangular, 15cm (6in)-long leaves
WHISTLING PINE, AUSTRALIAN PINE, SHE leaves, and, in midsummer, pyramidal that taper to narrowly pointed lobes;
OAK. Some 70 species, trees and panicles of showy, trumpet-shaped flowers fewer, and white to pale rose
shrubs, usually with slender, weeping flowers edged with five, wavy lobes. with dark maroon spots and yellow
branches and many, jointed and whip- Long, inedible fruit resemble narrow streaks); C. x erubescens (C.bignonioides x
like branchlets. These give young beans and hang, blackened and thinly C.ovata; intermediate between the par-
plants the look of a tamarisk or a woody, through the winter and spring. ents with entire and lobed leaves
broom; in older trees, they hang from Hardy to –15°C/5°F, or lower where together on the same tree; includes
the branches like very long, fine pine long, hot summers ensure wood ripen- ‘Purpurea’, with purple-black shoots
needles. The true leaves are reduced to ing. Grow in any deep, fertile, mois- and leaves to 30cm (12in), bruised
tiny withered scales. Fruit is woody and ture-retentive soil in an open, sunny purple to faintly violet-tinted dark
cone-like, adding to the pine-like site with shelter from strong winds. green); C.fargesii (W China; broad-
appearance. Grown in regions that Sow seed outdoors in autumn or in crowned tree to 20m (70ft) tall; leaves
experience little or no frost, where they cold frames in spring after stratification 8–14cm (3–51/2in) long; flowers 3cm
make fast-growing and elegant street for three weeks at 1°C/34°F. Taken in (11/4in) long, rose to mauve with yellow
and specimen trees and are well-suited late spring before the leaves are fully and maroon markings; includes f.
to dry, windy and saline conditions. developed, softwood cuttings will root duclouxii, with 3-lobed leaves and
Elsewhere, they are grown in borders in a closed case with bottom heat. purple-rose flowers); C.ovata (China; to
and tubs in the cool greenhouse or C.bignonioides (COMMON CATALPA, 10m (30ft) tall with 10–20cm (4–8in)-
conservatory. Plant in full sun in a EASTERN CATALPA, CATAWBA, INDIAN long leaves that taper finely and have
moisture-retentive but free-draining soil BEAN, BEAN TREE, INDIAN CIGAR; SE one to five lateral lobes; flowers to
with a high sand or grit content. Pro- US; broad-crowned tree to 15m (50ft) 2.5cm (1in), white stained yellow and
vide a minimum temperature of tall; leaves 10–20cm (4–8in)-long, marked purple within; includes
5°C/41°F and avoid cold, overwet con- thinly hairy, pale to deep green, usually ‘Flavescens’, with paler green leaves
ditions. Propagate from seed or by unlobed and malodorous when and flowers stained dull, pale yellow);
semi-ripe cuttings in a closed case with crushed; flowers 3–5cm (11/4–2in) long, C.speciosa (WESTERN CATALPA, HARDY
bottom heat. white with purple spots and yellow CATALPA, SHAWNEE WOOD; differs from
C.cunninghamiana (RIVER SHE OAK; to flowers best after a previous C.bignonioides in its height (to 30m
35m (120ft) tall; branchlets 7–25cm long hot summer (100ft)), its leaves, to 30cm (12in) long
(23/4–10in) x 0.4–0.7mm and unscented when crushed, and in
(1/64–1/32in) 6–9-ridged, having fewer and more heavily marked
glabrous, dark green; cones flowers; it occupies a more westerly
to 1.5cm (5/8in), dull grey); range, from southern Illinois to
C.equisetifolia (HORSETAIL Arkansas, and flowers some two to
TREE, SOUTHSEA IRON- three weeks before C.bignonioides).
WOOD; to 35m (120ft)
tall; branchlets 7–20cm Catananche (from Greek katanangke,
(23/4–8in) x 0.5–1mm a strong incentive – this plant was used
(1/50–1/25in), 6–8-ridged, hairy, in love philtres). Compositae. Mediter-
grey-green; cones to 3cm ranean. 5 species, annual and perennial
(11/4in), grey-brown); C.torulosa (to herbs with long-stalked, daisy-like flow-
20m (70ft) tall, usually less; branchlets long seed pods erheads in summer. C.caerulea (CUPID’S
5–15cm (2–6in) x 0.4–0.5cm (1/8–1/4in), or “beans” DART or BLUE CUPIDONE) is a perennial
4–5-ridged, bronze green; cones to herb to 90cm (36in) tall with grassy,
3cm (11/4in), glossy mahogany to black- grey-green foliage. The flowerheads
brown; forms are grown with very fine, are 5cm (2in) wide and carried on slen-
purple-bronze foliage); C.verticillata (syn. der stalks to 30cm (12in) long, each
C.stricta; MOUNTAIN SHE-OAK, DROOP- consisting of strap-shaped florets in a
ING SHE-OAK, COAST BEEFWOOD; to deep lavender blue and encased by
10m (30ft) tall; branchlets to 10cm (4in) shining, papery bracts. In the cultivars 157
x 1.5mm (1/16in) 9–13-ridged, somewhat Catalpa bignonioides ‘Alba’ and ‘Perry’s White’, the flower-
Catananche
heads are white; in ‘Bicolor’, they are roots and underground organs on
white with a deep blue centre; in ‘Blue herbaceous plants may be damaged by
Giant’ and ‘Major’, they are large, the caterpillars of SWIFT MOTHS (Hepi-
C profuse and cornflower blue. A hardy

perennial suitable for flower borders
and for drying – air-dried, the flower-
alus species); stems may be girdled or
severed at ground level, especially on
young vegetables, by CUTWORMS
heads tend to close up, making a (Noctua and Agrotis species); leaves may
silvery ‘bud’; dried in silica or borax, be tied together or rolled by the cater-
the florets retain their open attitude pillars of TORTRIX MOTHS (e.g. the
and colour. Grow in full sun on any FRUIT TREE TORTRIX MOTH, Archips
well-drained soil. Sometimes short- podana); foliage may be eaten on decid-
lived, especially on wet and heavy soils. uous trees and shrubs by gregarious
Propagate by root cuttings or by seed web-formers, such as the LACKEY Catharanthus roseus ‘Parasol’
sown under glass in early spring. MOTH (Malacosoma neustria), and by gre- The genus name means “unblemished flower”
garious non web-formers, such as the – attested to by these pure white petals
cataphyll any of the several types of BUFFTIP MOTH (Phalera bucephala); foliage surrounding a clear pink eye.
reduced or scarcely developed leaves may also be eaten by solitary larvae,
produced either at the start of a plant’s such as those of the DIAMOND BACK tub plant, tolerating a wide range of
life (i.e. cotyledons) or in the early MOTH (Plutella xylostella) on the cabbage conditions once established, drought
stages of shoot, leaf or flower develop- tribe, those of the ELEPHANT HAWK included. In zones 8 and under, Catha-
ment (e.g. the bract-like rhizome scales MOTH (Deilephila elpenor) on Fuchsia and ranthus is used for summer bedding or
of some monocots – those subtending Impatiens especially, and those of the grown under glass and in the home as
and enveloping pseudobulbs, those MAGPIE MOTH (Abraxus grossulariata), a a bright and free-flowering perennial.
found in the crowns of cycads alternat- looper caterpillar, on Ribes species. Grow in full sun or part shade in a fer-
ing with whorls of developed leaves, Caterpillars that bore into stems tile, moisture-retentive but freely drain-
and the imperfect leaf forms found, include the LEOPARD MOTH (Zeuzera ing medium. Water and feed liberally
progressing up the stem from the most pyrina) on fruit and ornamental woody in spring and summer, sparingly in
reduced scales, in the basal portions of plants; those that damage fruit include winter; maintain a minimum tempera-
the stems of many herbs). the CODLING MOTH (Cydia pomonella) on ture of 7°C/45°F. Cut back in early
Malus species; those that mine leaves spring to promote fresh, bushy growth.
catch crop a quickly maturing crop include the AZALEA LEAF MINER (Calop- Sow seed in late winter or early spring
grown in the interval between harvest- tilia azaleella). at 20°C/68°F. Root greenwood or
ing one main crop and sowing or Various residual contact insecticides, semi-ripe cuttings in summer in a closed
planting another. many of which also act as stomach case with bottom heat. C.roseus (syn.
poisons, are available for caterpillar Vinca rosea; MADAGASCAR PERIWINKLE,
catenary an ornamental support for control, particularly for those feeding ROSE PERIWINKLE, CAYENNE JASMINE;
climbing or rambling plants, especially openly on foliage. Infestations by tun- evergreen to 60cm (24in) tall, perennial
roses. It consists of chains or ropes nellers and borers may be prevented sometimes treated as an annual, with
hanging loosely, but evenly, from the or reduced by timely application. glossy leaves and white to candy pink
tops of vertical posts set out in a Pheromone traps can be used to moni- to rose-purple 5cm (2in)-wide flowers
continuous line. tor the presence of some pest species with a dark purple-red or pink eye).
and ensure optimum timing for insecti-
caterpillars (Lepidoptera) the larvae cide application. A bacterial spray con- cation exchange capacity (CEC)
of butterflies and moths. They have taining Bacillus thuringiensis is effective the ability of a soil to adsorb positively
biting mouthparts and pairs of stumpy against most caterpillars and harmless charged ions, known as cations, on the
abdominal legs (prolegs) bearing hook- to other types of animals. surface of clay particles and organic
like crotchets. Most lepidopterous See bagworm, butterflies, cabbage cater- matter. It is a measure of the retention
larvae have five pairs of prolegs. Those pillars, clearwing moths, codling moth, cut- of such nutrients as potassium, magne-
of the family Geometridae have only worms, larvae, leaf roller, moths, swift moth, sium, calcium and ammonium. See
two pairs and because of this they tent caterpillar, tortrix moth, winter moth. base exchange.
progress in a series of looping move-
ments, hence the common name Catharanthus (from Greek katharos, catkin a cylindrical, bracteate spike
LOOPER (in North America they are pure, or unblemished, and anthos, or spike-like inflorescence composed of
called inchworms, cankerworms and flower). Apocynaceae. Madagascar. 8 single flowers or cymules, the flowers
spanworms). The larvae of SAWFLIES species, bushy annual or perennial usually apetalous and unisexual. It is
(Hymenoptera) have six to eight pairs of herbs with Vinca-like flowers chiefly in also known as an ament.
prolegs devoid of crotchets. summer. In frost-free regions, this
158 All parts of plants are subject to species can be grown year round out- cats (Felis catus) Cats foul newly culti-
attack by lepidopterous caterpillars: the doors and is a colourful bedding and vated soil and thereby disturb seedbeds
caudex
and newly sown lawns. They are colour at all times. Most of the species to magenta); C.mossiae (medium-sized
attracted to the extra warmth provided are grown by orchid specialists, and plants, flowers one or few, to 18cm
by cloches and greenhouses and prefer several at least are easy and reliable (7in) wide, very broad and lacy, fra-
dry soil. Keep vulnerable areas well-
watered and exclude cats by covering
sites and access with wire or plastic
plants for the greenhouse (minimum
temperature 10°C/50°F) or the home.
Grow in very bright, humid and buoy-
grant, tepals white to pale rose or
magenta or lilac, lip white to rose or
lilac with a central orange patch and
C
netting. Pepper dust and other repel- ant conditions with some protection purple-red veins and tip); C.schilleriana
lents have some deterrent effect but are from full, midday sun. Plant in an (medium-sized plants with a few, fra-
not long-lasting. Cats will eat certain open, bark-based medium in small grant flowers to 10cm (4in) wide, tepals
plants for therapeutic reasons; as well pots, pans or baskets. Water, syringe narrow and wavy, deep olive to bronze
as catmint, Actinidia kolomikta, and simi- and feed frequently when in growth. spotted chocolate to maroon, lip white
larly pungent plants, they will chew Once the new growth is fully devel- densely combed with rosy purple);
Chlorophytum and Cyperus leaves indoors. oped, water only to prevent shrivelling C.skinneri (medium-sized to tall plants
Repellent substances give, at best, only of pseudobulbs and impose cooler, with clusters of spreading, rounded
temporary protection to small areas. drier conditions. As temperatures rise flowers to 12cm (43/4in) wide, rose to
Ultrasonic sound devices are effective in spring, mist over with increasing deep magenta, lip with a white or
in scaring away some cats. frequency; return to a full watering cream throat); C.walkeriana (small
regime when the new shoots and roots plants, flowers to 10cm (4in) wide, one
Cattleya (for William Cattley (died appear. Propagate by division, taking or few, fragrant, tepals pale pink-lilac
1832), English horticulturist and patron one active growth and two to three to bright rose-purple, petals rounded
of botany). Orchidaceae. C and S backbulbs per division. Cattleya resents and spreading, lip with lateral lobes
America. 45 species, tender, evergreen, disturbance and is quite happy to grow held flat and open and midlobe kidney-
perennial herbs grown for their spec- over the edge of the pot for a season shaped, stained white to yellow at base,
tacular flowers. Epiphytes and litho- or two. deep magenta to mauve at tip).
phytes, they produce club- to cane-like C.aurantiaca (tall plants with clusters
pseudobulbs, 10–50cm (4–20in) tall, of 3cm (11/4in)-wide, starry flowers in caudate of a leaf or perianth
along a creeping rhizome. The scarlet, vermillion or pale orange); segment apex, tapering gradually
pseudobulbs terminate in one or two, C.bicolor (small to medium-sized plants into a fine tail-shaped point,
tough, oblong to elliptic leaves, from with several flowers to 10cm (4in) wide, tip or appendage.
the base of which a papery sheath tepals bronze, lip tongue-like, bright
emerges and splits to free a stem of purple-red); C.bowringiana (medium to
one to ten thickly textured flowers. tall, grey-green plants with clusters of swollen stem
These consist of three, lanceolate to 5cm (2in)-wide, spreading flowers, base stores
water
oblong sepals, two, usually broader and tepals rose to magenta, lip stained deep
larger petals and a funnel-shaped lip mauve or rosy purple); C.dowiana
with a spreading, colourful midlobe. (medium-sized plants with one to three,
The many Cattleya hybrids are 15cm (6in)-wide flowers, tepals golden
among the most popular orchids. They yellow, petals broad and frilly, lip large
include miniatures, medium-sized and stained deep, velvety red); C.forbesii
large plants. Flowers range in shape (small plants with a few, 8cm (3in)-
and size from the small and star-like to wide, delicately scented flowers, tepals
the very large (to 18cm (7in) in diame- pale olive to buff or bronze, lip cream
ter), lush and lacy; in colour, through stained yellow and flesh pink); C.guttata
white, pale rose, magenta, mauve, bur- (tall plants with clusters of 7cm (23/4in)
gundy, velvety red, scarlet, vermilion, wide flowers, tepals olive to lime green
orange, gold, lemon yellow, bronze and spotted rosy purple to maroon, lip Adenium obesum
green, often with a differently coloured white with a bright magenta or deep Adeniums fall into a group of succulents
lip or blotches or veins. The range is garnet midlobe); C.labiata (medium- characterized by a swollen, bottle-like stem
greatly extended by intergeneric sized plants with one or few broad base commonly known as a caudex.
hybrids with Brassavola, Epidendrum, and frilly, fragrant flowers to 18cm
Laelia, Rhyncholaelia and Sophronitis. (7in) wide, tepals white to pale rose, caudex strictly, the basal axis of a
Some are languorously scented; some magenta or mauve, lip very large and plant, comprising both stem and root;
last well when cut. The species gener- showy, rose-mauve stained yellow and sometimes applied to the aerial stems
ally possess more character than the overlaid with mauve or red-purple); of palms and superficially palm-like
hybrids and are regaining popularity. C.loddigesii (medium-sized to tall plants plants. The term is most often used in
The principal flowering time is winter with clusters of spreading, fragrant connection with plants with stout,
to spring, but this may vary from year flowers to 10cm (4in) wide, tepals swollen or succulent unbranched stems,
to year with the same plant and even a palest rose to lilac, lip shell-like, white usually crowned with narrower 159
small collection should provide some to cream tinted yellow and stained rose branches, leaves or inflorescences.
caudiciform
caudiciform resembling or possess- winter- and spring-heading cultivars, 3–8cm (11/4–3in), broadly ovate to
ing a caudex, encountered in the sow in late May in an outdoor seedbed. rounded, densely white-tomentose
phrase ‘caudiciform succulents’, a dis- Plant out summer-heading cultivars beneath; inflorescence to 12cm (43/4in),
C parate group of succulent and semi-

succulent plants of horticultural
importance and defined by its mem-
from early March to mid-May 55cm,
(22in) square or at 45cm (18in) spac-
ings in rows 60cm (24in) apart; plant
pyramidal; flowers pale blue, fragrant;
includes ‘Trewithen Blue’, spreading,
with dark green, broadly oval leaves
bers’ exhibiting a caudex. out autumn-heading cultivars in mid- and deep blue flowers); C. ‘Burkwoodii’
to late June, 55–63cm (22–25in) each (C.dentatus var. floribundus x C. x delilianus
caulescent producing a well-devel- way or at 50–60cm (20–24in) spacings ‘Indigo’; dense, evergreen, spreading
oped stem above ground. in rows 60–65cm (24–26in) apart; shrub to 1.5m (5ft); leaves 1.5–3cm
winter- and spring-heading cultivars (5/8–11/4in), elliptic, toothed, dark green
cauliflory the production of flowers should be planted in mid- to late July, and glossy above, pale-hairy beneath;
directly from older wood, i.e. springing 70cm (28in) each way. Mini cauliflow- inflorescence 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in), flow-
from the trunk or branches as in the ers can be produced over 13–18 weeks ers bright blue with darker stamens); C.
Judas tree (Cercis), cocoa (Theobroma), during summer months from sowings ‘Burtonensis’ (C.impressus x C.thyrsiflorus;
and Goethea. Such plants are termed made from April onwards, with the spreading evergreen shrub to 2m
cauliflorous. plants spaced 15cm (6in) each way. (61/2ft); leaves small, circular, dark green
There is interest in green curd culti- and glossy, appearing crinkled; inflores-
cauliflower (Brassica oleracea Botrytis vars, grown for autumn maturity, and cence to 2cm (3/4in) in diameter, dense,
Group) Closely related to cabbage, in the perennial cultivar ‘Nine Star rounded; flowers dark blue); C.
cauliflower is grown for its edible inflo- Perennial’, sown in spring and planted ‘Concha’ (evergreen, to 2m (61/2ft),
rescence made up of thick, fleshy 1m (31/4ft) square. See broccoli, calabrese. spreading; leaves to 2.5cm (1in); flowers
flower stalks compacted to form a Possible problems: aphids, cabbage dark blue, red-tinted in bud); C.
spherical head of edible curd, usually caterpillars, cabbage root fly, flea ‘Delight’ (C.papillosus x C.rigidus; ever-
white. Most are annual but some bien- beetle; clubroot, leaf spot. green shrub to 5m (15ft); leaves glossy
nial and perennial forms also exist. A pale green; inflorescence a long pani-
native of the Mediterranean region, cauline attached to or arising from cle; flowers deep blue); C. x delileanus
cauliflower has been widely cultivated the stem. (FRENCH HYBRID CEANOTHUS;
since the 18th century and is an impor- C.coeruleus x C.americanus; evergreen
tant crop in France, Italy and the UK. Ceanothus (from Greek keanothos, shrub to 5m (15ft); leaves 4–8cm
Curd development is governed by name used by Theophrastus for spiny (11/2–3in), elliptic to oblong, dark green
temperature; with annual cultivars in plants). Rhamnaceae. W N America, above, paler and downy beneath; flow-
temperate zones, it occurs after the for- Mexico. CALIFORNIA LILAC. Some 60 ers blue in large panicles; includes the
mation of a prerequisite number of species, hardy evergreen or deciduous popular ‘Gloire de Versailles’, a large,
leaves, at around 17°C/63°F; above shrubs and small trees, often with semi-deciduous and free-flowering
this temperature, curds may not form tough, small dark green leaves and form, with a rangy habit, pale to mid-
or be of poor quality. With biennial grown for their dense panicles of small, green leaves and fragrant, powder blue
and perennial cultivars, curds are blue, mauve, pink or white flowers flowers); C. ‘Dark Star’ (evergreen,
formed after exposure to 10°C/50°F or produced in spring and summer. The arching to 2 x 3m (61/2 x 10ft); leaves
below, depending partly on plant size. following are hardy in climate zone 6, ovate, toothed, dark green; flowers dark
In situations where the temperature but should be planted against a south- purple-blue, honey-scented); C.dentatus
fluctuates around a threshold at critical facing wall in areas that experience (CROPLEAF CEANOTHUS; dense, ever-
times, vegetative growth may take prolonged hard frosts and cold winds. green shrub to 1.5m (5ft); leaves
place, resulting in curds with leafy Many have a spreading habit, which 0.5–2cm (1/4–3/4in), elliptic to narrowly
bracts. Cultivars vary in winter hardi- benefits from some support and is oblong or linear, dark green above,
ness, and may be grouped according to shown to best advantage on a wall; an paler beneath, margins revolute and
maturity time: early summer; summer; exception is C.thyrsiflorus var. repens, an glandular-papillate; flowers dark blue
autumn; winter-heading; spring- excellent groundcover. Plant in full sun in short, dense clusters); C.gloriosus
heading overwintered. on a free-draining, light soil. Prune (POINT REYES CREEPER; prostrate to
For early summer-heading curds, deadwood from evergreen species in decumbent, evergreen shrub, 2–3m
sow in October 1cm (1/2in) deep under spring; trim over after flowering. (61/2–10ft) across; leaves 2–5cm (3/4–2in),
protection, into a seedbed or, for best Reduce long, flowered shoots of decid- broadly oblong to rounded, toothed,
results, in pots. Overwinter with careful uous species and hybrids to within a tough, dark green; inflorescence
ventilation and plant out in March or few buds of the main framework in umbel-like; flowers dark blue to violet
as soon as suitable conditions prevail. spring. Increase by softwood or semi- to purple); C.impressus (SANTA BARBARA
For summer- and autumn-heading ripe cuttings in summer. CEANOTHUS; low, evergreen shrub to
curds, sow from mid-March to mid- C.arboreus (FELTLEAF CEANOTHUS, 1.5m (5ft); leaves 0.6–1.2cm (1/4–1/2in)
160 May under a cold frame or cloches, or CATALINA MOUNTAIN LILAC; evergreen elliptic to suborbicular, veins sunken
in a sheltered outdoor seedbed. For shrub or tree 3–7m (10–22ft); leaves above, margins wavy, dark glossy green;
celeriac
flowers dark blue in a narrow inflores- elliptic, toothed, dark, glossy green; glaucous blue-grey to brown, com-
cence to 2.5cm (1in) long); C.incanus flowers pale to dark blue or white in posed of scales with ridged apices;
(COAST WHITETHORN; erect evergreen rounded, short panicles; includes var. includes dwarf, bushy, fastigiate, blue-
shrub to 4m (12ft), twigs thorny,
bloomed white; leaves 2–6cm
(3/4–21/2in), broadly ovate to elliptic,
repens (CREEPING BLUE BLOSSOM),
prostrate, giving dense cover, with
small, dark, glossy leaves and dark blue
green, yellow and very hardy cultivars);
C.libani (CEDAR OF LEBANON; Lebanon,
Syria, Turkey; to 45m (150ft); crown
C
grey-green above, paler beneath; flow- flowers – the best selection is ‘Blue conic, becoming flat-topped and irreg-
ers white in 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in)-long, Mound’); C. x veitchianus (C.griseus x ular with age, branches tiered and hor-
dense panicles); C. ‘Italian Skies’ (a C.rigidus; robust evergreen shrub to 3cm izontal to slightly ascending; leaves
hybrid with C.foliosus; evergreen shrub (11/4in); leaves to 2cm (3/4in), obovate to 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in), mid-green, often
to 1.5m (5ft) tall, spreading, densely ovate, toothed, glossy green; inflores- blue-tinted, 4-sided; cones 8–12cm
branched; leaves to 1.5cm (5/8in), oval cence 2–5cm (3/4–2in), dense, oblong to (3–43/4in), dull green becoming brown,
to oblong, glossy dark green with small capitate; flowers intense, dark blue). composed of scales without ridged
teeth; inflorescence to 7cm (23/4in), con- apices; includes dwarf, spreading,
ical; flowers intense blue); C. x lobbianus CEC see cation exchange capacity. weeping, gold and variegated cultivars.
(C.dentatus x C.griseus; erect, evergreen
shrub to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 2.5cm Cedrus (from the Greek name, Celastrus (from kelastros, Greek name
(1in), elliptic, leathery, dark green, kedros). Pinaceae. E Mediterranean, N for Phillyrea). Celastraceae. Widespread.
toothed; flowers bright blue in Africa, W Himalaya. CEDAR. 2 species, BITTERSWEET. 30 species, evergreen or
rounded, axillary clusters with blue- hardy evergreen coniferous trees with a deciduous shrubs. Those listed here are
haired stalks); C. x pallidus ‘Marie pyramidal to tiered habit and needle- deciduous vines with ovate to elliptic,
Simon’ (C. x delilianus x C.ovatus; much- like foliage. Oblong to cylindric cones toothed leaves and bright, orange to
branched, deciduous shrub to 1.5m stand erect on outspread branches. red seeds held in woody, 3-valved and
(5ft) tall; leaves broadly oval; flowers These stately conifers are hardy in cli- spherical capsules in autumn and
soft pink in conical, dense and terminal mate zone 6, thrive in most well- winter. Rampant vines hardy in climate
panicles); C.papillosus (WART LEAF drained soils and will tolerate some zone 4 and thriving on most soils in
CEANOTHUS; evergreen shrub to 5m drought once established. Plant young sun or semi-shade. They are best left to
(15ft); leaves 1–5cm (1/2–2in), oblong to trees in mid-spring; feed and stake make dense tangles and luxuriant cas-
elliptic, margins revolute with glandu- them in the early years and prune to cades of growth among trees or along
lar teeth, dark green and hairy, upper remove any forked leaders and weak walls and fences in the wilder parts of
surface strongly papillose to pustular; lower branches. Propagate by seed, the garden. Cut back hard in spring to
flowers pale to deep blue or lilac- except in the case of cultivars, which remove dead stems and keep within
mauve in short, narrow spikes); must be grafted (C.atlantica Glauca bounds. Root cuttings in late winter in
C.prostratus (SQUAW CARPET; prostrate Group will, however, come more or a cold frame. Plants of both sexes are
evergreen shrub forming dense mats; less true from seed). usually required for fertile seed.
leaves 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), cuneate to C.atlantica (ATLAS CEDAR; to 50m C.orbiculatus (syn. C.articulatus; ORIEN-
obovate, margins undulate, tough, pale, (165ft) tall, crown ovoid to celery-like TAL BITTERSWEET, STAFF
glossy green; flowers pale lavender to conic at first, ultimately leaves VINE; NE Asia, natural-
dark blue or white in umbel-like, flat-topped, with ized N America; to 12m
terminal panicles); C. ‘Puget Blue’ roughly 4-sided, 1–3cm (40ft); fruit interior yellow,
(evergreen, to 3m (10ft), dense; leaves (1/2–11/4in)-long, blue-green seeds coral pink to red);
elliptic to oblong, glandular-toothed; to blue-grey leaves C.scandens (WAXWORK,
flowers pale to dark blue); C.rigidus (Glauca Group) and AMERICAN BITTERSWEET,
(MONTEREY CEANOTHUS; evergreen tree grey-bloomed cones; STAFF TREE, STAFF VINE;
to 2m (61/2ft), or low and spreading; includes fastigiate, N America; to 7m
leaves 0.6–1.5cm (1/4–5/8in), cuneate to weeping, pyramidal, edible (22ft); fruit interior
broadly obovate, leathery, sometimes white-variegated, blue- root orange-yellow, seeds
toothed, tough, glossy dark green; grey and silver cultivars); carmine to scarlet).
flowers fragrant, lilac to dark blue or C.deodara (DEODAR,
white in sparse, umbel-like clusters); HIMALAYAN CEDAR; celeriac (Apium grave-
C. ‘Southmead’ (a hybrid involving W Himalaya; 35–60m olens var. rapaceum) a bien-
C. x lobbianus; evergreen dense, bushy (120–200ft) tall; crown nial, usually grown as an
shrub to 1.5m (5ft) tall; leaves small, broadly conic, leader annual for its edible
oblong, glossy dark green; flowers very nodding, branches celery-flavoured root,
dark, rich blue, in rounded inflores- tiered with drooping which is swollen and
cences); C.thyrsiflorus (BLUEBLOSSOM, tips; leaves 3–6cm knobbly and is shred-
BLUE BRUSH; large, evergreen shrub or (11/4–21/2in), rich green to ded for use in salads, or
small tree to 6m (20ft); leaves 1–1.5cm grey-green, somewhat 4- boiled. Celeriac requires a 161
(1/2–5/8in), oblong-ovate to broadly sided; cones 8–14cm (3–51/2in), Celeriac long season of uninterrupted
celeriac
growth. Sow in February/March under celery fly CELERY LEAF MINER (Euleia ovate to spathulate, dark green above,
protection, at around 15°C/59°F, in heracleii) a small fly, about 5mm (1/4in) grey-floccose beneath; flowerheads
seed boxes or modules, or in a cold long, brown with a dark zig-zag band- to 2cm (3/4in) in diameter); C.coriacea
C frame in March/April. Pot up and

harden off for planting outside in late
May, 30–38cm (12–15in) square; keep
ing on its wings. The legless maggots
are up to 8mm (3/8in) long, white or
very pale green. Celery, celeriac, and
(clump-forming herb with lanceolate
to oblong leaves to 60cm (24in) long,
tough and ribbed, very lustrous and sil-
well-watered. Harvest from October. parsnips are subject to attack, the mag- very; flowerheads to 8cm (3in) in diam-
The crop is best left in situ and covered gots mining within the leaves and eter); C.ramulosa (small procumbent to
with straw during severe winter weather. giving rise to blotch-like blisters, even- ascending shrub or subshrub to 20cm
Possible problems: carrot fly. tually causing shrivelling. There are (8in); leaves to 1cm (1/2in), tough, linear
two or three generations per season, to oblong, grey-tomentose; flowerheads
celery (Apium graveolens var. dulce) a and early summer attacks are most to 2.5cm (1in) in diameter); C.traversii
biennial, grown as an annual for its crisp, damaging. Pick off affected parts of (clump-forming herb with oblong to
edible, fleshy petioles. Native to damp leaves or squeeze to crush the larvae lanceolate leaves to 40cm (16in), dark
sites in Europe and Asia, and cultivated within. There are currently no pesti- green with cream-felted undersides and
for more than 2000 years, it does best in cides approved for use in UK gardens. red-purple margins and midrib; flower-
temperate zones with a mean monthly heads to 5cm (2in) in diameter, on a
temperature of 16–21°C/61–70°F. cell (1) the primary unit of plant scape to 50cm (20in) tall); C.walkeri
Above this temperature range, leaf tissue, microscopic in size, consisting of (sprawling, much-branched shrub or
growth is poor, below it, plants may cytoplasm and usually a single nucleus, shrublet to 2m (61/2ft); leaves to 5cm
bolt. Celery matures in autumn/winter which contains the code of plant char- (2in), narrowly oblong, leathery, white-
until the first frosts, but the season can acteristics, and is bounded by a thin hairy beneath; flowerheads to 4cm
be extended by greenhouse protection wall of cellulose; (2) the lobe of an (11/2in) in diameter).
or by covering plants outdoors. anther or locule of an ovary or peri-
Two main divisions may be distin- carp; (3) a small individual container
guished by cultivation method. Trench for raising plants, manufactured of
celery, with white-, pink- or red plastic or polystyrene in the form of a
stemmed cultivars, is traditionally multi-celled tray; it is often called a
blanched by planting in a trench for module. See module.
gradual earthing up; the same result
can more easily be achieved with thick cellulose a polymer of glucose mole-
paper collars. For self-blanching celery, cules, the major constituent of plant
with its white- or cream-stemmed culti- cell walls.
vars, close planting and straw packing
are used to produce good-quality plants. Celmisia (for Celmisius, son of the
Sow trench celery under protection in nymph Alciope, after whom a related
February/March at about 15°C/59°F. genus was named). Compositae. Aus-
Pot up and harden off, then plant out tralasia (those listed here from New Celosia ‘Forest Fire’
in late May, 30–45cm (12–18in) square Zealand). 60 species, more or less These flame-like flower spikes in a burning
as double rows in a prepared trench, or hardy perennial herbs and subshrubs scarlet are typical of the Plumosa Group of
as single rows 90cm (36in) apart, with with silvery-hairy leaves and slender- Celosia cultivars.
25cm (10in) between plants. Self- stalked, white, daisy-like flowerheads
blanching celery should be raised simi- produced in spring and summer. Hardy Celosia (from Greek keleos, burning:
larly and planted out 25cm (10in) square in climate zones 7 and over, they are the inflorescence of some species is
in block formation. American green- suited to the rock garden, scree, raised flame-like). Amaranthaceae. Asia,
stemmed cultivars should be treated in beds, alpine troughs and peat terrace. Africa, Americas. COCKSCOMB, WOOL-
the same way. Leaf celery is grown for Small and cushion-forming species FLOWER. 50 species, annual and peren-
flavouring salads and for soup. The grow best in pans in the alpine house. nial herbs with rather fleshy stems and
small, very hardy plants can be cut over Grow in sun, with shelter from cold, small, pearly flowers packed in showy
frequently from four weeks after plant- drying winds, in a gritty, humus-rich, terminal, plume-, spire- or coral-like
ing out from modules, at 13cm (5in) lime-free soil. Water freely when in heads. Sow seed under glass at
stations in rows 30cm (12in) apart. Late growth and keep roots cool. Keep just 18°C/65°F in late winter. Grow on in
summer sowings can provide supplies moist in winter. Propagate by cuttings a fertile, loamy mix at 15°C/59°F in
from under protection throughout the and division in early summer, or by direct or filtered sunlight, watering and
winter. All celery requires an uninter- fresh seed germinated in cool, moist feeding freely. Reduce water and feed
rupted growing season, with generous conditions in a mix high in silver sand to induce and prolong flowering. For
watering. and leafmould. half-hardy bedding, harden off care-
162 Possible problems: carrot fly, celery C.bellidioides (creeping, mat-forming fully and plant out after the last frosts
fly, leaf miner, slugs; heart rot, leaf spot. herb; leaves to 1.5cm (5/8in), oblong- in a well-drained, fertile soil in full sun.
Centranthus
C.argentea (RED FOX; widespread, inten- a scaly, ovoid involucre crowned with millepedes which have two pairs; and,
sively developed annual, 0.25–2m showy outspread florets, tubular and depending on species, they may have
(3/4–61/2ft) tall with lanceolate to ovate, deeply lobed. Grow in full sun on any 15 to over 100 pairs of legs. The legs
mid-green to maroon leaves and flow-
ers in shades of red, crimson, purple,
magenta, pink, scarlet, salmon, apricot,
well-drained soil. Annual species, such
as C.cyanus and its cultivars, are excel-
lent seasonal fillers; their bright blooms
on the first segment behind the head
are modified into a pair of claw-like
appendages, each with a poison gland
C
orange and yellow; inflorescence types are also suitable for cutting and drying. used to seize and immobilize prey.
range from the broad, terminal Sow seed in situ in spring. Successional Centipedes are mostly carnivorous,
cockscomb with brain-like folds of the sowings will give flowers throughout feeding on small slugs, worms and
Cristata Group (syn. C.cristata) to the the summer. Perennial species are fine insects and they are generally beneficial
tapering, torch-like spikes of the plants for the herbaceous or mixed in the garden.
Plumosa Group). border; propagate by seed or division The most common species belong to
in autumn or spring (C.montana may the orders Geophilomorpha and Litho-
Celtis (from keltis, a Greek name also be increased by root cuttings). biomorpha. Geophilomorphs, which
applied to another tree). Ulmaceae. C.cyanus (CORNFLOWER, BLUE- are adapted to subterranean life, are
Tropics, Europe, N America. NETTLE BOTTLE; northern temperate regions; very long and slender, and have
TREE, HACKBERRY. 70 species, trees or annual to biennial to 90cm (36in) tall; 31–177 pairs of legs. They are often
shrubs, deciduous or evergreen. Those leaves lanceolate, entire to toothed, brought to the surface during cultiva-
listed here are deciduous, hardy trees pale-floccose beneath; flowerheads tion and writhe and twist with little
grown for their broad-headed, spread- deep violet-blue to azure, sky blue, progress. The most common species is
ing habit, ovate to lanceolate, toothed mauve, pink, red and white); C.dealbata Necrophlaoephagus longicornis, which is
leaves and small, berry-like fruits (Caucasus; perennial to 1m (31/4ft) tall; yellow, and 8cm (3in) long. Lithobio-
which hang on slender stalks and leaves pinnatisect, long-stalked, grey- morphs are surface dwellers. They are
follow inconspicuous green flowers in hairy; flowerheads bright pink to lilac- found under stones and in other shel-
summer. Although tolerant of harsh mauve); C.hypoleuca (W Transcaucasia, tered places. They have flattened
winters, these trees require long, hot Turkey, Iran; perennial to 50cm (20in) bodies and adults have 15 leg-bearing
summers for good growth and fruit. tall; leaves lyrate to pinnatisect, grey- segments and relatively long and stout
Plant on any fertile, deep soil in full hairy beneath; flowerheads pink to legs, allowing for rapid progress over
sun. Propagate by fresh seed collected bright magenta-rose in the cultivar the soil surface. Another species often
in autumn and stratified in moist sand ‘John Coutts’); C.macrocephala (Cauca- encountered is Lithobius forficulatus,
for two to three months with the flesh sus; perennial to 1m (31/4ft); leaves which is chestnut brown and about
removed. lanceolate, entire to deeply cut, green; 2.5cm (1in) long.
C.australis (MEDITERRANEAN HACK- florets yellow to yellow-orange); C.mon-
BERRY, EUROPEAN NETTLE TREE, LOTE tana (PERENNIAL CORNFLOWER; Euro- central cell a binucleate cell in the
TREE; Mediterranean, Middle East; pean mountains; perennial to 80cm centre of the embryo sac from which
to 20m (70ft); leaves to 15cm (6in), (32in); leaves ovate to lanceolate, entire the endosperm develops. See polar
roughly hairy and dark green above, to lobed, floccose beneath; outer florets nuclei.
paler and downy beneath; fruit red typically blue, inner florets violet to
ripening brown); C.occidentalis (COMMON mauve); C.pulcherrima (Transcaucasia; Centranthus (from Greek kentron,
HACKBERRY; N America; to 25m (80ft); perennial to 40cm (16in); leaves lanceo- spur, and anthos, a flower, from the
leaves to 12cm (43/4in), smooth, glossy late, entire to lyrate or pinnatisect, spurred flower). Valerianaceae. Europe,
green above, slightly hairy beneath; grey-hairy beneath; outer florets bright Mediterranean. 12 species, hardy
fruit yellow or red ripening deep rose-purple, inner florets paler) C.mar- annual and perennial herbs, with
purple); C.sinensis (JAPANESE garitae, C.moschata and C.suaveolens are clumps of erect stems decked with
HACKBERRY; E Asia; to 15m (50ft); now treated as Amberboa moschata. broad, packed cymes of small flowers
leaves to 8cm (3in), tough, smooth, in late spring and summer. Hardy in
glossy dark green above, duller centipedes (Chilopoda) small soil zone 6. Grow in full sun on a fast-
beneath; fruit dark orange). inhabiting animals with segmented draining, poor and preferably alkaline
bodies, They have one pair of legs on soil in the herbaceous or mixed border,
celtuce see lettuce. each trunk segment, in contrast to or in the crevices of old walls. Shear
over after flowering. Propagate from
Centaurea (from Greek kentauros, seed in autumn or spring. C.ruber (RED
centaur). Compositae. Mediterranean, VALERIAN, JUPITER’S BEARD, FOX’S
Asia, N America, Australia. KNAPWEED, BRUSH; perennial to 80cm (32in) tall;
STAR THISTLE. 450 species, annual and flowers crimson to pale red, held
perennial herbs, fully hardy and above foliage in branched heads
grown for their thistle-like flower- one pair of legs from late spring to early autumn;
heads. Produced from late spring per segment white, pink and deep red forms are 163
through summer, these consist of Centipede common in cultivation).
centre leader
centre leader a central stem carry- referring to the dense, head-like clumps summer. Plant in deep clay pots con-
ing branches and/or fruiting spurs. formed by the leaves of some species). taining a mix of silver sand, peat and
Aizoaceae. Namibia, South Africa. 30 live sphagnum; maintain a minimum
C centrifugal progressing or extending

from the centre towards the margin.
species, low-growing, tender perennials
with succulent, cylindric to triangular
leaves and large, daisy-like flowers
temprature of 10°C/50°F and position
in full sun with high humidity. From
mid-spring to autumn, stand the pot to
centripetal developing or progress- opening on warm, sunny days. Culti- one third of its depth in rain water;
ing towards the centre from the vate as for Conophytum. during the winter months, reduce the
margin. C.alstonii (leaves to 7cm (23/4in), greywater depth keeping the medium
green; flowers dark red); C.pillansii constantly moist but not sodden.
cephalanthium the capitulum or (leaves 2.5–20cm (1–8in), dark green; Propagate by division or leaf cuttings
flowerhead of Compositae. flowers yellow with a red centre). in late spring.
Cephalaria (from Greek kephale, Cephalotaxus (from Greek kephale, Cerastium (from Greek keras, horn,
head: the flowers are in round heads). head, and Latin taxus, yew, referring to alluding to the shape of the fruit).
Dipsacaceae. 65 species, annual and the head-like inflorescences of these Caryophyllaceae. Wide-spread. MOUSE-
perennial herbs with pinnately toothed yew-like trees). Cephalotaxaceae. EAR CHICKWEED. Some 100 species,
to lobed leaves and, in summer, small N India, China, Taiwan, Japan. PLUM hardy annual or perennial herbs, often
flowers in rounded heads surrounded YEW. 9 species, evergreen coniferous tufted or mat-forming with small, hairy
by bracts and carried on slender stalks. trees with 2-ranked, yew-like leaves leaves. Produced in summer, the flow-
Fully hardy, plant in a sunny, well- and fleshy, egg-shaped fruits. Hardy in ers are white and consist of five, obo-
drained position in a large herbaceous climate zone 5, but better in milder vate petals with notched tips; they are
border or the wild garden. Increase by regions. It favours a moist, sandy soil, carried one or a few together on slen-
division in spring, or by seed in autumn. a cool, humid atmosphere and semi- der stalks. Grow C.alpinum in the rock
C.gigantea (syn. C.tatarica; GIANT SCABI- shade, and may be grown as a speci- garden or in the alpine house and
OUS, YELLOW SCABIOUS; Caucasus, men, an understorey shrub, or as a C.tomentosum as groundcover to the fore
Siberia; stately perennial to 2m (61/2ft) screen or hedge. Propagate by green- of borders, in the interstices of paving,
tall with long-stalked, 5cm (2in)-wide wood cuttings of terminal shoots, or on dry walls. Both are hardy in cli-
heads of ivory to yellow flowers). under mist or in a cold frame, in late mate zone 4 and prefer full sun, mini-
summer or early autumn. Sow seed in mal winter wet and a rather dry, poor
cephalium a woolly growth bearing a cold frame when ripe; alternatively, and neutral to alkaline soil. Shear off
flowers, terminating the stem of cer- stratify seed and sow in spring (germi- dead flowerheads. Increase by division
tain Cactaceae. nation may be delayed until the second or by seed in spring.
spring). C.harringtonia (COW’S TAIL PINE, C.alpinum (ALPINE MOUSE EAR;
Cephalocereus (from Greek JAPANESE PLUM YEW; Japan; shrub or Arctic, European mountains; mat-
kephale, head, and Latin, Cereus, refer- small tree to 5m (15ft) tall; leaves to forming perennial with very small,
ring to the head-like, differentiated 6cm (21/2in), linear to falcate, dark grey-white hairy and obovate to elliptic
flowering zone). Cactaceae. Mexico. green above, with two grey bands leaves; flowers to 2cm (3/4in) in diame-
3 species, tender cacti with tall, usually beneath; fruit 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in), ripen- ter, on stalks to 8cm (3in)); C.tomentosum
unbranched column-like stems that are ing purple-brown; dwarf, shrubby, fasti- (SNOW-IN-SUMMER; mountains of
ribbed and spiny. Tubular to campanu- giate, procumbent and semi-weeping Europe and W Asia; mat-forming
late flowers open at night amid wool forms exist). perennial with grey to white-hairy,
and bristles. Provide a minimum tem- linear to lanceolate to elliptic leaves, to
perature of 10°C/50°F, low humidity Cephalotus (from Greek kephalotos, 2cm (3/4in) long; flowers to 2.5cm (1in)
and shade from the hottest summer with a head: the stamens are capitate). in diameter, on stalks to 15cm (6in)).
sun. Plant in an acid to neutral soil Cephalotaceae. W Australia. AUS-
high in grit and sand. Keep dry from TRALIAN PITCHER PLANT. 1 Species, Ceratophyllum (from Greek keras,
mid-autumn until early spring, except C.follicularis, a small, tender perennial horn, and phyllon, leaf). Ceratophyl-
for a light misting over on warm days herb, carnivorous with leaves of two laceae. Europe, Africa, Asia, US.
in late winter. C.senilis (OLD MAN types: the first ovate to spathulate in a HORNWORT. 30 species, submerged
CACTUS; stem grey-green, growing central tuft, and the second (the traps) aquatic herbs with slender floating
extremely slowly to 12 x 0.4m (40ft x pitcher-like and low-borne. The pitch- stems whorled with brittle, thread-like
16in), usually grown as far smaller, ers are some 1–5cm (1/2–2in) long, leaves. Grow the following species in
narrower plants, covered in a mass of squat and green with bristly wings, the unheated freshwater aquaria or ponds,
white, shaggy hairs; flowers off-white rim heavily ribbed, waxy and tinted pushing the stem bases into the sub-
marked pink). blood red and the lid veined purple-red strate. Increase by stem cuttings or by
and zoned with paler, semi-lucent spontaneously offsetting winter buds.
164 Cephalophyllum (from Greek patches. Small, green-white flowers are C.demersum, (Africa, Mediterranean,
kephalos, head, and phyllon, leaf, produced in slender-stalked spikes in Eastern Europe; fully hardy with stems
Cerinthe
to 1m (31/4ft) long encircled by forked, inconspicuous. A form with pendulous humidity and a minimum temperature
dark green leaves). branches is sometimes grown. Plant in of 10°C/50°F. Plant in an acid to neu-
sun or part shade on a moist, humus- tral medium that is high in grit and
Ceratostigma (from Greek keras,
horn and stigma, alluding to the horn-
like excrescences on the stigmas).
rich and preferably acid soil. Propagate
by seed cuttings taken in late
spring and rooted in humid,
sand. Water moderately in summer,
very sparingly in winter. Increase by
rooting sections of stem.
C
Plumbaginaceae. Asia, Africa. heated case. C.uruguayensis (syn. C.peruvianus;
PLUMBAGO. 8 species, hardy, woody- shuttle- Brazil to Argentina; tree to 6m (20ft);
based perennial herbs or small shrubs Cercis (from Greek shaped stems 8–12cm (3–43/4in) in diameter,
with ovate to obovate, more or less kerkis, a weaver’s seedpods glaucous, with 8 deep, rounded ribs
bristly leaves and terminal heads of shuttle: a name given and spines to 2cm (3/4in) long; flowers
blue flowers in late summer and by Theophrastus to to 18cm (7in), white with green
autumn. Plant in a sheltered position in describe the large, outer tepals edged in red; ‘Mon-
full sun on a well-drained soil. Where woody, flattened strosus’: stems distorted, com-
temperatures fall below –15°C/5°F for fruits). Legumi- pressed to fan-shaped); C.validus
prolonged periods, these plants benefit nosae. Asia, (syn. C.forbesii; Argentina; tree to
from a dry winter mulch and may per- Europe. 6 species, 6m (20ft); stems to 12cm (43/4in)
form as herbaceous perennials. Propa- hardy deciduous in diameter, blue- to grey-green,
gate by removal of rooted suckers or trees and shrubs with 4–7 deep, thin ribs and
spontaneous layers in spring, or by soft- with broadly spines to 4.5cm (13/4in) long;
wood or semi-ripe cuttings. heart- to kidney- Cercis flowers to 20cm (8in), white with
C.griffithii (Himalaya; evergreen, shaped leaves siliquastrum red-tinted outer tepals).
procumbent to creeping, evergreen and small, pea flowers
shrub forming mats to 0.3 x 1.5m in clusters or short racemes, ceriferous wax-producing.
(12in x 5ft); leaves 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in), often sprouting directly from the
tough and bristly, becoming red-tinted older wood in spring. Plant in full sun Cerinthe (from Greek kerinos, waxy,
in hard weather; flowers bright blue); on a fertile, well-drained soil. Most are bees were thought to obtain wax from
C.plumbaginoides (W China; multi- grown for their flowers, but C. ‘Forest the flowers). Boraginaceae. HONEY-
stemmed, more or less erect and Pansy’ is an exceptional foliage plant, WORT. Europe. 10 species, annual,
semi-deciduous woody-based herb or especially when young, or if stooled biennial or perennial herbs (those here
subshrub to 50cm (20in); leaves to 9cm back in late winter. Propagate by seed annual or, rarely, biennial). They are
(31/2in), undulate, thin-textured, bright or (cultivars), by semi-ripe cuttings in a loosely branching and erect to spread-
green slightly bristly, flushing rusty red closed case with bottom heat; increase ing with oblong to broadly obovate,
in autumn; flowers dark to brilliant also by budding. sessile leaves. Produced in spring and
blue); C.willmottianum (CHINESE C.canadensis (EASTERN REDBUD, summer, the tubular flowers nod amid
PLUMBAGO; W China to Tibet; decidu- REDBUD; N America; spreading tree to colourful bracts in arching, terminal
ous shrub, broad, bushy and erect to 14m (46ft); leaves 3–12cm (11/4–43/4in), cymes. The following species are
1m (31/4ft), with ribbed and bristly, smooth to shining above, puberulent among the most striking of all hardy
twiggy branches; leaves 2–5cm (3/4–2in), beneath; flowers to 1cm (1/2in), crimson, annuals. They prefer a well-drained,
bristly, tinted red in autumn; flowers lilac or white; ‘Forest Pansy’: leaves sandy or gritty soil, full sun and shelter,
pale to deep sky blue amid red-brown darkest wine red at first, ultimately consorting brilliantly with blue-grey
calyx lobes). purple-red); C.siliquastrum (JUDAS TREE, grasses and Mediterranean-type plants.
LOVE TREE; E Mediterranean; spread- As the season progresses, they tend to
Cercidiphyllum (from Cercis, and ing tree or shrub to 10m (30ft), usually become bare and leggy and may need
Greek phyllon, leaf). Cercidiphyllaceae. smaller; leaves 6–10cm (21/2–4in), matt support from pea sticks or dead twigs.
W China, Japan. KADSURA, KATSURA grey- to mid-green, glabrous; flowers Sow seed under glass in early spring for
TREE. 2 species. C.japonicum is a hardy 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), pale rose to magenta; planting out after the last frosts, or sow
deciduous tree to 30m (100ft) tall, with includes white and dark-flowered in situ in late spring. In the right situa-
an erect, sometimes multi-stemmed forms). tion, they will self-sow; otherwise, col-
habit, grey, furrowed bark and slender, lect the black, shot-like seed from late
glossy shoots. The winter buds are Cereus (from Latin cereus, a wax torch summer onwards. Pinch out new plants
small, red and claw-like, often appear- taper, referring to the shape of some to establish a bushy, free-flowering
ing on short spurs. Broadly ovate to species). Cactaceae. West Indies, S habit. Any shoots so removed make
kidney- or heart-shaped, the leaves are America. 40 species, tender, shrubby or good cuttings, and will root quickly
5–10cm (2–4in) long and finely cre- tree-like cacti with erect, ribbed and under glass.
nate. Soft pea-green at first, they shift spiny, columnar stems and large, C. major (S Europe; to 60cm (24in);
in autumn through shades of amber, funnel-shaped flowers composed of leaves blue-green with irregular grey
yellow and scarlet, becoming candy- many tepals and usually opening at spots; bracts sea green tinted bronze- 165
scented. The small red flowers are night. Grow in full sun with low purple, becoming violet then petrol
Cerinthe
blue with age; flowers gold at base, and small, thinly succulent heart- flowers bright orange); C.elegans
progressing through copper, wine red shaped leaves, tinted maroon beneath (Mexico; evergreen shrub to 3m (10ft),
and violet to the indigo tip; ‘Purpuras- and marbled grey-green above; flowers bushy with arching branches; flowers
C cens’: a robust plant with especially fine

colouring – maroon then blue-purple);
C.retorta (S Europe; to 50cm (20in);
with flesh pink tube and dark ‘cage’
covered in black hairs); C.sandersonii
(PARACHUTE PLANT, UMBRELLA PLANT;
deep pink to purple-red); C.fasciculatum
(Mexico; evergreen shrub to 2m (61/2ft)
with arching branches; flowers carmine
leaves pale to mid-green with two rows Mozambique, South Africa; stems to to purple-red); C. ‘Newellii’ (a possible
of dull silver blotches and a purple- 2m (61/2ft), thickly succulent, twining; hybrid with C.elegans, with crimson
brown stain near the apex; bracts flowers 3–5cm (11/4–2in) long, green flowers and dark green leaves); C.noctur-
yellow-green suffused maroon to violet; marked dark green and covered with num (LADY OF THE NIGHT, NIGHT JES-
flowers yellow tipped dark maroon or white hairs above, the tube flaring from SAMINE; West Indies; evergreen shrub
violet). a narrow base, the lobes fusing above to 4m (12ft) with spreading to scandent
in a lantern-like canopy – the ‘umbrella’ branches; flowers pale green to ivory,
cernuous nodding, usually applied – to 2.5cm (1in) in diameter). deliciously scented at night); C.parqui
to flowers with curved or drooping (WILLOW-LEAVED JESSAMINE; Chile;
pedicels attached to a straight or erect certified stock plants that have deciduous shrub to 3m (10ft); flowers
inflorescence axis. been examined by an officially autho- yellow-green to yellow, or violet in the
rized inspector and found to conform cultivar ‘Cretian Blue’); C.roseum
Ceropegia (from Greek keros, wax, to the standards of a certification (Mexico; evergreen shrub to 2m (61/2ft);
and pege, fountain, alluding to the scheme designed to ensure freedom flowers rose to purple, rosy pink in the
appearance of the waxy flowers). from pathogens (especially viruses), cultivar ‘Illnacullin’).
Asclepiadaceae. Old World tropics and vigour, and trueness to type. Certified
subtropics. 200 species, tender perenni- stock is the best-quality planting Chaenomeles (from Greek chainein,
als, tuberous or caudiciform with slen- material available to gardeners, and to gape, and melon, apple, referring to
der, twining to cascading stems and particularly important as regards new the incorrect belief that the fruit is
small, succulent leaves, or erect and stocks of strawberries, raspberries and split). Rosaceae. E Asia. FLOWERING
shrubby with candelabra-like, succulent blackcurrants. QUINCE, JAPANESE QUINCE, JAPONICA. 3
and virtually leafless stems. The flowers species, deciduous, fully hardy shrubs
are short-stalked and solitary or clus- cespitose see caespitose. or small trees with spiny, slender
tered; they consist of a bladder-like branches, toothed, oval to lanceolate
base, a narrow, upward-curving tube Cestrum (from the Ancient Greek leaves and, from late winter to early
and a 5-lobed limb, the lobes narrow, name kestron, for similar but unrelated summer, showy flowers composed of
hairy and outspread or (more charac- plants). Solanaceae. S America. BAS- five, broad petals. Dull yellow and aro-
teristically) directed inwards in a TARD JASMINE, JESSAMINE. Some 175 matic, the quince-like fruits are used to
lantern or cage. Provide a minimum species, evergreen or deciduous trees make jellies and conserves, often com-
temperature of 10°C/50°F with low to and shrubs, many frost-tender with bined with apple and pear. Plant on a
medium humidity and full sun. Plant in spreading to semi-scandent branches well-drained soil in full sun. These
a gritty, loam-based medium; water and lanceolate to elliptic leaves. Borne shrubs are grown to best advantage on
moderately in spring and summer, very in panicles or corymbs, tubular to walls, tied to trellis, wires or wall nails,
sparingly in winter. Increase by tip cut- funnel-shaped flowers appear from with their lateral shoots reduced to
tings of mature shoots with two to early summer to autumn. C.elegans, spurs of two or three buds after flower-
three nodes or, for C.linearis, by detach- C.fasciculatum, C.parqui and C.roseum will ing (or fruiting) and any weak shoots
ing lengths of stem on which tubers survive mild frosts, especially if planted that grow outwards removed over the
have developed. C.linearis subsp. woodii on a sheltered, south-facing wall, as spring and summer. Increase by soft-
is a popular houseplant, an excellent suits their semi-climbing habit. Plants wood or greenwood cuttings in
choice for baskets and hanging pots. cut down by frost will usually resprout summer.
C.haygarthii (South Africa; stem stout, if thickly mulched in winter. The C.cathayensis (China; shrub or small
slightly succulent, twining, to 2m remaining species need a minimum tree to 6m (20ft), with tortuous
(61/2ft); flowers 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in) long, temperature of 7°C/45°F. Grow in full branches armed with spiny spurs; flow-
white to buff, tube pitcher-shaped, or filtered sun on a fertile, well-drained ers to 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, white,
widening above and spotted purple, the soil. Feed and water container-grown sometimes flushed pink); C.japonica
lobes narrowing greatly and joining plants freely when in growth, sparingly (MAULE’S QUINCE; Japan; spreading,
across aperture of pitcher, then twisting at other times. Provide support for thorny shrub to 1m (31/4ft); flowers 4cm
together to form an erect tail tipped scandent species. Prune in spring to (11/2in) in diameter, orange-red, scarlet
with rounded, hairy appendage); C.lin- remove weak or dead growth. Increase or crimson; includes white, dwarf and
earis subsp. woodii (syn. C.woodii; HEARTS by semi-ripe or greenwood cuttings in brilliant orange-red forms); C.speciosa
ENTANGLED, SWEETHEART VINE, HEARTS summer. (China; spreading, thorny shrub to
166 ON A STRING; South Africa; tuberous C.aurantiacum (Guatemala; evergreen 3m (10ft); flowers to 4.5cm (13/4in) in
with many slender, pendulous stems shrub to 2m (61/2ft), sometimes climbing; diameter, scarlet to crimson; includes
Chamaecyparis
cultivars with single, semi-double and a metallic green head and thorax and release programmes to attack the eggs
double flowers in tones of blood red, brown wing cases. The larvae, up to of various injurious species of moth.
scarlet, salmon pink, crimson, rose, 1.8cm (3/4in) long, complete their devel- Unlike many parasitoids, they have a
palest pink and pure white – for exam-
ple, the shell pink-tinted cream ‘Apple
Blossom’; C. x superba (C.speciosa x
opment in one year.
The SUMMER CHAFER (Amphimallon
solstitialis) is uniformly brown and up to
wide range of hosts; as many as 20
individuals may develop in a single
host egg.
C
C.japonica; erect to spreading, spiny 1.8cm (3/4in) long. It is seldom injurious
shrub to 1.5m (5ft); leaves close to in gardens, although it swarms occa- chalk a soft white form of limestone,
C.japonica; flowers white, pink, crimson sionally on elms and poplars. composed of calcium carbonate. It is
to orange and orange-scarlet; includes The ROSE CHAFER (Cetonia aurata) is incorporated in loam-based seed and
‘Crimson and Gold’, with crimson metallic golden-green, up to 2cm (3/4in) potting composts.
petals and golden anthers, ‘Etna’, small long; it is locally common and may
with deep fiery red flowers, the pink feed on flowers, buds and leaves Chamaecyparis (from Greek
‘Hever Castle’, orange-scarlet ‘Knap of roses from June to August. chamai, lowly, dwarf, and kuparissos,
Hill Scarlet’ and the large, dark crim- Chafer beetles are not easy to con- cypress). Cupressaceace. E Asia, N
son ‘Rowallane’). trol. Apply a pathogenic nematode America. CYPRESS. 8 species, fully
(Heterorhabditis megidis) to moist soil in hardy, evergreen coniferous trees and
chafer beetles (Coleoptera: midsummer to control the young shrubs with small, awl- to scale-like
Scarabaeidae) stout, medium to larvae. There are no suitable leaves, aromatic and covering finely
large beetles with antennae insecticides approved for branched sprays or fans of growth; the
terminating in a club consist- use in the UK. cones are small and usually globose.
ing of 3–7 flat, leaf-like See Japanese beetle. Pollution-tolerant, moderate- to fast-
segments. The larvae live growing conifers suitable for screening,
in soil or decaying wood chalcid wasps hedging and lawn specimens; dwarf
and are white or grey and (Hymenoptera: Chalci- cultivars are used for rock gardens,
C-shaped, with a heavily doidea) an important group island beds and containers. They fare
sclerotized yellow or brown of beneficial insects. They best in full sun on moist, well-drained,
head. They have three pairs are no more than 1 or 2mm acid to neutral soils. Propagate by seed
of thoracic legs, and the last Chafer beetle (1/16 or 1/16in) in length and or, for cultivars, by heeled greenwood
abdominal segment is enlarged. larva although abundant in gardens, are cuttings in late summer in a humid
The larvae of many species usually overlooked. They have cold frame or by softwood cuttings
feed on plant roots. They are abundant elbowed antennae and the wings are under mist in summer. All species are
in grassland, particularly on light soils, held flat when at rest. Many have a susceptible to phytophthora root rot
and attack lawns and the roots of a metallic green or blue body sheen. (Phytophthora cinnamomi). Phytophthora lat-
wide range of fruit, vegetable and Some larvae feed on seeds or within eralis is a serious problem on C.lawsoni-
ornamental plants. Adults feed on galls (e.g. Megastigmus species, and ana, especially in parts of the western
leaves, buds, flowers and fruits of Torynus varians, which can damage US, where this popular and versatile
deciduous trees and shrubs. Chafer apple fruits in North America). conifer is now gravely threatened.
beetles are on the wing in summer and Several chalcid wasps are utilized in C.lawsoniana (LAWSON’S CYPRESS,
the females deposit eggs in the soil. biological control and many are poten- OREGON CEDAR, PORT ORFORD CEDAR;
The life cycle varies: larger species, tial candidates. The majority are para- W US; to 60m (200ft) in the wild,
such as the COCKCHAFER, have larvae sites of insects, mites and spiders; a crown narrowly conic then columnar;
that live for two-and-a half years few parasitize parasites and should be branches level, branchlets pendulous;
before pupating in the soil; smaller excluded from the breeding phase of leaves to 2mm (1/16in), keeled, bright
species, such as the GARDEN CHAFER biological-control organisms. Encarsia green or tinted blue-grey with pale
and the JAPANESE BEETLE, complete the formosa is widely used for the biological lines beneath; includes many cultivars
cycle in one year. control of greenhouse whitefly (Trialeu- ranging in habit from dwarf and
The COCKCHAFER (Melolontha melolon- rodes vaporariorum); Aphelinus species par- rounded to columnar in tones of
tha) is up to 3cm (11/4in) long, with a asitize aphids and scale insects; and the green, blue-green, grey, blue, lime and
black head and thorax and red-brown apple woolly aphid parasite (A.mali) yellow; there are also some white-
wing cases. In both sexes the abdomen occurs widely throughout the world. variegated forms and others with
terminates in a spade-like point. Males Several other cosmopolitan genera, thread-like or feathered foliage; the
are much attracted to light during the including Aphycus, Aphytis, Physcus, most popular cultivar is ‘Ellwoodii’,
early summer flight period. The larvae Aspidiotiphagus and Prospantella, para- erect to 3 x 1.5m (10 x 5ft) with blue-
measure up to 6cm (21/2in) long and sitize scale insects. Pteromalus species grey leaves); C.nootkatensis (NOOTKA
take two-and-a-half years to become parasitize the pupae of cabbage white CYPRESS, YELLOW CYPRESS; western
fully fed. butterflies and related insects. Tri- N America; to 40m (130ft), slender or
The GARDEN CHAFER (Phyllopertha chogramma species are bred in large broadly conic, becoming domed with 167
horticola) is up to 1.1cm (1/2in) long, with numbers in many countries for mass- age; branches upswept, branchlets
Chamaecyparis
includes dwarf forms with blue-grey, stems and pinnate to fishtail-shaped

gold and bronze foliage, the leaves leaves. Small, golden to creamy flowers
sometimes needle-like; the most popu- are carried in freely branched. Provide
C lar is ‘Andelyensis’, a bluntly conic

shrub to 3m (10ft) with fan-like branch-
lets of linear, blue-green leaves).
a minimum temperature of
15°C/59°F, with filtered sun to light
shade and medium to high humidity.
Grow in a porous, soilless mix kept
Chamaecytisus (from Greek chamai, consistently moist. Feed and syringe
lowly, dwarf, and Cytisus). Legumi- frequently in summer. Increase by care-
nosae. Europe, Canary Islands. 30 ful division of stems when repotting.
species, more or less evergreen trees, These conditions are ideal, but C.elegans
shrubs and subshrubs, usually with has proved itself capable of surviving
small, trifoliolate leaves and pea-like (and often receives) far harsher treat-
flowers in spring and summer. The ment. C.elatior may need some support
following species are hardy in climate with age.
zones 6 and over. Cultivate as for C.elatior (stems solitary or clumped,
Cytisus. slender, cane-like, green, to 4m (12ft),
C.albus (syn. Cytisus albus; POR- ultimately weakly climbing; leaves to
TUGUESE BROOM; SE and C Europe; 3m (10ft), pinnate, with narrow droop-
erect to 80cm (32in); leaflets often ing leaflets); C.elegans (syn. Neanthe bella;
hairy; flowers white or yellow in termi- PARLOUR PALM; stems solitary or
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana nal clusters); C.purpureus (syn. Cytisus clumped, to 2m x 3cm , (61/2ft x 11/4in)
‘Green Pillar’ purpureus; SE Europe; to 60cm (24in), erect; leaves to 30cm (12in), pinnate; a
The Lawson cypresses include numerous bushy and low-growing; leaflets dark very popular pot plant, especially when
forms of different habit, colour and height. green, smooth; flowers pale pink to young); C. microspadix (syn. C.metallica of
Many are suitable for small gardens. lilac flushed ruby or crimson; white, gardens; stems to 1m (31/4ft), cane-like;
opal, pink and dark red cultivars are leaves to 25cm (10in), fishtail-shaped,
pendulous; leaves to 4mm (1/8in), deep grown); C.supinus (syn. Cytisus supinus; ribbed and puckered, metallic sea
green; includes cultivars with yellow to S and C Europe to Ukraine; to 1m green).
moss green or blue-grey foliage and (31/4ft), ascending to prostrate; leaflets
dwarf, compact or tall and weeping smooth or thinly hairy; flowers yellow Chamaemelum (from Greek chamai,
habit); C.obtusa (HINOKI CYPRESS; Japan; in short, terminal racemes); C. x versi- lowly, and melon, apple). Compositae.
to 40m (130ft), slow-growing with a color (C.purpureus x C.hirsutus; to 50cm Europe, Mediterranean. CHAMOMILE. 4
broadly conic crown becoming colum- (20in), erect to diffuse with long, slen- species, annual or perennial frost-hardy
nar; branchlets in flattened, layered der branches; leaflets hairy beneath; herbs with finely and pinnately cut
fans; leaves to 2mm (1/16in), blunt and flowers pale yellow with a pink-violet foliage and yellow-centred, white,
closely overlapping, dark green above, keel; includes ‘Hillieri’, a low-growing daisy-like flowerheads. Plant in full sun
silver-white beneath; includes dwarf, plant with arching branches and large on any loamy soil with a high sand
tiered, congested, filiform and rounded yellow flowers later becoming bronze- content and ample moisture, but avoid
cultivars with very deep green, cream to pink-tinted). sites where there is risk of waterlog-
to gold or grey foliage – one of the ging. Flowerheads of the typical plant
most popular is the dwarf, dark green Chamaedaphne (from Greek are used to make chamomile tea. The
‘Nana’); C.pisifera (SAWARA CYPRESS; chamai, lowly, dwarf, and Daphne). Eri- non-flowering cultivar, ‘Treneague’, is
Japan; to 40m (130ft), broadly conic to caceae. Northern temperate regions. used in lawns and walks and on seats
irregularly conic; bark rusty brown and LEATHERLEAF, CASSANDRA. 1 species, and banks. Chamomile lawns become
peeling; leaves to 3mm (1/8in), mossy C.calyculata, a spreading evergreen bare and patchy unless regularly
green above, silvery beneath, tapered shrub, fully hardy and seldom exceed- sheared and diligently replanted
and pointed; cultivars range in size ing 1 x 1.5m (31/4 x 5ft). To 5cm (2in) wherever thin. Increase by seed in
from the dwarf and slow-growing to long, the leaves are oval to lanceolate, autumn or, for ‘Treneague’, by division
medium-sized trees, in habit from flat- tough and rusty-scaly beneath. Pure or rooted stem cuttings in spring.
topped to rounded and bushy and in white, urn-shaped flowers appear in C.nobile (W Europe; strongly aromatic,
foliage colour from steel blue (e.g. short racemes in spring. Grow as for decumbent perennial with finely 2–3-
‘Boulevard’, ‘Squarrosa’) to yellow- Andromeda. pinnatisect mid- to grey-green leaves
green or white-variegated); C.thyoides and small flowerheads; ‘Treneague’:
(WHITE CYPRESS, WHITE CEDAR; E US; Chamaedorea (from Greek chamai, non-flowering, carpeting cultivar
to 30m (100ft), slow-growing, crown lowly, near the ground, and dorea, a gift: suitable for lawns).
narrowly conic to irregularly ovoid; the fruits are easily reached). Palmae.
168 leaves to 3mm (1/8in), dark grey-green C and S America. 100 species, small, chamaephyte a low-growing plant
or glaucous, in fan-shaped sprays; tender palms, often with cane-like with growth buds above the soil sur-
Chelidonium
face; usually bushy and of mountain- Charmilles are used in the French full sun in winter. Increase by spores or
ous or arid origin. garden to line allées. by careful division.
C.lanosa (N America; fronds
Chamaerops (from Greek chamai,
lowly, dwarf, and rhops, a bush).
Palmae. Mediterranean. 1 species,
chartaceous of leaf and bract tex-
ture; thin and papery.
15–30cm (6–12in), blades broadly
ovate to lanceolate, tripinnatifid, pin-
nules oblong, soft green, on black,
C
C.humilis, a palm with shaggy, solitary Chasmanthe (from Greek chasma, hairy stipes); C.pteridioides (syn. C.fragrans;
to clumped trunks 0.25–3m (10in–10ft) chasm, and anthos, flower: the perianth S Europe; fronds 3–15cm (11/4–6in),
tall. To 1m (31/4ft) long, the palmately is gaping). Iridaceae. South Africa. 3 blades subtriangular to linear to lance-
divided leaves consist of a coarsely species, cormous perennial herbs with olate, bipinnate, pinnules oblong to
toothed petiole and a fan of linear to 2-ranked linear to lanceolate leaves suborbicular, toothed, dark green and
lanceolate, scurfy grey segments. This and, from autumn to spring, spikes of sweetly scented, on shiny, chestnut-
palm will tolerate short frosts in climate showy flowers with curving perianth coloured stipes).
zone 9 and favoured locations in zone tubes and six, unequal segments. Culti-
8, especially if grown in a sunny, vate as for Babiana. Cheiridopsis (from Greek cheiris,
sheltered position and kept dry in C.aethiopica (40–70cm (16–28in); sleeve, and opsis, resemblance: the older
winter with its upper trunk and crown spike unbranched, flowers to 8cm (3in), leaf bases enclose the new growth in a
wrapped in sacking. Elsewhere, grow in red, maroon in throat, tube with yellow dried sheath). Aizoaceae. South Africa.
full sun in a frost-free greenhouse or stripes); C.floribunda (50–150cm 80 species, tender perennial herbs
conservatory. Plant in a fast-draining, (20–60in); spike branched, flowers to forming low clumps of thickly succu-
gritty and low- to medium-fertility soil. 8.5cm (31/4in) orange-red or yellow). lent, semi-cylindrical leaves usually
Keep moist in summer, virtually dry in with flat tops. Daisy-like flowers open
winter. Increase by offsets or seed. Chasmanthium (from Greek on bright days in summer. Cultivate as
chasma, chasm, and anthos, flower: the for Conophytum.
Chamelaucium (name derivation spikelets gape widely). Gramineae. US, C.denticulata (syn. C.candidissima;
obscure). Myrtaceae. SW Australia. Mexico. 6 species, hardy perennial leaves 8–10cm (3–4in), erect, more or
WAXFLOWER. 21 species, strongly aro- grasses with linear to lanceolate leaves less 3-sided, white-grey or blue-green
matic, evergreen, tender shrubs with and loosely clumped, slender culms sometimes with a reddened tip; flowers
soft, needle-shaped foliage and bright that terminate in arching panicles of 7cm (23/4in) in diameter, yellow to
flowers composed of five, broad and large, flattened spikelets. Hardy in cli- white); C.purpurea (syn. C.purpurata;
spreading petals. Grow in full sun with mate zone 5. Grow in sun or dappled leaves to 6cm (21/2in), bluntly 3-sided,
low to medium humidity and a mini- shade on a rich, moisture-retentive soil grey to blue-grey, becoming purple-
mum winter temperature of 7°C/45°F. with shelter from strong winds. red-tinted; flowers to 4.5cm (13/4in) in
Plant in tubs or borders of sandy, acid Increase by division in spring. The diameter, yellow; the name C.purpurea is
soil. Water, feed and ventilate liberally inflorescences are suitable for drying. sometimes applied in horticulture to a
in spring and summer; keep almost dry C.latifolium (syn. Uniola latifolia; NORTH plant with rose-magenta flowers).
in winter. The following species usually AMERICAN WILD OATS, SPANGLE GRASS,
flowers in late winter and spring and is SEA OATS; to 1m (31/4ft) tall; panicle chelate see sequestrol.
a popular cut flower. Increase by seed weeping; spikelets 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in),
or by semi-ripe cuttings. C.uncinatum oblong to lanceolate to broadly ovate, Chelidonium (from Greek chelidon,
(GERALDTON WAX; shrub to 3m (10ft) with overlapping lemmas, like a large, swallow: the flowers were said to
tall; leaves strongly lemon-scented; flat Briza and changing by late summer appear with the swallows in spring,
flowers to 2.5cm (1in) in diameter, red, from olive-bronze to straw yellow). and to die on their departure).
purple, mauve, pink or white). Papaveraceae. Europe, W Asia,
Cheilanthes (from Greek cheilos, lip, naturalized E US. 1 species, C.majus,
charcoal the black, porous residue and anthos, flower, referring to the clus- GREATER CELANDINE or SWALLOW
from wood burnt slowly under condi- tered marginal sori). Adiantaceae. Cos- WORT, a hardy biennial or perennial
tions of limited air supply. Charcoal is mopolitan. LIP FERN. Some 180 species with irritant, orange sap. The leaves
of no nutrient value, consisting wholly of ferns; those described below are are more or less lanceolate with
of carbon. It is used in crushed form to small, half-hardy and evergreen with rounded tips and wavy to toothed, or
lighten texture and absorb surplus short to creeping rhizomes and pin- lobed. Measuring up to 2.5cm (1in) in
moisture in potting mixtures, or pow- nately compound fronds. Grow in a diameter, the flowers consist of four
dered to reduce bleeding from cuttings cold greenhouse or frame in pans con- orange to yellow petals (more in ‘Flore-
of latex-bearing plants, such as Ficus. taining a humus-rich medium with a pleno’) and are carried on branching
little added dolomitic limestone. Water stems up to 1m (31/4ft) tall in summer.
chards see swiss chard. sparingly in summer, avoiding foliage; Hardy in climate zone 6 and suitable
keep almost dry in winter. Provide a for the wild or woodland garden on
charmille a smoothly-clipped hedge, dry, cool and buoyant atmosphere. most soils in sun or shade. Sow seed in 169
usually of HORNBEAM (Carpinus betulus). Admit bright, dappled light in summer, situ in spring.
Chelone
For gardens, acid cherries, especially of 3g per litre (1/2oz per gallon) and is
in the form of fans or bushes, are the used to water seed boxes and seedbeds
most suitable choice because they are at the time of sowing. Repeat treat-
C the smallest of the three types. The

self-fertile ‘Morello’ is the most success-
ful, and is suitable for north- or east-
ment when pricking out or transplant-
ing seedlings.
facing walls. It is propagated by bud Chiastophyllum (from Greek chias-

grafting on to semi-vigorous ‘Colt’ tos, arranged diagonally or crosswise,
rootstock, although in the US selected and phyllon, leaf). Crassulaceae. Cauca-
seedlings of P.avium are preferred. The sus. 1 species, C.oppositifolium, a hardy
wide choice of cherry cultivars includes perennial herb with creeping stems and
those with fruit ranging in colour from low rosettes of rounded and toothed,
Chelone obliqua creamy white to purple-black; many succulent leaves, each to 8cm (3in)
The aptly named turtlehead is a North are self-incompatible and require a long. In spring and summer, arching
American native that thrives in partial shade cross pollinator. panicles to 15cm (6in) tall bear numer-
or in sun, provided that the soil is moist. Prune all cherries in summer. Since ous small, golden flowers. In the culti-
acid cherries carry fruit almost exclu- var ‘Frosted Jade’, the leaves are
Chelone (from Greek chelone, tortoise: sively on young shoots of the previous marked white to cream and tinted pink
the flower is said to resemble a turtle’s year, aim for replacement, thinning in winter. Hardy to –15°C/5°F. Grow
head). Scrophulariaceae. N America. new shoots 5–7.5cm (2–3in) apart in cool crevices in the rock garden in
SHELLFLOWER, TURTLEHEAD. 6 species, along the ribs of the fan; after crop- well-drained but moisture-retentive
hardy erect perennial herbs with tubu- ping, cut fruited laterals back to a soil. Increase by side-shoot cuttings in
lar, hooded and 2-lipped flowers in trained replacement shoot. Sweet early summer.
dense, terminal spikes in summer and cherries form fruit buds at the base of
early autumn. Hardy in climate zone 6. young laterals of the previous year and chicory (Cichorium intybus) WITLOOF
Plant in a moist, fertile soil in full sun on older wood: all shoots except those CHICORY a native of Europe including
or part-shade. Increase by division, or required as replacement shoots should Britain, where it grows wild, and used
by soft tip cuttings in summer. C.obliqua be pinched at 5–6 leaves, and then to for centuries as a cooked or salad
(to 60cm (24in); flowers to 2cm (3/4in), three leaves in late summer. The cherry vegetable of distinctive slightly bitter
deep rose pink to lilac or purple-red, flowers later than other stone fruits and flavour. Chicory may be grown simi-
with a sparse yellow beard). is therefore less vulnerable to frost larly to lettuce or more suitably forced
damage, but all types require protec- in darkness to produce tight clusters of
chemical controls see pesticides. tion from birds. Harvest with scissors. mild-flavoured, folded leaves known as
Possible problems: aphids, birds, chicons. The taproot is roasted and
chemotropism, chemonasty slugworm, winter moth; bacterial ground as a coffee substitute or flavour-
growth or bending towards a chemical canker, shot-hole, silver leaf. ing. Sow from May to early June 1cm
stimulus, particularly seen in fungi and (1/2in) deep in rows 30cm (12in) apart;
in the pollen tubes of flowers. chervil (Anthriscus cereifolium) a rapidly thin to 20cm (8in) spacings. Summer
growing annual, up to 60cm (24in) and autumn leaves may be eaten but
cherry The edible fruit of selected high and parsley-like in appearance; it are bitter. Lift the roots, which should
Prunus species. Three types are grown is used as a herb for its aniseed flavour. be 5–9cm (2–31/2in) in diameter, in late
in gardens: SWEET CHERRY, derived Sow in situ in a sheltered but unshaded October to December; trim the leaves
from P.avium, which is widespread from site outdoors or under protection, or hard and the thongs to 20cm (8in).
Europe, including Britain, to western raise in containers for transplanting. Close pack in deep boxes or large pots,
Asia (its seedlings are often known as Sow from February to April for a in light soil or sand, to crown level.
GEANS or MAZZARDS); ACID CHERRY, summer crop, or in August for crop- Place in a dark cellar or shed, or cover
derived from P.cerasus, which has a dis- ping between autumn and spring. Seed potted roots with an upturned pot,
tribution similar to P.avium; and the may take 2–3 weeks to germinate. with light totally excluded. The opti-
DUKE CHERRY, a hybrid of the two. mum temperature range for forcing is
Edible fruits are also produced by Cheshunt compound a chemical 10–18°C/50–64°F. Harvest 3–4 weeks
P.pseudocerasus, P.tomentosa and P.besseyi. preparation for the prevention and from housing. On light or sandy soils,
There is evidence that cherries were a treatment of damping-off diseases forcing can be done outside in situ by
Bronze and Iron Age food in Britain, (especially Pythium species) in seedlings. earthing up trimmed plants to
and trade in cultivated forms flourished It was devised at the former Cheshunt 15–18cm (6–7in) depth.
from the 16th century. Much breeding Experimental Station, England, and is RED CHICORY (RADDICHIO) has red,
work was undertaken in England a powdered mixture consisting of two sometimes variegated leaves; it forms a
during the 19th century, including sig- parts by weight of copper sulphate and small crisp heart, the inner leaves part
170 nificant introductions from British eleven parts of ammonium carbonate. white and part coloured. It is grown
Columbia. It is dissolved in warm water at the rate and used as lettuce, though rather
Chionanthus
more bitter. Sow from April through to Chimonobambusa (from

August, thinning plants to 20–35cm Greek cheimon, winter, and Latin
(8–14in) apart each way. Bambusa: referring to the late
SUGAR LOAF CHICORY resem-
bles cos lettuce; the inner leaves
are tightly packed, white and
appearance of the new shoots
in some areas). Gramineae.
S and E Asia. Some 20 species,
C
sweetened, but of sharper small to medium-sized bamboos
flavour than lettuce. It is mainly grown with running rhizomes. See bamboos.
for autumn maturity as a salad ingredi-
ent, from June–July sowings, as for wit- Chinese broccoli see broccoli.
flowers
loof chicory. Alternatively, grow as a show traits
cut-and-come-again salad crop from Chimaera of both Chinese cabbage see cabbage.
early-season sowings onwards. (+ Laburnocytisus) parents
shrubs to 3m (10ft) tall with dull green, Chinese gooseberry see kiwi fruit.
Chilean potash nitrate see potas- ovate to lanceolate leaves to 10cm (4in)
sium nitrate. long. Waxy and bell-shaped, the flowers Chinese leaves see cabbage.
consist of numerous sepals and petals,
chilling the exposure of plants to low are deliciously scented and appear in chinoiserie a European interpreta-
temperature, usually during dormancy. short-stalked clusters in late winter on tion of the Chinese style of garden
It is necessary to initiate growth or bare twigs. The following species is one design, favouring an irregular and
flowering in certain plants, for exam- of the finest winter-flowering shrubs. asymmetrical layout and incorporating
ple, rhubarb (Rheum x cultorum). Hardy in climate zone 7, it nonetheless pagodas, bridges and ornaments. It has
performs better if grown against a been a major influence in English land-
chimaera, chimera a plant in sheltered, sun-soaked wall. Plant in a scape gardening; surviving examples of
which two genetically different sorts of fertile, moist but well-drained soil in chinoiserie garden buildings include
tissue coexist. Outer and inner tissues full sun. Prune only to limit size or to the Pagoda at Kew Gardens, which
may be different in character, causing remove weak or damaged growth. was built in 1761.
variegation or no obvious difference. Propagate by seed, grafting, layers or
Chimaeras may arise as a result of a semi-ripe cuttings in summer. New Chionanthus (from Greek chion,
natural mutation, or through grafting plants may take some years to reach snow, and anthos, flower). Oleaceae.
as in the case of + Laburnocytisus flowering size. Grafted plants come E Asia, Pacific, E US. FRINGE TREE.
‘Adamii’, which bears parts characteris- into flower more quickly. C.praecox (syn. 100 species, hardy deciduous trees
tic of both Laburnum anagyroides and C.fragrans; WINTERSWEET; flowers to and shrubs with elliptic to ovate leaves
Chamaecytisus purpureus. 2.5cm (1in) long, nodding, dull yellow and, in summer, lacy panicles of flow-
to buff with the inner petals marked ers composed of four, white, oblong
Chimonanthus (from Greek cheimon, maroon to blood red; cultivars with petals. These are followed by purple-
winter, and anthos, flower). Calycan- pure yellow, large, small and more blue, fleshy fruits. Hardy in climate
thaceae. China. 6 species, deciduous heavily marked flowers are available). zone 5. Plant in full sun on a moist but
F ORCING W ITLOOF CHICORY

crown
exposed
trim the
root tips
1 Allow plants a full season to

grow and mature. In late
autumn, lift the taproots carefully,
2 A 22cm (9in) pot is adequate
to force three roots. Use moist
potting compost or garden soil,
3 Line a second pot with foil or
black plastic to prevent light
entering the holes at the base,
4 After 3–4 weeks, provided
that no light has reached
them, the pale, sweet “chicons” of
trim to 20cm (8in) (removing any and firm the roots in so that and invert it over the pot new growth will be ready to cut.
side roots) and trim the leaves to they stand upright, with the containing the roots. Keep in a Stumps may resprout if recovered 171
2.5cm (1in) of the crown. crown exposed. warm place (10–18°C/50–64°F). for a second, smaller crop.
Chionanthus
free-draining, fertile soil (acid to neu- Chirita (from Hindustani cheryta, Amaryllidaceae. Peru. 1 species, C.fra-
tral for C.virginicus). Propagate by seed name for the gentian). Gesneriaceae. grans, a tender or half-hardy, bulbous
sown when ripe, or by layering in Tropical Asia. 100 species, mat-form- perennial herb with linear, grey-green
C autumn or spring.
C.retusus (CHINESE FRINGE TREE;
Taiwan; to 3m (10ft); leaves to 10cm
ing annual or perennial herbs with
fleshy stems, frost-tender. Leaves in
unequal, opposite pairs or in whorls,
leaves. It bears fragrant, trumpet-
shaped flowers, to 7cm (23/4in) across
and in shades of yellow, red, cinnabar
(4in), pale green above; panicles erect); rarely alternate, densely downy. Flow- and green striped red atop 30cm
C.virginicus (E US; leaves to 20cm (8in), ers axillary, solitary to clustered, tubu- (12in)-tall scapes. Grow in a sandy,
dark green above, turning pale gold in lar or funnel-shaped, summer–autumn. loam-based medium in full sun. Water
autumn; panicles drooping). Under glass, grow in loamless compost liberally from spring until flowering
in bright, filtered light. Very high occurs in mid- to late summer; there-
Chionodoxa (from Greek chion, snow, humidity essential but without water- after, keep frost-free and dry. Increase
and doxa, glory: these plants flower logging; good ventilation is essential. by seed or by offsets in spring.
amid the melting snows). Liliaceae Propagate from seed or leaf cuttings.
(Hyacinthaceae). W Turkey, Cyprus, C.sinensis (Himalaya; evergreen peren- chlorenchyma parenchymatous
Crete. GLORY OF THE SNOW. 6 species, nial, leaves crowded at base, elliptic or tissue containing chloroplasts; the type
bulbous perennial herbs, usually small ovate-lanceolate, dark green or varie- of tissue in which photosynthesis
or dwarf with linear leaves and erect gated with silver-grey pubescence, occurs.
racemes of shortly tubular, 6-tepalled 15–20cm (6–8in) long. Flowers 1–4, to
flowers in spring. Cultivation as for 15cm (6in), white marked with yellow, chlorine a micronutrient or trace ele-
hardy Scilla. lobes pink-purple). ment rarely deficient in plants due to
C.forbesii (syn. C.luciliae of gardens; its almost universal occurrence in soil.
W Turkey; raceme 8–30cm (3–12in) chitting (1) the sprouting of potato
tall with 4–12 slightly drooping flowers, tubers before planting; (2) the germina- Chlorogalum (from Greek chloros,
deep blue with white centres, or snow tion of seeds before sowing, especially green, and gala, milk, an allusion to
white or pink; includes Siehei Group, as practised in fluid drilling. the colour of the sap). Liliaceae
syn. C.siehei and ‘Tmoli’, syn. C.tmolusii); (Hyacinthaceae). Western N America.
C.luciliae (W Turkey; raceme 5–14cm chive (Allium schoenoprasum) a hardy SOAP PLANT, AMOLE. 5 species, hardy
(2–51/2in), with 1–2(–3), erect flowers, perennial about 25cm (10in) high, bulbous perennial herbs with linear
soft violet blue with white centres, or grown primarily as a herb for its onion- leaves and, in summer, erect panicles of
pure white or pink; includes Gigantea flavoured leaves, which are used small, 6-parted flowers that open in the
Group, syn. C.gigantea); C.sardensis (W chopped in salads. Sow in modules afternoon. Cultivate as for Camassia.
Turkey; raceme 10–40cm (4–16in) with under protection in spring; plant out C.pomeridianum (SOAP PLANT, WILD
4–12 slightly drooping or outward- clusters of 4 or 5 seedlings 25cm (10in) POTATO; 60–150cm (24–60in); flowers
facing flowers, of pure rich blue). apart. Established clumps can be with purple- or green-striped, white
divided in autumn or spring. tepals to 2cm (3/4in) long).
x Chionoscilla (Chionodoxa x Scilla).
Liliaceae (Hyacinthaceae). 1 species, chlamydia (1) bud scales; chlorophyll a mixture of two green
x C.allenii, a natural hybrid between (2) perianth envelopes. pigments occurring in most plants,
Chionodoxa forbesii and Scilla bifolia, a mainly in leaves but also in some stems;
hardy, spring-flowering bulb to 8cm Chlidanthus (from Greek chlide, a it is largely responsible for the conver-
(3in) tall, with oblanceolate leaves and costly ornament, and anthos, flower). sion of light energy to sugars in the
erect racemes of starry blue or lilac- process of photosynthesis.
pink flowers with paler or white cen-
tres. Cultivate as for hardy Scilla. Chlorophytum (from Greek chloros,
green, and phyton, plant). Liliaceae
chip budding a modified form of (Anthericaceae). Widespread in tropics
bud grafting, which is used for propa- use a small, and subtropics. 215 species, more or
gating a wide range of woody plants. sharp knife less tender, evergreen perennial herbs
See grafting. with fleshy roots. Linear to strap-
shaped or ovate to lanceolate, the
chipping (1) the puncturing of a leaves are smooth and borne in basal
hard seed coat before sowing by nick- rosettes or clumps. Throughout the
ing with a knife, or filing; it is a form of year, slender-stalked panicles bear
scarification; see seeds and seed sowing; (2) small, white flowers and sometimes
a method of propagating tunicate Chipping plantlets. The following species is one
bulbs, especially Narcissus species, by Nicking a hard seed coat (here of Paeonia of the most ubiquitous and long-
172 slicing them into portions. See cuttings: lutea) speeds germination by aiding water suffering of foliage house plants.
bulb scaling. penetration and the swelling of the seed. Notwithstanding, it prefers a minimum
Chrysanthemum
temperature of 7°C/45°F, bright indi- pale patches bushy shrub to 1m (31/4ft) chromoplast, chromoplastid
rect light, a fertile, free-draining, between veins tall; leaves with 3 or 5, microscopic granules in plant cells
loam-based medium and ample linear, crenulate leaflets to containing other colouring than
supplies of water and feed
throughout the year. Increase
by division or plantlets.
5cm (2in) long); C.dumosa
(SW US, Mexico; bushy
shrub to 2m (61/2ft);
chlorophyll.
chromosome a microscopic body

C
C.comosum (SPIDER PLANT, leaves with 8–13, linear made up of DNA and protein, found
RIBBON PLANT; South to oblong, crenulate in the nucleus of a plant cell; it con-
Africa; clumped or rosette- leaflets to 4.5cm (13/4in) tains the genes, or units of inheritance,
forming with linear, arching long); C.ternata (syn. that transmit a plant’s characteristics to
leaves, green usually boldly C.grandiflora; MEXICAN its offspring. Each species has its own
striped white or cream; ORANGE BLOSSOM; distinctive shape of chromosomes, and
panicles loose-branched, Mexico; bushy shrub to there is a characteristic number which
bearing small, white flowers 2m (61/2ft); leaves with 3, is always even.
and numerous plantlets). oblong to obovate, entire
leaflets to 8cm (3in) long; ‘Lich’: chrysalis the pupa or transitional
chloroplasts usually spherical Chlorosis syn ‘Sundance’, pale gold to lime non-feeding stage between larva
or discoid bodies found in the green foliage; ‘Aztec Pearl’: hybrid and adult that is represented in all
cells of leaves and young stems; they with C.arizonica, with slender leaflets). advanced orders of insects. It is usually
contain the chlorophyll of green plants. concealed in a cell or cocoon. There
choripetalous see polypetalous. are variations in form, for example, the
chlorosis a condition in which plants appendages and rudimentary wings are
become abnormally pale green or Chorizema (from Greek choros, a free from the body in Coleoptera and
yellow due to a partial or complete loss dance for joy, and zema, a drinking Hymenoptera, whereas in Lepidoptera
of chlorophyll. It may be caused by vessel: the botanist Labillardière was they are tightly fixed to it.
inadequate light, mineral deficiency close to exhaustion and dehydration
(especially on high lime soils), or dis- when he came across this plant and Chrysanthemum (from Greek
eases such as those caused by viruses water in the same place). Leguminosae. chrysos, gold, and anthemon, flower).
and mycoplasma-like organisms. Australia. FLAME PEA. 18 species, Compositae. Europe, N Africa. 5
tender, evergreen shrubs, sometimes species, hardy annual herbs with entire
chocolate spot (Botrytis fabae) a climbing, with entire to sharply toothed to pinnately lobed and toothed leaves
fungal disease of the broad bean (Vicia leaves and racemes of colourful, pea- and large, daisy-like flowerheads.
faba); numerous small brown spots like flowers in spring and summer. Pro- Sow seed in situ in spring on any well-
appear on leaves. The disease may vide a minimum temperature of drained, fertile soil in full sun. C.segetum
become aggressive in wet seasons, caus- 7°C/45°F, full sun and a rather dry, is often sold in wildflower mixtures and
ing plant death. Control by optimizing buoyant atmosphere. Plant in a sandy, will naturalize.
growing conditions and by the use of acid to neutral mix; water and feed C.carinatum (Morocco; to 1m (31/4ft);
fungicide spray. moderately in spring and summer, flowerheads to 10cm (4in) in diameter,
sparingly in winter. Provide support. ray florets white, yellow, often tinged
Choisya (for Jacques Denis Choisy Sow seed in spring after immersing it red or with a very dark red-brown
(1799–1854), Swiss botanist). Rutaceae. in hot water and allowing it to cool and basal stripe and white zone, disc florets
SW US, Mexico. 9 species, evergreen, soak for 24 hours; root semi-ripe purple; includes red, pink, orange,
hardy aromatic shrubs with digitately cuttings in summer. yellow, maroon, bronze and white
compound, glossy leaves and, in C.cordatum (HEART-LEAVED FLAME zoned red or orange cultivars); C.coro-
summer and late autumn to winter, PEA, AUSTRALIA FLAME PEA, FLOWERING narium (CROWN DAISY; Mediterranean,
terminal clusters of fragrant white OAK; dense upright shrub to 3m (10ft), Portugal; to 80cm (32in); flowerheads
flowers composed of 4 or 5, spreading, sometimes climbing; leaves sometimes to 5cm (2in) in diameter, yellow;
obovate petals, each to 1.5cm (5/8in) minutely spiny-toothed or lobed; flow- includes ‘double’ and deep yellow culti-
long. C.ternata is hardy in climate zone ers with red, orange and yellow stan- vars); C.segetum (CORN MARIGOLD; E
6 but benefits from a sheltered position; dard and magenta or mauve keel); Mediterranean, W Africa, naturalized
the remaining two species are less tol- C.ilicifolium (HOLLY FLAME PEA; scram- throughout Europe; to 80cm (32in);
erant, thriving only in very favoured bling herb or shrub to 1m (31/4ft); leaves flowerheads to 6.5cm (21/2in) in diame-
locations in zones 8 and 9. Something sinuously toothed and holly-like, tough, ter, primrose to golden yellow). For the
of their finesse is, however, shared by dark; flowers with orange-red and florists’ chrysanthemum see chrysanthe-
the hardy C. ‘Aztec Pearl’. All prefer a yellow standard and rose-mauve keel). mums and Dendranthema.
fertile, moist but fast-draining soil and Possible problems: aphids, capsid
full sun. Increase by semi-ripe cuttings chromatid one of the two strands of bug, earwigs, eelworm, leaf miner, red
in late summer. a replicated chromosome, prior to their spider mite, whiteflies, thrips; powdery 173
C.dumosa var. arizonica (Arizona; separation in mitosis or meiosis. mildew, rust.
chrysanthemums
C HRYSANTHEMUM FLOWER FORMS
Single (‘Bill Wade’) Incurved (‘Salmon Fairweather’) Intermediate (‘Beacon’)

Single flowerheads have up to 5 rows of flat These have fully double, spherical flower- Fully double, loose, spherical flowerheads
ray-florets surrounding a central yellow, or heads with ray-florets opening from the with the ray-florets mainly incurving, but
often green-centred disc. bases and curving upwards. some lower ones reflexing.
Reflexed (‘Primrose West Bromwich’) Anemone-centred (‘Sally Ball’) Pompon (‘Salmon Faerie’)
Fully double, spherical flowerheads with ray- Single flowerheads with enlarged disc-florets Fully double, spherical flowerheads with
florets opening from the crown, curving that form dome-shaped centres, up to half tubular florets regularly and tightly packed,
downwards and inwards to touch the stem. the width or more of the flowerhead. growing outwards from the crown.
chrysanthemums FLORISTS’ and pyramids, and, especially, in cas- or cut flowers, plant singly in groups in
CHRYSANTHEMUM a perennial grown cading forms. the border, supporting with 1.2m (4ft)
for cut flowers, garden decoration and Chrysanthemums may be disbud- canes. For late flowering, from earlier
exhibition. The origin of the florists’ ded, with one bloom per stem or lat- rooting dates, pot on successionally
chrysanthemum has been variously eral, or grown as sprays with many through 15cm (6in), 20cm (8in) and
credited to China, Japan and Tibet. It blooms per stem. Propagate from 5cm 23–25cm (9–10in) sizes of pot.
probably derived from Dendranthema (2in) spring cuttings taken from boxed The purchase of healthy stock
indicum, and has been grown in Britain stools, which should be overwintered in plants is of great importance and vigi-
since the late 18th century; many a well-ventilated, frost-free cold frame lance to allow for timely chemical
thousands of cultivars have been pro- or cold greenhouse and moved to a sprays.
gressively introduced. warm greenhouse five weeks before The stopping date for individual cul-
Chrysanthemums are classified into cuttings are taken. Cuttings should be tivars needs to be established. Stop
30 sections according to form, flower- taken 14–15 weeks before the recom- plants by removing the growing tips;
ing time, colour and size. The six mended stopping date for a particular the resulting laterals, or breaks, are fur-
major exhibition forms are Incurved, cultivar and rooted in small pots or ther stopped and the flower buds
Reflexed, Intermediate, Anemone- seed trays at an optimum temperature removed according to choice of single
centred, Single and Pompon. Charms of 16°C/61°F. Pot up rooted plants, large blooms or sprays per stem.
are dwarf, bushy plants bearing hun- using a loam-based compost, individu- Charms, cascades and exhibition plants
dreds of small, single flowers; they are ally into 9cm (31/2in) pots or box into require special training. For quality
grown in pots and form spherical or deep trays, and protect from frost. blooms, protection is needed from
hemispherical plants up to 90cm (36in) Plants should be watered regularly, and autumn onwards. Chrysanthemum
in diameter. Cascades have similar liquid fertilizer applied at 7–10 day blooms can be produced year round by
174 flowers, up to 2.5cm (1in) in diameter, intervals between bud appearance and manipulating day length with the aid of
and are usually trained as pillars, fans first colouring. For garden decoration artificial lighting and shading.
Cirsium
chrysanthemum stool miner ciliate bearing a marginal fringe of

(Psila nigricornis). An insect pest, related fine hairs.
to the carrot fly, which attacks the roots
and stem bases of chrysanthemums. It
is particularly damaging to stools of
chrysanthemums brought into a heated
cinereous ashy grey.
circinate of an unexpanded leaflet,

C
greenhouse to produce cuttings, and frond or frond segment, rolled up in a
the new shoots may be killed. There close coil with the tip at its centre, like
are no recommended insecticides for a crozier.
this pest. Hot water treatment of dor-
mant chrysanthemum stools, as used to circumscissile a form of dehis-
control eelworm, will also kill the cence in which a pod opens along a
larvae of the stool miners. Copiapoa cinerea line parallel with its circumference,
This succulent species takes its name from allowing the top to come off like a lid.
Chrysogonum (from Greek chrysos, its ashy grey, or “cinerous” colouring. See calyptra.
gold, and gone, joints: the golden flow-
ers are borne at the nodes). Composi- 120 species, clump-forming bamboos cirrhous, (cirrose) of the apex;
tae. E US. GOLDEN KNEE. 4 species, with pith-filled culms. See bamboos. terminating in a curled, coiled or spi-
C.virginianum, a hardy perennial herb to ralling continuation of the midrib.
20cm (8in) tall with downy, ovate to Cicerbita (Italian name of Mediaeval
lanceolate and toothed leaves, and a origin for the sow thistle). Compositae. Cirsium (from Greek kirsos, a swollen
succession of 3cm (11/4in)-wide, starry Northern temperate regions. 18 species, vein). Compositae. PLUME THISTLE. About
yellow flowers from late spring to hardy perennial herbs with milky sap, 200 species of hardy biennial or peren-
autumn. Hardy to –15°C/5°F or runcinate to lyrate-pinnatisect leaves nial herbs. Leaves alternate, pubescent
lower; use as groundcover in dappled and thistle-like flowerheads on branch- above, with spiny margins. Tubular flow-
shade on moist, humus-rich soils. Prop- ing stems in summer. Hardy to at least erheads usually large, discoid, spiny,
agate by ripe seed sown when fresh, or –15°C/5°F, and suitable for naturaliz- purple, red, yellow, sometimes white.
by division in spring. ing in the wild garden. Grow in moist Many are invasive through rhizomes or
but well-drained, humus-rich, neutral self-seeding. Grow selected species in
Chrysosplenium (from Greek, to acid soils. Deadhead to prevent borders or woodland, in moist, well-
chrysos, gold, and splen, spleen, hence seeding (conversely, propagate by seed). drained, sunny positions. Deadhead to
splenium, a herb with medicinal C.alpina (syn. Lactuca alpina; MOUN- avoid self-seeding. C.arvense (CREEPING
properties). Saxifragaceae. GOLDEN TAIN SOW THISTLE; Arctic and Alpine THISTLE; Europe, NE US. Perennial to
SAXIFRAGE. Temperate regions. 55 Europe; 0.5–2.5m (20in–8ft); flower- 1.5m (5ft). Leaves lanceolate to oblong
species, low perennial herbs with creep- heads pale blue); C.bourgaei (syn. Lactuca with apical spines, glabrous to slightly
ing stems, round leaves and small yellow bourgaei; Asia Minor; 1.5–3m (5–10ft); hairy above, tomentose beneath. Capitu-
flowers in terminal heads surrounded flowerheads lavender or lilac). lum to 3cm (11/4in) diam., 1–5 terminal.
by yellow-tinted, leafy bracts in spring. Florets lilac or pink. An invasive weed of
Both species listed here are suited to Cichorium (Latinized form of the gardens, propagating from brittle, lateral
damp, shady positions on acid soils rich Arabic name). Compositae. Europe, roots. Can be weakened by repeatedly
in leafmould. They thrive in the wood- Africa, Asia, naturalized elsewhere. 8 cutting the top growth just before flower-
land garden and as groundcover in the species, hardy annual or perennial herbs ing or cleared by meticulous forking,
bog garden and fern border. The first is with milky latex, runcinately to pinnately both over a number of years. Glyphosate
hardy in zone 7 (but may be damaged by lobed leaves and short-lived, daisy-like non-selective herbicide is effective: apply
late frosts), the second in zone 5. Increase flowerheads on slender, erect stems in just before the flowerheads colour);
by division or cuttings of new shoots. summer. C.endivia is ENDIVE, grown for C.japonicum (Japan. Clump-forming bien-
C.davidianum (Himalaya; creeping, its edible leaves, as is C.intybus, CHICORY. nial or perennial to 2m (61/2ft). Leaves
hairy; leaves to 5cm (2in), dark green, The latter is also ornamental, hardy in oblong-obovate, pointed, deeply lobed to
toothed to lobed; flowerheads to 7cm zone 4, and a superb summer meadow pinnate, dark green, 30cm (1ft). Flowers
(23/4in) diam., rich gold to lime green); plant, contrasting brilliantly with ripe in thistle-like capitulum heads solitary or
C.oppositifolium (Europe; tufted to creep- grasses and wild poppies. Grow in full few to 5cm (2in) diam., late summer–
ing, sparsely hairy; leaves to 2cm (3/4in), sun on a free-draining soil. Once estab- autumn); C.rivulare (C and SW Europe.
bright, pale green, lobed; flowerheads lished, this plant will withstand drought. Clump-forming perennial to 1.5m (5ft).
to 3cm (11/4in) diam., pale gold to lime Increase by seed in autumn or spring. Leaves elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, dark
green). C.intybus (CHICORY, WITLOOF; Europe, green, to 45cm (18in), with soft hairs
W Asia, N Africa, naturalized N Amer- beneath, spines to 4mm (1/4in). Capitu-
Chusquea (from the vernacular ica; perennial to 1m (31/4ft) tall with a lum to 3.5cm (11/2in) diam., solitary or
name used in NE S America). long, thick taproot; flowerheads sky 2–5 in clusters, deep crimson-purple to 175
Gramineae. Mexico to Chile. Some blue). See chicory, endive. purple, late summer-early autumn).
Cissus
Cissus (from Greek kissos, ivy). flowers are short-lived and composed late, dark green and smooth above,
Vitaceae. Tropics and subtropics. of five, broadly obovate and crêpe-like white-hairy beneath; flowers to 6cm
GRAPE IVY, TREEBINE. 350 species, petals. The following species are hardy (21/2in) in diameter, white with yellow
C herbs, shrubs and vines. Those listed

here are shrubby with handsome, ever-
green foliage on slender stems climbing
to –12°C/10°F, especially if planted in
a sheltered position and given a thick,
dry mulch (or complete covering) in
basal spots); C.monspeliensis (MONTPE-
LIER ROCK ROSE; to 1.5m (5ft); leaves
1.5–5cm (5/8–2in), linear to lanceolate,
by tendrils. The flowers are small and exceptionally hard winters. They need rugose, dark green above, thinly grey-
followed by inedible, dry berries. a fast-draining, light soil, full sun and hairy beneath; flowers to 2.5cm (1in) in
C.antarctica and C.rhombifolia are popular protection from strong winds. Increase diameter, white); C.parvifolius (to 1.5m
pot plants, especially in offices and by softwood or heeled cuttings taken in (5ft); leaves to 3cm (11/4in), ovate, grey-
other public buildings where, grown on late summer and rooted in a sandy mix hairy; flowers to 3cm (11/4in) in diame-
trellis and canes, they withstand years at 15°C/59°F. Overwinter newly ter, pink); C. ‘Peggy Sammons’
of abuse. They prefer a minimum tem- rooted plants in frost-free conditions. (C.albidus x C.laurifolius; to 1m (31/4ft);
perature of 10°C/50°F, light shade C. x aguilarii (C.ladanifer x leaves to 6cm (21/2in), oval, soft sage
and moderate humidity. C.discolor is C.populifolius; leaves to 10cm (4in), green; flowers to 5cm (2in) in diameter,
suited to hanging baskets and trellis. lanceolate, undulate, bright green pink); C.populifolius (to 2m (61/2ft); leaves
It requires a minimum temperature of above, paler beneath; flowers to 3.5cm 5–9cm (2–31/2in), ovate to cordate,
15°C/59°F, shade and high humidity. (11/2in) in diameter, white; bases of glabrous, mid-green, clammy; flowers
C.striata will tolerate light frosts and petals purple-blotched in ‘Maculatus’); to 5cm (2in) in diameter, white, often
bright light. Propagate all by stem cut- C.albidus (to 2m (61/2ft); leaves to 5cm with yellow basal spots); C. x purpureus
tings in late spring rooted in a heated (2in), oblong to ovate, covered in white (C.ladanifer x C.incanus subsp. creticus; to
case; increase also by layering. down; flowers to 4cm (11/2in) in diame- 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 5cm (2in), oblong
C.antarctica (KANGAROO VINE; Aus- ter, rosy pink to lilac with yellow basal to lanceolate, greyhairy beneath; flow-
tralasia; leaves 7–10cm (23/4–4in), ovate spots); C. x cyprius (C.ladanifer x C.lauri- ers to 7cm (23/4in) in diameter, pink
to oblong, apex long-acuminate, mar- folius; to 2m (61/2ft); leaves to 10cm with dark red basal spots); C.salviifolius
gins entire to sinuate or irregularly (4in), viscid, aromatic, oblong to lance- (to 60cm (24in), spreading; leaves
dentate, glossy, dark green, smooth, olate, undulate, dark grey-green and 1.5–4cm (5/8–11/2in), ovate to oblong,
tough); C.discolor (REX BEGONIA VINE; glabrous above, grey-hairy beneath; grey-green and rugose above, paler
SE Asia to Australia; leaves 6–25cm flowers to 7cm (23/4in) in diameter, beneath; flowers to 4cm (11/2in) in
(21/2–10in), ovate-oblong to lanceolate, white, often with bold, carmine basal diameter, white with yellow basal
quilted dark velvety green above with a spots); C. x dansereaui (syn. C. x spots); C. ‘Silver Pink’ (to 50cm (20in),
double row of grey-green, silvery-white lusitanicus; C.ladanifer x C.hirsutus; to low, spreading, bushy; leaves to 7cm
or pale pink blotches, dark wine red 60cm (24in); leaves to 6cm (21/2in), (23/4in), ovate to lanceolate, pale sage
beneath); C.rhombifolia (VENEZUELA oblong to lanceolate, dull green; flow- green to grey above, silvery beneath;
TREEBINE; tropical America; leaves ers to 7cm (23/4in) in diameter, white flowers to 7cm (23/4in) in diameter, pale,
composed of 3 leaflets, each 2.5–10cm with crimson basal spots); C. x hybridus silky rose); C. x skanbergii (C.monspeliensis
(1–4in) long, rhombic to ovate, glossy (syn. C. x corbariensis; C.populifolius x x C.parviflorus; to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to
dark green above, remotely and C.salviifolius; spreading, to 1m (31/4ft) 5cm (2in), oblong to lanceolate, downy
sharply toothed; ‘Ellen Danica’: leaflets tall; leaves to 5cm (2in), ovate, undu- beneath; flowers pale pink).
deeply incised); C.striata (IVY OF late, dark green above, paler and hairy
PARAGUAY, MINIATURE GRAPE IVY; beneath; flowers to 3.5cm (11/2in) in
Chile, Brazil; leaves composed of 5, diameter, white, usually with yellow
palmately arranged, obovate to basal spots); C.creticus, leaves undulate-
oblanceolate leaflets, each 1.5–3cm crispate, flowers rose pink to purple, to
(5/8–11/4in) long, smooth and thin- 6cm (21/2in) in diameter, with yellow
textured and with gland-tipped teeth at basal spots); C.creticus subsp. incanus (to
their apices; leaves usually dropped in 1m (31/4ft); leaves 1.5–7cm (5/8–23/4in),
cold weather). For C.bainesii, see ovate to elliptic, green or silver-hairy
Cyphostemma bainesii; for C.juttae see with sunken veins; flowers to 6cm
Cyphostemma juttae; for C.voinieriana, see (21/2in) in diameter, pink-purple);
Tetrastigma voinierianum. C.ladanifer (COMMON GUM CISTUS,
LADANUM; viscid, aromatic, to 2m
Cistus (from kistos, the Greek name (61/2ft); leaves 4–10cm (11/2–4in), linear Galanthus rizehensis
for this plant). Cistaceae. S Europe, N to lanceolate, dark leaden green above, Wild snowdrops are threatened by overcol-
Africa. ROCK ROSE. 20 species, small to paler beneath; flowers to 7–10cm lection; all have protection under CITES.
medium-sized, more or less hardy ever- (23/4–4in) in diameter, white, usually
green shrubs with gummy to downy with deep maroon basal spots); C.lauri- CITES an acronym for the Conven-
176 lanceolate to ovate leaves. Produced in folius (to 1.5m (5ft); leaves 3–9cm tion on International Trade in Endan-
abundance on bright summer days, the (11/4–31/2in), ovate to lanceolate, undu- gered Species, established in 1972 to
clay
monitor and control international trade dotted with oil glands. The genus clair-voyée an aperture cut into a
in species actually or possibly threat- includes the following important fruit garden wall to allow a view beyond;
ened with extinction from their natural crops, some (e.g. C.meyeri) grown as typically at the end of a walk or allée.
habitat. Around 126 states throughout
the world are signatories to the Con-
vention, which is concerned with the
ornamentals under the same regime as
x Citrofortunella, but requiring rather
more room: C.aurantifolia (LIME);
clamp in vegetable growing, a conical
pile of root vegetables covered with
C
movement of animals and plants across C.aurantium (SEVILLE ORANGE); layers of straw and soil to enable out-
international boundaries and not inter- C.bergamia (BERGAMOT); C.limon door storage over the winter.
nal trade within countries. The Con- (LEMON); C. x meyeri (DWARF LEMON,
vention operates through a system of MEYER LEMON); C. x paradisi (GRAPE- Clarkia (for Captain William Clark
export and import licences with regard FRUIT); C. reticulata (MANDARIN ORANGE, (1770–1838), explorer in North Amer-
to three lists of species which comprise TANGERINE, CLEMENTINE, SATSUMA); ica). Onagraceae. Western N America,
CITES Appendices I, II and III. C.sinensis (ORANGE, SWEET ORANGE); S America. FAREWELL TO SPRING,
C. x tangelo (TANGELO, UGLI FRUIT). GODETIA. 33 species, annual herbs with
x Citrofortunella Rutaceae. Garden linear to lanceolate or elliptic leaves
hybrids between Citrus and Fortunella, cladophyll, cladode a flattened or and spikes or racemes of flowers with
these are small, tender, evergreen trees acicular branch that takes on the form four, obovate and clawed, silky petals.
or shrubs with intensely citrus-scented and function of a leaf, arising from the Sow in situ in spring (also in autumn in
foliage, fragrant, waxy white flowers axil of a minute, bract-like, and usually more or less frost-free climates) on any
and small and tart, orange-like fruit. caducous true leaf, for example in well-drained soil of low to moderate
The following hybrid is commonly Ruscus (see below). fertility in full sun. Pinch young plants
offered as the dwarf ornamental to encourage bushiness. Larger culti-
orange. Largely decorative, the fruit is vars may need some support. C.amoena
painfully sharp, but will add something (SATIN FLOWER; California; fast-grow-
to marmalade, duck and cocktails. ing, slender-stemmed, erect or decum-
Grow in full sun with a minimum bent, 20–100cm (8–39in) tall; flowers
temperature of 7°C/45°F and ample 4–6cm (11/2–21/2in) in diameter, cupped
ventilation. Keep barely moist in cool to outspread, single or double with
weather; water, feed and syringe smooth or ruffled petals in shades of
freely in the growing season. Hand- deep crimson, magenta, pink, lavender,
pollination with a fine brush is some- scarlet, apricot, salmon and white,
times helpful for plants grown indoors sometimes with paler margins or bases
and flowering in winter. Sudden fluctu- or darker basal blotches; many culti-
ations of temperature and water sup- Cladode vars and seed races are available).
plies will cause fruit drop. Prune only In this example (Ruscus hypoglossum) the
to remove exhausted, bare growth. larger leaf-like growth is a cladode. clasping partially or wholly surround-
Propagate by seed or by greenwood or ing an organ, as for example, in the
semi-ripe cuttings in summer; increase Cladrastis (from Greek klados, case of a leaf base which clasps a stem;
also by grafting. x C.microcarpa (syn. branch and thraustos, fragile, referring such leaves are termed amplexicaul.
Citrus mitis; Citrus reticulata x Fortunella to the brittle twigs). Leguminosae. E
margarita; CALAMONDIN ORANGE; small Asia, N America. 5 species, hardy class the principal category of taxa
shrub or miniature tree to 2m (61/2ft) deciduous trees with large pinnate intermediate in rank between Division
with a rounded crown; leaves, elliptic leaves and pea-like flowers in terminal and Order, e.g. Monocotyledonae.
to broadly ovate, dark glossy green; racemes and panicles in summer.
fruit 2.5–3.5cm (1–11/2in), globose, Hardy to –30°C/–22°F, the following clathrate latticed, pierced with holes
bright orange, peel loose, strongly will grow on most, fertile, well-drained and windows, as for example, in the
orange-scented, pulp sour; includes soils in full sun, thriving on chalk. leaves Aponogeton madagascariensis.
‘Tiger’, with leaves streaked white, and Prune young plants in late summer to
‘Variegata’, with white and grey leaves). encourage a strong, clear leader – the clavate, claviform shaped like a
branches of this tree are brittle and club or a baseball bat; thickening to the
Citrus (from Mala citrea, ancient name easily brought down by strong winds. apex from a tapered base.
of Citrus medica). Rutaceae. Asia, Pacific Propagate by seed, scarified and strati-
Islands, widely cultivated and natural- fied at 5°C/41°F for two to three claviculate bearing hooks or tendrils.
ized elsewhere. 16 species, small, aro- months; increase also by root cuttings
matic evergreen trees and shrubs with in winter. C.kentuckea (KENTUCKY claw the narrowed petiole-like base of
thorny branches, ovate to elliptic leaves YELLOW-WOOD; round-headed tree to some sepals and petals.
and fragrant waxy white flowers. The 15m (50ft); leaves dark green turning
edible fruit (hesperidium) is composed yellow in autumn; flowers white, clay the finest texture of soil, with 177
of juicy pulp encased in a thick rind fragrant, in drooping panicles). particles of less than 0.002mm diame-
clay
ter and consisting mainly of alumino- may be attacked by the DOGWOOD Europe since the 16th century. Japan-
silicate minerals. See soil. BORER (S.scinula); raspberries by the ese cultivars, mainly those of the
RASPBERRY CROWN BORER (Pennitsetia Patens Group, were introduced into
C Claytonia (for John Clayton

(1686–1773), American botanist). Por-
tulacaceae. Americas, Australasia, New
marginata), which hollows out the
crowns; and grapes by the GRAPE
WOOD BORER (Vitacea polistiformis),
European gardens in the mid-19th
century. Nurserymen and plant breed-
ers took the opportunity of using these
Zealand. PURSLANE. 15 species, small, whose larvae bore into the roots, earlier-flowering cultivars in a vast
rosette-forming herbs with thinly suc- reducing vigour. breeding programme, crossing them
culent, smooth leaves and cup-shaped, with European species and cultivars
5-petalled flowers in spring. Both of cleft of a flat organ (e.g. a leaf or and other large-flowered clematis
the following are hardy in climate zone perianth segment); cut almost to the introduced from China, mainly during
6. C.megarhiza requires a deep, sharply middle. the period 1855–80. Many of the
draining soil, high in grit and leaf- cultivars raised at that time are still
mould and moist in spring and Cleistocactus (from Greek, kleistos, popular today.
summer, but almost dry in winter. It closed, and cactus, referring to the Clematis species and cultivars have
thrives in full sun in airy conditions unexpanded perianth). Cactaceae. S many uses in the modern garden. The
and is perhaps best-suited to culture in America. Some 30 species, shrubby or vigorous species such as C.montana are
long clay pots in the alpine house or tree-like cacti with cylindric stems and ideal for growing over buildings and
frame. C.virginica occurs on damp and narrowly tubular flowers in summer. through large trees. The herbaceous
cool, humus-rich soils in wooded or Provide a minimum temperature of species are suitable for borders. Less
semi-wooded places. It is suited to simi- 5°C/41°F, full sun and low humidity. vigorous climbers, like C.alpina and
lar conditions in the garden. Propagate Plant in a fast-draining mix high in grit C.macropetala, are superb against north-
by seed, offsets, or division. and with a pH of 6–7.5. Keep these or east-facing walls or fences. C.viticella
C.megarhiza (western N America; tap- plants dry from mid-autumn to early and its colourful cultivars are best-
rooted; leaves 5–15cm (2–6in), spathu- spring, except for light misting on suited for growing over shrubs or
late to obovate; flowers white to pink, warm days during late winter. At all small trees and even over medium-
white to deep pink); C.virginica (SPRING other times, water sparingly. C.strausii height groundcover plants. The winter-
BEAUTY; eastern N America; cormous; (SILVER TORCH; Bolivia; stems 1–3m flowering evergreen species like C.cir-
leaves 6–12cm (21/2–43/4in), linear to (31/4–10ft) x 4–8cm (11/2–3in), erect and rhosa are more suited to the sheltered
oblanceolate; flowers white tinted pink, branching below, with many ribs and garden or, in cold districts, the conser-
some forms yellow veined red). dense, fine, white spines; flowers to vatory or cool glasshouse. The spectac-
8cm (3in), dark red). ular evergreen C.armandii is far hardier
clearwing moths (Lepidoptera: in cool temperate areas than is often
Sesiidae) moths differing from most cleistogamy, cleistogamous self- believed and will thrive on a north-
other Lepidoptera in having wings pollination and self-fertilization within facing wall even in climate zone 7.
largely devoid of scales. They fly in the an unopened flower. The process often The large-flowered clematis cultivars
daytime and resemble wasps or ichneu- follows unsuccessful insect pollination fall into two basic groups: those that
mon flies. The CURRANT CLEARWING on a plant and occurs late in the flower on ripened stems of the previ-
MOTH (Synanthedon tipuliformis) is a season, as in sweet violet (Viola odorata). ous season and those that flower on the
destructive pest of blackcurrants and, current season’s growth from midsum-
to a lesser extent, red- and whitecur- Clematis (from Greek clema, a ten- mer onwards. Compact and free-flow-
rants and gooseberries. It occurs widely dril; name used by Dioscorides for severing, the early large-flowered types
over Europe and parts of Asia and has eral climbing plants). Ranunculaceae. can, for purposes of cultivation, be
been introduced into North America, VIRGIN’S BOWER, LEATHER FLOWER, split again into sections. The very early
Australia and New Zealand. The VASE VINE. N and S Temperate regions, flowering types (typical of the C. Patens
moths have a wingspan of up to 20mm mountains of Tropical Africa. Over Group) such as C. ‘Miss Bateman’, are
(3/4in), and a black abdomen with three 200 species, deciduous or evergreen, ideal for growing in containers or
or four yellow bands, terminating in a semi-woody to woody climbers or small gardens. The double and semi-
prominent tuft of black hairs. The woody-based, erect to sprawling peren- double, large-flowered cultivars, such
larvae tunnel into shoots, causing nials. The flowers are campanulate to as C. ‘Vyvyan Pennell’, are more suited
wilting and death or weakness of the bowl-shaped, solitary, clustered or to growing through wall-trained shrubs
stems. Remove and burn affected borne in panicles, and composed of such as Pyracantha because of the
shoots. petal-like sepals and numerous sta- weight of their flowers. The later, early
In North America, the crown and mens. In some species, petal-like sta- summer-flowering cultivars with large
main roots of peach may be attacked minodes are also present. The fruit flowers and vigorous habit, such as
by the PEACH TREE BORER (Synanthedon consists of numerous achenes with C. ‘Marie Boisselot’, fare better grown
exitiosa), whose adults, up to 25mm (1in) long, persistent, often plumose styles. through large free-standing shrubs or
178 long, are steel blue with yellow mark- Clematis have long been cultivated small trees. The second group of
ings. In addition, flowering dogwoods in Japan, and have been cultivated in large-flowered cultivars, such as the
Clematis
popular C. x jackmanii, which flowers on planting, especially those planted in (i.e. Jackmanii, Texensis and Viticella
the current season’s growth, will grow containers. All growth should be Groups). Remove all top growth down
well through wall-trained shrubs, removed down to a strong pair of leaf to just above the base of the previous
climbing or rambler roses or free-
standing species roses.
In addition to the climbing species
axil buds 30cm (12in) above soil level.
Most clematis climb by their leaf peti-
oles, which twist themselves around the
season’s stems during late winter and
very early spring. New growth may
be visible at this time; prune to just
C
and cultivars, there are several herba- support, whether it be wire, trellis or above where it commences. All top
ceous species which are particularly another plant. They may also be tied growth should be trained and tied in
useful for the border. seedheads on to supports. to its support during the growing
These include C.hera- with fluffy For the purpose of pruning, climb- season.
cleifolia, C.integrifolia, plumes ing clematis fit into three basic groups In addition to these three groups,
C.recta and C.stans. according to whether they flower evergreen clematis like C.armandii,
The slender- on old or previous season’s C.cirrhosa and some New Zealand
stemmed taller wood or that of the species may be divested of old and
species, such as current year. Of exhausted stems after flowering.
C.recta may need species it can, how- Herbaceous species can be cut near
the support of ever, be remarked the ground between late autumn
twigs or sticks. that pruning can and early spring.
The herbaceous be limited to the Species can be successfully
species and their removal of excess, propagated from seed sown soon
cultivars flower on exhausted or after harvesting in a cold frame.
the current season’s congested Cultivars should be reproduced by
stems. C. x jouiniana growth after layering, cuttings or grafting. Layering
might be termed flowering. can be carried out during late winter
semi-herbaceous, GROUP 1. or early spring with old stems, or in
producing a sprawling The plants in early summer using the current
mass of vigorous stems. this group pro- season’s growth. Herbaceous clematis
It is best used for covering duce short flower-stalks can be increased by division. C.hera-
paving, breaking up the out- direct from the previous cleifolia and its cultivars increase easily
lines of borders and over tree- season’s leaf axil buds. by layering. Take cuttings before
stumps and drain-covers. Group 1 includes including the flowering during late spring or, from
The New Zealand species spring-flowering species C.alpina, the very early spring-flowering types,
and their cultivars are fine Clematis C. macropetala and C.montana. in early summer. Internodal cuttings
plants for the conservatory or vitalba Remove any dead or damaged of soft to semi-ripe wood are best;
frost-free glasshouse in cool stems after flowering and, as one of the pair of leaves should be
temperate areas; they may also be the growing season progresses into removed. Insert the cuttings in a
grown successfully in virtually frost-free summer and autumn, train new light, sandy potting mixture in a
gardens in a sunny well drained site. growth into the support if it can be cold frame; alternatively, a propaga-
When grown in containers, the potting reached, keeping stems within their tion unit can be used. Nodal cuttings of
medium should be gritty, well-drained allocated space. C.armandii will root in a cool mist
and never wet during the winter GROUP 2. This group consists of the unit. Graft large-flowered cultivars
months. Some cultivars make ideal early large-flowered cultivars, the on to rootstocks of C.viticella or
plants for the alpine house, such as double and semi-double and the large- C.vitalba during early spring. A
C. x cartmanii ‘Joe’. All are evergreen flowered types which flower before propagation unit or cold frame can
and flower on the previous season’s midsummer (i.e. Florida, Lanuginosa be used; a cleft-graft is generally
ripened stems. They therefore require and Patens Groups). These plants pro- preferred. Pot grafted plants with
only the removal of dead and weak duce stems of varying lengths with a the union well below soil level.
stems after flowering each year. single flower at the end. The stems Clematis wilt causes the plant to
In the garden, Clematis will grow in grow away from axillary buds which collapse while in full growth and the
most well-drained, fertile soils in sun will have ripened the previous season. growing tips to turn black. If a plant
or part-shade. To avoid damage by Remove any dead or damaged stems is infected, all its top growth should
animals and total infection by clematis down to a strong pair of buds during be removed down to soil level and
wilt, all climbing clematis should be late winter or very early spring. Leave burnt. If the clematis was planted
planted with the top of the root ball all healthy growth untouched. Tie in deeply enough, it should start to
buried some 8cm (3in) below the soil the old and new growth so that it can grow again from below soil level.
surface. This will help to build up a support the large flowers. The wilt is caused by a fungus and
good root crown of growth buds. GROUP 3. These produce all their can be controlled by spraying with a
Newly planted clematis should be flowers in clusters or panicles at the fungicide at intervals. 179
pruned hard the first spring after end of the current season’s growth (See table overleaf.)
Clematis
C LEMATIS
C C.afoliata
C.aphylla
New Zealand sprawling to climbing,
almost leafless shrub
to 2m (61⁄2ft)
where present, trifoliolate with
minute leaflets
2.5cm (1in) diam., sepals green-white,
4ate, spreading
Comments: Spring.
C.alpina N Europe & deciduous climber biternate, leaflets 9, to 5cm (2in), pendulous, star- to bell-shaped, sepals
Atragene alpina mts of C & S to 2.5m (8ft) ovate-lanceolate, serrate 4, to 4cm (11⁄2in), blue or mauve,
Europe, N Asia oblong-lanceolate, staminodes petaloid,
pale blue to white, spoon-shaped
Comments: Spring. (C. macropetala, which is more showy, is also of the clear white; ‘Columbine’: pale lavender, campanulate sepals long and
Atragene range, which is characterised by petal-like staminodes in the acute; ‘Frances Rivis’ (‘Blue Giant’), sepals up to 5cm (2in) long, sky
centre of each flower. Cultivars are often attributed alternatively to blue; ‘Pink Flamingo’: white, blushed pale rose; ‘Ruby’: soft rosy red,
either species.) C. alpina ‘Pamela Jackman’, blue. ‘Burford White’: large, staminodes cream.
C.armandii C&W evergreen climber trifoliolate, leaflets to 15cm (6in), to 6cm (21⁄2in) diam., fragrant,
China to 9m (28ft) oblong-lanceolate to ovate, entire, sepals 4, pure white or cream-white,
emerging bronze-pink, soon later rose
Comments: Spring. ‘Apple Blossom’: leaves strongly tinted becoming rich glossy green, tough
bronze when young; flowers cup-shaped, pink in bud, fading to and prominently veined
white. ‘Snowdrift’: leaves large, new foliage tinted copper; flowers
large, white, waxy, very fragrant.
C.barbellata W Himalaya climber to 4m (12ft), campanulate, sepals 4, ovate, to

differing from C.montana 4cm (11⁄2in), downy, dull purple to
in flower colour brown-violet
Comments: Spring. ‘Plum Beauty’ (C. ‘Pruinina’): flowers plum, lantern-shaped, stamens petaloid, white.
C.campaniflora Portugal deciduous climber to 5- or 7-ternate, leaflets to 7.5cm bowl-shaped, pendulous, sepals white
6m (20ft) (3in), narrowly lanceolate, ovate or tinged violet-blue, 4, to 2cm (3⁄4in),
Comments: Summer. oval, simple or sometimes lobed oblong, recurved, downy
C. x cartmanii garden origin bushy dwarf evergreen Comments: ‘Joe’: tufted to mat-forming, branches purple-tinted, flowers
(C.marmoraria x with finely dissected to 4cm (11⁄2in) diam., white, profuse.
C.paniculata.) dark green leaves and
large panicles of
white flowers
C.chrysocoma China deciduous climber to trifoliolate, tawny-hairy, 4.5cm (13⁄4in) diam., solitary, sepals
2.5m (8ft) leaflets to 4.5cm (13⁄4in), white tinged pink, 4, broadly oblong,
broadly ovate or rhomboid, downy beneath
Comments: Summer-autumn. trilobed, coarsely toothed
C.cirrhosa S Europe, evergreen climber to to 5cm (2in), simple and toothed, pendulous, campanulate, to 7cm
Mediterranean 4m (12ft) jaggedly cut or trilobed, or ternate (23⁄4in) diam., each long-staked and
or biternate with toothed or lobed subtended by a small cup-like pair of
Comments: Winter. ‘Wisley Cream’: flowers cream; var. balearica: leaflets, glossy dark green bracteoles, sepals ovate, to 2.5cm
sepals pale cream, always spotted and flecked red-maroon within. var. (1in), cream, sometimes spotted red
purpurascens ‘Freckles’: flowers large, cream, intensely flecked and
spotted maroon to violet within, on very long, slender pedicles.
180 C.alpina ‘Columbine’ C.armandii C.barbellata ‘Plum Beauty’ C.cirrhosa

Clematis
C LEMATIS
C.colensoi New Zealand
Comments: Spring–summer.
evergreen climber,
much-branched
7cm (23⁄4in), triangular, trifoliolate
and pinnately cut
sepals green, 6, narrowly
lanceolate, downy C
C. County Park garden origin dwarf, usually evergreen Comments: Spring-summer. ‘Pixie’: trailing, flowers pale yellow-green
Hybrids shrubs, trailing and bushy in a congested panicle, male selection. ‘Fairy’: a female selection with silky
(C.petriei x or weakly climbing, with golden styles and showy fruiting heads where pollinated.
C.marmoraria) dark, much-dissected
foliage and dense panicles
of pale flowers
C.crispa SE US climbing deciduous shrub pinnately 3-, 5- or 7-foliolate, campanulate, pendulous, sepals to
BLUE JASMINE, to 2.5m (8ft) leaflets to 7cm (23⁄4in), often 5cm (2in), fused below, distinct and
MARSH CLEMATIS, trifoliolate or lobed, thin, spreading at tips, lavender, almost
CURLY CLEMATIS, lanceolate to ovate white at margins, thin and wavy
CURLFLOWER Comments: Summer.
C. x diversifolia garden origin sprawling subshrub to pinnately divided, leaflets usually 7, sepals 4, dark violet to lavender,
(C.integrifolia x 3m (10ft) elliptic, deep green, entire or spathulate, 4cm (11⁄2in), reflexed
C.viticella) slightly lobed
Comments: Summer.
C.douglasii W N America herbaceous, non-climbing simple below, 2-pinnate above, tubular or campanulate, nodding
perennial to 60cm (24in) leaflets oblong, lanceolate or ovate, on long, swan-necked stalks, sepals
downy 4, deep mauve to violet, exterior
paler, to 3cm (11⁄4in), oblong with
Comments: Spring–summer. var. scottii: leaves grey-green, flowers urceolate, lavender to pale reflexed, tapered tips
magenta, downy; includes ‘Rosea’ with rose pink flowers.
C.x durandii garden origin robust, erect to weakly to 15cm (6in), simple, ovate, glossy to 12cm (43⁄4in) diam., sepals deep
(C. x jackmanii x climbing shrub to green violet-blue, usually 4, to 6,
C.integrifolia) 180cm (71in) outspread or reflexed, obovate,
Comments: Summer–autumn. slightly wavy
C.flammula S Europe, N deciduous subshrub 3- or 5-foliolate, leaflets narrowly very fragrant, to 2.5cm (1in) diam.,
Africa, W Syria, climbing to 5m (15ft) lanceolate to rounded, bright sepals pure white, 4, to 1.2cm
Iran, Turkey green, smooth, rather tough (1⁄2in), oblong, obtuse
Comments: Summer–autumn.
C.florida China, Japan deciduous or semi- to 12.5cm (5in), ternate, each to 7.5cm (3in) diam., sepals white
evergreen climber division trifoliolate, leaflets to 5cm or cream, sometimes lined or
to 4m (12ft) (2in), ovate to lanceolate, entire or tinted green, 4, deep violet, to
toothed, shiny, downy beneath 2.5cm (1in)
Comments: Summer. ‘Albaplena’: flowers double, staminodes and sepals white flushed green, exterior with central green stripe. var. sieboldiana
(‘Bicolor’): flowers white with many purple staminodes forming a rose-like centre.
C.flammula C.florida var. sieboldiana C. ‘Proteus’ (Florida Group) C.integrifolia 181

Clematis
C LEMATIS
C C. Florida Group. Woody climbers, 2.5–3m (8–10ft), flowering spring to summer on previous year’s wood; flowers usually semi-double or
double, or single later in season, 15–22cm (6–9in) across, white to lilac or deep violet.
C.forsteri New Zealand evergreen climber trifoliolate, leaflets to 7cm (23⁄4in), sepals 5, white to yellow
lanceolate to broadly ovate,
Comments: Summer. ‘Tempo’: male selection, very vigorous; smooth, entire to toothed or
flowers to 4cm (11⁄2in) diam., pale green becoming white. pinnately cut, tough, bright green
C.fusca NE Asia climber to 3m (10ft) pinnate, leaflets to 6cm (21⁄2in), urn-shaped, nodding, sepals 4, to
ovate, smooth or downy beneath 2.5cm (1in), dull purple to violet
Comments: Summer. var. violacea: flowers violet. inside, densely hairy outside
C.graveolens Himalaya climber to 4m (12ft); fragrant, sepals 4, yellow, ovate to

close to C.orientalis but obovate, often notched at apex,
with more finely divided 3cm (11⁄4in)
glaucous leaves, and
heavily scented flowers
Comments: Summer. with spreading sepals
C.heracleifolia C & N China woody-based perennial trifoliolate, leaflets to 6.5cm tubular to narrowly campanulate, to
herb, erect to 1.5m (5ft) (21⁄2in), rounded to ovate, 2.5cm (1in), sepals 4, deep blue, tips
coarsely toothed, with pale hairs recurved, exterior hairy
Comments: Summer–autumn. ‘Cote d’Azur’: hyacinth blue.
‘Jaggards’: deep blue.
C.hookeriana New Zealand differs from C.paniculata

in leaflets deeply lobed
and green-yellow to
light yellow flowers
C.integrifolia C Europe, erect, non-climbing to 9cm (31⁄2in), simple, ovate to bell- to star-shaped, nodding on long,
SW Russia, herbaceous perennial or lanceolate, entire, glabrous erect stalks, sepals dark violet or blue,
W & C Asia subshrub to 1m (31⁄4ft) above, downy beneath, rarely white, usually 4, lanceolate, to
prominently veined 5cm (2in), spreading with recurved
Comments: Summer. ‘Pastel Pink’: flowers soft light pink. tips and slightly wavy margins
‘Rosea’: flowers sugar pink, underside darker, scented.
C.intricata W China to climber to 4m (12ft) pinnate or bipinnate, leaflets to sepals to 2cm (3⁄4in), yellow
Siberia 5cm (2in), elliptic to lanceolate,
Comments: Summer 2–3-lobed, blue-green
C. x jackmanii garden origin climber to 4m (12ft) simple to trifoliolate, leaflets to rich velvety violet-purple, numerous,
(C.lanuginosa x 12cm (43⁄4in), broadly ovate, deep to 12cm (43⁄4in) diam., sepals 4-6,
C.viticella) green and glabrous above, paler broadly ovate
and downy beneath
Comments: Summer. ‘Alba’: flowers grey-white; ‘Purpurea Superba’: flowers deep violet. ‘Rubra’:
flowers red to plum, double, or single later in season.
182 C. ‘Perle d’Azur’ (Jackmanii Group) C. ‘Henryi’ (Lanuginosa Group) C.macropetala ‘Markham’s Pink’
Clematis
C LEMATIS
C. Jackmanii Group. 2–6m (61⁄2–20ft), flowering summer to autumn on new shoots; flowers 12–20 cm (43⁄4–8in) diam.; sepals usually 4, wide to
narrow and pointed, shell pink, red or blue to purple. C
C.x jouiniana garden origin vigorous, sprawling, leaflets 3 or 5, to 10cm (4in), fragrant, sepals 4, white to ivory
(C.tubulosa x C.vitalba) semi-evergreen, woody- ovate, coarsely toothed, deepening to opal then lilac or sky
based perennial or weakly hairy blue toward tips, strap-shaped,
semi-scandent shrub to 2cm (3⁄4in), tip expanded and
4m (12ft) somewhat recurved
Comments: Autumn. ‘Mrs Robert Brydon’: small, off-white, somewhat tinted blue. ‘Praecox’: pale blue flushed silver.
C.ladakhiana India, Tibet deciduous or semi- pinnate to bipinnate, leaflets sepals spreading, narrowly elliptic,
evergreen climber to narrow yellow to orange-yellow, usually with
3m (10ft), stems tinged darker markings or staminodes
Comments: Summer. brown-purple
C. Lanuginosa Group. Woody climbers, 2.5–5m (8–15ft), flowering on short side-shoots on current year’s growth; flowers very large, loosely
arranged, summer to autumn, appearing consecutively, single or double, 15.
C.macropetala N China, deciduous climber, to biternate, leaflets to 4cm (11⁄2in), to 10cm (4in) diam., pendulous,
E Siberia, 1m (31⁄4ft) ovate to lanceolate, coarsely sepals blue or violet-blue, 4, oblong
Mongolia toothed and lobed to lanceolate, to 5cm (2in), exterior
downy, staminodes numerous, outer
Comments: Spring–summer. See also C. alpina. ‘Blue Bird’ (C.macropetala x C.alpina var. sibirica): semi- violet-blue, inner blue-white
double, large, deep lavender. ‘Jan Lindmark’: pale purple, ‘Maidwell Hall’: semi-double, to 5cm (2in)
diam., deep blue. ‘Markham’s Pink’: strawberry pink, nodding. ‘Rosy O’Grady’ (C.macropetala x C.alpina):
to 7cm (23⁄4in) diam., semi-double, deep bright pink, sepals long and pointed. ‘White Swan’ (C.macropetala
x C.alpina var. sibirica): to 12cm (43⁄4in) diam., pure white.
C.marmoraria New Zealand prostrate, suckering leaflets deeply and closely to 2cm (3⁄4in) diam., sepals 5 green-
evergreen shrub to 6cm divided, glossy green, thick white becoming creamy white;
(21⁄2in) tall, the smallest stamens many, filaments green,
Clematis species, loosely anthers cream
resembling a rigid
clump of parsley
C.montana C & W China, vigorous, climber, trifoliolate, leaflets to 10cm (4in), to 5cm (2in) diam., lantern- to star-
Himalaya to 8m (25ft) ovate to lanceolate, toothed to shaped, sepals white or pink, 4, rarely
trilobed 5, elliptic, exterior downy
Comments: Spring-summer. ‘Alexander’: flowers large, perfumed, flowers white, abundant. var. rubens: young leaves tinged purple-
creamy white with yellow stamens; ‘Peveril’: to 8cm (3in) diam., pure bronze, flowers pink-red. ‘Pink Perfection’: vigorous; flowers profuse,
white, stamens long and shimmering. var. grandiflora: very vigorous, small, deep pink, sepals round. ‘Lilacina’ : flowers pale mauve.
C.orientalis Aegean, Ukraine, deciduous vine or pinnately 5, trilobed, entire or to 5cm (2in) diam., sepals yellow or
SE Russia, Iran, scrambler to 8m (25ft) toothed, grey-green green-yellow, 4, oblong or elliptic,
W Himalaya, W outspread, later recurved, thick and
China, Korea Comments: Summer–autumn. fleshy, stamens maroon
C.marmoraria C.montana C. ‘Barbara Dibley’ (Patens Group) 183

Clematis
C LEMATIS
C C.patens Japan, China deciduous climber
Comments: Spring–summer. ‘Standishii’: flowers to 14cm

pinnately 3-5-lobed to 15cm (6in) diam., sepals 6, cream
white, violet or bright blue, elliptic
to obovate, to 8cm (3in), anthers
(51⁄2in) diam., pale lilac with a metallic lustre, centre lilac-rose. purple-brown
C. Patens Group. Woody climbers, 2–3.5m (61⁄2–11ft), flowering in spring on old wood; flowers with pointed sepals, normally single, 15–25cm
(6–10in) across, sepals wide and overlapping to pointed, flat to wavy, white to purple, often with a darker midstripe.
C.petriei New Zealand sprawling woody vine bipinnate or tripinnate, leaflets to yellow-green, sepals 6, to oblong,
to 4m (12ft) 3cm (11⁄4in), tough, ovate to 2cm (3⁄4in), downy
oblong, entire or bluntly toothed
Comments: Summer. ‘Limelight’: male selection, leaves purple, flowers lime. ‘Princess’: female selection, similar to ‘Limelight’ but with smaller
flowers and showy seed heads.
C.phlebantha W Nepal erect to trailing or to 7.5cm (3in), pinnate, leaflets to 4.5cm (13⁄4in) diam., sepals white,
sprawling bush to 1.5cm (5⁄8in), white-woolly 5-veined, elliptic to obovate, cupped
1.5m (5ft) beneath, lobed to spreading, exterior densely woolly,
Comments: Spring–summer. anthers yellow
C.x pseudococcinea garden origin Comments: Similar to C.texensis but with campanulate flowers. ‘Duchess of Albany’: deep pink,
(C. x jackmanii x erect, centre tinted brown, ventral side striped white. See also C. Texensis Group.
C.texensis)
C.ranunculoides China erect, non-climbing trifoliolate or pinnately 5-foliolate, pendulous, sepals purple to pink, 4,
perennial herb to or simple and trilobed, leaflets oblong, 1.5cm (5⁄8in), spreading,
50cm (20in) or rounded to obovate or ovate, to reflexed, downy
Comments: Spring–autumn. climber to 2m (61⁄2ft) 5cm (2in), coarsely toothed, hairy
C.recta S & C Europe erect, non-climbing to 15cm (6in), pinnate, leaflets to to 2cm (3⁄4in) diam., erect, in many-
perennial to 1.5m 9cm (31⁄2in), oval to lanceolate, flowered panicles, sepals milky
(5ft), densely branched entire, glabrous and deep blue- white, 4, narrowly ovate or oblong,
green above, paler beneath spreading
Comments: Summer. ‘Grandiflora’: flowers large, very abundant. ‘Plena’: flowers double. ‘Purpurea’: branches and leaves flushed deep purple-
bronze, becoming green in time.
C.rehderiana W China deciduous, woody- pinnate, leaflets to 7cm (23⁄4in), campanulate, pendulous, sepals soft
stemmed climber to broadly ovate, often trilobed, primrose yellow or pale green, 4, to
Comments: Summer. 7.5m (25ft) coarsely toothed, hairy 2cm (3⁄4in), reflexed, downy outside
C.spooneri China deciduous climber to trifoliolate, leaflets to 7cm (23⁄4in), to 6cm (21⁄2in) diam., sepals pure
C.chrysocoma var. sericea 6m (20ft) oval or ovate, coarsely toothed, white, 4, rounded to oval or
yellow-silky beneath obovate, to 2.5cm (1in) diam.,
Comments: Spring. silky-hairy outside
184 C.recta C.rehderiana C.tangutica

Clematis
C LEMATIS
C.stans
C.heracleifolia var. stans
Japan deciduous erect shrub
or subshrub or climber
to 180cm (71in)
trifoliolate, leaflets to 15 cm (6in),
broadly ovate, coarsely toothed,
with distinct, hairy veins
tubular, sepals white, 1cm (1⁄2in),
recurved, blue inside, white and
tomentose outside
C
Comments: Summer–autumn.
C.tangutica Mongolia, NW climber to 3m (10ft) pinnate or bipinnate, leaflets to campanulate to lantern-shaped,

C.orientalis var. China 8cm (3in), oblong to lanceolate, pendulous, sepals golden yellow, 4, oval
tangutica lobed and toothed, bright green to lanceolate, to 4cm (11⁄2in), apex
Comments: Summer–late autumn. tapering to spreading, exterior hairy
C.texensis SW US (Texas) climbing subshrub or soft grey-green, pinnate, leaflets to 3 cm (11⁄4in), much narrowed
erect to scrambling to 8cm (3in), ovate to rounded towards mouth, pendulous, sepals
perennial to 2m (61⁄2ft) scarlet-red or carmine, thick,
narrowly ovate, somewhat reflexed
Comments: Summer. ‘Major’: flowers scarlet with white or yellow interior; ‘Passiflora’: flowers to 2cm (3⁄4in), scarlet throughout.
C. Texensis Group. Non-climbing, erect to sprawling or weakly climbing shrubs or woody-based semi-herbaceous perennials, flowering
abundantly on young shoots over a long summer period; flowers urceolate to narrowly campanulate.
C.tibetana N India differs from C.orientalis Comments: ssp. vernayi: leaves glaucous; flowers to 5cm (2in), solitary or
in the finely cut, smooth in threes, nodding, narrowly campanulate then outspread, sepals green-
and glaucous foliage yellow to burnt orange, thickly fleshy, somewhat wrinkled, stamens dark
and thickly textured purple – easily distinguished by its remarkably thick sepals – these have led
pale yellow flowers to its being given the popular name ‘Orange Peel Clematis’, which has also
been applied as a cultivar name to a selection of this subspecies with thick
sepals of a rich yellow-orange.
C.x triternata garden origin climber to 4m (12ft) simple or bipinnate, leaflets entire 3cm (11⁄4in) diam., in terminal
(C.flammula x panicles; sepals lilac, 6
C.viticella) Comments: ‘Rubromarginata’: flowers white, edged wine red, profuse.
C.x vedrariensis garden origin closely resembles leaflets to 6cm (21⁄2in), ovate, to 6.5cm (21⁄2in), sepals rose, lilac or
(C.chrysocoma x C.montana var. rubens, often 3, trilobed, coarsely pink, 4–6, occasionally rounded to
C.montana var. rubens) vigorous evergreen toothed, dull purple-green and oval, outspread, stamens yellow
climber to 6m (20ft) pale-hairy above, paler and more
Comments: Spring–summer. densely so beneath
C.viticella S Europe deciduous semi-woody to 12.5cm (5in), pinnately nodding, sepals blue, purple or rose-
climber to 3.5m (11ft) trifoliolate, leaflets to 6.5cm purple, 4, oblong to obovate, apex
(21⁄2in), lanceolate to broad-ovate, acuminate, to 4cm (11⁄2in), undulate,
often 2–3-lobed exterior silky
Comments: Summer-autumn. ‘Plena’: flowers double, violet. ‘Purpurea’: flowers plum. ‘Purpurea Plena Elegans’: flowers to 8cm (3in) diam.,
very double, deep violet. ‘Rubra’: flowers deep carmine. ‘Rubra Grandiflora’: flowers large, carmine red. f. albiflora : flowers pure white.
C. Viticella Group. Woody climbers, 2.5–6m (8–20ft), flowers abundant, appearing consecutively over a short season, to 15cm (6in) diam.,
single to double, white to red and deep purple with coloured midstripe or veins.
C.tibetana C.viticella ‘Purpurea Plena Elegans’ C.‘Mme Julia Correvon’ (Viticella Group) 185
Cleome
Cleome (name used by Theophras- C.bungei (GLORY FLOWER; E Asia; in zones 8 and under. All Clethra species
tus). Capparidaceae. Tropics and sub- suckering, semi-evergreen erect shrub prefer a humus-rich, acid soil, moist
tropics. 150 species, annual and to 2.5m (8ft) tall; leaves foetid; flowers but well-drained, and light shade to
C perennial herbs with palmately lobed

leaves and dense, terminal racemes of
flowers in spring and summer. These
white to rose or purple-red, sweetly
scented in rounded terminal heads to
15cm (6in) long); C.paniculatum (PAGODA
dappled sunlight. Propagate by seed in
spring or by heeled cuttings of lateral
shoots in mid- to late summer in a
consist of four, narrowly ovate and FLOWER; SE Asia; erect evergreen heated frame. C.alnifolia produces suck-
clawed petals and a bundle of very shrub to 1.5m (5ft); flowers scarlet in a ers that may be detached and grown
long, slender stamens. Sow under glass terminal, much-branched panicle to on once rooted.
some two months before the last frosts 30cm (12in) tall); C.philippinum (syn. C.alnifolia (SWEET PEPPER BUSH,
or in situ in late spring. Grow in a C.fragrans; GLORY BOWER; E Asia; semi- SUMMER SWEET, BUSHPEPPER; eastern
warm, sunny position on light, fertile evergreen, erect shrub to 3m (10ft); N America; tree or shrub to 4m (12ft);
and preferably sandy soils. Propagate flowers pink, white, or sometimes flowers in erect, cylindrical panicles;
by seed. C.hassleriana (syn. C.spinosa of tinged lilac, often double, sweetly fra- includes pink-flowered forms); C.arborea
gardens; SPIDER FLOWER; S America; grant, in dense, domed heads); C.specio- (LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY TREE; Madeira;
annual, 50–150cm (20–60in) tall; flow- sissimum (syn. C.fallax; erect, evergreen evergreen shrub or tree to 8m (25ft);
ers white to pink or purple with petals shrub to 4m (12ft), often grown as a young stems tinged red; flowers nod-
to 3cm (11/4in) long and stamens to smaller, pot plant; flowers bright scarlet ding in slender racemes); C.barbinervis
10cm (4in)). in erect, conical panicles to 45cm (China to Japan; shrub to 10m (30ft)
(18in)); C. x speciosum (C.splendens x with peeling bark; leaves turning red
Clerodendrum (from Greek kleros, C.thomsoniae; JAVA GLORY BEAN, PAGODA and yellow in autumn; flowers with
chance, and dendron, tree, alluding to FLOWER; differs from C.thomsoniae in its fringed petals in hairy, spreading race-
the variable medicinal properties of pale red or pink calyx and deep mose panicles to 15cm (6in)); C.delavayi
some species). Verbenaceae. Tropics purple-rose corolla). C.splendens (tropical (W China; tree to 13m (43ft); flowers
and subtropics. Some 400 species, trees Africa; evergreen climber to 3m (10ft); nodding in a raceme to 25cm (10in)
and shrubs, mostly tender and many flowers bright red to scarlet in long, white to cream emerging from
climbing, with ovate to elliptic or obo- crowded, terminal panicles); C.thomso- pink sepals).
vate leaves and, in summer, panicles or niae (BAG FLOWER, BLEEDING HEART
corymbs of flowers composed of a VINE; tropical W Africa; evergreen Cleyera (for Dr Cleyer, 18th-century
campanulate to tubular calyx, a slaver- climber to 4m (12ft) tall; flowers in Dutch botanist). Theaceae. E Asia, C
form 5-lobed corolla and exserted sta- drooping, terminal panicles, calyx America. 17 species, evergreen or
mens. C.bungei and C.trichotomum will large, white, corolla deep red); C.tri- deciduous trees and shrubs with flow-
tolerate temperatures as low as chotomum (Japan; deciduous, broad- ers composed of five, obovate, white to
–15°C/5°F; the former may be killed crowned shrub or tree to 7m (22ft) tall; creamy yellow petals produced in
to the ground, but will resprout from leaves foetid; flowers fragrant in broad, summer. Hardy in favoured locations
the roots if thickly mulched. Both nodding cymes, calyx red-tinted, in climate zone 7. Plant in sun or part
require a sheltered, sunny site on a corolla white; fruit turquoise to petrol shade with protection from strong
well-drained, deep and fertile soil. blue, among persistent, red calyces; winds, in a moist, fertile and acid soil.
Remove deadwood in spring. The includes var. fargesii, a hardy and free- Increase by semi-ripe cuttings in
remaining species need a minimum fruiting form;); C.ugandense (BUTTERFLY summer. C.japonica (SAKAKI; China,
temperature of 10°C/50°F, full sun BUSH; tropical Africa; erect to sprawl- Korea, Japan; evergreen, glabrous
except on the hottest summer days and ing, evergreen shrub to 3.5m (11ft) tall; shrub to 4m (12ft); leaves 7–10cm
moderate to high humidity. Water and flowers in terminal panicles to 15cm (23/4–4in), narrowly oblong to ovate,
feed freely in spring and summer; keep (6in), calyx crimson-tinted, corolla pale blunt, glossy, dark green above, paler
barely moist in winter. Support climb- blue to violet). beneath; flowers to 2cm (3/4in) in diam-
ing species. Cut back after flowering eter, cream, fragrant, produced in early
and then only if it is necessary to alle- Clethra (from Greek klethra, alder). summer; includes two very similar cul-
viate overcrowding, remove weak or Clethraceae. Asia, Americas, Madeira. tivars, ‘Fortunei’ (syn. C.fortunei), with
dead growth or keep the plant within WHITE ALDER, SUMMER-SWEET. Some pointed leaves variegated cream and
bounds. Long-established specimens of 30 species, trees and shrubs, usually rose toward margins, and ‘Tricolor’,
climbing species may, however, need deciduous with obovate to lanceolate, with pointed leaves tinged pink at first,
hard rejuvenation pruning from time to serrate leaves and fragrant, 5-petalled marbled grey and cream and edged
time, and this should be done during flowers, small, bell-shaped and white, cream to yellow-green – both are
early spring. Propagate by seed in in racemes from summer to autumn. sometimes confused with Eurya japonica
spring or by softwood and semi-ripe C.alnifolia is the hardiest species, surviv- ‘Variegata’).
cuttings rooted in a sandy mix in a ing in climate zone 4; the Asian species
heated case; increase also by root will suffer in zones below 5 or 6, whilst Clianthus (from Greek kleos, glory,
186 cuttings in spring and by removal of C.arborea is tender and should be grown and anthos, flower). Leguminosae. Aus-
rooted suckers. in the cool greenhouse or conservatory tralia, New Zealand. 2 species, ever-
clubroot
green trailing to clambering shrubs and cline a population of plants exhibiting yellow-, and large-flowered cultivars,
subshrubs with pinnate leaves and pea- continuous morphological variation and forms with leaves striped white,
like flowers characterized by a billow- therefore presenting problems in plant yellow or cream); C.nobilis (more droop-
ing, reflexed standard to 5cm (2in) long
and a finely tapered, claw-like keel to
7cm (23/4in) long. C.formosus requires a
classification, for example the orchid
genus Ophrys.
ing, narrower flowers than C.miniata, to
5cm (2in) long, red edged yellow, and
tipped green).
C
minimum temperature of 5°C/41°F, Clitoria (the keel of these flowers
full sunlight and a dry, buoyant atmos- resembles the clitoris). Leguminosae.
phere. Grow in baskets or pots of a Tropics. 70 species, tender herbs and
loam-based mix high in sand and grit; shrubs, many climbing, with trifoliolate
keep just moist in spring and summer, or pinnate leaves and pea-like flowers.
virtually dry in winter. This species is These are usually carried with the
best watered from below and should large and showy standard held down-
not be syringed. Propagate from seed wards and the small, incurved keel
sown in spring at 18°C/65°F. The life uppermost. Provide a minimum winter
of this often short-lived perennial can temperature of 15°C/59°F, medium to
be prolonged in cultivation by grafting high humidity and bright, filtered light.
scions of 6–12-month-old seedlings on Grow in a fertile, loam-based medium.
to stocks of Colutea arborescens of the Water, feed and syringe generously in
same age; use an apical wedge graft. summer; keep barely moist in winter.
C.puniceus will survive outdoors on Train on wires, trellis or canes. Increase
sunny and sheltered walls in favoured by seed in spring, or by spontaneous
regions of climate zones 7 and over. layers and softwood cuttings in summer.
Plant in full sun on fast-draining, gritty C.amazonum (Brazil; woody climber Tunnel cloche
soil. Tie in to a wall, if necessary, and to 4m (12ft); flowers to 8cm (3in), white The wire hoops, normally clad with polythene
remove dead or exhausted growth in or pale pink lined with dark rose veins); film, can be covered with horticultural fleece
spring. Propagate by seed or by semi- C.ternatea (BLUE PEA, BUTTERFLY PEA; to exclude flying insect pests.
ripe cuttings in summer in a heated case. tropical Asia; soft-stemmed, woody-
C.formosus (syn. C.dampieri, C.speciosus; based climber to 3m (10ft); flowers to cloche a low portable unit con-
DESERT PEA, GLORY PEA, STURT’S 5cm (2in), bright blue fading to white structed of glass or rigid-plastic panes
DESERT PEA; Australia; silky-hairy, pros- at centre with a yellow stain). on a wire frame; used for the protec-
trate subshrub; flowers in erect, long- tion of plants and to advance growth.
stalked, umbel-like racemes, vivid Clivia (for Charlotte Florentina, The term is also applied to plastic film
scarlet, the standard with a glossy Duchess of Northumberland, née stretched over wire hoops, a construc-
black, bulging blotch); C.puniceus Clive, d. 1866, who was first to flower tion alternatively known as a low con-
(GLORY PEA, PARROT’S BEAK, LOBSTER the type species). Amaryllidaceae. tinuous polythene tunnel.
CLAW; New Zealand; erect to clamber- KAFFIR LILY. S Africa. 4 species, tender
ing shrub to 5m (15ft) with spreading perennial, evergreen herbs with glossy, clod a consolidated mass of soil parti-
to arching branches; flowers in droop- dark green, strap-shaped leaves in two cles, which can form at the surface of
ing racemes, satiny scarlet, vermilion, ranks, their bases overlapping and heavy soil after inappropriate cultiva-
coral-pink or white). bulb- or stem-like. Appearing through- tion.
out the year, the flowers are waxy,
click beetles see wireworms. funnel-shaped, composed of six, oblong clone the genetically identical off-
to obovate segments and carried in spring of a single parent, produced by
climacteric in fruit cultivation, the umbels atop stout scapes. Provide a asexual reproduction or vegetative
point of maximum rate of respiration minimum winter temperature of propagation.
in stored fruit, such as apples, which 7°C/45°F and bright indirect light.
coincides with the attainment of Grow in a fertile, free-draining mix. close case, closed case see propa-
ripeness. Water and feed freely in spring and gation frame.
summer; keep barely moist in winter.
climatic zone see hardiness. C.miniata is an excellent house plant. clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae)
It benefits from occasional leaf spong- FINGER AND TOE, CLUBBING, CLUB
climber any plant that climbs, or ing. Propagate by seed in late winter, or FOOT ANBURY, a fungal disease affect-
has a tendency to do so, by means of by division after flowering. ing most crucifers, including weeds
various adaptations of stems, leaves C.miniata (leaves to 60 x 7cm (24 x such as charlock and shepherd’s purse,
or roots. 23/4in); scape to 30cm (12in), flowers and ornamentals such as candytuft,
erect to spreading, each to 7cm (23/4in) stocks and wallflowers; it is especially
clinandrium in orchids, the part of long, and scarlet to orange with a severe on brassicas. Radish and certain 187
the column containing the anther. yellow throat; includes flame-, peach-, cultivars of calabrese, Chinese cabbage
clubroot
grossly cluster cups a descriptive term for 20°C/68° for planting out in warm
stem of distorted the fruiting bodies of rust fungi. and sheltered locations in early
brassica roots summer. C.scandens (CUP AND SAUCER
C Clytostoma (from Greek klytos, glori-

ous, and stoma, mouth, referring to the
flowers). Bignoniaceae. Tropical Amer-
VINE; MEXICAN IVY; VIOLET IVY;
Mexico; rampant, woody-based
climber to 10m (30ft), usually treated
ica. 9 species, tender, summer-flower- as a half-hardy annual; flowers with
ing evergreen vines. The leaves are campanulate corolla (the ‘cup’) to 5 x
composed of two or three leaflets and 4cm (2 x 11/2in), green-cream and
terminate in a tendril. Produced in late muskily fragrant at first, later violet,
spring and summer, the 5-lobed flowers then deep purple and sweetly scented;
are funnel-shaped and borne in pairs the corolla sits on a leafy pale green
or short panicles. Cultivate as for calyx, the ‘saucer’).
Bignonia but with a minimum tempera-
ture of 10°C/50°F. C.callistegioides cobnut see hazelnuts.
(syn. Bignonia callistegioides, B.speciosa,
B.violacea; ARGENTINE TRUMPET VINE, Coccoloba (from Greek kokkos, a
LOVE CHARM; Brazil, Argentina; fast- berry, and lobos, a pod, referring to the
Clubroot
Brassicas are highly susceptible to this per- growing woody climber to 5m (15ft); fruits). Polygonaceae. Americas. 150
sistent soil-borne fungal disease, which can flowers to 7cm (23/4in) long, throat species, trees, shrubs and lianes, tender
destroy crops. Bought-in plants are a creamy yellow veined lilac, lobes and evergreen with large, leathery
common means of establishing infected land. mauve-pink fading to rose). leaves, small, green-white flowers and
fleshy, grape-like fruit. Young speci-
and kale have been found to be resis- CO2 enrichment the introduction mens make good pot plants grown in
tant to clubroot. of extra carbon dioxide into a green- sun or part shade with a minimum
Affected plants become stunted with house to maintain a maximum rate of temperature of 10°C/50°F. Plant in a
discoloured leaves, wilt in dry weather, photosynthesis in intensively cultivated fertile, sandy mix. Keep moist through-
and roots become abnormally swollen. crops, especially tomatoes. It may be out the year, and syringe and feed in
Symptoms vary according to the habit generated by burning propane, natural summer. In the tropics and subtropics,
of the host plant: on plants with a slen- gas, or paraffin or derived from liquid this species is often to be seen as a
der taproot and numerous laterals, CO2. large shrub, tree or hedge, showing
such as cabbage, there may be clusters remarkable tolerance of scorching sun,
of small galls or a single large club- Coade stone an artificial stone made poor soils and saline winds; it is an
shaped swelling; on swedes and of fired clay with added ingredients; excellent coastal plant. Propagate by
turnips, warty outgrowths occur mainly invented and manufactured by Eleanor greenwood cuttings. C.uvifera (SEA
at the base of the naturally swollen Coade in the late 18th century and GRAPE; coastal tropical America;
roots. Symptoms can be confused with used for a range of garden and archi- stoutly branched, erect shrub or tree to
those caused by the turnip gall weevil, tectural ornaments. 10m (30ft), usually smaller; leaves to
but such galls either contain the mag- 20cm (8in) wide, broadly oblong to
gots or have conspicuous exit holes. Cobaea (for B. Cobo (1572–1659). obovate, base more or less cordate,
Plasmodiophora is a slime mould; it Jesuit priest and naturalist active in apex rounded, glossy olive to dark
survives in soil as minute resting spores Mexico and Peru). Polemoniaceae green, often with bronze to yellow or
which can remain viable for at least 20 (Cobaeaceae). C and S America. 20 red veins and wavy margins).
years. In the presence of susceptible species, herbaceous or shrubby peren-
roots, spores germinate to form swim- nial, evergreen climbers, tender and Cocculus (diminutive form of the
ming zoospores which eventually pene- sometimes treated as annuals. The Greek kokkos, berry, referring to the
trate root hairs. leaves are pinnate and tendril-tipped. small fruits). Menispermaceae. Asia,
Clubroot is most damaging on acid Solitary flowers are produced in great Africa, America. 11 species, deciduous
soils and can be much reduced by abundance from late spring to autumn. or evergreen trees, shrubs and lianes
liming to bring the soil up to pH7. They are usually fragrant and com- with small, green-white flowers and
Rotation is advisable, but alone is not posed of a leafy, spreading calyx and a globose fruits containing horseshoe-
effective because of the longevity of 5-lobed, campanulate corolla. In frost- shaped seeds. Hardy to –15°C/5°F
the resting spores. Avoid brought-in free regions, the following species will and suited to woodland gardens, trel-
brassica plants, which are a common thrive in a fertile, moist soil in full sun, lises and pergolas in light shade or dap-
source of infection. On infected sites, soon covering its support. Cut back pled sun. Plant in a moist, humus-rich
raise plants in pots of sterilized com- and feed plants grown as perennials in soil. Prune in early spring to keep
post. In the early stages of infection, a spring. Elsewhere, grow year round in a within bounds and remove dead or
188 foliar feed may help plants to become cool greenhouse or use as a half-hardy congested growth. Propagate by seed,
established. annual, sowing seed in early spring at semi-ripe cuttings and root cuttings.
Codiaeum
C.carolinus (CAROLINA MOONSEED, soil or in a crevice. Over a period of Cocos (from Portuguese and Spanish
CORAL BEADS, SNAILSEED; E US; decid- 3–12 months, a female may produce as coco, a grinning face, referring to the
uous twiner to 4m (12ft); leaves to many as 30 capsules. After 4–12 weeks face-like marks on the base of the nut).
10cm (4in), ovate to cordate, sometimes
obscurely 3–5-lobed with 3–7 principal
veins; fruit bright red); C.orbiculatus (E
(or more, depending on temperature),
the young hatch inside the capsule,
which then splits open. The nymphs
Palmae. 1 species, C.nucifera, the
COCONUT, a palm widespread through-
out the tropics, especially in coastal
C
Asia; differs from C.carolinus in having resemble the adults but are wingless; regions. It grows to 30m (100ft) tall
leaves sometimes shallowly 3-lobed they moult 6–12 times, according to with an unbranched trunk, often grey,
with 3–5 principal veins, and pruinose species, before attaining their adult fissured and ringed and tapering
black fruits). form. upwards from a swollen base. The
The largest of the four cosmopolitan leaves are pinnate and spreading to
coccus part of a schizocarp or lobed species is the AMERICAN COCKROACH arching, mid-green and to 6m (20ft)
fruit. (Periplaneta americana), which is up to long. The fruits are rounded, to 35cm
38mm (11/2in) long, and has red-brown (14in) long and covered in a smooth,
cochlea a tightly coiled legume. wings extending beyond the abdomen. green to orange coat; the ‘coconut’ is
The AUSTRALIAN COCKROACH (P.aus- the endocarp, woody and fibrous and
cochleate coiled like a snail’s shell. tralasiae) is similar, but about 30mm lined with white, oily endosperm.
(11/4in) long, with a narrow yellow band Widely grown and naturalized in the
cochlear, cochleariform spoon- behind the head. The ORIENTAL COCK- tropics, especially in coastal regions.
shaped. ROACH (Blatta orientalis) is up to 25mm Elsewhere, grow in beds, large pots or
(1in) long and dark brown, almost tubs in a fertile and free-draining,
Cochlioda (from Greek kochlion, a black. The wings of the male do not sandy medium rich in lime and potash.
little snail, referring to the curiously reach the end of the abdomen and Water plentifully, and maintain high
shaped callus). Orchidaceae. Peru. 6 those of the female are rudimentary. humidity and a minimum temperature
species, compact, tender, evergreen The GERMAN COCKROACH (Blattella ger- of 18°C/64°F. Shade this plant from
perennial herbs with clumped pseudob- manica) is up to 12mm (1/2in) long, and full summer sun. Fresh seed will germi-
ulbs and strap-shaped leaves. They are is dull yellow with two dark stripes on nate readily at 27–30°C/81–86°, and it
grown for their flowers composed of top of the thorax; the wings extend is as a seedling, with the ‘nut’ still
five, lanceolate to elliptic tepals and a beyond the abdomen. The adults and attached, that this palm is usually
showy, 3-lobed lip. Provide a minimum nymphs of these four species are offered for sale.
temperature of 7°C/45°F with full sun omnivorous. Greenhouse plants consti-
in winter, and bright, indirect light and tute only a small part of their diet, and Codiaeum (from the native Ter-
high humidity when in growth. Plant in all plant parts are subject to attack. natean name, kodiho). Euphorbiaceae.
an open, bark-based mix. Water and Cinerarias, chrysanthemums, pot cycla- SE Asia, Pacific Islands. 6 species,
feed freely in spring and summer; keep men, nicotianas, Schizanthus and the tender evergreen trees and shrubs
almost dry in winter, apart from occa- flowers and aerial roots of orchids are grown for their leathery, often brightly
sional mistings on warm days. Increase especially vulnerable. Cockroaches are coloured leaves. Small, creamy white
by division. mostly active at night and are more flowers are carried in slender racemes.
C.noezliana (flowers vivid scarlet, lat- prevalent in old greenhouses, which Provide a minimum temperature
eral lobes of lip rounded); C.rosea (flow- provide suitable hiding places. of 13°C/55°F during winter, with
ers deep rose to crimson, lateral lobes Control by attention to hygiene and medium to high humidity and protec-
of lip rhombic). the elimination of daytime resting sites. tion from strong direct sunlight,
Apply contact insecticides to floors, draughts and temperature fluctuations.
cockroaches (Dictyoptera: Blattidae) walls and heating pipes, or use propri- Grow in a moist, fertile and lime-free
active insects up to 40mm (11/2in) in etary baits. This treatment should be a potting mix; water, feed and mist freely
length, with long, many-jointed anten- continual process, because the cock- when in full growth. Prune leggy plants
nae and thickened forewings lying hori- roach eggs may take a year to hatch, hard in late winter, then dress the
zontally and overlapping the hindwings especially at lower temperatures. wounds with charcoal. Propagate by air
on a flattened body. The indigenous Where resistance to chemicals is sus- layering or root greenwood stem tip
European species are small and of no pected, pitfall traps may be used. cuttings in a heated case – control
economic significance; injurious species bleeding by dipping in charcoal. C.var-
have, however, become widespread, cocoa husks the husks of cacao nuts iegatum (syn. Croton pictum; CROTON; SE
mainly by shipping from warmer (Theobroma cacao), used as a ground Asia; shrub to 2m (61/2ft); leaves 30cm
regions. They can breed throughout mulch, soil conditioner or occasionally (12in), obovate to elliptic to oblong or
the year in a heated greenhouse. Eggs as a potting medium ingredient. The lanceolate, tough, glossy dark green;
are laid in batches of about 15 in a husks should be aged before use to many cultivars of this shrub are grown,
tough purse-shaped capsule which may reduce nitrogen and salt levels. and they have become particularly
be carried around by the female for popular as house plants: their leaves 189
some days before being deposited in coconut fibre see coir. range in shape from entire to jaggedly
Codiaeum
lobed, near-round to ribbon-like, can be protected by spraying with an autumn; in winter, water and syringe
blade- to cup-shaped, and in colour insecticide at egg-hatching times in early only to prevent severe shrivelling of
from deep emerald to lime or gold, summer. Placing a pheromone trap in pseudobulbs and then only on warm
C variously stained, spotted and veined

yellow, orange, pink, red, maroon and
purple-black).
a tree can help to indicate flight peri-
ods, and thus the most effective time
for spraying. On isolated trees, such
days. Propagate by division after the
plant has flowered.
C.cristata (India; flowers to 6cm
traps may give some direct control by (21/2in) in diameter, often fragrant, lacy,
depleting the male moth population. snow white marked yellow on crested
lip, in nodding racemes to 15cm (6in)
Codonopsis (from Greek kodon, bell, long); C.dayana (Borneo; similar to
and opsis, appearance, alluding to the C.tomentosa, but flowers slightly larger
shape of the corolla). Campanulaceae. and a deep parchment colour, heavily
Asia. 30 species, hardy perennial herbs, edged and blotched chocolate brown
often muskily scented and scandent, on the white-veined lip); C.nitida (syn.
grown for their 5-lobed, campanulate C.ochracea; India to Laos; flowers to
flowers produced in spring and 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, sweetly fra-
summer. Hardy to –10°C/14°F. Grow grant, sparkling white marked orange-
in a light, fertile, humus-rich and yellow and red on lip, in erect to
well-drained soil in sun or dappled nodding racemes to 20cm (8in) long);
shade. Keep roots cool and moist in C.ovalis (India to Thailand; flowers to
Codling moth caterpillar damage summer; mulch in winter. Allow 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, pale tan
The “frass” or excrement of the tunnelling climbers to twine through pea sticks marked dark brown on fringed lip, soli-
larvae at the eye end of fruits is the most or surrounding shrubs. Propagate by tary or a few together on a very short,
readily identifiable sign of this pest. division or by seed in spring. erect raceme); C.pandurata (SE Asia;
C.clematidea (Russia to Himalaya; flowers to 8cm (3in) in diameter, some-
codling moth (Cydia pomonella) a erect scrambler to 80cm (32in); flowers times fragrant, jade to lime green,
small moth with a wingspan of to 2.5cm (1in), bell-shaped, pale blue veined black on lip, on an erect to
19–22mm (3/4–1in) and grey-brown with tangerine and black markings at arching raceme to 30cm (12in) tall);
forewings with a copper-coloured patch base within); C.convolvulacea (Himalaya C.speciosa (SE Asia; flowers to 8cm (3in)
at the tips. Its larvae are a serious pest to SW China; twiner to 3m (10ft); flow- in diameter, olive to buff or pale
of mature apple fruits (dessert cultivars ers to 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, azure to salmon, marked brown to buff on the
are particularly susceptible) and also violet-blue with distinct, spreading, white-tipped, fringed lip, solitary or a
attack pear, quince, walnut and some ovate lobes; C.vinciflora is similar); few and nodding on an erect raceme to
ornamental Malus species. In northern C.ovata (W Himalaya; erect to 30cm 12cm (43/4in) tall); C.tomentosa (syn.
Europe, there is normally only one (12in), rarely twining; flowers fun- C.massangeana; SE Asia; flowers to 4cm
generation during summer, but some- nelform to campanulate, pale blue (11/2in) in diameter, pale yellow, ivory or
times a second; in hot countries, there with darker veins and a near-black tan, veined brown and white on pale
are regularly three. Eggs are laid on base within). yellow lip, many together in strongly
fruits and foliage, and after hatching, pendulous racemes to 45cm (18in)
the caterpillars tunnel towards the core Coelogyne (from Greek koilos, hollow, long). berries contain
of the fruit. Damage often goes unno- and gyne, woman, referring to the deep coffee seeds
ticed until the fruit is mature; damaged stigmatic cavity). Orchidaceae. Asia. or “beans”
fruits may ripen prematurely and drop 200 species, tender perennial herbs
early. The fully fed white-pink with globose to flask-shaped pseudob-
caterpillar leaves the fruit either ulbs crowned with paired, lanceolate to
through the eye end or by tunnelling elliptic leaves. Produced in spring
through the side of the apple. The and summer, the flowers consist of
skin around the exit hole may be five linear to elliptic tepals and a
dark red and the tunnel is filled with showy lip and are carried in terminal
caterpillar excrement. clusters or racemes. Maintain a min-
The caterpillar overwinters under imum winter temperature of
loose bark and pupates in the following 10°C/50°F for all species except
spring, so that bands of sacking or cor- C.pandurata and C.speciosa, which
rugated cardboard fitted around the require a minimum of 15°C/59°F.
trunk or larger branches of a tree can Grow in a humid, buoyant atmosphere Coffea arabica
serve as artificial over-wintering sites; with filtered light in summer and full
these may be removed and destroyed sun in winter. Pot in an open, bark- Coffea (from the Arabic name). Rubi-
190 during winter. Many overwintering based mix. Water, feed and syringe aceae. Asia and Africa, widespread in
caterpillars are eaten by birds. Fruit freely from mid-spring to early tropics through cultivation. COFFEE. 40
Colletia
species, tender evergreen shrubs and annual to 1.5m (5ft) tall; white throat); C.variegatum
small trees with leathery, ovate to ellip- utricles to 1.5cm (5/8in) in (Greece, SW Turkey; flowers
tic leaves and clusters of fragrant, diameter, white to grey broadly funnel-shaped, seg-
creamy white flowers. These give rise
to green-red berries; the seeds are
roasted as coffee beans. Grow in neu-
tinged blue or brown).
colchicine an
seeds will
yield colchicine
ments to 5cm (2in), purple-
red, strongly chequered, white
in throat); C. ‘Waterlily’ (flowers
C
tral to slightly acid, loam-based mix. alkaloid derived from large, double, deep rose-pink with
Provide bright filtered light, high the AUTUMN CROCUS (Colchicum a white throat).
humidity and a minimum temperature autumnale); used in plant breeding
of 15°C/59°F. Water and feed freely to produce growths with more than cold frame an unheated frame.
when in growth. Prune in spring to the normal number of chromosomes.
encourage the formation of several cold house an unheated green-
erect leaders in young plants, and to Colchicum (of Colchis). Liliaceae house.
limit the flower-bearing lateral (Colchicaceae). E Europe to Asia, N
branches to one per node in estab- Africa. AUTUMN CROCUS. 45 species, cold store a refrigerated room
lished plants. When grown under glass, hardy perennial herbs with large or container used to store plants,
hand-pollination may be needed for corms and linear to elliptic leaves. propagating material or produce
fruit set. Propagate by seed sown in Produced mostly in late summer at low temperature.
spring or by cuttings of upright shoots and autumn, the flowers
with a snag of old wood. C.arabica appear before the leaves. Virtu- Autumn coleoptile a sheath protecting
(COFFEE, ARABIAN COFFEE; Ethiopia, ally stalkless, they are campanu- crocus the plumule of a germinating
Sudan; shrub to 3m (10ft); berries to late to funnelform or star-shaped grass seedling.
1.5cm (5/8in) long and green ripening and consist of six, lanceolate to oblong
red, yellow or purple; dwarf forms are lobes. Plant in full sun on a fertile, coleorhiza a sheath protecting the
sometimes grown as ornamentals). well-drained soil. The larger species radicle of a germinating grass seedling.
and cultivars are suitable for naturaliz-
coherent of parts usually free or sep- ing in turf; the smaller species suffer in collar sometimes used to describe the
arate, fused together, as in a corolla dull and overwet conditions and may junction point of the stem and roots of
tube. The term is sometimes used to need to be grown in a bulb frame or a plant.
describe the adhesion of similar parts; in a sheltered rock garden. Increase
cf. adherent. by seed or by division in autumn. collar rot rotting of the stem at, or
C.agrippinum (Greece to SW Turkey; just above, soil level. The original
coir fibre from the outer husk of the flowers funnel-shaped, segments to damage may be caused by careless
coconut (Cocos nucifera), once widely 5cm (2in), chequered rose-purple and weeding, animals, insects, waterlogging
used in plunge beds and as a rooting white); C.autumnale (AUTUMN CROCUS, or heating up under densely packed
medium; of interest as a peat alterna- MEADOW SAFFRON; W and C Europe; basal mulch. It provides an entry for
tive in growing composts. Special care flowers funnel-shaped to campanulate, bacteria and fungi. Collar rot some-
is required in the watering of coir; segments to 6cm (21/2in), purple-pink times refers to the post-emergence
nutrient replenishment is also essential. to pale pink or white); C.bivonae (syn. damping-off of seedlings and may be
C.bowlesianum, C.sibthorpii; S Europe to applied to the black-leg symptoms
Coix (from Greek koix, a reedy plant). Turkey; flowers campanulate, segments caused by the bacterium Erwinia caro-
Gramineae. Tropical Asia. 6 species, 4–8cm (11/2–3in), rosy purple, che- tovora on potato, the fungi Leptosphaeria
annual and perennial herbs with slen- quered); C.byzantinum (Turkey, Syria, maculans on brassicas and Pythium
der leaves and gracefully arching pani- Lebanon; flowers funnel-shaped, seg- species on pelargonium cuttings. When
cles in summer, the female flowers are ments to 5cm (2in), pale mauve-pink); the rot extends below soil level, the
enclosed in distinctive, bead-like utri- C.cilicicum (Turkey, Syria, Lebanon; symptom may be described as foot rot.
cles which hang like tear drops. In flowers funnel-shaped to campanulate, See black leg.
zones 8 and under, sow seed in late segments 4–7cm (11/2–23/4in), pale lilac
winter under glass (minimum tempera- to deep rose-purple, sometimes collenchyma a strengthening tissue
ture 15°C/59°F) and pot several plants obscurely chequered); C.luteum (C. Asia of young plant organs, composed of
together in a rich loamy mix. Protect to China; flowers funnel-shaped to nar- living cells with irregularly thickened
from fierce summer sun. Alternatively, rowly campanulate, segments to 3cm walls.
grow outdoors as half-hardy annuals; (11/4in), pale to deep yellow); C.speciosum
raise under glass and plant out in a (Turkey, Iran, Caucasus; flowers funnel- Colletia (for Philibert Collet
warm, sunny position in a moist but shaped to campanulate, segments to (1643–1718), French botanist). Rham-
well-drained, fertile soil in late spring. 8cm (3in), pale pink to deep rose- naceae. Temperate S America. 17
In frost-free regions with long, hot purple or white, sometimes white in species, hardy shrubs, leafless or with
summers, sow seed in situ in spring. throat); C. ‘The Giant’ (flowers large, very small and short-lived leaves, and 191
C.lacryma-jobi (JOB’S TEARS; SE Asia; lilac pink and faintly chequered with a green, photosynthesizing stems and
Colletia
branches. These are covered in fero- shaped tuber, massive and edible in Calcutta Botanic Garden who collected
cious spines. White to cream or pale C.esculenta. The inflorescences resemble plants in Kumaon). Labiatae. Asia. 3
flesh pink and scented, small flowers those of Arum and are usually dull species, hardy or slightly frost-tender
C cluster along the spines in winter and

spring. They give rise to fleshy berries.
Hardy to –5°C/23°F, or lower if
yellow-green. Cultivate as for Alocasia.
C.esculenta (COCOYAM, TARO,
DASHEEN; leaves to 60cm (24in), mid-
evergreen shrubs covered in felty white
down. The leaves are ovate to lanceo-
late with toothed margins. Showy,
planted against a warm and sheltered green and smooth, on stalks to 1m tubular and two-lipped, the flowers
wall. Grow in full sun, preferably on a (31/4ft) tall; includes the cultivars appear in whorls in late summer.
fast-draining, lean soil. Increase by ‘Fontanesii’, with dark purple-red to Hardy to –7°C/19°F or lower if grown
heeled semi-ripe cuttings of short side violet-black leafstalks and leaf blades against a warm and sheltered wall and
shoots in a heated case. veined and stained violet-black, and thickly mulched in winter. Plant in full
C.hystrix (syn. C.armata; S Chile; to ‘Illustris’, the IMPERIAL TARO or BLACK sun on a fast-draining but fertile soil.
2m (61/2ft); spines dark green, to 2.5cm CALADIUM, with purple-brown leaf- Prune hard in spring to remove frosted
(1in), thinly hairy); C.paradoxa (syn. stalks and bright green leaf blades top growth and to establish a low,
C.cruciata; Uruguay, S Brazil; to 2m stained violet-black between the veins). woody framework from which tall and
(61/2ft); spines chalky blue-green, thickly free-flowering shoots will arise by
glaucous, to 5cm (2in), tapering from a colonnade a row of columns or summer. Root softwood cuttings in late
broad, flattened base); C.spinosissima sometimes trees, either forming part of summer in low humidity. C.coccinea
(syn. C.infausta; S Chile; to 2.5m (8ft); a loggia or leading from one group of (Himalaya to China; to 3m (10ft);
spines olive green, to 2.5cm (1in), buildings to another. Colonnades are a flowers to 2cm (3/4in), flame to scarlet
smooth). feature of formal gardens. marked yellow within).
Collinsia (for Zaccheus Collins columella the central axis of a multi-

(1764–1831), vice president of the carpelled fruit.
Philadelphia Academy of Natural
Sciences). Scrophulariaceae. N and C column (1) a solid ornamental
America. 25 species, half-hardy annual upright or pillar, as used in a colon-
herbs with racemes of tubular, 2-lipped nade or other formal garden feature;
flowers in summer. Cultivate as for (2) an upright form of fruit tree pro-
Alonsoa. ducing tightly packed spurs on a cen-
C.bicolor (CHINESE HOUSES, INNO- tral trunk. Also known as a pole tree.
CENCE; California; to 60cm (24in); Colorado beetle In apples columnar trees may be genet-
flowers to 2cm (3/4in), upper lip white, ically induced. The term is occasionally
lower lip rose-purple; white and multi- Colorado beetle (Leptinotarsa decem- used for weak-growing pears; (3) a
coloured forms are available); C.grandi- lineata) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) a feature of orchids where the style and
flora (BLUE LIPS; western N America; to beetle with a stout, oval, convex body stamens are fused; (4) the tube-like
35cm (14in); flowers to 2cm (3/4in), up to 10mm (1/2in) long and yellow configuration formed by the fusion of
upper lip pale purple to white, lower wing cases with five black stripes. staminal filaments in some Malvaceae.
lip dark blue or violet). Adults overwinter in soil and orange-
yellow eggs are laid in masses, mainly Columnea (for Fabio Colonna
colloid a substance in a colloidal state on potato leaves, but also on tomato (1567–1640), author of the first botani-
where particles or droplets are held in and tobacco. Up to two generations per cal book with copperplate illustrations).
suspension by reason of their very year; larvae are soft and red-orange, Gesneriaceae. Tropical Americas. 160
small size. Colloids have a high ratio of with three pairs of short, stumpy tho- species, tender perennial, evergreen
surface area to volume, are very reac- racic legs. Both stages feed openly on herbs and subshrubs, usually with long
tive chemically and physically and usu- foliage with devastating effect. The Col- stems cascading from a low crown,
ally possess electrical charge; they orado beetle is a native of the western small, paired, downy leaves and tubular
attract oppositely-charged ions and US but widespread in North America. flowers with a hood-like upper lip, two
water. Some clay particles and fractions Recorded in Europe since 1876, it was spreading lateral lobes and an entire
of humus are colloidal. Emulsions, established in France by 1920 and there- lower lip. Cultivate as for Aeschynanthus.
aerosols and smokes are other colloids after in most European countries except C. x banksii (C.schiedeana x C.oerstediana;
important in horticulture. Britain and Ireland. Control with con- stems to 80cm (32in), pendent; leaves
tact insecticide. In the UK, suspected to 4cm (11/2in), ovate to oblong, smooth
Colocasia (from Arabic kolkas or incidences of Colorado beetle must be above, dark green, tinted purple-red
kulcas). Araceae. Tropical Asia (some reported to the Plant Health and Seeds beneath; flowers to 8cm (3in), bright
widespread through cultivation). 6 Inspectorate, a department of DEFRA. red marked yellow within); C.crassifolia
species, large, tender, evergreen, peren- (Guatemala, Mexico; stems to 30cm
192 nial herbs. Long-stalked, sagittate to Colquhounia (for Sir Robert (12in), ascending; leaves to 10cm (4in),
cordate leaves arise from a turnip- Colquhoun (d. 1838), a patron of the narrowly elliptic, smooth above, mid-
compatibility
green; flowers to 10cm (4in), brilliant appear in dense racemes and panicles bright, deep blue; ‘Aureostriata’: leaves
scarlet); C.gloriosa (GOLDFISH PLANT; C in summer. Cultivate as for Petrea. cream-striped); C.tuberosa Coelestis
America; stems to 1m (31/4ft), cascad- C.grandiflorum (N Africa; evergreen, Group (C and S America; erect to 1m
ing; leaves to 3cm (11/4in), ovate, hairy;
flowers to 8cm (3in), scarlet with a
yellow throat); C.microphylla (Costa
twining shrub to 6m (20ft); flowers rela-
tively large and red in one-sided spikes
to 10cm (4in) long); C.microphyllum
(31/4ft); flowers bright blue to indigo;
includes cultivars with white flowers
and variegated leaves).
C
Rica; stems to 60cm (24in), cascading; (FLAME CREEPER, BURNING BUSH; small
leaves to 1cm (1/2in), ovate to orbicular, deciduous or semi-evergreen tree or common name a popular or ver-
covered in soft, purple-red hairs; flow- scrambler to 8m (25ft); flowers bright nacular name for a plant, as opposed
ers to 8cm (3in), scarlet with a yellow red and downy in short racemes). to a botanical name, for example, daisy
blotch in throat; includes dwarf forms for Bellis perennis.
with very small leaves, and ‘Variegata’, comfrey Symphytum officinale, a robust,
with grey-green leaves edged cream). coarsely hairy and large-leaved peren- community plot, community
nial herb in the Family Boraginaceae. garden see allotment.
column foot a basal platform found Native to Europe and Western Asia, it
in the column of some Orchidaceae, to has a long history of medicinal use compaction the loss of pore spaces
which the lip is attached. (hence such vernacular names as BONE- in soil caused by excessive cultivation
SET). Today it is grown for ornament or surface traffic. Wet soils of heavy
Colutea (name used by Theophras- (see Symphytum) and for its mineral-rich texture are particularly susceptible, and
tus). Leguminosae. Europe, Africa, foliage which makes an excellent liquid deterioration of structure results.
Asia. 26 species, hardy deciduous manure if harvested fresh and added in
shrubs or small trees, sometimes spiny, bulk to water.
with pinnate or trifoliolate leaves, pea-
like flowers in summer and strongly Commelina (for Jan Commelin
inflated, translucent, bladder-like pods. (1629–1692) and Caspar Commelin
Hardy to –20°C/–4°F. Grow in full (1667–1731), Dutch botanists). Com-
sun on a well-drained soil, with protec- melinaceae. Mostly tropics and sub-
tion from fierce winds. Prune in spring tropics. WIDOW’S TEARS, DAYFLOWER.
to keep within bounds and remove Some 100 species, annual and peren-
exhausted growth. Propagate by seed nial herbs (those listed here are usually
sown in gentle heat in early spring, or treated as annuals), sometimes tuber-
by semi-ripe, heeled cuttings rooted in ous, with slender stems, ovate to lance-
a sandy mix in midsummer. olate leaves and clusters of 3-, but
C.arborescens (BLADDER SENNA; S apparently 2-petalled flowers enclosed
Europe; shrub to 5m (15ft); flowers to in a boat-like spathe. C.tuberosa
2cm (3/4in), yellow faintly marked red Coelestis Group is treated as half-hardy
on standard; pods to 8cm (3in), bladder- in cold winter regions, its tuberous
like, pale green becoming red-tinted, roots lifted in autumn, stored in frost-
then pearly grey-green); C. x media free conditions, brought into growth in
(C.arborescens x C.orientalis; shrub to 3m gentle heat in late winter and replanted Companion planting
(10ft); flowers to 3cm (11/4in), yellow to outdoors in late spring. C.benghalensis The admixing of suggested ornamental and
coppery orange stained bronze-red or will thrive in sun or shade in moist, vegetable companion plants can be an
orange); C.orientalis (S Russia, N Iran; frost-free conditions; a fast-growing attractive as well as a productive feature.
shrub to 3m (10ft); flowers to 1.5cm and dependable groundcover, it can be
(5/8in), orange-red with coppery veins useful under staging. C.communis is simi- companion, companionate
and yellow markings). lar but will grow outdoors in cold- planting the practice of growing
winter areas with long, hot summers plants reputed to have beneficial effects
coma (1) a tuft of hairs projecting (e.g. the east coast of the US). Propa- on their neighbours in close proximity
from a seed, as in Asclepiadaceae; (2) a gate C.tuberosa Coelestis Group by to other species. Such plants may be
tuft of leaves or bracts terminating an division; the others by spontaneous held to have growth-enhancing or pest-
inflorescence or syncarp, for example layers or stem tip cuttings. suppressing properties, for example,
the crown of a pineapple; (3) a leafy C.benghalensis (tropical Asia, Africa; Tagetes patula is claimed to be an insect
head in the crown of a tree or shrub. stems to 30cm (12in), creeping and pest deterrent.
rooting; flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in), deep
Combretum (name used by Pliny for blue to violet; ‘Variegata’: leaves compatibility (1) the ability of one
a climbing plant). Combretaceae. creamy white-edged); C.communis plant to fertilize another; of particular
Tropics. 250 species, tender trees and (China, Japan, naturalized S Europe, E relevance in top fruit growing; (2) the
shrubs, many of them climbers. The US; stems sprawling and rooting, to ability of a stock and scion to be com- 193
showy flowers have long stamens and 70cm (28in) long; flowers pale to bined successfully in a graft; (3) the
compatibility
suitability of two or more pesticides for High temperature is necessary to ovoid, spherical or cylindrical structure
mixing together. ensure decomposition and destruction on a single axis and (in the female
of weed seeds; in a well-prepared heap, cone) persisting to the seed-bearing
C complanate flattened, compressed.
complete of flowers, possessing all

up to 80°C/176°F can soon be
attained. The compost heap can be
kept active by regularly turning the
stage. In the families Gnetaceae and
Podocarpaceae the bracts or scales may
be very few so that the whole scarcely
four whorls (sepals, petals, stamens and contents of one compartment into resembles a cone; but the term is
carpels). another, moving the outermost mater- retained here, as is strobilus, to avoid
ial to the centre. See activator. the misleading use of ‘inflorescence’;
compost (1) rotted organic matter (2) in flowering plants, a compact spike
(usually plant refuse) that is absorbent, compound made up of two of more or raceme with conspicuous and con-
humus-rich, and, where well-made, similar parts. For example, the com- gested bracts suggesting a true cone, as
friable; it is added to soil to improve pound leaves of clover (Trifolium found in Zingiberaceae.
fertility, structure and water-holding species), the compound inflorescences
capacity; low in nutrients; (2) in the of dandelion (Taraxacum species) and conferted closely packed or crowded.
UK, the term is also used to describe the compound fruits of mulberry
seed and potting mixtures or media. (Morus species). conglomerate tightly clustered, usu-
ally into a ball.
compost heap a stack or bin of compound fertilizer a manufac-
organic waste kept moist and, ideally, tured fertilizer providing more than
aerated to encourage its breakdown by one nutrient.
micro-organisms.
A compost heap should be estab- compressed flattened, usually
lished either on a soil base, which applied to bulbs, tubers and fruit and
encourages worm activity, or with a qualified by ‘laterally’, ‘dorsally’ and
floor of widely spaced bricks covered ‘ventrally’.
with strong wire mesh to aid air flow.
The containing walls should be con- concatenate linked as in a chain.
structed of concrete blocks, straw bales
or thick timber, and a composting unit conceit any fanciful, grotesque, or
should preferably comprise two or exaggerated garden feature, such as a
more compartments, each about folly, grotto, ruin or elaborate water-
1–1.5m (31/4–5ft) square. The front works. The term is sometimes applied
wall of each bin should be made from to a whole garden or landscape having
removable boards, added as the height a conglomeration of such features.
of the heap increases, with a detach-
able waterproof cover provided where concolorous of a uniform colour. Conifers
rainfall is high. To ensure good Not all conifers bear the familiar cones of
drainage, the soil base should be forked conductivity a measure of the elec- the group. Some have fleshy fruits or arils
over and a 5cm (2in) layer of brush- trical conductivity of soil or liquid feed, (q.v.), as in Podocarpus nivalis (above) and
wood put down. Organic matter is which determines the salinity or con- yew, or Taxus species.
added in layers about 15cm (6in) deep, centration of dissolved mineral salts,
with different sorts mixed together; some of which are plant nutrients. The conifer a tree or shrub, usually ever-
thickened material should be cut or higher is the salt concentration the green and many with needle-like
shredded. Layers of chopped, damp lower is the resistance to electrical flow, leaves, belonging to the Division Gym-
straw incorporated throughout the which means the higher is the conduc- nospermae which is characterized by
heap will aid aeration. Where practica- tivity. High salt concentration may the production of ovules not enclosed
ble, filling the bin in one operation inhibit water uptake by roots. in an ovary. The seeds are often aggre-
gives the best results. gated in woody cones, for example,
For good microbial activity, the conduplicate of leaves; folded once Pinus, Sequoia, Cupressus or with fleshy
carbon/nitrogen ratio should be 30:1, lengthwise, so that the sides are parallel coats as in the drupes of Cephalotaxus,
carbon occurring mostly in roots and or applied; of cotyledons, folded in this or with fleshy arils as in Taxus, or
stems, and nitrogen in green leaves. manner, with one cotyledon enclosed swollen receptacles as in Podocarpus.
During autumn and winter, the appli- within the other, and enclosing the Deciduous conifers include Larix,
cation of an activator is beneficial. The radicle in its fold. Metasequoia and Taxodium. ‘Softwood’ is
compost heap is filled to near the top a loose alternative term for conifers.
of the bin and the waterproof covering cone (1) in gymnosperms, an assem-
194 insulated with straw, sacks or other blage of bracts and sporophylls, usually conifer spinning mite see red spider
similar heavy fabric. densely crowded and overlapping in an mites.
Convallaria
conjugate coupled, a linked pair, as ting in late summer. Conophytum will conservatory originally synonymous
in the leaflets of a pinnate leaf. soon be killed by overwet and draughty with greenhouse, now usually a glassed
conditions. structure attached to a house; used for
conk the hard fruiting body of a
wood-rotting fungus, found on the
branches, trunks and stumps of trees.
C.bilobum (clump-forming, plant
bodies to 7cm (23/4in), sea green to
blue-grey, narrowly wedge-shaped with
relaxation in planted surroundings.
Consolida (Latin name for a wound-

C
It is also called a bracket fungus. a rounded apex and a deep, wide healing herb). Ranunculaceae.
cleavage making 2, long and distinct Mediterranean to C Asia. LARKSPUR.
connate united, usually applied to lobes sometimes spotted or edged red- Some 40 species, annual herbs related
similar features when fused in a single brown; flowers golden yellow); C.meyeri to Delphinium, with slender, erect stems,
structure. (clump-forming, plant bodies to 2cm finely and palmately cut leaves and
(3/4in), obovoid, apex slightly bilobed showy, spurred flowers in summer. Sow
connate-perfoliate where opposite and keeled, dull green to pale white- in spring in situ on a fertile, moist but
sessile leaves are joined by their bases, green, smooth to somewhat velvety and well-drained soil in full sun. Many cul-
through which the axis appears to pass. sometimes edged or marked red- tivars and hybrids of the following
brown; flowers white to yellow); C.nota- species provide excellent cut flowers,
connective the part in a stamen that bile (plant bodies to 3cm (11/4in), harvested just as the lowermost buds
connects the lobes of an anther at the clumped, obovoid, with a rounded open. To retain their form and colour
point of attachment to the filament. apex and slight fissure, grey-green and as dried flowers, cut when almost fully
faintly spotted; flowers orange-red); open and hang in bundles in a cool,
connivent converging, and even C.obcordellum (syn. C.nevillei; plant bodies dry place. Taller cultivars may need
coming into contact, but not fused; of to 2cm (3/4in), clumped, squatly top- staking. C.ajacis (syn. C.ambigua, Del-
petals, gradually inclining toward the shaped with a flattened or dimpled phinium consolida; Mediterranean; stems
centre of their flower. apex, more or less circular if viewed to 80cm (32in) tall, branching above;
from above, silvery pale green to sea flowers to 2.5cm (1in) in diameter, in
conoid resembling or shaped like a green, dotted and sometimes stained racemes terminating branches, sky blue
cone. red-brown; flowers scented, white, to azure, violet, lilac, pink or white, or
yellow or pink); C.truncatum (plant white freaked and splashed with pink
Conophytum (from Greek konos, bodies to 3cm (11/4in), squatly top- and blue, sometimes semi- or fully
cone, and phyton, plant, referring to the shaped to rounded with a round-edged, double and with toothed to cut petals).
conical plant bodies). Aizoaceae. South flattened upper surface, dimpled and
Africa. Some 80 species, tender, succu- kidney-shaped if viewed from above, conspecific belonging to the same
lent perennials, dwarf with the fleshy sea-green with fine, darker dots; flow- species; often used of highly similar
leaves more or less fused in pairs; these ers creamy yellow, spidery). populations scarcely worthy of recogni-
form the plant ‘bodies’, low-lying, soli- tion as separate species.
tary or clumped, globose to cylindric, conservation measures taken to
round- to flat- or sunken-topped, and safeguard species from extinction, and contact in horticulture, applied to (1)
notched to deeply cleft. Daisy-like flow- to protect or restore natural habitats insecticides that enter insects through
ers open at their cleavages in bright and gardens. Considerations of the the intact cuticle; (2) herbicides that
sunlight. Provide a minimum tempera- topic are wide ranging and have damage plant tissue by direct contact.
ture of 7°C/45°F, full sunlight and a important relevance to all forms of
dry atmosphere. Grow in shallow pots practical horticulture. Gardeners need container-grown applied to plants
or pans containing a loam-based to be aware and supportive of the established in containers, from which
medium very high in sand and grit and Convention on International Trade in they can be planted out with minimal
top-dressed with gravel or pebbles. Endangered Species of Wild Fauna root disturbance.
Water sparingly from late summer to and Flora (CITES q.v). Laudable inter-
early autumn, very occasionally during est in wildlife gardening must be gov- continuous an uninterrupted sym-
sunny spells from mid-autumn to early erned by an appreciation of acceptable metrical arrangement. Sometimes used
winter; give a few waterings again means of acquiring suitable plants. as a synonym of decurrent.
during early spring, then withhold Gardeners have many opportunities to
water from late spring to midsummer, contribute also to the preservation of contractile roots roots that con-
when the old plant bodies dry up com- animal species. In direct connection tract in length and pull parts of a plant
pletely and the new leaves form within with conservation there is a need for further into the soil, for example the
them. Propagate by seed germinated discretion in choosing garden products corms of Crocus.
and grown on for a year in warm, originating from non-renewable
moist and lightly shaded conditions, sources; also attention should be given controlled release see slow release.
prior to gradual acclimatization to the to energy and water saving and to
harsher, adult regime. Increase also by opportunities for recycling plant and Convallaria (from Latin, convallis, a 195
careful division of clumps when repot- other materials. See also NCCPG. valley, alluding to the habitat). Liliaceae
Convallaria
(Convallariaceae). Northern temperate under heated glass and plant out in a copper sulphate a compound that
regions. 3 species. C.majalis is LILY OF sunny, warm position after the last is (1) applied to soil for the correction
THE VALLEY, a hardy, rhizomatous frosts. of copper deficiency, (2) an ingredient
C herbaceous perennial to 20cm (8in)

tall, with one to four, ovate to elliptic
leaves on a short shoot and, in spring,
C.althaeoides (S Europe; slender-
stemmed, sprawling or climbing peren-
nial to 1m (31/4ft) tall; leaves grey-green,
of the fungicide known as Bordeaux
mixture.
an arching raceme of fragrant white to sagittate to ovate-cordate, often deeply coppicing the practice of regularly
ivory flowers. These are 0.5–1cm and finely palmately to pinnately cut; cutting down young growth arising
(1/4–1/2in) deep and spherical to urceo- flowers to 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, pink from the base of a tree or shrub,
late to campanulate, edged with six, to purple-pink); C.cneorum (SILVERBUSH; thereby giving rise to numerous vertical
short reflexed segments. They give rise Italy and Balkans to N Africa; erect or shoots. It is mainly a forestry practice
to glossy, scarlet berries. Hardy to at spreading bushy shrub or woody-based but is also used on certain ornamentals
least –20°C/–4°F. Grow in a moder- perennial to 50cm (20in); leaves to obtain colourful bark (e.g. Cornus
ately fertile, humus-rich and moisture- oblanceolate to linear, covered in species), juvenile foliage (e.g. Eucalyptus
retentive soil in part shade, ideally in bright, silver, silky hairs; flowers to species) or very large foliage (e.g.
the woodland garden or under shrubs, 2.5cm (1in) in diameter, palest shell Paulownia species). It is also known as
where the creeping rhizomes will build pink with darker zones along folds); stooling.
up extensive colonies. For forced C.sabatius (syn. C.mauritanicus; Italy, N
blooms, lift strong, 2–3-year-old Africa; woody-based perennial to 50cm Coprosma (from Greek kopros, dung,
‘crowns’ (lengths of rhizome terminat- (20in) with bushy to trailing habit and and osme, odour, the plants are often
ing in a bud) in the autumn and pot slender stems; leaves oblong to malodorous when crushed). Rubiaceae.
into a fertile, loamy mix with sand and rounded, mid- to dark green, some- SE Asia, Australasia, Pacific Islands. 90
leafmould; overwinter in the cold times silvery; flowers to 2.5cm (1in) in species, dioecious, evergreen shrubs
greenhouse or frame, increasing water diameter, pale to deep blue, lilac or and small trees, erect to prostrate or
and heat as growth proceeds. Propa- pink); C.tricolor (syn. C.minor, Portugal to scrambling with leaves ranging from
gate by division. Greece and N Africa; erect and bushy small and narrow to large, broad and
annual to 60cm (24in); leaves oblanceo- glossy. Inconspicuous flowers give rise
convolute rolled or twisted together late to ovate, mid-green; flowers to 5cm to fleshy berries. The hardiest species
longitudinally, with the margins over- (2in) in diameter, pale to deep blue listed here is C.brunnea, which will toler-
lapping, as leaves or petals in a bud. with a white throat and golden eye; ate lows to –5°C/23°F if planted on a
includes low and very deep blue culti- fast-draining, acid soil in full sun, with
Convolvulus (from Latin convolvere, to vars, e.g. ‘Blue Flash’ and ‘Royal shelter from winter wet and harsh
twine). Convolvulaceae. Cosmopolitan. Ensign’, and some with paler flowers, winds. The others are essentially frost-
250 species, annual and perennial e.g. ‘Cambridge Blue’; because of its tender, growing best in cool green-
herbs and subshrubs, name, this species is commonly con- house conditions, in a moist, acid to
bushy or vigorously fused with Ipomoea tricolor, the climbing neutral, fertile soil and with good venti-
twining, with short- morning glory, another popular lation and protection from the hottest
lived funnel-shaped twining annual). summer sun. Increase by ripe wood
flowers. The perennial stems cuttings in autumn, or by seed sown in
species listed below are cool house a greenhouse where spring in a cold frame with the berry
hardy to –5°C/23°F. heating is maintained to provide frost pulp removed.
They need a warm and protection or, more usually, a C.brunnea (syn. C.acerosa; SAND
sunny, sheltered position minimum winter temperature COPROSMA; New Zealand; stems wiry,
on a well-drained, low of 7°C/45°F. creeping to ascending; leaves to 1.5cm
to medium fertility soil. (5/8in), linear; fruit translucent pale blue;
Most benefit from a dry funnelform coping the top course includes forms with bronze foliage and
winter mulch, and some, like flowers of masonry in a wall; cobalt blue to violet fruit, some of
C.althaeoides, may be killed to usually sloping and them hybrids with C.petriei); C. x kirkii
the ground by cold. C.sabatius sometimes provid- (C.brunnea x C.repens; prostrate to
is often used as a half-hardy ing an overhang to spreading or ascending shrub to 1.5m
annual. Support climbing protect wall-trained (5ft); leaves to 3cm (11/4in), linear-
species, or allow them to fruit trees. oblong to narrowly obovate, leathery
sprawl and trail. Propagate and dark green; fruit white faintly
by softwood cuttings in copper a micronutrient flecked red; includes cultivars with
early summer. In warm or trace element. Copper defi- bronze, white-edged and yellow-
regions, the annual C.tri- ciency occurs in soils high in splashed leaves); C.repens (LOOKING-
color should be sown in situ organic content and lime, and GLASS PLANT, MIRROR PLANT; New
196 in autumn or spring; else- Convolvulus is manifest in arrested growth Zealand; spreading to erect shrub to
where, sow in early spring althaeoides or dieback of shoot tips. 8m (25ft); leaves to 8cm (3in), broadly
Coreopsis
oblong to obovate, apex blunt, base the heavily cristate inflorescence of C.australis (CABBAGE TREE; New
tapered, glossy dark green; fruit yellow- some Celosia cultivars, the body shapes Zealand; to 20m (70ft), becoming
orange to red; includes cultivars with of some cacti and to the calli and stig- branched above with age; leaves to 100
leaves splashed or edged white or gold
and some with coppery tones).
matic surfaces of some monocots.
cordate heart-shaped; applied to

x 2cm (39 x 3/4in), arching, linear, light
green to olive; includes cultivars with
leaves flushed deep purple-bronze to
C
leaves and leafy stipules that are usually copper and ruby red, some striped
ovate-acute in outline, with a rounded white, cream, yellow or pink, or
base and a deep basal sinus or notch with a red midvein); C.fruticosa (syn.
where the petiole is inserted. C.terminalis; TI TREE; SE Asia, Australia,
Polynesia; to 4m (12ft), shrubby; leaves
cordon (1) a trained form of tree or to 60 x 10cm (24 x 4in), oblong to
bush fruit, comprising one stem, usu- lanceolate, narrowing to a grooved
ally planted obliquely, or two or three petiole, glossy green, often tinged red;
stems in the form of a vertical U or widely grown with many cultivars
double U shape. Step-over cordon available, ranging from dwarf to tall,
refers to forms with one or two shoots and with leaves brightly stained, striped
trained horizontally along a low level and zoned in shades of scarlet, crim-
wire; (2) a system of growing sweet son, pink, purple, bronze, copper, lime,
peas where each plant is restricted to yellow, cream and white); C.indivisa
one shoot in order to produce large (syn. Dracaena indivisa; New Zealand; to
flowers for exhibition. 8m (25ft), scarcely branched above;
leaves to 200 x 10cm (79 x 4in), narrowly
Coral spot Cordyline (from Greek kordyle, club, lanceolate, somewhat glaucous with the
Dead wood is a prime site for infection with referring to the thickened roots). midvein often tinted red; purple- and
this fungal disease, which should be pruned Agavaceae. SE Asia, Australasia, Poly- bronze-leaved cultivars are grown).
out as soon as seen. Burn affected prunings. nesia. 15 species, evergreen shrubs and
small trees, at first with simple, cane- core flush a physiological disorder of
coral spot (Nectria cinnabarina) a like stems, later more tree-like and apples stored for long periods. It is
fungal disease producing pink to branched above. Leaves oblong to more serious at low temperature and
orange pustules and groups of red broadly lanceolate to linear, in dense where carbon dioxide level is high and
fruiting bodies scattered over bark, mops and rosettes at branch ends. water loss from the fruit excessive.
dead twigs and branches. It grows Flowers small, cream, massed in very Symptoms are discoloration of the
commonly as a saprophyte on woody large, dense panicles. C.australis is hardy core between the seed cavities, often
debris, but can also enter living tissue outdoors in favoured locations in zone extending into the flesh.
through wounds to become parasitic, 7; C.indivisa in zone 8. Much can be
and cause dieback. Although generally done to aid their survival in terms of Coreopsis (from Greek koris, a bug,
regarded as a secondary fungus causing siting, selection of cultivar, tying up of and opsis, like, alluding to the appear-
minor diseases, coral spot can be seri- leaves and wrapping of crown base in ance of the fruit). Compositae. Ameri-
ous, especially where infection follows winter. Where very hard winters cas. TICKSEED. 80 species, annual or
grafting operations. Acer, Aesculus, threaten, they are perhaps best brought perennial herbs with entire to toothed
apple, beech, Cercis, currants, Elaeagnus, into a frost-free greenhouse. Plant both to finely pinnately lobed leaves and
elm, fig, gooseberry, hornbeam, lime, in a warm, sunny position on a fertile, bright, daisy-like flowerheads in
Magnolia, mulberry, Pyracantha, Ribes fast-draining soil. C.australis is a good summer. Fully hardy, Coreopsis species
and walnut are particularly affected. coastal and city plant for milder prefer full sun and a fertile, moist but
Trained forms of trees and shrubs regions. Younger specimens of free-draining soil. Propagate by seed,
requiring frequent pruning are vulnera- coloured cultivars are among the most or perennials by division in spring or
ble. Prune off dead shoots and popular dot and patio container plants. from softwood cuttings in summer.
branches to a point well below the dis- The TI TREE, C.fruticosa, is equally well- C.auriculata (SE US; erect perennial
eased area; burn prunings and affected loved in the tropics and subtropics and, to 1.5m (5ft); leaves entire or 1–2-
woody debris. Treat posts, fences and elsewhere, as a house plant. It needs a lobed; flowerheads to 5cm (2in) in
other wooden structures with wood minimum winter temperature of diameter, long-stalked, yellow; includes
preservative. Badly affected soft fruit 10°C/50°F, bright, indirect light and a the vivid gold ‘Cutting Gold’, the
bushes should be dug up and burned. moist, fertile, potting mix. Propagate dwarf ‘Nana’, with orange-yellow flow-
all species by seed or suckers in spring. erheads, and ‘Superba’, with bright
coralloid resembling coral in struc- Increase C.fruticosa also by 5–8cm yellow flowerheads tinted purple);
ture. It is used of certain types of root (2–3in) cuttings of mature stem laid flat C.grandiflora (C and SE US; erect
adapted to house blue-green algae or on sand in a heated frame; pot on as annual or perennial to 60cm (24in); 197
saprophytic fungi. It is also applied to the new shoots appear. leaves entire to 3–5-parted; flowerheads
Coreopsis
to 6cm (21/2in) in diameter, long- Coriaria (from Latin corium, hide or Cornell mixes soilless growing
stalked, ray florets yellow, disc florets leather: some species are used in tan- media based on peat and vermiculite
tinted orange; includes ‘Badengold’, a ning). Coriariaceae. Europe, Asia, or perlite, developed by Cornell Uni-
C short-lived perennial to 100cm (39in)

tall with golden flowerheads, ‘Ruby
Throat’, with a red-stained centre, and
Americas, New Zealand, Pacific
Islands. 30 species, herbs, shrubs and
small trees with angular stems and
versity, New York.
corniculate horned, shaped like a

the deep yellow, ‘double’ ‘Sunray’); arching, frond-like branches ranked new moon, bearing or terminating in a
C.lanceolata (C and SE US; perennial to with small, ovate leaves. At first the small horn-like protuberance.
60cm (24in); leaves usually entire; flowers are small, dull and green, but
flowerheads to 6cm (21/2in) in diameter, as the fruits mature, the petals persist, Cornus (Latin name for C.mas). Cor-
golden, long-stalked, ray florets usually becoming enlarged, fleshy and colour- naceae. DOGWOOD, CORNEL. Temper-
with jagged margins; includes the ful. Hardy in favoured areas of zone 7, ate regions of the N hemisphere; also S
dwarf ‘Goldfink’, and cultivars with especially if grown against a warm, America and Africa. Some 45 species,
double and red-tinted flowerheads); sheltered wall and mulched in winter. perennial, semi-woody herbs, or, more
C.tinctoria (N America; erect, bushy Plant in full sun on a moist, fertile soil. usually, shrubs and small trees, mostly
annual up to 1.2m (4ft); leaves 1–2- Prune back exhausted or frost- deciduous. They bear small, pale flow-
pinnate; flowerheads to 3cm (11/4in) damaged growth in spring. Increase by ers in flat-topped cymes, panicles or
in diameter, long-stalked and borne seed sown in autumn, by semi-ripe cut- heads, often subtended by bracts. These
several together, ray florets yellow tings or by rooted suckers. C.terminalis give rise to small, colourful drupes.
marked brown-red at base, disc florets (Himalaya to W China; deciduous C.alba and C.sericea are prized for their
dark red); C.verticillata (SE US; bushy suckering subshrub or shrub to 1.5m winter beauty, having brilliant autumn
perennial, erect, 20–90cm (8–36in) tall; (5ft); leaves red in autumn; fruiting foliage, handsome fruits and colourful
leaves very finely bipinnate; flower- raceme to 15cm (6in) long, cylindrical stems which range from yellow through
heads up to 5cm (2in) in diameter, with enlarged corollas to 1cm (1/2in) brilliant crimson to black-purple. The
golden yellow or pale lemon yellow in across and glossy black; includes f. fruc- ‘flowering dogwoods’, such as C. florida,
‘Moonbeam’). torubro, with translucent red corolla, C.kousa and C.nuttallii, also have stun-
and var. xanthocarpa, with translucent ning autumn colour, but it is for their
coriaceous leathery or tough but yellow corolla). large, white or pink floral bracts, pro-
smooth and pliable in texture. duced in spring and early summer, that
cork a layer of protective tissue, usu- they are celebrated. C.mas is valued as
ally elastic and spongy, that replaces an early spring-flowering shrub. The
the epidermis in the older superficial only non-woody species commonly
parts of some plants. It is also known grown is C.canadensis, which forms an
as phellem. attractive carpet of creeping stems,
with white-bracted flowers in summer
cork bark the thick corky bark of and red fruits in autumn. Most are
trees, such as Quercus suber, which is hardy to between –10°C and
often used by gardeners to sustain epi- –25°C/14–13°F, although C.capitata is
phytic bromeliads, ferns and orchids. only hardy to –5°C/23°F. C. florida and
The round sections can be filled with C.nuttallii will tolerate low tempera-
sphagnum moss or other substrate and tures, but need long, hot humid sum-
the plant established through a hole in mers to ripen their wood. Late frosts
Coriander the bark. may damage their decorative bracts.
Sow coriander at intervals of three to four Dogwoods thrive in range of soil types,
weeks from spring to late summer for a suc- cork cambium a layer of meristem- from acid through to thin chalky soils.
cession of foliage for harvesting over a long atic tissue from which cork is derived. Many coloured-stemmed dogwoods
season. Later sowings will need protection. It is also known as phellogen. will grow in poorly drained soils and
are ideal for waterside plantings. For
coriander (Coriandrum sativum) a corm a solid, swollen, subterranean, the best winter colour, cut back C.alba
hardy annual to 45cm (18in) high, bulb-like stem or stem-base. Corms are and C.sericea to near ground level in
grown as a culinary herb for its seed annuals, the next year’s corm develop- spring, or grow them as a low pollard
and aromatic leaves, which are used ing from the terminal bud or, in its or stub. This promotes fresh, rod-like
especially in oriental cooking. Sow absence, one of the lateral buds. growths that will colour brilliantly the
successionally from spring to late following autumn and winter. Most
summer in situ, 1cm (1/2in) deep in rows cormel, cormlet a small corm other species have gracefully tiered
30–45cm (12–18in) apart, thinning to developing from and around the habits that should be left untouched.
15cm (6in) final spacings. For winter mother corm. Increase by seed or cuttings; also,
198 supply, late autumn sowings can be C.canadensis by detaching rooted lengths
made under cover. cormous bearing corms. of stem.
Cornus
C ORNUS
Name Distribution Habit Bark Leaves Inflorescence Fruit
C.alba
RED-BARKED
DOGWOOD,
Siberia to
Korea
deciduous, erect
to spreading,
suckering shrub
new shoots
turn sealing
wax red in
4–8cm (11⁄2–3in),
ovate-elliptic with
short, pointed tip,
flowers small, cream in
flattened, 5cm (2in)-wide
cymes in late spring
small, white
to blue C
TARTARIAN DOGWOOD to 3m (10ft) winter mid to dark green
above, slightly
glaucous beneath
Comments: Cultivars with variegated leaves include ‘Variegata’ exceptional winter stem colour include ‘Atrosanguinea’ (dwarf with
(edged white), ‘Aurea’ (soft yellow-green), ‘Elegantissima’ (grey-green crimson stems), ‘Kesselringii’ (stems purple-black), and ‘Sibirica’ (stems
edged white to cream), ‘Gouchaltii’ (pink-flushed, edged yellow) and bright coral red).
‘Spaethii’ (edged yellow, bronze-flushed at first). Cultivars with
C.alternifolia EN deciduous shrub 6–12cm (21⁄2–43⁄4in), flowers small, yellow-white small, black,
PAGODA DOGWOOD, America or tree to 8m ovate-elliptic, dark in 5cm (2in)-wide cymes in rarely yellow
GREEN OSIER (25ft) with a green above, somewhat early summer
flat-topped glaucous beneath
crown and
tiered branches Comments: Includes ‘Argentea’ with white-marked leaves, ‘Corallina’ with dull red
stems, the yellow-fruited ‘Ochrocarpa’ and the strongly tiered ‘Umbraculifera’.
C.canadensis Greenland creeping 2–4cm (3⁄4–11⁄2in), green to red-violet, bright red

Chamaepericlymenum to Alaska perennial with ovate-lanceolate, in a clustered in a tight umbel berries
canadense rooting, ground- whorl at the summit surrounded by 4–6, ovate,
BUNCHBERRY, smothering of erect stems white bracts each to 2cm
CREEPING DOGWOOD, stems to 8cm (3⁄4in) long in early summer
DWARF CORNEL, (3in) tall
CRACKERBERRY
C.capitata Himalaya, evergreen or 5–12cm (2–43⁄4 in), flowers small, white in a fleshy,
Dendrobenthamia China semi-evergreen, ovate to lanceolate, clusters to 2cm (3⁄4in) strawberry-
capitata spreading tree dark above, pale across, subtended by shaped, scarlet
BENTHAM’S CORNEL to 16m (52ft) beneath obovate, cream to white aggregate to
bracts to 8cm (3in) long 2.5cm (1in)
in early summer diam.
C.controversa Himalaya, deciduous tree 7–15cm (23⁄4–6in), small, white

GIANT DOGWOOD China, to 17m (56ft) ovate to broadly in flat-topped
Japan tall with elliptic, cuspidate, dark cymes to
horizontal, green above, paler 10cm (4in)
Comments: ‘Variegata’ (WEDDING tiered branches beneath, flushed red diam.
CAKE TREE) has an uneven white- in autumn
yellow margin.
C. ‘Eddie’s White garden deciduous tree, to 15cm (6in), ovate- small and green,
Wonder’ origin erect and elliptic, mid-green surrounded by 4 (–6) large,
(C.florida x C.nuttallii) pyramidal to turning orange-brown rounded, white bracts in
6m (20ft) tall and purple-red in late spring
with drooping autumn
branches
C.alba C.alternifolia ‘Argentea’ C.capitata C.controversa ‘Variegata’ 199

Cornus
C ORNUS
Name Distribution Habit Bark Leaves Inflorescence Fruit
C C.florida
EASTERN FLOWERING
DOGWOOD, COMMON
E N America deciduous tree
or shrub to 10m
(30ft) tall with
7–15cm (23⁄4–6in),
oval to ovate, dull
green above, pale
small, green in a button-like
head surrounded by 4
bracts each to 4cm (11⁄2in)
scarlet
WHITE DOGWOOD many, spreading beneath, turning long, obovate with curled
then ascending orange-red in autumn margins and white to cream
branches or pink, in late spring
Comments: Includes many cultivars with bracts ranging in size, number and in colour from pure white to bright flamingo pink and deep rose.
C.kousa China, deciduous, erect 5–9cm (2–31⁄2in), small, green in rounded a fleshy, scarlet,
KOUSA Korea, tree or shrub to ovate-acuminate, heads surrounded by 4, strawberry-like
Japan 7m (22ft) tall undulate, dark green large, lanceolate, creamy aggregate to
above, paler beneath, white bracts in summer 2cm (3⁄4in)
Comments: Includes the larger var. chinensis with longer, more turning red in autumn diam.
pointed bracts turning from green to white and assuming pink tints.
C.mas Europe, W deciduous, 4–10cm (11⁄2–4in), small, bright yellow in small, oblong,
CORNELIAN CHERRY Asia spreading and ovate-elliptic, mid- rounded cymes to 2cm bright red
bushy shrub to dark green (3⁄4in) diam., produced
Comments: Includes cultivars or tree to 5m before leaves in late winter
with variegated leaves and white, (15ft) tall and early spring
yellow and violet-blue fruit.
C. ‘Norman garden deciduous, erect small and green a bright

Hadden’ origin to spreading surrounded by showy red, large,
(C.kousa x C.capitata) tree to 8m (25ft) white bracts that assume strawberry-
pink tints with age like aggregate
C.nuttallii WN deciduous tree 8–12cm (3–43⁄4in), small, green in tight heads surrounded by
MOUNTAIN America to 30m (100ft) oval to obovate, 4–8, broadly oval to obovate bracts, each to
DOGWOOD, tall with a mid- to dark green, 8cm (3in) long and green-white turning pure
PACIFIC DOGWOOD broadly conical downy at first white, later assuming a pink flush
crown
C.sanguinea Europe deciduous, erect new shoots 4–10cm (11⁄2–4in), small, off-white, small, purple-
BLOOD TWIG, and freely green broadly elliptic to muskily scented in black
COMMON DOGWOOD, suckering shrub flushed ovate, dull green dense cymes to 5cm
DOGBERRY to 4m (12ft) tall purple-red flushed purple-red (2in) diam. in summer
especially in autumn
in winter
C.sericea EN deciduous shrub young 5–10cm (2–4in), oval small, dull white in small, white
AMERICAN DOGWOOD, America to 3m (10ft), branches to oval-lanceolate with cymes to 5cm (2in)
RED OSIER freely suckering purple-red a finely tapering tip, across in late spring
with spreading to deep red dark green above,
to erect, slender especially in glaucous beneath
branches winter
Comments: Includes ‘Flaviramea’ with yellow shoots in winter, and ‘Kelseyi’, dense and dwarf with red-tipped, yellow-green winter shoots.
200 C.florida ‘Cherokee Chief ’ C.kousa ‘China Girl’ C. ‘Norman Hadden’ C.sanguinea ‘Winter Beauty’
corrugate
Corokia (from the Maori vernacular circular umbels at various times of to campanulate flowers year-round,
name korokiataranga). Cornaceae. New year, including winter (C.valentina). usually waxy and with four, short,
Zealand. 3 species, evergreen shrubs Hardy in zone 7, but best given the reflexed lobes. Most species tolerate
and small trees with slender, twiggy
branches, often spiralling or zig-zag-
ging and becoming congested. These
shelter of a south-facing wall. Grow in
full sun on a light, fast-draining soil.
Support or tie-in to walls if necessary.
short-lived frosts to about –5°C/23°F
(C.decumbens lower still), but in colder
zones need greenhouse protection.
C
are silver to ash grey at first and ulti- Prune after flowering to remove any Plant in a fast-draining, gritty and
mately covered in thin, black-brown weak growth. Older plants may need sandy, acid medium. Position in full or
bark. The leaves are tough and lanceo- harder, rejuvenative pruning at this dappled sun in an airy, rather dry
late to spathulate, bronze to olive time. Root greenwood cuttings in atmosphere. Water moderately when in
above, silvery beneath. Clusters of summer. growth, sparingly in winter. Root soft-
small yellow flowers in late spring are C.emerus (syn. Hippocrepis emerus; wood or semi-ripe cuttings in a closed
followed by orange-red berries. Hardy SCORPION SENNA; C and S Europe; case with bottom heat.
in climate zone 7. Plant in full sun on a shrub to 2m (61/2ft); leaves to 6cm C.backhouseana (dense, spreading
fertile, well-drained soil that is moist in (21/2in), pinnate, dark green; flowers shrub to 2m (61/2ft); flowers to 2.5cm
spring and summer, but rather dry in fragrant, yellow); C.valentina (S Portu- (1in), creamy yellow to pale green);
winter. For best results, place within the gal, Mediterranean, N Africa, Aegean; C.decumbens (prostrate shrub to 1m
shelter of a south-facing wall. Root shrub to 1.5m (5ft); leaves to 5cm (2in), (31/4ft); flowers to 2.5cm (1in), red
short, heeled cuttings of the previous pinnate, leaflets bright green above, tipped green); C. x harrisii (C.pulchella x
season’s growth in a sandy mix in a glaucous beneath; flowers golden C.reflexa; flowers to 3cm (11/4in), scarlet);
frame or case in autumn. yellow, fragrant; subsp. glauca: syn. C.pulchella (more or less prostrate shrub
C.buddlejoides (to 4m (12ft); branching C.glauca, leaves glaucous, blue-green, to 1.5m (5ft); flowers to 2.5cm (1in),
pattern fairly straightforward; leaves to flowers lemon to golden; ‘Variegata’: orange to pink-red or, rarely, white);
10cm (4in), lanceolate); C.cotoneaster foliage and young shoots striped and C.reflexa (syn. C.speciosa; erect or pros-
(WIRE NETTING BUSH; to 2m (61/2ft); zoned creamy yellow to white). trate shrub to 3m (10ft); flowers to 4cm
branching pattern intricate and tortu- (11/2in), white to green, pink or red,
ous; leaves 0.5–2cm (1/4–3/4in), orbicular Correa (for Jose Francesco Correa de sometimes bright red tipped green).
to spathulate, sometimes shallowly and Serra (1750–1823), Portuguese
sparsely toothed); C. x virgata (C.buddle- botanist). Rutaceae. Australia. AUS- corrugate crumpled or wrinkled but
joides x C.cotoneaster, to 3m (10ft); TRALIAN FUCHSIA. 11 species, ever- more loosely so than in rugose. Corru-
branching pattern somewhat twisted green shrubs and trees with small, gate aestivation describes the irregular
and intricate to erect and straightfor- leathery leaves and pendulous tubular and apparently crumpled folding of a
ward; leaves 1–4cm (1/2–11/2in), spathu-
late to oblanceolate).
stamens (male
flower parts) pistil (female
corolla the interior perianth whorl; a flower parts)
floral envelope composed of free or ring or corona of
fused petals. Where the petals are sepa- fleshy filaments
rate, a corolla is termed choripetalous
or polypetalous; where fused, the
corolla is termed gamopetalous or sym-
petalous – in such cases, the petals may
be discernible only as lobes or teeth on
the rim of a corolla tube, cup or disc.
corona a crown- or cup-like

appendage or ring of appendages. It
may be a development of the perianth
(as in Narcissus), of the staminal circle
(as in Asclepias), or located between
perianth and stamens (as in Passiflora).
Coronilla (from Latin coronilla, a little

crown, alluding to the radiating golden
umbels of most species). Leguminosae.
Europe, Asia, Africa. CROWN VETCH.
20 species, evergreen herbs and small Corona in Passiflora caerulea
shrubs with pinnate or trifoliolate The passion flowers display perhaps the most spectacular coronas, with a ring or several rings 201
leaves and pea-like flowers in stalked, of fringe-like, brightly coloured appendages surrounding a stalk bearing the pistil and stamens.
corrugate
perianth in bud, as for example hap- autumn, or by cuttings of thick, mature flowers tipped pale yellow); C.popovii
pens with the petals of many members roots in late summer. C.matthioli (flowers (C Asia; tuberous perennial to 15cm
of the poppy family, Papaveraceae. pink to magenta, nodding, on scapes to (6in) with blue-green leaves and
C Cortaderia (from cortadera, Argentine

name for these plants). Gramineae. S
30cm (12in) tall).
Corydalis (from Greek korydalis,

maroon-lipped, white flowers);
C.solida (FUMEWORT; N Europe, Asia;
tuberous perennial to 20cm (8in) with
America, New Zealand, New Guinea. crested lark: the flowers resemble the dark-tipped, pale mauve-pink to light
24 species, large, evergreen perennial head of this bird). Fumariaceae. red flowers; includes ‘George Baker’,
grasses with very long and slender, Northern temperate regions, South with deep, rosy red flowers);
sharp-edged leaves making dense tus- Africa. Some 300 species, annual or C.wilsonii (China; fleshy-rooted
socks. The flowers are carried in tall, deciduous perennial herbs with ferny, perennial to 30cm (12in); leaves
plume-like panicles in late summer and biternately compound foliage and glaucous, blue-green; flowers bright
autumn. Hardy in climate zone 5. racemes of flowers in spring and yellow, tipped green).
Plant in full sun on a well-drained but summer; these are tubular and angled
moisture-retentive soil. These grasses horizontally, the outer petals recurved Corylopsis (from Greek korylos,
accumulate a good deal of dry, dead at the tip and spurred at the base, the hazel, and opsis, appearance, the
material within their dense and massive inner petals beak-like. Hardy in climate leaves resemble those of Corylus).
crowns – this should be cleared each zones 6 and 7. Plant in full sun or light Hamamelidaceae. Asia. WINTER HAZEL.
spring, along with spoilt plumes and shade in a humus-rich, well-drained 30 species, hardy, deciduous shrubs and
any damaged leaves (great care being soil that is cool and moist in spring and small trees with slender branches, and
taken to avoid their razor-like margins). summer. Propagate the perennial broadly ovate leaves with impressed
The short cut of setting light to the species by division when dormant, or – veins. Small, fragrant and yellow, the
whole clump and incinerating growth if tuberous – by detaching offsets. Sow bell-shaped flowers appear before or
dead or alive is a little harsh and possi- seed of annual species in situ in spring. alongside the leaves and hang in
bly dangerous. Increase by division in C.cashmeriana (Himalaya; fibrous- narrow racemes amid translucent
late spring. C.selloana (PAMPAS GRASS; rooted perennial to 20cm (8in); leaves green bracts. Hardy to –15°C/5°F.
temperate S America; leaves arching, bright green; flowers bright blue with Grow in a sheltered, partially shaded
making tussocks to 1.5 x 2m (5 x 61/2ft); darker tips); C.cava (syn. C.bulbosa; C position on a well-drained but mois-
panicles to 120cm (48in), oblong to Europe; tuberous perennial to 15cm ture-retentive, acid to neutral soil.
pyramidal, pearly white or cream, (6in); leaves pea-green; flowers dull Mulch in dry summers. Allow space
sometimes flushed purple, red or rose; purple or white); C.cheilanthifolia (China; for the strongly spreading habit of
cultivars range from dwarf to very tall fleshy-rooted perennial to 30cm (12in) C.pauciflora and C.spicata. Propagate
(i.e. 3m (10ft) and include selections with very fern-like, soft olive green by seed in autumn, by softwood or
with white- or yellow-striped foliage leaves; flowers bright yellow); C.clavicu- greenwood cuttings rooted in a
and panicles in tones of silver-white, lata (CLIMBING CORYDALIS; Europe; closed case in late spring, or by
pale violet and rose). slender, climbing annual to 1.5m (5ft) simple layering.
tall with sea green, tendril-tipped C.glabrescens (Japan, Korea; to 5m
cortex bark or rind; stem tissue situ- leaves; flowers cream to pink, tipped (15ft); leaves glaucous beneath, veins
ated between the stele and epidermis. dark red); C.diphylla (Himalaya; tuber- in up to 12 pairs; inflorescence to
ous perennial to 15cm (6in); leaves 2.5cm (1in), flowers very pale yellow,
corticate covered with thick bark, grey-green; flowers lilac-white, tipped anthers yellow or purple); C.pauciflora
with a hard coating, but softer centre; purple); C.flexuosa (Himalaya; fleshy- (BUTTERCUP WITCH-HAZEL; Japan,
corky. rooted perennial to 20cm (8in); leaves Taiwan; to 3m (10ft); leaves to 6.5cm
bright green to grey-green; flowers sky (11/4in) glaucous beneath, veins in up to
Cortusa (for J.A. Cortusi, 16th-cen- blue to deep cobalt; includes various 9 pairs; inflorescence to 3cm (11/4in),
tury Italian botanist). Primulaceae. C cultivars with flowers in a range of flowers relatively large (i.e. to 1.8cm
Europe to N Asia. 8 species, hardy blues and foliage marked or tinted (3/4in) across), sweetly fragrant, prim-
perennial herbs with rosettes of long- bronze to deep maroon); C.fumariifolia rose yellow, anthers yellow); C.sinensis
stalked, rounded to heart-shaped, (syn. C.ambigua of gardens; Japan; (syn. C.willmottiae; China; to 5m (15ft);
toothed and hairy leaves, and funnel- tuberous perennial to 10cm (4in); leaves glaucous and downy beneath
shaped, 5-lobed flowers in long-stalked leaves glaucous; flowers azure); C.lutea with veins in 7–12 pairs, deep purple-
umbels in summer. Hardy in zone 7 (Europe; bushy perennial to 30cm bronze-tinted in ‘Spring Purple’;
and suitable for lightly shaded areas of (12in) with mid-green leaves, their inflorescence to 8cm (3in) with lemon
the rock garden and for planting undersides glaucous; flowers bright yellow flowers with yellow anthers);
beneath shrubs. It favours a moist, yellow); C.nobilis (Siberia; fleshy-rooted C.spicata (SPIKE WITCH-HAZEL; Japan; to
humus-rich soil and a mulch of leaf- perennial to 50cm (20in) with glaucous 3m (10ft); leaves glaucous and downy
mould and garden compost in autumn. leaves; flowers yellow, tipped purple- beneath with veins in 6–7 pairs; inflo-
202 Propagate by seed sown as soon as brown); C.ochroleuca (SE Europe; similar rescence to 6cm (21/2in), flowers bright
ripe, by division in early spring or to C.lutea but with white to cream yellow, anthers red-brown).
costapalmate
Corylus (Classical Latin name). Betu- Europe, Asia Minor; tree to 30m
laceae. N Temperate regions. HAZEL. (100ft) with a pyramidal crown; leaves
15 species, hardy deciduous shrubs or to 12cm (43/4in), lustrous deep green;
small trees with large and coarse, ovate
leaves, their veins impressed and mar-
gins toothed. The tiny, yellow male
fruit to 2cm (3/4in) amid thickened,
glandular and deeply cut bracts to 3cm
(11/4in)); C.maxima (FILBERT; SE Europe,
C
flowers hang in catkins in early spring; Asia Minor; differs from C.avellana in its
the female flowers resemble small buds larger leaves, usually biserrate, and in
with protruding red styles. The fruits bracts, to twice the length of the fruit,
are woody nuts enclosed by two, leafy, deeply lobed and forming a loose tube;
lobed bracts. For habit and foliage includes ‘Purpurea’ (syn. ‘Atropur-
colour respectively, C.avellana ‘Con- purea’), with dark purple-red foliage).
torta’ and C.maxima ‘Purpurea’ are
exceptional shrubs, whilst C.colurna is corymb an indeterminate flat-topped
proving to be a tough but distinguished or convex inflorescence, where the
street tree. All are hardy to at least outer flowers open first; cf. umbel.
–30°C/–22°F. Plant in full or dappled
sun on any fertile, free-draining soil. corymbose, corymbiform resem-
Prune to restrict size and remove suck- bling or forming a corymb. Corymb
ers from grafted plants. Propagate by Verbena species, such as this Verbena
seed sown immediately upon ripening, Coryphantha (Greek, koryphe, corymbosa, bear the characteristic flat-
or, for cultivars by simple layering and summit, and anthos, flower – the flowers topped flower clusters of a corymb.
grafting. Hazel is attacked by several arise near the stem apex). Cactaceae.
leaf-eating moths, and also by the hazel SW Mexico, US. 45 species, cacti with overwintered under glass and treated as
sawfly, nut gall mite, nut weevil, hazel- single or clustered globose to cylindric half-hardy annuals. Sow seed of the
nut aphids and grey squirrels. stems, usually spiny, and funnel- to annual C.bipinnatus and cultivars in a
C.avellana (HAZELNUT, COBNUT; bell-shaped flowers. Provide a mini- cool greenhouse in autumn or early
Europe; multi-stemmed shrub to 6m mum temperature of 5°C/41°F, with spring for planting out in a sunny posi-
(20ft), or tree to 10m (30ft); leaves to full sun and low humidity. Plant in a tion on a fertile, well-drained soil after
10cm (4in), with short, stiff hairs; fruit mix containing at least 50% grit. Keep the last frosts. In areas with hot, humid
edible, to 2cm (3/4in), amid jagged dry from mid-autumn until early summers, sow in situ in late spring.
bracts to 1cm (1/2in); includes ‘Con- spring, except for a light misting on C.atrosanguineus (CHOCOLATE
torta’, CORKSCREW HAZEL, HARRY warm days in late winter. Water COSMOS; Mexico; perennial, 30–100cm
LAUDER’S WALKING STICK, a slow- thoroughly in spring and summer, but (12–39in) tall, ultimately tuberous-
growing shrub to 3m (10ft) with allow the soil to become dry between rooted; leaves pinnate; flower heads to
strongly spiralling shoots and contorted waterings. Increase by seed. 5cm (2in) in diameter, deep velvety
leaves); C.colurna (TURKISH HAZEL; SE C.cornifera (stem to 12cm (43/4in), black-red to darkest maroon, chocolate-
pale green with pyramidal tubercles scented); C.bipinnatus (Mexico, S US;
and spines in flattened circles covering annual, 30–200cm (12–79in) tall; leaves
stem; flowers yellow); C.radians (differs finely bipinnate; flowerheads to 10cm
from C.cornifera in its woolly tubercles (4in) in diameter, carmine to rose-pink
and flowers with red-tinged outer or lilac with a yellow centre; many seed
tepals). For C.vivipara, see Escobaria races and F1 hybrids have been devel-
vivipara. oped, including plants dwarf and tall,
with single, semi-double and double
Cosmos (Greek kosmos, ornament). flowerheads in shades of red, pink,
Compositae. Tropical and warm orange, yellow and white, sometimes
Americas. 26 species, annual and marked and usually with contrasting
perennial herbs and subshrubs with centres).
simple to lobed or pinnate leaves and
long-stalked, daisy-like flowerheads in costa a single pronounced midvein or
summer. C.atrosanguineus is a perennial, midrib; the term is sometimes used to
developing root tubers much like those describe the rachis of a pinnately com-
of Dahlia. Once established, it will sur- pound leaf.
vive frosts provided that the crown is
Corylus avellana thickly mulched in winter. Alternatively, costapalmate used of (1) a pinnate
The familiar hazelnut, or cobnut, may be lift the tubers in late autumn and store leaf where the pinnae are congested in
grown as a tree or as a multi-stemmed shrub as for Dahlia, or root basal cuttings in a radial, fan-like order and perhaps to 203
for ease of harvesting. late spring and summer – these can be some degree united, the whole therefore
costapalmate
appearing palmate; (2) a palmate leaf Low-growing and spreading species

where the petiole continues through of Cotoneaster and cultivars are excellent
the blade as a distinct midrib. groundcover on banks. They are also
C Costus (name used by Theophrastus

and Pliny). Zingiberaceae. Tropics. 90
useful for underplanting large shrubs
and trees, or for trailing over rocks and
walls.
species, tender perennial herbs, mostly The evergreen C.franchetii, C.con-
evergreen with creeping, aromatic rhi- spicuus and C.lacteus and the deciduous
zomes and clumped, cane-like stems. C.bullatus and C.hupehensis can be used
Showy flowers with ruffled, crepe-like in the shrub border or for woodland
lips appear in cone-shaped, terminal edge plantings; the evergreens also
heads. Cultivate as for Alpinia. C.afer making good windbreaks. C.simonsii,
(SPIRAL GINGER; W Africa; 1–4m C.franchetii, C.lacteus, C.divaricatus and
(31/4–12ft); leaves lanceolate, smooth, C.frigidus are often used in informal
spirally arranged; flowers white marked hedging. A number of dwarf species,
yellow); C.malortieanus (syn. C.zebrinus, such as the ground-hugging C.adpressus
C.rumphii; STEPLADDER PLANT; Brazil, Cotinus coggygria ‘Notcutt’s Variety’ and C.microphyllus var. thymifolius are
Costa Rica; to 1m (31/4ft); leaves Many good cultivars have been developed well-suited to the rock garden. C.hori-
broadly obovate to obcordate, thick, that bear dark, richly coloured leaves, set off zontalis and C. microphyllus can be wall-
hairy, striped or mottled dark green to here by the “smoke-like” plumes of flowers. trained with little or no support and
purple-brown; flowers yellow marked will thrive even on north- and east-
red-brown); C.speciosus (CREPE GINGER, 20cm (8in), purple-buff becoming facing walls, where they will provide
MALAY GINGER; SE Asia to New smoky grey; cultivars and hybrids with bright flowers, rich autumn colour and
Guinea; to 3m (10ft); leaves elliptic to the next species include plants with a fog vivid fruit.
lanceolate, striped creamy white in of pink to wine red flowers and purple Cotoneasters will tolerate atmos-
‘Variegatus’; flowers white to pink or maroon leaves, sometimes edged pheric pollution, and all except the
stained yellow-orange, amid red-tinted scarlet and usually colouring richly in boggiest soils. Most are hardy to
bracts); C.spiralis (SPIRAL FLAG; West autumn); C.obovatus (AMERICAN SMOKE- –20°C/–4°F, although the foliage of
Indies, Ecuador; to 1.5m (5ft); leaves WOOD, CHITTAMWOOD; S US; tree or evergreen species and cultivars may be
obovate to oblong, spirally arranged; shrub to 10m (30ft), differs from C.cog- scorched or killed at very low tempera-
flowers rose to flesh pink or red, bracts gygria in its leaves with cuneate (not tures. Grow in full sun or semi-shade.
sometimes red-tinted). rounded or truncate) bases, sea green For hedging, use young plants of
often tinted purple when young, turn- C.franchetii or C.simonsii set 30–35cm
cot split a bud stage of plums, when ing gold, amber and scarlet in autumn). (12–14in) apart; or plants of C.frigidus,
the yellow calyx splits off small green C.lacteus and C. x watereri 60–90cm
fruitlets. See bud stages. Cotoneaster (from Latin cotoneum, (24–36in) apart.
quince and -aster, a suffix indicating Pruning is usually necessary only to
Cotinus (from Greek kotinos, wild incomplete resemblance; the name restrict size and promote bushy growth;
olive). Anacardiaceae. Northern tem- refers to the loose resemblance of some it should be undertaken in late winter.
perate regions. SMOKEWOOD, SMOKE species to the quince, Cydonia). Remove outward-facing growths on
BUSH. 3 species, deciduous trees and Rosaceae. Europe, N Africa, E Asia, wall-grown plants and tie in new
shrubs with elliptic to obovate leaves Siberia, Himalaya. Over 70 species, growth. Trim informal hedges
and very small flowers in large, finely deciduous or evergreen shrubs or small selectively, taking out badly placed
branched and feathery panicles in trees. Produced in spring and summer, branches. Propagate evergreen species
summer, many of these abort with the the flowers are small, solitary, clustered and cultivars by semi-ripe heel cuttings
result that the bare panicle branches or carried in flat-topped corymbs. in early autumn. Increase deciduous
assume a ghostly or smoke-like appear- White or pink-tinted, they consist of species by cuttings in mid- to late
ance. Fully hardy. Plant in sun on a five spreading, rounded petals and summer, in a closed case with bottom
well-drained, low to medium-fertility numerous stamens. They are followed heat. Sow seed outdoors in autumn or
soil. Prune in late winter to remove by small, red or black pomes; these are stratify in damp sand over winter and
deadwood and straggling growth – highly ornamental and often persist on sow under glass in spring. They
contact may cause dermatitis. Root the shrub long into the winter. hybridize freely, and seed may not
heeled, ripewood cuttings in early Cotoneasters are grown for their come true.
autumn in a cold frame. profuse flowers, which are particularly Cotoneasters are susceptible to fire-
C.coggygria (syn. Rhus cotinus; SMOKE attractive to bees, and for the rich blight, armillaria root rot and silver
TREE, VENETIAN SUMAC; S Europe to colours of their autumn foliage and leaf. Many of the pests of apples also
C China; shrub to 5m (15ft); leaves to berries; these are most attractive in attack this genus. They may also
204 7.5cm (3in), soft mid-green, often tinted autumn and winter, and a useful food become infested with the hawthorn
pink to bronze at first; inflorescences to source for birds. webber moth.
Cotoneaster
C OTONEASTER
Name Distribution Habit Leaves Flowers Fruits
C.adpressus China scandent, spreading or
prostrate deciduous shrub
to 1.5cm (5⁄8in), broadly ovate or obovate,
dull green, scarlet in autumn
red with
some white,
solitary or
red
C
Comments: ‘Little Gem’: growth weaker, cushion-forming with little autumn colour and no fruit. paired
C.bullatus China deciduous shrub to 4m (12ft) to 7cm (23⁄4in), ovate to oblong or elliptic, white tinted currant red
apex tapering, dark green and bullate red in clusters
Comments: ‘Firebird’: spreading shrub to 3m (10ft), fruit with fiery tints in autumn to 5cm (2in)
dark orange or red in dense clusters. across
C.cochleatus Kashmir slow-growing, low, dense, 0.5–1cm (1⁄4–1⁄2in), ovate to elliptic, white small, bright red
C.cashmiriensis, dwarf shrub close to usually notched, deep glossy green
C.microphyllus var. C.microphyllus
cochleatus
C.congestus Himalaya congested, spreading, to 1cm (1⁄2in), often in two rows, obovate white carmine
scandent or prostrate, to elliptic or oblong, tough, dull green
evergreen or semi-evergreen
shrub or subshrub
C.conspicuus Tibet spreading scandent or to 2cm (3⁄4in), oblong or lanceolate, tough white, solitary shiny, scarlet
prostrate evergreen or
semi-evergreen shrub to Comments: ‘Decorus’: spreading and low-growing with abundant flowers
1m (31⁄4ft) and fruit; ‘Tiny Tim’: mat-forming, fruit orange washed red.
C.dammeri China scandent to prostrate to 3cm (11⁄4in), elliptic to obovate or white, usually red
evergreen shrub with long oblong, dark glossy green solitary
shoots
C.dielsianus China arching to pendulous, to 2.5cm (1in), rounded to oval or obovate, pink, blood red to
semi-evergreen shrub to tough, yellow- to grey-hairy beneath clustered currant red (coral
3m (10ft) in the round-
leaved var. elegans)
C.divaricatus China spreading deciduous shrub to 2cm (3⁄4in), ovate to elliptic, glossy dark white tinted deep red
to 2m (61⁄2ft) with distinctly green, red in autumn red, clustered
divaricating branches
C.franchetii China, Tibet, evergreen slender shrub to to 3cm (11⁄4in), oval, grey-green above, white tinged orange-scarlet
Burma 3m (10ft) with arching felted with grey-white or mustard- rose pink,
branches coloured hairs beneath clustered
C.frigidus Himalaya spreading, deciduous to 12cm (43⁄4in), elliptic to oblong or white, light red
shrub or tree to 18m (60ft) obovate, dull green, woolly at first beneath clustered
Comments: includes ‘Cornubia’, with large, drooping clusters of red berries; other cultivars, e.g. ‘Fructo Luteo’, have pendulous branches and
creamy yellow fruit.
C.adpressus C.cochleatus C.divaricatus C.frigidus ‘Fructu Luteo’ 205

Cotoneaster
C OTONEASTER
C C.glaucophyllus China evergreen shrub to 4m (12ft) oval, glaucous white beneath, with
conspicuous veins, covered in tawny
hairs when young
white, in
clusters
orange to deep
red
C.horizontalis China deciduous shrub to 1.75m 0.5–1.5cm (1⁄4–5⁄8in), rounded to elliptic, solitary or in orange-red to
(53⁄4ft) with arching branches glossy dark green, usually tinted deep pairs, white blood red
and branchlets 2-ranked bronze to fiery red in autumn tinted pink
and flattened in a distinctive or red
herring bone pattern
Comments: Includes cultivars with white or cream-variegated leaves and of dwarf, low and spreading habits.
C.hupehensis China deciduous shrub to 2m to 3.5cm (11⁄2in), elliptic to ovate, dark white, large, bright
(61⁄2ft) with arching green above, grey and somewhat hairy clustered crimson
branches beneath
C. ‘Hybridus garden evergreen shrub, with oblong to lanceolate, dark green white, bright red,
Pendulus’ origin narrow, spreading to clustered abundant
creeping branches, but
usually grown as a
standard with a domed
and weeping crown
C.lacteus China evergreen shrub to 4m (12ft) oblong to obovate or elliptic, tough, milky white dull scarlet to
mid- to dark green above with in broad deep brick red,
impressed veins, grey-green beneath clusters persistent
C.linearifolius Nepal dwarf, evergreen shrub very small, narrow, glossy dark green white, in deep pink to red
C.microphyllus f. with prostrate branches small clusters
thymifolius
C.microphyllus Himalaya low, spreading, evergreen 0.5–1cm (1⁄4–1⁄2in), oval, dark, white, carmine red
shrub to 1 x 2m (31⁄4 x glossy green solitary or in
Comments: See also 61⁄2ft) with short, stiff small clusters
C.cashmiriensis and C.linearifolius. branches and neat foliage
C.prostratus Himalaya evergreen, arching to 1–1.5cm (1⁄2–5⁄8in), broadly oval to white, solitary crimson to deep
prostrate shrub rounded, dark green, glossy above, ruby red
pale beneath
C.salicifolius China evergreen shrub to 5m oblong to lanceolate, tapering narrowly, white in bright red
(15ft) with a graceful, dark green clusters
arching habit
Comments: Includes numerous cultivars and involved in hybrids with apricot-yellow fruits, tinged pink in winter; ‘Gnom’ is prostrate, widely
erect and strongly arching to low or prostrate habits, most with narrow, spreading, fruits light red; ‘Rothschildianus’ has creamy white flowers
dark foliage and fruits in shades of orange, flame, scarlet and brick red. and creamy yellow to gold fruits.
‘Exburiensis’ may be semi-evergreen, with large, rugose leaves and
206 C.horizontalis C.lacteus C.salicifolius ‘Gnom’ C.sternianus

courgette
C OTONEASTER
C.simonsii Himalaya,
Nepal,
Sikkim
erect, twiggy, deciduous
or semi-evergreen shrub
to 4m (12ft)
1–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in), ovate to broadly
elliptic, dark, shiny green turning red-
bronze in autumn
solitary or in
small clusters,
white tinted
orange-red to
scarlet, persistent C
pink-red
Comments: An excellent hedging plant.
C.sternianus Tibet, evergreen or semi- to 3.5cm (11⁄2in), elliptic, sage green white tinted orange-red,
C.franchetii var. Burma evergreen shrub to 3m above, with white, downy undersides red in small abundant
sternianus; C.wardii (10ft), with spreading to clusters
of gardens stiffly arching branches
C. x watereri garden large shrubs or small usually large, narrow and dark green white in red, abundant in
varied group of origin trees, evergreen or semi- broad clusters large, showy
hybrids between evergreen, often with clusters
C.frigidus, C.henryanus, arching branches
C.rugosus and
C.salicifolius Comments: Covers many clones – low and near-prostrate to tall and arching with fruit in shades of scarlet, brick red,
flame, orange, salmon, yellow-pink, yellow and cream; among them some of the most popular cotoneasters, including
C. ‘John Waterer’, a strong-growing shrub to 5m (15ft) with arching branches, large, dark green lanceolate leaves and
abundant red fruit.
cottage garden a small, country protective pair of C.tomentosa subsp. ladysmithiensis (South
garden, traditionally planted with flow- hard seed cotyledons, Africa; to 30cm (12in); leaves to 6cm
coat (testa) or seed
ers such as sweet williams (Dianthus bar- leaves, in (21/2in), oblong-obovate, rounded,
batus), hollyhocks (Alcea rosea), pinks embryo toothed, thickly fleshy and covered in
(Dianthus plumarius derivatives) and pan- short, yellow-brown hairs; flowers red-
sies (Viola species), all growing in a brown); C.undulata (SILVER CROWN,
colourful jumble. The flowers are often SILVER RUFFLES; South Africa; to 1m
interspersed with vegetables, and (31/4ft); leaves to 15cm (6in), broadly
fences, walls and porches are clothed obovate and grey-green with a strongly
with honeysuckle (Lonicera species) and wavy apical margin; flowers orange).
rambler roses (Rosa species).
additional
food storage couch grass (Elymus repens) TWITCH,
Cotula (from Greek kotyle, a small tissue SCUTCH a perennial, invasive grass-
cup). Compositae. Cosmopolitan. 80 weed of gardens, which spreads rapidly
species, hardy annual or perennial herbs, Cross-section through citrus seed by means of underground stems. Con-
rhizomatous, with pinnately compound trol by forking out. Glyphosate and
leaves and stalked, button-like flower- cotyledon the primary, storage leaves glyphosate trimesium are effective as
heads in spring and summer. The first (see above), either solitary (in mono- foliage-applied total weedkillers; apply
species is hardy in zone 7 and will grow cots), paired (in dicots) or whorled as in when growth is active, especially in
in full sun at the water’s edge or in the some conifers. They may remain spring, at 10–15cm (4–6in) high.
bog garden. The second needs full sun, a within the seed coat or emerge and
fast-draining, gritty medium on the rock become green during germination. courgette (Cucurbita pepo) ZUCCHINI
garden or in an alpine trough, and pro- the immature fruit of some cultivars
tection from wet, cold conditions. Prop- Cotyledon (from Greek kotyle, a small of marrow (mainly hybrids), grown as
agate by division or by seed in spring. cup or cavity, referring to the leaves of a vegetable throughout the summer in
C.coronopifolia (BRASS BUTTONS; some species). Crassulaceae. Africa. 9 temperate regions; the fruits are pale
South Africa; annual or perennial with species, small, tender evergreen shrubs or dark green or yellow, sometimes
fleshy, ascending to decumbent stems and subshrubs with large and thickly striped. Sow 2.5cm (1in) deep in small
to 30cm (12in) long; leaves to 1.2cm succulent leaves and nodding, bell- pots under protection at 13°C/55°F
(1/2in), linear, entire, toothed or pin- shaped to tubular flowers in dense minimum; transplant 4–5 weeks later
nately lobed; flowerheads to 1cm (1/2in) panicles. Cultivate as for the tender after hardening off, and only when
in diam., yellow or cream); C.hispida Crassula species. danger of frost is passed. Space 90cm
(S. Africa; perennial with dense, tufted C.orbiculata (South Africa; to 1m (36in) apart each way. Seedlings can be
stems to 4cm (11/2in); leaves very finely (31/4ft); leaves to 16cm (6in), obovate to advanced outdoors under cloches or
cut, covered in silver hair; flowerheads linear, terete to flattened, grey-green film. In mild climates, courgettes may 207
small, golden on slender stalks). often edged red; flowers orange to red); be sown direct outdoors. Plants produce
courgette
separate male and female flowers and are

insect-pollinated; under cool conditions, H AND - POLLINATING COURGETTES
hand pollinate (see right) by removing
C male flowers and dabbing pollen into

female flowers, which can be recog-
nized by the immature ovary below the
perianth. Harvest fruits regularly, when
10cm (4in) long. Possible problems:
aphids, red spider mite, whiteflies;
virus, downy mildew, grey mould.
coursonne a small fruiting lateral of

apples or pears.
cover cropping see green manuring.

1 Tear the petals from a
male flower. This will
have a smaller central boss
2 Brush the pollen from the
stamens of the male
flower onto the stigma of the
3 For the best chance of
fertilization and fruit set,
tie the petals of the female
crab apple (Malus species) hardy, and lack the “bump” behind female flower. Alternatively, flower together. The swelling
deciduous trees bearing pome fruits, the flower that the female use a fine paint brush to of the bump behind the
found throughout temperate zones of flowers possess. transfer the pollen. flower will indicate success.
the northern Hemisphere. M.sylvestris is
native of Europe. The fruits of most
species and cultivars are small and too Crambe (Greek name for cabbage). cranberry a dwarf shrub producing
sour for eating, but some are suitable Cruciferae. C Europe to Asia, Africa. small, dark red acid berries of culinary
for jam. M.floribunda and M. x purpurea 20 species, annual or perennial herbs use. The AMERICAN CRANBERRY (Vac-
‘Aldenhamensis’, M. x zumi var. calocarpa (those listed here are perennial), ever- cinium macrocarpon) is a dwarf, evergreen
‘Golden Hornet’ and M. ‘John Downie’ green to deciduous, with a stout, shrub, native to eastern North Amer-
are very effective as pollinators of apple. woody rootstock and leaves that are ica. It has been cultivated since the
Ornamental species are grown for tough, broadly elliptic to ovate, puck- early 18th century but is seldom grown
blossom (white in M.hupehensis, M.flo- ered and wavy. Appearing in late in gardens. The fruits are rich in vita-
rentina and M.sargentii, pink in M.flori- spring and summer, the flowers are min C, and are harvested for cooking
bunda and M.spectabilis, deep rose in M. small, fragrant, four-petalled, white in autumn, picked over several times.
x purpurea); for fragrance (violet-scented and in large panicles. C.cordifolia is a The native BRITISH CRANBERRY (V.oxy-
in M.angustifolia and M.coronaria var. magnificent perennial for the large coccus) is not grown commercially; the
dasycalyx ‘Charlottae’); for decorative herbaceous border. It prefers a fast- related LINGEN or LINGBERRY (V.vitisidaea)
fruits, ranging from yellow to deep draining, alkaline soil in full sun. In is grown on a small scale in Europe.
red/purple; and for autumn colour areas with very hard or dull, wet win- American cranberries require a very
(e.g. M.coronaria, M.glaucescens and ters, mulch the crowns once the foliage acid soil (pH4–5) and a controlled soil-
M.kansuensis). Prune, as for apples, in has died away. C.maritima, needs a water level in order to produce bog
winter to remove congested and dis- sandy and stony, free-draining soil, conditions and afford frost protection.
eased growth. Propagate species by again in full sun, and is at home in Plant from cuttings in late spring,
seed, cultivars by budding or grafting coastal regions. It is also cultivated for 15–45cm (6–18in) apart each way,
on to seedling rootstocks. For ornamen- its edible stems, blanched and har- according to local practice; fruits are
tal species, see Malus. vested in late winter and early spring. produced in the second or third year.
Both species are hardy in climate zone No pruning is necessary.
5. Propagate by seed sown in spring or
autumn in the cold frame or cold crane flies see leatherjackets.
greenhouse; alternatively, increase by
root cuttings or division in spring. Crassula (diminutive of Latin crassus,
C.cordifolia (Caucasus; leaves to 30cm thick or swollen). Crassulaceae. Some
(12in), dark glossy green, much puck- cosmopolitan, most restricted to South
ered; panicle to 1.5m (5ft) tall, pyrami- Africa. 300 species, annual, biennial
dal, with many fine, spreading and perennial herbs and small shrubs
branches and a mass of flower); C.mar- (those listed here are perennials from
itima (SEA KALE; coastal N Europe, South Africa) with succulent leaves and
Baltic Sea and Black Sea; leaves to small, usually white, star-like flowers in
Crab apple 30cm (12in), fleshy, wavy and crisped clusters or panicles. All except C.sarco-
Crabs such as Malus ‘John Downie’ are not to lobed, blue-grey to purple-tinted, caulis (which is hardy in zone 7) need
208 only decorative but may serve as pollinators glaucous; panicle to 50cm (20in) tall, a minimum winter temperature of
for certain apple varieties. dense and corymbose). See also sea kale. 7°C/45°F and a dry atmosphere.
Crataegus
Most need full sun, although some massed clusters); C.schmidtii (tufted, scented. The fruits are small, red to
species with thinner-textured leaves mat-forming, to 15cm (6in) tall; leaves orange or brown pomes and often
prefer bright, indirect light. Grow in a to 3cm (11/4in), linear to lanceolate, persist in decorative clusters late into
free-draining, gritty, loam-based
medium. Water frequently in summer,
but allow the soil to become almost dry
green with dark spots, tinged red-
brown, ciliate; flowers pink to
magenta); C.socialis (cushion-forming, to
autumn and winter. The following
species are fully hardy and will grow on
all but the wettest soils. They prefer full
C
between times. From late autumn to 10cm (4in); stems densely clothed in 4- sun, but will tolerate light shade. Sev-
mid-spring, water only to prevent shriv- ranked leaves, these small, triangular, eral make excellent hedges and wind-
elling of leaves. Propagate by stem or thickly fleshy, mid-green; flowers white breaks, and most cope with harsh
leaf cuttings. in long-stalked clusters). winds, coastal exposures and urban
C.atropurpurea var. arborescens (SILVER pollution. Sow seed of species in
JADE PLANT, SILVER DOLLAR, CHINESE +Crataegomespilus Rosaceae. autumn; increase cultivars by budding.
JADE; 1–2m (31/4–61/2ft) tall, shrubby and Garden origin. Graft hybrids between C.coccinea (SCARLET HAW; E US; slen-
tree-like with stout branches; leaves Crataegus and Mespilus, differing from der-branched, thorny tree to 7m (22ft);
2–5cm (3/4–2in), obovate to round, tip Mespilus in the smaller flowers clustered leaves 5–10cm (2–4in), broadly ovate
rounded, base tapering, blue-green and at the branch tips, and from Crataegus with 4–5 pairs of shallow, biserrate
grey-bloomed with a red-brown tinted in the Mespilus-type fruit. Cultivate as lobes, dark green and rugose, turning
margin); C.deceptor (syn. C.deceptrix; to for Mespilus. Increase by grafting. fiery red in autumn; flowers with pink-
15cm (6in) tall, branches covered in +C.dardarii (Crataegus monogyna x Mespilus red anthers; fruit to 1cm (1/2in), pyri-
compressed, 4-ranked leaves forming a germanica; BRONVAUX MEDLAR; decidu- form, bright red); C.crus-galli
squat column, each leaf to 1cm (1/2in) ous tree to 6m (20ft) with spiny branch- (COCKSPUR THORN; E US; wide-
long, ovate to wedge-shaped, thickly lets; leaves to 15cm (6in), narrowly spreading, flat-topped tree to 10m
fleshy, grey and covered in dots); C.fal- oblong to elliptic, dark green above, (30ft) with vicious, ultimately branching
cata (AIRPLANE PLANT, PROPELLER PLANT, woolly beneath; flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) thorns; leaves 2.5–10cm (1–4in), obo-
SCARLET PAINT BRUSH, SICKLE PLANT; in diameter, white; fruit to 2cm (3/4in) in vate, toothed, dark glossy green becom-
stout-stemmed and erect to 50cm (20in); diameter; includes ‘Jules d’Asnières’, ing orange-red in autumn; flowers with
leaves thick, grey, broadly lanceolate, with flowers tinted rose). pink anthers; fruit to 1cm (1/2in), sub-
paired and twisted in opposite directions x Crataemespilus is a naturally occurring globose, deep red); C.ellwangeriana (E
from their fused bases; flowers fragrant, inter-generic hybrid between Crataegus US; tree to 6m (20ft) tall with sparse
bright red, in large clusters); C.lactea and Mespilus. There are two hybrids, x spines; leaves to 8cm (3in), ovate to
(FLOWERING CRASSULA, TAILOR’S PATCH; C.gillotii (Crataegus monogyna x Mespilus oval, shallowly lobed, serrate, dark
to 20cm (8in), stems horizontal to germanica) and x C.grandiflora (Crataegus green and rugose above, hairy beneath;
scrambling, thick; leaves 2–7cm laevigata x Mespilus germanica). The graft flowers with pink anthers; fruit 1.5cm
(3/4–23/4in), terete, oblanceolate, base hybrid and the natural hybrids may be (5/8in), oblong, red); C.flava (SUMMER
tapering, apex pointed, dull, deep green; propagated by grafting onto C.monogyna. HAW, YELLOW-FRUITED HAW; N Amer-
flowers cream tinted pink, produced in ica; tree to 6m (20ft) with spines to
great abundance); C.multicava (to 40cm deeply lobed 2.5cm (1in); leaves to 5cm (2in), obo-
(16in) tall, shrubby; leaves to 5cm (2in), leaves vate to oblong, apex with 3, biserrate
oblong to ovate, mid- to grey- green; lobes, tough, pale green; flowers with
flowers cream tinted rose, massed in purple anthers; fruit to 1cm (1/2in),
stalked panicles, sometimes giving rise to rounded to pyriform, green-yellow,
plantlets); C.muscosa (syn. C.lycopodioides; edible); C.laevigata (syn. C.oxyacantha;
MOSS CYPRESS, PRINCESS PINE, TOY ENGLISH HAWTHORN, QUICK-SET
CYPRESS, WATCH-CHAIN CYPRESS; to THORN, WHITE THORN, MAY; thorny
60cm (24in), resembling a miniature shrub or small tree, 2.5–6m (8–20ft)
cypress or clubmoss; stems slender, con- tall; leaves to 5cm (2in), obovate with
cealed by very small, olive green, scale- 3–5, shallow and blunt, serrate lobes;
like leaves which overlap in four ranks); flowers white to pink or crimson with
C.ovata (DOLLAR PLANT, JADE PLANT, pink-purple anthers; fruit to 1cm (1/2in),
JADE TREE; differs from C.arborescens in ovoid to globose, deep red; there are
Crataegus monogyna
glossy mid- to dark green leaves some- many cultivars including forms with
times edged with red-brown – one of Crataegus (from Greek kratos, semi- and fully double flowers, pure
the most popular Crassula species, strength, referring to the wood). white to deep crimson, variegated
and widely grown as a house plant); Rosaceae. N Hemisphere. HAWTHORN. leaves and dark blood red to yellow
C.sarcocaulis (shrubby, to 50cm (20in) Some 200 species, hardy deciduous fruit); C. x lavallei (C. stipulacea x C. crus-
tall with a broad, dense and twiggy trees and shrubs, often thorny, with galli; the most popular cultivar is ‘Car-
crown; leaves 0.5–2cm (1/4–3/4in), semi- entire, toothed, lobed or pinnatisect rierei’, a spreading tree to 7m (22ft) tall
terete, elliptic to lanceolate, pointed, leaves and corymbs of flowers in late with elliptic to oblong and irregularly 209
red-tinted; flowers pink, malodorous, in spring, usually white and headily toothed leaves that turn from dark
Crataegus
green to deep red in autumn; the bright red); C.tanacetifolia (TANSY-LEAVED

flowers have pink anthers and the long- THORN; W Asia; erect shrub or tree to
lasting fruit are orange-red, ellipsoid 10m (30ft), branchlets felty at first and
C and to 1.8cm (3/4in); C.macrosperma (N

America; thorny tree to 8m (25ft) tall;
leaves ovate to elliptic with five, broadly
often thornless; leaves 2.5–6cm (1–21/2in),
oval to rhombic with 5–7, narrow, pin-
nately cut and toothed lobes, hairy at
triangular and sharply toothed lobes; first; flowers with red anthers; fruit to
flowers with red anthers; fruit to 1.5cm 2.5cm (1in), globose, yellow-red, remi-
(5/8in), obovoid to oblong, red; includes niscent of apples in scent and flavour).
‘Acutiloba’, with broad and jaggedly
serrate leaves); C.mollis (RED HAW; C crateriform shaped like a bowl or
US; spreading tree to 13m (43ft) with goblet, in the form of a concave hemi-
thorny, white-hairy shoots; leaves to sphere slightly contracted at the base.
10cm (4in), broadly ovate, with 4–7
pairs of shallow, glandular-toothed crazy paving paths or terraces made
lobes, hairy becoming rugose; flowers of broken paving slabs fitted closely American land cress
with yellow anthers; fruit to 2.5cm together in a random arrangement. Very hardy and evergreen through winter,
(1in), globose-pyriform, red, downy); this little grown, biennial salad leaf makes
C.monogyna (COMMON HAWTHORN, creeper strictly, a plant that spreads a good substitute for watercress.
ENGLISH HAWTHORN, MAY; W Europe; over the soil surface, rooting as it
thorny shrub or tree to 5m (15ft) tall; grows, for example, Vinca species. The cress a group name for several low-
leaves to 6cm (21/2in), broadly ovate to term is often loosely applied to growing salad herbs, including AMERI-
rhombic with 3–7 lobes, glossy dark climbers and other wall plants, for CAN LAND CRESS (Barbarea verna),
green; fruit to 1cm (1/2in), ovoid to ellip- example, Vitis species. ITALIAN CRESS (Eruca sativa) and
soid, red; widely grown as a hedge; GARDEN CRESS (Lepidium sativum), all
there are many cultivars including cremocarp a dry, seed-like fruit con- members of the Cruciferae. Garden
forms with tightly compact to low and sisting of two one-seeded carpels with cress is the most commonly grown, the
spreading or narrowly erect habits, an epigynous calyx. The carpels sepa- young seedlings being cut and used as
pendulous to twisted branches, varie- rate into mericarps on ripening. a salad garnish. Sow seed in succession
gated leaves, pink flowers and yellow thickly on to a water-soaked, fibrous
fruits; one of the most celebrated is crenate scalloped, with shallow, mat lining a shallow dish, or in trays
‘Biflora’, the GLASTONBURY THORN, rounded teeth. Where the teeth them- or pots; maintain a temperature of
which produces flowers and a few selves have crenate teeth, the term used 10°C/50°F and harvest after 10–14
leaves in winter as well as spring); C. is bicrenate. days. For salad greens, all three may be
orientalis (SE Europe, W Asia; tree to sown outdoors in early spring in rows
7m (22ft) tall with sparse thorns and crenulate minutely crenate. 30cm (12in) apart at 2–3 week inter-
downy shoots; leaves to 5cm (2in), tri- vals. Indoor cress is often grown with
angular to rhombic with 5–9, deep, Crepis (from Greek krepis, name of a milder flavoured MUSTARD (Sinapis
toothed lobes, deep green with ashy plant in Theophrastus). Compositae. N alba), raised similarly.
grey down; flowers large with maroon Hemisphere. HAWK’S BEARD. 200
anthers; fruit to 1.5cm (5/8in), globose, species, annual or perennial herbs with crest an irregular or dentate elevation
downy, orange-red); C.phaenopyrum rosettes of entire to pinnatifid leaves or ridge; generally applied to an out-
(WASHINGTON THORN; SE US; broad- and long-stalked, dandelion-like flower- growth of the funiculus in seeds but
crowned tree to 10m (30ft) with slender heads in summer and autumn. Fully also found on the summit of some
branchlets and long, sometimes hardy. Grow in full sun or part shade organs and on the lip of some orchids.
branched thorns; leaves to 7cm (23/4in), on a well-drained soil. Increase peren-
triangular to broadly ovate, 3–5-lobed nials by root cuttings or division, annu- crickets (Saltatoria: Gryllidae and
toward base, toothed, bright glossy als and biennials by seed in autumn. other families) insects related to
green turning orange-red in autumn; All will self-sow. grasshoppers with long thin antennae
flowers with pink anthers; fruit to C.aurea (Alps; glabrous perennial to and two pairs of wings folded horizon-
0.5cm (1/4in), subglobose, bright red, 30cm (12in); flowerheads orange to tally over a broad flat abdomen in the
lasting well); C. x prunifolia (C.crus-galli x deep yellow, tinted maroon beneath); pest species. Adult males produce a
C.succulenta var. macracantha; tree to 6m C.incana (PINK DANDELION; Greece; characteristic chirping sound by rub-
(20ft) with a dense, spreading crown grey-hairy perennial to 15cm (6in); bing forewings against hindwings. Most
and large, stout thorns; leaves to 8cm flowerheads bright pink to magenta); lay eggs in the soil, but some bush
(3in), broadly ovate to oval, coarsely C.rubra (more or less hairy annual or crickets place them on plants. The eggs
serrate, dark green turning rich purple- short-lived perennial to 60cm (24in); hatch into worm-like larvae; these moult
210 red in autumn; flowers with pink flowerheads usually rose, sometimes almost immediately to form the first
anthers; fruit to 1.5cm (5/8in), globose, red or white). nymphal stage, which resembles the
crocks
adult, and gradually increase in size with important. Grow in partial shade or Grow these in large pots or beds of
subsequent moults. They are mostly dappled sun on a moist but well- moisture-retentive, humus-rich soil. All
omnivorous, and are common in hot drained, fertile, humus-rich and acid species resent disturbance. Propagate
dry places. Plants are attacked occa-
sionally, but only in frames and heated
greenhouses in temperate countries.
soil. Propagate by softwood or semi-
ripe cuttings in a closed case with
gentle bottom heat.
by offsets in spring, or from ripe seed
sown in spring at 20°C/68°F.
C.americanum (FLORIDA SWAMP LILY,
C
The HOUSE CRICKET (Acheta domesti- C.hookerianum (syn. Tricuspidaria hooke- SOUTHERN SWAMP CRINUM; S US;
cus) may eat the tops of young riana; CHILE LANTERN TREE; tree to 9m scape to 75cm (30in); flowers to 10cm
seedlings and attack older plants at (28ft), or shrub to 4m (12ft); (4in), creamy white); C.asiaticum (POISON
ground level. Reduce infestations by flowers scarlet to fragrant BULB; tropical Asia; scape to 60cm
eliminating daytime hiding places. carmine, to 3cm flowers (24in); flowers to 15cm (6in),
Alternatively, apply contact insecticide (11/4in), lantern- or white, fragrant); C.bul-
or employ baits: pitfall traps may also urn-like, fleshy); bispermum (syn. C.longi-
be used. The MOLE CRICKET (Gryllotalpa C.patagua (tree to folium; S Africa; scape to
gryllotalpa) is robust, up to 45mm (13/4in) 14m (46ft), or shrub 90cm (36in); flowers to
long; it has expanded forelegs armed to 4m (12ft); flowers 20cm (8in), green-white
with teeth modified for digging. It is white, to 2.5cm (1in), tinted or streaked pink
rare and protected legally in Britain, resembling a fringed bell). to red); C.macowanii
but common in southern Europe, and (PYJAMA LILY; South Africa; scape to
has been introduced into North Amer- Crinum (Greek krinon, lily). 90cm (36in); flowers to 20cm (8in),
ica. It burrows in soil to eat the roots Amaryllidaceae. Tropics and sub- pink or white striped deep pink
and stems of many plants, especially tropics. 130 species, perennial bul- along lobes); C.moorei (South Africa;
potatoes, carrots, tomatoes and sweet- bous herbs, evergreen or deciduous, scape to 90cm (36in); flowers to
corn. Control by applying a locally the bulb often with an elongated, 12cm (43/4in), fragrant, pale to deep
approved soil insecticide in countries stem-like neck. The leaves are strap- pink or white); C. x powellii (C.bulbis-
where it is a pest. or sword-shaped. Large, funnel- permum x C.moorei; garden origin;
BUSH CRICKETS (Tettigoniidae) shaped and 6-lobed, the flowers leaves to 1m (31/4ft); scape to 120cm
mostly frequent trees and shrubs, and are often fragrant and arise in Crinum (48in); flowers to 18cm (7in), fra-
some feed mainly on small insects. scapose umbels in summer and x powellii grant, pale to candy pink to soft
Other species feed on foliage but rarely autumn. More or less hardy, the rose or white).
cause enough damage to be pests. South African species and hybrids
Females can be recognized by their prefer a rich but well-drained soil in crispate curled and twisted extremely
prominent sword-shaped ovipositor. full sun, that is moist in spring and irregularly, used either of a leaf blade
or, more often, of hairs.
crispy-hairy of hairs; wavy and

curved, in dense short ringlets.
cristate crested or, less commonly,

crest-like. The term is sometimes
used to denote the presence of crests
(cristae), e.g. Coelogyne cristata, but more
often to describe a perceived abnor-
mality of growth (e.g. closely sculpted
brain- or coral-like ridges, as found in
Celosia, or the ruffled and usually
Crinodendron hookerianum forked tips of fern fronds).
The Chilean lantern tree, although not completely hardy, is a beautiful shrub for sheltered
woodland or a warm wall in cold-winter areas; in mild regions it tolerates an exposed site. crocks fragments of broken clay pots
placed in the base of a growing con-
Crinodendron (from Greek krinon, a summer, but rather dry in winter; C. x tainer to prevent loss of the growing
kind of lily, and dendron, tree). Elaeo- powellii, for example, will thrive at the medium through the drainage hole,
carpaceae. Chile. 2 species, hardy ever- foot of a south-facing wall in zone 7. and to create an area of free drainage
green shrubs or small trees with C.americanum requires virtually frost-free and air circulation at the base of the
leathery leaves and solitary, pendulous conditions and a permanently moist, rootball. Crocking is beneficial for soil-
flowers in late spring. Hardy to acid soil. It will tolerate part shade. based and soilless composts and essen-
–10°C/14°F, especially if given the Tropical Asiatic species need light tial for the finer bark and leafmould
shelter of a wall or surrounding trees shade, medium to high humidity and a mixes used for certain orchids, ferns 211
and shrubs; a cool root-run is, however, minimum temperature of 13°C/55°F. and aroids. Also known as shards.
Crocosmia
Crocosmia (from Greek krokos, saf- Crocus (Greek krokos, saffron, an undergo a baking during dormancy in
fron, and osme, smell, referring to the ancient plant name that shares its the long hot summer. They need a
smell of saffron given off by the dried derivation with the Hebrew karkom and sheltered, sunny situation and a fast-
C flowers when immersed in water). Iri-

daceae. South Africa. MONTBRETIA. 7
species, deciduous perennial herbs,
Arabic kurkum). Iridaceae. Europe, N
Africa, Middle East, Central Asia.
Some 80 species, small, cormous
draining soil. Although hardy, in some
regions, these species are generally
more safely grown with cloche protec-
cormous with narrow, sword-shaped perennial herbs. The leaves are grassy, tion, or in the bulb frame or alpine
and ribbed leaves. The flowers are red, often with a pale green or silver-white house, where they can be protected
orange or yellow, tubular and curving central stripe. The leaf bases dilate to from excessive rainfall in summer.
and produced in summer on slender- form a cap-like corm tunic which is They include C.aerius, C.biflorus,
stalked, erect to angled racemes or papery or composed of parallel or C.cartwrightianus, C.dalmaticus, C.minimus,
sparsely branched panicles. Hardy in reticulate fibres. Produced in autumn, C.niveus, C.olivieri and C. tournefortii.
zone 6. Grow in full sun on a fertile, late winter and spring, the flowers are The second group is more tolerant
well-drained soil. In areas with very funnel- to goblet-shaped, narrowing of damp and can be grown in the open
hard winters, plant in a warm and below into stem-like tube and expand- garden, given a warm, sunny position
sheltered site, or lift the corms and ing above into 6 lobes. The style is and good drainage. They include
store them over winter in dry and divided at the tip into 3 or more C.ancyrensis, C.angustifolius, C.chrysanthus,
frost-free conditions. Increase by branches. C.etruscus, C.flavus, C.gargaricus,
division of corms in spring. Most are hardy to –20°C/–4°F, if C.imperati, C. malyi, C.medius,
C.aurea (to 1m (31/4ft) tall; flowers the ground does not freeze for long C. pulchellus, C. sativus, C.serotinus, and, if
pale to burnt orange, straight-sided, periods. They are suitable for a range given the perfect drainage of a raised
to 5cm (2in) long, opening to broad of garden situations, with the most vig- bed, C.cancellatus, C.goulimyi, C.laevigatus
lobes); C. x crocosmiiflora (C.aurea x orous species, such as C.speciosus and and C.longiflorus. The third group
C.pottsii; a garden hybrid differing C.vernus, used to great effect in the wild includes plants from climates that expe-
from C.aurea in the curved and slightly garden, naturalized beneath deciduous rience intermittent rainfall throughout
inflated upper part of the perianth trees and shrubs, or in grass where the the year, with a peak in autumn and
tube and the narrower lobes); first cut does not occur until the crocus winter. This group does not share the
C.masoniorum (to 1m (31/4ft); flowers foliage has died back. On light, freely requirement for a warm dry dormancy
vermilion, to 5cm (2in), narrowed to draining soils where turf is sufficiently and needs at least some moisture to
base, widening above to outspread fine, C.tommasinianus, C.flavus, C.nudi- prevent the dormant corms from shriv-
lobes; includes ‘Firebird’, with fiery florus, C.serotinus, C.sieberi and the more elling. They also prefer some shade
orange-red flowers tinted green in the robust cultivars of C.chrysanthus can be from the hottest sun in summer. They
throat); C.paniculata (to 1m (31/4ft); flow- used to similar effect. These species include C.banaticus, C.cvijicii, C.nudiflorus,
ers to 6cm (21/2in), deep orange, curv- stamens of also suit beds and bor- C.tommasinianus and C.vernus, and, given
ing downwards, somewhat inflated this species ders, and will tolerate a sheltered situation in well-drained but
with lobes spreading); C.pottsii (to supply saffron low groundcover that will retentive soil, C.kotschyanus and
90cm (36in); flowers to 3cm mask the fading foliage. C.speciosus.
(11/4in), widening sharply from Cultivars of C.vernus are Plant corms 5–8cm (2–3in) deep.
a narrow base, orange flushed useful for indoor decoration Propagate by removal of cormlets,
red, lobes to 1 x 0.5cm (1/2 x in spring, gently forced in pots by division of established colonies or
1
/4in)). Cultivars: ‘Bressingham plunged beneath 15cm (6in) of by seed sown when ripe in a sandy
Blaze’, with widely funnel- sand for 6–8 weeks in the cold propagating mix. Plants raised from
shaped, fiery orange-red frame and then brought indoors to a seed will bloom in their third or fourth
flowers; ‘Citronella’, with temperature of 10–12°C/50–54°F. year. A number of species, notably
yellow flowers with red- The smaller species are suited to the C.imperati and C.tommasinianus, will
brown markings at rock garden, raised bed, or for self-seed freely where conditions suit.
centre; ‘Emberglow’, troughs and tubs, planted in a Rodents and pheasants may dig up
with glowing orange- gritty loam-based mix. More and eat the corms, while squirrels often
brown flowers, arching delicate species, and those whose feed on the emerging shoots. Planting
upwards; ‘Jackanapes’, with perfection may be marred by rain under fine mesh may reduce losses.
small flowers, bicoloured and wind in winter, can be grown Birds may damage the flowers. Tulip-
yellow and deep orange-red; in the alpine house. bulb aphids sometimes infest corms in
‘Lucifer’, with large, flame Although most will thrive in a storage and persist to form colonies
flowers; ‘Solfatare’, with apri- sunny position, sheltered from wind, which damage young shoots. Crocus
cot-yellow flowers and smoky on a moderately fertile well-drained may be affected by blue mould, gladio-
bronze leaves; and ‘Star of the soil, in cultural terms, crocuses may lus dry rot, hard rot, scab, hyacinth
East’, with large, soft apricot- be split into three groups. Members black slime, narcissus basal rot, tulip
212 yellow flowers with a paler of the first group need moisture to grey bulb rot and the rust fungus,
throat and darker lobes. Crocus sativus complete their growth cycle, but Uromyces croci.
Crocus
C ROCUS
Name Distribution Flowers
C.aerius
C.biliottii
N Turkey tube to 9cm (31⁄2in), deep blue, often flushed, royal blue from base of
lobes, overlaid with darker feather veins; style trifid, vermilion to scarlet C
Comments: Mid–late spring. For C.aerius of gardens, see C.biflorus ssp. pulchricolor.
C.ancyrensis Turkey tube yellow or mauve; throat yellow, glabrous, lobes 1–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in),
vivid yellow to pale orange; style trifid, deep orange
Comments: Spring. ‘Golden Bunch’: up to 7 flowers per corm.
C.angustifolius SW Russia throat yellow, glabrous or minutely hairy, lobes yellow, exterior flushed
C.susianus or veined maroon; style trifid, deep yellow to vermilion
CLOTH OF GOLD CROCUS Comments: Spring.
C.banaticus N Romania, former Yugoslavia, SW lilac-mauve, inner lobes to 3cm (11⁄4in), erect, outer lobes to 5cm (2in),
C.byzantinus; C.iridiflorus Russia spreading or deflexed, darker; style slender, multifid, feathery, violet
Comments: Autumn.
C.biflorus S Europe, Asia Minor throat white to golden yellow, glabrous, lobes to 3cm (11⁄4in), white, lilac
or pale blue with dark mauve veins on exterior; style trifid, deep yellow
Comments: Spring and autumn. ssp. alexandri: white, exterior throughout, colour most intense at base of lobes, throat bright yellow.
suffused deep violet. ssp. melantherus: flecked white and feathered ssp. weldenii: white flushed pale lilac at base or, rarely, throughout
grey-purple on exterior; throat pale yellow, anthers damson purple to undersides of lobes, throat white or pale blue.
black. ssp. pulchricolor: syn. C.aerius of gardens, flowers indigo
C.boryi W & S Greece, Crete tube 5–15cm (2–6in), ivory, exterior sometimes veined or flushed
C.ionicus, C.cretensis mauve, lobes to 5cm (2in), often smaller, obovate; style multifid, burnt
Comments: Autumn. orange
C.cancellatus former Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, white to opal or lilac with purple veins, throat yellow, sometimes hairy,
W Syria, Lebanon, N Israel lobes to 5.5cm (21⁄4in); style multifid, deep orange
Comments: Autumn. ssp. mazziaricus: flowers white to lilac sometimes stained yellow at base, usually veined violet and more cupped.
C.candidus NW Turkey tube to 7cm (23⁄4in), white, tube stained purple-maroon, throat yellow,
C.kirkii glabrous, outer lobes flushed and spotted violet-grey or blue; style 6-
branched, deep yellow
Comments: Late winter, early spring.
C.carpetanus C & NW Spain, N Portugal tube 6–11cm (21⁄2–41⁄2in), white flushing to lilac usually with fine mauve
C.lusitanicus veins, throat white with yellow tint; style ivory or lilac, trifid, flattened
Comments: Spring and ruffled at tips
C.cartwrightianus Greece fragrant, throat hairy, lobes 1.5–3cm (5⁄8–11⁄4in), white, lilac or mauve
C.sativus var. cartwrightianus with darker veins and a stronger purple flush at base, albino forms also
WILD SAFFRON Comments: Autumn–early winter. occur; style trifid, vermilion, branches club-shaped
C.ancyrensis C.banaticus C.cartwrightianus C.chrysanthus ‘Gipsy Girl’ 213

Crocus
C ROCUS
C C.chrysanthus
C.annulatus var. chrysanthus;
C. croceus
Balkans, Turkey tube 4.5cm (13⁄4in), occasionally striped or stained bronze-maroon; style
trifid, deep yellow
Comments: Late winter: large and rounded, pure white, exterior violet with a bronze centre. ‘Gipsy Girl’: large, golden yellow, outer
grey-blue. ‘Blue Pearl’: pearly blue, base bronze, interior silver-blue tepals striped and feathered purple-brown. ‘Ladykiller’: outer tepals
with a rich orange stigmata. ‘Blue Peter’: soft blue inside with a golden rich blue, narrowly edge white, inner tepals white, blotched with inky
throat, exterior rich purple-blue. ‘Brass Band’: apricot yellow outside blue, silver-white inside. ‘Snow Bunting’: pure white with golden
with a bronze green-veined blotch, inside straw-yellow with a tawny throat, exterior feathered purple. ‘Snow White’: pointed, frost-white
glow. ‘Cream Beauty’: rounded, on short stalks, creamy yellow. ‘E.A. with a gold base. ‘Zenith’: glossy violet-blue, inside silver-blue,
Bowles’: rounded, old gold, throat dark bronze. ‘Elegance’: violet contrasting with gold anthers and prominent gold throat. ‘Zwanenburg
outside, edges paler, inner tepals with a deep blue blotch, inside pale Bronze’: flowers golden yellow, exterior dark bronze.
C.cvijicii S former Yugoslavia, N Greece, solitary, tube 3.5–7.5cm (11⁄2–3in), delicate yellow-golden, rarely white,
E Albania tube to 3.5cm (11⁄2in), white or pale yellow, sometimes tinted purple,
Comments: Late spring. throat white, sometimes stained yellow, hairy; style trifid, yellow-orange,
branches widened at tips
C.cyprius Cyprus 1–2, tube, 4.5–9cm (13⁄4–31⁄2in), scented, white-lilac, exterior flushed
mauve, darkest at base of lobes and on tube, throat yellow; style trifid,
Comments: Late winter. orange, tips enlarged
C.dalmaticus SW former Yugoslavia, N Albania differs from C.sieberi in its single flowers, their exteriors pearly grey-
mauve to biscuit and faintly striped purple
Comments: Late winter–early spring.
C.etruscus N Italy delicate lilac, tube white, 4.5–7cm (13⁄4–23⁄4in), throat hairy, sulphur
yellow, lobes 3–4cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in), the outer whorl ivory, pearly or tawny,
Comments: Late winter–spring. ‘Zwanenburg’: flowers pale blue, feathered with purple below
but appearing a stronger, almost pure blue if planted en masse.
C.flavus S former Yugoslavia, C & N Greece, tube 7–18cm (23⁄4–7in), scented, light golden yellow to apricot-yellow,
C.luteus; C.aureus Bulgaria, Romania, NW Turkey tube exterior and base of lobes sometimes striped or stained brown;
style trifid, yellow
Comments: Spring.
C.gargaricus NW Turkey tube 5.6–10.5cm (21⁄4–41⁄4in), yellow-orange, lobes yellow, style deep
yellow, trifid and widening, fimbriate at tips
Comments: Spring.
C.goulimyi S Greece 8–20cm (3–8in), throat hairy, white, lobes 1.5–4cm (5⁄8–11⁄2in), rounded,
lilac-pale mauve, inner whorl paler than outer; style trifid, white
Comments: Autumn. ‘Albus’: pure white. deepening to orange
C.hadriaticus W & S Greece tube 3–9cm (11⁄4–31⁄2in), white, yellow, maroon or mauve, throat hairy,
C.peloponnesiacus yellow, sometimes white, lobes 2–4.5cm (3⁄4–13⁄4in), elliptic, white
suffused yellow, buff or lavender at base, occasionally tinted lilac
Comments: Autumn. throughout; style trifid, orange
214 C.cvijicii C.dalmaticus C.etruscus ‘Zwanenburg’ C.gargaricus ssp. herbertii

Crocus
C ROCUS
C.imperati
C.neapolitanus
W Italy, Capri tube 3–10cm (11⁄4–4in), white, occasionally expanding yellow or mauve,
throat deep yellow, lobes 3–4.5cm (11⁄4–13⁄4in), bright purple within,
exterior tawny with to 5, feathered violet stripes; style orange to coral
C
Comments: Late winter–early spring. ‘De Jager’: lilac inside, with red, trifid
buff and purple stripes on the exterior. ssp. suaveolens: flowers
smaller, each outer lobe marked with 3 purple stripes.
C.korolkowii Afghanistan, N Pakistan, Russia scented, tube 3–10cm (11⁄4–4in), golden, sometimes marked bronze or
maroon, throat yellow to metallic buff, lobes to 3cm (11⁄4in), elliptic,
golden yellow, outer lobes marked dark brown or maroon below; style
Comments: Late winter–early spring. trifid, orange, tips widened, papillose
C.kotschyanus C & S Turkey, NW Syria, C & scented, tube to 13cm (5in), white, throat hairy, white tinted yellow with
C.zonatus N Lebanon 2 golden splashes at base of each lobe, sometimes fusing, lobes 3–4.5cm
(11⁄4–13⁄4in), pale lavender with darker, parallel veins running almost to
apex; style trifid, ivory to pale yellow, tips expanded and subdivided
Comments: Autumn. var. leucopharynx: blue-lavender, veined blue, with central white zone, yellow markings absent; style pale cream. ssp.
suworowianus: unscented, throat glabrous with pale yellow markings, lobes held nearly erect, cream with mauve veins, tone suffusing where
veins converge.
C.laevigatus Greece, Crete fragrant, tube 2–8cm (3⁄4–3in), white tinted yellow or mauve toward
C.fontenayi throat, throat yellow, lobes 1–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in), obovate to elliptic, white or
pale rose-lilac above, outer lobes white, mauve, bronze or yellow, with up
to 3 broad dark purple or maroon feathered lines below, markings
Comments: Autumn–early spring. sometimes absent or exterior wholly purple; style multifid, orange
C.longiflorus SW Italy, Sicily, Malta scented, tube 5–10cm (2–4in), pale yellow, striped violet; throat yellow,
C.odorus glabrous or thinly hairy lobes 2–4.5cm (3⁄4–13⁄4in), lilac, exterior with
darker veins, sometimes shaded bronze; style trifid, vermilion, tips
Comments: Autumn. widened, crenate, sometimes subdivided
C.malyi W former Yugoslavia tube 4–9cm (11⁄2–31⁄2in), white, occasionally flushed yellow, bronze or
mauve, throat hairy, yellow, lobes 2–4cm (3⁄4–11⁄2in), white, often with grey-
Comments: Spring. blue or bronze stain at base; style trifid, orange, tips widening, notched
C.medius NW Italy, SE France tube 8–20cm (3–8in), white to mauve at apex, throat white veined
violet, lobes 2.5–5cm (1–2in), obovate, pale blue-mauve, veined darker
Comments: Autumn. at base; style multifid, vermilion, branches notched and recurving
C.minimus Sardinia, Corsica, Isles Sanguinaires tube 4–11cm (11⁄2–41⁄2in), white flushed mauve at apex, throat white
C.insularis sometimes tinted pale yellow; lobes 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in), oblanceolate, light
rosy mauve to deep purple, the undersides of the outer tepals striped,
veined or shaded darker purple to brown on a bronze background; style
Comments: Late winter–early spring. trifid, orange, tips, flattened, crenate-lobed
C.kotschyanus C.longiflorus C.malyi C.medius 215

Crocus
C ROCUS
C C.niveus S Greece tube 9–18cm (31⁄2–7in), ivory to dull yellow, throat golden, hairy, lobes
3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), obovate, white, sometimes stained lilac; style trifid,
scarlet, tips flattened,
C.nudiflorus SW France, N & E Spain tube 10–22cm (4–9in), white flushed mauve toward apex, throat white-
C.multifidus; C.aphyllus; mauve, lobes 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), pale mauve to amethyst; style multifid,
C.fimbriatus; C.pyrenaeus Comments: Autumn. orange
C.ochroleucus tube 5–8cm (2–3in), white, throat hairy, pale yellow-golden, spreading
to base of lobes, lobes 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in), elliptic, ivory; style trifid,
Comments: Autumn–winter. golden yellow
C.olivieri Balkans, Turkey tube 5–7cm (2–23⁄4in), yellow or maroon, throat yellow; lobes 1.5–3.5cm
(5⁄8–11⁄2in), yellow-orange, or striped bronze-maroon below and on tube;
Comments: Late winter–spring. ssp. balansae: flowers striped style divided x 6, pale orange
or stained brown-bronze or maroon below.
C.pulchellus differs from C.speciosus in its golden yellow throat, gracefully incurving,
opal-blue lobes with lilac veins
Comments: Autumn–early winter. Turkey. ‘Zephyr’: flowers
very large, pale, pearly blue.
C.sativus widespread through cultivation ancient sterile cultigen derived from C.cartwrightianus, from which it differs
C.officinalis SAFFRON chiefly in perianth lobes to 5cm (2in), and style branches to 3cm (11⁄4in)
C.serotinus Portugal, Spain, Gibraltar, N Africa scented, tube 2–5cm (3⁄4–2in), white to mauve; throat hairy, white or
ivory; lobes 2.5–4cm (1–11⁄2in), obtuse, pale mauve to lilac blue,
Comments: Autumn to winter. ssp. salzmannii has lilac-blue sometimes veined purple; style multifid, burnt orange
flowers to 10cm (4in) long, sometimes with yellow throats.
C.sieberi Greece, Crete scented, tube 2.5–5cm (1–2in), white or mauve, usually deep yellow
toward throat; throat glabrous, golden yellow or orange; lobes 2–3cm
(3⁄4–11⁄4in), obtuse, white within, tinted purple, exterior of outer whorl
striped, barred or suffused mauve; style trifid, yellow-orange, branches
short, the tips divided or ruffled
Comments: Spring–early summer. ‘Albus’: pure white with an orange throat; stigma scarlet. ‘Firefly’: outer tepals nearly white, inner violet, base
yellow. ‘Hubert Edelsten’: deep purple, blotched white at tip. ‘Violet Queen’: rounded, violet-blue. ssp. atticus: pale lilac to violet with an orange
style. ssp. nivalis: lilac, throat yellow. ssp. sublimis: throat yellow, tepals blue-mauve, darker at tips, sometimes white at base. ssp. sublimis
‘Tricolor’: flowers with 3 distinct bands of colour: lilac, pure white and golden yellow.
C.speciosus Russia, Iran, Turkey scented, tube 5–20cm (2–8in), white or pale mauve; throat glabrous, off-
white, rarely, tinted yellow, lobes 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), mauve-blue above,
Comments: Autumn. ‘Aitchisonii’: large, pale lilac with feather exterior veined or spattered purple, sometimes on a paler, opal ground;
venation; ‘Albus’: white; ‘Artabir’: pale lilac with strong venation; style multifid, orange
‘Cassiope’: large, pale violet with yellow throat; ‘Oxonian’: indigo.
C.minimus C.ochroleucus C.sieberi ‘Hubert Edelsten’ C.vernus ‘Purpureus

216 Grandiflorus’
crown
C ROCUS
C.tommasinianus Balkans, Hungary, Bulgaria tube 3.5–10cm (11⁄2–4in), white, throat white, thinly hairy, lobes
2–4.5cm (3⁄4–13⁄4in), pale mauve to violet, occasionally white or rose,
darker at apex, sometimes with silver or bronze hue below; style trifid,
C
orange, flattened and fimbriate at tips
Comments: Late winter. ‘Barr’s Purple’: outer lobes tinged grey, inner lobes rich purple-lilac. var. pictus: outer lobes marked mauve or purple at
apex. var. roseus: pink-purple. ‘Ruby Giant’: probably a hybrid with C.vernus; dark red-purple, especially in upper part and base of lobes.
‘Whitewell Purple’: exterior purple-mauve, interior silver-mauve.
C.tournefortii S Greece, Crete, Cyclades sometimes scented, tube 3–10cm (11⁄4–4in), white, rarely suffused
C.orphanidis purple, throat glabrous or downy, yellow to ivory, lobes 1.5–3.5cm
(5⁄8–11⁄2in), pale lilac, often veined darker at base of lobes, rarely white
Comments: Autumn–winter. throughout; style multifid, orange-crimson
C.vernus Italy, Austria, E Europe tube 5–15cm (2–6in), mauve or white, throat white, often suffused
DUTCH CROCUS mauve, lobes 3–5.5cm (11⁄4–21⁄4in), white, violet or blue-mauve, some-
times striped white or violet, usually with a darker, v-shaped marking
near tips; style trifid, yellow-orange, widened and fimbriate at tips
Comments: Spring–early summer. ‘Early Perfection’: violet-purple to with 3 thin purple stripes, tinged violet at base. ‘Kathleen Parlow’:
blue with dark edges. ‘Enchantress’: light amethyst with silvery floss, large, white, base and tube purple. ‘Little Dorrit’: very large, rounded,
dark base. ‘Pickwick’: white with deep lilac stripes, base deep purple. pale silver-lilac. ‘Paulus Potter’: large, glossy red-purple. ‘Purpureus
‘Remembrance’: large, rounded, silver-purple, base flushed purple. Grandiflorus’: large, deep glossy rich purple. ‘Queen of the Blues’:
‘Vanguard’: light blue, exterior grey; blooms more than 2 weeks in flowers large, lavender-blue. ‘Striped Beauty’: pale silver-grey, striped
advance of other cultivars. ‘Glory of Limmen’: very large, rounded, deep mauve, base violet-purple. ssp. albiflorus: usually white,
white with short purple stripes at base. ‘Haarlem Gem’: small, silvery- sometimes marked purple.
lilac externally, pale lilac-mauve within. ‘Jeanne d’Arc’: large, white,
C.versicolor S France to W Italy, Morocco tube 6–10cm (21⁄2–4in), white or purple-striped, throat lemon yellow or
ivory, lobes 2.5–3.5cm (1–11⁄2in), white-mauve, exterior usually with
Comments: Late winter–spring. ‘Picturatus’: flowers white on the darker stripes, sometimes with bronze-yellow hue; style trifid, pale
exterior, feathered violet. orange, tips widened, indented
crome, cromb a dragfork. See fork. Indian subcontinent. 50 species, tender or shrubs with simple to trifoliolate
evergreen shrubs and subshrubs with leaves and pea-like flowers. The follow-
crop rotation see rotation. 5-lobed, narrowly tubular flowers in ing species will survive mild frosts if
terminal spikes clothed in green, thickly mulched in winter. Grow in full
cross a naturally occurring or overlapping bracts. Cultivate as for sun on a free-draining, fertile soil. Cut
induced hybrid between two plants. Aphelandra. back stems after flowering. Increase by
C.infundibuliformis (FIRECRACKER semi-ripe cuttings in summer, or by
cross-fertilization fertilization FLOWER; S India, Sri Lanka; to 1m seed in spring. C.agatiflora (CANARY BIRD
resulting from cross-pollination; (31/4ft) tall; flowers to 3.5cm (11/2in) BUSH; E Africa; shrub to 6m (20ft);
cf. self-fertilization. across, bright orange to salmon pink leaves trifoliolate, grey-green; flowers to
bee carries
pollen from with fan-shaped lobes, in spikes to 7cm (23/4in) across, pale lemon yellow
cross-pollination the plant to plant 10cm (4in) long); C.nilot- tinted olive green, in erect terminal
transfer of pollen from ica (tropical Africa; racemes to 40cm (16in) long).
one flower to another to 50cm (20in);
flower on a different flowers to 2.5cm crotch the junction of primary
plant; often used to (1in) across, brick- branches with the centre stem or trunk
imply cross-fertiliza- red to orange or of a tree.
tion; cf. self-pollination. apricot with obovate
lobes, in spikes to 7cm crown (1) a corona; (2) a collective
Crossandra (23/4in) long). term for the main stem divisions and
(from Greek foliage of a tree or shrub and the
krossoi, fringe, and Crotalaria (from Greek branching pattern and overall habit
aner, male, referring krotalon, rattle: the seeds rattle in the that they assume (i.e. domed, spread-
to the fringed sta- dried pods). Leguminosae. Wide- ing, narrowly conical); (3) the basal
mens). Acanthaceae. spread in tropics and subtropics. portions of a herbaceous plant, usually 217
Africa, Madagascar, Cross-pollination RATTLEBOX. 600 species, herbs where root or rhizome and aerial stems
crown
or resting buds meet; (4) a length of or weeks, depending on the host plant. minimum temperature of 13°C/55°F
rhizome with a strong terminal bud, Where a perennial plant is infected late and bright, indirect light or dappled
used for propagation as, for example, in the growing season, the bacterium sun. Water freely in summer, avoiding
C with Convallaria; (5) the head of a

single-stemmed tree-like plant or shrub
bearing a distinct apical whorl, rosette
may not produce galls until the follow-
ing spring. Secondary galls remote
from the original gall are sometimes
foliage; keep barely moist in winter.
Propagate by removal of rooted offsets
after flowering. Small and colourful,
or flush of foliage; (6) the leaves and formed as chains along roots or on these bromeliads make resilient house
terminal buds of a low-growing plant stems. Aerial galls are most frequently plants and are commonly used in
when arranged in a fashion resembling found on roses, Daphne species and mixed container plantings, bottle gar-
that of the larger plants mentioned raspberry and blackberry canes. The dens and Wardian cases.
under (5), for example, many ferns. bacterium is more likely to persist and C.acaulis (GREEN EARTHSTAR,
spread on wet soils. STARFISH PLANT; leaves to 10cm (4in),
crown bud a flower bud at a shoot Preventive measures include the pro- undulate, in a small, low, flat rosette,
tip, surrounded by other usually vision of good drainage; the inspection typically grey-green, but cream-striped
smaller buds. It is of special impor- of new stocks to avoid infecting the to red-flushed or bronze in some culti-
tance in the training of carnations and soil; a long rotation plan of non-sus- vars and hybrids); C.bivittatus (leaves to
chrysanthemums. ceptible crops on affected sites; and 25cm (10in), in a dense, low, spreading
avoidance of injury to roots. Where rosette, dark green with 2 broad, longi-
crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens) a shrubs and fruit show aerial galls, the tudinal, white or pink bands above;
widespread bacterial disease. It is an affected parts should be cut out. red-flushed and banded red in var.
important problem in woody plant atropurpureus); C.bromelioides (RAINBOW
nurseries, especially in warm climates, crown lifting the removal of the STAR; stoloniferous with stalked
but is not of major importance in tem- lower branches of, usually, ornamental rosettes; leaves 10–20cm (4–8in), lance-
perate gardens. Tumour-like galls are trees, carried out mainly to admit light olate, base narrowed, olive green or
usually found at ground level or on or prevent obstruction of passage or a variously striped white, cream, pale
roots, and occasionally on stems well view. green and rose); C.zonatus (ZEBRA
above ground, as soft, white, rounded PLANT; leaves to 20cm (8in) in a spread-
swellings with uneven surfaces that crown rot used of an infection at soil ing rosette, undulate, dark olive to
become brown with age; they vary in level girdling and killing the host. chocolate, irregularly banded silver-
size from that of a pea to a huge ball. grey to cream or white; chocolate
On woody plants, the galls become crownshaft a characteristic of some banded silver in the more robust and
hard and persist; on herbaceous plants, palms in which the overlapping leaf erect ‘Zebrinus’).
they are soft and disintegrate. bases form a tight cylindrical or vase-
Crown gall affects monocot and shaped shaft distinct from the (usually) x Cryptbergia Bromeliaceae.
dicot woody and herbaceous plants. bare stem below. Garden origin. Hybrids between
Common hosts among fruits and nuts Cryptanthus and Billbergia with linear-
are apple, particularly the rootstocks crown thinning the selective lanceolate, sharply pointed leaves to
M9 and M2, almond, apricot, black- removal of tree branches to reduce 30cm (12in) long in freely suckering,
berry, cherry, fig, grape, gooseberry, crowding and admit more light and air narrow, funnel-shaped rosettes; the
loganberry and other Rubus fruit, nec- into the crown. small, white flowers are rarely pro-
tarine, pecan, plum, peach, pear, rasp- duced. Cultivate as for Billbergia. x
berry and walnut. Other hosts include cruciate, cruciform cross-shaped. C.meadii (Cryptanthus beuckeri x Billbergia
Begonia, chrysanthemums, Dahlia, nutans; leaves mottled pink); x C.rubra
Daphne, elm, Euonymus, Gladiolus, crumb a small rounded, porous (Cryptanthus bahianus x Billbergia nutans;
hollyhock, honeysuckle, hawthorn, aggregate of soil particles found in top leaves dark bronze-red to brilliant
Libocedrus, juniper, lupin, marigold, soil where the level of organic matter is blood red).
marrow, Phlox, poplar, privet, Rhododen- high. Also generally called a ped.
dron, rhubarb, rose, runner bean, cryptogams flowerless and seedless
swede, sweetpea, tomato, wallflower Cryptanthus (from Greek kryptos, plants that nonetheless increase by
and willow. Several strains affect only hidden, and anthos, flower). Bromeli- means of sexual fusion, producing
certain host plants. aceae. Brazil. EARTH STAR. 20 species, spores. (i.e. neither angiosperms nor
Crown gall is soil-borne and capable tender, evergreen perennial herbs, gymnosperms, but pteridophytes,
of living saprophytically in soil for long stemless with narrowly triangular to bryophytes.)
periods. A wound parasite, it can only lanceolate, tough and finely saw-edged
enter injured roots and stems. On leaves in a low-lying rosette. Small, Cryptogramma (from Greek
entry, it stimulates the cells of the host white flowers appear at the rosette’s kryptos, hidden, and gramme, a line,
plant to grow and multiply abnormally. centre. Grow in small containers in a referring to the lines of sori concealed
218 Where infection takes place during coir and bark mix with added sand before maturity). Cryptogrammat-
rapid growth, galls develop within days and polystyrene granules; provide a aceae. Widespread in temperate and
cultivar
subtropical regions. ROCK BRAKE, PARS- summer. Hardy in zone 6, C.japonica f. 20°C/68°F, with high humidity, and
LEY FERN. 4 species, dwarf, deciduous atropurpurea promises to become one of support with canes. Train the main
ferns with dense tufts of deeply and the most desirable, purple-leaved shoot vertically and stop at 1.3m
much-divided fronds that are said to
resemble parsley. The following species
are fully hardy and suitable for the rock
foliage plants. It prefers a moist, rich
soil, and will grow well either in full
sun or part shade. Increase by division
(41/4ft). All-female cultivars bear
fruits on the main stem, so remove
laterals; other cultivars require hori-
C
garden, scree, wall crevices and small in early spring. C.japonica (E. Asia; to zontal wire supports, and laterals
pans in the alpine house. Grow in an 50cm (20in); leaves to 12cm (43/4in) are stopped two leaves beyond a
acid, gritty mix in full sun. Keep moist diam., smooth, divided into 3 broad, female flower.
until established. Increase by division. shallowly toothed lobes; flowers pink; RIDGE CUCUMBERS are hardier
C.acrostichoides (AMERICAN ROCK- C.japonica f. atropurpurea: foliage maroon and can be transplanted outdoors
BRAKE; N America; fronds to 12cm to chocolate brown). in early summer. Space 60cm (24in)
(43/4in), stipes green, blades bright apart each way on ridged beds and
green, 2–3-pinnate with crowded, Ctenanthe (from Greek kteis, comb stop at 6–7 leaves; where trained
ovate to oblong, crenate pinnules); and anthos, flower, referring to the up trellis or netting, space 45cm
C.crispa (EUROPEAN or MOUNTAIN PARS- arrangement of the bracts). Maran- (18in) apart and stop when at top
LEY FERN; fronds to 20cm (8in), stipes taceae. Costa Rica, Brazil. 15 species, of support.
straw yellow to pale green, blades tender, evergreen perennial herbs, Possible problems: aphids, red
bright pale green, 2-pinnate with clump-forming with long-stalked, spider mite, whiteflies; virus, downy
cuneate to elliptic, dentate pinnules, oblong to lanceolate leaves, often beau- mildew, grey mould, gummosis, wilt.
thick-textured). tifully marked and coloured, and small,
white and purple flowers in racemose culm the stems of Gramineae.
Cryptomeria (from Greek kryptos, cymes. Cultivate as for Calathea.
hidden, and meris, a part, referring to C.lubbersiana (Brazil; to 40cm (16in); cultigen a plant found only in cul-
the hidden floral parts). Cupressaceae. leaves to 18cm (7in), deep green with tivation or in the wild having
Japan, China. JAPANESE CEDAR, SUGI. yellow-green variegation above, pale escaped from cultivation. Cultigens
1 species, C.japonica, a hardy, evergreen, green beneath); C.oppenheimiana (Brazil; include many hybrids and cultivars,
coniferous tree to 60m (200ft) tall with to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 40cm (16in), some exotic ornamentals whose wild
a conical crown and a thick bole cov- green with silvery-grey feathering origins have become lost or were
ered in fibrous, peeling, red-brown above, wine-red to purple beneath; never recorded, and several ancient
bark. The leaves are soft, awl-shaped includes ‘Tricolor’, NEVER-NEVER and important crops that have
and some 1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in) long, turn- PLANT, with leaves blotched cream). undergone development and distrib-
ing from sea green to deep, glossy ution at man’s hands for so long a
green, sometimes purple-bronze or rust cubiform dice-shaped, cubic. time that, although they may have
in cold weather. They clothe crowded, ‘wild’ distributions, details of their
drooping branchlets on tiered boughs. cuckoo spit the frothy mass sur- original forms and native places are
Many cultivars are available including rounding the larvae of froghoppers (q.v.) lost or confused.
dwarf, rounded, conical, pendulous or spittlebugs.
and contorted types and forms with cultivar (abbreviation cv.) a ‘culti-
cristate, filamentous, persistently cucullate furnished with or shaped vated variety’; a distinctive plant or
juvenile, variegated, purple-flushed and like a hood. plants arising and/or maintained in
sea green growth. C.japonica is hardy in cultivation. This can happen either
climate zone 6. Plant in full sun with cucumber (Cucumis sativus) a frost- as a result of hybridisation, or
shelter from harsh, drying winds. A susceptible annual, native of Sino- through some type of mutation, or
deep, moisture-retentive and acid to Himalaya, with a vigorous trailing within the natural variation of a
neutral soil is preferred, as is a mild habit; it is grown as a salad vegetable species. When reproduced (whether
and humid climate. Propagate as for for the immature, edible fruits. Grown by sexual or asexual means accord-
Chamaecyparis. in the open in tropical and subtropical ing to the particular type of plant
areas; in temperate areas selections and cultivar), such plants retain
cryptophyte a plant whose growth giving the best quality and yield their distinguishing characteristics.
buds are located below the soil surface; require protection for all of the life A cultivar is named with a cultivar
cf. chamaephyte. cycle. (or fancy) epithet, a word or words
In frost-prone zones, sow singly in in a vernacular language (unless
Cryptotaenia (from Greek, cryptos, pots under protection at 20°C/68°F, published prior to 1959, or a botan-
hidden, and tainia, a fillet or band). reducing to 15°C/61°F on germina- ical (Latin) epithet already estab-
Umbelliferae. Temperate Regions. 4 tion. Transplant into well-manured lished for a taxon, like a variety or
species, perennial herbs with short beds, growing bags or 22–25cm forma that has since been judged to
clumped stems bearing lobed leaves, (9–10in) pots, spaced 60cm (24in) be a cultivar). The epithet is printed 219
and forked sprays of small flowers in apart; maintain a temperature of in roman characters, takes a capital
cultivar
first letter and is either enclosed in fly) are egg-laying, cf. pesticides. See summer and only barely so in winter.
single quotation marks or prefixed by biological controls. C.ignea is often grown as a half-hardy
the abbreviation cv. Many of the most annual, raised from cuttings taken in
C popular garden plants are cultivars.

These include plants selected for their
foliage (often named ‘Argentea’,
Cuminum (from the Greek name
for this plant, kyminon). Umbelliferae.
Mediterranean to C Asia. 2 species,
late summer and overwintered under
glass or as house plants. Pinch new
plants to promote bushiness and set out
‘Aurea’, ‘Dissecta’, ‘Variegata’ and so annual herbs with fine, biternately in a warm, sunny position in late
forth), and for their flowers (‘Alba’, divided foliage and small white to spring. Increase all by greenwood cut-
‘Florepleno’, etc). Examples of culti- pink flowers in compound umbels. tings in spring or summer.
vars with more recent, vernacular C.cyminum is grown for its aromatic C.cyanea (Mexico; glandular-hairy
names include Mahonia ‘Charity’ and seeds, harvested when dry and ground subshrub to 2m (61/2ft); flowers to
Rosa ‘Peace’. to make the spice cumin, which is a 2.5cm (1in), orange-red with yellow-
key ingredient in the cuisine of the green apex bearing purple-black
Middle East and Indian subcontinent. petals); C.hyssopifolia (FALSE HEATHER,
Cultivate as for dill (q.v.). ELFIN HERB; Mexico, Guatemala;
downy subshrub to 60cm (24in); flow-
cuneate, cuneiform inversely ers to 1cm (1/2in), silky, pale lilac veined
triangular, wedge-shaped. lavender, or pink, or white); C.ignea
(FIRECRACKER PLANT, CIGAR FLOWER;
Cunninghamia (for James Cunning- Mexico, Jamaica; more or less glabrous
ham, who collected C.lanceolata in shrublet to 60cm (24in); flowers to 3cm
China about 1701). Taxodiaceae. (11/4in), scarlet, apex black edged white;
China, Taiwan. 2 species, hardy, conif- includes ‘Variegata’, with leaves flecked
Three-pronged cultivator erous evergreen trees to 50m (160ft) lime and gold).
This is an ideal tool for first cultivation tall. The crown is conical, the bark red-
after digging. Versions are available with brown, fibrous and deeply fissured and x Cupressocyparis Cupressaceae.
more tines for better effectiveness. the branches whorled. Narrowly ovate Garden hybrids between Cupressus
to lanceolate, sharp-pointed, glossy and and Chamaecyparis, fast-growing,
cultivator an implement for cultivat- pliable, the leaves are arranged in two coniferous evergeen trees with dense,
ing soil. The term is applied in particu- ranks along drooping, 2-ranked pinnate or plumose sprays of growth
lar to powered machines with rotating branches. Hardy to –25°C/–13°F, covered in small, overlapping, scale-like
blades or tines, but is also used for vari- although shelter from harsh winds and leaves. The intergeneric hybrid x C.ley-
ous hand tools, especially those with a mild, humid climate are preferred. landii is fully hardy and, with provisos, it
recurved prongs, and also sometimes Plant in a rich, moist and acid to neu- is a good choice for a rapidly establishing,
for those with blades fixed behind a tral soil in sun or part shade. Propagate attractive hedge in large gardens. Its
wheel. as for Chamaecyparis. C.lanceolata (syn. thick, heavy top growth makes it an
C.sinensis; CHINA FIR; C China; leaves effective windbreak tree on moderately
cultrate, cultriform knife-shaped, 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in) long, lanceolate, exposed sites if care is taken to ensure
resembling the blade of a knife. lustrous bright green above with 2 strong root growth from planting time.
broad, white bands beneath). To produce a secure boundary and
cultural controls the suppression of appealing garden feature plants in
plant pests and diseases through good cup the corona of Narcissus, where it is hedge lines must be clipped tightly sev-
husbandry methods. These include shorter than the perianth segments. A eral times each season and the top
careful management of the soil; the large cup is more than one third of the growth restricted to a manageable
production of healthy well-grown length of the perianth segments, a height. Forethought must be given to
plants; the use of resistant cultivars, for small cup less than one third their the particular capacity of x C.leylandii
example root-aphid resistant lettuces; length. See trumpet. plants to deplete surrounding soil of
general hygiene, including careful dis- moisture and nutrients on account of
posal of infected debris; the use of Cuphea (from Greek kyphos, curved, exceptional vigour; similarly, to the
healthy seed and planting stock; fre- referring to the curved capsule). potential for disputes with neighbour-
quent inspection and rogueing; rigor- Lythraceae. SE US to Brazil. 260 ing properties where inability to
ous elimination of weeds; crop rotation species, small, bushy, tender annual or manage hedges or specimen trees con-
which is especially useful in deterring short-lived, evergreen perennial herbs tinuously into the future may result in
eelworms; cultivation of the soil to and subshrubs with neat foliage and over growth or the obstruction of sun-
expose soil pests such as leather-jackets brightly coloured tubular flowers in light. Increase by cuttings. C. x leylandii
and wireworms to predation by birds; summer. The following species need a (Cupressus macrocarpa x Chamaecyparis
and manipulation of sowing or plant- minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F, nootkatensis; LEYLAND CYPRESS; a vigor-
220 ing dates of vegetable crops to avoid full sun and a fertile, free-draining ous, fast-growing tree to 35m (120ft) or
times when adult pests (e.g. the carrot medium that is moist in spring and more with a dense, columnar to
cutin
pyramidal crown, smooth to fissured resin glands – dwarf, globose, Curcuma (from Arabic
green-brown bark and pendent fastigiate, blue-, silver- and kurkum, yellow: C.longa is
branchlets; the leaves are dark green gold-leaved cultivars are avail- turmeric). Zingiberaceae.
tinged grey and carried in flat sprays;
cultivars include: ‘Castlewellan Gold’,
slower-growing with plumose sprays of
able, one of the best is ‘Blue
Ice’, narrow and erect with
cool, blue-grey foliage);
Tropical Asia. 40 species,
tender perennial herbs,
evergreen or deciduous with
C
yellow-green leaves, tinted bronze in C.cashmeriana; KASHMIR reed-like stems clothed with
winter; ‘Harlequin’, with grey-green CYPRESS; Bhutan; to 40m lanceolate to oblong leaves;
leaves in plumose sprays broken with (130ft) tall, crown broadly these arise from a thick and
patches and flashes of white to ivory; pyramidal with an aromatic rhizome and
the fast-growing, dense and narrowly open, tiered habit, loosely clumped, swollen roots.
columnar ‘Leighton Green’; and the rusty red bark exfoli- scaled cup The flowers are small and
compact and conical ‘Robinson’s Gold’, ating in strips, and or cupule thin-textured with a con-
with lime green to golden foliage with long, weeping feathery spicuous, tubular lip; they
bronze tints in winter and early spring). branchlets of a vivid protrude from the colour-
blue-grey); C.lusitanica ful, overlapping bracts of a
cupressoid with Cupressus-like (MEXICAN CYPRESS, POR- scapose or terminal, cone-
foliage, i.e. narrow branchlets clothed TUGUESE CYPRESS, CEDAR OF like inflorescence. Cultivate
with scale-like leaves, for example Hebe GOA; to 45m (150ft), crown as for Brachychilum.
armstrongii, Tamarix. conical, bark brown, furrowed, Quercus C.petiolata (QUEEN LILY;
alnifolia
exfoliating in strips; leaves aromatic, Malaysia; to 60cm (24in) tall;
Cupressus (from Greek kuparissos, a dark to blue-green, spirally arranged; inflorescence to 15cm (6in), terminal,
word taken from an unknown near includes cultivars with whip-like and bracts violet to magenta, flowers yellow
Eastern language, allied to the Hebrew pendulous branchlets and grey and and white); C.roscoeana (HIDDEN LILY;
gopher, the name of C.sempervirens). variegated foliage); C.macrocarpa (MON- Malaysia; to 90cm (36in) tall; inflores-
Cupressaceae. N and C America, N TEREY CYPRESS; California; to 45m cence to 20cm (8in), terminal, bracts
Africa to China. CYPRESS. 20 species, (150ft), bark purple-brown or grey, orange-red, flowers yellow).
evergreen, coniferous trees with peeling thick, ridged; crown columnar to coni-
or flaking bark, sprays of aromatic cal becoming flat-topped with age with curd the tight, unexpanded flowering
growth covered in overlapping, scale- tiered branches; leaves slightly fleshy, head of cauliflowers and broccoli.
like leaves, and spherical cones com- bright green to yellow-green with paler
posed of resinous, peltate scales. Most margins; includes dwarf, globose, nar- currants a collective name for
species are from mountains, some of rowly columnar, prostrate and golden BLACKCURRANT (Ribes nigrum), REDCUR-
these in or around desert. All are good cultivars); C.sempervirens (ITALIAN RANT (Ribes rubrum Redcurrant Group),
for low rainfall areas on hot sites except CYPRESS, MEDITERRANEAN CYPRESS; WHITECURRANT (Ribes rubrum White-
C.torulosa, which prefers cooler, wetter Crete, Rhodes, Turkey to Iran, natural- currant Group), and PINKCURRANT
areas. C.arizonica var. glabra thrives on ized elsewhere in Mediterranean; to (Ribes rubrum Pinkcurrant Group).
any soil, from chalk to highly acid 40m (130ft), bark grey-brown, shal-
sand; C.macrocarpa and C.sempervirens are lowly ridged, scaly; crown narrowly cushion the enlarged area of tissue
less happy on chalk but thrive on lime- conical with dense more or less ascend- above, beneath or to either side of an
stones; others prefer soils at pH6 or ing branchlets; leaves dark green, aro- insertion or at the axis of two branches
below. All but C.arizonica var. glabra matic; dwarf, open and tiered and very or a stem and a branch; also known as
have been killed by –25°C/–13°F, and tightly columnar cultivars are grown, a pulvinus.
C.lusitanica by –20°C/–4°F. Winds of as are golden and steely blue-grey
–10°C/14°F will scorch most species. forms); C.torulosa (HIMALAYAN CYPRESS; cushion plant a plant with a low,
C.torulosa ‘Cashmeriana’ is not hardy and Himalaya; to 40m (130ft), bark brown, dense and rounded habit; for example
should be grown in the cool green- furrowed, curled, peeling in long rib- many high alpines.
house or conservatory in zones 8 and bons; crown conical; branches horizon-
under. For propagation and pests, see tal, branchlets whip-like, more or less cuspidate of apices, terminating
Chamaecyparis. pendulous, young shoots maroon; abruptly in a sharp, inflexible point, or
C.arizonica (ARIZONA, CYPRESS, leaves pale yellow-green, incurved; cusp.
SMOOTH CYPRESS; Arizona to Texas includes cultivars with congested
and N Mexico; to 25m (80ft), crown foliage, leaves turning brown in winter, cuticle the outermost, multi-layered
broadly ovoid-conic; shoots dense, and open, bushy habit. skin of waxy tissues covering the epi-
branching angular, leaves very finely dermis and containing cutin, fatty acids
serrate; includes var. glabra (syn. cupule a cup-shaped involucre of and cellulose.
C.glabra) with smooth, purple to red hardened, coherent bracts, subtending
bark exfoliating in papery layers and a fruit or group of fruits, as in the cutin a polymer of fatty acids forming 221
bright blue-green leaves with white acorn. See cyathium. a major part of the cuticle.
cuttings
cuttings the most widely used tech- from the parent plant so that it four days, with root emergence
nique of vegetative propagation by breaks away from the main stem taking between 7–10 days;
which identical characteristics of plants with a basal plate or ‘heel’ this contrasts with deciduous
C are replicated. It involves selecting and

detaching portions of root, stem, leaf
or buds and inserting them in a grow-
of tissue attached. Plants
that benefit from this
treatment include culti-
azaleas, where emergence of
significant roots may take
up to 6 weeks.
ing medium, within a suitable environ- vars of Cotinus coggygria, GREENWOOD CUTTINGS are
ment, in order to induce the Acer palmatum, deciduous lower a transitional condition of stem
production of roots and eventually an azaleas and plants that leaves cutting, between softwoods and
independent plant. The ease of regen- produce bulky leafy removed semi-ripe or semi-hardwoods.
erating from cuttings varies widely and growth or long vigorous A ‘firming up’ of shoots or a
is influenced by genetic potential, stock internodal shoots, for exam- Tip cutting change in stem and foliage
plant conditioning through nutrition, ple, cultivars of Actinidia chi- (Fuchsia) colouration can be taken as an
hard pruning, manipulation of temper- nensis, Sambucus nigra, Jasminum indication that shoots are of a
ature and light, and time of taking. officinalis and climbing Lonicera. suitable maturity, for example, stems
Stem cuttings Successful rooting The rooting medium should be ster- of some cultivars of hybrid Clematis will
by this method depends on stage of ile and open, as can be achieved with change from a light green to a reddish-
shoot maturity, and stem cuttings may peat or coir and sand mixes. Whether purple colour, and the leaves will
be considered as follows: mist, fog, a glass frame or a plastic film become deep green. A second category
SOFTWOOD CUTTINGS are generally cover is used as the propagating of greenwood cuttings may be found,
taken from spring into summer, select- system, the aim must be to minimize for example, in Acer palmatum cultivars,
ing from the first flush of new growth water and energy loss from the time of where extension growth is usually pro-
and continuing until it becomes ligni- taking cuttings through to rooting. duced in three distinct flushes, each
fied, but cuttings may be available all This can be achieved by ensuring punctuated by a short period of bud
the year round from greenhouse plants adequate humidity and temperature dormancy lasting 2–3 weeks. Obser-
such a Fittonia, Pilea, chrysanthemums around the tops of cuttings; a good vation of these growth patterns is
and Fuchsia. Cuttings should be pre- air/water ratio at the rooting zone; important for judging correctly
pared with a sharp knife and the cut the appropriate pH for the rooting the appropriate time for
made usually below a node. Nodal or media (a pH of 7 and over may taking cuttings.
internodal tip cuttings are perfectly sat- encourage hard callus tissue, The speed of root
isfactory for easy-rooting plants, includ- thus restricting root development from
ing shrubby subjects such as Buddleja emergence); uniform greenwood cuttings is
davidii, Forsythia x intermedia, Fuchsia basal heat, which may be slower than from softwoods, and
species and Spiraea x bumalda; leaf-bud between 15°C/59°F and single problems sometimes occur in over-
stem sections are suitable for climbers 25°C/77°F; and sufficient leaf wintering late-struck cuttings. The
node
such as Lonicera and Vitis species. light. Rooting time varies method is suitable where the soft-
For plants that are more difficult to with species and rooting wood stage has been missed and
root, softwood heel cuttings may be environment. Root initials it may be more effective with
obtained by using a light downward will develop on some Internodal cutting some plants, for example, Magno-
pressure to carefully pull the shoot chrysanthemums after (Clematis montana) lia x soulangeana and its cultivars.
SOFTWOOD CUTTINGS
next cut
can be
made
here
“heel” exposes
greater area of
leaves removed active cambium lower
from leaf node layer leaves
removed
Stem tip cuttings Leaf bud cuttings Heel cutting

Using a sharp knife, cut straight across the A stem cut straight across just above each A sideshoot is carefully pulled, not cut, from
222 stem just below a leaf node. leaf node may provide several cuttings. the parent stem with a sliver of its bark.
cuttings
SEMI-RIPE CUTTINGS As the season’s Plants normally considered include

growth slows down and there is devel- Clematis montana, Cornus alba, Deutzia
opment of terminal and axillary buds, scabra, Forsythia x intermedia, Kerria
stems become firmer and may be
described as being in a semi-ripe or
semi-hardwood condition. This stage is
japonica, Ligustrum ovalifolium, Lonicera
fragrantissima, Philadelphus species,
Physocarpus opulifolius, Platanus x hispanica,
C
important for the propagation of Populus species, Ribes species, Salix
broad-leaved evergreens and conifers. species, Spiraea thunbergii, Stephanandra
Semi-ripe cuttings can be used for incisa, Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, Tamarix
easy-to-root deciduous plants, such as species, Viburnum x bodnantense and
Forsythia, Weigela and Berberis thunbergii Weigela species. To provide sufficient
cultivars. Judge the timing of taking so suitable cutting material in quantity,
as to achieve rooting well before the the establishment of stock plants as
onset of winter, and if cold frames are hedges or stools is appropriate, estab-
used, winter covering should be pro- lished preferably from an approved
vided. For the propagation of ever- Ripening growth Clonal Selection Scheme to ensure
greens, systems under protection with A change in bark colour from green to trueness to type, health and vigour.
basal heat are normally used, although brown, plus increased resistance when a Taking hardwood cuttings at leaf
cold frames or low plastic tunnels are shoot is gently bent, indicates ripening. fall will improve rooting, although with
suitable and desirable for some plants, easy-rooting plants, such as willows
including Berberis x stenophylla, Lavandula Semi-ripe propagation of evergreen and poplars, they may be taken any
spica cultivars, Salvia officinalis cultivars conifers can be undertaken from time during the dormant period.
and Santolina chamaecyparissus. Such August right through to March, Hardwood cuttings may vary from a
plants are best propagated from late commencing with Cupressus in short stem 3.5cm (11/2in) long with one
August to early October and root initi- August/September and Chamaecyparis bud at the apex (a vine eye cutting), to
ation should take place before Decem- and Thuja from September through to a branched stem 2.5m (8ft) long (e.g.
ber. Ceanothus, Cistus, Elaeagnus and November. Juniperus and Taxus forms willow ‘sets’ planted direct into the
Pyracantha will generally root best in root best after a period of low temper- final position). For the majority of
August to October, followed by ature and propagation of these may species, lengths of 15–20cm (6–8in) are
Camellia, Ilex and Mahonia in October to be delayed until January. Selection of suitable. Cut the base horizontally and
November. Osmanthus, Phillyrea and Ulex cutting material is important: three- the top slanting away from the apex
often root best after a cold spell, bring- dimensional terminal shoots should be bud; it is not necessary to cut just
ing the programme to December and selected that are neither weak nor taken below a node except with hollow- or
possibly into February. from sublateral branches low down. pithy-stemmed plants such as Forsythia
The cutting-making procedure is Conifers with a normal upright habit and Sambucus.
similar to that described for softwood can be made to produce horizontal Some cuttings need to be modified
cuttings, but an effective variation is growth where rooted from horizontal to encourage a ‘leg’ (e.g. gooseberries
the mallet cutting, which is particularly terminal cuttings, for example, Sequoia and redcurrants) or to discourage basal
useful for woody plants with hollow or sempervirens ‘Adpressa’. suckering (e.g. Rosa rugosa and R.multi-
pithy stems, and for those producing Suitable cutting length varies flora selections for rootstocks); this is
very short sideshoots, for example some according to the vigour of the plant. achieved by cutting out the lower buds
spiraeas. Mallet cuttings are made by Cuttings of Chamaecyparis pisifera ‘Boule- on the stem, retaining just two or three
cutting a detached stem of the previous vard’ may be no longer than 5cm (2in), at the top.
year’s growth into sections each con- contrasting with those from C.lawsoni- To improve rooting performance,
taining a vigorous side shoot, with a ana ‘Stewartii’ at 170mm (61/2in). hardwood cuttings may be subjected
portion of the mother stem, about Effective propagation facilities range to basal stem wounding, dipping in
2.5cm (1in) in length, retained as the from enclosed environments with basal rooting hormones, and pre-callusing
base of the new cutting. Thick mallets heat, such as intermittent mist, fog or techniques. Basal heat treatment
are best slit lengthwise. plastic-covered frames, to basic cold between 18°C/64°F and 20°/68°F for
CONIFER CUTTINGS Most conifers frames out-of-doors. no more than three months will speed
are propagated by semi-ripe cuttings, WINTER HARDWOOD CUTTINGS This up rooting in some subjects, such as
although some species, including Picea technique is generally reserved for Malus clonal rootstocks, Tilia, Platanus,
glauca var. albertiana ‘Conica’ and the deciduous woody plants, with cuttings Ailanthus and Laburnum.
deciduous Metasequoia glyptostroboides, taken during the dormant season when The open ground is suitable for
can be increased from softwood and material is fully mature and may be cut easily rooted hardwood cuttings and
greenwood cuttings. Selected forms of into lengths using secateurs, a guillotine those pre-treated with basal heat. Plant
Abies, Cedrus, Larix, Picea and Pinus are or a power-driven bandsaw. In most vertically in well-defined rows, with the
difficult to root from stem cuttings and cases, it is a cheap reproduction apical bud just showing above the sur- 223
are normally raised by grafting. method requiring modest facilities. face. Cold frames are useful for rooting
cuttings
ROOTED CUTTINGS
slanting cut
cut leaves
C
on upmost
reduce wilting end
roots slow to
develop but
length of substantial
nodal area woody stem
sends out new shoots
soft green fibrous roots from original
stem trimmed leaf axils
below node
Softwood cuttings Semiripe cuttings Hardwood cuttings

The stem of the cutting usually ripens as the With a firmer stem, woodier at the base, the The length of stem contains sufficient food
roots and fresh top-growth develop. cutting will be less prone to wilting. reserves to enable sturdy root growth.
hardwood cuttings in exposed locali- blade is sometimes advocated for cut- The concentrations used for a quick
ties, with the bed prepared by blending tings that are thin-stemmed or have a dip are 500–1000ppm for softwood
equal parts of granulated pine bark thin epidermal layer, for example, Cean- cuttings; 1000–2500ppm for greenwood,
and crushed washed grit; slow-release othus impressus. semi-ripe and easy-rooting hardwood
fertilizer may also be added. Green- SYNTHETIC HORMONES Dip treat- cuttings; and 2500ppm–5000ppm for
house protection is a convenient ments increase the chances of success- difficult semi-ripe and hardwood cut-
additional facility but there may be ful rooting, promoting quicker root tings. The use of correct concentra-
difficulties in preventing shoot growth initiation and general improvement in tions for dipping is important; too
advancing too quickly before root quality and quantity of roots. The sub- much rooting hormone will cause dis-
development. stances are often synthetic relatives of tortion, leaf drop and basal rots. An
Rooting enhancement tech- natural auxins. Most used are IBA (4- alternative, safer option is a long-soak
niques wounding the base of stem indole-3-butyric acid), which has stable method from two to 24 hours, using
cuttings can enhance rooting, especially qualities and wide effectiveness. NAA low concentrations ranging from
in semi-ripe and hardwood types. (2-(1-napthyl)acetic acid) is often blended 20ppm for softwood cuttings to up to
SLICE WOUNDING is a speedy and with IBA, and certain plants, such as 250ppm for more lignified material.
effective method, where a sliver of large-flowered hybrid rhododendrons, Recommendations come with the
wood 2–5cm (3/4–2in) long is removed are considered more responsive to it. product, which may be supplied in
at the base of the cutting, just exposing Fungicides are often incorporated, as is tablet form for dissolving.
the cambium. With conifers, stripping boron, which seems to further aid root Root cuttings Among the limited
the lower foliage by hand so that a development. The most appropriate range of plants that have the capacity
rough scar is left exposing the cam- concentration of powder preparations to be increased by this means are those
bium can be effective. for softwood and easy-rooting green- that naturally produce adventitious
SPLIT WOUNDING hardwood cuttings wood cuttings is 0.1% IBA; for other shoots from the root zone, for example,
with a pair of secateurs encour- greenwood and easy-rooting semi-ripe Aesculus parviflora, Acanthus mollis, Ailan-
ages well-distributed root forma- cuttings, 0.3% IBA is suitable; for diffi- thus altissima and Aralia elata.
tion. Cut through the centre of cult semi-ripe and hardwood cuttings, Most root cuttings need to be taken
the base of the cutting to leave 0.8% IBA is recommended. Powders during late winter; healthy stock plants
a split 3–5cm (11/4–2in) long. are applied to the base of the cutting between three- and five-years-old pro-
SLIT OR INCISION WOUNDING is to a depth of 1cm (1/2in). After use, vide the most suitable material. The
suitable for cuttings prone to basal the product should be re-sealed and roots should be washed free of soil and
rots or those that are too thin or soft stored in a refrigerator at between one-year-old roots of uniform size sev-
to make an effective slice wound. 3°C/37°F and 5°C/41°F; contam- ered from the stock plant as close to
Normally, two or three slits are made ination from plant debris, water, the crown as possible.
by carefully drawing the point of a long exposure to air, light and Vigorous hardy plants producing
knife along the base of the stem for warmth will accelerate the long fleshy roots can be planted verti-
2–5cm (3/4–2in) to penetrate the cam- exposed breakdown of the active cally, direct in the open ground. Cut-
bium layer. Roots appear from new cambium ingredient. Liquid prepa- tings should be 10–15cm (4–6in) long
layer
cambium formed along the slits. rations are more effective with a minimum diameter of 5mm
224 SCRAPING the base of the stem than powders, but less (1/4in), and regeneration may take up to
for 2–5cm (3/4–2in) with a knife Slice wounding widely available. 16 weeks. Where greenhouse or cold
cuttings
frame protection is available, cuttings covered with glazed lights. A base Paulownia tomentosa, Phellodendron
5–6cm (2–21/2in) long may be used and dressing of a general fertilizer should amurense, Zanthoxylum piperitum). It is
the regeneration period reduced to be applied and the pH maintained at important to keep the air temperature
8–10 weeks; if basal heat is available at
18°C/64°F, the cutting size can be
reduced to 2.5–3cm (1–11/4in) long, and
between 5.5–6.5. The prepared cut-
tings should be planted vertically in
rows, with the tops just below the soil
in the greenhouse cool but above freez-
ing, while the basal temperature should
not exceed 18°C/64°F. Potting-up can
C
the regeneration period may be as surface, or spaced horizontally in a usually be done during early summer,
short as 4–6 weeks. shallow drill 50mm (2in) deep and cov- and with further protective growing-on
Plants with roots that regenerate ered with the frame soil and a 12mm facilities, substantial plants can be pro-
easily, for example Geranium sanguineum (1/2in) layer of 5mm (1/4in) washed lime- duced by the end of the growing
and Primula denticulata, can be placed free crushed grit. season.
horizontally in the planting situation Alternatively, root cuttings may be Using root cuttings as a source of
and covered; difficult ones, such as planted in trays or pots, and placed in stem cutting material is a technique
Koelreuteria paniculata and Romneya the cold frame. A rooting mixture of that greatly enhances the rooting capa-
coulteri, respond more favourably when equal parts peat, 3mm (1/8in) washed bilities of plants such as Albizia julib-
planted vertically. Open ground beds lime-free crushed grit and sterilized rissin and Populus and Alnus species,
are suitable for root cuttings of vigor- loam is suitable, with the container when compared to conventional stem
ously rooting plants that are capable of filled to within 12mm (1/2in) of the rim. cuttings.
tolerating adverse weather, such as Cuttings planted vertically should be Leaf cuttings Some plants can be
Ailanthus altissima, Cochlearia armoracia placed so that the top ends are flush induced to regenerate from appropri-
and Rhus typhina. with the surface of the mixture, while ately treated leaves, in particular
Cold frames provide a suitable pro- horizontally planted cuttings should be species of the families Begoniaceae,
tected environment for root cuttings spaced over the surface. To help aera- Crassulaceae, Gesneriaceae and Melas-
taken from alpines (e.g. Anchusa, tion, the container is topped off with a tomataceae. Leaves of Paulownia tomen-
Erodium, Geranium, Primula denticulata); covering, such as 5mm (1/4in) washed tosa will differentiate and produce buds
herbaceous perennials (e.g. Acanthus, lime-free crushed grit. and roots; and leaf rooting is possible
Eryngium, Limonium, Papaver, Phlox, Ver- Greenhouse facilities extend the with Clematis, Cyclamen, Hedera, Jasminum
bascum); subshrubs (e.g. Romneya); shrubs attributes of the cold frame, especially and Mahonia, although these will not
(e.g. Aesculus parviflora, Aralia chinensis, where basal heat is available. In addi- develop into fully composite plants.
Chaenomeles speciosa, Clerodendrum trichoto- tion to the plants listed under cold- A range of monocotyledonous plants
mum, Rhus glabra, R.typhina, Rubus frame propagation, the following can will also regenerate from leaf cuttings,
biflorus, R.thibetanus) and trees (e.g. Ailan- be propagated in such an environment: including Endymion, Galanthus, Heloniop-
thus altissima, Catalpa bignonioides, climbing plants (e.g. Bignonia capreolata, sis, Hyacinthus, Lachenalia, Leucojum and
C.bungei, C.ovata, Paulownia tomentosa, Campsis radicans, Eccremocarpus scabra, Sansevieria.
Populus alba, P.tremula). The frame can Passiflora caerulea); trees and shrubs (e.g. The most suitable rooting environ-
consist of a raised bed covered with Albizia julibrissin, Daphne genkwa, Emboth- ment is a closed case shaded from
plastic film supported by hoops, or one rium coccineum, Kalopanax pictus, Koel- direct sunlight, with high humidity
constructed with fixed surrounds and reuteria paniculata, Lagerstroemia indica, maintained and a basal heat between
ROOT CUTTINGS
use a dibber to
make deep holes
cut a slanting
sliver from
base
1 Lift the plant (here an

acanthus) when dormant and
wash the soil from the roots.
2 With a sharp knife, cut each
root into sections that are
5–10cm (2–4in) long. Make an
3 The slanting cuts at the base
of the cuttings will serve as a
reminder of which way up they
4 Make holes as deep as the
cuttings in moist standard
cuttings compost and insert them,
Select strong roots of medium additional diagonal cut at the should go in the pot – that is, diagonally-cut end downwards, so
thickness and sever them as close “bottom” end of each section of oriented in the same way as when that only the cut surface is 225
to the crown as possible. root. Discard the thin root tips. attached to the parent. exposed. Top-dress with grit.
cuttings
18–20°C/64–68°F. Plants responsive to leaves. Detached leaves should be approximately 2cm (3/4in) squares.
leaf propagation can usually be propa- placed upside down on a clean piece of Sound leaf pieces are then laid on the
gated at any time of the year. Leaves glass and the central midrib cut out. rooting medium face upwards, each
C selected should be fully expanded and

healthy, with no signs of ageing. Succu-
lent leaves are prone to rotting, so the
The two remaining leaf pieces are then
placed in the surface of the rooting
medium, with the cut tissue horizontal
secured by a small clean stone resting
on its surface. Alternatively, they may
be inserted vertically, with care taken to
propagation facilities, potting medium and all cut ends of the lateral veins just ensure that the end originally nearest
and leaves should be kept as clean as buried. Plantlets should develop from the leaf stalk is buried.
possible. each lateral vein within 6–8 weeks. Bulb scaling The scaly and fleshy
LATERAL VEIN-LEAF CUTTINGS The specialized leaves that form the bulbs
trimmed square
of leaf includes
narrow, strap-like leaves of Streptocarpus, of Lilium and Fritillaria species will
the midrib Sansevieria and Heloniopsis can be cut readily form bulblets. Firm clean scales
into a series of 2.5–3.5cm (1–11/2in)- are snapped off the base of the bulb.
leaves
wide sections across their width, and These are mixed with moist sharp
of new the cuttings planted vertically with the sand, perlite or vermiculite to avoid
plantlet basal ends inserted into the rooting dehydration and placed in trays or
compost. When propagating Lachenalia, sealed in polythene bags. Callus tissue
Galanthus and Leucojum by this method, forms at the base of the scale and in
extra care must be taken to keep the a few weeks one or more bulblets
cut leaf edges leaf sections turgid and, since foliage develop from it; these are prised off to
have callused
dies down after flowering, timing of be grown on in a sterilized medium.
propagation is critical. With broad scales, the number of
Leaf cutting LEAF SLASHING Plants with large progeny can be increased by nicking
of Peperomia broad leaves with reticulated veining, the base edge to a depth of 5mm
such as Begonia rex, can be induced to (1/4in) every 5mm (1/4in) of its width.
LEAF-PETIOLE CUTTINGS This is a produce plantlets by slashing the Outermost scales are the best choice
suitable technique for plants that pro- reverse side of selected leaves. Cuts and dipping in rooting hormone
duce small leaves, for example, Begonia about 10mm (1/2in) long are made increases yield.
‘Gloire de Lorraine’, Peperomia, Ramonda across the main veins and repeated Asiatic, Oriental, Caucasian, Marta-
and Saintpaulia. The leaf petiole should every 2.5cm (1in) or so. The leaf is gon, European and Eastern North
be trimmed to leave a stalk about 4cm then pegged down, top side up, on the American lilies should be scaled
(11/2in) long; this is then inserted into a compost surface. Buds will form at the between flowering time and spring.
soft, open rooting medium, for exam- incisions to produce roots and plantlets. They benefit from being stored in a
ple, of equal parts moss peat and LEAF SQUARES are a means of rapid dark place at 18–24°C/64–75°F and
perlite – a suitable mix for all leaf multiplication of any plant that will usually produce bulblets within 12
cutting systems. regenerate from leaves, but are gener- weeks. Most Asiatic sorts will grow
MIDRIB LEAF CUTTINGS Plants such ally reserved for large-leaved plants, away freely, but others first require a
as Gesneria, Sinningia, and in particular such as some Begonia species. Selected period of 6–8 weeks cool storage in a
Streptocarpus, will produce plantlets from leaves are placed upside down on a refrigerator. Western American lilies
veins severed along the length of their clean piece of glass, and cut up into should be scaled in the autumn/early
T WIN - SCALING BULBS

dormant
daffodil cut down through
bulb basal plate new bulblet
pair of scales
1 Select a healthy dormant bulb

and, with a clean, sharp knife,
trim off the old roots and the
2 Turn the bulb upside down
and slice it vertically in half,
then into quarters. Each segment
3 With a craft knife or scalpel,
very carefully separate and
cut free pairs of scale segments,
4 Pot the scales up (see also
Bulb scaling, above) and keep
in a dark warm place. After about
226 outer papery scales. Slice off the should have an equal portion of making sure each retains its own 12 weeks, new bulblets should
nose of the bulb. the bulb’s basal plate. small piece of the basal plate. have formed between the scales.
Cyathea
winter and stored in a dark place at TURNIP MOTH (Agrotis segetum), which with hairy, thinly succulent leaves over-
3–10°C/37–50°F. The bulblet-bearing varies in the colour of its forewings lapping in two ranks along creeping
scales are potted up 1cm (1/2in) apart in from grey or brown to almost black, stems that radiate from initial rosettes.
15cm (6in) pots to grow on.
TWIN-SCALING is a varation used for
bulbs such as daffodils, snowdrops,
with a wingspan of up to 40mm
(11/2in); and the HEART AND DART MOTH
(A.exclamationis), which is similar to
The flowers are small and three-
petalled. Cultivate as for the tender
Tradescantia species but with less water
C
hippeastrums, nerines and hyacinths. A.segetum but with forewings bearing in winter.
Here, the outer brown scales are characteristic dark markings. The habit C.kewensis (TEDDY BEAR VINE; India;
removed, the roots trimmed without of North American species is similar, stems to 15cm (6in) long; leaves lanceo-
damaging the basal plate, and the nose but in warmer areas the number of late, 2–5cm (3/4–2in)-long, dark green
sliced off. The bulb is up-ended and generations increases. above, purple beneath and velvety;
divided into up to 16 segments, each The moths are on the wing from flowers purple-pink); C.somaliensis
with a section of basal plate attached. June until August depending on (PUSSY EARS; Somalia; stems to 25cm
The segments are then separated into species. Up to 1000 eggs are deposited (10in) long; leaves oblong to linear,
pairs of scales, each retaining a frag- in clusters on stems or leaves of plants. densely white-hairy, 2–10cm (3/4–4in)
ment of basal plate. From a bulb cut The newly hatched caterpillars feed on long; flowers purple-blue).
into eight segments, up to 40 twin- the foliage, but within a week or so
scales can be produced. descend to the soil. The plump larvae Cyathea (from Greek kyatheion, little
CHIPPING is an alternative system are various shades or brown yellow or cup, a reference to the appearance of
where the mother bulb is prepared green and up to 50mm (2in) long. They the sori). Cyatheaceae. Tropics. TREE
similarly, but the portions are not live most of their lives in the soil near FERN, SAGO FERN. 600 species, ever-
divided into pairs of scales. Large the surface. green tree ferns with erect, rather slen-
bulbs may be divided into 16 chips, Control weeds that encourage egg- der, smooth stems marked with the
small bulbs into 4 or 8 chips. laying, and cultivate soil in autumn and scars of fallen frond bases (thus easily
Good hygiene is vital and at all winter to expose the larvae to preda- distinguished from Dicksonia). The large
stages equipment must be kept scrupu- tors such as birds. In susceptible areas, fronds form a spreading or shuttlecock-
lously clean. Twin-scales and chips treat the bases of young plants with like crown; they are basically triangular
should be treated with fungicide, then insecticide. Small infestations can be in outline and finely bipinnately
mixed with moist vermiculite, in 30 controlled by locating and destroying divided. C.australis and C.cooperi will sur-
micron sealed polythene bags, and caterpillars in the soil near recently vive lows of –7°C/19°F with some
stored in a dark place at 20°C/68°F damaged plants. foliage loss: they might be attempted
for about 12 weeks. Bulblets should be outdoors in favoured, maritime cli-
hardened off before planting in a cool, Cyananthus (Greek kyanos, blue and mates in zone 8. Elsewhere, grow in a
frost-free environment. Flowering size anthos, flower). Campanulaceae. frost-free conservatory or greenhouse.
is usually reached in three years. See Himalaya, China. TRAILING BELL- C.arborea and C.medullaris need a mini-
scooping, foliar embryos. FLOWER. 30 species, evergreen, tufted mum temperature of 10°C/50°F. All
and carpet-forming perennial herbs prefer a porous planting medium, ide-
cutworms (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) with small leaves and solitary flowers in ally soilless, and rich in garden com-
the larvae of various noctuid moths, late summer. Fully hardy, the following post, bark and charcoal. Position in
so-called because they attack plants at species thrive in pockets of moist, dappled sunlight or shade, sheltered
ground level, severing young plants humus-rich soil in light shade or dap- from strong winds and in a humid,
completely and often girdling the stems pled sun in the rock garden. Propagate buoyant atmosphere. Water and
of older plants. Roots, corms, tubers by softwood cuttings in spring. syringe freely in warm weather, less in
and leaves are also eaten. Most C.lobatus (Himalaya; a mat of winter but never allow to dry out.
damage occurs on light soils 1cm (1/2in)-long, obovate, toothed C.arborea (WEST INDIAN TREE FERN)
during a dry summer. Young veg- to lobed leaves; flowers purple, reaches a height of 10m (30ft). Its
etables, especially lettuces, onions blue or white, 3cm (11/4in), nar- canopy consists of fronds to 3.5m (11ft)
and brassicas, are particularly sus- rowly funnelform with five long, divided into fresh green pinnules
ceptible; carrots, celery, beet, broad lobes); C.microphyllus that are themselves divided into 25–32
potatoes and strawberries are also (differs in its smaller, oblong pairs of 3mm (1/8in)-wide, serrate,
vulnerable, as are China asters, to elliptic leaves and more oblong-falcate segments. The stipes
chrysanthemums, dahlias, broadly funnelform, violet-blue arch strongly, are tinged yellow and
marigolds, primulas and zinnias. flowers with ovate to lanceolate, clothed below with creamy scales.
The principal European not obovate lobes). The AUSTRALIAN or ROUGH TREE FERN,
species are the YELLOW UNDER- C.australis, and the very similar C.cooperi,
WING MOTH (Noctua pronuba), Cyanotis (Greek kyanos, blue attain heights between 3 and 18m (10
which has brown forewings, and ous, ear). Commelinaceae. and 60ft). The 1–4m (31/4–12ft) fronds
yellow hindwings and a wingspan Old World tropics. 30 species, spread gracefully and are lime to mid- 227
of up to 60mm (21/2in); the Cutworm tender perennial herbs, usually green with entire, serrulate or crenate,
Cyathea
10cm (4in)-long pinnules. The stipes 3-carpelled “stamens” cupule details. It is widespread in coastal
pistil
are covered with brown scales which southeast Asia, and extends to East
become darker as they descend toward Africa, Madagascar and the Pacific
C the stem. C.medullaris (BLACK TREE FERN)

is native to Australia, New Zealand
and the Pacific Islands. The largest
Islands. The Japanese C.revoluta is a
smaller and stockier plant, to 3m (10ft)
tall. Its 1–2m (31/4–61/2ft)-long
species listed here, its black stem leaves are held erect to spreading
may be over 15m (50ft) tall. It is and are crowded with narrow,
crowned with arching fronds to linear segments, each to 15 x
6m (20ft) long, dark, glossy 0.5cm (6 x 1/4in), rigid, and glossy
green above, paler beneath. The dark green with a distinct midrib
stipes are stained black and covered and revolute margins.
below with black scales.
Cyclamen (from the Greek kyklos,
cyathiform shaped like a cup, circle, referring to the rounded tubers).
similar to urceolate but without the Primulaceae. SOWBREAD, PERSIAN
marginal contraction. VIOLET. Europe, Mediterranean to
Iran, Somalia. 19 species, tuberous
cyathium an inflorescence-type perennial herbs. The tubers are usually
characteristic of Euphorbia, consisting Cyathium (Euphorbia paralias) circular and somewhat flattened. They
of a cupule (an involucre of small bear tufts of stalked, circular to heart-
bracts sometimes furnished with glands felty, leaves. Handsome foliage plants shaped leaves. The flowers are solitary
and subtended by petaloid bracts or for subtropical and tropical gardens and nod on curving stalks. The five
appendages) enclosing several ‘sta- and for interiors. The most commonly petals are rounded and twist upwards.
mens’, each equivalent to a single male cultivated species, C.revoluta, is a With the exception of C.persicum and
flower, and a stalked trilocular ‘ovary’ resilient pot or landscape plant, tolerat- its cultivars, the following are hardy.
(a 3-carpelled pistil equivalent to the ing neglect and even mild frosts pro- C.hederifolium, C.coum and C.alpinum will
female flower). In dioecious species, the vided the leaf rosette is tied upwards survive in climate zone 6. The remain-
male or female is lacking according to and wrapped with sacking in winter. der prefer rather higher temperatures
the sex of the individual. The remaining two species require a and protection from wet winter condi-
minimum winter temperature of tions. They should be grown outdoors
cycad a primitive gymnosperm 10°C/50°F. Plant in large pots, tubs in very sheltered positions in zones 7
belonging to any one of the families or borders in a loamy mixture rich and over, and elsewhere in the alpine
Cycadaceae, Zamiaceae or Stangeri- in garden compost, bark and sand. house or frame. Plant in sun or part-
aceae. Although allied to conifers, Provide C.circinalis and C.rumphii with shade on a gritty, fertile and humus-
cycads very superficially resemble ferns a shady, humid environment. C.revoluta rich soil. Keep moist when in growth,
and palms. Having dominated the will accept brighter, drier conditions. drier when at rest (i.e. summer except
world’s flora 200 million years ago, Water, feed and syringe frequently in for C.purpurascens). Pot-grown plants can
they now survive, more or less spring and summer, but keep barely be dried out completely during dor-
unchanged, scattered throughout the moist at cooler, duller times of year. mancy. The hardiest species, however,
tropics and subtropics. See Cycas, Dioon, Propagate by seed, surface-sown on a cope well with conditions in the open
Encephalartos, Macrozamia, Zamia. moist, sandy mixture at temperatures garden and may be naturalized under
of 15–29°C/59–84°F, or by detaching trees and shrubs and even in short
Cycas (from koikos, the Greek name the bud-like offsets that sometimes grass without suffering. Grow C.persicum
for the doum palm (Hyphaene)). develop at the base and along the and its cultivars in the cool greenhouse
Cycadaceae. Old World tropics and trunks of older plants. or in the home (minimum temperature
subtropics. CYCAD, SAGO, FALSE SAGO, C.circinalis (FALSE SAGO) is native to 5°C/41°F). Plant the tubers in a fertile,
FERN PALM. Some 20 species, tender, southeast India. It makes a trunk to 5m porous, soilless medium with their
evergreen perennials. The trunks are (15ft) tall, some 30cm (12in) wide. The upper surface exposed. Position in
stout and column-like, usually leaves are 1.5–3m (5–10ft) long; the bright, filtered light in well-ventilated
unbranched and covered with scars segments to 30 x 1.5cm (12 x 5/8in), conditions. Water and feed when in
and the remains of leaf bases. They linear to lanceolate and somewhat growth. Dry off after flowering, when
terminate in a crown of large, pinnate curved, smooth, mid- to pea green and the leaves will wither. Tubers may be
leaves with many tough-textured, of a rather supple, leathery texture. started into growth at any time of year.
narrow segments. Male plants produce C.rumphii may be synonymous with this Increase by seed. Old tubers may
large, yellow cones composed of closely species, differing only in its larger and develop short, woody ‘stems’ at their
packed, diamond-shaped scales; the more luxuriant habit, its softer and growing points. These may be removed
228 female cones are looser with egg- broader leaf segments, sometimes a and rooted. C.persicum and its cultivars
shaped seeds borne on much reduced, deep sea green, and certain cone are affected by black root rot.
Cyclamen
C YCLAMEN
Name Distribution Leaves Flowers
C.alpinum
C.trochopteranthum
SW Turkey,
Cilician Taurus
2.5–5cm (1–2in), reniform to broadly ovate,
base cordate, apex blunt, dark green zoned
silver above, tinted purple-red beneath
to 2cm (3⁄4in), scented, petals broadly obovate,
twisted and spreading, propeller-like, pale pink to
magenta or deep carmine with a dark basal blotch
C
C.africanum Algeria to 10cm (4in), circular to reniform or cordate, to 2.5cm (1in), violet-scented, petals slightly
crenate to serrate, dark green lightly marked reflexed, ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, pale pink
silver-grey, lustrous, pale green beneath to deep rose with a deep red patch at base; autumn
C.cilicium SW Turkey to 4cm (11⁄2in), suborbicular, serrate to crenate, to 2cm (3⁄4in), petals obovate-acute, twisted,
grey-green to dark green with silver-grey and strongly reflexed, white to deep pink with a dark
Comments: Includes the dark blotches, purple-red beneath crimson blotch at the base suffusing petals; autumn
white-flowered f. album.
C.coum Caucasus, 2.5–6cm (1–21⁄2in) diam., orbicular-reniform, to 2cm (3⁄4in), petals ovate-elliptic, strongly reflexed,
C.hiemale, Turkey, dark to mid-green marked with lighter spots somewhat twisted or folded, white to pale rose or
C.orbiculatum, Lebanon, Israel or silver-grey zone or band above, purple- deep carmine with a dark crimson to maroon
C.vernale red-tinted beneath blotch at base; late winter-early spring
Comments: Includes many cultivars ranging in colour from pure white to deepest magenta; members of the Pewter Group have leaves almost
wholly overlaid with solid, dull silver to pewter; ssp. caucasicum (syn. C.caucasicum) differs in its cordate leaves with silver markings, and flowers
with a pale mauve rim and acute petals.
C.creticum Crete to 4cm (11⁄2in) diam., cordate, dentate, dark to 2.5cm (1in), fragrant, petals lanceolate, white to
grey-green, usually spotted or patterned pale pink; spring
silver-grey above, purple-red beneath
C.cyprium Cyprus to 3.5cm (11⁄2in) diam., broadly cordate to to 2.5cm (1in), petals sharply reflexed, folded near
ovate-lanceolate, apex tapered, toothed to base, twisting and toothed toward apex, pure white
shallowly lobed, olive green blotched light green or pale pink with a V-shaped, purple-pink marking
near margin with a hastate inner pattern near base; autumn-early winter
marked with grey-green, stained red beneath
C.graecum Greece, S to 6cm (21⁄2in) diam., cordate-acute, toothed, to 2cm (3⁄4in), petals strongly reflexed, oblong-
Aegean Is, S velvety dark green with a moss green to silver- elliptic, pale pink to deep carmine with a darker
Turkey, Cyprus grey zone at centre, veined lime green or silver stain at base; autumn-early winter
grey above, purple-red-tinted beneath
C.hederifolium S Europe to ivy-like, 4–8cm (11⁄2–3in), rounded to cordate, to 2.5cm (1in), petals ovate-lanceolate, acute,
C.neapolitanum Turkey bluntly hastate or lanceolate-oblong, entire to reflexed, constricted at base, pale to deep pink,
toothed or lobed, very variable in colour – usually with a dark carmine stain at base,
Comments: Many cultivars available dark to pale green or grey-green above, sometimes pure white, rarely fragrant; late summer
covering the range of variation variously mottled, veined or zoned pale green to early winter
described here. to silver-grey
C.libanoticum Syria, Lebanon to 8cm (3in) diam., rounded to cordate, dull to 5cm (2in), petals oblong-elliptic, white to palest
blue-green with darker blotches, red-tinted pink in lower half with a dark carmine blotch at
beneath base, clear pink in upper half; winter-early spring
C.africanum C.cilicium C.coum Pewter Group C.pseudibericum 229

Cyclamen
C YCLAMEN
Name Distribution Habit Leaves
C C.mirabile SW Turkey to 3.5cm (11⁄2in) diam., suborbicular to

reniform, minutely toothed, blunt, dark
green, zoned or marbled grey, pink or
to 3cm (11⁄4in), petals oblong to obovate, more or
less toothed toward apex, pale pink with a dark
carmine blotch at base; autumn
red above, purple beneath
C.parviflorum E Turkey to 2.5cm (1in), suborbicular, base cordate, to 1cm (1⁄2in), very short-stalked, petals broad,
margins entire, dull dark green spreading then abruptly reflexed and slightly
twisted, mauve-pink with a dark purple blotch at
base; winter
C.persicum E Mediterranean, 5–12cm (2–43⁄4in) diam., ovate-cordate, 2–8cm (3⁄4–3in), often fragrant, petals oblong-
Rhodes, Crete, finely toothed, dark green variably veined, lanceolate to obovate, strongly reflexed and twisted,
Libya mottled, spotted or zoned pale green or white to pale rose, deep pink, magenta or cerise
silver-grey, often red-tinted beneath with a darker blotch at base; winter to spring, but
bred and grown to flower throughout year
Comments: This is the florist’s cyclamen with many cultivars ranging and in flower from small, fragrant and ‘species-like’ to very large, in
in habit from the large and robust to the dwarf and compact, in leaf tones of white, pink, salmon, cerise, scarlet and red, the petals small
from the large, dark and fleshy to the small and exquisitely marked, and slender to broad and heavy, ruffled and ‘double’.
C.pseudibericum S Asia Minor to 6.5cm (21⁄2in), obcordate, toothed, dark to 2.5cm (1in), fragrant, petals broadly lanceolate to
green marbled silver-grey above, red- elliptic, mauve to bright magenta or pink with a
maroon beneath purple-brown blotch at the base streaking across the
white rim; winter-spring
C.purpurascens C & E Europe to 8cm (3in), circular-ovate, base cordate, to 3cm (11⁄4in), very fragrant, petals oblong-elliptic,
C.europaeum, finely toothed, dark green veined or reflexed and slightly twisted, lilac-pink to deep
C.fatrense marbled silver-grey above, tinted red magenta or purple-red, darker at base; late
beneath summer-autumn
C.repandum C&E 6–10cm (21⁄2–4in), broadly cordate, to 3cm (11⁄4in), fragrant, petals linear-oblong, white
Mediterranean shallowly lobed and toothed, dark green to deep carmine with a darker stain at rim; spring
with a paler inner pattern bordered silver-
grey, sometimes with paler or silver spots
C.rohlfsianum Libya to 10cm (4in), reniform to orbicular, to 3cm (11⁄4in), usually fragrant, petals lanceolate-
margins shallowly lobed, toothed, deep obovate, strongly reflexed and twisted, pale rose to
green with a darker central zone bordered lilac pink, darker toward base; autumn
with a jagged region of grey-green to silver
cyclic bearing the production of autumn by broadly pyriform fruits to also a heavy cropper, are milder in
fruit or seed crops at intervals of 10cm (4in) long. These are golden- flavour. The apple-shaped fruit of
longer than one year. It commonly yellow, downy, scented like a spicy pear C. ‘Maliformis’ ripens well in colder
occurs in some apple cultivars as with a bouquet of pine; they are used climates. The Portuguese quince,
biennial bearing. for jellies, preserves, added to pies and C.oblonga ‘Lusitanica’, produces an
souffles, stewed with spirits and spices, abundance of large, pale rose flowers.
Cydonia (for the town of Cydon in served with meat and game and put to Grow in full sun, in deep, moist,
Crete). Rosaceae. W Asia, naturalized many herbal uses. The seeds are toxic. fertile loam; on light soils, apply an
throughout temperate Europe, Hardy in zones 4 to 7, quince organic mulch to conserve water. Prune
Mediterranean, Middle East, S Amer- nonetheless needs a long, warm in winter to establish a fruiting frame-
ica. QUINCE. 1 species, C.oblonga, a summer to ripen its fruit. When grown work, cutting back leaders by one third
deciduous shrub or small tree with a for fruit, it is treated as a bush or stan- of the previous season’s growth to an
spreading crown, to 6m (20ft) tall. The dard tree with an open centre, or, in outward-facing bud. Fruit is borne on
leaves are 10cm (4in) long, ovate to less favoured districts, as a fan or spurs and on the tips of the previous
elliptic, deep green above and woolly espalier against a south-facing wall. summer’s growth: once a framework is
grey beneath. The solitary flowers C.oblonga provides a dwarfing rootstock established, little pruning is required
appear in spring and early summer. for pears. C. ‘Vranja’ and C. ‘Bereczki’ save to relieve overcrowding and to
Some 5cm (2in) wide, they consist of are vigorous plants and generous bear- remove badly placed branches. Unless
230 five, rounded, white or pale pink petals ers of well-flavoured fruit, suited to fan frosts are heavy, wait until fruit is fully
and are followed in late summer and training. The fruits of C. ‘Champion’, ripe for harvest in mid- to late autumn.
Cymbidium
In a cool place, fruit will keep for 2–3 dreds of which have been registered. (36in), pendulous; flowers to 5cm (2in)
months. For propagation, see apples. For They range in habit from the minia- wide, tepals cream-yellow streaked red-
the Japanese or flowering quince, see ture (i.e. 80cm (32in) tall with many, brown, lip cream or white stained
Chaenomeles, several species of which
were once included in Cydonia. See also
quince.
5cm (2in)-wide flowers) to very large
(i.e. to 1.5m (5ft) tall with up to 30,
12cm (43/4in)-wide flowers). The foliage
yellow, veined maroon; spring- to
summer-flowering); C.atropurpureum
(Thailand; Malaysia, Philippines; dif-
C
is generally grassy and the flower spikes fers from last species in flowers that are
Cymbalaria (from Greek kymbalon, may be erect, arching or pendulous. more solid maroon and coconut-
cymbal, referring to the leaf shape of The flowers are in shades of white, scented); C.bicolor (Indochina to
some species). Scrophulariaceae. W rose, bright pink, wine red, chestnut Malaysia; inflorescence to 75cm (30in),
Europe. 10 species, perennial herbs, brown, amber, ochre, yellow and green, strongly arching; flowers to 4.5cm
often short-lived with slender, trailing often marked with red or brown, espe- (13/4in) wide, fragrant, tepals yellow-
and rooting stems and small, shallowly cially on the lip, which may be a differ- cream striped maroon, lip white
lobed, reniform to rounded leaves. ent ground colour altogether with a stained yellow dotted or blotched
From late winter to early autumn, ruffled margin, prominent, sometimes maroon; spring- to summer-flowering);
many solitary, 2-lipped flowers appear; golden crests and hairy. C.canaliculatum (Australia; inflorescence
these resemble a miniature snapdragon The following species are also to 45cm (18in), arching; flowers to
or Linaria. Use the following species for grown. They need a minimum winter 4cm (11/2in) wide, tepals green to pale
baskets, cracks in walls and paving, and temperature of 5°C/41°F. Pot in a bronze streaked red-brown, lip ivory
small-scale carpeting effects in sun or bark-based mix with added slow- spotted purple-red; autumn- and
shade on damp or (once established) release fertilizer and a moisture-reten- winter-flowering); C.dayanum (N India
rather dry and impoverished soils. tive medium such as rockwool or coir. to Japan, Malaysia; inflorescence to
C.aequitriloba may not survive tempera- Water and feed frequently when in 35cm (14in); flowers to 5cm (2in) wide,
tures below –17°C/1°F; C.muralis is growth and provide a humid, bright fragrant, tepals white with a central
hardy in zone 6 and becomes invasive and warm environment. By midsum- maroon stripe, lip white stained yellow,
given the least encouragement. Sow mer, the new growth should be well- marked maroon; summer-flowering);
seed in situ in spring or in a frame in developed and will benefit from a C.devonianum (N India to Thailand;
late winter; otherwise, take rooted sec- ripening period of hot, sunny days and inflorescence to 40cm (16in), strongly
tions of stem in spring or summer. cool nights – easily achieved by placing pendulous; flowers to 3.5cm (11/2in)
C.aequitriloba (dense, mossy mat of the plants outdoors until autumn. wide, tepals olive streaked blood red,
entire or bluntly 3–5-lobed leaves; Once the new pseudobulbs are plump lip garnet to deep maroon; spring-
flowers 8–13mm (1/4–1/2in) long, and fully formed, place in a cool, airy flowering); C.eburneum (India to China;
purple); C.muralis (KENILWORTH IVY, situation and reduce water to a mini- inflorescence to 36cm (141/4in), few-
COLISEUM IVY, PENNYWORT, IVY- mum (C.ensifolium and C.goeringii are flowered; flowers to 12cm (43/4in) wide,
LEAVED TOADFLAX rampant short-lived exceptions, requiring a permanently fragrant, tepals white, sometimes
trailer, often infesting old walls; leaves moist medium and cool, shaded condi- tinged pink, lip ivory stained yellow;
reniform to semi-circular with five to tions). The flower spikes should now winter- to spring-flowering); C.elegans
nine, blunt to acute lobes; flowers lilac begin to form and may require staking (syn. Cyperorchis elegans; N India to
to mauve, white or violet and with a and training. Those of C.devonianum China; inflorescence to 60cm (24in),
yellow palate, 9–15mm (3/8–5/8in) long). and C.elegans may bury themselves in pendulous; flowers ivory, crowded, nar-
the pot unless guided over the edge. rowly campanulate; autumn- to winter-
Cymbidium (diminutive form of the Grown in too consistently warm an flowering); C.ensifolium (India, China,
Greek kymbe, boat – a reference to the atmosphere, Cymbidium will usually fail Philippines; habit grassy; inflorescence
hollow recess in the lip). Orchidaceae. to flower, producing luxuriant foliage to 70cm (28in), few-flowered; flowers to
Asia to Australia. 50 species, epiphytic, instead – the most common problem 5cm (2in) wide; tepals slender, straw
lithophytic and terrestrial orchids with with plants bought in flower and grown yellow to olive green streaked red-
clustered, small to large pseudobulbs in the home. brown, lip cream to white spotted red;
sheathed by long, narrow leaves. Pro- Increase by division or from back- spring- and summer-flowering); C.ery-
duced in basal racemes usually in bulbs taken when repotting (best car- throstylum (Vietnam; inflorescence to
winter and spring, the flowers are long- ried out after flowering and as seldom 60cm (24in), few-flowered; flowers to
lasting and waxy with similar, ovate to as possible – these plants flower better 12cm (43/4in) wide, tepals white to
lanceolate tepals and a showy lip with if pot-bound). Cymbidium is affected by palest pink, lip cream veined and
two, incurved lateral lobes and a pro- fungal rots and cymbidium mosaic blotched deep red; summer-flowering);
jecting, platform-like midlobe. virus. Plants infected by the latter C.finlaysonianum (SE Asia; inflorescence
Cymbidium is the most popular orchid should be discarded, and care taken to to 1m (31/4ft), pendent; flowers to 6cm
genus, once widely sold as a cut flower, sterilize blades used in division, to (21/2in) wide, tepals olive to yellow-
today so easily produced that it is sim- avoid its transmission. green tinted pink, lip white marked
pler to sell whole plants in full bloom. C.aloifolium (India, China, Java; red; summer- to autumn-flowering); 231
These are likely to be hybrids, hun- leaves fleshy; inflorescence to 90cm C.floribundum (syn. C.pumilum; S China,
Cymbidium
Taiwan; inflorescence to 40cm (16in), chestnut to rusty brown, lip cream to Cynara (from Greek kyon, dog – the
arching; flowers 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in) yellow lined brown or maroon; phyllaries are shaped like dog’s teeth).
wide, tepals rusty brown or yellow autumn- to summer-flowering). Compositae. Mediterranean, NW
C green, lip white marked red to maroon;

winter- to spring-flowering); C.goeringii
(China, Japan; plants small, grassy;
cymbiform boat-shaped, attenuated
and upturned at both ends with an
Africa, Canary Islands. 10 species,
hardy perennial herbs with bold, pin-
nately cut leaves and discoid, thistle-
flowers solitary on stalks to 10cm (4in), external dorsal ridge, as in the keel of like flowerheads in summer; these are
5cm (2in) wide, tepals slender, curving, many papilionaceous flowers. large and goblet-shaped and composed
olive, yellow green, or rusty red, lip of thick and densely overlapping phyl-
white marked red; winter- to spring- Cymbopogon (from Greek kymbe, laries that surround a boss of purple-
flowering); C.hookerianum (N India, boat, and pogon, beard). Gramineae. blue florets. The following are grown
China; inflorescence to 70cm (28in), Old World tropics and subtropics. for the kitchen (blanched young leaves
arching; flowers to 14cm (51/2in) wide, 56 species, largely tender, perennial of C.cardunculus, flowerheads of C.car-
fragrant, tepals apple green spotted red grasses, many with aromatic foliage. dunculus Scolymus Group), but are
below, lip cream edged green, spotted All parts of the following species are equally ornamental. C.cardunculus is a
maroon; winter- to early spring-flower- strongly scented of lemon. Sections of magnificent foliage plant for any large
ing); C.insigne (Thailand, Vietnam, culm and lengths of leaf are cut and border, but especially valuable in the
China; inflorescence to 1.5m (5ft) arch- used fresh, whole, grated or chopped as white and silver garden. If the globe
ing, flowers to 9cm (31/2in) wide, tepals a flavouring in southeast Asian cooking. artichoke lacks the stately, frosted
white to pale pink sometimes spotted Grow in a moisture-retentive, loamy appearance of the cardoon, its flower-
red, lip white stained yellow spotted soil in full sun; maintain a moderately heads nonetheless have a Protea-like
and veined red; late autumn- to spring- humid atmosphere with a minimum quality welcome in late summer.
flowering); C.iridioides (syn. C.giganteum; temperature of 10°C/50°F. Water Although tolerant of impoverished,
N India, Burma, S China; inflores- plentifully when in growth. Propagate stony soils and heavy clay, both species
cence to 1m (31/4ft); flowers to 10cm by division. C.citratus (LEMON GRASS; prefer a moist but well-drained, loamy
(4in) wide, scented, tepals olive green southern India, Sri Lanka, widely natu- soil in full sun with some protection
with broken stripes of rusty red, lip ralized elsewhere in Asia; to 1.5m (5ft) from strong winds. Where hard frosts
yellow marked red; summer-flowering); tall; culms cane-like leaves slender, or cold, wet weather are common,
C.lowianum (Burma, China, Thailand; grey-green). mulch C.cardunculus in winter. Propa-
inflorescence to 1m (31/4ft), arching; gate by seed or by division in spring, or
flowers to 10cm (4in) wide, tepals olive by root cuttings in sandy soil in a cold
to lime green irregularly veined rust to frame in early spring.
blood red, lip white to yellow spotted C.cardunculus (CARDOON; Mediter-
red brown; winter- to summer-flower- ranean, N Africa; to 1.75m (53/4ft);
ing; flowers unmarked in ‘Concolor’); leaves 50–100cm (20–39in), arching,
C.madidum (syn. C.iridifolium; Australia; deeply and jaggedly cut and densely
inflorescence to 60cm (24in), pendent; overlaid with fine silver wool; flower-
flowers to 3cm (11/4in) wide, tepals pale heads spiny, 6cm (21/2in) wide and
bronze to yellow-green, lip primrose packed with purple florets; Scolymus
blotched red-brown; summer- to Group: syn. C.scolymus; GLOBE ARTI-
winter-flowering); C.parishii (Burma; CHOKE; Mediterranean; to 2m (61/2ft);
resembles a larger C.eburneum with differs from C.cardunculus in its duller
highly scented flowers with the callus and less spiny foliage and flowerheads
not velvety on midlobe; summer-flow- broader and clothed with thickly leath-
ering); C.sanderae (Vietnam; inflores- ery to fleshy phyllaries; the florets are
cence to 40cm (16in), few-flowered; Cyme lilac to mauve). See artichoke, cardoon.
flowers to 8cm (3in) wide, tepals white Sedum spectabile bears its flowers in cymes:
flushed pink and spotted red at base, flattish to slightly domed clusters, the Cynoglossum (from Greek kyon, dog
lip cream stained yellow, marked central flowers of which are first to open. and glossa, tongue, referring to the
maroon; winter- to late spring-flower- shape of the leaves). Boraginaceae.
ing); C.tigrinum (NE India, Burma; flow- cyme a more or less flat-topped and Temperate regions. HOUND’S TONGUE.
ers to 5cm (2in) wide, fragrant, tepals determinate inflorescence, the central 55 species, annual, biennial and peren-
olive to yellow, faintly lined or dotted or terminal flower opening first. nial herbs with coarse, hairy foliage
purple-red, lip white lined, spotted and and cymes of forget-me-not-like flow-
edged purple-red; spring- to summer- cymose arranged in or resembling a ers in spring and summer. Fully hardy,
flowering); C.tracyanum (China, Burma, cyme or bearing cymes. hound’s toungue prefers a fertile, well-
Thailand; inflorescence to 1.2m (4ft); drained soil with ample moisture in
232 flowers to 12.5cm (5in) wide, tepals cymule a small and generally few- spring and early summer. Annual and
olive to tawny yellow, heavily streaked flowered cyme. biennial species grow well in full sun in
Cypripedium
the flower border. The perennials will Cyperus (the classical name for this ica. 30 species, herbs, shrubs, vines and
also thrive in semi-wooded locations. plant, from the Greek for sedge). trees similar to Solanum, but differing in
Sow seed of annual and biennial Cyperaceae. Warm and temperate their large, juicy fruit. C.betacea is the
species in situ in autumn or spring.
Divide perennials in early spring.
CHINESE FORGET-ME-NOT, C.amabile,
regions worldwide. 600 species, mostly
perennial, rhizomatous, evergreen
herbs from marshy places. Where pre-
TREE TOMATO or TAMARILLO, a hairy,
sparsely branched shrub, 1–3m
(31/4–10ft) tall. It is grown for its dull
C
is an east Asian biennial to 60cm (24in) sent, the basal leaves are grassy. Incon- red, ovoid to ellipsoid, 8cm (3in)-long
tall with 0.5cm (1/4in)-wide flowers in spicuous, the flowers are packed in fruit, in the subtropics, tropics and else-
blue, pink and white. The cultivar ‘Fir- small spikelets at the tips of slender where under glass (minimum tempera-
mament’ has grey-tinted leaves and rays that form spreading umbels atop ture 10°C/50°F). In flavour, the fruit
azure flowers. C.cheirifolium from south- tall, clumped stems; a collar of leaf-like resembles a tart tomato and is good
west Europe is biennial, to 40cm (16in) bracts subtends the umbel in some stewed with a little sugar. Plant in a fer-
tall, with white-hairy leaves and 0.8cm species. All of the following are grown tile, loamy medium; position in part
(3/8in)-wide flowers which turn form for their graceful inflorescences, pro- shade or full sun in a sheltered, humid
pale mauve to indigo. WESTERN duced or persisting throughout most of environment. Water and feed liberally
HOUND’S TONGUE, C.grande, attains a the year. The first two species are when in growth and fruiting, scarcely
height of 60cm (24in), with trusses of attractive greenhouse or house plants, at all after fruiting when growth will
1cm (1/2in)-wide, deep blue flowers. the variegated cultivars especially. Plant pause and much of the foliage may
This North American native usually in a fertile, loamy mix; keep constantly drop. Raise from seed.
dies back to a stout rhizome after flow- moist or even stand or submerge in
ering. HIMALAYAN HOUND’S TONGUE, water. C.papyrus requires a large tub in Cyphostemma (from Greek kyphos,
C.nervosum, is a perennial growing to or a saturated bed beside ponds under curved or swollen, and stemma, wreath).
80cm (32in) with sprays of intense blue glass. Inflorescences of this species and Vitaceae. Africa, Madagascar (both
flowers held over narrow leaves. From C.alternifolius are used as cut flowers. species listed here are from Namibia).
North America, C.virginaticum is an Growth is rapid and rhizomes may 150 species, tender, deciduous shrubs
unbranched perennial to 90cm (36in) need to be reduced or rejuvenated usually with greatly swollen, succulent
tall with ovate, 20cm (8in)-long leaves every few years. Propagate by division trunks covered in peeling, papery bark
and 1cm (1/2in)-wide flowers in shades in spring, or by stem cuttings of the and forking into short, thick branches
of white, mauve and pale blue. umbels cut just below the bracts and or producing soft, climbing stems. The
rooted in water. leaves are large and fleshy. Packed in
Cypella (from Greek kypellon, a goblet C.albostriatus (syn. C.diffusus, C.elegans) flat-topped cymes, the small, yellow-
or cup, referring to the shape of the is a South African native, 30–50cm green flowers are followed by colourful
flowers). Iridaceae. C and S America. (12–20in) tall. Its leaves and inflores- berries. These splendid caudiciform
15 species, small, summer-flowering cence bracts can be distinguished by succulents require a minimum temper-
bulbous perennials resembling Iris. their prominent veins (boldly striped ature of 10°C/50°F, full sunlight, a
Planted in a free-draining soil at the base white in the cultivar ‘Variegatus’). The dry, buoyant atmosphere and a loam-
of a sunny, sheltered wall, C.herbertii umbel rays are 2.5–10cm (1–4in) long, based potting medium high in sand
may survive frosts, especially if given a shorter than the 6–9, spreading bracts. and grit. Water only when in growth
thick, dry mulch in winter and watered From Madagascar, the UMBRELLA and then sparingly, and avoid wetting
well in late spring and summer. Other- PLANT, C.alternifolius is taller than the the foliage and stems. They deteriorate
wise, lift the bulbs and store cool and last species (40–150cm) (16–60in) and quickly in cool, damp conditions. Prop-
dry in winter. Under glass, maintain a leafless. The leafy inflorescence bracts agate by stem cuttings or by seed.
minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F; are longer than the 6cm (21/2in) umbel C.bainesii (syn. Cissus bainesii) makes a
water carefully but plentifully when in rays. The cultivar ‘Variegatus’ is heav- flask-shaped trunk to 60cm (24in) tall
growth. Store in sand and keep dry ily striped or zoned white. C.papyrus is with few, if any, short branches at its
and frost-free when dormant. Sow ripe the PAPYRUS or EGYPTIAN PAPER REED, a summit. The leaves are downy and
seed into a sandy potting mix, or majestic African native 2–5m (61/2–15ft) divided into 3 leaflets, these are ovate
detach bulbils and off-sets, growing tall with thick, pithy stems which carry to elliptic, some 12cm (43/4in) long and
them on in moist, cool conditions until mops of countless, nodding rays. It coarsely toothed. C.juttae (syn. Cissus
near flowering size. C.herbertii (Brazil, lacks leaves and the umbel bracts are juttae) develops a massive bole to 2m
Uruguay, Argentina; panicle to 30cm reduced to papery spathes. A dwarf (61/2ft) tall, often with several thick,
(12in) high; flowers 4–6cm (11/2–21/2in)- (i.e. 1m (31/4ft) tall) form of this species short limbs. The leaves are simple to 3-
wide, short-lived but produced in suc- is grown under the names ‘Nanus’ and parted, with each segment 10–35cm
cession, three large outer segments are C.prolifer. (4–14in) long, oval, coarsely toothed,
tawny yellow to golden, often with a smooth and waxy blue-green.
purple-brown central stripe, ovate and Cyphomandra (from Greek kyphos,
waisted at the middle, the inner seg- a tumour or swelling, and aner, man, Cypripedium (from Greek Kypris,
ments far smaller, pale yellow heavily referring to the humped shape formed Venus, and pous, foot). Orchidaceae. 233
marked purple to maroon). by the anthers). Solanaceae. S Amer- Northern temperate regions. SLIPPER
Cypripedium
ORCHID, LADY’S SLIPPER ORCHID, MOC- green and fully frost-hardy or slightly
CASIN FLOWER. 45 species, deciduous tender according to provenance.
hardy or near-hardy orchids, rhizoma- Leatherwood is grown for its 4–10cm
C tous with broad, ovate to elliptic leaves

and one to many flowers produced in
spring and early summer. The flowers
(11/2–4in)-long, elliptic to oblong leaves
which are glossy dark green turning
deep red in autumn, and for its small,
consist of an ovate dorsal sepal, two white flowers. These appear in late
narrower and spreading petals and a summer, crowded in whorled and
showy, inflated, slipper-like lip backed slender racemes to 15cm (6in) long.
by the fused lateral sepals. With the Plant in full sun on a damp, acid soil
exception of C.calceolus which tolerates rich in leafmould. Propagate by semi-
lime (although not the variety parviflo- ripe cuttings.
rum), the following species require a
slightly acid soil rich in decayed leaf Cyrtanthus (from Greek kyrtos,
matter. They associate well with ferns, curved, and anthos, flower, referring to
trilliums and dwarf, bog-loving Eri- the curved perianth tube). Amarylli-
caceae in damp, semi-wooded locations Cypripedium calceolus daceae. Tropical Africa, South Africa
and the drier reaches of the bog This European species has fused and twisted (those listed here are from South
garden. They are frost-hardy but bene- tepals in a rich purply-brown, and a very Africa). FIRE LILY. 47 species, bulbous
fit from a thick dry winter mulch. In pronounced pouched lip, or “slipper”. perennial herbs with linear or strap-
very exposed locations, they fare better shaped leaves and tubular to funnel-
in pots in the alpine house, C.japonicum, pleated and fan-shaped leaves. The shaped flowers borne on scapes.
C.macranthos and the otherwise scarcely single flower is 10cm (4in) wide with C.angustifolius (FIRE LILY, to 40cm
visible C.debile especially. Cypripedium green-white, spotted tepals and a rosy (16in) tall, with four to ten, nodding,
resents disturbance and is slow to pink lip which is bowl-shaped and 5cm (2in)-long, scarlet flowers),
increase; it may, however, be divided in puffy. C.macranthos extends from eastern C.brachyscyphus (DOBO LILY, to 25cm
early spring, taking some of the old soil Russia to Japan. It bears three to four (10in) tall, with six to eight, narrow,
with the new plants. large leaves and a solitary, purple-red- 2.5cm (1in)-long flowers in coral red,
C.acaule from eastern North America stained, 8cm (3in)-wide flower. From flame or scarlet) and C.mackenii (IFAFA
produces a pair of basal leaves between North America, C.reginae (syn. C.album) LILY, to 30cm (12in) tall, with four to
which arises a 10–30cm (4–12in)-high is a robust species with broad, ribbed ten, 2.5cm (1in)-long, slender, white to
stalk carrying a single flower to 8cm leaves and two to four, 6–9cm cream flowers with a sweet fragrance)
(3in) across. The drooping tepals are (21/2–31/2in)-wide flowers toward the will take the mildest of frosts, growing
deep olive to chocolate brown, the lip summit of its metre-high stems; the well outdoors in southern Europe and
rose pink. The European C.calceolus tepals white, the lip pink or white. California. C.breviflorus (syn. Anoiganthus
carries two to four leaves on a Several hybrids are available and are breviflorus, with two to ten, yellow or
15–50cm (6–20in) stem which termi- proving hardy and vigorous. One of white, 3cm (11/4in)-long, open flowers
nates usually in a single, 5–8cm the best is C. Gisela Frosch, a cross on a scape to 30cm (12in) tall) is hardy
(2–3in)-wide flower. The tepals are between C. calceolus var. parviflorum and to –5°C/23°F in warm, sheltered posi-
olive to chocolate or maroon, the lip C. macranthos, with chocolate tepals and tions in well drained soils. C.falcatus
clear yellow. Its variety parviflorum from a puffy rose-purple lip. Many species of (with six to fifteen, 6cm (21/2in)-long,
eastern North America has smaller Paphiopedilum were formerly included flesh and yellow-green flowers
flowers with spiralling petals; those of in this genus. narrow and nodding atop a
the Asian var. pubescens are larger and a 30cm (12in)-tall scape) will
uniform yellow flecked purple-brown. cypsela an achene withstand light frosts if
The largest species listed here, C.califor- invested with an adnate perfectly dry when dor-
nicum from the western US produces calyx, as in the fruit of mant and mulched with
metre-high stems hung with up to Compositae. its own dead foliage.
twelve, 4cm (11/2in)-wide flowers, their Most other species are
tepals yellow-green, the lip snowy Cyrilla (for Dominico not hardy but are well
white. The oriental C.debile seldom Cirillo (1734–1790), physi- suited to pot cultivation
exceeds 10cm (4in), a dwarf species cian and professor of botany at under glass in zones 8 and
with glossy green, heart-shaped leaves Naples, executed by the Bourbons below (minimum temperature
paired midway on the stem and a for his radical views). Cyrillaceae. 5°C/41°F). Some species,
single, nodding flower to 3cm (11/4in) SE US to Brazil. LEATHERWOOD, notably the SCARBOROUGH or
wide, pale green with blood red stip- BLACK TITI, MYRTLE. 1 species, GEORGE LILY, C.elatus (syn.
pling on the lip. Also from Japan and C.racemiflora (syn. C.parviflorda), a Cypsela C.purpureus, Vallota pur-
234 China, C.japonicum (syn. C.formosanum) highly variable tree or shrub, 1–9m (Tragopogon purea, Vallota speciosa, to
can be readily identified by its large, (31/4–28ft) tall, deciduous or ever- pratensis) 1m (31/4ft) with six to
cytology
nine, 10cm (4in)-long, broadly funnel- tral, porous soils that never dry out, branched, semi-evergreen or deciduous
shaped flowers in scarlet, pink or light shade and shelter from strong shrub to 4m (12ft) tall; large trefoil-like
white), and C.sanguineus (syn. Gastronema winds. Remove faded foliage in late leaves covered in silvery down and tightly
sanguineum, to 25cm (10in) tall, with one
to three, 10cm (4in)-long, broadly fun-
nelform, scarlet flowers) make excellent
winter and mulch the rhizomes thinly
with a mixture of garden compost,
leafmould and a little bonemeal. Prop-
packed cone-shaped racemes of golden
pea-like and pineapple-scented flowers
carried through the summer; includes
C
house plants. Grow in a fibrous, loam- agate by division in early spring or, ‘Yellow Tail’, particularly fine, with
based mix with added leafmould and C.bulbifera, by bulbils. chrome yellow racemes to 15cm (6in)
sharp sand in full sun or bright indirect The North American C.bulbifera long or more; propagate from scarified or
light. Water plentifully and apply dilute (BERRY BLADDER FERN, BULBLET BLAD- pre-soaked seed in a warm greenhouse in
liquid feed weekly when in growth. Dry DER FERN) produces 15–70cm (6–28in)- spring; also by semi-ripe cuttings); C. x
off deciduous species gradually after long fronds, broadly lanceolate in beanii (C.ardoinoi x C.purgans; low-growing,
flowering; water evergreen species very outline with small bulbils in the axils of deciduous shrub to 40cm (16in) with
sparingly in winter. Top-dress with fresh the upper pinnae. C.fragilis (BRITTLE many, slender erect to arching branches;
growing medium as growth recom- BLADDER FERN, BRITTLE FERN) is found flowers golden yellow, borne in profusion
mences; repot as seldom as possible. throughout the temperate northern along branches); C. x dallimorei (C.multi-
Propagate by seed or offsets in spring. Hemisphere and extends south to florus x C.scoparius; erect shrub to 2.5m
Chile. Its 6–45cm (21/2–18in)-long (8ft); flowers solitary or clustered, yellow
Cyrtomium (from Greek kyrtos, fronds lack bulbils (although the sori stained ruby red to purple-red or lilac-
curved or arched, referring to the are characteristically bladder-like), are pink); C. x kewensis (C.ardoinii x C.multiflorus;
growth habit). Dryopteridaceae. Cos- very finely divided and cut, and a pale arching to prostrate shrub to 30cm (12in)
mopolitan. 20 species, evergreen ferns emerald which contrasts well with the with very small, 3-foliolate leaves; flowers
with loose rosettes of pinnate leaves, brittle, dark stipes. solitary or clustered, pale yellow or
the segments usually large and firm- cream); C.multiflorus (WHITE SPANISH
textured. Grow the following species in Cytisus (from kytisos, a name applied BROOM; Portugal, Spain; erect, much-
the home, or under glass (just frost-free by the Ancient Greeks to woody Legu- branched shrub to 2.5m (8ft); flowers
or warmer), or in very sheltered posi- minosae). Leguminosae. N Africa, W white, solitary or in clusters; includes cul-
tions outdoors, where it will tolerate Asia, Europe, Canary Islands. BROOM. tivars with pale yellow-cream, pure white
lows of –10°C/14°F for short periods 33 species, evergreen or deciduous and pink-tinted flowers); C.nigricans (SE
if mulched. Plant in a neutral medium, trees and shrubs, usually with slender, and C Europe; erect shrub to 1m (31/4);
soilless for containers, humus-rich for ribbed green branches and small, flowers yellow in terminal racemes); C. x
borders. Provide a cool, humid envi- simple to trifoliolate leaves. Pea-like praecox (C.multiflorus x C.purgans; WARMIN-
ronment in light to deep shade and flowers are borne on short axillary STER BROOM; to 1m (31/4ft) tall, similar to
keep moist throughout the year; feed in shoots or terminal racemes in spring C.multiflorus but with denser branchlets;
late spring and summer. Spores soon and summer. Most will tolerate temper- flowers pale yellow to deep gold, massed
give rise to fast-growing new plants. atures as low as –15°C/5°F, often far along ascending branches; includes gold-,
C.falcatum (JAPANESE HOLLY FERN, FISH- lower given perfect drainage and a cream- and white-flowered cultivars);
TAIL FERN; Far East, South Africa, sheltered location. Cytisus resents root C.scoparius (COMMON BROOM, SCOTCH
Hawaii; fronds 20–60cm (8–24in) long, disturbance. Prune lightly to remove BROOM; Europe; erect, many-branched
semi-erect to spreading, broadly lance- dead or exhausted growth. Hard prun- shrub to 2m (61/2ft) tall with yellow flow-
olate in outline, segments in three to ing seldom succeeds. In prostrate and ers; includes the dwarf, low-growing
eleven pairs, each 7–13cm (23/4–5in) decumbent species, pruning is rarely subsp. maritimus with large golden flowers,
long, deep, glossy green, ovate to necessary, although deadheading is the showy, red-blotched f. andreanus, the
oblong, tapering and curving above, beneficial. Propagate by heeled semi- ivory and gold ‘Diana’, and the large,
broad and rounded below toothed or ripe cuttings of lateral shoots in rich red ‘Windlesham Ruby’). The follow-
shallowly lobed). summer; treat these with a hormone ing popular Cytisus species have been
rooting compound and root in a sandy transferred to other genera: C.albus (=
cyst nematodes see eelworms. propagating mix in a case with gentle Chamaecytisus albus); C.canariensis (= Genista
bottom heat. Increase also from canariensis); C.purpureus (= Chamaecytisus
Cystopteris (from Greek kystis, blad- ripewood cuttings in late summer in purpureus); C. x spachianus (= Genista x
der, and pteris, fern, alluding to the a cold frame. C.battandieri may be prop- spachiana).
shape of the indusium). Woodsiaceae. agated from seed.
Cosmopolitan. BLADDER FERN. 18 C.ardoinoi (SW Alps, S France; dwarf, cytokinins a class of plant hormones
species, small, deciduous ferns with prostrate, deciduous shrub to 40cm involved in cell division and organ differ-
creeping rhizomes and lacy, fresh (16in) tall with ridged and winged entiation and causing delay in senescence.
green, 2–3-pinnate fronds. Fully hardy, young branches; flowers rich yellow,
the following species will colonize gul- solitary or a few together in clusters); cytology the branch of biology that
leys and crevices in the rock garden or C.battandieri (MOROCCAN BROOM, concerns itself with the structure, func- 235
stony ledges by ponds, favouring neu- PINEAPPLE BROOM; Morocco; open- tions, generation and life history of cells.
Daboecia
D
hardy in zone 8. In colder regions, D.maculata; flowers in a dense spike,
grow as a container specimen in the white to pale pink or pale lilac-mauve,
unheated greenhouse or conservatory. spotted or streaked blood red or
It requires a moist, acid soil, full sun, maroon, especially on lip); D.incarnata
D warm, humid summers and mild

winters. Propagate by seed or cuttings
of stem tips under mist.
(EARLY MARSH ORCHID; Mediterranean;
15–80cm (6–32in) tall; leaves unspot-
ted; flowers in a short spike, pale rose,
lilac, pink, cream or rich rosy mauve,
dactyloid, dactylose finger-like. lip spotted red); D.maculata (SPOTTED
ORCHID; N, W and C Europe east to
Dactylorhiza (from Greek daktylos, Asia; 15–60cm (6–24in) tall; leaves usu-
finger, and rhiza, root, referring to the ally spotted, tips tapering, thus differing
Daboecia (named after St Dabeoc). finger-like tuber lobes). Orchidaceae. from D.fuchsii; flowers in a dense spike,
Ericaceae. W Europe to the Azores. 2 Europe, Asia, N Africa, N America. 30 white, pale lilac or rose to mauve, with
species, summer-flowering low-growing species, deciduous, terrestrial orchids dark red or magenta spots and lines
and compact evergreen shrubs differing with lobed tubers and lanceolate to especially on lip); D.majalis (BROAD-
from Erica in their broader leaves and strap-shaped leaves sometimes spotted LEAVED MARSH ORCHID; S and C
relatively large, glandular flowers maroon. Produced in spring and Europe east to Russia and W Asia;
which fall away rather than wither and summer in dense, terminal racemes, 20–75cm (8–30in) tall; leaves plain
persist on the plant. For cultivation see the flowers consist of five ovate tepals green or spotted, broad; flowers in a
heaths and heathers. and a broadly wedge-shaped to dense spike with leafy bracts, lilac to
D.azorica (Azores; leaves dark above rounded, shallowly 3-lobed lip. Hardy magenta, lip blotched white and pat-
and silvery beneath; flowers ruby red, in climate zone 6. The southern species terned with dark purple-red); D.praeter-
bell-shaped); D.cantabrica (CONNEMARA may be damaged by prolonged frosts, missa (SOUTHERN MARSH ORCHID; W
HEATH, ST DABEOC’S HEATH; W frost-heave and cold, wet conditions, Europe including S UK; 20–70cm
Europe; taller than the last species, but will usually survive if mulched in (8–28in) tall; leaves unspotted; flowers
forming a straggling bush to 50cm winter. In very cold regions, grow them in a dense spike, deep magenta to
(20in) high; flowers urn-shaped, rose- in pans in the alpine house. Plant in rosy purple, lip spotted and streaked
purple; selections available in a range sun or part-shade in a cool, moist soil purple); D.purpurella (NORTHERN MARSH
of colours including white (‘Alba’, rich in sand and leafmould. Several ORCHID; NW Europe including N UK;
‘Snowdrift’), pale pink (‘Donard Pink’), species will thrive in damp conditions similar to D.praetermissa; to 40cm (16in)
dark pink (‘Praegerae’, dwarf and and are suited to the bog garden. tall; leaves sometimes spotted purple;
spreading with narrow flowers), These include D.elata, D.incarnata, flowers in a dense spike, dark rosy
magenta (‘Porter’s Variety’), dwarf and D.majalis, D.praetermissa, D.purpurella and purple to wine red, spotted or ringed
narrow-flowered), deep rose-purple D.traunsteineri, D.fuchsii and D.maculata dark purple on lip); D.traunsteineri (IRISH
(‘Atropurpurea’) and ‘Bicolor’, with will naturalize in grassland. Most MARSH ORCHID; N and C Europe;
pink, white and striped flowers on the species prefer a circum-neutral soil, 15–50cm (6–20in) tall; leaves some-
same raceme; hybrids between the two although D.maculata favours acid condi- times spotted; flowers in a loose spike,
species are D.cantabrica subsp. scotica, tions whilst D.fuchsii and D.traunsteineri bright magenta, lip spotted purple).
among them the ruby-flowered ‘Jack are lime-loving. Increase by division in
Drake’ and free-flowering crimson early spring, or by seed allowed to self- daffodil a popular name for Narcissus
‘William Buchanan’, combining the sow in areas unlikely to be disturbed (q.v.), especially used of cultivars. Con-
colour and compactness of D.azorica (hybrids may arise). fusingly, in the cut-flower trade and
with the hardiness of D.cantabrica). D.aristata (Japan, Korea, N America; some bulb catalogues, the term is
10–40cm (4–16in) tall; leaves some- reserved for cultivars with long trum-
Dacrydium (from Greek dakrudion, times spotted; flowers in a loose spike, pets (coronas), those with short cups
small tear, referring to the resin drops purple-pink to maroon, lip spotted (coronas) being referred to as narcissi.
these trees exude). Podocarpaceae. SE dark purple); D.elata (ROBUST MARSH The Royal Horticultural Society is
Asia, W Pacific Islands, New Zealand. ORCHID; S Europe, Mediterranean, the International Registration Author-
Some 30 species, evergreen, coniferous especially Algeria; 30–100cm (12–39in) ity for the genus Narcissus, and the cur-
trees or shrubs, with scale-like, dark tall; leaves unspotted; flowers large, in a rent (1998) system identifies 13
green leaves closely overlapping on dense, long spike, deep rose to rich divisions. (1) Trumpet, one flower per
narrow branchlets and inconspicuous magenta with darker stippling on lip; stem; trumpet at least as long as the
cones. RED PINE or RIMU, D.cupressinum, clones with yellow variegated leaves are petals (perianth segments). (2) Large cup,
is a New Zealand native to 40m (130ft) sometimes offered); D.fuchsii (COMMON one flower per stem; cup more than
tall with a narrowly conic to rounded SPOTTED ORCHID; N, W, C and E one third but less than equal to the
crown hung with long, slender, weeping Europe, east to Mongolia; 20–60cm length of the petals. (3) Small cup, one
236 branchlets. This exceptionally graceful, (8–24in) tall; leaves spotted, tips rather flower per stem; cup not more than
slow-growing conifer is marginally broad and blunt, thus differing from one third the length of the petals. (4)
daffodil
DAFFODIL DIVISIONS
The Royal Horticultural Society
is the International Registration
Authority for the genus
Narcissus. For identification
D
purposes daffodils are classified
in 13 divisions, with cultivars
grouped according to flower
shape, size and colour. Eleven
of the divisions are represented
here with examples. Division
12 (Miscellaneous) represents
daffodils not falling into one of
the other divisions. Division 13 TRUMPET (‘BRAVOURE’) LARGE CUP (‘CANISP’) SMALL CUP (‘WOODLAND STAR’)
(Species) represents daffodils Division 1 Division 2 Division 3
occurring in the wild, One flower per stem; trumpet One flower per stem; cup more One flower per stem; cup not
distinguished by botanical at least as long as the petals than one third but less than equal more than one third of the length
features and names. (perianth segments). to the length of the petals. of the petals.
DOUBLE (‘YELLOW TRIANDRUS (‘HAWERA’) CYCLAMINEUS (‘LITTLE WITCH’) JONQUILLA (‘STRATOSPHERE’)

CHEERFULNESS’) Division 5 Division 6 Division 7
Division 4 Characteristics of N.triandrus Characteristics of N.cyclamineus Characteristics of N.jonquilla
One or more flowers per stem; clearly evident; usually two or clearly evident; usually one group clearly evident; usually
with doubling of the petals or more pendent flowers per stem; flower per stem; petals reflexed; 1–3 flowers per rounded stem;
cup or both. petals reflexed. the flower at an acute angle to leaves narrow, dark green; petals
the stem with a very short neck. spreading not reflexed; flowers
fragrant.
TAZETTA (‘MINNOW’) POETICUS (‘CANTABILE’) BULBOCODIUM (N.BULBOCODIUM) SPLIT-CORONA (‘BELCANTO’)

Division 8 Division 9 Division 10 Division 11
Characteristics of N.tazetta group Characteristics of N.poeticus Characteristics of Section Corona split rather than
clearly evident; usually 3–20 group; usually one flower per Bulbocodium evident; usually lobed, usually for more
flowers per stout stem; leaves stem; petals pure white; cup one flower per stem; perianth than half its length.
broad; petals spreading and not usually disc-shaped, with green segments insignificant compared
reflexed; flowers fragrant. or yellow centre and red rim. with the dominant corona.
237
daffodil
Double, one or more flowers per stem; into three zones, none of which need after the leaves turn yellow. Dry the
with doubling of the petals or cup or to be in specific proportions. Where bulbs, clean off old tunics, discard
both. (5) Triandrus, characteristics of petals are substantially of one colour, defective bulbs and, where not
N.triandrus clearly evident; usually two one letter is used; where of more than replanted immediately, store in a cool
D or more pendent flowers per stem;

petals reflexed. (6) Cyclamineus, charac-
teristics of N.cyclamineus clearly evident;
one colour, two or three letters are
used, the outer zone being described
before the mid-zone and/or base.
dark place. Daffodils are usually propa-
gated from offsets or, for rapid multipli-
cation, by chipping or twin-scaling; see
usually one flower per stem; petals Where the trumpet or cup is of one cuttings; they are sometimes increased
reflexed; the flower at an acute angle to colour, one letter is again used; other- by micropropagation (q.v.). Seed is used
the stem with a very short neck. (7) Jon- wise, three letters are always used, the for hybridizing and for increasing
quilla, characteristics of N.jonquilla eye-zone being described before the many species.
group clearly evident; usually 1–3 mid-zone and rim. In double daffodils, The development stages or forms of
flowers per rounded stem; the code letter(s) before the hyphen daffodil bulbs are variously described.
leaves narrow, dark green; describe not only the outer Mother bulbs have two or three new
petals spreading not whorl of petals but bulbs attached at the base and can be
reflexed; flowers perianth also any extra petals expected to produce one or two flower
fragrant. (8) Tazetta, tube of the same stems in the first year and to increase.
characteristics of colour inter- Offsets are new bulbs developed to the
N.tazetta group spersed with the stage of detachment from the mother
clearly evident; trumpet or cup bulb, either naturally or by being
usually 3–20 flowers segments. The pulled apart when loose enough; they
per stout stem; full classification are usually flattened on one side and
leaves broad, petals consists of the produce leaves in the first year, but
spreading and not trumpet- division followed rarely flower until at least the second
shaped
reflexed; flowers corona by the colour code; year. Chips are very small offsets (the
perianth
fragrant. (9) Poeticus, (consisting for example, a term should not be confused with that
characteristics of of six large cup cultivar with flow- used to describe a system of propaga-
petals)
N.poeticus group ers of mainly yellow petals, tion; see chipping). Rounds are evenly
without admixture white at the base, and with the rounded bulbs with a single growing
of any other; usually Typical cup having a white eye-zone, white point or ‘nose’ at the top, developed
one flower per stem; daffodil mid-zone and yellow rim would be from offsets, chips or seed and usually
petals pure white; coded 2YW-WWY. producing one flower when of suitable
cup usually disc-shaped, with a green The leaves and flowers are tolerant size. Double-nosed bulbs consist of a
or yellow centre and a red rim; flowers of severe frost, except those of division round bulb with a large offset still
fragrant. (10) Bulbocodium, characteris- 8. Generally, plant bulbs one and half attached, so that there are two associ-
tics of Section Bulbocodium clearly times their depth but deeper in light- ated growing points or ‘noses’ at the
evident; usually one flower per stem; textured soils. Shallow planting results top, each of which will produce a
perianth segments insignificant com- in greater increase and smaller bulbs. flower.
pared with the dominant corona; Plant in late summer or early autumn, Possible problems: bulb scale mite,
anthers attached more or less centrally in random groups, with bulbs 5cm (2in) bulb flies, eelworm; basal rot, virus.
to the filament; filament and style usu- apart; planting should be earliest for
ally incurved. (11) Split corona, corona plants in division 9, which have virtu- Dahlia (for Anders Dahl (1751–1789),
split rather than lobed, usually for ally no resting period. Swedish botanist). Compositae. C
more than half its length. (12) Miscella- Daffodils may be grown for decora- America. 30 species, perennial, tuber-
neous, all daffodils not falling into one of tion or exhibition in deep, 22–25cm ous-rooted herbs and subshrubs with
the other divisions. (13) Daffodils dis- (9–10in)-diameter pots; a mass of flow- pinnately compound leaves and long-
tinguished solely by botanical name. ers can be obtained by planting one stalked radiate flowerheads produced in
Within each division, daffodils are layer half way down the pot and summer and autumn. In cultivars, the
further distinguished by code letters for another layer immediately above. Daf- disc florets are often replaced by ray flo-
colours: white or whitish = W; green = fodils are particularly attractive where rets, giving a ‘double’ (sometimes spheri-
G; yellow = Y; pink = P; orange = O; established in grass; remove turf tem- cal) effect. The florets of cultivars range
red = R. The colour code consists of porarily to allow planting, or use a from strap-shaped, to rolled and quill-
two letters or groups of letters sepa- bulb-planting tool. Turf plantings will like, to broadly petal-like. The species
rated by a hyphen, letters before the usually thrive for many years, but both are undeservedly rare in cultivation.
hyphen describing petals (perianth the grass and the daffodil foliage They are fine plants for the cool
segments) and letters after the hyphen should be left uncut for four to six glasshouse and conservatory, and for
describing the trumpet or cup (corona). weeks after the flowers have faded. In subtropical bedding schemes. The taller
238 For purposes of colour coding, the borders, lift bulbs after three years to species should be encouraged to climb,
petals and trumpets or cups are divided maintain vigour in the stock, but only supported on wires and trellis.
Dahlia
Garden dahlias derive especially to 0.3m (12in) high. (2) Anemone- (3–5ft) high. (6) Ball, ball-shaped or
from Dahlia coccinea and D.pinnata and flowered: one or more rows of ray flo- globose blooms, sometimes slightly flat-
cultivation of the genus dates from at rets surrounding a dense group of tened at the top with ray florets blunt
least the 16th century. Dahlias were upward pointing tubular florets; or rounded at their tips and cupped for
introduced into England in 1789 and
their popularity spread throughout
Europe and the US in the mid-19th
blooms 7.5cm (3in) diameter; plants
0.6–0.9m (2–3ft) high. This group con-
sists of very few cultivars. (3) Collerette
more than half their length; blooms
5–15cm (2–6in) diameter; plants
0.9–1.1m (3–31/2ft) high. (7) Pompon,
D
century. 20,000 cultivars are now listed (US Collarette), open centre blooms, sometimes referred to as drumstick
in the International Register of Dahlia surrounded by an inner ring of short dahlias, and similar to Ball group culti-
Names maintained by the Royal Horti- florets, known as the ‘collar’ and one vars but more globose with florets
cultural Society. Dahlias are frost or two complete outer rows of usually involute for their entire length; minia-
tender but prolific and long-flowering flat ray florets; blooms 10–15cm ture sized blooms up to 5cm (2in)
with strongly fragrant sap. Seed-raised (4–6in) diameter; plants 1.1m (31/2ft) diameter; plants up to 0.9m (3ft) high.
types include dwarf forms, suitable for high. (4) Waterlily or Nymphaea-flowered, (8) Cactus-flowered, blooms fully double
bedding and containers. Border types, fully double blooms with generally with no central disc, and long pointed
which are perpetuated by tubers, sparse flat ray florets, having slightly ray florets, finely quilled for more than
require staking, and they are often dis- incurved or recurved margins; blooms half the length; plants 0.9–1.1m
budded. 10–12cm (4–43/4in) diameter; plants (3–31/2ft) high. In the US, this group is
Ten groups are classified: (1) Single- 0.9–1.2m (3–4ft) high. (5) Decorative, subdivided into straight cactus types, with
flowered: open-centred blooms with one fully double blooms with no central straight slightly incurved or recurved
or two complete rows of outer florets disc, and broad, flat or slightly involute rays, and incurved types where pointed
surrounding a disc; blooms usually ray florets, sometimes slightly twisted rays turn towards the centre of the
about 10cm (4in) diameter; most plants with the apex obtuse; plants 0.9–1.5m bloom. (9) Semi-cactus flowered, blooms
DAHLIA FLOWER FORMS
SINGLE (‘PRESTON PARK’) COLLERETTE (‘CLAIR DE LUNE’) WATERLILY (‘ABRIDGE NATALIE’) DECORATIVE (‘AUDACITY’)
Open-centred blooms with one Open-centred blooms surrounded Fully double blooms with Fully double blooms with no
or two complete rows of outer by an inner ring of short florets relatively few broad ray florets central disc, and broad, flat or
florets surrounding a central and one or two complete outer that have slightly incurved or slightly involute ray florets,
cluster of tiny disc florets. rows of usually flat ray florets. recurved margins. sometimes slightly twisted.
BALL (‘BARBERRY CAROUSEL’) POMPON (‘NOREEN’) CACTUS (‘SHIRLEY ALLIANCE’) MISCELLANEOUS (‘JESCOT JULIE’)
Ball-shaped or globose blooms, Also known as drumstick dahlias; Fully double blooms with no A grouping of relatively small
with ray florets blunt or rounded similar to Ball cultivars, but more central disc; long, pointed ray disparate classes, including
at their tips and cupped for more spherical, with florets incurved florets, strongly recurved for Orchid (as above), Star,
than half of their length. for the whole of their length. more than half of their length. Chrysanthemum and Peony.
239
Dahlia
In the UK, five subdivisions of plants, restrict the number of side

bloom size apply: giant, 254mm (10in) shoots according to the size of blooms
or more; large, 203–254mm (8–10in); required: 4–6 for giant/large, 7–10 for
medium, 152–203mm (6–8in); small, medium/small. Support each plant
D 102–152mm (4–6in); miniatures, up to

102mm (4in). Subdivisions according
to colour are: white; yellow; orange;
with three canes, placed 15cm (6in)
apart, and surrounding string ties. For
high-quality blooms, remove the pairs
bronze; flame; red; dark red; light pink; of buds from axils behind the terminal
dark pink; lilac, lavender or mauve; bud.
purple, wine or violet; blends, two or D.coccinea (Mexico to Guatemala; to
more colours intermingled; bicoloured, 3m (10ft), usually tinged purple; ray
ground colour tipped with another florets scarlet, orange or deep maroon);
colour; variegated, several colours D.excelsa (Mexico; to 6m (20ft); ray
Dahlia ‘Wootton Impact’ striped or splashed in one bloom. A florets lilac, solitary or a few clustered
This is a classic exhibition or show dahlia, of cultivar annotated 5a Lt.Pk is a light together); D.imperialis (Guatemala to
the semi-cactus flower type, with blooms of pink giant-flowered decorative type. Colombia; to 9m (30ft); ray florets
medium size held well above the foliage on Sow bedding types during late yellow sometimes tipped red); D.pinnata
strong, straight stems. winter/early spring at 16°C/61°F, and (Mexico; to 2m (61/2ft), tinged purple;
harden off, planting out after any risk ray florets pale purple stained yellow or
fully double with slightly pointed ray of frost. Propagate border types from pink at base); D.tenuicaulis (Mexico; to
florets broad at their base and revolute tubers or rooted cuttings. In frost-prone 4m (13ft); ray florets lilac, many
for more than half their length, either areas, lift tubers in mid- to late clustered together).
straight or incurving; plants 1.2m (4ft) autumn, or immediately after the first Possible problems: aphids, capsid
high. (10) Miscellaneous, a grouping of frost, and place upside down until the bug, earwigs, red spider mite, slugs and
relatively small disparate classes, stems are dry. Treat with fungicide and snails, thrips; crown gall (see gall), grey
including Orchid, Star, Chrysanthe- store in dry sand at 5°C/41°F min. mould, virus.
mum and Peony cultivars, the latter Overwintered tubers may be planted
considered a distinct group in the US, out direct, six weeks before the last Dais (from Greek dais, a torch, refer-
all growing to 0.3–1.1m (1–31/2ft) high. frost is expected, 15cm (6in) deep. ring to the shape of the inflorescence).
Decorative and Cactus flowered groups Alternatively, raise plants from 7.5cm Thymelaeaceae. South Africa, Mada-
are further divided in the US to give (3in)-long cuttings taken from tubers gascar. 2 species, deciduous or semi-
twelve groups. Subdivisions of groups forced at 15–18°C/59–64°F in late evergreen shrubs with small leaves and
are made according to bloom diameter winter. Pot up and harden off to plant fragrant, tubular to star-shaped flowers
and colour. Those made according to out after any risk of frost, 60–90cm in terminal heads. Provide a minimum
size are the prerogative of national (24–36in) apart, according to ultimate winter temperature of 5°C/41°F in full
societies on account of the effect of height. Stop plants from rooted cut- sun. Plant in a gritty mix; water plenti-
varying cultural conditions. tings at 38cm (15in) high. On all fully when in growth, very sparingly
OVERWINTERING DAHLIA TUBERS
1 Once the first frosts blacken

the stems, cut back top growth
to about 15cm (6in); lift, clean
2 After about 3 weeks, turn the
tubers right way up and cover
with a thick dry material, for
3 In spring, the first shoots that
grow from the tubers can be
taken as basal cuttings, with a
4 As new shoots appear, trim
off any withered portions of
the parent tuber and replant in a
and label the tubers, and stand example a chipped bark mulch. thin sliver or heel from the tuber. generous hole. Use the label to
240 them upside down in a tray in a Keep them dry and frost-free Pot them up in moist compost mark the plant’s position.
frost-free place to dry thoroughly. until spring. and place in a propagator.
Daphne
when dormant. Propagate by semi-ripe copper oxychloride have been success- the bay tree). Thymelaeaceae. Europe,
cuttings, alternatively by seed sown in fully used in the UK. Seed treatment Asia, N Africa. Some 50 species, small
spring. D.cotinifolia (leaves to 7cm and the application of chemicals to the evergreen and deciduous shrubs, with
(23/4in), obovate to oblong, blue-green; soil prior to planting, are recom- heads or clusters of flowers usually in
flowers fragrant, to 1.5cm (5/8in) in
diameter, pale lilac).
mended in some cases. late winter and spring. These are tubu-
lar with four spreading lobes. In some
species, they are followed by berries.
D
daisy grubber a short- These shrubs are grown for their
handled tool designed for beautiful and intensely fragrant
extracting thick-rooted weeds, blooms, sometimes followed by brightly
especially from lawns. It consists of coloured fruits. In some, the foliage is
a narrow forked blade, bent into a also handsome, laurel-like (D.odora,
U-shape at a point along its length to bloom on D.laureola) or variegated, as in cultivars
facilitate leverage. Damsons skin of of D.odora, or the gold-edged D. ‘Carol
fruits Mackie’. Most are hardy to at least
damping DAMPING DOWN is the wet- damson a type of plum derived from –15°C/5°F. D.mezereum, D.petraea and
ting of greenhouse floors and staging Prunus institia. The fruits are small with D.cneorum withstand temperatures down
in order to increase humidity, especially a pronounced neck, oval, purple and to –30°C/–22°F. Evergreen species
when temperatures are high. Damping initially acid sour. The dwarf compact may become semi-deciduous in less
down is important as an aid to pollinat- trees have leaves much smaller than favoured climates. Plant in a well-
ing tomatoes. DAMPING OVERHEAD is plums; closely allied to the bullace. drained but moisture-retentive soil. For
the spraying of greenhouse plants with Probably known in Syria in pre-Roman woodland species, incorporate addi-
water to reduce water loss via transpi- times; the name damson or ‘dama- tional organic matter, and provide
ration loss. Damping overhead is usually scene’ derives from Damascus. The shade during the hottest part of the
performed only in warm greenhouses, trees succeed in wet and harsh condi- day. D.arbuscula, D.bholua, D.blagayana,
and out of bright sunlight. tions; notable self-fertile cultivars are D.genkwa, D. x hybrida, D.mezereum and
‘Prune Damson’ for flavour, ‘Merry- D.pontica tolerate partial shade, D.laure-
damping-off a soil-borne fungal dis- weather Damson’ for good size, and ola will grow in deep shade. Most thrive
ease that destroys sprouting seeds, or ‘Farleigh Damson’ for flavour and in soils ranging from slightly acid to
causes stem rotting of young seedlings compact habit. alkaline, but D.arbuscula, D.blagayana,
at soil level. It commonly affects bed- Possible problems: aphids, birds, D.genkwa, D.pontica and D.tangutica
ding plants, herbaceous perennials, plum moth (see moths), red spider mite; demand lime-free conditions.
newly sown grass, vegetables and tree bacterial canker (see bacterial diseases), Propagate species from seed sown
seedlings. Several fungi may be brown rot, silver leaf. ripe, after removal of the fleshy exte-
involved including Pythium species, rior. Stand in cool, shaded position
(which thrive in wet conditions and in Danaë (for Danaë, daughter of King (heat inhibits germination). Retain the
soils with a high pH), Rhizoctonia solani Acrisius of Argos). Liliaceae (Rus- seed pan for a second flush of seedlings
(especially in drier and more acid con- caceae). W Asia. ALEXANDRIAN LAUREL. in the following year. Progeny may be
ditions), Thielaviopsis, Botrytis, Fusarium 1 species, D.racemosa, an evergreen variable, but is more likely to be virus-
and Phytophthora. Pre-emergence damp- perennial herb, related to Ruscus but free, and for this reason seed is the
ing off is encouraged by overwatering with flowers in short terminal racemes. most sensible means of increase for
or poor drainage, and by temperatures The stems grow from 50 to 100cm (20 D.mezereum. Select seed from a free-
that are too low for quick germination. to 39in) tall in shrubby clumps, emerg- flowering parent with good flower
In post-emergence damping-off, there ing as asparagus-like shoots and hard- colour where possible. Propagate culti-
will often be spreading patches of dis- ening in one year. The true leaves are vars by semi-ripe heel cuttings, in a
ease. The latter condition is prevalent scale-like and are replaced by luxuri- closed case. With trailing plants, propa-
in wet, warm conditions where seed ant, dark, glossy green cladophylls. gate by simple layering in summer.
has been sown too thickly and ventila- These are 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in) long, Increase also by whip-grafting in late
tion is poor. ovate to lanceolate and taper finely to winter: deciduous species on to D.mez-
The disease is difficult to control. the tip. The small, green flowers are ereum, and evergreens on to D.laureola
To prevent its occurrence, avoid the sometimes followed by orange-red understock. Plants suffering sudden
conditions mentioned above and use berries. It is hardy in zone 7. Grow in die-back may be under stress or
sterilized or otherwise pathogen-free sun or part shade on a moist, fertile infected with virus diseases. Cucumber
growing media. Disinfect containers soil. Propagate by division, or by seed mosaic and other viruses cause mot-
prior to use and employ clean water in in autumn, although growth from seed tling and distortion of the leaves. The
raising. Post-emergence, damping-off is slow. fungus Marssonina daphnes causes a spot-
spreads rapidly but early treatment ting at the base of the leaves and on
with fungicide can help to check its Daphne (for Daphne, the nymph the petioles which may result in defoli- 241
progress. Cheshunt compound and changed by Apollo into Laurus nobilis, ation. (See table overleaf.)
Daphne
DAPHNE
D.alpina S & C Europe deciduous, erect or 1–4cm (1⁄2–11⁄2in), fragrant, white in terminal red to orange-
prostrate to 45cm (18in) lanceolate to oblanceolate, heads in spring or early yellow, downy
D D.arbuscula Hungary evergreen, procumbent,

grey-green, hairy
to 2cm (3⁄4in), linear to

summer
very fragrant, rose pink, in grey-white, not

to 20cm (8in) oblanceolate, obtuse, terminal clusters in fleshy
glossy, tough summer
D.bholua E Himalaya evergreen or 5–10cm (2–4in), elliptic to very fragrant, white to black
deciduous, erect or oblanceolate, undulate to purple-pink, in terminal
spreading, to 4m (12ft) obscurely toothed, dull, clusters in winter
deep green, leathery
Comments: Includes the hardy, deciduous var. glacialis ‘Gurkha’, and the hardy, evergreen ‘Jacqueline Postill’ with large, deep pink flowers.
D.blagayana E Europe, evergreen, procumbent, 3–5cm (11⁄4–2in), oblong fragrant, creamy white in pink-white
Balkans, to 30cm (12in) to obovate, blunt, smooth dense terminal heads in
Greece spring
D. x burkwoodii garden origin vigorous, erect, semi- 2–4cm (3⁄4–11⁄2in), fragrant, white flushing
(D.caucasica x D.cneorum) evergreen to deciduous, oblanceolate, bluntly rose pink to mauve-red in
to 1.7m (51⁄2ft) apiculate, dull green, terminal clusters in spring
more or less smooth
Comments: Includes the vigorous ‘Albert Burkwood’, with white flowers ageing pink then rose-
mauve, and ‘Carol Mackie’ with leaves edged bright, pale gold.
D.cneorum C & S Europe low-growing, evergreen, 1–2.5cm (1⁄2–1in), fragrant, pale to deep rose yellow to brown
GARLAND FLOWER to 40cm (16in) oblanceolate, deep green in dense terminal clusters
above, blue-green in spring and sometimes
beneath again in late summer
Comments: ‘Eximia’ has dark green leaves and, in late spring, white flowers with pink to red
exteriors and throat, opening from rosy buds.
D.genkwa China deciduous, erect, 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), subtly fragrant, amethyst,

slender, sparsely lanceolate to ovate, thinly lilac, rose-purple or white,
twiggy, to 1m (31⁄4ft) downy at first in sparse clusters before
leaves in spring
D.giraldii China erect, deciduous, to 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), fragrant, golden yellow, red
1.2m (4ft) oblanceolate sometimes tinted purple in
bud, in terminal clusters in
early summer
242 D.alpina D.bholua D. x burkwoodii ‘Somerset’ D.genkwa

Daphne
DAPHNE
D. x houtteana garden origin erect, bushy, semi- to 9cm (31⁄2in), deep to pale lilac-rose, in
(D.laureola x D.mezereum) evergreen, to 1m oblanceolate to elliptic, clusters below leaves in
(31⁄4ft) glossy dark green strongly
flushed purple-red or
maroon at first
spring
D
D. x hybrida garden origin bushy, evergreen to 3–7cm (11⁄4–23⁄4in), oblong very fragrant, deep purple-
(D.sericea x D.odora) 1.5m (5ft) to ovate, glossy, leathery pink in terminal clusters
throughout the year
D.jasminea SE Greece erect or semi- to 1cm (1⁄2in), oblong to highly fragrant, white
prostrate evergreen lanceolate, blue-grey, sometimes with a red-
to 30cm (12in) smooth purple exterior, in sparse
terminal clusters in spring
D.laureola Europe, W evergreen, erect to 5–8cm (2–3in), obovate to fragrant, yellow-green, in black
SPURGE LAUREL Asia 1.5m (5ft) lanceolate or oblong, clusters below leaves in late
leathery, glossy winter and early spring
Comments: ssp. philippi is semi-prostrate and compact, the flowers smaller, lime green and sometimes tinted purple.
D. x manteniana garden origin evergreen, dwarf and to 3.5cm (11⁄2in), glossy very fragrant, deep rose-
(D. x burkwoodii x D.retusa) rounded habit dark green purple to lilac in terminal
clusters in spring, summer
Comments: ‘Manten’, the clone usually seen, is described here. and autumn
D.mezereum Europe deciduous shrub to 3–8cm (11⁄4–3in), fragrant, rose to deep bright red,
MEZEREON, FEBRUARY 1.5m (5ft) with oblanceolate, soft sea purple-red in clusters persistent
DAPHNE numerous, erect, rod- green, thinly downy at first below leaf buds or leaves
like branches arising in winter and early spring
from a short trunk-
like stem Comments: Includes selections with white, palest pink and deep crimson
flowers, also with variegated leaves.
D. x napolitana garden origin bushy erect evergreen 2–3.5cm (3⁄4–11⁄2in), very fragrant, rose lilac, in
(D.sericea x D.cneorum) to 75cm (30in) oblanceolate to narrowly terminal clusters in spring
ovate, shiny above, with further flushes in
glaucous beneath summer and autumn
D.odora China, Japan evergreen, erect to 5–8cm (2–3in) narrowly sweetly fragrant, rose tinted red
WINTER DAPHNE procumbent to 2m ovate to lanceolate or purple-red or white with a
(61⁄2ft) elliptic, leathery, glossy rosy purple exterior, in
terminal clusters in late
Comments: ‘Aureomarginata’ : leaves deeply edged creamy yellow to pale gold. winter and spring
D.jasminea D.mezereum ‘Bowles’ Variety’ D.odora ‘Aureomarginata’ D.sericea Collina Group 243
Daphne
DAPHNE
D.petraea N Italy evergreen, mat- 1cm (1⁄2in), narrowly fragrant, rose pink in green-brown,
forming, to 30cm oblanceolate to spathulate, terminal clusters in spring downy
D Comments: ‘Grandiflora’: flowers

larger, deeper rose to magenta.
(12in) tough, dark green and summer
D.pontica SE Europe, evergreen to 1.5m (5ft) 3–10cm (11⁄4–4in), obovate fragrant, pale yellow-white black
Caucasus, Asia to oblong, pointed, deep, or yellow-green in pairs
Minor glossy green usually below new growth
in spring and summer
D.sericea E Mediterranean small, many- 1–5cm (1⁄2–2in), strongly scented, dark rose red or orange-
D.collina branched evergreen oblanceolate to obovate or ageing buff in clusters in brown
to 1m (31⁄4ft) narrowly elliptic, glossy spring, sometimes with a
above, downy beneath second flush in autumn
Comments: The name Collina Group applies in gardens to very hardy forms with dense, dark green leaves and small, purple-pink flowers.
D.tangutica NW China evergreen, erect and 3.5–6cm (11⁄2–21⁄2in), fragrant, exterior rose- red
open or rounded and oblanceolate to oblong or purple, interior white
Comments: D. tangutica Retusa Group densely branched to elliptic, more or less acute flushed rose-purple in
differ in their slow-growing, dwarf and 1.75m (53⁄4ft) glossy, leathery, deep green tube, in dense, terminal
rather stiff habit and shorter, retuse leaves. clusters in spring and
again in late summer
D. ‘Valerie Hillier’ garden origin dwarf, spreading to 5cm (2in), narrowly fragrant, pink-purple
(D.cneorum x evergreen oblong to elliptic, glossy fading to white edged pink
D.longilobata) green from spring to autumn
Daphniphyllum (from Daphne and exceeding of a critical duration of silver sand. In spring and summer,
Greek phyllon, leaf.) Daphniphyllaceae. darkness; typically short-day plants. stand the pot in rainwater or distilled
Asia. 15 species, evergreen shrubs or See photoperiodism. water to half its depth and water or
trees with stout branches, tough leaves mist overhead daily with the same. In
and small flowers in dense clusters in Darlingtonia (for Dr William Dar- winter, keep permanently moist, not
early summer – these are green in lington of Philadelphia, botanist). Sar- sodden. In the home, Darlingtonia can
female plants, purple-red in male raceniaceae. US (N California, S be grown in large terraria. Propagate
plants. The following species is hardy Oregon). 1 species, D.californica, the by division in spring.
to –20°C/–4°F, but must be sheltered COBRA LILY or CALIFORNIA PITCHER
from cold, drying winds. Grow in cool, PLANT, an evergreen, carnivorous Darmera (for Karl Darmer, 19th-
humid borders or light open woodland, perennial herb. It forms a clump of century Berlin horticulturist). Saxifra-
preferably on neutral, humus-rich and insect-trapping leaves, each to 35cm gaceae. W US. UMBRELLA PLANT,
moisture-retentive soil. Propagate from (14in) long. These are pitcher-like (i.e. INDIAN RHUBARB. 1 species, D.peltata
seed in spring, or by greenwood cut- tubular and filled with a digestive brew (syn. Peltiphyllum peltatum), a perennial
tings under mist or in a closed case of water and bacteria). They spiral herb with fleshy, creeping and flattened
with gentle bottom heat. D.himalense gently upwards from a narrow base to rhizomes. The rounded leaves are
var. macropodum (syn. D.macropodum; a broader, bulbous apex, which resem- some 30–60cm (12–24in) across, with
Japan, Korea, China; shrub or tree to bles a hooded cobra. The pitcher toothed to lobed margins and attached
15m (50ft); young branches red-brown; mouth is small and opens on the to hairy stalks some 1–2m (31/4–61/2ft)
leaves 8–20cm (3–8in), oblong, some- underside of the hood, guarded by a tall. Produced in spring, the flowers are
what deflexed, leathery, dark glossy forked tongue-like appendage. The small, white to pink, and borne in
green above, glaucous beneath, petiole pitchers are usually bright green laced domed cymes on stout and hairy,
and midrib usually tinted red). with translucent white windows; with purple-tinted scapes to 40cm (16in) tall.
age and bright sunlight, the traps Fully hardy, it is an excellent perennial
dard a short lateral shoot of a fruit assume purple-red tints. White flowers for damp gardens and the margins of
tree, not more than 7.5cm (3in) long nod on tall stalks in summer. Grow in ponds, lakes and streams. Plant in full
and usually terminating in a fruit bud. full sunlight in a buoyant but humid sun or part shade on a humus-rich
environment, with a minimum winter medium that never dries out. Once
244 dark dominant describing plants temperature of 5°C/41°F. Plant in a established, Darmera will tolerate satu-
where flowering is dependent on the mix of live sphagnum, moss peat and rated soils when in growth. Mulch the
Davallia
networks of stout, exposed rhizomes in Texas, N Mexico; trunk to 5m (16ft), flowering, hardy biennial, useful in cul-
winter. Propagate by division in spring. often buried; leaves to 100 (39in) x tivation for meadow areas of the wild
1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in), glossy green, mar- garden. It is a food plant for the cater-
Darwinia (for Erasmus Darwin ginal spines yellow becoming brown pillars of the swallow-tail butterfly, and
(1731–1802), naturalist and writer). and with fibrous tips; includes the a source of nectar and pollen for bees.
Myrtaceae. W Australia. 60 species,
dwarf to medium-sized shrubs with
aromatic leaves. Produced in spring,
glaucous-leaved ‘Glaucum’).
Datura (from an Indian vernacular

Sow seed in situ in autumn or early
spring. Subspecies sativus, with a fleshy,
orange taproot, is the edible carrot (q.v.).
D
the flowers are small and arranged in name). Solanaceae. N and C America,
terminal heads surrounded by a pair naturalized elsewhere. THORN APPLE. 8
of conspicuous bracts. Provide a mini- species, annual or short-lived perennial
mum temperature of 7°C/45°F with shrubby herbs with entire or sinuately
full sun and a buoyant, rather dry toothed leaves and large flowers in
atmosphere. Grow in a perfectly summer. These are broadly funnel-
drained, sandy, acid to neutral medium shaped with five, pointed folds. The
low in nitrogen. Water moderately fruit is a spiny, 2-chambered capsule.
when in growth, at other times, spar- Woody perennial species with pendu-
ingly. Trim back after flowering to lous, not erect flowers, are now
maintain compactness. Propagate by included in Brugmansia. Grow in full
seed in spring or by semi-ripe cuttings sun in moisture-retentive but well- Daucus carota
in summer. D.citriodora (LEMON-SCENTED drained, fertile and preferably calcare- The wild carrot makes a statuesque plant
MYRTLE; dwarf to small shrub; leaves ous soil. Propagate by seed sown in situ for the wild garden, and is attractive to
to 2cm (3/4in), glaucous, lemon-scented; in spring or earlier under glass. Set out interesting and beneficial insects.
flowerheads to 3cm (11/4in) across, erect seedlings after danger of frost has
to nodding, bracts orange-red and passed. The foliage is extremely suscep- Davallia (for E. Davall (1763–98),
green, flowers orange-red). tible to viruses affecting other solana- Swiss botanist). Davalliaceae. Warm
ceous plants and may act as a host; do temperate, subtropical and tropical Old
Dasylirion (from Greek dasys, thick, not grow in close proximity to potato World. HARE’S FOOT FERN. Some 40
and leirion, lily, owing to the thickness of crops. All parts are extremely toxic. species, deciduous or semi-deciduous
the stem). Agavaceae (Dracaenaceae). D.ceratocaula (C and S America; frost-tender ferns with finely pinnate or
S US to Mexico. SOTOL, BEAR GRASS. purple-tinted annual to 90cm (36in); pinnatifid fronds, deltoid to ovate in
18 species, evergreen perennials, some- flowers fragrant, to 18cm (7in), white, outline and delicately cut into lacy
times with a short, stout trunk at whose marked or flushed red-mauve); D.inoxia segments. The genus is most readily
summit the linear, spiny-edged leaves (DOWNY THORN APPLE, INDIAN APPLE, recognized by the tough, creeping rhi-
emerge in a fountain-like rosette. Off- ANGEL’S TRUMPET; C America, natural- zomes. Covered in chestnut scales, they
white, bell-shaped flowers are borne ized Old World; hairy annual to 1m branch and ramble freely, cascading
in large, narrow panicles in summer. (31/4ft) tall; flowers to 10cm (4in), white from pots, encasing baskets and some-
Grow in full sun with a minimum tem- to pink or lavender); D.metel (HORN times forming impenetrable tangles.
perature of 5°C/41°F and in a dry, OF PLENTY, DOWNY THORN APPLE; S Grow in bright indirect light or shade,
airy atmosphere. Plant in a fast-drain- China, widely naturalized in the trop- with a minimum winter temperature
ing, loam-based medium high in sand ics; glabrous annual to 1.5m (5ft), stems of 7°C/45°F. Provide an airy, humid
and grit. Water moderately in spring sometimes purple-tinted; flowers to atmosphere. Water and syringe gener-
and summer, very sparingly in winter. 20cm (8in), white to creamy yellow or ously when in full growth, but scarcely
Propagate by seed in spring. The fol- deep purple, sometimes bicoloured, at all during dormancy and cold
lowing may prove hardy in very shel- often double); D.stramonium (JIMSON weather. Well-established plants will
tered locations in zones 7 and 8. Plant WEED, JAMESTOWN WEED, COMMON withstand periods of drought and
in a gritty soil near a sun-baked wall. THORN APPLE; Americas, naturalized extremes of temperature, but may drop
Provide a dry mulch in winter. Europe; glabrous to short-hairy annual all their fronds. Plant the rhizome
D.acrotrichum (Mexico; trunk to 1.5m to 2m (61/2ft); flowers to 10cm (4in), bases in an open, soilless medium with
(5ft); leaves to 100 (39in) x 1–2cm white or purple). added bark; thereafter, allow the rhi-
(1/2–3/4in), pale green, finely toothed zomes to follow their own path – often
with hooked, pale yellow spines with Daucus (from daukos, ancient Greek through the air and outside the pot.
fibrous tips; inflorescence to 4m (13ft)); name). Umbelliferae. Cosmopolitan. 22 Repot as seldom as possible. These
D.glaucophyllum (Mexico; trunk absent or species, tap-rooted annual and biennial ferns were often grown as ‘balls’ –
to 30cm (12in); leaves to 120 (48in) x herbs with finely cut, 2–3-pinnate apparently self-supporting spheres of
1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), glaucous, margins leaves and small, white to cream or dense foliage hung in lightly shaded,
very finely toothed and bearing mauve flowers in compound umbels. humid places. To create such a ‘ball’,
hooked, yellow spines; inflorescence to A native of Europe and Central Asia, make a globe of wire mesh, then line it 245
6m (20ft)); D.texanum (TEXAS SOTOL; D.carota, WILD CARROT, is a summer- with moss and fill it with potting mix.
Davallia
Poke rooted lengths of rhizome into in a cold frame; alternatively, propa- fruit to 10cm (4in) long, thickly cylin-
the holes or pin them to the surface. gate by seed sown in a cold frame in drical, pendulous, leaden blue).
D Keep moist, warm and shaded until

established. Water large ‘balls’ by
plunging. Push fresh compost between
spring while still moist from fruit
(drying may inhibit germination). deciduous (1) falling off when no
longer functional, as with non-ever-
the tangle of rhizomes at least once a day-degrees a measure of accumu- green leaves, or the petals of many
year. The best species for this treatment lated heat units; calculated by progres- flowers; (2) of a plant that sheds its
are D.bullata and D.canariensis. Increase sively adding the difference between leaves annually, or at certain periods;
all by detaching rooted pieces of the daily mean temperature and a pre- cf. evergreen.
rhizome. scribed base temperature. The measure
D.bullata (HARE’S FOOT FERN; ropical is used to determine optimum sowing deck, decking a terrace made of
Asia; fronds to 30cm (12in) long, 3–4- or harvest dates for certain vegetable or wood boarding, common in the US.
pinnate, long-stalked and rather soft- fruit crops. Popular as an alternative to stone or
textured, bronze at first becoming dark concrete paving, decking is also suitable
olive to jade green, fertile fronds dis- day length, day neutral see for raised viewing platforms and link-
tinctly bullate above, segments linear, photoperiodism. ing across water, to provide an effective
acute); D.canariensis (CANARY ISLAND contrast of form. However, deck sur-
HARE’S FOOT FERN, DEER’S FOOT FERN; dead-heading the removal of faded faces can be slippery when wet.
W Mediterranean to Atlantic Islands; blooms from flowering plants. It is car-
fronds to 45cm (18in), 4-pinnate, emer- ried out to improve the plant’s appear- declinate bent or curved downward
ald to dark green, rather tough, fertile ance and to prevent seed from setting, or forward.
fronds bullate above, segments ovate to thereby in many cases encouraging
rhomboid); D.fejeensis (RABBIT’S FOOT further flowering. decompound a compound leaf with
FERN; Fiji; fronds to 45cm (18in). 4-pin- two or more orders of division, for
nate, fine and feathery, segments linear, dealbate whitened, covered with a example bipinnate, tripinnate, triter-
sometimes cleft at apex); D.mariesii white powder. nate.
(SQUIRREL’S FOOT FERN, BALL FERN; E
Asia; fronds to 20cm (8in), 3–4-pinnate, deblossoming the removal of flow- Decumaria (from Latin decimus, tenth,
finely cut, bright green, segments ers from fruit trees, and sometimes referring to the number of flower parts).
lanceolate to oblong, entire to lobed); from late-planted strawberries, in the Hydrangeaceae. W China, S US. 2
D.trichomanoides (SQUIRREL’S FOOT FERN, first season after planting, as an aid to species, climbing deciduous or semi-
BALL FERN; S E Asia; fronds to 30cm establishment. It is also a means of evergreen shrubs, similar to Hydrangea
(12in), 3–4-pinnate, very finely cut, discouraging biennial bearing in top anomala and Schizophragma, but differing
dark green, segments cleft to toothed fruits. in their inflorescences, which are wholly
and horned). composed of small, fertile florets. Fully
Decaisnea (for Joseph Decaisne hardy; cultivate as for Schizophragma.
Davidia (for the French missionary (1807–82), Director of the Jardin des D. barbara (CLIMBING HYDRANGEA,
Armand David, who introduced the Plantes, Paris.) Lardizabalaceae. E WOOD VAMP; SE US; to 10m (33ft); leaves
tree from China in the 1890s). Nys- Asia. 2 species, deciduous shrubs with to 10cm (4in), ovate-oblong, apex taper-
saceae (Davidiaceae). SW China. DOVE pinnate leaves and, in early summer, ing, margin toothed; flowers creamy
TREE, GHOST TREE, HANDKERCHIEF flowers composed of six, narrow sepals white, sweetly fragrant, in broad panicles
TREE. 1 species, D.involucrata, a decidu- and hanging in slender, pendulous to 10cm (4in)); D.sinensis (leaves to 7cm
ous tree to 20m (66ft), with flaking racemes. These are followed by large, (23/4in), broader than in D.barbara and
grey-brown bark and a broadly pyra- bean-like fruit containing black seeds often persistent; flowers muskily scented).
midal crown. The leaves are broadly embedded in white pulp. Hardy to at
ovate, to 16cm (6in), sharply serrate, least –15°C/5°F, but often hit by late decumbent of a stem, lying horizon-
with a cordate base and an acuminate frosts. Grow in a moist, fertile, loamy tally along the ground, but with the
apex. The small purple flowers appear soil in sun or partial shade. Propagate apex ascending and almost erect.
in spring and summer, forming a 2cm from seed sown fresh in the cold frame
(3/4in)-wide ball-like head that hangs on in autumn, or under glass in early decurrent of a leaf blade, where the
a slender stalk. The head is subtended spring, although germination may be base extends down and is adnate to the
by two, drooping and fluttering, pure slow and irregular by the latter petiole (if any) and the stem.
white bracts, the larger to 20cm (8in). method. D.fargesii (W China; erect to
Hardy in climate zone 6. Plant on 3m (10ft) with several, rod-like stems; decurved curved downwards.
deep, moist loam in a sheltered site. In leaves to 80cm (32in), composed of up
cold areas, protect when young with to 25 leaflets, each to 14cm (51/2in) decussate of leaves, arranged in
burlap or sacking during the winter. long, ovate to elliptic and glaucous opposite pairs with adjacent pairs at
246 Propagate by semi-ripe cuttings under beneath; flowers to 4cm (11/2in), yellow- right angles to each other, thus forming
mist in summer or from heeled cuttings green in panicles to 40cm (16in) long; four longitudinal rows.
Delosperma
deep bed method a method of cul- deflexed bent downward and out- Hydrangea-like flowers are numerous,
tivation in beds constructed above soil wards; cf. reflexed. large and nodding. Hardy to about
level, usually to a height of about
30cm (12in). Ideally, the beds should
be about 1.2m (4ft) wide so that all
deflocculation the disintegration of
aggregated clay particles, as may occur
–15°C/5°F. Grow in sheltered shade
on a cool, humus-rich, moisture-reten-
tive but freely draining lime-free soil.
D
necessary work can be carried out from on soils low in calcium and high in Propagate by division or by ripe seed
the pathways, avoiding compaction sodium. It leads to the loss of soil sown when fresh. D.caerulea (China; to
through treading. The method is fre- structure. 50cm (20in); flowers pale mauve to
quently associated with deeply dug lilac-blue with blue stamens).
beds and high organic-matter input, defoliant a chemical substance which
and is sometimes referred to as the when applied to a plant induces abscis- delayed open-centre a form of
French intensive method. See bed, sion, causing the leaves to fall. fruit tree where the lower main
raised bed. branches arise from a central trunk
defoliation the removal of leaves over a distance of 1.2–1.8m (4–6ft),
deer any mammal of the family Cervi- from plants. It may occur as a natural above which the head opens out to
dae, of which two species, the ROE DEER response to seasonal change in the case produce a goblet shape.
(Capreolus capreolus) and FALLOW DEER of deciduous species, or as a result of
(Cervus dama), are most likely to invade pest or disease attack, drought, water- Delonix (from Greek delos, conspicu-
gardens in Europe; other species such logging, or other disorder in the case ous, and onyx, claw, referring to the
as SIKA and MUNTJAC may do so in of evergreen species. Defoliation may showy, clawed petals). Leguminosae.
some areas. Deer attack trees and be a deliberate operation for cultural Old World tropics. 10 species, ever-
shrubs by browsing foliage and strip- advantage, especially in the case of green or deciduous trees with bipinnate
ping bark. They may also fray bark by tomatoes, where the lower leaves are leaves and racemes of showy flowers,
rubbing their newly formed antlers progressively removed as a means of each composed of five clawed petals
against it to remove the velvet covering. improving air circulation and also and a bundle of long stamens. The fol-
Low-growing plants are eaten to of extracting moribund tissue. lowing species is widely planted in
ground level. Deer mostly feed at dusk tropical and subtropical regions as a
and dawn so they are seldom seen, but defruiting see fruit thinning. fast-growing and long-flowering street
hoof marks will usually be apparent in tree. In temperate zones, it will grow in
soft soil. Since deer lack incisor teeth in degree-days see day-degrees. large tubs in the greenhouse or conser-
their upper jaw, the shoots of damaged vatory, with a minimum winter temper-
trees and shrubs are cleanly cut on one dehiscence the mode and process ature of 10°C/50°F. In frost-free zones,
side with a characteristic frayed edge of opening (i.e. by valves, slits, pores grow in deep, well-drained soils with
on the other. A wide range of plants is or splitting) of a seed capsule or anther full sun and shelter from cold winds.
subject to attack by deer, but the extent to release seed or pollen. Propagate as for Caesalpinia.
to which a particular garden is affected D.regia (syn. Poinciana regia;
will depend on alternative sources of dehiscent of a seed FLAMBOYANT, PEACOCK
food in local woodland, the size of the capsule; splitting open FLOWER, FLAME TREE,
deer population and weather condi- along definite lines to ROYAL POINCIANA; Mada-
tions. Control is best achieved by erect- release seeds when ripe; gascar; to 10m (33ft) with
ing strong fencing around the garden cf. indehiscent. spreading crown; flowers to
to a height of at least 2m (61/2ft), or by 10cm (4in) across, scarlet to
protecting trees with trunk guards. dehorning the severe flame or orange, variably
Deer repellents and scaring devices are cutting back of a selection marked or striped gold to
best avoided, since they seldom prove of large branches in an cream or pure gold).
effective in the long term. established tree, especially a
fruit tree, to envigorate, contain Delosperma (from Greek
deficiency a condition in plants, soil or improve shape. The process is delos, visible, and sperma, seed,
or growing media where essential less drastic than heading back. referring to the lidless seed cap-
nutrients are absent or insufficient to sules). Aizoaceae. Africa. Over
sustain healthy growth. Symptoms of Deinanthe (from Greek deinos, 150 species, perennials or,
deficiency – variously expressed in strange, and anthos, flower, Dehiscent
rarely, annuals or biennials,
leaves, shoots and fruits, according to which refers to the exceptionally seed capsule with succulent leaves and daisy-
species and the nutrient concerned – large flowers). Hydrangeaceae. (larkspur) like flowers. Cultivate as for
commonly arise as a result of the E Asia. 2 species, robust, erect Lampranthus. D.tradescantioides
inability of plants to absorb or trans- perennial herbs with ovate to elliptic, (South Africa; dwarf and creeping
port available nutrients. This may be toothed or lobed leaves, borne toward perennial with ovate to cylindrical, 3-
due to soil acidity or alkalinity, water- the stem apex. Produced in summer in angled leaves to 3cm (11/4in) long and 247
logging or drought. See nutrients. terminal clusters or panicles, the white flowers to 2.5cm (1in) wide).
Delphinium
Delphinium (from Greek delphis, dol- is essential. Hybrids and cultivars do end rather than the point; shaped
phin; delphinion was a name used by not come from seed. They may be like the capital form of the Greek
Dioscorides). Ranunculaceae. North propagated by division in early autumn letter, delta Δ.
temperate regions. 250 species, annual, or early spring or, preferably, from
biennial or perennial herbs with 5–10cm (2–4in) shoot cuttings, with demersed of a part constantly
D palmately or digitately lobed and cut

leaves in basal clumps and on tall, erect
stems. Produced in summer in narrow,
solid stems, taken in the spring. Root-
ing can be achieved in a mixture of
peat and sand, or in perlite or in water.
submersed under water.
Dendranthema (from Greek den-

sometimes branching racemes, the Where appropriate, seed should be dron, tree, and anthemon, flower).
flowers are spurred and consist of five packaged and refrigerated to preserve Compositae. Europe, C and E Asia.
petal-like sepals and two pairs of smaller viability, before sowing during late About 20 species, muskily aromatic
petals. When the latter are distinctively winter or early spring under protection perennial herbs, sometimes woody at
coloured and downy, they are termed at a temperature of 15°C/59°F. In the base, with pinnatifid or entire leaves
the ‘bee’. The smaller species are suited US delphiniums are not usually grown and daisy-like flowerheads in loose
to the rock garden and sunny borders on as perennials. corymbs produced in late summer
free-draining, gritty soils. Those from Tall garden hybrids require staking; and autumn. The florist’s chrysan-
the Western United States may need for high quality flower spikes, shoots themum is D.grandiflorum, an ancient
winter protection in cold areas. There should be thinned to 5–7 per established cultigen probably raised in gardens
is a wide choice of hybrid cultivars. plant. Watering is essential in dry from the yellow-flowered, Japanese
The tall spectacular hybrids of gar- spells, and cutting the stems to ground D.indicum (see chrysanthemum).
dens, which are available in varying level immediately after flowering will
shades of blue, and purple, mauve, produce a second flush, but supple- dendritic, dendroid branching
pink, cream and white are derived mentary feeding should be applied. finely at the apex of a stem, in the
mainly from D.elatum, D.grandiflorum D. x belladonna (D.elatum x D.grandiflo- manner of the head of a tree.
and D x belladonna. rum; garden hybrids with tall, branch-
Cultivars may be considered in three ing stems to 1.75m (53/4ft) with single dendrology the botanical science
groups. The Belladonna Group are or semi-double flowers in shades of sky concerned with the natural history of
perennials, upright and branching with blue, dark blue, gentian and indigo, trees.
palmately lobed leaves. Cap-shaped often with a white ‘eye’); D.brunonianum
single flowers are borne in abundance (Himalaya; perennial to 50cm (20in) Dendrocalamus (from Greek,
on strong stems of loose branches; tall with pale purple-blue, dark-spurred dendron, tree and kalamos, reed).
each flower 2cm (3/4in) or more in flowers); D.cardinale (California; short- Gramineae. SE Asia. 30 species of
diameter, with spurs up to 3cm (11/4in) lived perennial to 60cm (24in) with giant, clump-forming bamboos, sep-
long. Plant height is up to 1.2m (4ft); spikes of scarlet flowers with yellow arated from Bambusa mainly by floral
flowering early to late summer; suitable ‘eyes’); D.elatum (Southern and Central characters and size. See bamboos.
as cut flower as well as garden decora- Europe to Siberia; perennial to 2m
tion. The Elatum Group are clump- (61/2ft) tall with dense spikes of single, Dendrobium (from Greek dendron,
forming perennials with flowering semi-double or double flowers in tree, and bios, life, referring to the
spikes bearing numerous single, semi- shades of blue, purple and white and epiphytic habit of most species).
double or double flowers, at least 6cm with contrasting ‘eyes’); D.grandiflorum Orchidaceae. Asia, Polynesia, Aus-
(21/2in) in diameter; each with five large (syn. D.chinense; Siberia, E Asia; peren- tralia. At least 1000 species, mostly
outer sepals and eight inner sepals. nial often treated as an annual, to 1m epiphytic, perennial herbs. They
Stems bear lateral shoots which pro- (31/4ft) tall with blue, purple or white range widely in habit from dwarf
duce smaller flowers after those on the flowers in loose racemes, usually with plants with clumps of fleshy leaves to
main stem. Plant height is up to 2m contrasting dark and white ‘eyes’); tall species with cane-like pseudob-
(61/2ft); flowering early to mid summer, D.nudicaule (California; short-lived ulbs. The flowers consist of five
repeat flush in autumn if cut back. perennial, 20–60cm (8–24in) tall with spreading tepals and a showy lip.
The Pacific Hybrids include annual, loose racemes of yellow-eyed, orange They are produced at various times
biennial or perennial cultivars, similar to fiery red flowers); D.tatsienense of year, singly or in clusters, racemes
to the Elatum Group. Flowers up to (China, Tibet; short-lived perennial, or panicles. Plant in small containers,
7cm (23/4in) in diameter, semi-double, 20–60cm (8–24in) tall with loose spikes preferably clay pots or baskets, con-
borne in dense, erect inflorescences up of bright blue or white flowers). For taining a very open, bark-based mix.
to 2.5m (8ft) high; early to mid- D.ajacis and D.consolida see Consolida In very humid conditions, plants can
summer. ambigua. be mounted on slabs of bark or dead
Delphiniums thrive in any fertile soil Possible problems: aphids, slugs and branches. Grow in bright, filtered
which is not waterlogged in winter. snails; powdery mildew, virus. sun with a buoyant, humid
Perennial types can be planted from atmosphere. Provide a minimum
248 spring to early autumn and annual deltoid, deltate resembling an equi- temperature of 10°C/50°F. Water,
types in the spring; adequate watering lateral triangle attached by the broad mist and feed generously when in
Dendrobium
D ENDROBIUM
Name Distribution Flowering time Hardiness Habit Flowers
D.aggregatum India spring cool-growing evergreen with squat, to 4cm (11⁄2in) diam., often
spindle-shaped pseudobulbs scented, in arching racemes,
Comments: Grow in pans; give cool dry rest in winter.
D.aphyllum India late winter cool-growing deciduous with narrow

golden yellow, throat orange
to 5cm (2in) diam., in clusters

D
D.pierardii pendulous canes along canes, translucent
white to pink, lip cream-
Comments: Mount on bark or raft to allow for pendulous habit. yellow marked purple at base
D.bigibbum Australia year round intermediate- to evergreen with erect canes to 6cm (21⁄2in) diam., in long-
COOKTOWN ORCHID warm-growing and leathery dark green stalked sprays, pink, purple,
leaves magenta or white, lip
spurred, often with a white
Comments: Includes var. phalaenopsis with broader petals and strong colour. throat
A common cut flower with many hybrids and cultivars.
D.chrysanthum India spring cool-growing deciduous, canes long, to 4cm (11⁄2in) diam.,
slender, pendulous fragrant, in short clusters,
golden yellow, lip fringed,
Comments: Grow in a basket to allow for pendulous habit. with a dark red-brown blotch
D.densiflorum India spring cool-growing evergreen, medium-sized; to 5cm (2in) diam, fragrant in
canes club-shaped dense pendulous racemes,
yellow, lip orange in throat,
finely fringed
D.fimbriatum India, Burma, spring cool-growing deciduous, canes long, to 5cm (2in) diam., in
Thailand, narrowly spindle-shaped pendulous racemes, deep
China, orange-yellow, lip golden with
Malaysia maroon blotch, margin
intricately fringed
D.infundibulum Burma, late spring intermediate- evergreen; canes erect, with to 8cm (3in) diam., in
Thailand growing sparse black felt clusters, sparkling white, lip
funnel-shaped, frilled with
yellow stain at base
D.kingianum Australia year round cool-growing medium-sized evergreen to 3cm (11⁄4in) diam., in erect
with dense clumps of terminal racemes, white
Comments: Very vigorous plant flowering profusely if left to form large tapering pseudobulbs and cream, pink or purple-red
pot-bound clumps. tough leaves
D.loddigesii Laos, China spring intermediate- semi-evergreen; short to 5cm (2in) diam. solitary
growing sprawling canes with fleshy along stems, lilac-purple, lip
leaves orange banded white, edge
Comments: Grow in pans. purple, fringed
D.aphyllum D.chrysanthum D.infundibulum D.nobile 249

Dendrobium
D ENDROBIUM
Name Distribution Flowering time Hardiness Habit Flowers
D.moschatum India to summer cool-growing evergreen; canes erect to 7cm (23⁄4in) diam., in
Thailand drooping racemes, pale
D yellow tinted or veined pale

rose, lip hairy, slipper-shaped
with 2 dark purple blotches
D.nobile India, China, winter-spring cool-growing deciduous or semi- to 8cm (3in) diam., scented,
Thailand evergreen; canes tall, erect in short clusters, white
flushed mauve to pink lip
white edged rosy-pink,
Comments: Very resilient, popular plant with many colour forms including blotched velvety crimson to
whites, purples and yellow-marked. Parent of many hybrids. maroon in throat
D.speciosum Australia year-round intermediate- evergreen; pseudobulbs to 4cm (11⁄2in) diam.,

growing stoutly club-shaped; leaves fragrant, waxy, in dense
leathery terminal racemes, narrow, not
Comments: Highly floriferous if allowed to become pot-bound and placed opening fully, white to cream,
outdoors in full sun from mid to late summer. lip marked purple
D.spectabile New Guinea summer warm-growing evergreen; pseudobulbs tall, to 8cm (3in) diam., in erect
cane-like; leaves fleshy racemes, tepals narrow, wavy
and twisted yellow-green
striped purple, lip paler
veined purple-red narrowing
to a beak-like tip
D.strebloceras Molucca summer warm-growing evergreen; pseudobulbs to 8cm (3in) diam., fragrant
tall, cane-like; leaves fleshy in lax racemes, green-yellow
marked purple, petals narrow,
erect and strongly twisted
D.wardianum Assam, Burma, spring cool-growing semi-evergreen; canes long, to 10cm (4in) diam., fragrant,
Thailand narrow, arching solitary or clustered, white
tipped magenta, lip with
Comments: Requires high temperatures and plentiful water and feed in orange stain and dark
growth, cool dry conditions at rest. crimson blotches in throat
growth. When resting, they should be with added sharp sand and rubble. deciduous ferns with creeping rhizomes
watered only to prevent the pseudob- Protect in winter with a dry mulch. and more or less deltoid, 1–4-pinnate
ulbs from shrivelling. D.nobile, D.bigibbum Propagate by ripe wood cuttings in or -pinnatifid fronds. The follow-
and their respective hybrids make excel- summer, with moderate heat, in a ing species is hardy to at least
lent houseplants. Increase by division; very sandy mix. –30°C/–22°F. Plant in the
also by detaching and growing on the woodland garden in full or part
plantlets that sometimes develop along denitrification the reduc- shade on a moist and acid,
the cane-like pseudobulbs. tion of nitrates to nitrites, humus-rich soil. Propagate by
ammonium and gaseous division or spores. D.punctiloba
Dendromecon (from Greek dendron, ammonia through microbial (HAY-SCENTED FERN; eastern N
tree, and mekon, poppy). Papaveraceae. activity in anaerobic condi- America; deciduous, fronds to
SW US, Mexico. TREE POPPY, BUSH tions. See nitrogen. 75 x 20cm (30 x 8in), bright
POPPY. 1 species, D.rigida, a summer- green, deltoid to lanceolate,
flowering, evergreen shrub or small Dennstaedtia (for finely 2–3-pinnate; pinnules
tree, 3–6m (10–20ft) tall, with tough, August Wilhelm Dennst- ovate to rhomboid, acute,
ovate to lanceolate leaves to 10cm (4in) edt (1776–1826), notched to lobed; scented of
long. The solitary flowers are 2–7cm German botanist and hay when dried).
(3/4–23/4in) in diameter, fragrant and physician). Dennstaed-
composed of four yellow petals and tiaceae. Tropics and dentate dentate toothed; of the mar-
numerous stamens. It is hardy in zone subtropics, eastern N (toothed) gins of leaf blades and other
leaf margin
250 8 if planted near a sunny, south-facing America. Some 70 flattened organs, cut with teeth.
wall and on a well-drained loamy soil, species, evergreen or Castanea dentata Strictly, dentate describes teeth
Deutzia
that are shallow and represent two to cylindrical, branches occupying up desiccant a chemical substance that
sides of a roughly equilateral triangle, to half length of inflorescence, some- causes the aerial parts of plants to dry
in contrast to serrate (saw-toothed), times weeping to one side, spikelets out. It is used to facilitate the harvest-
where the teeth are sharper and curved small, green or golden suffused silver to ing of commercially grown potatoes. In
forwards, and crenate, where the teeth bronze or purple, pale blonde when gardens, lawn sand has such an effect
are blunt and rounded. Less precisely,
the term is used to cover any type of
toothed margin.
dry and persisting well into autumn;
var. parviflora: a small, rare and rather
fine variety; var. vivipara: spikelets
on some plants growing in turf.
Desmodium (from Greek desmos,

D
develop into plantlets instead of seed; band, referring to the stamens which
denticulate minutely dentate. ‘Bronzeschleier’: syn. ‘Bronze Veil’, are united in a band). Leguminosae.
inflorescence large, tinted bronze; Widespread. BEGGARWEED, TICK-
depauperate reduced in stature, ‘Goldhaenge’: syn. ‘Golden Showers’, TREFOIL. Over 300 species of decidu-
number or function as if starved and late-flowering, tall with golden inflores- ous shrubs, subshrubs, herbs or
ill-formed. Species with organs cences; ‘Tautraeger’: syn. ‘Dew Car- perennials with 3-lobed to trifoliolate
described thus are, however, usually rier’: small, compact, inflorescence or pinnate leaves and pea-like flowers
perfectly healthy but adapted to cope tinted blue); D.flexuosa (WAVY HAIR in racemes or panicles in late summer.
with a particular ecological factor. GRASS, COMMON HAIR GRASS; northern The genus is hardy in zone 6. Cultivate
temperate regions; deciduous to semi- as for Indigofera. D.elegans (syn. D.tili-
dependent hanging downward as a evergreen, densely tufted forming low, ifolium; shrub to 1.5m (5ft); leaves with
result of its weight, as in a flower- or mop-like clumps; leaves to 15 x 0.1cm three leaflets, each to 6cm (21/2in) long,
fruit-laden branch. (6 x1/16in), thread-like, terete, bright obovate to rounded, dark green above,
green, smooth; inflorescence grey-downy beneath; flowers rose to
deplanate flattened or expanded. 20–100cm (8–39in), loosely pyramidal, carmine or pale lilac, in racemes to
branches occupying uppermost quarter 20cm (8in) long).
depressed sunken or flattened, as if of inflorescence, very fine, somewhat
pressed from above. wavy, glistening, copper-red to bronze- determinate (1) of inflorescences
green, spikelets small, shimmering, such as cymes where a central or ter-
descending tending gradually down- bronze to copper-red, silver or yellow- minal flower opens first, thus ending
wards. green; ‘Tatra Gold’: leaves pale gold to extension of the main axis; (2) of
lime green, inflorescence soft bronze, tomato cultivars of bush habit, where
Deschampsia (for Louis Deschamps comes true from seed). side branches develop instead of a con-
(1765–1842), French naturalist). tinuous main stem (cf. determinate).
Gramineae. HAIR GRASS. Temperate Desfontainia (for René Louiche
Regions. 50 species, perennial or, rarely, Desfontaines (1752–1833), French Deutzia (for Johann van der Deutz
annual grasses forming dense tussocks. botanist). Loganiaceae. Chile, Peru. (1743–88), friend and patron of
They flower in summer, bearing many 1 species, D.spinosa, a bushy, evergreen Thunberg, the namer of this genus).
small spikelets in finely branched, long- shrub to 3m (10ft) with holly-like Hydrangeaceae. Asia, C America. 60
stalked panicles. Both species described leaves. Produced in late summer and species, usually deciduous shrubs with
below are perennial, fully hardy and will autumn, the solitary flowers are pith-filled branches and peeling bark.
grow in sun or light shade. They prefer 1.5–9cm (5/8–31/2in) long, tubular to The leaves are ovate to lanceolate or
moist (not wet) conditions, but will toler- funnelform, crimson to scarlet-orange elliptic, sometimes toothed and more
ate some drought, especially from late and edged with five yellow, shallow or less hairy. Often fragrant and in
summer onwards. D.cespitosa will grow in lobes. With shelter from cold, drying tones of white, cream and rose to
heavy, poorly drained soils. D.flexuosa winds, it is hardy to –10°C/14°F, but purple-red, the flowers appear in
needs a neutral to acid soil, ideally rich may also be grown in the cold green- spring and summer in racemes, cymes,
in leafmould and sand. Clumps of D.lex- house or conservatory. Plant in a panicles or corymbs. They consist of
uosa may become tired and bald within humus-rich, moisture-retentive, acid five elliptic to lanceolate or rounded
a few years. Increase both species by soil in partial shade. Mulch established petals and ten stamens. Most species
division or seed. plants and water plentifully during dry will tolerate cold to at least –15°C/5°F,
D.cespitosa (syn. D.caespitosa; HAS- weather. Propagate from seed surface- although a number, including D.gracilis,
SOCKS, TUFTED HAIR GRASS, TUSSOCK sown on a soilless propagating mix, or D.grandifora, D. x lemoinei and D. x rosea,
GRASS; northern temperate regions; in summer by semi-ripe cuttings rooted are susceptible to damage by late frosts.
evergreen to semi-deciduous, densely under mist or in a closed case with They perform best in moist but well-
tufted, forming large, erect to spread- bottom heat. drained, fertile and humus-rich loamy
ing clumps; leaves 10–30 (4–12in) x soils, with shade from early morning
0.25–0.5cm (1/12–1/4in), linear, glossy deshooting the removal of soft sun in regions that suffer late spring
dark green, ridged and channelled young shoots from trained fruit trees, frosts, and with protection from hot
above, rough to touch; inflorescence especially those growing towards or out afternoon sun. After flowering, remove 251
20–100cm (8–39in), loosely pyramidal from the wall on wall-trained trees. old and overcrowded growth at the base.
Deutzia
Flowers are carried on the short later- thick-textured, very hairy beneath; nod in spreading, loose panicles. The
als produced by the previous season’s flowers white, sometimes tinted pink, in flowers are followed by deep purple-
growth and are produced more gener- a slender and sparse, nodding panicle blue berries. Grow Daniella in the
ously on young wood. Propagate to 12cm (43/4in)); D. x rosea (garden cool greenhouse or conservatory, and
species by seed, cultivars and hybrids origin; dwarf and arching to 1m (31/4ft); ensure a minimum temperature of
D by soft nodal cuttings in late spring –

treat cuttings with 0.4% IBA and root
in a sandy mix in a closed case with
leaves elliptic to oblong or lanceolate,
serrate; flowers white, tinted pink, in
short, broad panicles; includes
5–7°C/41–45°F. These plants will also
survive outdoors in sheltered sites
where temperatures do not drop far
bottom heat. Alternatively, propagate ‘Carminea’, with red-pink flowers); below zero for long periods. Grow in
by semi-ripe cuttings and hardwood D.scabra (Japan; to 2.5m (8ft); leaves any moderately fertile soil in sun or
cuttings in a cold frame, by removal of broadly ovate, coarsely serrate; flowers dappled shade. Water plentifully and
suckers or by layering for low-growing to 1.5cm (5/8in) across, white, honey- feed when in full growth; keep just
plants such as D.compacta, D.scabra, D. x scented, in loose, broadly pyramidal moist in winter. Propagate by seed
rosea. panicles; ‘Plena’: flowers double, pale sown under glass in spring, alterna-
D.compacta (China; to 1m (31/4ft); pink); D.setchuenensis (China; to 2m tively by division. D.caerulea (stem to
leaves to 7cm (23/4in), lanceolate, finely (61/2ft); leaves ovate, finely tapering, ser- 60cm (24in) tall; flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in)
toothed; flowers to 1.2cm (1/2in) across, rulate; flowers white, to 1cm (1/2in) across, blue to white with pale yellow
white, in small, compact corymbose across in loose, broad corymbs). anthers, in panicles to 30cm (12in));
panicles); D. x elegantissima (garden D.tasmanica (stem to 120cm (48in) tall;
origin; to 1.5m (5ft); leaves ovate to dewberry, various Rubus spp,. flowers to 2cm (3/4in) across, pale blue
oblong-ovate, sharply toothed above; especially R.almus DEWBERRY, R.caesius with brown anthers, in panicles to
flowers to 2cm (3/4in) across, pink, in EUROPEAN DEWBERRY, R.canadensis 60cm (24in)).
loose cymes; includes ‘Elegantissima’, AMERICAN DEWBERRY, R.flagellaris
with upright growth, dark green leaves AMERICAN DEWBERRY, NORTHERN DEW-
and pale pink flowers edged carmine, BERRY, R.hispidus SWAMP DEWBERRY
‘Fasciculata’, an erect, rounded shrub R.minus SWAMP DEWBERRY, R.trivialis
with mid-green leaves and pale pink SOUTHERN DEWBERRY.
flowers, and ‘Rosealind’, with deep
carmine flowers); D.gracilis (Japan; erect dewpoint as temperature falls during
to 2m (61/2ft); leaves lanceolate to ovate, calm clear nights, the capacity of air to
serrulate; flowers pure white, to 2cm hold moisture is reduced until satura-
(3/4in) across, in racemes or narrow pan- tion is reached, and this is known as
icles to 8cm (3in) long; includes ‘Gran- the dewpoint. Condensation and the
diflora’, a hybrid with D.scabra that is formation of dew consequently occurs
larger in all respects, and forms with on the cool surfaces of plants.
yellow-mottled leaves and pink flowers);
D.longifolia (China; to 2m (61/2ft); leaves di-ammonium phosphate see
lanceolate, finely tapering, serrulate; ammonium phosphate.
flowers to 2.5cm (1in) across, white,
tinted purple-pink outside, in broad diadelphous of stamens, borne in
cymes to 8cm (3in); includes ‘Elegans’, two distinct bundles, or with several Dianthus ‘La Bourboule’
with drooping branches and purple- stamens united and a further solitary Alpine pinks are much smaller and daintier
pink-tinted flowers, and ‘Veitchii’, with stamen set apart from the others, as in than modern pinks and border carnations.
narrow leaves and purple-tinted flow- many Leguminosae.
ers); D. x magnificd (garden origin; to 2m Dianthus (from Greek dios, and anthos
(61/2ft), robust and upright; leaves ovate dialypetalous see polypetalous. – ‘flower of the gods’). Caryophyl-
to oblong, sharply and finely toothed; laceae. CARNATION, PINK. Mostly
flowers white, single or double, in diandrous possessing two perfect Europe and Asia. 300 species, peren-
dense panicles to 6cm (21/2in) long; stamens. nial, biennial and, rarely, annual herbs.
includes ‘Staphyleoides’, with large, They range in habit from woody-based
drooping panicles of white, fragrant Dianella (diminutive of Diana). Lili- mat-formers to erect herbs. Produced
flowers with reflexed petals); D.monbeigii aceae (Phormiaceae). Tropical Africa, in spring and summer, the flowers are
(China; to 1.5m (5ft), with slender Asia, Australasia, flax lily. 25–30 solitary or borne in terminal clusters.
branches; leaves ovate to lanceolate, species, evergreen, fibrous-rooted, They consist of a cylindric calyx and
serrate; flowers to 1.4cm (1/2in) across, perennial herbs with erect, slender five, spreading, clawed petals. These
white, in corymbose inflorescences to stems, each bearing a terminal fan of are usually obovate, toothed to cut
6cm (21/2in)); D.pulchra (Philippines, grass-like to narrowly sword-shaped at the outer margin and sometimes
252 Taiwan; to 4m (12ft); leaves lanceolate leaves. To 2cm (3/4in) across, the star- bearded below. Many are perfumed,
to narrowly ovate, entire to toothed, like flowers consist of six tepals and most characteristically of cloves.
Diascia
The perennial species listed here are toothed or cut; includes cultivars with diapause the state of reduced
fully hardy and suited to well-drained, flowers in shades of pink, red and metabolic activity in which insects may
sunny positions – for example, border white, many treated as annuals, among overwinter in temperate climates.
edges, cracks in paving, wall crevices them ‘Heddewigii’ – compact, very
and the rock garden. The smaller free-flowering plants in a range of Diapensia (ancient Greek name).
species generally fare better in alpine colours); D.deltoides (MAIDEN PINK; Diapensiaceae. Circumboreal. 4
sinks or in raised beds. All Dianthus
need a gritty soil, neutral to alkaline,
Europe, Asia; tufted, mat-forming
perennial, 15–45cm (6–18in), some-
species, low-growing, tufted, evergreen
subshrubs with glabrous, entire leaves
D
with the exception of the acid-loving times hairy, often glaucous; leaves nar- and solitary, terminal flowers in early
D.pavonius. They will deteriorate in wet rowly oblanceolate to linear; flowers summer – these are tubular with five,
conditions. Increase by cuttings or solitary, pale to deep pink with pale spreading lobes. In cool, damp cli-
rooted offsets in spring and summer. spots in a dark ‘eye’, petals to 0.8cm mates, D.lapponica is suited to north-
D.barbatus and D.chinensis are usually (3/8in), toothed and bearded); D.gratia- facing crevices in the rock garden,
treated as annuals or biennials, sown nopolitanus (syn. D. aesius; CHEDDAR shady scree beds or troughs. Plant in
under glass in spring and planted out PINK; W and C Europe; compact, mat- part shade or good indirect light on a
in autumn or (in severe climates) the forming perennial, 5–20cm (2–8in); moist, lime-free gritty soil, enriched
following spring, having been overwin- leaves linear, glaucous; flowers solitary, with leafmould. Increase by careful
tered in a cold frame. They need a pink or red, very fragrant, petals 1cm division in spring; alternatively, propa-
well-drained soil and full sun. See also (1/2in), toothed, sometimes bearded); gate by soft tip cuttings taken after
carnation and pinks. D.haematocalyx (Balkans; tufted peren- flowering. D.lapponica (Alaska, N Asia;
D.alpinus (Alps; tufted perennial, nial, 10–30cm (4–12in); leaves linear, creeping subshrub to 7.5cm (3in);
5–15cm (2–6in); leaves linear to glaucous, with thickened margins; flow- leaves to 1cm (1/2in), spathulate to
oblong-lanceolate, shiny; flowers soli- ers solitary or a few per cluster, deep linear, leathery turning red in winter;
tary, deep pink with crimson purple purple-pink with buff exteriors and a flowers solitary, white, to 2cm (3/4in)
spots on a white ‘eye’, petals 1–2cm purple-red calyx, petals 0.5–1cm across).
(1/2–3/4in), toothed and bearded; (1/4–1/2in), toothed, sparsely bearded);
includes white- and salmon-flowered D.microlepis (Bulgaria; dwarf, cushion- Diascia (from Greek dis-, two, and
cultivars); D.armeria (DEPTFORD PINK; forming perennial to 5cm (2in); leaves askos, sac, referring to the two sacs
Europe, W Asia; hairy biennial or linear, glaucous; flowers solitary, clear marked by yellow and maroon patches
annual, 20–40cm (8–16in); leaves nar- pink or white, petals to 0.7cm (1/4in), on the corolla and known as ‘win-
rowly oblong; flowers in dense, involu- toothed and bearded); D.monspessulanus dows’). Scrophulariaceae. South Africa.
crate heads, pink with pale dots, petals (S and C Europe; loosely tufted, mat- 50 species, erect to decumbent annual
to 0.5cm (1/4in), toothed and bearded); forming perennial, 30–60cm (12–24in); and perennial herbs (those listed here
D.barbatus (SWEET WILLIAM; S Europe, leaves linear, grassy, sometimes glau- are perennial). The leaves are small,
widely naturalized; glabrous, short- cous; flowers solitary or a few grouped elliptic to ovate or heart-shaped, ser-
lived perennial, 30–70cm (12–28in); together, strongly fragrant, pink, pale rate and often glandular. Bright flow-
leaves lanceolate-elliptic; flowers in lilac or white, petals 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), ers, carried from late spring to autumn
dense, broad, involucrate heads, red- finely cut into narrow segments); in terminal racemes, have rounded
purple with pale dots or a white band D.myrtinervius (Balkans, Macedonian petals and lateral spurs containing dark
at centre, petals to 1cm (1/2in), bearded; border of Greece; densely mat-forming glands. Most Diascia species can survive
the parent of numerous cultivars, perennial to 5cm (2in); leaves very temperatures down to –5°C/23°F on
hybrids and seed races including short small, elliptic to narrowly oblong; flow- very well-drained soils. Take cuttings as
and tall plants, some bushy, others wil- ers solitary, very short-stalked, bright a precaution against winter losses,
lowy, with dense heads of flowers in pink, sometimes with a dark-bordered planting out on a sunny, sheltered site
shades of white, pale rose, bright pink, white ‘eye’, petals 0.5cm (1/4in), toothed, when all danger of frost is past. These
cerise, crimson and blood red, many of sparsely bearded); D.pavonius (syn. plants may also be treated as half-
them bicoloured, for example, a white- D.neglectus; SW Alps; densely tufted, hardy annuals, and are especially
fringed flower with a bold red centre); mat-forming perennial, 5–15cm suited to baskets and containers. Dead-
D.carthusianorum (S and C Europe; (2–6in); leaves linear, usually grey- head plants to prolong the flowering
glabrous perennial, 20–60cm (8–24in); green; flowers solitary, pale pink to period. Under glass, grow in pots of
leaves linear, grassy; flowers in slender- crimson, buff on exterior, petals 1cm low-fertility loam-based medium; water
stalked heads, red-purple, pink or (1/2in), toothed and bearded); D.superbus plentifully in summer, and feed fort-
white, petals to 1.5cm (5/8in), toothed, (Europe, Asia; mat-forming perennial, nightly with a dilute liquid fertilizer,
bearded); D.chinensis (INDIAN PINK; 20–60cm (8–24in); leaves linear to nar- when in active growth. Propagate Dias-
China; biennial or short-lived peren- rowly lanceolate, pale green; flowers cia by softwood cuttings in summer,
nial, 20–70cm (8–28in), usually some- solitary, very fragrant, pink to pale lilac and from lightly covered seed sown in
what hairy; leaves lanceolate; flowers in or purple-pink, petals 1–3cm cold frames or under glass, at
loose clusters, lilac-pink with a purple (1/2–11/4in), finely and deeply cut into 15°C/59°F in autumn or early spring; 253
‘eye’, petals to 1.5cm (5/8in), deeply many narrow lobes). overwinter autumn-sown plants at
Diascia
10°C/50°F. Alternatively, increase by with convex inner faces and crested Dichorisandra (from Greek dis,
division in spring. apices forming a hood covering the two, choris, apart, and aner, man, refer-
D.barberae (syn. D.cordata; TWINSPUR; anthers. The genus is fully hardy. Grow ring to the way two stamens stand
stems erect or sprawling, to 30cm in humus-rich, moist and acid to neu- apart from the others in some species).
(12in), glandular-hairy above; flowers tral soil, ideally with light shade. D.for- Commelinaceae. Tropical America. 25
D in loose racemes, rose-pink with a

yellow blotch and maroon-black
glands; includes ‘Ruby Field’, with pro-
mosa, D.peregrina and D.spectabilis will
grow in a sunny border on a cool,
moist soil. D.cucullaria naturalizes well
species, evergreen perennial herbs, with
erect, rather stout stems and large
smooth, lanceolate to elliptic leaves.
fuse, salmon-pink flowers); D.rigescens in woodland and shrubbery. Propagate Produced in clusters in summer, the
(stems erect or sprawling, to 50cm from seed sown in spring at 15°C/59°F flowers consist of three, showy,
(20in); leaves becoming tinted red-brown also, divide in spring or after foliage rounded petals. Provide humid condi-
with age; flowers in dense racemes, dieback. Root cuttings of D.spectabilis tions, with a minimum winter tempera-
rose-pink with dark glands); D.vigilis will succeed in a sandy mix, placed in a ture of 12°C/54°F and shade from
(sprawling, to 50cm (20in) with small, cold frame. direct sunlight. Grow in a well-drained,
rounded, fleshy leaves; flowers in loose D.cucullaria (DUTCHMAN’S BREECHES; fertile and moist medium. Propagate
racemes, pale pink with dark glands). N America; to 30cm (12in); leaves soft, by division or cuttings.
ferny, blue-green; flowers white to D.reginae (Peru; stem to 30cm (12in);
palest pink, tipped yellow); D.eximia leaves to 18cm (7in), striped or flecked
(STAGGERWEED, TURKEY CORN; US; to silver above, flushed purple beneath;
60cm (24in); leaves finely cut, mid- flowers white edged violet-blue); D.thyr-
green above, glaucous beneath; flowers siflora (SE Brazil; stem to 200cm (79in)
magenta to pink, rarely white); D.for- are below; leaves to 30cm (12in), deep
mosa (WILD BLEEDING HEART; western N green above, faintly purple-tinted
America; to 40cm (16in); leaves finely beneath; flowers violet, white at base).
cut, blue-green to silver grey with a
purple-pink cast; flowers red to coral, dichotomous branching regularly
salmon, rose or pure white; very glau- by forking repeatedly in two, the two
Using a greenhouse dibber cous plants are sometimes named branches of each division being
The short, pen-shaped tool is being used here subsp. oregana, one of the best silver- basically equal.
for transplanting very young seedlings. It leaved white-flowered cultivars is
forms the planting hole and gently firms ‘Langtrees’.); D.peregrina (E Asia; to Dicksonia (for James Dickson
compost around the transplant. 15cm (6in); leaves glaucous, finely and (1738–1822), British botanist). Dickso-
deeply cut; flowers white to magenta or niaceae. America, SE Asia, Australasia,
dibber, dibble a tool used to make purple, tipped purple); D.spectabilis Polynesia. Some 25 species, large tree
holes in soil or containerised growing (BLEEDING HEART; to 100cm (39in); ferns with erect, column-like trunks –
media for planting or for inserting leaves mid- to dark green, loosely but these are clothed with dead frond
seed, seedlings or cuttings. Dibbers for deeply divided; flowers large, with bases, shaggy hairs and fibrous roots
outdoor use take the form of a wooden heart-shaped, deep red to pink outer and crowned with spreading rosettes of
implement about 25cm (10in) long, as petals and white inner petals; includes 1–4-pinnately compound, lanceolate to
thick as a standard spade handle, with pure white forms). deltoid fronds. D.antarctica is hardy to
a T- or D-shaped hand grip and some- –5°C/23°F and may be grown outside
times a steel tip. Dibbers for green- dichasium a type of determinate in milder areas in zone 7. Water copi-
house use are pen-sized and made of inflorescence; the basic structure has ously during the summer growing
wood or plastic. Both forms have three flowers (members), one terminat- months. Plants growing outside should
tapered ends. ing the primary axis, the other two car- have their trunks hosed down daily
ried on more or less equal secondary during hot and dry weather to encour-
Dicentra (from Greek dis, two, and branches arising from beneath the pri- age rooting through the stem. Under
kentron, spur, referring to the 2-spurred mary member in a false dichotomy. glass, provide bright indirect light,
flowers). Fumariaceae. Asia, N Amer- The secondary members may them- plentiful water and frequent dampings
ica. 19 species, annual or perennial selves be dichasia. Such a structure is down during hot weather (tempera-
deciduous herbs (those listed here are known as a dichasial cyme or a com- tures greater than 32°C/90°F are
perennial), with ferny, ternately decompound dichasial cyme, although the harmful). Grow in a slightly acid
pound leaves. Borne in spring and former term has been applied by some medium, moist but porous and rich in
summer in panicles, racemes or authors to the basic dichasium itself. leafmould. Specimens in large contain-
corymbs, the pendulous flowers are ers or those planted out should be top-
heart-shaped in outline and consist of dichogamy the maturing of a dressed or mulched with fresh compost
four petals in two pairs, the outer pair flower’s anthers and stigmas at differ- or organic matter annually. During the
254 spurred at the base and usually ent times, preventing self-pollination. winter, water moderately and ensure
pouched, the inner pair tongue-shaped, See protandry, protogyny. that maximum light reaches plants
Dierama
growing under glass. Those growing didynamous possessing two pairs of cultivars and hybrids, among them,
outside need to be protected with stamens, the two pairs being of ‘Exotica’, compact, with ovate dark
bracken or sacking if severe weather unequal lengths. green heavily zoned leaves veined
threatens. Propagate by spores. white or green-white and to 25cm
Although slow-growing, young plants dieback (1) a general term for a (10in) long, and ‘Rudolph Roehrs’ with
so raised are usually quick to establish
and will cope better with life in the
garden than the ancient, wild-collected
disorder in which shoots or branches
die from the tip backwards, usually
relatively slowly when compared to a
broad leaves heavily spattered or
almost wholly zoned lime green to
yellow and edged and veined dark jade
D
trunks recently imported into Britain in wilt; (2) a non-specific symptom of a green); D. x memoria-corsii (leaves to
such numbers. D.antarctica (AUSTRALIAN number of diseases or disorders, 30cm (12in), elliptic to oblong, dark
TREE FERN, SOFT TREE FERN; Australia, particularly affecting woody plants. green heavily blotched silver-grey and
Tasmania; trunk to 3m x 40cm (4ft x spotted white); D.seguine (to 1.2m (4ft);
16in), densely fibrous, fox red to dark Dieffenbachia (for Herr Dieffen- leaves to 45cm (18in), oblong to elliptic
brown, with large scars and remnants bach, gardener in 1830 at Schonbrünn, or lanceolate, glossy deep green; sev-
left by fallen fronds; fronds 1.5–2.5m Austria). Araceaea. Tropical America. eral cultivars and hybrids variously
(5–8ft) lanceolate-triangular, light to DUMB CANE, MOTHER-IN-LAW’S spotted, blotched, zoned, and veined
dark green and coarsely textured; TONGUE, TUFTROOT. Some 25 species, white, cream or emerald green.
pinnae to 45cm (18in), lanceolate; pin- evergreen, erect, perennial herbs with
nules linear; segments oblong, toothed stout, rather fleshy green stems and
or lobed). oblong or lanceolate to elliptic leaves.
These are smooth and commonly var-
dicotyledons (abbreviation: dicot(s)) iegated in tones of grey, white, cream
one of the two major divisions of the and yellow-green. The flowers are
angiosperms, the other being the inconspicuous – packed in a club-
monocotyledons. Dicots are usually shaped spadix and surrounded by a
characterized by having two cotyle- dull, green-white spathe. Popular
dons, the presence of cambium in foliage plants for tropical and subtropi-
many species and floral parts com- cal gardens; elsewhere, they are suited
monly occurring in fours and fives. to the home, interior landscapes and
the intermediate to warm greenhouse
Dictamnus (from Greek diktamnon, (minimum winter temperature Dierama pulcherrimum
dittany). Rutaceae. SW Europe to E 10°C/50°F). Grow in bright, indirect With its graceful habit and arching stems,
Asia. DITTANY, BURNING BUSH. 2 light to shade, ideally with medium to angel’s fishing rod is ideally placed by the
species. D.albus, a woody-based, high humidity. Pot in a porous, fertile, side of a garden pond or stream.
perennial herb to 80cm (32in) tall soilless medium. Water and feed freely
with glandular, trifoliolate to in warm weather and when in full Dierama (from Greek dierama,
pinnate leaves. Borne in growth, more sparingly at funnel, referring to the shape of the
summer in erect, termi- other times. Propagate by tip flowers). Iridaceae. Tropical and South
nal racemes, the flowers cuttings, air layering, division Africa. ANGEL’S FISHING ROD, WAND
are some 4cm (11/2in) across of basal shoots and FLOWER, AFRICAN HAIRBELL. Iridaceae.
and consist of five, elliptic slightly dried 5–8cm 44 species evergreen, cormous, peren-
to lanceolate white, pink, (2–3in) stem cuttings, nial herbs, with clumps of narrow,
red or lilac petals, sometimes in warm, humid grey-green grassy leaves. The flowers
streaked or dotted with conditions. Note: the are bell- to funnel-shaped and com-
red. Hardy in zone 4. sap of Dieffenbachia is posed of six, silken tepals; they hang
plant in a sunny or partly poisonous. on the thread-like, weeping branches
shaded position on any D.amoena (to 2m of tall and slender, arching panicles in
well-drained, fertile soil. (61/2ft), very robust summer. All species are reliably hardy
Propagate from seed sown with thick stems; leaf to between –5°C and –10°C/23–14°F
in a cold frame in spring blades to 50cm (20in), although well-established clumps of
(seedlings may take several elliptic to oblong, D.pulcherrimum have survived tempera-
years to attain flowering size), dark green with tures of –17°C/1°F Grow in a sunny,
or by division of large, mature creamy-white zones sheltered site in deep, rich, moist but
clumps in spring or autumn. along lateral veins); free-draining soil. Propagate by divi-
D.maculata (to 1m (31/4ft); sion in spring or by seed in autumn or
seed casings
didymous twinned; (in pairs) are twinned leaves to 25cm (10in), spring.
the two parts similar and or “didymous” oblong to lanceolate, D.dracomontanum (syn. D.pumilum;
attached by a short portion acuminate, often heavily 30–100cm (12–39in) tall; flowers 255
of the inner surface. Biscutella didyma spotted white; includes many 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in), pale to deep rose
Dierama
pink, mauve, purple-pink, or coral); orange at centre); D.iridioides (syn. to as the top spit. A trench about 30cm
D.pendulum (100–200cm (39–79in); D.vegeta of gardens; tropical E Africa (12in) wide is taken out at one end of
flowers 3–5cm (11/4–2in), widely bell- to South Africa; 30–60cm (12–24in); the plot and the soil removed by
shaped, pale rose to magenta; includes flowers 4–7cm (11/2–23/4in) in diameter, barrow to the other end and dumped
dwarf forms with rose flowers); D.pul- white stained yellow, mauve or blue evenly just outside the boundary. Large
D cherrimum (90–180cm (36–70in); flowers

3–5cm (11/4–2in), narrowly bell-shaped,
pale pink to deep magenta or purple-
and spotted deep yellow or brown at
centre).
plots may be equally divided down the
longest dimension and a starting trench
taken out across just half the width, the
red, rarely white). diffuse spreading widely outwards. resultant soil being placed off the plot,
along the adjacent untrenched bound-
Diervilla (for M. Dierville, a French diffusion the movement of a sub- ary. Digging proceeds by turning the
surgeon who travelled in Canada stance towards equilibrium from a high soil into the first trench, thereby creat-
1699–1700, and introduced D.lonicera). to low concentration. It is an important ing a new trench. This operation is
Caprifoliaceae. N America, bush function in plant nutrient uptake and repeated progressively, the last trench
honey-suckle. 3 species, low, often also relevant to soil aeration. being filled with soil originally bar-
suckering, deciduous shrubs with ovate rowed to the far end. Where a large
to lanceolate leaves and, in summer, digamous with two sexes in the same plot has been divided, the end trench is
tubular, honeysuckle-like flowers in flower cluster. filled with soil taken from a new trench
small clusters. Hardy to –30°C/–22°F. started across the undug half. The dig-
Plant in sun or part shade on any ging of the second half then proceeds
well-drained soil. Prune in spring in the opposite direction to the first
before growth begins. Propagate from half until the last trench is filled with
suckers in spring, or from seed. soil originally dumped off the plot
D.lonicera (eastern N America; to 1m boundary.
(31/4ft); branches smooth; flowers green- Ridging is a variation aimed at
yellow, 3 per axil or 5 per terminal exposing more surface area. Strips of
cyme); D.sessilifolia (SE US; to 1m ground of three spades width are dug
(31/4ft); branches hairy; leaves tinted red at a time, following the single digging
at first, colouring well in autumn; flow- method described above. The left and
ers sulphur yellow, 2 per terminal right spadesful are thrown forward on
cyme; has been crossed with D.lonicera to the central spadeful, and in this
to produce D. x splendens). Double digging manner wide ridges are formed down
Once the base of the first trench is forked the plot. These are levelled out by fork-
Dietes Iridaceae. Africa (1 species over, the soil from the second trench is ing prior to sowing or planting.
Lord Howe Island). 6 species, rhizoma- turned into it, and so on up the strip. Double digging (double spading,
tous perennial herbs with fans of bastard trenching) follows the same
sword-shaped leaves and short-lived digging the process of turning over principle of operating as single digging,
flowers on branching stems in summer. soil with a spade or fork in preparation except that the working trench is
The flowers are composed of six seg- for sowing or planting crops. Digging 60–75cm (24–30in) wide and more
ments, the outer three larger and out- can improve soil structure and fertility definitely maintained. As digging
spread. Even the hardiest species, by breaking down clods, either directly progresses, the base of the trench is
D.bicolor, will not tolerate temperatures or as a result of exposure to weather- forked to one spit depth.
much below –5°C/23°F and should be ing, and by facilitating the incorpora- Trenching involves cultivating to
kept dry as temperatures fall and given tion of organic matter and lime. It can three spits deep, and requires a work-
a dry mulch in winter. Other species also improve drainage and aeration ing trench 1m (31/4ft) wide. The top
will not stand prolonged freezing. Grow and is a means of burying weeds and and second spits are turned over and
in full sun or light dappled shade in an exposing pests to predators. Some the trench base forked to one spit
open but moisture-retentive, humus- exponents of organic gardening are depth. This more complex operation
rich soil; apply liquid feed and water if satisfied that equal or better results can requires the trench to be divided along
necessary during full growth, but be obtained by not digging soils of nat- its length and each half to be dug in
reduce both water and feeding during urally good structure. During digging, sequence to avoid mixing of the layers.
the summer months after flowering. the spade or fork is forced vertically The full-width top spit of the first
Propagate by seed or by division after into the soil to the full blade or prong trench and the second spit of one half
flowering (divisions may not re-estab- depth and the handle pressed down width of the trench are initially
lish readily and should be given a and backwards to lift the soil and turn removed in the manner described for
period of protected cultivation). it upside down, thereby burying weeds single digging.
D.bicolor (South Africa; 60–100cm and crop residue. It is best to dig heavy, textured soils
256 (24–39in); flowers 6–8cm (21/2–3in) in Single digging cultivates down to in late autumn to benefit from the
diameter, yellow, blotched brown and blade or prong depth, which is referred action of frost in breaking up clods.
Dionaea
Light-textured soils are best left until to strawberry pink or coppery red); trated solution of fertilizer into a water
spring to preserve their structure. D.purpurea (COMMON FOXGLOVE; W pipeline. It usually functions on a
Annual digging is usually necessary, but Europe; biennial or perennial, diaphragm or water displacement prin-
on most sites double-digging should 80–180cm (32–70in) tall; flowers to ciple. Dilutors are particularly identi-
only be required every three years and 5cm (2in), purple, red, pink or white, fied with commercial nurseries, where
trenching only where serious com-
paction is identified. Organic manure
can be worked in during any of the
the interior usually paler, hairy and
heavily marked with white-edged, deep
maroon spots; many cultivars and seed
they may also be used to distribute
certain pesticides. D
digging operations, and there are races are offered, including short or tall Dimorphotheca (from Greek dis,
advantages in applying it so that it plants, with ‘double’ and otherwise dis- two, morphe, form, and theke, case: the
becomes mixed throughout the top torted flowers, ranging in colour from fruits of the ray and disc florets differ
spit. On lighter-textured soil, the deepest purple-red to bronzy gold and in shape). Compositae. South and trop-
manure may be spread over the ground pure white). ical Africa. SUN MARIGOLD. 7 species,
in autumn – earthworm activity will herbs or subshrubs, with entire to pin-
draw much of it into the surface layer leaf from nately lobed leaves and long-stalked,
Aesculus flava
before spring digging. If lime is autumn daisy-like flowerheads in summer.
needed, apply it over the soil surface in colour Cultivate as for Arctotis. D.pluvialis
the autumn, before digging, and always (syn. D.annua; WEATHER PROPHET;
fork in several weeks ahead of South Africa; aromatic annual to
any dressing of animal manure. 40cm (16in); leaves to 10cm (4in),
obovate to oblanceolate, toothed to
Digitalis (from Latin digitus, finger, pinnately lobed, deep green, hairy;
referring to the shape of the flower). flowerheads to 6cm (21/2in) in diame-
Scrophulariaceae. Europe, NW Africa, ter, ray florets white above with dark
to C Asia. FOXGLOVE. Some 20 species, purple bases, blue-violet beneath,
biennial or perennial herbs, with leaves disc florets purple-brown).
occurring in a basal rosette and on the
erect flowering stems. Tubular to dioecious having male and female
deeply bell-shaped and weakly 2- flowers on separate plants.
Digitate leaf form
lipped, the flowers are carried in a one-
sided spike in summer. Grow in freely digitate with leaflets palmately Dionaea (from Dione, mother of
draining, humus-rich soils in partial or arranged resembling the fingers of an Aphrodite, alluding to the plant’s
dappled shade, or in sun where soils outspread hand. beauty). Droseraceae. SE US (coastal
are reliably moisture-retentive through- N and S Carolina). VENUS’ FLY TRAP,
out the growing season. Propagate by digonous two-angled, as in the stems VENUS’ MOUSE TRAP. 1 species, D.mus-
seed, which requires light for germina- of some cacti. cipula, a low-growing, carnivorous,
tion; perennials may also by increased perennial herb. To 10cm (4in) long, the
by division. digynous with two separated styles leaves are semi-erect or lie close to the
D.ferruginea (RUSTY FOXGLOVE; S or carpels. ground in a basal rosette. They consist
Europe, W Asia; biennial or perennial of a winged, spathulate petiole, bearing
to 1m (31/4ft); flowers to 3cm (11/4in), dill (Anethum graveolens) a strongly aro- at its tip a blade of two semi-circular
golden brown tinted rusty red with matic annual up to 60cm (24in) high, lobes that are hinged at the middle and
darker veins inside); D.grandiflora (LARGE grown for its distinctively flavoured edged with lash-like teeth. The inner
YELLOW FOXGLOVE; Europe; biennial or leaves and seeds, which are used in surface of these lobes is glossy, glandu-
perennial to 1m (31/4ft); flowers to 5cm salads, fish cooking, sauerkraut and lar and turns a deep, meaty red in
(2in), cream to pale yellow or apricot, pickling-spice mixtures. The leaves are bright sunlight. Each lobe bears three
with darker veins or spots within, best used fresh, but may be dried or fine trigger hairs. When alighting
broadly funnel-shaped); D. lanata (GRE- frozen. Sow successionally in situ from insects touch these hairs, they cause the
CIAN FOXGLOVE; E Europe, Aegean, spring to mid summer. Seeds are har- lobes to snap shut. The blade then
Turkey, Siberia; biennial or short-lived vested on turning brown, and the seed becomes a digestive purse, leaching the
perennial to 1.5m (5ft); flowers to 2cm heads dried between single layers of imprisoned prey of its vital juices. In
(3/4in), white with nutmeg spots and paper at low temperature. spring and summer, white, 5-petalled
maroon veins); D.lutea (STRAW FOX- flowers are carried in umbel-like cymes
GLOVE; Europe, NW Africa; perennial diluent an inert material used to atop slender scapes. Plant the bulb-like
to 100cm (39in); flowers to 2cm (3/4in), reduce the concentration of active rosette bases in a porous mixture of
creamy white to pale yellow, narrow); ingredient in a pesticide formula. vermiculite, peat and sphagnum moss,
D. x mertonensis (D.grandiflora x D.purpurea; either singly in fairly deep pots or
garden origin; perennial to 75cm dilutor a device used in liquid-feed- massed in pans or trays. Keep con- 257
(30in); flowers to 5cm (2in) rose-mauve ing systems for dispensing a concen- stantly moist by standing containers in
Dionaea
soft water and/or by frequent overhead Dioon (from Greek dis, two, and oon, feed generously once the new shoots
watering with a fine rose. Tolerant of egg – the seeds are borne in pairs). appear at the summit of the caudex;
temperatures just above freezing, at Zamiaceae. C America. 10 species, provide support as they develop. With-
which point growth will cease and even long-lived and slow-growing evergreen hold water when the growth turns
die back to resting bulbs: water should cycads, superficially resembling tree yellow and dies off, except for very
D be reduced accordingly. Temperatures

between 13°C/55°F and 27°C/81°F
will ensure continuous growth. Fresh
ferns or palms. The stems are erect,
usually unbranched, stoutly columnar
and clothed with the scars or remains
occasional soakings to prevent the
caudex from withering. Dormancy
may last for up to six months; after two
air and full sunlight will promote a of leaf petioles. Tough, pinnate leaves or three, it may be deliberately broken
low-growing rosette habit and the most are produced in terminal rosettes. by raising the temperature and by
highly coloured traps. Propagate by Massive, ovoid cones are borne in the watering. Propagate by seed.
seed (sown under cover on damp woolly crowns on plants of separate D.discolor (tropical South America;
sphagnum and bottom-watered), divi- sex. Grow D.edule in full sun with a stems vigorously climbing to 4m (13ft);
sion or by leaf cuttings of the petiole. medium high in sand and grit, rather leaves to 30cm (12in), ovate to cordate
dry and airy conditions and a mini- with a finely tapering tip, velvety emer-
Dionysia (for Dionysos, Greek god of mum temperature of 7°C/45°F. D.spin- ald above with broken zones of deep
wine). Primulaceae. W and C Asia. 41 ulosum prefers part shade, humidity, a chocolate-maroon and irregular flashes
species, tufted or cushion-forming alpine moist, humus-rich soil and a minimum of silver along midrib and principal
subshrubs. The stems are branched and temperature of 15°C/59°F. Propagate veins, maroon beneath); D.elephantipes
in old plants become woody and cov- by seed. (syn. Testudinaria elephantipes; ELEPHANT’S
ered by withered leaf remains. The D.edule (Mexico; stem to 1.8m (6ft), FOOT, HOTTENTOT BREAD; South
leaves form rosettes and are highly vari- stoutly columnar; leaves to 1.5m (5ft), Africa; caudex to 1m (31/4ft) in diame-
able in shape and size, from large and semi-erect; pinnae closely set, to 13 x ter, woody, fissured and facetted; stems
Primula-like to minute and scale-like; 1.5cm (5 x 5/8in), linear to lanceolate, to 2m (61/2ft), of annual duration;
they are usually hairy and glandular tip narrowly acuminate and sharply leaves 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in) in diameter,
on one or both surfaces, and farinose pointed, base decurrent, rigid, grey- broadly heart-shaped to reniform,
beneath. Narrowly tubular with a limb green, margins usually entire but smooth, bright green).
of five, spreading lobes, the flowers are spiny-toothed in some juveniles and
virtually stalkless and solitary, or carried varieties); D.spinulosum (Mexico; stem to Diosma (from Greek dios, divine, and
in scapose and sometimes tiered umbels. 10m (33ft), narrowly columnar; leaves osme, smell, referring to the pleasant
Alpine-house conditions are essential to 2m (61/2ft), arching; pinnae well- fragrance of the crushed leaves).
and plants grow best if double-potted or spaced, to 15 x 4cm (6 x 11/2in), lanceo- Rutaceae. South Africa. Some 28
if single-potted and placed in a plunge late, tip broadly acuminate with a soft species, evergreen shrubs with aro-
bed. Plant cushions may be wedged but distinct point, base decurrent, rigid matic, glandular leaves and small,
between small pieces of rock on the pot but more flexible than in D.edule, glau- 5-petalled flowers in winter and spring
surface or grown in tufa to ensure that cous sea-green at first, hardening mid- – these are usually fragrant and white
the neck zone remains dry. Use a gritty, to dark green, margins always spiny- or red-tinted. Grow in full sun, with a
loam-based potting mix. Keep just toothed). minimum winter temperature of
moist, never wet, and position in sun. 5°C/41°F. Plant in a well-drained acid
Propagate by softwood cuttings in Dioscorea (for Dioscorides, 1st-cen- mix; reduce water in winter. Prune
summer. tury Greek physician and herbalist, after flowering. Increase by seed in
D.aretioides (N Iran; leaves to 0.7cm author of Materia Medico). Dioscore- spring or semi-ripe cuttings. D.ericoides
(1/4in), oblong to narrowly spathulate, aceae. Tropics and subtropics. YAM. (BREATH OF HEAVEN; to 80cm (32in)
hairy, farinose, bluntly toothed, form- Some 600 species, twining perennial tall, rounded and many-stemmed;
ing low, dense, grey cushions; flowers to herbs, often with tuberous roots. The leaves to 0.6cm (1/4in), aromatic,
1.5cm (5/8in) in diameter, bright yellow, flowers are yellow-green and inconspic- oblong, crowded; flowers white, very
solitary, stemless, scented, the petals uous. D.discolor needs part to full shade, fragrant).
more or less toothed); D.lamingtonii high humidity and a minimum winter
(Iran; leaves to 0.3cm (1/8in), oblong to temperature of 13°C/55°F. Plant in a Diospyros (from Greek dios, divine,
spathulate, entire, hairy, forming dense, rich, coir-based mix with added leaf- and pyros, wheat or grain, alluding to
compact cushions; flowers to 0.5cm mould and sand. Water and feed liber- the edible fruits). Ebenaceae. Europe,
(1/4in) across, bright yellow, stemless, the ally when in growth and during warm Americas, Africa, Asia. Around 475
petals shallowly cleft); D.tapetodes (W weather; at other times, keep just species, deciduous or evergreen trees or
Asia; leaves to 0.4cm (1/8in), obovate to moist. Grow D.elephantipes in full sun shrubs (those listed below are decidu-
spathulate, entire to crenulate, minutely with a dry, buoyant atmosphere and a ous trees) with hard, often black wood.
glandular, farinose, in tight cushions; minimum winter temperature of Small flowers in summer give rise to
flowers to 1cm (1/2in) in diameter, soli- 7°C/45°F. Plant in a deep, fertile, large, fleshy berries. Plant all species in
258 tary, stalkless, bright yellow, the petals loam-based mix high in grit. Leave the deep, fertile and loamy soils, in sun or
more or less rounded). caudex two thirds exposed. Water and light shade. The following species are
Dipteronia
inose); D.virginiana (AMERICAN PERSIM- segments, the outer three broad and
MON, POSSUMWOOD; E US; to 20m rounded, the inner three smaller. In
(66ft); leaves to 12cm (43/4in), elliptic to frost-free zones or areas where temper-
ovate or oblong, deep glossy green atures only occasionally fall to
turning red in autumn; flowers yellow- –10°C/14°F, Diplarrhena is suitable for
white; fruit 2.5cm (1in) in diameter,
orange).
the herbaceous border or rock garden.
In colder regions, plant in pots or large
tubs in the cool greenhouse or conser-
D
Dipelta (from Greek di-, two, and vatory. Grow in full sun in a freely
pelte, shield, referring to the form of the draining, sandy, humus-rich and acid
bracts). Caprifoliaceae. C and W soil. Propagate by seed, division, or by
China. 4 species, deciduous shrubs plantlets. D.moraea (flowering stem to
allied to Weigela. The flowers are tubu- 65cm (26in); flowers to 4cm (11/2in) in
lar to campanulate, large and solitary diameter, fragrant, white, the inner seg-
or clustered; they hang on slender ments suffused or veined mauve-blue
stalks, encircled by two to four shield- or yellow toward apex).
like bracts which become larger after
fertilization of the flower. The follow- diploid of a plant, having the normal
Diospyros kaki ‘Hachiya’ ing species will withstand winter tem- number of chromosomes for the
Persimmons need long, hot summers to ripen. peratures down to –20°C/–4°F. species, i.e. twice the number borne in
In temperate climates they will succeed only Cultivate as for Weigela. the pollen and ovule cells; commonly
on the most climatically favourable sites. D.floribunda (to 4.5m (15ft) flowers annotated 2 x ; cf. haploid, polyploid,
fragrant, to 3cm (11/4in), white some- triploid, tetraploid.
hardy in zone 6, but are susceptible to times flushed shell pink at base, marked
frost, especially when young. D.kaki, or stained deep yellow in throat, sub- Dipsacus (name used by
which is grown for its fruit, should be tended by shield-like, green-white Dioscorides). Dipsacaceae. Europe,
protected from wind. For commercial bracts); D.yunnanensis (2–4m (61/2–12ft); Asia, Africa. TEASEL. 15 species, bien-
production, D.kaki is generally flowers to 2.5cm (1in), fragrant, cream nial or short-lived perennial herbs, with
restricted to zone 8, although as a stained pale pink, throat marked tall, erect stems and toothed to pin-
garden fruit, where high yields may not orange, subtended by cordate, thin- nately cut lanceolate to oblong leaves
be as important, it shows more adapt- textured bracts). in pairs, with their bases more or less
ability. In cooler temperate areas (to fused in a cup. The small flowers are
zone 5), provide the protection of a Diphylleia (from Greek dis, double, packed in heads which resemble finely
warm south-facing wall, where the fruit and phyllon, leaf, alluding to the deeply textured, prickly cones. These are sur-
may ripen over long hot summers. lobed leaf). Berberidaceae. Eastern N rounded by erect and rigid, spine-like
Plants of both sexes are needed for America, Japan. 3 species, perennial, bracts. The flowers may be dried and
fruit to set. Propagate from seed sown rhizomatous herbs with large, peltate used in everlasting arrangements. Har-
when ripe and stratified, by layers in and long-stalked leaves, their blades vest for drying when in bloom. Dipsacus
spring, or from semi-ripe cuttings in a rounded and deeply 2-lobed. Small, is fully hardy. Grow in sun on any
closed case/under mist in summer. white flowers appear in spring in ter- moderately fertile soil. Allow to self-
Commercial cultivars are whip-grafted minal cymes. These are followed by sow, or sow seed in situ in autumn or
just below soil level, or shield-budded colourful berries. Fully hardy. Grow in spring.
just before dormancy, on to seedling damp, humus-rich soil in part shade. D.fullonum (COMMON TEASEL;
rootstock. Propagate by division in spring or by Europe, Asia, naturalized N America;
D.kaki (KAKI, PERSIMMON, JAPANESE seed. D.cymosa (UMBRELLA LEAF; E US; biennial to 2m (61/2ft); basal leaves
PERSIMMON; wild origin unknown; to to 1m (31/4ft); leaves 30–60cm (12–24in) oblanceolate, crenately toothed, spiny-
14m (46ft); leaves to 20cm (8in), ovate across, cleft, each segment 5–7-lobed pustular; flowers lilac in an oblong to
to obovate, deep, glossy green above, and toothed; flowerstalks becoming red ovoid inflorescence with unhooked
turning orange-red in autumn; flowers in fruit; berries to 1.2cm (1/2in) across, bracts); D.sativus (FULLER’S TEASEL;
pale yellow; fruit to 7.5cm (3in) in blue). Europe, Asia, N Africa, naturalized N
diameter, globose to oblong, waxy America; differs from D.fullonum in its
yellow to orange or red with a persis- Diplarrhena (from Greek diploos, entire basal leaves and cylindrical
tent, accrescent calyx); D.lotus (DATE double, and arrhen, male – the flowers inflorescence with hooked bracts).
PLUM; temperate Asia; to 25m (80ft); have two perfect stamens). Iridaceae.
leaves to 12cm (43/4in), lanceolate to SE Australia, Tasmania. 2 species, rhi- Dipteronia (from Greek di-, double,
elliptic, tough, falling when green; zomatous perennial herbs with sword- and pteron, wing, referring to the fruit).
flowers yellow-buff to brown; fruit to like leaves in tufts or fans. The fragrant Aceraceae. C and S China. 2 species,
2cm (3/4in) in diameter, globose to flowers are carried in slender-stalked deciduous trees and large shrubs with 259
ovoid, yellow, red or blue-black, pru- clusters in summer and consist of six pinnate leaves, small, 5-parted green-
Dipteronia
white flowers in erect panicles, and deciduous, bushy shrub to 4 x 2m (13 x of flowers). Rhamnaceae. Temperate
clusters of paired, winged fruits – 61/2ft). To 10cm (4in) wide, the leaves S America, Australia, New Zealand.
these turn red as they mature in late are ovate to orbicular with a cordate 12 species, deciduous shrubs or small
summer. Cultivate as for the smaller base. Blue-green above and paler trees, with long, slender, green thorns,
Acer species. D.sinensis (tree or bushy beneath, they turn a rich wine red in small and often obsolete leaves, and
D shrub to 10m (33ft); leaves to 25cm

(10in); leaflets 7–11, to 9cm (31/2in),
ovate to lanceolate, serrate).
autumn, finally assuming fiery tints.
Small and spidery, the flowers are dark
purple-red and appear in autumn and
dense clusters of minute 4-parted flow-
ers in spring. The following species is
suitable for sunny, south-facing walls on
winter. Hardy in zone 7. Plant in a any well-drained soil. It is capable of
Disa (alluding to the mythical Queen sheltered position in dappled shade on surviving winter temperatures as low as
Disa of Sweden who came to the King an acid soil. Cultivate otherwise as for –15°C/5°F. Prune, if necessary, after
of the Sveas wrapped in a fishing-net: Hamamelis. flowering. Propagate by seed or by
the dorsal sepal of D.uniflora is net- semi-ripe cuttings. D.toumatou (WILD
veined). Orchidaceae. Africa, Mada- disbudding (1) the removal of buds, IRISHMAN; New Zealand; shrub or
gascar. About 130 species, terrestrial carried out to allow those remaining to small tree to 5m (16ft) with green, flex-
orchids with tuberous roots and linear develop top-quality flowers, especially uous twigs and many spines to 5cm
to lanceolate leaves in basal rosettes where intended for exhibition. It is of (2in) long; flowers green-white).
and on the erect flowering stems. The special relevance in the cultivation of
flowers are borne in slender racemes or carnations, chrysanthemums, dahlias disc floret a flower with a tubular
a few together. Each consists of a large, and roses; (2) a technique for restricting corolla, often toothed, found in the
erect and hood-like dorsal sepal with a side growths on vines and on wall- centre of a radiate capitulum or occu-
basal spur, small petals and lip, and two trained fruits, although in the latter pying the whole of a discoid capitu-
larger, outspread lateral sepals. Grow in case the technique is more accurately lum. Found in the family Compositae.
the cool greenhouse or conservatory described as deshooting. See ray floret.
(minimum temperature
7°C/45°F) in pans of discoid (1) of a leaf, with a
neutral to acid fibrous round fleshy blade and
mix, enriched with leaf- thickened margins; (2)
mould; protect from scorch- more commonly, pertain-
ing sunlight and avoid ing to the capitula of some
wetting foliage. Keep plants Compositae, composed entirely
moist throughout the grow- of disc florets.
ing season, watering with rain-
tubular disc
water. Decrease water supplies florets disease any plant ailment caused by
slightly after flowering. Repot every petal-like borne on pathogenic organisms, such as fungi,
two years. Propagate by division ray florets the disc bacteria or viruses, affecting the viabil-
or seed. ity, quality or economic value of a
D.uniflora (South Africa; 15–60cm Compositae flower plant. The term is occasionally used
(6–24in); flowers 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in) long, (Helianthus) more loosely to denote any ailment of
lateral sepals and lip usually carmine a plant, including malfunctions caused
red, hood orange within, veined red, disc, disk (1) a fleshy or raised devel- by faulty cultivation or unsatisfactory
petals light carmine at base, the blade opment of the torus which may occur growing conditions, which are more
yellow with red spots; yellow and pink within the calyx, within the corolla and accurately termed disorders.
forms also occur). Disa grexes (q.v.) stamens, or surrounding the pistil, in
include ‘Betty’s Bay’ (tall plants with which case it is composed of coalesced Disocactus (from Greek dis, twice;
bright orange flowers), ‘Diores’ (tall nectaries or staminodes; (2) (in Com- isos, equal; cactus). Cactaceae. Mexico.
plants with many flowers in shades of positae) the central part, or sometimes 2 species, epiphytic or lithophytic cacti
pink, red and orange), ‘Kewensis’ whole, of the capitulum bearing short with trailing or cascading, succulent,
(small flowers in shades of pink and tubular florets as opposed to peripheral cylindrical stems and tubular flowers
orange), ‘Kirstenbosch Pride’ (tall ray florets; (3) the central part of the with a spreading limb. Plant in an
spikes with many small, bright orange- lip in Orchidaceae, often elevated and open, acid mix rich in coarse bark,
red flowers), ‘Langleyensis’ (tall spikes callused or crested; (4) a circular flat- sand and grit. Choose a container or
of pale pink flowers), and ‘Veitchii’ (tall tened organ, for example the disc-like situation where the stems can cascade
spikes of bright orange flowers). tendril tips of some plants climbing by freely. Position in full sunlight with a
adhesion; (5) the basal plate of a bulb minimum temperature of 5°C/41°F.
Disanthus (from Greek dis, twice, around which scales are arranged. Water freely in hot weather, scarcely at
and anthos, flower: the flowers are all in winter. Propagate by rooting
260 paired). Hamamelidaceae. China, Discaria (from Greek diskos, disc, detached segments of stem. D.flagelli-
Japan. 1 species, D.cercidifolius, a referring to the fleshy nectariferous disc formis (RAT’S TAIL CACTUS; stems up to
Docynia
1m (31/4ft) x 1.5cm (5/8in) long, with widely spaced, synonymous with The names of Divisions end in phyta
many short, yellow-tinted spines; flow- remote; cf. proximate. (‘plants’).
ers 5–8cm (2–3in) and scarlet to dark
magenta). distichous of leaves, distinctly division a method of increasing
arranged in two opposite ranks along a plants, suitable for those that produce a
Disporum (from Greek di-, twice,
and spora, seed, referring to the usually
2-seeded fruits). Liliaceae (Colchi-
stem or branch.
Distictis (from Greek di-, twice, and

mass of closely knit shoots or buds in a
clump or crown of growth which can
be separated into pieces. Many herba-
D
caceae). US, E Asia. 10–20 species, stiktos, spotted: the seeds are very flat ceous perennials can be readily propa-
perennial, rhizomatous herbs, with and resemble two rows of spots in the gated in this way. The best time for
leafy, sparingly branched stems and fruit). Bignoniaceae. Central America, division is when roots and shoots have
ovate to lanceolate leaves. Nodding, W Indies. 9 species, slender shrubs started to form in the spring. It is best
bell-shaped to tubular flowers appear climbing by tendril-tipped leaves. Pro- to use portions from the periphery of
in spring and are followed by orange to duced in spring and summer, the flow- the crown, and depending on species
red berries. Cultivate as for Tricyrtis. ers are tubular to funnel-shaped. these may be pulled off by hand or
Propagate by division in spring or by Cultivate as for Bignonia but with prised off by inserting two border forks
seed. slightly higher temperatures and ample back to back and levering the handles.
D.hookeri (NW US; 30–100cm heat and light to ripen the new growth. Plants with tough compacted crowns
(12–39in); leaves 3–14cm (11/4–51/2in), D.buccinatoria (Mexico; flowers to 8cm are most easily divided by cutting
lanceolate to ovate, apex acuminate, (3in), rich purple-red, throat golden through lifted, washed crowns.
base cordate, stem-clasping; flowers to yellow); D.lactiflora (W Indies, Puerto Many alpines can be divided to pro-
2cm (3/4in), green-white; fruit scarlet); Rico, St Domingo; flowers to 3cm duce new plantlets annually. These
D.sessile (Japan; to 60cm (24in); leaves (11/4in), white, throat yellow); D.laxiflora divisions should be made about ten
5–15cm (2–6in), oblong to lanceolate; (Mexico, Nicaragua; flowers to 8cm (3in), days after main flowering ceases,
flowers to 3cm (11/4in), white tipped rich purple in bud, opening magenta, when new root and shoot growth com-
green; fruit blue-black; includes ‘Varie- fading to lilac-white); D. ‘Rivers’ (flow- mences. However, in the case of late
gatum’, with leaves striped cream). ers dark mauve with a golden throat). summer- and autumn-flowering plants,
division should be delayed until the
distinct with similar parts that are spring.
not united. Herbaceous plants with tough,
grassy or sword-like leaves crowded in
Distylium (from Greek dis, twice, dense clusters should be divided with a
and stylos, style). Hamamelidaceae. E spade or hatchet, in time to establish
Asia. 12 species, small, evergreen trees well before winter. Some shrubs pro-
and shrubs with leathery, dark green duce a suckering base or crown or
foliage and, in spring and early layer themselves, providing young
summer, short racemes of flowers with shoots that may then be separated.
tinted calyces, no petals and colourful
anthers. Cultivate as for Hamamelis. DNA abbreviation for deoxyribonu-
D.racemosum (ISU TREE; Japan; broadly cleic acid; a complex molecule found in
spreading shrub or small tree to 25m chromosomes, and the chemical basis
(80ft) in wild; leaves to 7cm (23/4in), of genes.
Acer palmatum ‘Dissectum elliptic to obovate; flowers in racemes
Atropurpureum’ to 7.5cm (3in) long, stamens red). Docynia (the name is an anagram of
The dissected or finely cut foliage of this Cydonia, a close relation). Rosaceae. E
Japanese maple gives it its great charm. diurnal of activity taking place only Asia. 2 species, evergreen or deciduous
during daylight. shrubs or small trees with clusters of
dissected cut in any way, a general fragrant, 5-petalled flowers; these are
term applicable to leaf blades or divaricate broadly divergent and white, opening from pink-tinted buds
other flattened organs that are incised, spreading, a term usually applied to in spring, and are followed by downy,
lacerate, laciniate, pinnatisect or branching patterns where the branches ovoid, quince-like fruit in autumn.
palmatisect. spread 70° to 90° outwards from the Docynia species are not reliably frost-
main axis. hardy and in areas at the limits of their
distal the part furthest from the axis – hardiness (zones 8 and under), are best
for example, the tip of a leaf is distal; divergent broadly spreading from the positioned against a south-facing wall.
cf. proximal. centre. Plant in full sun on a well-drained soil.
Propagate by budding in summer,
distant of leaves on a stem, stipes on Division the highest rank of the prin- grafting in winter, or by seed in 261
a rhizome or flowers on a floral axis, cipal categories in the plant kingdom. autumn. D.delavayi (S China; tree to
Docynia
10m (33ft); leaves persistent, oblong, green; seed capsules clustered, to 2cm gene, which preferentially exhibits its
entire, white-hairy beneath; fruit (3/4in) in diameter, flushed purple-red; characteristics when paired with
yellow, 4cm (11/2in) in diameter). ‘Purpurea’: leaves strongly flushed red- another form in cross-pollination; cf.
bronze to purple). recessive.
Dodecatheon (from Greek dodeka,
D twelve, and theos, god – Pliny applied

the name to a spring flower, probably
the primrose, protected by the twelve
dolabriform hatchet-shaped.
doleiform barrel-shaped.
Doritis (from Greek dory, spear, refer-
ring to the spear-shaped lip). Orchi-
daceae. SE Asia. 2 species, epiphytic,
gods). Primulaceae. N America, Bering evergreen orchids with abundant aerial
Straits. SHOOTING STAR, AMERICAN dollar spot (Sclerotinia homoeocarpa) a roots and short-stemmed growths of
COWSLIP. 14 species, perennial herbs fungal disease of turf causing round 2-ranked, leathery leaves. The flowers
forming clumps or tufts of oblanceo- discoloured patches. In the US, it are borne at various times in rigidly
late to obovate leaves. Produced in occurs on a wide range of grasses erect and sometimes branching
spring and summer, the Cyclamen-like including Agrostis, Poa and Stenotaphrum. racemes. The tepals are obovate to
flowers nod in slender-stalked umbels. In the UK, it is common only on elliptic and the lip 3-lobed, with the
Hardy in zone 6 and suitable for the CREEPING RED FESCUE (Festuca rubra) lateral lobes rounded and erect and
woodland or damp rock garden. Grow in some locations. Infected leaves are the mid-lobe arrow-like and forward-
in full sun or part shade on a cool, white or straw-coloured, arising in pointing. Cultivate as for Phalaenopsis.
moist but well-drained soil rich in grit patches up to 5cm (2in) in diameter D.pulcherrima (flower spikes 20–60cm
and leafmould. Propagate from ripe (hence dollar spot), which may merge (8–24in), flowers to 4cm (11/2in) in
seed or by division. to form larger areas of infection. The diameter, deep magenta with lip mid-
D.dentatum (W US; to 10cm (4in); disease is associated with poor fertility, lobe mauve, lateral lobes red, disc lined
flowers white, anthers yellow, tinted especially nitrogen deficiency, which white).
black); D.hendersonii (SAILOR-CAPS, should be rectified. Other control mea-
MOSQUITO-BILLS; California; to 40cm sures are selection of resistant types dormancy a condition in living
(16in); flowers mauve-pink with a and spraying with a recommended plants where vegetative activity ceases
cream and yellow basal rim, anthers fungicide. (true dormancy) or is brought to an
violet-black); D.meadia (SHOOTING STAR, absolute minimum (quiescence) for a
AMERICAN COWSLIP; E US; to 50cm Dombeya (for Joseph Dombey (d. prolonged period. It may be due to
(20in); flowers purple-pink or pink or 1794), French botanist). Sterculiaceae. physiological factors or seasonal
white, with a cream and yellow basal Africa and Madagascar to Mascarene rhythm, especially temperature, or it
rim and purple-red anthers); D.pulchel- Islands. About 200 species, deciduous may be a response to environmental
lum (western N America, Mexico, natu- or evergreen shrubs or small trees, with conditions unfavourable to growth.
ralized E US; to 35cm (14in); flowers large and hairy, ovate to cordate leaves. Dormancy is exhibited in deciduous
deep carmine to rose-purple or lilac, The flowers consist of five petals and species during winter, when plants rest
with a cream to gold basal rim and are candy- or toffee-scented. They in a leafless condition, and in bulbs,
purple-black anthers). hang in pompon-like umbels on slen- corms, tubers and seeds, which are a
der, drooping stalks in spring and means of succession from one season
Dodonaea (for Rembert Dodoens summer. Grow in bright light or partial to another, or over a number of years.
(1516–85), Dutch physician and shade, providing protection from the In many species a period of dormancy
herbalist). Sapindaceae. Tropics and hottest sun in summer, in a well- is a suitable time for transplanting.
subtropics, especially Australia. Some drained, fibrous loam-based medium, Dormancy can be artificially broken
50 species, evergreen shrubs and trees with additional leafmould and sharp through special techniques, most com-
with tough, glossy foliage and showy sand. Water plentifully when in growth, monly through exposure to controlled
winged fruits. In a sheltered, warm reducing supplies as light levels and temperature.
and sunny spot. D.viscosa will tolerate temperatures fall in winter; maintain a
short-lived, mild frosts and withstand minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F. dormant oil see winter wash.
drought, salt, wind and pollution. In Prune after flowering to confine to
hot, arid zones, it makes a good wind- allotted space. Propagate by seed or Doronicum (from the Arabic name
break or hedging plant, responding semi-ripe cuttings in a closed case with for this plant, Doronigi). Compositae.
well to light clipping. Plant in any well- gentle bottom heat. D.burgessiae (syn. Europe, Asia. LEOPARD’S BANE. 35
drained soil in full sun. Propagate from D.mastersii; central and South Africa; species, perennial tuberous or rhizoma-
seed sown in spring or by greenwood shrub or tree to 4m (12ft); leaves to 22 tous herbs with clumps of ovate to
cuttings in summer. D.viscosa (NATIVE x 18cm (9 x 7in); flowers to 5cm (2in) in cordate leaves and yellow, daisy-like
HOPS; South Africa, Australia, Mexico; diameter, white to candy pink, some- flowerheads on slender stalks in spring
light-textured, tree-like shrub to 2m times with darker veins). and summer. Fully hardy. Grow in any
(61/2ft) with erect, resinous foliage; moderately fertile, well-drained but
262 leaves to 13cm (5in), narrowly elliptic dominant describing one of the moisture-retentive soil in part shade or
to oblanceolate, wavy, glossy pale forms taken by components of a single in good light, with protection from the
downy mildew
strongest sun in summer. Propagate by dorsifixed of an organ, attached by which stamens are totally obscured or
division in autumn. its dorsal surface to another. absent and the flower usually sterile.
D. x excelsum ‘Harpur Crewe’ (to Semi-double blooms have two or three
60cm (24in); 3–4 golden flowerheads dorsiventral flattened, and having times the basic number of petals,
per stem, to 10cm (5in) diameter, in separate dorsal and ventral surfaces, as sepals or florets, arranged in several
spring); D.orientale (SE Europe, Cauca-
sus, Lebanon; to 60cm (24in); flower-
heads 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in) in diameter;
with most leaves and leaf-blades.
Doryanthes (from Greek dory, spear,

rows with stamens conspicuous. A
double form may be designated ‘flore
pleno’ (abbreviation fl.pl.) ‘plenus’ or
D
includes ‘Finesse’, with long-stalked and anthos, flower, in reference to the ‘pleniflorus’. The form of doubling in
flowerheads and slender, bright yellow tall flowering stems). Agavaceae. E tubular flowers – where one perfect
florets, ‘Frühlingspracht’, with double, Australia. SPEAR LILY. 3 species, very corolla develops within another – and
golden yellow flowerheads, ‘Gerhard’, large, evergreen perennial herbs, with frequently found in primulas and
with lemon yellow flowerheads and a sword-shaped leaves. The flowers are rhododendrons, is often described as
green disk, ‘Goldenkranz’, with large carried in short spikes compressed into hose-in-hose.
deep yellow, double flowerheads, the a large terminal globose head or
dwarf, golden ‘Goldzwerg’, and oblong thyrsus and held aloft on a tall double-digging, double spading
‘Magnificum’, with large flowerheads); scape. They are commonly replaced by see digging.
D.pardalianches (syn. D.cordatum; GREAT bulbil-like plantlets. Grow in a humus-
LEOPARD’S BANE; W Europe to SE rich, well-drained soil in full sun with a double working the grafting of an
Germany; to 90cm (36in); flowerheads minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F. intermediate cultivar or interstock
3–5cm (11/4–2in) in diameter); D.plan- Water plentifully when in growth; keep between scion and rootstock to over-
tagineum (W Europe; to 80cm (32in); just moist in winter. Propagate by seed, come incompatibility, to confer disease
flowerheads to 5cm (2in) in diameter; suckers or by bulbils. D.palmeri (basal or cold resistance, or to control vigour.
cultivars derived from this species leaves to 2m (61/2ft); scape to 2.5m (8ft);
include the free-flowering, mildew- flowers to 5cm (2in), rich orange-red, dovecote a pigeon-house. Originally
resistant ‘Strahlengold’). paler within, among red-flushed substantial, functional buildings, dove-
bracts). cotes later became popular as decora-
Dorotheanthus (for Dorothea, the tive garden features, often in the form
mother of G.F. Schwantes, the botanist dot plant a bold specimen plant used of a small wooden house on top of a
who named this plant, and Greek to give contrast of foliage colour, form long pole.
anthos, flower). Aizoaceae. South and height in a bedding scheme, for
Africa. 6 species, succulent annuals, example, Eucalyptus globulus or standard downy mildew diseases caused by
with fleshy leaves more or less covered fuchsias. fungal parasites belonging to the family
with crystalline papillae. Brightly Peronosporaceae including Bremia,
coloured, daisy-like flowers open on double, semi-double any flower Peronospora, Plasmopara and Pseudoper-
warm, sunny days. Sow seeds thinly with many more than the basic onospora. The fungi penetrate deeply
during late winter and early spring. number of petals, sepals, florets or into plant tissue and their aerial growth
Grow under glass with a temperature coloured bracts. Fully double blooms can be seen as a glistening downy
of 15–20°C/59–68°F; shade from have densely packed rounded heads in white or purple growth, usually on the
direct sunlight. Prick out seedlings into
trays or small unit containers. Grow on
in full sunlight at a temperature of
10–15°C/50–59°F, and with plenty
of ventilation. Harden the plants off
gradually during late spring, ready for
planting outside in full sun on a well-
drained soil in early summer. D.bellidi-
formis (syn. Mesembryanthemum criniflorum;
LIVINGSTONE DAISY; leaves 2.5–7cm
(1–23/4in), tongue-like, thinly fleshy,
glistening; flowers to 4cm (11/2in) in
diameter, white, pale pink, magenta,
red, orange, apricot or white edged
red; many seed races available).
dorsal pertaining to the back of an

organ, or to the surface that is turned Single and double kingcups
away from the axis, thus abaxial; cf. The normal form of Caltha palustris (left) has a single ring of petals, while the double cultivar 263
ventral. ‘Flore Pleno’ has tightly packed petals and petaloid stamens, forming dense, golden heads.
downy mildew
under-surface of leaves. Yellow patches chippings around the neck of the plant. with a minimum winter temperature of
develop beneath the visible fungus Water moderately during growth and 13°C/55°F. Water, feed and syringe
growth and affected leaves turn brown flowering, avoiding the cushions; other- liberally in warm weather; keep barely
and eventually die. In some downy wise water very sparingly. Remove moist at other times. Sponge over
mildews, there is marked distortion of dead or dying material from the leaves of plants grown indoors. Propa-
D the host due to swelling and curling of

the infected tissues. Spread is by spores
during the growing season, but a resis-
rosettes to avoid rot. Propagate from
seed sown fresh in early spring. Alter-
natively, increase by careful division,
gate by seed, stem tip cuttings or air-
layering.
D.cincta (origin obscure; shrub to
tant sexual stage may overwinter inside by small offsets in spring or by soft 1.8m (6ft), stem slender, usually
plant tissues. Downy mildews are cuttings in summer. unbranched; leaves to 38 x 1.5cm (15 x
5
favoured by damp conditions. The fol- D.aizoides (C and S Europe, Great /8in), linear, mid- to deep green, edged
lowing plants are common sufferers: Britain; leaves to 1cm (1/2in), linear, red to brown; some plants cultivated as
crucifers (affected by Peronospora parasit- sparsely ciliate, incurved in dense, com- D.marginata may belong here; ‘Tricolor’:
ica), onions (P.destructor), pea (P.viciae), pacted cushions; flowers bright yellow, leaves striped cream and edged red);
rose (P.sparsa, mainly on greenhouse 4–18 on smooth flowering stems to D.concinna (Mauritius; shrub to 1.8m
plants), spinach and beet (P.farinosa), 10cm (4in) tall); D.hispanica (Spain; dif- (6ft), stem slender, red-tinted; leaves to
umbellifers (Plasmopara nivea), grapevine fers from the first species in having 90 x 7.5cm (36 x 3in), linear to ensi-
(P.viticola) and cucurbits (Pseudoper- slightly broader, roughly hairy leaves, form, dull green edged purple-red;
onospora cubensis). Other plants some- shorter, bristly flowering stems and pale some plants cultivated as D.marginata
times affected include Anemone, yellow flowers); D.mollissima (Caucasus; may belong here); D.draco (DRAGON
Antirrhinum, Campanula, chrysanthe- leaves to 0.6cm (1/4in), oblong, blunt, TREE; Canary Islands; tree to 10m
mums, Clarkia, Digitalis, Geum, Hebe, white-hairy, in tight cushions; flowers (33ft), ultimately with a very thick,
Helleborus, Laburnum, Mesembryanthemum, golden yellow in tight, short racemes); grey-barked trunk exuding red resin if
Myosotis, Papaver, Primula and Viola. D.polytricha (Armenia, Turkey; leaves to wounded and developing a massively
Control downy mildew by good ven- 0.5cm (1/4in), oblong to spathulate, with branched, broad crown; leaves to 60 x
tilation, removing infected plant debris long white hairs, in tight cushions; 4cm (24 x 11/2in), linear to lanceolate,
and, where essential, fungicide applica- flowers bright yellow on hairy stems); glaucous, tough); D.fragrans (Sierra
tion. Copper-containing chemicals and D.rigida (Armenia, Turkey; leaves to Leone to Malawi; shrub or tree to 15m
many broad-spectrum organic fungi- 0.6cm (1/4in), broadly linear, ciliate, (50ft), branching above, stems thick;
cides, including the di-thiocarbamates dark green in tight, mossy rosettes; leaves to 100 x 10cm (39 x 4in), lanceo-
mancozeb and zineb, will give good flowers bright yellow on smooth stalks; late, narrowing below, outspread with
protection against these diseases. The includes var. bryoides with very small, tips curving, glossy pale to dark green;
use of such chemicals is subject to local incurved dark green leaves and more includes the popular ‘Massangeana’,
pesticide approvals. or less stemless flowers). CORN PLANT, with pale green leaves
broadly striped yellow); D.fragrans Dere-
downy see pubescent. Dracaena (from Greek drakaina, a mensis Group (tropical E Africa; shrub
female dragon, referring to the resinous to 4m (13ft), stem slender, sparsely
Draba (name used by Dioscorides for red gum exuded from the stems of branched; leaves to 70 x 5cm (28 x 2in),
another crucifer, Lepidium draba). Cru- D.draco). Agavaceae (Dracaenaceae). linear to lanceolate, narrowing toward
ciferae. N Hemisphere, mountains of S Old World, 1 species America. Some base, spreading and clothing much of
America. 300 species, dwarf, annual or 40 species, evergreen shrubs or trees, stem, dark to grey green; includes sev-
perennial, cushion-forming herbs with sparingly to much-branched, the bark eral popular variegated cultivars, for
tiny leaves in tight rosettes and 4- smooth and ringed to rough and fis- example ‘Bausei’ with a central white
petalled, usually yellow flowers in short sured. The leaves vary in shape from band, ‘Lemon Lime’, lime green with a
racemes in late spring and summer. narrow and sword-like to lanceolate or yellow central band and margins,
Fully hardy. Grow in the rock garden, elliptic, smooth and tough. Creamy, ‘Roehrs Gold’, with a pale gold central
in troughs or raised beds, or in the star-shaped and nocturnally fragrant band and margins, and ‘Warneckii’,
alpine house. All Draba species dislike flowers are borne in large panicles at grey-green with a pure white central
winter wet, especially those with woolly various times of year. D.draco prefers stripe and margins); D.hookeriana (SE
foliage – these, if grown in the open, full sun, a rather dry, lean soil and a Africa; shrub to 1.8m (6ft), sometimes
should be protected with a cloche or minimum winter temperature of branched; leaves to 75 x 11cm (30 x
a propped pane of glass and given a 5°C/41°F. In Mediterranean-type 41/2in), lanceolate, semi-erect with curv-
top dressing of chippings or small climates, it becomes a large, much- ing tips and narrow base, margins
stones. Grow in a gritty, well-drained branched tree. The other species listed translucent white or red-tinted;
and moderately fertile soil in full sun. here are often grown in the home, or includes ‘Gertrude Manda’, with broad
In the alpine house, grow the plants in in interior landscapes, and are valued and thick leaves with translucent edges,
pans of a mix of equal parts loam, for their resilience and decorative and ‘Variegata’, with white-striped
264 leafmould and sharp sand, with a foliage. Grow them in a fertile, porous leaves); D.reflexa (syn. Pleomele reflexa;
wedge of tufa or layer of limestone medium in light shade or dappled sun, SONG OF INDIA; Madagascar, Mauri-
drainage
tius; graceful shrub to 5m (16ft), freely (the descriptions below measure the ings at centre, tips maroon-black, lip
branching with slender, rather sprawl- flowers from tip to tip). Unlike Masde- white flecked violet).
ing stems; leaves to 20cm (8in) x 2–5cm vallia, the flowers hang on slender stalks
(3/4–2in), linear to lanceolate or nar- and have a distinctly clawed, usually Dracunculus (name used by Pliny
rowly elliptic, tapering finely at both pouch-shaped lip. They are produced for a plant with a curved rhizome, from
ends, dark green; includes forms with
narrow, white-edged and yellow-striped
leaves); D.sanderiana (BELGIAN EVER-
in abundance during spring and
summer.
Small orchids with spectacular, if
Latin diminutive of draco, a dragon).
Araceae. Mediterranean, Madeira,
Canary Islands. 3 species, tuberous
D
GREEN, RIBBON PLANT; Cameroon; rather sinister flowers, they need a tem- herbaceous perennials with pedately
erect, sparingly branched shrub to perature range of 10–24°C/50–75°F, compound leaves – their mottled
1.5m (5ft); stems slender; leaves to 20cm shade, high humidity and a buoyant sheaths and stalks forming a pseudostem
(8in) x 1.5–4cm (5/8–11/2in), lanceolate, atmosphere. Plant in small baskets or – and, in spring and summer, large and
base and apex tapering, spreading and perforated pots (flowerstalks often malodorous, Arum-like inflorescences.
somewhat wavy, clothing stems, pale to burrow through the medium before The following species will establish itself
grey-green broadly edged or striped finding an outlet) in a fine, bark- or in most sheltered, well-drained positions
cream-white); D.surculosa (syn. D.godseffi- perlite-based mix with chopped sphag- in zones 7 and over, tolerating full sun
ana; GOLD DUST DRACAENA, SPOTTED num moss. Keep moist and syringe fre- or dappled shade. It becomes dormant
DRACAENA; shrub, 1–4m (31/4–12ft) with quently. Feed whilst the new growth in summer, when the soil should be
slender, twiggy branches; leaves to develops. Increase by division after warm and dry. In very wet or cold
20cm (8in), elliptic, apex acute, base flowering. areas, protect the corms with a dry
shortly tapered, deep glossy green, D.bella (syn. Masdevallia bella; Colom- mulch in winter. Increase by offsets in
spotted to flecked or blotched gold to bia; flowers to 20cm (8in) across, basi- late summer, or seed in autumn. D.vul-
cream). For D.indivisa, see Cordyline indi- cally triangular with fused segments garis (syn. Arum dracunculus; DRAGON
visa; for D.godseffiana, see D.surculosa; for and long, slender tips, buff or dull olive ARUM; C and E Mediterranean; stem
D.marginata, see D.cincta or D.concinna; densely spotted oxblood with darker 40–100cm (16–39in), mottled maroon;
for D.terminalis, see Cordyline terminalis. tips and a white or pale lip); D.chester- spathe to 100 x 20cm (39 x 8in), wavy,
tonii (syn. Masdevallia chestertonii; Colom- deep red-purple, spadix black-red).
Dracocephalum (from Latin draco, bia; flowers to 7cm (23/4in) across with
dragon, and Greek, kephale, head, refer- three distinct segments, each with a drag brush a wide-headed brush-
ring to the shape of the flowers). Labi- slender tip, sulphur green or grey- like hand tool, designed to be pulled
atae. Europe, Africa, Asia, N America. white, dotted and edged with purple to across turf to work in top dressings.
About 45 species, annual or perennial grey-black warts, lip ochre lined with
herbs and dwarf shrubs with whorls of red radiating gills, resembling an drag, dragfork see fork.
tubular, 2-lipped flowers in terminal or upturned mushroom); D.chimaera (syn.
axillary spikes or racemes. The follow- Masdevallia chimaera; Colombia; flowers
ing species is perennial and hardy to to 30cm (12in) across, segments trian-
–15°C/5°F. Grow in a sunny position gular to ovate with very long, slender
in a fertile well-drained soil. Propagate tips, buff to olive flecked and stained
by division in spring or autumn, or maroon to violet-black, hairy and
from basal cuttings of young growth in warty, lip cream to flesh pink, buff to
spring. D.ruyschianum (C Europe to orange at base); D.erythrochaete (syn.
Japan; erect to 60cm (24in); flowers to Masdevallia erythrochaete; Guatemala,
3cm (11/4in), violet-blue, rarely pink or Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama; flow-
white). ers to 12cm (43/4in) across, segments
more or less fused, forming a broad
Dracula (from the diminutive form of cup with long, slender tips, cream to
Latin, draco – the name does not com- grey-pink densely spotted flesh pink to
memorate the Transylvanian Count, maroon and hairy, with maroon tails,
although both names mean ‘little lip white or buff); D.platycrater (syn. Mas-
dragon’; one of the most splendidly devallia platycrater; Colombia; flowers to Main drain
undead-looking species also rejoices in 25cm (10in) across with distinct and Section through an arterial drain. Excess
the name D.vampira). Orchidaceae. outspread, narrow segments and slen- water percolates into the porous pipe and is
Central and South America. About der tips, white to rose dotted purple- drained to a ditch or soakaway.
100 species, evergreen perennial herbs. red, lip pink); D.vampira (Ecuador;
They are similar to Masdevallia, with flowers to 30cm (12in) across with drainage the removal by gravity of
the flowers consisting of 3 sepal-segments ovate to triangular segments and very excess surface or soil water to a lower
more or less fused in a triangular or 3- slender, long tips, white to yellow green level. Good soil drainage is very impor-
pointed shield or cup, each segment densely overlaid and veined purple- tant in gardens, providing or improving 265
being drawn out to a long, tail-like tip black, with golden sunburst-like mark- conditions for healthy plant growth
drainage
and preventing flooding of surfaces. layer of coarse gravel. As an alternative in diameter, white marked pink, in
Imperfect drainage may be indicated to drainpipes trenches may be filled long-stalked, downy umbels to 10cm
by surface puddling after rain, and by with a 10–15cm (4–6in) layer of coarse (4in) across).
the presence of moss in lawns. It may gravel, or for a shorter serviceable
be due to a high water table, or more period with tight bundles of brush- drench, drenching the liberal
D often to compacted layers which arise

naturally on some soils or as a result of
treading or cultivating in unfavourable
wood, all conforming to the same prin-
ciples of depth, layout and outfall. On
heavy clay soils, narrow drainage tun-
application of a pesticide solution to
the soil around the roots of a plant;
usually to control a soil-borne pest or
conditions. nels, known as mole drains, may be disease by contact, but also for systemic
Drainage status can be assessed by formed at intervals across a site by action, where the pesticide is taken up
digging 30cm (12in)-deep holes across using a flat-bladed plough to draw a by roots and transported throughout
a site shortly after heavy rain and metal cylinder through the soil in such the plant to destroy pests feeding upon
examining them a few hours later for a way that it penetrates below cultiva- aerial parts.
water presence. Drainage defects are tion depth. Mole drains are usually
more apparent in soils of heavy tex- constructed in conjunction with a pipe drepanium a sickle-shaped cyme.
ture, and on sites where a problem is system and will remain functional for a
identified it is advisable to dig inspec- number of seasons. Drepanostachyum (from Greek
tion holes to at least 60cm (24in) depth. The term “top draining” describes drepanon, sickle, and stachys, spike, in
Where these are kept covered from the use of shallow channels or ditches token of the sickle-shaped inflores-
rainfall for 24 hours and are then to drain off surface water. cence.) Gramineae. Himalaya. A genus
found to have an accumulation of lack of light causes of clumping bamboos; see bamboos.
water, the existence of a high water pale colour
table is indicated and skilful site man- dressing (1) any bulky organic
agement will be needed. Alternatively manure or fertilizer applied to the soil
close examination of the side walls of in a solid as opposed to a liquid state,
the inspection holes will reveal whether in preparation for cropping or as an
compaction is a problem. application around established plants
Soil drainage can be improved by (see base dressing, side dressing, top dressing);
careful cultivation, and, where com- (2) any fungicidal or insecticidal sub-
paction is a problem, double digging or stance applied to seeds, bulbs, corms,
trenching (see digging) may be desirable. or tubers to prevent disease or pest
Incorporation of lime and rotted attack.
organic matter serves to improve soil
structure, and in some situations grit or dribble bar a perforated metal or
sand additives can aid drainage. plastic bar fitted to a watering can or
Where fundamental site characteris- sprayer for the application of insecti-
stems are
tics cause impeded drainage, it may be weak and cide, fungicide or weedkiller. Also
worth laying down a drainage system. prone to known as a sprinkler bar.
However, such a project is expensive, collapse
Drawn seedlings
both in terms of labour and materials dried blood a quick-acting organic
and must be carefully surveyed and drawn describing seedlings or plants fertilizer containing 10–12% nitrogen,
executed. The first essential is to plan that become abnormally tall and thin used either as a dry, base- or top-dress-
for disposal of collected water from the as a result of poor light or crowding. ing or as a liquid feed when mixed with
lowest point of the site. Ideally, the water. The sterilized product should be
water should be directed to a ditch or Dregea (for Johann Franz Drege handled with suitable precautions to
other authorized outlet or, alternatively, (1794–1881), botanist). Asclepiadaceae. avoid inhalation and other personal
to a soakaway pit, constructed at least Old World (warm regions). 3 species, contact.
1.8m (6ft) square and filled with rubble. woody-based, evergreen climbers with
Purpose-made drain-pipes of earthen- large leaves and umbels of starry and drift (1) any part of a pesticide spray
ware or plastic, 5–7.5cm (2–3in) in fragrant, Hoya-like flowers in summer. that has been carried beyond its
diameter, should be laid on a firmed The following species is hardy in zone intended target. Drift may cause
5cm (2in) bed of coarse gravel in 8. Plant on a well-drained, moist and damage to neighbouring plants with
trenches 35–40cm (14–16in) deep. The fertile soil in sun or part shade. Provide which it comes into contact. Particu-
trenches must follow a natural slope or support. Increase by seed in spring or larly at risk are tomatoes, in which even
a constructed one with an ideal fall of stem cuttings in summer. D.sinensis (syn. very low concentrations of hormone-
1:40. A herringbone design is appropri- Wattakaka sinensis; China; evergreen type weedkillers, carried as drift over
ate, with the feeders meeting main lines climber to 3m (10ft) tall; leaves to 10cm long distances, can cause serious distor-
266 at an angle of 45 degrees. The drain (4in), broadly ovate to cordate, grey- tion of growth; (2) a block planting of
pipes should be overlaid with a shallow felted beneath; flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) young trees.
Drosera
drill a shallow furrow or groove made warm and sunny days. Cultivate as for
in soil for the sowing of seeds, or for Lampranthus.
transplants. D.hispidum (freely branching shrub to
60cm (24in) tall and over 1m (31/4ft)
Drimys (from Greek drimys, acrid, across, stems rooting, with rough white
sharp). Winteraceae. S America,
Malaysia, Australasia. Some 30 species,
evergreen trees or shrubs with leathery,
hairs; leaves 1.5–2.5cm (5/8–1in), cylin-
dric, obtuse, light green to red-tinged
with large, transparent papillae; flowers
D
aromatic leaves and clusters of star- to 3cm (11/4in) in diameter, deep
shaped flowers in late spring. Drimys is purple-red); D.speciosum (shrub to 60cm
hardy in climate zone 8, and in shel- (24in), stem papillose, with rough spots;
tered areas in zone 7. Plant in semi- leaves 1–1.6cm (1/2–5/8in), semicylindric,
shade on light, lime-free soils which are curved, obtuse, covered in crystal-like
well drained but moisture-retentive. papillae; flowers to 5cm (2in) in diame-
Propagate by greenwood cuttings in ter, deep orange-red with a green
late summer, on a mist bench or in a centre).
closed case, by softwood basal cuttings
in spring, or by simple layering. Drosera (from Greek droseros, dewy, Drosera rotundifolia
D.lanceolata (Australia; PEPPER TREE; from the glands on the leaf surface). The round-leaved sundew is a hardy annual
shrub or small tree to 3m (10ft); Droseraceae. Cosmopolitan. DAILY requiring abundant water when in growth.
branchlets dull red to purple-red; DEW, SUNDEW. Some 100 species, Droseras are popular educational plants.
leaves to 12cm (43/4in), lanceolate to highly varied carnivorous herbs, mostly
oblong, subcoriaceous; flowers pale perennial and all trapping their prey by seed or leaf and root cuttings. Alterna-
brown to green-white; fruit black); sweet and glistening, red-tinted tenta- tively, increase by division or by
D.winteri (Chile, Argentina; tree or cles. These cover the leaf surfaces and gemmae (tiny bud-like propagules pro-
shrub to 20m (66ft), often multi- bend slowly inwards to ensnare victims. duced during the resting period) sown
stemmed; bark aromatic; leaves The leaf itself may roll inwards, on damp compost.
3–20cm (11/4–8in), elliptic to oblong or enclosing the prey and forming a D.adelae (Australia; leaves 10–25cm
lanceolate, coriaceous, glaucous and pocket in which the digestive process (4–10in), narrow-lanceolate, thin-tex-
pale beneath; flowers white to cream, takes place. The dish-shaped flowers tured with a distinct midrib, pale green
fragrant; fruit glossy black). have five (sometimes four or eight) to olive, sparsely red-glandular; flowers
rounded petals and may be solitary, to 0.3cm (1/8in) in diameter, cream to
drip irrigation see trickle irrigation. racemose or paniculate. beige or red-brown); D.anglica (GREAT
All Drosera species require full sun SUNDEW, ENGLISH SUNDEW; N Europe,
drip line (1) the actual or predicted and a humid atmosphere. The hardy N Asia, N America; leaves to 1.3cm
line on the soil surface below a tree species will endure hard frosts, dying (1/2in), linear-oblanceolate, pale green,
canopy where its leaves shed rain drips. back to resting winter buds. These glands bright red; flowers to 0.5cm
It is used as a guide for fertilizer appli- include D.anglica, D.intermedia and (1/4in) in diameter, white); D.binata
cation; (2) a term used to describe a D.rotundifolia. Since, however, it is (Australia, New Zealand; leaves to
small-bore irrigation pipe in trickle almost impossible to recreate the 30cm (12in), the blade deeply forked
systems. sphagnum bog they inhabit in the open into 2–14 linear to filiform spreading
garden, these sundews tend to be lobes with long, red tenatcles; flowers
drip-point, drip-tip a leaf tip, grown in the cool greenhouse or in the to 2cm (3/4in) in diameter, white to
either acuminate, caudate or aristate, home. The tender (remaining) species pink); D.capensis (S Africa; leaves 3–6cm
from which water readily drips in wet need a minimum temperature of (11/4–21/2in), narrowly oblong to spathu-
conditions. 7°C/45°F. Plant all species in small late-linear, with red tentacles; flowers
clay pots containing a mix of coarse to 2cm (3/4in) in diameter, rosy pink);
drop layering, dropping see peat, sharp sand and fresh sphagnum. D.capillaris (PINK SUNDEW; subtropical
layering. In spring and summer, stand the pots and tropical Americas; leaves to 0.6cm
in rainwater up to one third of their (1/4in), broadly spathulate to orbicular;
dropsy see oedema. depth. In autumn and winter, keep just flowers to 1cm (1/2in) in diameter, pink
moist. Tuberous species will die back or white); D.cistiflora (South Africa;
Drosanthemum (from Greek drosos, during this period. In hot, dry weather, leaves to 10cm (4in), linear; flowers
dew, and anthemon, flower, referring to syringing with soft water can be benefi- 5cm (2in) in diameter, scarlet, violet or
the glistening, dew-drop appearance of cial, together with light shading to pre- white); D.filiformis (DEW-THREAD
the papillae). Aizoaceae. South Africa. vent scorching. In the home, it may be SUNDEW, THREAD-LEAVED SUNDEW; US;
90 species, succulent perennial shrubs necessary to grow these plants in a leaves 10–25cm (4–10in), filiform with
with fleshy, usually papillose leaves and case, or at least to stand them in large purple-red tentacles; flowers to 3cm 267
bright, daisy-like flowers opening on bowls or trays of water. Propagate by (11/4in) in diameter, rose-pink); D.gigantea
Drosera
(W Australia; leaves to 0.6cm (1/4in) in leaves. These are some 20cm (8in) long drupelet a small drupe, generally a
diameter, cup-shaped, peltate, with red and densely covered on their under- part of an aggregate fruit such as a
tentacles, on slender scrambling stems; sides by glandular hairs which secrete blackberry (Rubus).
flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) in diameter, adhesive and digestive fluid. Withered
white); D.glandulifera (COMMON SCARLET leaves persist in a shaggy, grey-brown dry rot a general term for diseases
D SUNDEW; Australia; leaves to 0.5cm

(1/4in) in diameter, transversely oval,
concave, with red tentacles; flowers
ruff. The flowers consist of five broad,
bright yellow petals, and are carried in
a corymbose cyme in spring and
that cause a dry decay, with discol-
oration and shrivelling of tissue, of
various plant parts including fruits and
to 0.8cm (3/8in) in diameter, red with summer. Provide a minimum winter underground storage organs, for exam-
black centres); D.intermedia (LOVE NEST temperature of 7°C/45°F, full sun and ple Fusarium solani rot of potatoes.
SUNDEW; N Europe and Asia, N and C an airy, rather dry atmosphere. Droso-
America; leaves to 0.5cm (1/4in), obo- phyllum resents disturbance and is best dry set a condition in which fruits
vate, covered in red tentacles; flowers grown from seed in a small clay pot appear to set but fail to swell. It is espe-
1cm (1/2in) in diameter, white ); D.prolif- containing a mix of two parts moss cially common in greenhouse tomatoes
era (Australia; leaves to 1.5cm (5/8in), peat, two parts loam-based compost grown in hot dry conditions, and is
reniform with pale tentacles; flowers and one and a half parts sand. As the largely preventable by regular damping
small, pink to red, on scapes which in plant increases in size, plunge the down.
time bend over and bear plantlets, smaller pot within a larger pot of the
coming to resemble proliferous stolons); same mix. The compost in the larger
D.pygmaea (Australia, New Zealand; pot should be moist at all times (use
leaves to 0.2cm (1/16in) in diameter, rainwater) but that in the smaller pot
round, concave; flowers to 0.3cm (1/8in) (i.e. around the crown of the plant)
in diameter, white); D.regia (GIANT should be kept dry. The roots will
SUNDEW; S Africa; leaves to 70cm descend into the large pot below.
(28in), linear to lanceolate; flowers to Good results have also been achieved
3.5cm (11/2in) in diameter, pale pink to by drilling through a piece of pumice
purple); D.rotundifolia (ROUND-LEAVED stone on tufa. This is placed on a pan
SUNDEW; northern temperate regions; containing the medium described
leaves 0.5–1cm (1/4–1/2in) in diameter, above. A young plant may then be
round with bright red tentacles; flowers established in the hole in the stone (also
to 0.6cm (1/4in) in diameter, white to containing the medium). This will
pink); D.spathulata (SPOON-LEAF eventually root into the pan, which
SUNDEW; NE Asia to New Zealand; should be kept just moist by watering Dry stone wall
leaves 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), oblong to from beneath. A mortar-free retaining wall provides ample
spathulate; flowers to 0.8cm (3/8in) in opportunity to grow trailing and crevice
diameter, white to pink); D.whittakeri drought the depletion of soil mois- plants, softening hard edges.
(Australia; leaves to 3.5cm (11/2in), ture due to lack of rainfall or insuffi-
spathulate to obovate, pale green with cient watering. Physiological drought dry wall a stone wall built without
bright red tentacles; flowers to 3cm occurs when soil salinity is so high that mortar, used in gardens to stabilize
(11/4in) in diameter, white, fragrant). it restricts the absorption of water by vertical banks and terrace edges. Dry
plant roots. Either form of drought walls are suitable for planting vigorous
Drosophyllum (from Greek drosos, causes flagging and various degrees of alpines and trailing plants.
dew, and phyllon, leaf, alluding to the damage in plants not adapted to grow
glistening appearance of the glandular in such conditions. Dryandra (for Jonas Dryander
leaves). Droseraceae. single seed (1748–1810), Swedish botanist.)
Portugal, S Spain, or “stone” drupaceous resembling, or Proteaceae. W Australia. Some 60
Morocco. 1 species, pertaining to a drupe; species, evergreen shrubs or small
D.lusitanicum, a car- with a juicy seed coat. trees with leathery, toothed to lobed
nivorous perennial leaves, often white-downy beneath.
to 30cm (12in). It drupe an indehis- Small, tubular flowers are carried in
resembles Drosera, cent, one- to sev- dense, terminal heads subtended by
but its sticky leaf eral-seeded fruit, persistent bracts during spring and
tentacles are shorter in which the endo- summer. Cultivate as for Banksia.
and do not move to carp is osseous or Chlorosis may be treated with chelated
enmesh prey. The cartilaginous, and is iron. D.formosa (SHOWY DRYANDRA; W
plant develops a slen- contained within a Australia; shrub to 2m (61/2ft); leaves
der, usually trailing, soft, fleshy pericarp. 10–20cm (4–8in), soft, triangular-lobed,
268 woody stem bearing a ter- Stone fruits, such as man- tomentose beneath; flowerheads large,
minal rosette of thread-like Drupe (plum) goes or plums, are drupes. golden-orange).
Dudleya
Dryas (after Dryas, a wood nymph to post. Water generously during the first scales; frond blades 25–75cm
whom the oak was sacred – the leaves spring and summer. Propagate by (10–30in), lanceolate, pinnae oblong-
of D.octopetala resemble those of the spores or by division of mature plants lanceolate, segments oblong, blunt,
oak). Rosaceae. Arctic and alpine with multiple crowns. entire to crenate, coriaceous); D.oreades
regions. MOUNTAIN AVENS. 5 species, D.affinis (GOLDEN SHIELD FERN; (MOUNTAIN MALE FERN; Caucasus;
evergreen, creeping shrublets, forming
extensive, loose mats of slender, woody
branches clothed with tough, rugose
Europe, Asia; stipes covered with
golden to orange-brown scales; frond
blades 30–125cm (12–48in) elliptic to
stipes with pale brown scales; blades
30–80cm (12–32in), oblong-lanceolate
to narrowly lanceolate, pinnae linear-
D
leaves. Produced in early summer, the narrowly elliptic, pinnules oblong, lanceolate, attenuate, pinnules oblong,
flowers are solitary, borne on long lobed, toothed, deep, glossy green; bluntly toothed; includes wavy to
stalks and consist of 7–10, rounded includes dwarf, congested and crested crested forms).
petals and numerous stamens. They forms); D.carthusiana (NARROW BUCKLER
give rise to snow white, feathery seed FERN; Europe; stipes covered with pale Duchesnea (for Antoine Nicolas
heads. The following species are suit- brown scales; frond blades 6–30cm Duchesne (1747–1827), French horti-
able for the rock garden, making good (21/2–12in), stiffly erect, lanceolate to culturist, who published in 1766 Histoire
light cover for spring bulbs, and for ovate-lanceolate, pinnules pinnate or naturelle des fraisiers, an account of the
planting in paving joints. Hardy to pinnately lobed, lime green, glandular- history of the strawberry). Rosaceae.
–15°C/5°F. Plant in gritty, well- hairy beneath); D.dilatata (BROAD BUCK- Asia. INDIAN STRAWBERRY, MOCK
drained, neutral to slightly alkaline LER FERN; Europe; stipes covered with STRAWBERRY. 2 species, stoloniferous
soils. Grow in an open position in sun. pale brown scales; frond blades perennial herbs. They closely resemble
Propagate by ripe seed sown fresh, by 7–100cm (23/4–39in), triangular-ovate, strawberries (Fragaria), differing in
semi-ripe, heeled cuttings rooted in pinnules ovate to oblong, dentate or their yellow flowers and small, rather
sharp sand; also by division of rooted pinnately lobed, dark green, sparsely dry and inedible fruit. Hardy to
stems. glandular beneath; includes cultivars –20°C/–4°F, D.indica is a vigorous and
D.drummondii (N America; leaves to with crisped pinnules or crested fast-growing carpeting plant. It favours
4cm (11/2in), elliptic to obovate, pale fronds); D.erythrosora (JAPANESE SHIELD a moist, sandy but fertile soil in dap-
green above, white-tomentose beneath FERN, COPPER SHIELD FERN; E Asia; pled sun. Increase by offsets freely pro-
or throughout, margins coarsely cre- stipes red-brown to deep copper with duced on runners. D.indica (syn. Fragaria
nate; flowers cream or white tinted brown or black scales; frond blades indica; India to Japan, naturalized N
yellow, nodding); D.octopetala (MOUN- 30–70cm (12–28in), broadly ovate- America; leaflets to 7cm (23/4in),
TAIN AVENS; northern temperate triangular to oblong, pinnules narrowly obovate, crenate, silky-hairy beneath;
regions; leaves to 4cm (11/2in), oblong to oblong to linear-lanceolate, dentate flowers to 2cm (3/4in) in diameter; fruit
ovate, dull green and glabrous above, or pinnately lobed, emerging deep bright red).
white-tomentose beneath, margins cre- copper-pink, turning gold to lime with
nate; flowers white, erect); D. x suender- a bronze tint, ultimately deep olive Dudleya (for William Russel Dudley
manii (a vigorous hybrid between the flushed copper); D.filix-mas (MALE (1849–1911), first professor of botany
two preceeding species; flowers slightly FERN; N America, Europe, N Asia; at Stanford University, California).
nodding, cream in bud, opening white). stipes with brown scales; frond blades Crassulaceae. Western N America.
30–90cm (12–36in), lanceolate- 40 species, succulent perennials with
Dryopteris (from Greek dryas, oak, triangular, apex finely acuminate; fleshy, ovate to linear leaves in basal
and pteris, fern – some species are pinnae oblong-lanceolate, finely taper- rosettes. The flowers are tubular or
found in oak woods). Dryopteridaceae. ing with oblong, serrate segments, dull star-shaped with five, acute lobes; they
Cosmopolitan. WOOD-FERN, BUCKLER mid- to deep green, more or less hairy; are borne in spring and summer in
FERN, SHIELD FERN, MALE FERN. 150 includes cultivars with crested, crisped panicles. Grow in full sun, in a per-
species, ferns with erect to creeping and much-reduced fronds); D.goldieana fectly drained, gritty medium, with a
rhizomes and shuttlecock-like to loose (GIANT WOOD FERN, GOLDIE’S WOOD minimum winter temperature of
and spreading crowns of fronds – these FERN; NE America; stipes covered with 7°C/45°F. Water very sparingly when
are triangular to oblong-lanceolate in dark, glossy brown scales; frond blades plants are dormant. Increase by stem
outline and 1–3-pinnate. The following to 1m (31/4ft) cm, ovate, abruptly cuttings.
species are hardy down to –30°C/–22°F acuminate, pinnae oblong-lanceolate, D.brittonii (leaves 7–25cm (23/4–10in),
if well-established and mulched during acuminate, segments oblong, serrate); crowded, finely pointed, dusted white,
cold periods. Most are tolerant of a D.intermedia (FANCY FERN; N America; in a solitary rosette; flowers yellow to
wide range of pH. Grow in part to full stipes straw-coloured, covered in dense green); D.lanceolata (leaves 10–15cm
shade or dappled sun (some species, for scales; frond blades to 70 x 30cm (28 x (4–6in), lanceolate, tip tapering nar-
example, D.erythrosora, will tolerate full 12in), ovate-lanceolate, abruptly acumi- rowly, crowded in a solitary rosette,
sun if cool and moist at the roots, but nate, pinnules with segments oblong, glaucous; flowers red-yellow); D.pulveru-
their fronds will be of poorer quality). obtuse, minutely spiny-toothed, bright lenta (CHALK LETTUCE; leaves 7–30cm
Plant in a moist but porous soil, rich in green, glandular); D.marginalis (N (23/4–12in), oblong to spathulate, apex 269
leafmould and well-rotted garden com- America; stipes covered in pale brown tapering and pointed, thickly white-
Dudleya
glaucous in a large, solitary rosette; throughout the British and American dwarf, dwarfing a small or slow-
flowers red); D.saxosa (leaves 5–15cm countryside. Trees of all ages are liable growing form of a plant, which may
(2–6in), pointed, semi-terete, glaucous, to infection. Leaves in the crown wilt, arise by mutation, breeding or, as in the
in few or solitary rosettes; flowers become yellow and die during summer case of many dwarf conifers, by the
yellow to red); D.virens (ALABASTER months; notching appears in twig propagation of witches brooms. Dwarf-
D PLANT; leaves 4–25cm (11/2–10in),

linear, pointed, glaucous; flowers
white).
crotches and the twigs may become
crook-shaped. Longitudinal streaks can
be seen under the bark. Symptoms
ing rootstocks are particularly valued for
predicting the ultimate size of fruit trees.
Dwarfing can also be achieved by cul-
recur and spread in succeeding seasons, tural methods, as in bonsai, or by the use
Duranta (for Castor Durantes, early- and the tree is killed within a few years, of growth inhibitors on pot plants.
18th-century physician and botanist in although growth may regenerate from
Rome). Verbenaceae. Tropical Amer- the base. Dyckia (for Count Salm-Dyck
ica. Some 30 species, trees or shrubs The disease is mainly spread by bark (1773–1861), German botanist).
with 5-lobed, salverform flowers in beetles, especially the ELM BARK BEETLE Bromeliaceae. C and S America. 104
slender racemes or panicles in summer (Scolytus scolytus), which emerge from species, stemless, rosette-forming
and fleshy, globose fruit. Cultivate as brood galleries in dead elm bark and perennial herbs with rigid, sword-
for Lantana. D.erecta (syn. D.plumieri, transmit fungal spores as they feed in the shaped leaves covered with grey scales
D.repens; PIGEON BERRY, SKY FLOWER, crotches of twigs and bore into older and edged with spiny teeth. Small flow-
GOLDEN DEWDROP; tropical America; bark. Transmission through root contact ers are crowded in erect, branching,
shrub or small tree to 6m (20ft), some- also occurs. The only practical means of scapose inflorescences. Grow in full sun
times spiny; racemes to 15cm (6in), control is to fell and burn affected trees. in a dry, airy atmosphere (minimum
flowers white, lilac, blue or purple; fruit temperature 7°C/45°F); pot in a very
to 1cm (1/2in) diameter, yellow). Dutch gardening in Britain, a style gritty, open medium. Keep virtually
of gardening broadly dating from the dry in winter. D.remotiflora will tolerate
dust, dusting the application to reign of William and Mary and reflect- several degrees of frost if dry. Propa-
plants or soil of a pesticide formulated ing a combination of French and con- gate by rooted offsets.
as a fine powder. Dusts have good temporary Dutch influence. It is D.brevifolia (S Brazil; leaves to 20cm
adherence to plants but can be characterized by an elaborate layout (8in); flowers yellow); D. ‘Lad Cutak’
unsightly. They are best administered with statuary, topiary and low box (D.brevifolia x D.leptostachya; leaves
by means of a special applicator. hedges, orangeries, trees in tubs, and 15–25cm (6–10in), maroon-flushed;
the use of bulb flowers. flowers orange-yellow in a spike to 1m
(31/4ft)); D.leptostachya (throughout range;
Dutch light a single sheet of glass, leaves 40–100cm (16–39in), bulbous
usually 1422 x 730mm (56 x 29in), below, covered in ash-grey scales; flow-
fitted into a wooden framework. Dutch ers red-orange); D.remotiflora (S Brazil,
lights are used to cover garden frames Uruguay; leaves 10–25cm (4–10in),
and sometimes mounted to form a dark green; flowers dark orange).
Dutch-light greenhouse, with sloping
sides and a pitched roof. Dypsis Palmae. Madagascar, Comoros
Islands. 20 species, tender palms, often
Duvalia (for H.A. Duval (1777–1814), multi-stemmed with smooth, erect
author of Plantae succulentae in horto alenco- trunks, and graceful pinnate leaves. Grow
Dutch elm disease nio (1809)). Asclepiadaceae. Arabia, in a moisture-retentive, coir-based mix,
The carrier beetles bore characteristic networks Africa. 19 species, small, succulent, in bright, indirect light, with a minimum
of tunnels, or “galleries”, beneath the bark. perennial herbs with fleshy, 4–6-angled temperature of 15°C/59°F in winter,
and toothed stems. The short-lived and plentiful supplies of water and liquid
Dutch elm disease (Ophiostoma leaves are minute and scale-like. The feed in summer. Propagate by detaching
novo-ulmi (syn. Cyratocystis ulmi); O. ulmi) fleshy flowers are deeply bell-shaped rooted suckers. C.lutescens (syn. Areca
a serious disease of Ulmus and Zelkova with five, recurved lobes. Cultivate as for lutescens; YELLOW PALM, ARECA
species, first detected in Holland in Stapelia. D.corderoyi (South Africa; stems to PALM, BUTTERFLY PALM, CANE PALM,
1918 and in the eastern US in the 5cm (2in) tall, usually prostrate, purple- GOLDEN YELLOW PALM; stems to 9m x
1920’s. The major epidemic in the UK tinted, thick; flowers to 5cm (2in) in 12cm (30ft x 63/4in), clumped, resembling
resulted from the introduction of O. diameter, olive green edged red-brown giant canes; leaves to 2m (61/2ft), pinnae
novo-ulmi from the US on infested elm with deep purple hairs). bright green, erect to arching, narrow,
wood. This more virulent species has rachis, petioles and leaf sheaths yellow-
largely replaced O. ulmi which causes a dwarf pyramid a trained form of green to golden covered in wax; young
less serious form of the disease. Dutch fruit tree, with tiers of successively plants – 30–100cm (12–40in) tall, stem-
270 elm disease has been responsible for shorter horizontal branches forming a less or multi-stemmed and light-textured
devastating losses to the elm population conical shape. Also known as a fuseau. – are commonly grown as pot plants).
Eccremocarpus
E
burrows and by extracting the organic aphids and attack plant tissue, prefer-
matter content from soil ingested ring multi-petalled flowers such as
during burrowing activities. This soil is chrysanthemums and dahlias. They
ejected in a semi-liquid state and used also make irregularly shaped holes in
for lining burrows. Excess excreted soil leaves and attack young buds, causing
is deposited as worm casts above or distorted shoots, and often create sec-
below the surface, where it can be a ondary damage in cavities in fruits,
problem on lawns. especially peaches and apples.
Most earthworms cannot thrive in
very acid soils, so that any measures
Disposing of rubbish and fallen
leaves helps to reduce the earwig popu-
E
taken to reduce pH may lower their lation by limiting shelter, as does cut-
numbers. Where control of earth- ting bamboo stakes close to a node.
e-, ex- prefix meaning ‘without’, or worms is necessary, recommended Pieces of sacking, corrugated card-
‘deprived of ’ – for example estipellate, chemical treatment can be used. board or flower pots stuffed with straw
without stipels. and inverted on canes attract earwigs,
and these serve as traps that can be
ear (1) an auricle; (2) the spikelet of removed and destroyed at intervals.
some grasses. Susceptible plants may be sprayed with
residual contact insecticides, applied at
earthing up drawing up of soil dusk on warm evenings.
around plants, usually with a draw hoe
or drag fork. It is carried out on potato Ecballium (from Greek ekballein, to
crops to prevent tuber-greening and throw out, alluding to powerful projec-
infection from blight; on brassicas to tion of dehiscing fruits). Cucurbitaceae.
prevent wind-rocking; on leeks and Mediterranean to S Russia. SQUIRTING
celery to blanch stems; and in layering CUCUMBER; EXPLODING CUCUMBER.
and stooling fruit-tree rootstocks to 1 species of monoecious, trailing or
encourage the formation of rooted bushy, tender herbaceous perennial.
shoots. E.elaterium: stems stout, hispid, to 30m
(100ft). Leaves palmately lobed, ovate,
earthworms (Annelida: triangular, grey to dark green, 4–5cm x
Oligochaeta) worms characterized by 4–15cm (11/2–2in x 11/2–6in). Male inflo-
long, soft, multi-ringed or segmented rescence a raceme, 4–40cm (11/2–16in);
cylindrical bodies, which have pairs of Earwig trap female flowers solitary, flowers pale
bristles on the underside to aid move- A pot, filled with hay or similar, inverted on a yellow. Fruits 3–5 x 2–3cm (11/4–2in x
3
ment. They are widely distributed in cane near vulnerable blooms will attract /4–11/4in), ovoid, blue-green, detaching
soils. Mature worms have a swollen earwigs for disposal. violently if touched at base in autumn.
glandular area about half way along Seeds to 4mm, expelled en masse in
the body which, depending on species, earwigs (Dermaptera: Forficulidae) astringent mucilage to distance of 2m
is either saddle-shaped or completely insects up to 25mm (1in) long, with (61/2ft) or more. Raise from spring-sown
encircling; its main function is to pro- large semi-circular membranous hind- seed at 18°C/64°F. Plant out in full sun
duce a yellow, lemon-shaped cocoon in wings folded under shortened leathery in well-drained soil after risk of frost.
which 20–30 eggs are deposited. Young wing sheaths, leaving most of the
worms emerge after 4–24 weeks, and abdomen exposed. The end of the Eccremocarpus (from Greek ekkremes,
take 35–70 weeks to reach maturity. abdomen is characterized by a pair of pendent, and karpos, fruit). Bignoniaceae.
Unless the weather is extremely cold or horny pincers – these are curved in Chile and Peru. GLORY FLOWER. 5
dry, earthworms are active within males and almost straight in females. species, evergreen or herbaceous peren-
50cm (20in) of the surface. Of most importance to gardeners is nial vines, the bases and older branches
The earthworms’ burrowing the COMMON EARWIG (Forficula auricu- sometimes thinly woody. The leaves are
improves drainage and aerates the soil, laria), which occurs in Europe, North bipinnate or twice pinnatisect, with ter-
and bacterial decomposition of organic America, northern Africa, western minal tendrils. Produced in summer in
matter is hastened by their digestion Asia, Japan, Australia and New terminal racemes, the flowers are tubu-
processes. The earthworms known as Zealand. The female lays eggs in a soil lar, swelling toward the tip, then abruptly
BRANDLING or MANURE WORMS, particu- cavity and remains with them until contracting at the mouth before expand-
larly Eisenia foetida, are useful in compost they hatch in early spring; the nymphs ing again in a small, entire or 2-lipped
heaps, where they accelerate the decom- resemble adults but are smaller. A limb. The following species is a valuable
position of vegetable matter. second brood of young may be pro- climber for walls, fences and pergolas,
Worms feed by pulling organic duced in midsummer. Adults and and will scramble through shrubs, bear- 271
matter lying on the surface into their nymphs feed on small insects such as ing a succession of exotic and brightly
Eccremocarpus
coloured blooms throughout the margins; flowers red with yellow interi- winter. Propagate by seed or offsets.
summer until the first frosts. In a warm, ors); E.pulvinata (PLUSH PLANT, CHE- E.grusonii (GOLDEN BARREL CACTUS; C
sheltered position with good drainage, it NILLE PLANT; Mexico; leaves 2–6cm Mexico; stem to 130cm (54in), globose,
will resprout from the base, even where (3/4–21/2in), spathulate-obovate, finely green with many raised ribs with
temperatures have fallen to –5°C/23°F pointed, minutely hairy, grey- to mid- golden to pale yellow spines; flowers to
and below. In colder zones, grow in a green with red margins; flowers yellow 6cm (21/2in), yellow); E.platyacanthus (syn.
cool greenhouse or conservatory. marked red); E.secunda (Mexico; leaves E.ingens; C and N Mexico; stem to 3m
Remove overcrowded growth and frost- 2.5–7.5cm (1–3in), spathulate-cuneate, (10ft), glaucous and sometimes banded
E damaged stems in spring. Propagate
from seed under glass in late winter, or
blunt, bristle-tipped, glaucous, margin
often red; flowers red outside, yellow
purple when young with many distinct
ribs, spines, yellow or brown; flowers
by soft tip cuttings in early summer. within); E.setosa (MEXICAN FIRECRACKER; 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in), yellow).
E.scaber (Chile; to 4m (13ft); flowers to Mexico; leaves 4–5cm (11/2–2in),
3cm (11/4in), typically scarlet to orange- oblanceolate, pointed, white-hairy, Echinocereus (from Greek echinos,
yellow, also pink and deep crimson in bristle-tipped; flowers yellow with red hedgehog, and Latin, Cereus). Cac-
cultivars and hybrids). markings). taceae. SW US, Mexico. 45 species,
low-growing shrubby cacti with simple
Echeveria (for Atanasio Echeverria, Echinacea (from Greek echinos, or clustering stems – these are self-sup-
one of the botanical draughtsmen hedgehog or sea-urchin, referring to porting, procumbent or rarely clamber-
employed on Flora Mexicana (1858)). the prickly phyllaries). Compositae. E ing, globose to cylindric and ribbed.
Crassulaceae. C and S America. US. CONE FLOWER. 9 species, tall The flowers are funnel-shaped. Some
Around 150 species, succulent, ever- perennial herbs producing large daisy- can withstand freezing temperatures
green perennial herbs and subshrubs like flowerheads in summer and when dry and may be hardy outdoors
with short, usually unbranched stems autumn, the disc florets usually raised in sheltered districts in zone 8.
and fleshy leaves in terminal rosettes. in a cone-like mass. Grown in herba- E.reichenbachii for example may be
Small and urn-shaped, the 5-lobed ceous and cut-flower borders and in grown in a cold greenhouse or out-of-
flowers are carried on slender, erect to native plant collections, they will with- doors with winter protection from rain.
arching racemes. Grown for their stand heat with high humidity, as well The remaining species need a cool
attractive foliage, as house or green- as drought, partial shade and tempera- greenhouse (minimum temperature
house plants, most will withstand tem- tures as low as –15 to –20°C/5 to –4°F. 5°C/41°F). Grow all species in a gritty,
peratures down to 5°C/41°F. Some Give a deep dry mulch of bracken neutral compost in full sun with low
are used in carpet bedding and may litter in zones at the limits of their har- humidity. Withhold water from mid-
tolerate light frosts if dry. Grow in full diness. Cut back and feed plants that autumn until early spring, except for
sun, with good ventilation, in a gritty have flowered in midsummer for a light misting on warm days in late
medium. Water generously in summer; second flowering. Propagate by seed, winter. Propagate by stem cuttings,
keep dry but not arid in winter. Propa- division or root cuttings. E.purpurea seed or offsets.
gate by leaf cuttings, seed, division and (syn. Rudbeckia purpurea; to 1.5m (5ft) E.cinerascens (E Mexico; sprawling
offsets. tall; ray florets to 8cm (3in), magenta to stems, cylindric, 10–30cm (4–12in) x
E.agavoides (Mexico; leaves 3–8cm red-purple, disc florets orange and dark 1.5–12cm (5/8–43/4in), spines to 4.5cm
(11/4–3in), ovate-triangular, sharply red-brown; includes cultivars with pale (13/4in); flowers to 10cm (4in), pink to
pointed, waxy, with transparent mar- pink, deep carmine and burnt orange magenta with paler throat); E.leucanthus
gins, sea green with a red tip; flowers and pure white flowerheads). (syn. Wilcoxia albiflora; NW Mexico;
orange-pink outside, yellow within); stems ascending, cylindric, to 30 x
E.derenbergii (Mexico; leaves 2–4cm echinate covered with many stiff 0.6cm (12 x1/4in), spines minute; flowers
(3/4–11/2in), cuneate to obovate, thick, hairs or bristles, or thick, blunt prickles. 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in), white with darker
bristle-tipped, pale green with a red throat and sometimes pale pink stripes);
margin; flowers yellow tipped red); Echinocactus (from Greek echinos, E.pectinalus (SW US, N Mexico; 8–35
E.elegans (MEXICAN SNOW BALL, WHITE hedgehog, and Latin, cactus). Cac- (3–14in) x 13cm (5in), globose to
MEXICAN ROSE, MEXICAN GEM; Mexico; taceae. SW US, Mexico. 5 species, cylindric, spines to 2cm (3/4in); flowers
leaves 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in), thickly disc-shaped, globose or shortly colum- 5–16cm (2–6in) diameter, white to
spathulate-oblong, bristle-tipped, icy nar cacti with strongly ribbed stems, yellow or pink to lavender); E.pentalo-
blue-grey in rounded rosettes; flowers broad woolly crowns and stout spines. phus (E Mexico, S Texas; stems cylin-
pink outside, yellow-orange within); The flowers are shortly funnel-shaped dric, sprawling to erect, 20–60 (8–24in)
E.gibbiflora (Mexico; leaves 15–30cm to campanulate. Grow in full sun in a x 1–6cm (1/2–21/2in), spines very short
(6–12in), obovate to spathulate, cool frost-free greenhouse (minimum or to 6cm (21/2in); flowers 8–12cm
pointed, tinted purple with wavy mar- temperature 2–7°C/36–45°F) with low (3–43/4in), bright pink or magenta with
gins; flowers red outside, buff within); humidity. Plant in a very gritty, acid to white or yellow throat, rarely pure
E.harmsii (Mexico; hairy throughout; neutral compost. Keep dry from mid- white); E.reichenbachii NE Mexico, SW
272 leaves 2–5cm (3/4–2in), oblanceolate, autumn until early spring, except for US; globose to cylindric, erect, to 40 x
pointed, downy pale green with red light misting on warm days in late 10cm (16 x 4in), short spines; flowers
ecosystem
5–12cm (2–43/4in), pale pink to purple E.aurea (syn. Lobivia aurea; Argentina; worth attempting these noble plants
or crimson); E.schmollii (syn. Wilcoxia stem globose to elongate, 10–40 outdoors even where frosts are to be
schmollii; E Mexico; stem ascending, (4–16in) x 4–12cm (11/2–43/4in), spines to expected: they can always be given
cylindric, to 25 x 1cm (10 x1/2in), spines 3cm (11/4in); flowers 5–9cm (2–31/2in), light protection at the harshest times.
to 0.7cm (1/4in), hair-like, giving the yellow); E.eyriesii (S Brazil to N Argentina; Hybrids between E.pininana and E.wild-
whole a woolly appearance; flowers to stem globose to shortly cylindric, to 15 pretii have shown cold tolerance to tem-
5cm (2in), bright pink); E.triglochidiatus x 10cm (6 x 4in), spines very short and peratures of at least –10°C/14°F:
(SW US, N Mexico; stems ovoid to dark; flowers 20–25cm (8–10in), white); overwinter seedlings from summer
cylindric, 5–30 (2–12in) x 5–15cm
(2–6in), woolly, spines 1–7cm
E.oxygona (syn. E.multiplex; S Brazil,
N Argentina; stem globose, to 30 x
sowings in the cool greenhouse at
7°C/45°F and plant out in spring to
E
(1/2–23/4in); flowers 3–9cm (11/4–31/2in), 15cm (12 x 6in), spines to 2.5cm (1in), flower in the following season. Under
brilliant scarlet or pink). yellow-brown; flowers to 25 x 10cm glass, provide direct sunlight and water
(10 x 4in), pink); E.rhodotricha (Paraguay, plentifully when in growth. Keep
Echinops (from Greek echinos, sea- NE Argentina; stem globose to shortly rather dry in winter and maintain a
urchin or hedgehog, and opsis, resem- columnar, to 80 x 9cm (32 x 31/2in), minimum temperature of 5°C/41°F,
blance). Compositae. Europe to Asia. spines to 2.5cm (1in) pale yellow tipped with good ventilation. The hardy
GLOBE THISTLE. About 120 species, brown; flowers to 15cm (6in) diameter, E.vulgare is well-suited to the wild
perennial, biennial or rarely annual white). garden and is attractive to bees and
herbs (those listed below perennial) butterflies; it also serves as a fast-grow-
with entire to pinnately cut leaves, the Echium (name used by Dioscorides). ing annual filler for the mixed border
margins spiny-toothed, the undersides Boraginaceae. Canary Islands, Europe, or for bedding. Grow in an open
white-felted. The flowerheads are Africa, W Asia. Some 40 species, position in sun on well-drained, low to
globe-like and composed of many, bristly annual, biennial or perennial moderately fertile soils. Propagate by
spiky tubular florets, grey to blue or herbs or shrubs. The flowers are pro- seed. Sow seed under glass or (E.vulgare)
white and with blue to grey anthers. duced in summer in terminal cymes in situ.
They stand above foliage on slender which usually form a panicle. In zones E.candicans (PRIDE OF MADEIRA;
stalks in summer. Fully hardy. Grow in that are frost-free or almost so, the Madeira; biennial shrub to 2.5m (8ft);
full sun in any well-drained soil of low giant, spire-like and monocarpic species leaves lanceolate, silvery; flowers red-
to moderate fertility. Propagate by seed (E.candicans E.simplex, E.wildpretii, purple in bud, opening blue-white in
sown under glass or in situ, division or E.pininana and E.giganteum) are impres- cylinder-shaped panicles to 30cm
by root cuttings in winter. sive and beautiful focal plants for the (12in)); E.giganteum (Canary Islands;
E.bannaticus (E Europe; 50–120cm large mixed or herbaceous border; in giant, monocarpic herb with a single,
(20–48in); flowerheads to 5cm (2in) cooler climates, grow in the cool spire-like stem to 2.5m (8ft) tall, bear-
diameter, grey-blue or deep blue); greenhouse or conservatory. Since ing many flowering branches; leaves to
E.ritro (C and E Europe to C Asia; they are easily raised from seed, it is 20cm (8in), lance-shaped, bristly; flow-
20–60cm (8–24in); flowerheads 3–5cm ers white); E.pininana (Canary Islands;
(11/4–2in) diameter, pale to deep blue as for E.giganteum, but to 4m (13ft) tall
or, rarely, white); E.sphaerocephalus (S with slender, silvery-hairy leaves and
and C Europe to Russia; 50–200cm blue and rose flowers); E.simplex (PRIDE
(20–79in); flowerheads grey-blue or OF TENERIFE; Canary Islands; as for
white). E.giganteum, but leaves densely silver-
hairy); E.vulgare (VIPER’S BUGLOSS;
Echinopsis (from Greek echinos, Europe; biennial, bristly herb,
hedgehog, and opsis, appearance). Cac- 25–60cm (10–24in); leaves to 15cm
taceae. Central S America. 50–100 (6in), oblong to lance-shaped; flowers
species, shrubby, tree-like or columnar blue to violet, or rosy pink or white in
cacti with simple, branched or cluster- a loosely branching panicle); E.wildpretii
ing, cylindric to globose, ribbed stems (syn. E.bourgaeanum; Canary Islands; as
with few to many spines. Produced in for E.giganteum, but with many overlap-
spring and summer, the flowers are ping and downward-pointing, narrow
large and bell- to funnel-shaped. Pro- leaves covered in white hairs; flowers
vide a minimum temperature of pale red).
2–7°C/36–45°F. Grow in full sun with
low humidity in a gritty, neutral ecology the study of the relationships
medium. Keep dry from mid-autumn between organisms and their environ-
until early spring, except for light Echium candicans ment.
misting on warm days in late winter. In mild climate areas the impressive blue
Increase by seed, stem cuttings and spires of this shrubby biennial are attractive ecosystem the unit composed of a 273
offsets. to bees and butterflies. community and its environment.
ecotype
ecotype a variant of a species Edraianthus (from Greek hedraios, as vine weevil grubs. Eelworms repro-
adapted to a particular environment. sitting, and anthos flower – the flowers duce by laying eggs which hatch and
are sessile). Campanulaceae. Mediter- pass through four immature stages,
edaphic pertaining to soil. ranean to Caucasus. GRASSY BELLS. each of which resembles the adult
Some 24 species of tufted perennial form. The following are the principal
edema see oedema. herbs, similar to Campanula, with bell- types of eelworm that damage plants.
shaped, 5-lobed flowers in late spring CYST EELWORMS (Heterodera species,
Edgeworthia (for M.P. Edgeworth and early summer. Suited to the sunny Globodera species) develop inside the
E (1812–81), an English botanist
employed by the East India Company).
rock garden, troughs and dry stone
walls. Grow in light, freely draining,
roots of their host plants; when fully
mature, the females’ bodies swell and
Thymelaeaceae. Nepal to China, intro- humus-rich, calcareous soils, in sun or burst through the root surface, where
duced Japan. PAPERBUSH. 3 species, with some shade at the hottest parts of they can be seen as tiny spherical or
deciduous or semi-evergreen shrubs to the day. They are hardy to about lemon-shaped brown cysts. These are
2m (61/2ft), with thick branches covered –15°C/5°F, but the resting buds are packed with eggs which can remain
with papery bark and tough, lanceolate susceptible to winter wet. They may viable in the soil for many years; when
to oblong leaves to 10cm (4in) long. perform better in the alpine house, host plants are grown the eggs are
Fragrant silky-hairy flowers are borne watered plentifully when in growth and stimulated to hatch by chemicals
in dense, stalked, axillary heads in kept almost dry in winter. Propagate by secreted from the roots. Heavy infesta-
spring. They each consist of a white to seed sown in a cold frame in spring or tions disrupt the uptake of water and
yellow calyx with a golden or pale by softwood cuttings of side shoots in nutrients, resulting in poor growth and
orange stain at the base of the shortly late spring/early summer. the early death of plants. In gardens,
cylindrical tube; the limb is divided E.dalmaticus (Balkans; to 7cm (23/4in); only potatoes and tomatoes are com-
into four lobes. With shelter from cold leaves linear; flowers several together, monly damaged by cyst eelworms.
winds and in a well-drained soil, they blue to violet or white); E.pumilio ROOT KNOT EELWORMS (Meloidogyne
will survive temperatures to –15°C/5°F (Balkans; dwarf with very slender, grey- species) are mainly pests of tropical
without injury. Grow in full sun or part hairy leaves and solitary, violet to blue and subtropical areas but elsewhere
shade. In areas at the limits of hardi- flowers); E.serpyllifolius (Balkans; to 5cm can be troublesome in greenhouses.
ness, grow against a south-facing wall, (2in); leaves spathulate; flowers solitary, They develop inside the roots of many
or in the cool greenhouse. Propagate deep violet, exceeding blunt bracts. plants causing swellings; heavy infesta-
from semi-ripe cuttings in summer, or tions can result in plant death through
from seed in autumn. EDTA ethylene diamine tetra-acetic disruption of water and nutrient
E.chrysantha syn. E.papyrifera; PAPER- acid; an organic substance used in the uptake.
BUSH; China; flowers yellow to orange- chelating of trace elements to maintain STEM AND BULB EELWORM (Dity-
red); E.gardneri (Nepal, Sikkim; flowers their availability in soils. See sequestrol. lenchus dipsaci) appears to be a single
white stained yellow). species, occurring in a number of
eelworms NEMATODES worm-like biological races capable of attacking
edging (1) the practice of trimming animals, some of which are different plants. The races commonly
lawn edges; (2) the use of solid materi- predators or parasites; many found in gardens typically attack
als, such as long narrow strips of plas- feed on bacteria or fungi. Narcissus, onion and Phlox, and
tic or thin metal, paving slabs or Those that are plant pests sometimes tulip. This nematode
edging tiles, to demarcate lawn edges are usually less than lives within stems, bulbs and
and prevent grass growing into beds 1mm (1/16in) long foliage; symptoms are distinctive
and borders; (3) a continuous planting and have pin- forms of distorted growth. See
along the boundaries of beds or bor- shaped mouth- stem and bulb eelworm.
ders, often employing low, shrubby parts with which LEAF AND BUD EELWORMS
species, such as box or lavender. they pierce plant (Aphelenchoides species) live within
cells in order to feed. the leaf tissues and/or between
edging iron, edging knife a long- Their flexible bodies the embryonic leaves in
handled tool, consisting of a half- enable them to swim in buds. Two species are
moon-shaped blade fixed in the same an eel-like manner in common in gardens
plane as the handle, used for slicing thin water films and attack an
lawn edges or turf. Wheeled versions between plant extremely wide range
are known as turf racers. cells or soil parti- of plants, including chrysan-
cles. At least two themums, ferns, Begonia,
edging shears long-handled shears species, Steinernema Anemone and strawberry. Typi-
designed for trimming the edges of bibionis and Het- cal damage consists of brown
lawns. The blades may be fashioned to erorhabditis heliothis, have infested areas within the leaf,
274 lie in the same plane as the handles or been used for the biological sharply separated from healthy
at right angles to them. control of insect pests, such Eelworms on phlox tissue by the larger leaf veins.
Elaeagnus
Various types of virus vectors such peratures to about –10°C/14°F. Grow ing where required, quickly producing
as Trichodorus species and Longidorus in full sun. Propagate by softwood or young shoots from the old wood. Prop-
species live in the soil and feed on plant semi-ripe cuttings. E.dicksonii (China, agate from fresh seed sown in a cold
roots. They are particularly associated Taiwan, Ryukyu Islands; deciduous frame – a stratification period of three
with virus diseases, including arabis tree to 12m (39ft); leaves to 18cm (7in), months at 4°C/39°F is otherwise
mosaic, cherry leaf-roll and tobacco oblong to elliptic, serrate, leathery and required. E.commutata can be propa-
rattle, which affect strawberry, cane shiny, bristly above, velvety beneath; gated easily from suckers. Root cut-
fruits and some ornamentals. flowers to 0.6cm (1/4in), white tinted tings, hardwood cuttings (E.angustifolia)
Infestations can be limited by burn-
ing affected plants and by crop rota-
yellow, fragrant). and leafy summer cuttings (E.pungens)
are also successful.
E
tion. Care should be taken to acquire Eichhornia (for J.A.F. Eichhorn E.angustifolia (RUSSIAN OLIVE,
only healthy plant material. Some (1779–1856), Prussian politician). Pont- OLEASTER, WILD OLIVE, SILVER BERRY;
potato cultivars have resistance to, or ederiaceae. Tropical S America, widely W Asia; deciduous shrub or small tree
are tolerant of, cyst eelworms. Narcissus naturalized in other tropical and sub- to 7m (23ft); leaves 5–9cm (2–31/2in),
bulbs and chrysanthemum stools can tropical waterways. WATER HYACINTH, narrow, covered in pale bronze to silver
be essentially freed of eelworms by WATER ORCHID. 7 species, perennial, scales at first; flowers yellow to silver,
immersion in hot water for set periods aquatic herbs. The leaves are borne in fragrant; fruit yellow covered in silvery
(see hot water treatment). Effective chemi- stoloniferous, floating rosettes. They scales); E.commutata (SILVER BERRY; N
cal treatment against eelworms is too consist of a swollen, spindle-shaped America; deciduous suckering shrub to
toxic for garden use. petiole filled with spongy, buoyant 5m (16ft); leaves to 6cm (21/2in), broad,
tissue, and a glossy, rounded to heart- lustrous, silvery; flowers fragrant, sil-
Egeria (Egeria, a water nymph of or kidney-shaped blade. Composed of very yellow; fruit yellow, covered in sil-
Roman mythology who married six, broad petals, the flowers are pro- very scales); E. x ebbingei (E.macrophylla x
Numa). Hydrocharitaceae. S America, duced in summer in dense, erect spikes. E.pungens; shrub to 3m (10ft), usually
naturalized elsewhere. 2 species, ever- Grow on still freshwater in sun with evergreen; leaves to 10cm (4in), broad
green, perennial aquatic herbs. The shelter from wind. Where frosts occur, dark, glossy green or metallic sea-
submerged stems are long and densely collect the strongest-looking plants in green above, silvery beneath; flowers
furnished with opposite or whorled, autumn and overwinter them on trays intensely fragrant, white to cream;
linear to oblong leaves. Cymes of of wet loam, leafmould and sand, with includes cultivars with gold-edged and
small, white to yellow flowers are sub- a minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F yellow-green variegated leaves);
tended by a tubular spathe and held and good light. Propagate by detaching E.macrophylla (Japan, Korea; evergreen
clear of the water in summer. The fol- young plants produced freely on run- shrub to 3m (10ft); leaves 5–12cm
lowing species is an excellent oxygena- ners. E.crassipes (leaves 5–15cm (2–6in), (2–43/4in), broad, glossy deep green
tor for the cold or tropical aquarium, shining pale to dark green; flowers to above, silver-scaly beneath; flowers
and offers cover for spawning and 4cm (11/2in), pale lilac to violet blue, cream, scaly, highly fragrant; fruit red,
young fish. Provide good light and a often with paler or deeper feathering scaly); E.pungens (Japan; evergreen
minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F. and a central violet and yellow blotch). shrub to 4m (13ft); leaves 4–8cm
Trim regularly to keep fresh appear- (11/2–3in), broad, wavy, deep smooth
ance. Propagate by stem cuttings in Elaeagnus (from Greek elaia, olive, green above, dull silvery white and
spring. E.densa (syn. Anacharis densa, and agnos, the Greek name for Vitex brown-scaly beneath; flowers fragrant,
Elodea densa; S America, widely natural- agnus-castus. The name was applied by silvery white; fruit brown becoming
ized elsewhere; leaves to 2 x 0.3cm (3/4 x Theophrastus to a willow). Elaea- red; includes several popular cultivars
1
/8in), dark green). gnaceae. Asia, S Europe, N America. with leaves edged, splashed or zoned
OLEASTER. About 45 species, deciduous yellow, grey-green, pale green and
Ehretia (for Georg Dionysus Ehret or evergreen shrubs or trees, often darkest emerald, the most popular
(1708–1770), German botanical artist spiny. The leaves are lanceolate to being ‘Maculata’); E. ‘Quicksilver’
who worked in England). Boragi- ovate or oblong and often covered with (E.angustifolia x E.commutata); tall,
naceae. Africa, Asia, Americas. 50 minute silvery or brown scales, espe- deciduous suckering, more or less
species, deciduous or evergreen trees or cially beneath. Small and often fra- pyramidal shrub with narrow, grey
shrubs with oblong to elliptic leaves. grant, the tubular to campanulate leaves overlaid with silver scales);
Borne in summer in terminal panicles, flowers are carried in clusters in late E.umbellata (Himalayas, China, Japan;
the flowers are small, star-shaped and winter and spring. They are followed deciduous shrub or small tree to 10m
sometimes fragrant. The corolla is by small, fleshy fruits. These shrubs will (33ft); leaves to 10cm (4in), wavy, bright
tubular-campanulate with five spread- thrive in a range of soil types provided green above with silver and some
ing or reflexed lobes. The fruits are they are free-draining (the deciduous brown scales beneath; flowers yellow-
subglobose, glabrous drupes, to 2cm species are particularly tolerant of poor white, scented; fruit silver-bronze,
(3/4in) and yellow or orange to red. soils). They are useful in coastal gar- ripening red; includes cultivars with
Given a sheltered position with good dens or as shelter belts in exposed pale lime and silvered foliage, and 275
drainage, E dicksonii will tolerate tem- areas. They respond well to hard prun- amber or deep red fruit).
Elaeocarpus
Elaeocarpus (from Greek elaia, olive, and a fine water mist is emitted over ellipsoid elliptic, but 3-dimensional.
and karpos, fruit: the fruit resembles the bench.
an olive.) Elaeocarpaceae. E Asia, elliptic, elliptical ellipse-shaped;
Indomalaysia, Australasia, Pacific. 60 Eleocharis (Greek, helodes, marshy or midway between oblong and ovate
species, evergreen trees or shrubs with of marshy places, and charis, grace). but with equally rounded or narrowed
small, fragrant flowers with 3–5 fringed Cyperaceae. More or less cosmopoli- ends, with two planes of symmetry and
petals, in axillary racemes in summer, tan. SPIKE RUSH. Around 150 species, widest across the middle.
followed by small, spherical fruits. annual or perennial grass-like herbs
E Where frosts are light and short-lived,
provide a sheltered position; otherwise,
with very narrow leaves and 3–4-
angled stems. Borne in summer, the
Elodea (from Greek helodes, of the
marshes). Hydrocharitaceae. N America
grow in the cool greenhouse or conser- flowers are minute and arranged in to subtropical S America. WATERWEED;
vatory with a minimum temperature of solitary, brown and bristly spikelets. PONDWEED; DITCHMOSS. 12 species
5–7°C/41–45°F. Under glass, admit Eleocharis is fully hardy. Cultivate as for of submerged freshwater perennials,
full light but ensure shade from the Carex in bog gardens and at pond mar- usually dioecious. Stems to 4m (13ft),
hottest summer sun; water plentifully gins with a slightly acid pH. E.acicularis erect or creeping, slender, rhizomatous.
when in full growth, less in winter. Cut (NEEDLE SPIKE RUSH, SLENDER SPIKE Leaves cauline to ovate, in whorls of 3,
back previous season’s growth in late RUSH, HAIR GRASS; widespread in N transparent to pale green. Inflorescence
winter. Propagate by seed sown under America, Europe, Asia; perennial, subtended by spathe comprising 2
glass in spring or by semi-ripe cuttings 5–30cm (2–12in) tall). united, acute bracts; male flowers open
in a sandy propagating medium with at water surface. E.canadensis (CANADIAN
gentle bottom heat. E.cyaneus (syn. Eleutherococcus (from Greek PONDWEED; N America. Hardy, sub-
E.reticulatus; Australia; tree to 18m (60ft) eleutheros, free, and kokkos, pip, here refer- merged perennial, with branching,
tall, oftena shrub in cultivation; leaves ring to the fruit structure). Araliaceae. S brittle stems up to 4m (13ft) long; flat,
to 15cm (6in), oblong, toothed; flowers and E Asia, Japan, the Ryukyu Islands, translucent dark green leaves 0.5–1cm
small, ivory; fruit blue). Taiwan and the Philippines (Luzon); (1/4–1/2in) long. Floating petal-less purple
most diverse in C and W China. About flowers, tinged green, 8mm (1/3in) wide,
Elatostema (from Greek elatos, 30 species, generally deciduous and on long, thin stalks, pollinated by water
driving, striking, and stema, stem). often bristly or prickly shrubs or trees movement. Widely naturalized in
Urticaceae. Tropical and subtropical some more or less scandent or sprawling Europe. Requires to be confined to
Asia. Some 50 species, perennial herbs with digitately compound leaves. Small, large, easily managed areas of water
or subshrubs, sometimes with succu- 5-parted flowers are carried in umbels because of its vigour and invasiveness).
lent stems. The leaves are alternate, or heads in terminal, simple or com-
2-ranked, and entire or dentate. pound inflorescences. They are followed elongate lengthened, as if stretched
Inconspicuous flowers are borne in by small, drupaceous fruits that turn or extended.
dense cymes. Cultivation as for Pilea. black or purple-black at maturity. In
E.pulchra (RAINBOW VINE; Vietnam; positions sheltered from north and east Elsholtzia (for John Sigismund
low spreading to creeping herb, stems winds, E.sieboldianus will usually survive Elsholtz (1623–1688), Prussian horti-
fleshy, tinged purple; leaves 2–5cm temperatures from –10°/14°F to culturist and physician). Labiatae. C
(3/4–2in), obliquely oblong to elliptic, –15°C/5°F and withstands poor soils and E Asia, NE Africa. 38 species, aro-
marked dull black-green along midrib and pollution. Often used for hedging in matic shrubs or perennial and annual
and veins above, purple beneath); E.repens cool and warm temperate areas, it herbs with small, tubular and 2-lipped
(TRAILING WATERMELON BEGONIA; SE seems to thrive on urban pollution, and flowers in dense, whorled spikes in late
Asia; creeping herb to 60cm (24in), stems one or two heavy trimmings per year. summer and autumn. Although the
succulent, tinged pink; leaves 1–6cm That said, for best results, grow on any shrubby growth is usually hardy to
(1/2–21/2in), oblong to orbicular, scalloped, well-drained, humus-rich soil in full sun. –10°C/14°F, it may be killed by pro-
bronze-green above, tinged violet with a Specimen shrubs may be pruned to thin longed frosts and is in any case best cut
broad central band of pale grey-green, crowded wood and to shorten ungainly hard back each year in spring. Mulch
tinged pink beneath, purple-edged). growth in late winter. Propagate by ripe in winter. Propagate from seed sown
seed in autumn or by root cuttings in under glass in spring or by cuttings of
electronic leaf a device for control- late winter; alternatively, increase by new growth, under mist or a warm
ling the frequency of water droplet suckers and semi-ripe cuttings, with cloche, in early summer. E.stauntonii
application in a mist propagation unit. bottom heat, in summer. E.sieboldianus (China; subshrub 1.75m (53/4ft); leaves
It comprises a plastic sensor, in which (syn. Acanthopanax sieboldianus; E China, to 15cm (6in), ovate, toothed flowers
two electrodes are implanted. When a Japan (introduced); arching to scandent dark pink or white).
film of moisture connects the two elec- shrub to 3m (10ft) with slender, cane-
trodes, an electric current flows and the like stems, often spiny; leaflets usually Elymus (from Greek elymos, classical
unit is programmed ‘off ’. When the five per leaf, toothed; flowers green- name for millet). WILD RYE; LYME
276 current is interrupted as a result of the white; fruit black; ‘Variegatus’: leaves GRASS. Gramineae. Northern temper-
‘leaf ’ drying out, a switch is activated edged creamy-white). ate Asia. Some 150 species of tufted or
Encephalartos
rhizomatous perennial grasses valued emersed raised out of and above the are from South Africa). Some 25
for the often bright blue-greens of the water. species, evergreen cycads, stemless or
foliage clumps, topped by flowering with short and squat to tall and colum-
spikes in shades of buff and parch- Emilia (probably a commemorative nar trunks. Long and leathery, the
ment. E.magellanicus is one of the most name, but for whom it is unknown). leaves are pinnate and borne in termi-
intensely blue of all grasses. They are Compositae. India, Polynesia, tropical nal flushes or rosettes. The leaflets are
tolerant of temperatures to at least Africa. About 24 species, annual herbs tough and two-ranked. Large cones
–10°C/14°F. They will thrive in any with lanceolate to oblong or lyrate are carried on plants of separate sex.
gritty, moisture-retentive soil in sun.
Propagate by division.
leaves. Small, pompon-like flowerheads
are carried in summer in long, branch-
Species with glaucous, woolly or
narrow pinnae will tolerate low tem-
E
E.hispidus (syn. Agropyron glaucum; ing sprays. Grown for its brightly peratures (minimum 5°C/41°F), full
Europe, Asia; to 50cm (20in), erect, coloured blooms suitable for mixed sunlight and dry conditions: these
tightly clump-forming; leaves intense bedding, cutting and drying. Treatment include (leaflets glaucous) E.horridus,
grey-blue, hispid); E.magellanicus (syn. as for Acroclinium. E.coccinea (syn. E.flam- E.lehmannii and E.trispinosus, and
Agropyron magellanicum; S America; to mea, E.javanica; TASSEL FLOWER; tropical (leaflets woolly or very narrow)
30cm (12in), loosely clump-forming; Africa, Asia; to 60cm (24in); flower- E.ghellinckii, E.friderici-guilielmi. Grow in
leaves arching, brilliant blue-grey, heads scarlet, fiery orange or rich a gritty, sandy, neutral to slightly acid
smooth or finely grooved). yellow). mixture; water freely when in growth
(i.e. when bract, leaf or cone activity is
emarginate the apex of a leaf or EMLA an acronym for two eminent
other organ shallowly notched, the British horticultural research stations
indentation (sinus) being acute. (East Malling in Kent and Long
Ashton in Somerset), both formerly
emasculation the removal of concerned mainly with fruit research.
anthers from a flower before the pollen Their collaboration was particularly
is ripe; carried out by plant breeders to important in the re-selection of Malus
prevent self-fertilization. clonal rootstocks. See apple.
Embothrium (from Greek en, in, and Emmenopterys (from Greek

bothrion, a little pit, in reference to the emmenes, enduring, and pteryx, wing –
sunken anthers). Proteaceae. C and S one of the calyx lobes becomes
Andes. 8 species, evergreen shrubs or enlarged and wing-like). Rubiaceae.
trees with leathery leaves. Produced in China, SE Asia. 2 species, deciduous
clusters or racemes in late spring and trees with entire, somewhat leathery,
early summer, the flowers are narrowly elliptic to oblong leaves. Produced Encephalartos horridus
tubular and split into four, narrow and during hot summers in terminal Like other cycads, these plants are
twisted lobes, parted by a slender style. panicles, the flowers are funnel- or endangered in the wild and protected from
Hardy to –15°C/5°F, given a warm and bell-shaped with five, spreading, ovate collection by CITES regulations.
sheltered site with protection from cold and downy lobes. Of the five calyx
drying winds. Plant in a well-drained, lobes, one is sometimes enlarged, visible in the crown) and apply a weak,
moist, neutral or acid soil in sun, against ovate to oblong and white. Hardy to fortnightly feed. Water very sparingly
a south-facing wall or in light, open –25°C/–13°F; grow in a sunny site in winter. The remaining species
woodland. Propagate by seed sown sheltered from cold winds, in a deep, require a minimum temperature of
under glass in spring, from suckers and fertile and moisture-retentive loam. 13°C/55°F, at least partial shade, high
from root cuttings in the cold frame; also Propagate from softwood cuttings in humidity, plentiful water supplies
by nodal cuttings of the current season’s early summer. E.henryi (to 26m (85ft) throughout the year and a more open,
growth, under mist or in a closed case young growth red-bronze; leaves to bark-based mix rich in garden compost
with gentle bottom-heat, in summer. 20cm (8in) dark green above, pale and leafmould. Propagate by seed sown
E.coccineum (CHILEAN FIREBUSH, CHILEAN beneath, petioles red to purple; pani- under glass in warmth, or by offsets.
FLAMEFLOWER; Chile; shrub or tree to cles to 18cm (7in), corolla white, to E.altensteinii (4–7m (12–22ft); leaves
10m (33ft) with clumped, stems; leaves to 3cm (11/4in), enlarged calyx lobe white, to 3.5m (111/2ft), leaflets to 15cm (6in),
12cm (43/4in), oblong; flowers to 4.5cm to 5cm (2in) with a claw to 5cm (2in)). linear to oblong, rigid, fresh green,
(13/4in), sealing-wax red to bright scarlet). with 1–3 spiny teeth along each
Encephalartos (from Greek en-, margin); E.ferox (to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to
embryo the rudimentary plant within within, kephale, the head, and artos, 1.8m (6ft); leaflets to 12cm (43/4in),
the seed. bread – the inner tissues of the upper oblong to ovate, glossy dark green with
trunk are starchy and, with much care- 2–4 broad, sharp and spiny teeth along
embryo culture a form of micro- ful preparation, edible). Zamiaceae. each margin); E.friderici-guilielmi (to 4m 277
propagation using excised plant embryos. South and C Africa (those listed below (13ft); leaves to 1.5m (5ft), leaflets to
Encephalartos
18cm (7in), narrowly linear, entire, tip spikes for spring blooming. Increase all
sharply pointed, densely woolly at first, by division when repotting in spring.
later dark green); E.ghellinckii (to 3m E.adenocaula (syn. E.nemoralis, Epiden-
(10ft); leaves to 1m (31/4ft), spirally drum adenocaulum, Epidendrum nemorale;
twisted, leaflets to 14cm (51/2in), linear Mexico; flowers to 9cm (31/2in) diame-
but with strongly revolute margins thus ter, slender, nodding, pale rose-pink to
appearing needle-like, covered in grey magenta, the lip with darker markings,
wool at first, later rigid bright green); several together on an arching, warty
E E.horridus (stem very short; leaves to 1m
(31/4ft), leaflets to 10cm (4in), broad and
panicle to 100cm (39in)); E.alata
(syn. Epidendrum alatum; Mexico to
deeply cut with 2–3 large, spine-tipped Nicaragua; flowers to 6cm (21/2in)
and revolute lobes, rigid, bright glau- diameter, tepals pale green or yellow-
cous blue-grey); E.lebomboensis (to 4m green marked purple-bronze or red-
(13ft); leaves 1–3m (31/4–10ft), leaflets to brown, the lip white veined maroon,
17cm (61/2in), lanceolate, bright green many together on a minutely warty
with 2–4 teeth along each margin); panicle to 80cm (32in)); E.brassavolae
E.lehmannii (to 2m (61/2ft); leaves to 1.5m (syn. Epidendrum brassavolae; Mexico to
(5ft), leaflets to 18cm (7in), oblong to Encyclia cochleata Panama; flowers to 7cm (23/4in) diame-
lanceolate, usually entire, glaucous The encyclias mainly grow in trees, taking in ter, slender, spreading, tepals green to
blue-grey); E.longifolius (to 4m (13ft); nourishment via their aerial roots from olive or pale tan, lip cream tipped rose-
leaves to 2m (61/2ft), leaflets to 20cm rainwater and from canopy debris. purple, many on an erect raceme to
(8in), lanceolate, dark glossy green, 30cm (12in)); E.citrina (syn. Cattleya cit-
entire or with 1–4 teeth along lower greatly in size and habit, but generally rina, Epidendrum citrinum; Mexico; flow-
margin); E.natalensis (to 4m (13ft); leaves have clumped, rounded to flask- or ers fragrant, to 8cm (3in) long, strongly
to 3.5m (111/2ft), leaflets to 25cm (10in), spindle-shaped pseudobulbs topped pendulous and not opening widely,
broadly lanceolate, dark green, entire with oblong-lanceolate to linear leaves. waxy lemon yellow, the lip veined deep
or with 1–4 teeth along one or both The flowers consist of five, obovate to gold, solitary or paired on a short,
margins); E.transvenosus (to 13m (43ft); linear tepals and a showy lip; they are hanging stalk); E.cochleata (syn. Epiden-
leaves to 2.5m (8ft), leaflets to 25cm borne usually in spring and summer in drum cochleatum; CLAMSHELL ORCHID,
(10in), broadly lanceolate, with 2–5 terminal racemes or panicles. COCKLE ORCHID; widespread in C
small teeth along upper margin, 1–3 Grow in pans or baskets of very America; flowers to 6cm (21/2in) diame-
along lower margin, glossy, dark green); open bark-based mix in sunny, cool to ter, tepals slender, lime to olive, lip held
E.trispinosus (differs from E.horridus in intermediate conditions (minimum uppermost, shell-like, white, tipped and
the narrower, less strikingly glaucous temperature 7°C/45°F). Water and veined dark purple to purple-black,
leaflets with one or two strongly feed freely in spring and summer and many in an erect raceme to 30cm
recurved and spine-tipped lobes on maintain high humidity. Once the new (12in)); E.cordigera (C America; flowers
lower margin only). pseudobulbs are complete and ripened, to 7cm (23/4in) diameter, tepals choco-
water and syringe only to prevent their late brown to maroon or bronze-green,
enchytraeid worms (Annelida: shrivelling. Resume watering when new lip large, wavy, cream streaked or
Oligochaeta) many-segmented, small, growth starts. These guidelines apply to flushed rose to magenta); E.fragrans
thread-like worms, up to 2mm (1/16in) most species, with the following excep- (syn. Epidendrum fragrans; C America,
long, translucent white in colour and tions—The dwarf E.tripunctata should northern S America, West Indies; flow-
often abundant in leafmould, compost be mounted on fibre blocks on pads of ers highly fragrant, to 4cm (11/2in)
and manure, where they feed on decay- moss and kept just moist and in filtered diameter, tepals white to ivory, lip held
ing organic matter. They are com- sunlight throughout the year. E.vitellina uppermost, striped maroon); E.mariae
monly known as POT WORMS, ASTER requires cool, buoyant, rather dry con- (syn. Epidendrum mariae; Mexico; similar
WORMS, ROOT WORMS or WHITE ditions in full sunlight with a decided to E.citrina, but with narrower, lime to
WORMS. Although frequently found dry winter rest. E.mariae and E.citrina olive tepals and a white lip); E.prismato-
near plant roots, they do not feed on must be mounted ‘upside-down’ on carpa (syn. Epidendrum prismatocarpum;
living plant tissue and are harmless. cork or bark slabs and suspended in a Costa Rica to Brazil; flowers to 5cm
cool, bright, dry environment. Plunge (2in) diameter, fragrant, tepals yellow-
Encyclia (from Greek enkyklo, to often and syringe daily when in green spotted or banded dark maroon
encircle, referring to the characteristic of growth. Once growths are complete, to black, lip lilac-purple, base olive,
the lateral lobes of the lip which encir- lower temperatures (to near-freezing, if margins white, in tall racemes);
cle the column). Orchidaceae. Florida, possible) and withhold water com- E.radiata (syn. Epidendrum radiatum;
West Indies, C and S America. Some pletely. With lengthening days, start Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico; similar
150 species, epiphytic and lithophytic back into growth by raising tempera- to E.fragrans but with smaller flowers,
278 orchids, closely allied to and formerly tures slightly and misting roots – this the lip rounded rather than heart-
included in Epidendrum. They vary will encourage development of flower shaped, with a cleft and wavy, not
Epacris
smooth and pointed tip); E.tripunctata and either membranous or bony or 10°C/50°F. A free-draining, highly
(syn. Epidendrum tripunctatum; Mexico; cartilaginous. fertile medium is essential, as are plen-
flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) diameter, a few tiful supplies of water and feed in the
borne together in short racemes, tepals endosperm a nutritive tissue of growing season. Stems will deteriorate
lime to olive green, lip white, column developing seed. after flowering and should be cut down
dark purple with yellow teeth); E.vespa once the replacement suckers are well-
(syn. Epidendrum vespa; tropical America; Enkianthus (from Greek enkyos, established. Increase by rooted suckers
flowers to 2cm (3/4in) diameter, tepals swollen or pregnant, and anthos, flower and by seed (see Musa).
olive to yellow or cream blotched
purple to maroon or dark chocolate, lip
– the type species has basal swellings
on the flowers). Ericaceae. Himalaya to
E.ventricosum (syn. Musa arnoldiana,
Musa ensete; ABYSSINIAN BANANA,
E
white or yellow marked pink, many in Japan. 10 species, usually deciduous ETHIOPIAN BANANA; Africa; pseudostem
a raceme to 35cm (14in)); E.vitellina shrubs with whorled branches and obo- 1–12m (31/4–40ft); leaves 2–6 (61/2–20ft)
(syn. Epidendrum vitellinum; Mexico, vate to elliptic, toothed to entire leaves. x 1–1.5m (31/4–5ft), olive green with a
Guatemala; flowers to 5cm (2in) diam- Carried in spring in drooping, terminal maroon midrib); E.gilletii (syn. Musa
eter, tepals vermilion to scarlet, lip umbels or racemes, the flowers are gilletii; differs from E.ventricosum in its
orange to deep gold, several in an erect waxy, campanulate to urceolate, and narrower leaves with sealing-wax red
raceme to 40cm (16in)). 5-lobed. Suitable for the peat terrace midribs).
and shrub border, for open situations
endemic occurring naturally in one in the woodland garden and for moist ensiform sword-shaped, straighter
locality only. and peaty pockets in the rock garden. than lorate, and with an acute point.
Hardy to –15°C/5°F. Grow on a mois-
endive (Cichorium endivia) an annual, ture-retentive, lime-free soil, enriched entire continuous; uninterrupted by
native of Asia and Europe, of similar with leafmould, in full sun or dappled divisions or teeth or lobes. Thus,
appearance to lettuce, forming a shade; mulch in hot, dry weather. ‘leaves entire’ describes leaves with
rosette of leaves with a loose heart. It is Propagate from ripe seed, by semi-ripe margins that are neither toothed nor
used in salads or braised, the green cuttings in summer, alternatively by lobed.
outer leaves being sharper flavoured simple layering.
than the light-coloured, sweeter inner E.campanulatus (Japan; variable, entomophily the transfer of pollen
leaves. The curled or staghorn-leaf deciduous shrub to 5m (15ft) tall; leaves by insects.
endive is better adapted to higher tem- becoming vivid red in autumn; flowers
peratures than the broad or Batavian pale cream to pale pink with faint Eomecon (from Greek eos, the dawn
forms. The main season is autumn to salmon, peach or rust veins, deeper or east, and mekon, poppy, referring to
early winter outdoors, later under pro- and more solid red in some forms, its distribution). Papaveraceae. E
tection. Sow in cell modules for trans- campanulate, in drooping racemes); China. SNOW POPPY. 1 species, E.chio-
planting or in situ for thinning to a final E.cernuus (Japan; deciduous shrub to nantha, a perennial, rhizomatous herb
spacing of 38 x 38cm (15 x 15in) for 3m (10ft); flowers white or deep red, to 40cm (16in) tall with branched stems
broad-leaf types and 30 x 30cm (12 x broadly campanulate with jagged, containing orange sap. To 10cm (4in)
12in) for curled-leaf types. Sow during unequal lobes, in drooping, hairy across, the leaves are heart-shaped to
April in heat for early summer crop- racemes); E.perulatus (Japan; deciduous arrow-shaped, leathery, slightly succu-
ping and successionally outdoors from shrub to 2m (61/2ft); leaves becoming lent, grey-green and wavy-edged.
May to July for summer to autumn yellow and red in autumn; flowers Produced in summer, the pure white
maturity. Latest crops of broad-leaf white, urceolate, in drooping umbels). flowers are 5cm (2in) across with four,
cultivars are best raised under glass or broad petals and many stamens. With
cloches from an August sowing. Endive Ensete (from the African Amharic good drainage Eomecon will tolerate
is useful for cut-and-come again har- name anset) Musaceae. Old World trop- temperatures to –10°C/14°F. Plant in
vest, and leaves of broad-leaf types ics. 7 species, massive evergreen peren- shade or sun on well-drained, humus-
especially can be made sweeter by nial herbs, close to Musa, but with a rich, fertile soils that remain cool and
blanching. Either bunch and tie the more shuttlecock-like growth habit and moist in summer. The rhizomes resent
rosettes together or cover with an unpalatable fruit. They are august disturbance but may spread extensively
upturned container or dinner plate to foliage plants for subtropical and tropi- and become a nuisance. Propagate in
exclude light, for about 10 days in cal gardens and, elsewhere, for tubs spring from seed sown in situ, or by
summer and twice as long in winter. and borders in large greenhouses and division.
interiors. Fast-growing, young plants
endo- prefix meaning ‘within’, ‘inner’, can be overwintered under glass and Epacris (from Greek epi, upon, and
for example endodermis, the inner planted out in late spring to make strik- akris, a summit; alluding to the high-
layer of skin in a periderm. ing foci for ‘tropical’ bedding schemes altitude habitat of some species).
in temperate gardens. Grow in full sun Epacridaceae. E and SE Australia, Tas-
endocarp the innermost layer or wall or shade in a humid, sheltered environ- mania, New Zealand and New Caledo- 279
of a pericarp, which encloses the seed, ment with a minimum temperature of nia. AUSTRALIAN HEATH. 35 species,
Epacris
heath-like, evergreen shrubs with small epi- prefix meaning ‘upon’, ‘upper- with a white lip, each to 15cm (6in)
leaves and cylindric to campanulate, most’ as epigynous, growing upon or across with slender tepals and a 3-
5-lobed flowers in erect, terminal arising from the ovary. parted lip, the midlobe narrow, the
racemes. Grow in moist and cool, outer lobes broader and finely cut and
humus-rich but minerally poor neutral epicalyx an involucre of bracts sur- fringed; E.oerstedii differs in its lip with
to acid soils in dappled shade or sun. rounding a calyx; a false calyx. entire, not fringed lateral lobes);
Under glass, maintain good ventilation; E.conopseum (GREENFLY ORCHID; SE US;
water moderately when in full growth, epicarp see exocarp. stems short, slender, clumped; flowers
less in autumn and winter. Overwinter in loose, erect racemes to 16cm (6in),
at about 5°C/41°F. Propagate by seed epicormic of branches or buds, fragrant, lime green to grey green, usu-
in spring under glass, or by semi-ripe developing on or from the trunk of a ally tinted maroon or bronze, each to
E cuttings. E.impressa (COMMON AUS-

TRALIAN HEATH; S Australia, Tasmania;
spindly erect shrub to 1.5m (5ft); leaves
tree. The growth can be latent or
adventitious.
2cm (3/4in) across); E.ibaguense (wide-
spread in C and S America; stems
erect, cane-like, to 2m (61/2ft), rooting
to 1.5cm (5/8in), narrow, pointed; flow- epicotyl the portion of the stem of only at or near base; flowers in erect,
ers to 1.8cm (3/4in), white to rose or an embryo or seedling above the long-lasting racemes to 30cm (12in),
purple-red, nodding in erect terminal cotyledons. each to 3cm (11/4in) across, vermilion to
racemes). fiery scarlet, rarely rose to magenta, lip
Epidendrum (from Gk epi, upon, cross-shaped and fringed, often held
Ephedra (from a Greek name used and dendron, tree, referring to the epi- uppermost; cf. E.radicans); E.nocturnum
by Pliny for the mare’s tail, Hippuris, phytic habit of most species). Orchi- (Tropical Americas; habit variable,
which Ephedra very loosely resembles). daceae. Tropical Americas. Some 500 stems stout or reedy, short or tall; flow-
Ephedraceae. S Europe, N Africa, species, perennial herbs: the tall cane- ers in short racemes, fragrant, to 7cm
Asia, subtropical America. JOINT FIR. growing species are often, at least ini- (23/4in) across, tepals very slender, white
Some 40 species, erect to scrambling tially, terrestrial; the smaller caned to parchment or yellow-green, lip
shrubs with slender, green and jointed species and pseudobulbous plants are white, resembling that of E.ciliare but
stems, the leaves reduced to small and epiphytic and lithophytic. Pseudobul- with entire lateral lobes); E.parkinsoni-
withered scales. The ‘inflorescences’ of bous species (e.g. E.ciliare) should be anum (C America; stems short, on
these primitive conifer allies are incon- cultivated as for Laelia or Rhyncholaelia, creeping rhizomes; leaves large, thick,
spicuous, yellow-green cones. Where potted tightly into an open bark-based tough, sickle-shaped and pendulous;
male and female plants are grown mix and grown in cool to intermediate flowers similar to those of E.nocturnum;
together, the female may bear fleshy, conditions with full sun and a cool dry E.falcatum differs in its pink-tinted flow-
berry-like fruit. Those named here are winter rest. The tall-growing cane ers with a yellow throat); E.peperomia
very similar in general appearance and species (e.g. E.ibaguense) are amongst the (S America; dwarf, forming mats of
grow to about 2 x 3m (61/2 x 10ft). They most flexible of all orchids: in frost-free creeping, bright green growth; flowers
are drought- and lime-tolerant and sunny conditions, they will scram- to 2.5cm (1in) across, solitary, short-
good for groundcover on dry soils, ble freely and flower stalked, insect-like, tepals lime green,
for rock gardens, dry walls and throughout the year. narrow, lip large and broad, glossy
raised beds. Some have Provide a foothold in a chestnut brown); E.pseudepidendrum
proved useful in stabilizing bark mix with plenty (Costa Rica, Panama; stems erect,
sand. Of those most com- of well-rotted farmyard cane-like; flowers in loose, erect to
monly seen in temperate gar- manure. Syringe and arching racemes to 15cm (6in), each
dens, E.distachya and E.gerardiana foliar-feed regularly. to 6cm (21/2in) across, tepals narrow,
are hardy to – 15°C/5°F, while Propagate by adventitious apple green, lip large, glossy orange
E.americana, E.fragilis and plantlets. The smaller cane- to orange-red); E.radicans (widespread
E.viridis are frost-tender. type species (e.g. E.pseudepiden- in C and S America; differs from
Plant in a porous, freely Cistus flowers drum) require intermediate E.ibaguense in its scrambling stems,
draining soil in full sun. are short- conditions, high humidity, dappled which root freely throughout their
lived
Propagate by seed sown sunlight and only a semi-dry winter length, the column is also longer and
under cool glass in rest. The magnificent E.parkinsoni- arching); E.stamfordianum (Mexico to
autumn, by division or anum should be treated as Colombia; pseudobulbs are narrowly
by simple layering. a large Brassavola, but spindle-shaped; many flowers are pro-
mounted on bark or a raft duced, in erect to arching racemes or
ephemeral short-lived; and suspended in full sunlight. panicles to 60cm (24in) long, fragrant,
strictly, of flowers lasting for one E.ciliare (widespread in C each to 4cm (11/2in) across, tepals
day only, but also used to describe and S America; pseudobul- yellow-green spotted red-brown or
plants that survive for only a few bous; flowers in erect racemes purple, lip white with a yellow-green
280 weeks and may have several gen- to 30cm (12in), fragrant, white midlobe, often spotted or stained
erations in one season. Ephemeral flower to cool green or pale yellow purple to rose).
Epimedium
epidermis the outermost layer of Epilobium (from Greek epi, upon violet, pink or pale yellow). For E.canum
plant cells, which serves to protect inte- and lobos, pod: the petals surmount the see Zauschneria.
rior tissues. pod-like ovary). Onagraceae. Temper-
ate regions. 200 species, perennial, Epimedium (from epimedion, the
Epigaea (from Gk epi, on, and gaia, rarely annual herbs and subshrubs, ancient Greek name for a wholly
earth, referring to the lowly habit). Eri- with shortly tubular to funnelform, unrelated perennial). Berberidaceae.
caceae. N America, W Asia, Japan. 3 4-petalled flowers. Spreading by run- Mediterranean to E Asia. BARRENWORT,
species, small, creeping, evergreen ning white stolons and prolific air- BISHOP’S HAT; BISHOP’S MITRE. Around
shrubs with bristly branches and tough,
ovate to oblong or elliptic, hairy leaves.
borne seed, E.angustifolium is usually
thought a weed. Its white form is less
25 species, more or less evergreen
perennial herbs. They make dense
E
Produced in spring in short clusters or rampant, and an attractive plant for mats of creeping, thin but tough
racemes, the scented flowers are the herbaceous border. In the rock rhizomes, which give rise to slender-
funnel- to bell-shaped with five, garden, the lower-growing species stalked, ternately compound leaves, the
rounded lobes. Suitable for shaded make carpets of color. These small leaflets rhombic or lanceolate, thinly
pockets in the rock garden, peat terrace plants should be given shade part of leathery and sometimes finely toothed.
or woodland garden, or for pot cultiva- the day in hot climates; they require a Produced in spring, the delicate flowers
tion in the shaded alpine frame. Hardy cool, moist and gritty root-run. In nod on slender stalks along erect to
to at least –30°C/–22°F. The flower zones 7 and under, they may suffer in arching racemes. They consist of two
buds need a period of chilling before harsh winters. Propagate from seed sets of four sepals, the inner set petal-
they will open. Grow in acid moist but sown in spring, or by division from like and spreading, and four, spurred
well-drained soils. Protect young plants autumn to spring; low-growing species petals. Hardy to –10°C/14°F, or lower.
from prolonged frost with bracken litter can also be propagated by softwood Grow in partial shade in any fertile,
or evergreen branches. Germinate ripe cuttings taken from autumn to spring. humus-rich, moist soil. Carefully
seed in shade, watering with lime-free E.angustifolium (syn. Chamaenerion remove faded foliage in early spring to
water from below. Overwinter seedlings angustifolium; GREAT WILLOWHERB, show flowers to best advantage. Propa-
in their first year at 13–15°C/55–59°F. FRENCH WILLOW, ROSEBAY WIL- gate by division in spring or by fresh,
Increase also by semi-ripe cuttings LOWHERB, FIREWEED, WICKUP; north- ripe seed in late summer in the cold
rooted in a closed case, or by layers. ern Hemisphere; perennial with erect, frame.
E.asiatica (Japan; leaves 3.5–10cm clumped stems to 2m (61/2ft) tall; leaves E.alpinum (S Europe; leaflets to 13cm
(11/2–4in); flowers to 1cm (1/2in) long, long, narrow; flowers pale pink to (5in), bright green, at first tinged red;
white tinted pale rose); E.gaultherioides purple-pink, rarely white); E.chlorae- flowers with dull red inner sepals and
(syn. Orphanidesia gaultherioides; NE folium (New Zealand; branching, yellow petals to 0.4cm (1/8in)); E.grandi-
Turkey; leaves 8–12cm (3–43/4in); clump-forming and bushy perennial to florum (NE Asia; leaflets to 13cm (5in),
flowers to 5cm (2in) diameter, soft 40cm (16in) tall; leaves small, often light green tinted bronze at first; flow-
pink); E.repens (TRAILING ARBUTUS, tinted bronze at first; flowers white to ers white, violet or deep rosy red, the
MAYFLOWER; N America; leaves 2–8cm pink); E.glabellum (New Zealand; inner petals usually darker than the
(3/4–3in); flowers fragrant, to 1.5cm (5/8in) similar to E.chloraefolium but petals); E. x perralchicum (E.perralderianum
long, white to pale pink or deep rose). larger, the leaves not x E.pinnatum; similar to E.pinnatum
tinted bronze; flow- except leaves occasionally simple,
epigeal describing a type of germina- ers white to rose bronze when young; flowers large
tion where the cotyledons emerge from bright golden yellow); E.perralderianum
the ground to form the first green first true (N Africa; similar to E.pinnatum except
foliage leaves of the plant, as occurs, leaves leaves bronze when young, sepals green
for example, in French beans; cf. not brown); E.pinnatum subsp. colchicum
hypogeal. (N Iran; leaflets to 8cm (3in); flowers
yellow sometimes veined red);
epilithic growing on rocks. growing tip E.pubigerum (Turkey, SE Europe; leaf
emerges from
cotyledons rise within undersides hairy; flowers with inner
up above cotyledons sepals pale rose or white and petals
ground
bright yellow); E. x rubrum (E.alpinum x
E.grandiflorum; leaflets to 14cm (51/2in),
bean seed bright red-tinted at first; flowers with
bright crimson inner sepals and yellow
petals); E. x versicolor (E.grandiflorum x
plumule
E.pinnatum subsp. colchicum; differs from
seed lengthens E.grandiflorum in the smaller flowers
casing to free with the petals only just exceeding or
splits cotyledons
from seed shorter than the sepals; includes several 281
Epigeal cultivars with copper- or red-mottled
germination
Epimedium
or tinted young growth and flowers in winter and rest winter-flowering species sprawling to cascading, green striped
various shades of yellow); E. x warleyense in late summer. Orchid cacti are popu- yellow or white; juvenile leaves 6–30cm
(E.alpinum x E.pinnatum subsp. colchicum; lar in cultivation and have spawned (21/2–12in), bright green, variegated
leaflets to 13cm (5in), hairy beneath, numerous cultivars, mostly with large, yellow or white; adult leaves to 80cm
sparsely spiny-toothed; flowers with broadly funnel-shaped flowers in (32in), pinnately cut, marked yellow or
yellow to brick red inner sepals and shades of white, cream, pink, rose, red cream); E.pinnatum (Malaysia to New
yellow petals); E. x youngianum (E.diphyl- and orange-red. Guinea; stems 1–4cm (1/2–11/2in) diam.,
lum x E.grandiflorum; flowers white or E.anguliger (FISHBONE CACTUS; S up to 20m (66ft) long; adult leaves to
E rose to purple-red). Mexico; stems flattened, to 100 (39in)
x 4–8cm (11/2–3in), deeply pinnately
100 x 44cm (39 x 17in), elliptic oblong,
perforate or with translucent spots
epinasty usually of leaves; where lobed; flowers 15–18, scented, outer along midrib, irregularly pinnatifid;
more rapid growth on the upper leaf tepals lemon or golden, inner tepals spathe to 23cm (9in), green); includes
surface results in a downward rolling; white); E.crenatum (S Mexico to Hon- ‘Marble Queen’, with moss green
it is often induced by the presence of duras; stems flattened to 50 x 3.5cm leaves boldly streaked bright white on
ethylene. (20 x 11/2in), rather thick, crenate; flow- white petioles, and white-streaked
ers 20–29 x 10–20cm (4–8in), outer stems).
Epipactis (the Greek name for this tepals pale yellow, inner tepals white);
genus). Orchidaceae. Northern temper- E.oxypetalum (S Mexico to Honduras, Episcia (from Greek episkios, shaded
ate zone, tropical Africa, Thailand, widely cultivated in the tropics and referring to the natural habitat of these
Mexico. Some 24 species, terrestrial subtropics; stems flattened, to 30 (12in) plants). Gesneriaceae. S America. 6
herbaceous orchids with mat-forming x 10–12cm (4–43/4in), undulate-crenate; species, evergreen, creeping herbs with
rhizomes and clumps of erect stems. flowers 25–30cm (10–12in), outer hairy ovate leaves and bell- to funnel-
The leaves are linear to elliptic and tepals red, inner tepals white). shaped, 5-lobed flowers at various
often pleated. Borne in summer in lax times of year. Of cascading habit, they
terminal racemes, the flowers consist epiphyte a plant that grows on are suited to hanging baskets. Grow in
of five, ovate to elliptic tepals and a another plant, but is not parasitic and an open, bark-based mix. Keep moist
showy, boat-shaped lip. The following does not depend on it for nourishment. and humid in spring and summer with
species is fully hardy and may be bright, indirect light to shade; in
grown in full sun or light shade. It Epipremnum (from Greek epi, winter, keep barely moist, position in
needs a fertile soil, rich in leafmould upon, and premnon, a trunk, referring full sun and maintain a minimum tem-
and fast-draining but never dry. to the climbing and epiphytic habit) perature of 15°C/59°F. Increase by
Increase by careful division of the rhi- Araceae. SE Asia to W Pacific. 8 ever- stem cuttings and offsets.
zomes in autumn or spring when the green perennial lianes, climbing by E.cupreata (Colombia, Venezuela,
new growing points are just visible. adventitious, adhesive roots. The leaves Brazil; leaves to 8cm (3in), puckered
E.gigantea (N America; 20–90cm are leathery, smooth, and entire to pin- with fine, impressed veins, dark emer-
(8–36in); flowers to 3cm (11/4in) diam- nately lobed, or occasionally perfo- ald green to purple-green, bronze or
eter, tepals green, tinted or veined rated. They tend to occur in markedly dark chocolate brown above, often with
rose-purple, lip cream to yellow with different juvenile and adult phases, the a metallic tint or silver blotches,
purple-red to brown veins and spots juveniles usually smaller, more heart- purple-red beneath; flowers scarlet
and an orange-yellow midlobe). shaped and entire than the adults. often marked or ringed yellow or
(Plants in cultivation are generally purple); E.dianthiflora (syn. Alsobia
epipetalous growing on or arising juveniles.) Inconspicuous flowers are dianthiflora; LACE FLOWER VINE; Costa
from the petals. carried in club-shaped spadices sur- Rica, Mexico; leaves to 4cm (11/2in),
rounded by cowel-like spathes. The thinly fleshy, green, downy; flowers
Epiphyllum (from Greek epi, upon, following species favours a minimum sparkling white, lobes deeply fringed);
phyllon, leaf: the flowers are borne on winter temperature of 10°C/50°F, E.lilacina (Costa Rica; leaves to 5cm
leaf-like stems.) Cactaceae. Warm semi-shade, moderate to high humidity (2in), dark green, purple-tinted
Americas. ORCHID CACTUS. About 15 and an open, bark-based mix with beneath; flowers lilac).
species, mostly epiphytic cacti with plentiful water and feed. That said,
green and succulent, laterally flattened E.aureum and its cultivars are often to Epithelantha (from Greek epi, upon,
stems, their margins wavy to notched be seen in the home, in offices and in thele, nipple, and anthos, flower, referring
or deeply lobed. The flowers are tubu- public buildings, contending bravely to the position of the flowers). Cac-
lar to funnel-shaped and consist of with dehydrated moss-poles and taceae. SW US, N Mexico. 1 species,
numerous, spreading, silky tepals. neglected hydroponic planters. Propa- E.micromeris (syn. Mammillaria micromeris),
Provide a minimum temperature of gate by rooted lengths of stem. a dwarf cactus with globose to obovoid
15°C/59°F, plentiful water, humidity E.aureum (syn. Pothos aureus, Rhaphi- stems, 1–7.5cm (1/2–3in) in diameter.
in warm weather and protection from dophora aurea, Scindapsus aureus; GOLDEN These are covered in radiating, white
282 burning sun. Plant in a fast-draining POTHOS, DEVIL’S IVY, HUNTER’S ROBE; to pale grey or pale yellow spines. The
and acid bark-based mix. Water less in Solomon Islands; stem climbing or flowers, 3–12mm (1/8–1/2in) in diameter,
Erica
arise in the woolly stem apex. They are to Japan). WINTER ACONITE. 7 species, or semi-desert habitats). Liliaceae
campanulate, almost white or pale perennial herbs with small, rounded (Asphodelaceae). W and C Asia.
orange to pink, and are followed by red tubers. The basal leaves are petiolate DESERT CANDLE, FOXTAIL LILY.
and juicy, club-shaped fruit. Grow in and deeply palmately lobed. The three 40–50 species, fleshy-rooted peren-
full sun with low humidity and a mini- stem leaves form a ruff below the nial herbs with strap-shaped leaves
mum temperature of 7°C/45°F. Plant flower. Solitary, terminal and yellow to forming tufts or rosettes. Small,
in a gritty, neutral compost. Keep dry white, the flowers are cupped, short- starry and 6-parted, the flowers are
from mid-autumn until early spring, stalked and consist of two whorls of packed in summer in long, tapering
except for light misting on warm days
in late winter. Increase by offsets.
ovate to elliptic perianth segments.
Eranthis are valued for the bright carpet
racemes atop erect scapes. Eremurus
produces a fleshy rooted crown with
E
of flower colour they provide in late a central growing-point, which may
epithet any word in a binomial which winter and early spring. They may be rot if too wet in winter. Where pos-
is neither the generic name nor a term naturalized under deciduous trees or sible, grow Eremurus on raised beds
denoting rank. The epithet qualifies a shrubs or in light grassland. Plant in or banks where water drains away
generic name or a name of lower rank, summer or early autumn in humus- quickly; alternatively, set the crown
for example, Primula vulgaris subsp. rich, heavy soil. Propagate by division on sharp sand and cover it with
sibthorpii, where Primula is the genus in spring after flowering. Like Cyclamen same when planting. These plants
name, vulgaris the specific epithet, and and Galanthus, Eranthis can be difficult require cold in winter to flower well,
sibthorpii the subspecific epithet. to establish from dry tubers: try to pur- and are unsuited to cultivation in
chase plants that are ‘in the green’ (i.e. completely frost-free zones. Grow in
Epsom salts see magnesium sulphate. bareroot but in leaf) where possible. a rich, well-drained, sandy soil in
Sow seed as soon as ripe (hybrids are full sun. Without shelter from wind,
equitant when conduplicate leaves sterile). taller species and hybrids may
overlap or stand inside each other in E.hyemalis (S France to Bulgaria; to require staking. Protect from winter
two ranks in a strongly compressed fan, 8cm (3in); flowers 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in) wet with a mulch of sharp sand or
as in many Iridaceae. diameter, bright yellow, produced in ashes. In regions that experience
late winter; Cilicica Group: to 5cm late frosts, give young shoots the
erect of habit, organ or arrangement (2in); leaves tinged bronze at first; flow- protection of dry bracken litter or
of parts, upright, perpendicular to the ers shiny golden yellow, larger and straw. Propagate Eremurus from ripe
ground or point of attachment. emerging later; Tubergenii Group: seed in autumn, alternatively by
leaves tinged bronze at first; flowers careful division when the foliage
Eranthemum (from Greek eros, love, large, golden, appearing later; includes dies back during late summer.
and anthemon, flower). Acanthaceae. ‘Guinea Gold’, which has deeply and E.himalaicus (to 2.5m (8ft) tall, flow-
Tropical Asia. Some 30 species, peren- narrowly cut bracts and fragrant, long- ers white); E. x isabellinus (E.stenophyl-
nial shrubby herbs and shrubs with lasting, deep golden flowers). lus x E.olgae; to 1.5m (5ft) tall,
tubular, 5-lobed flowers amid bracts flowers orange, pale yellow, gold,
in spikes or panicles. Grow in bright Ercilla (for Don Alonso de Ercilla pink, white to copper; includes the
filtered light or with part-day shade. (1533–95), of Madrid). Phytolaccaceae. Shelford Hybrids and Highdown
Water plentifully but carefully when in Americas, South Africa. 2 species, Hybrids); E.robustus (to 1m (31/4ft);
full growth, allowing the surface of the evergreen climbers attaching them- flowers pink); E.spectabilis (to 1m
medium to dry out between waterings, selves by disc-like holdfasts. The leaves (31/4ft); flowers pale yellow suffused
and maintain a moderately humid but are leathery and entire, and the flowers green); E.stenophyllus (to 1.5m (5ft)
buoyant atmosphere. Ensure that the small and borne in spring in dense tall; flowers orange-yellow to clear
winter temperature is no lower than spike-like racemes. These are some- yellow ageing topaz).
13°C/55°F. Propagate by softwood cut- times followed by glossy berries.
tings in a closed case with bottom heat Tolerant of temperatures to between erianthous woolly flowered.
in late spring/early summer. Cut back –5 and –10°C/23–14°F. Grow in a
the flower stems of mature specimens well-drained lime-free soil in sun to Erica (from the Greek name ereike).
by about half their length after flower- part shade. Provide support. Propagate Ericaceae. HEATH, HEATHER. Africa,
ing. E. pulchellum (syn. E.nervosum; BLUE by nodal stem cuttings in midsummer. Madagascar, Middle East, Europe,
SAGE; evergreen shrub to 1.25m (4ft) E.volubilis (syn. E.spicata; Peru, Chile; to Atlantic Is. Some 735 species, ever-
flowerspikes to 7cm (23/4in); bracts 6m (20ft); leaves to 5cm (2in), ovate to green shrubs and shrublets with
green feathered with white; flowers to oblong, fleshy, glossy dark green; flow- small, narrow leaves. Tubular to
3cm (11/4in), deep blue). ers purple or green with white stamens; urn- or bell-shaped, the flowers are
fruit dark purple). carried in heads at the branch tips
Eranthis (from Greek er, spring, and or disposed along the branches in a
anthos, flower). Ranunculaceae. S Eremurus (from Greek eremia, desert, raceme- or panicle-like arrange-
Europe (also naturalized W and N and oura, tail, referring to the appear- ment. For cultivation, see heaths and 283
Europe and N America), Asia (Turkey ance of the flower spikes in their desert heathers. (See table overleaf.)
Erica
E RICA
E.arborea SW Europe, tree-like, to 4m (13ft) to 5mm (1⁄4in), dark green, to 4mm (1⁄8in), white tinged grey or cream,
TREE HEATH Mediterranean, in whorls of 4 campanulate, fragrant in large, pyramidal
N Africa panicles
Comments: Late spring. Z7. Lime-tolerant. Includes clones with bright gold to lime green foliage.
E E.australis
SPANISH HEATH
W Iberian
Peninsula,
erect to 2m (61⁄2ft) to 5mm (1⁄4in), dark green,
in whorls of 4 or 3
to 9mm (3⁄8in), red-pink, tubular to
campanulate with reflexed lobes; on
Tangier short branches
Comments: Spring-summer. Z8.
E.canaliculata S Africa erect to 2m (61⁄2ft) 4–10mm (1⁄8–1⁄2in), bright to to 3.5mm (3⁄8in), cup-shaped, purple-pink to
dark green, in whorls of 3 pale rosy pink with conspicuous dark
purple-red to black anthers; in whorls at
Comments: Year-round. Z 9, sometimes surviving in sheltered places in zone 7. ends of branchlets
E.carnea C & E Europe dwarf, with to 8mm (3⁄8in), dark green to 6mm (1⁄4in), purple-pink, cylindric, often
E.herbacea procumbent to in whorls of 4 with dark anthers; in terminal, somewhat
WINTER HEATH ascending stems to 1-sided racemes
25cm (10in)
Comments: Late winter-early spring. Z5. Lime-tolerant. Many and lime to copper and bronze; in flower colour from pure white to
cultivars, ranging in habit from the tall and open to the dwarf and palest shell pink, rose, purple-pink, deep magenta and carmine.
dense; in foliage colour from dark green to emerald, sea-green, gold
E.ciliaris SW Europe spreading, to 80cm to 4mm (1⁄8in), ovate to to 12mm (1⁄2in), deep pink-red, swollen-
DORSET HEATH (32in) lanceolate, ciliate tubular to urn-shaped; in terminal racemes
Comments: Late summer-autumn. Z 6. Includes cultivars with foliage turning red-bronze in winter, and flowers in tones of white, pink and
rose, also bicolours – E.‘David McClintock’, for example, has white to blush flowers tipped with purple-pink.
E.cinerea W Europe low, bushy, to 60cm to 5mm (1⁄4in), dark green, to 7mm (1⁄4in), pink, purple-red or white,
BELL HEATHER (24in) with hairy revolute, in whorls of 3 urn-shaped; in terminal racemes or umbels
young twigs
Comments: Summer. Z5. Many cultivars – in habit, prostrate to low gold, some changing from yellow to deep rusty orange in winter, or
and spreading, dome-shaped or rounded to erect and narrow, densely with bright copper new growth; in flower colour, pure white, pale rose,
bushy to loose and open; in foliage colour, dark green to bronze-red or pink, magenta, crimson and deep ruby.
E.x darleyensis garden origin as for E.carnea, but to 13mm (1⁄2in) white to rosy pink with dark anthers
(E.erigena x E.carnea) more vigorous and
bushy, to 60cm (24in)
Comments: Winter-spring. Z6. Lime-tolerant. Cultivars range in foliage from dark green to lime or golden yellow, some with cream- or red-
tipped new growth, or turning bronze-red in winter; in flower colour from silvery white to rose, pink, magenta and lilac.
284 E.canaliculata E.carnea ‘December Red’ E.ciliaris ‘David McClintock’ E.cinerea ‘C.D. Eason’
Erica
E RICA
E.erigena Tangier, as for E.carnea, but Comments: Late winter-early spring. Z7. Cultivars range in habit from
E.hibernica; E.mediterranea Iberian erect to 2m (61⁄2ft) low, slow-growing and compact to erect and rangy; in leaf colour from deep
of gardens Peninsula, SW green to grey-green and gold, some tinted purple-red or copper in winter or
IRISH HEATH France, Eire when new; in flower colour from white to shell pink, rose, deep crimson,
magenta and lilac, some becoming darker with age, some scented.
E.gracilis S Africa compact, to 50cm

(20in) tall
2–4mm (1⁄16–1⁄8in), in whorls
of 4
to 4mm (1⁄8in), pale to deep pink, ovoid to
rounded, in terminal whorls of 4
E
Comments: Summer. Z9. Includes cultivars with glowing deep red flowers.
E.x hiemalis origins and to 60cm (24in) to 5mm (1⁄4in), bright green, to 15mm (5⁄8in), white suffused pink with
FRENCH HEATHER; parentage in whorls of 4 dark anthers, tubular; in short, terminal
WHITE WINTER obscure racemes
HEATHER
Comments: Winter. Z8. Includes cultivars with long, tubular flowers in shades or purple-pink
and rose, often with paler or white lobes and opening.
E.lusitanica W Iberian close to E.arborea, but to 7mm (1⁄4in) to 5mm (1⁄4in), pink in bud, opening white,
PORTUGUESE HEATH Peninsula to to 3m (10ft) tall and narrowly campanulate
SW France, not so dense and
naturalized tree-like Comments: Spring to early summer. Z7/8. Requires shelter. ‘George
SW England Hunt’: leaves yellow, flowers white.
E.mackayana Spain, Ireland low and spreading to to 6mm (1⁄4in), oblong to to 7mm (1⁄4in), pink, squatly urn-shaped, in
erect, to 50cm (20in) lanceolate, revolute, terminal umbels
glandular, in whorls of 4
Comments: Mid-summer to early autumn. Z4. Includes clones with white, rose and deep purple-pink flowers, some semi-double or double.
E.pageana S Africa erect to 50cm (20in), 5–8mm (1⁄4–3⁄8in), closely 6–8mm (1⁄4–3⁄8in), yellow, downy, tubular to
downy packed, in whorls of 4 campanulate with a green calyx; in terminal
Comments: Spring. Z 4. clusters of 3–4
E.scoparia SW Europe, slender and erect, to to 7mm (1⁄4in), glossy, in to 3mm (1⁄8in), green tinged red-brown,
BESOM HEATH N Africa, 6m (20ft) whorls of 3–4 campanulate; in narrow leafy racemes
Canary Is
Comments: Late spring to early summer, Z7/8. Includes small, neat clones with bright green, shiny leaves.
E. spiculifolia SE Europe, Mat-forming, to Very small, narrow, dark small, magenta to candy pink; in erect, bell-
SPIKE HEATH Asia Minor 25cm (10in) tall shaped racemes, 3cm (11⁄4in) long
Comments: Late spring to summer. Z5.
E. x darleyensis ‘White Glow’ E.mackayana ‘Plena’ E. x stuartii ‘Irish Lemon’ E.tetralix ‘Con Underwood’ 285
Erica
E RICA
E. x stuartii W Ireland close to E.mackayana, Comments: Summer to autumn. Z6. Includes clones with pink to pale
E. x praegeri; distinguished by hairy mauve flowers, some tipped with a deeper tone, maroon, for example.
(E.mackayana x E.tetralix) ovary and calyx Several have new foliage tinted yellow, orange or coral.
E.terminalis SW to 2.5m (8ft), erect dark green, in whorls of 4 to 7mm (1⁄4in), rosy pink to deep mauve-pink
E CORSICAN HEATH Mediterranean and tree-like fading to rusty red, urceolate; in umbel-like
clusters
Comments: Summer to early autumn. Z8. Lime-tolerant.
E.tetralix Iberian dwarf and spreading, to 6mm (1⁄4in), lanceolate to to 9mm (3⁄8in), pale pink, swollen tubular to
CROSS-LEAVED HEATH Peninsula, to 25cm (10in) narrowly oblong, grey-green, urceolate; in terminal umbels
France, UK ciliate, in whorls of 4
Comments: Summer to early autumn. Z5. Includes clones with white to pale pink and dark rosy red flowers, sometimes arranged in a tight,
radiating cluster; some have very fine silvery grey foliage.
E.umbellata W Iberian dwarf, to 80cm (32in) to 4mm (1⁄8in), in whorls of 3 to 6mm (1⁄4in), rose pink to purple with dark
DWARF SPANISH HEATH Peninsula, brown anthers, campanulate to ovoid; in
Tangier Comments: Late spring to early summer. Z7. umbels
E.vagans W France, decumbent to erect, to 10mm (1⁄2in), mid-green, to 4mm (1⁄8in), cylindric to campanulate,
CORNISH HEATH Spain, to 80cm (32in) in whorls of 4 or 5 lilac pink to white, with dark maroon to
Cornwall, brown anthers; in leafy racemes
Ireland
Comments: Mid-summer to late autumn. Z5. Somewhat lime-tolerant. Includes clones with white, cream, pink, cerise, deep ruby and purple
flowers; some with yellow foliage, or foliage taking on colourful tints in winter. In ‘Viridiflora’, the flowers are replaced by green bracts.
E. x veitchii garden origin resembles a more similar to E.lusitanica cylindric to near-spherical, white to cream
(E.arborea x E.lusitanica) vigorous E.arborea with pink stamens, fragrant
Comments: Spring. Z7/8. ‘Gold Tips’: young shoots golden, fading to lime or pale green.
E. x watsonii garden origin compact, hairy, to mid-green, often colourful broadly campanulate to urceolate, pink
(E.ciliaris x E.tetralix) 30cm (12in) in spring
Comments: Summer. Z5. Includes clones with white, rose and deep crimson flowers; some with
new foliage flushed gold, yellow-orange, copper or red-bronze.
E. x williamsii garden origin resembles E.vagans but campanulate, rose pink with dark
(E.vagans x E.tetralix) usually with yellow to brown anthers
rich gold new growth
Comments: Spring. Z5.
286 E.vagans ‘Valerie Proudley’ E. x veitchii ‘Exeter’ E. x watsonii ‘Dawn’ E. x williamsii ‘P.D. Williams’
Eriobotrya
ericaceous (1) a plant belonging to Erinacea (from Latin erinaceus,

the family Ericaceae; (2) planting resembling a hedgehog, referring to
media with low pH suitable for grow- the overall appearance of the plant).
ing calcifuge plants; (3) resembling the Leguminosae. W Mediterranean to
genus Erica in general habit. E Pyrenees. 1 species, E.anthyllis (syn.
E.pungens; HEDGEHOG BROOM, BRANCH
Erigeron (from Greek, eri, early, and THORN, BLUE BROOM), an evergreen,
geron, an old man, either alluding to the clump-forming shrublet, to 30cm (12in)
hairy pappus, or to the hoary appear-
ance of the leaves of some species in
tall with thorn-like branchlets. The
leaves are small and short-lived. Pale
E
spring). Compositae. Cosmopolitan, blue, indigo or mauve, pea-like flowers
especially N America. FLEABANE. Some appear in clusters in summer. Hardy to
200 species, annual or, more com- –15°C/5°F. Grow in a hot position on
monly, perennial herbs with daisy-like the rock garden, at the base of a sunny
flowerheads in spring and summer – wall or on raised beds or low walls.
the ray florets range widely in colour, Plant in gritty free-draining soils, with
the disc florets are yellow. The follow- shelter from cold, drying winds. Propa-
ing species are fully hardy and suitable gate from seed: cold-stratify overwinter
for the herbaceous border and rock and germinate in warmth in early Eriobotrya japonica
garden; E.karvinskianus is an exquisite spring. Alternatively, increase by heel In temperate regions the loquat is mainly
colonizer of damp old walls and cuttings in early autumn. grown as a handsome foliage plant.
paving. Grow the others in sun on any
moderately fertile, freely draining soil erinous prickly, coarsely textured branches and large, leathery leaves.
that remains moist in the growing with sharp points. Small, white flowers are produced in
season. Provide the support of pea- late winter and spring in broad and
sticks for taller perennials and dead- Erinus (Greek name erinos, used by often densely woolly panicles. The fruit
head to produce a second flush of Dioscorides for a basil-like plant). is an obovoid to globose pome, with
bloom later in the season. Cut back the Scrophulariaceae. N Africa, S and C persistent calyx teeth at the apex and a
plants during autumn. Propagate Europe. 2 species, tufted perennial few large seeds. E.japonica is extensively
Erigeron by seed sown in situ, also by herbs with tubular, broadly 5-lobed cultivated in subtropical and warm-
division and by basal softwood cuttings flowers in erect racemes in late spring temperate climates for its edible fruits –
in spring. and summer. A hardy perennial alpine, these are eaten raw, poached, stewed as
E.alpinus (Europe; hairy perennial although shortlived, it seeds itself freely preserves or pickled with sweet spices.
herb to 40cm (16in) tall; flowerheads to and will carpet large areas. Grow on In Japan over 800 cultivars are known.
3.5cm (11/2in) diameter, ray florets lilac); light, well-drained soils in sun or part- The fruit, which resembles an apricot,
E.aurantiacus (ORANGE DAISY; Turkestan; shade on rock gardens, walls, raised has a firm flesh and slightly acid, sweet
mat-forming, downy perennial herb to beds, scree, troughs or in tufa; it is also aromatic flavour; the seeds are slightly
30cm (12in); flowerheads to 5cm (2in) useful for sowing in spring directly into poisonous. In temperate zones, it
diameter, ray florets bright orange- paving joints. A mulch of shingle or makes a handsome ornamental, with
yellow); E.aureus (N America; hairy grit provides a good seedbed and pro- bold and luxuriant foliage. The flowers,
perennial herb to 20cm (8in); flower- tection against winter rots around the borne intermittently from early winter
heads to 3cm (11/4in) diameter, ray neck. Keep moist but never water- to spring, are produced in quantity
florets yellow); E.glaucus (BEACH ASTER, logged. Propagate from seed sown as only after hot summers. The fruit
SEASIDE DAISY; W US; tufted perennial soon as ripe in cold frames or in situ. ripens in spring, but is likely to be ren-
herb to 50cm (20in), stems sprawling; Small softwood cuttings will also suc- dered inedible by hard frosts in cold
leaves grey-green; flowerheads with ceed. E.alpinus (ALPINE BALSAM, FAIRY areas. It will survive temperatures as
lilac to violet ray florets; includes the FOXGLOVE, LIVER BALSAM; S and C low as –17°C/1°F, and tolerates dry
white-flowered ‘Albus’, and ‘Elstead Europe; to 30cm (12in), carpet-forming soils and maritime exposures. Plant in
Pink’ with deep lilac-pink flowerheads); small leaves; flowers 0.6–1cm (1/4–1/2in), fertile, well-drained soils, in full sun or
E.karvinskianus (syn. E.mucronatus; C typically purple, white in var. albus, light shade with shelter from cold
America; woody-based perennial with red in ‘Carmineus’, crimson in ‘Dr winds, which will scorch the foliage.
slender, sprawling stems to 30cm Hähnle’, pink in ‘Roseus’, violet in In regions at the limits of its hardiness,
(12in); leaves small; flowerheads to 2cm ‘Lilacinus’). grow against a south-facing wall. Prop-
(3/4in) diameter, slender-stalked, white agate by seed sown under glass when
or pink, becoming red-purple with Eriobotrya (from Greek erion, wool, ripe, by semi-ripe cuttings with a heel,
age); E.speciosus (NW US; perennial and botrys, a cluster of grapes, referring or by air layering. E.japonica (LOQUAT,
herb to 80cm (32in); flowerheads to to the woolly, clustered panicles). JAPANESE LOQUAT, JAPANESE MEDLAR,
5cm (2in) across, ray florets violet to Rosaceae. E Asia. Some 10 species of NISPERO; China, Japan; large and 287
blue or white). evergreen shrubs or trees with stout spreading shrub or tree to 7m (23ft)
Eriobotrya
tall; branches stout, covered in tawny S Africa. COTTON GRASS. 20 species of collar of grit around the neck and/or
hairs at first; leaves to 30cm (12in), hardy bog, marsh or marginal aquatic a prop of small stones to keep foliage
broadly oblanceolate to elliptic, leath- grass-like, evergreen perennials. Tufted clear of the soil surface. Alternatively,
ery and corrugated; fruit to 4cm (11/2in) clumps or slender rhizomes. Leaves grow in tufa rock half-buried in the
diameter, globose to pyriform, yellow slender, flat, tough. Inflorescence an pot. Water plentifully when in growth,
to apricot). umbel of multiflowered spikelets or a avoiding the foliage, and keep just
single erect terminal spikelet. Sepals moist in winter. Sow seed in a mix of
Eriogonum (from Greek erion, wool, and petals represented by soft, pale, loam, leafmould and sharp sand, with
E and gonia, a joint or knee, referring to
the downy nodes). Polygonaceae. N
cotton-like hairs. E.angustifolium
(COMMON COTTON GRASS, N Europe
additional parts of crushed slate and
tufa dust; expose to frost but protect
US, mostly western. WILD BUCK- (incl. Arctic), N America. 15–75cm from rain, and germinate in the cold
WHEAT; UMBRELLA PLANT; ST. CATHER- (6–30in), stem 3-angled at apex. Leaves greenhouse; increase also by softwood
INE’S LACE. 150 species, herbs and grooved, 3–7mm (1/8–1/4in) wide, taper- cuttings in summer.
subshrubs (those listed below are ing to 3-sided tip. Inflorescence an E.elongatum (W US; to 7.5cm (3in),
perennial), usually with woolly leaves umbel of 3–7 pendent, downy, white densely tufted, mat-forming; leaves to
and small, pale flowers in terminal spikelets 3–5cm (11/4–2in) across). Effec- 0.7cm (1/4in), oblanceolate, woolly;
heads or umbels. Hardy to between tive feature beside wildlife pool and in flowers to 0.7cm (1/4in) diameter, blue
–10 and –15°C/14–5°F. Most are also a bog garden. Grow in acid soil. Propa- with yellow crests); E.nanum (Alps; to
tolerant of exposed sites, although gate by division of clumps in spring. 5cm (2in); densely tufted; leaves to 1cm
those with woolly leaves need protec- (1/2in), elliptic to linear, silver-hairy;
tion from winter wet. Grow in a gritty, Eriophyllum (from Greek erion, flowers to 0.8cm (3/8in) diameter, sky
perfectly drained soils in full sun. wool, and phyllon, leaf). Compositae. blue with yellow crests).
Water sparingly in spring and autumn, Western N America. WOOLLY SUN-
moderately when in full growth and FLOWER. About 12 species, hairy, Erodium (from Greek
keep almost dry in winter. These plants annual to perennial herbs and shrubs, erodios, heron, the carpels
resent disturbance once established. with entire to toothed or pinnatifid resemble the head and beak
Propagate by ripe seed sown in a cool leaves and daisy-like flowerheads of a heron). Geraniaceae.
greenhouse in autumn or in spring; in late spring and summer. Europe, C Asia, temperate
alternatively, increase by heeled green- Grow in full sunlight on a Australia, tropical S America.
wood cuttings in midsummer or by well-drained, preferably STORKSBILL, HERON’S BILL. 60
division in early spring. sandy soil. Clip over species, mostly perennial, but
E.arborescens (California; shrub to after flowering. some annual herbs and sub-
1.5m (5ft); leaves 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in), Propagate by seed shrubs (those listed below are
linear to oblong, white-hairy beneath; sown under glass small, compact peren-
flowers white to pale rose); E.crocatum in autumn, or by distinctive
nial herbs). Erodium
(SAFFRON BUCK-WHEAT; California; division in spring. “storkbill” differs from Gera-
herb or subshrub to 20cm (8in); leaves E.lanatum (hairy fruits nium in having only
1.5–3cm (5/8–11/4in), ovate to elliptic, herb, 20–60cm 5 fertile stamens
white-felted; flowers sulphur yellow); (8–24in) tall; (Geranium has 10).
E.giganteum (ST CATHERINE’S LACE; S leaves to The leaves are
California; shrub to 2.5m (8ft); leaves 15cm (6in), usually lobed or
3–10cm (11/4–4in), oblong to ovate, spathulate to pinnately divided
grey- to white-hairy; flowers white narrowly oblanceo- with toothed margins.
fading to rusty red); E.ovalifolium (W late, entire to pinnately Produced from spring to
US; silver-hairy, mat-forming and small lobed; flowerheads 2–5cm Erodium late summer, the flowers
to dwarf; leaves 0.5–1.5cm (1/4–5/8in), (3/4–2in) in diameter, yellow). cicutarium are 5-petalled, and are carried in
broadly oblanceolate to elliptic; flowers stalked umbels or rarely solitary.
white to pink or rose-purple); E.umbella- Eritrichium (from Greek erion, wool, The fruit resembles a slender, bird’s bill
tum (SULPHUR FLOWER; western N and trichos, hair, the plants are woolly). and, when ripe, splits lengthways into
America; herb or subshrub, low and Boraginaceae. Temperate northern five 1-seeded parts. Plant the smaller
spreading, rarely exceeding 30cm Hemisphere. ALPINE FORGET-ME-NOT. species on the rock garden, in a sunny,
(12in); leaves to 2cm (3/4in), spathulate Some 30 species, low-growing, tufted, well-drained spot with a humus-rich,
to obovate, tomentose, in rosettes; flow- alpine perennial herbs, with small, preferably alkaline, soil. The taller
ers cream to sulphur yellow, sometimes downy leaves and forget-me-not-like species are less demanding as to soil
tinted red with age). flowers in short cymes in early summer. type (although drainage must be good).
Hardy to about –15°C/5°F, but intol- The following are hardy in zone 7, but
Eriophorum (from Greek erion, wool erant of winter wet and perhaps best the more southern natives will suffer
288 and phoreo, to bear, alluding to hairy grown in the alpine house in a lean from winter damp and are best pro-
fruits). Cyperaceae. Europe, N America, and gritty alpine mix. Provide a deep tected with a propped pane of glass in
Erysimum
the open garden during the winter and taller flowering stems to 2m (61/2ft),
months. Alternatively grow in pans in with ivory flowerheads to 2cm (3/4in)
the alpine house. Propagate from seed and spiny-tipped bracts); E.giganteum
sown under glass, or by division in (MISS WILLMOTT’S GHOST; Caucasus;
spring. biennial to 1.5cm (5/8in); leaves heart-
E.cheilanthifolium (syn. E.petraeum shaped to triangular, crenate to spiny
subsp. crispum; S Spain, Morocco; and incised; flowerheads to 4cm
leaves to 5cm (2in), white-hairy, ferny; (11/2in), electric blue to pale green or
flowers, white to pale pink veined red
and with dark stains); E.chrysanthum
white, with spiny bracts to 6cm (21/2in)
tinted grey-white or silver-blue); E.mar-
E
(Greece; leaves to 3.5cm (11/2in), ferny, itimum (SEA HOLLY; coasts of Europe,
silver-hairy; flowers creamy yellow to naturalized east coast of US; short
pale sulphur); E.corsicum (Corsica, lived perennial 20–60cm (8–24in) tall
Sardinia; leaves silvery-downy ovate, with tough, spiny, glaucous blue-grey
crumpled, crenate; flowers rose pink foliage; flowerheads to 5cm (2in), pale
or white veined red); E.foetidum (syn. blue to lilac with bracts to 4cm (11/2in)
E.petraeum; Pyrenees, S France; leaves resembling leaves); E. x oliverianum
ferny, softly hairy; flowers veined red); Eryngium giganteum (E.alpinum x E.giganteum; to 100cm
E.glandulosum (syn. E.petraeum subsp. Commonly called Miss Willmott’s ghost. (39in); lower leaves heart-shaped to
glandulosum; Pyrenees; leaves ferny, Usually monocarpic, flowering only after ovate, slightly 3-lobed, spiny-toothed
hairy, aromatic; flowers lilac with several seasons, before seeding and dying. with conspicuous veins; flowerheads to
dark stains or rose stained purple); 4cm (11/2in), vivid blue with linear,
E.manescaui (Pyrenees; leaves to 30cm moderately fertile, well-drained soils. spiny-toothed and purple bracts);
(12in), ovate to lanceolate, pinnate; Propagate by seed in autumn in the E.planum (C and SE Europe; to 75cm
flowers purple-red with darker cold frame; also by root cuttings in (30in); leaves ovate to oblong, toothed
patches); E.reichardii (syn. E.chamaedry- winter or by careful division in autumn to palmately lobed, spiny and tinted
oides; ALPINE GERANIUM; Majorca, or spring. blue; flowerheads to 3cm (11/4in), irides-
Corsica; leaves cordate, crenate, dark E.agavifolium (Argentina; to 1m (31/4ft) cent azure; lilac to pink forms are also
green; flowers white with rose veins); tall; leaves sword-shaped, spiny-toothed; grown); E. x tripartitum (parentage
E. x variabile (E.corsicum x E.reichardii; flowerheads to 5cm (2in), green-blue unknown; to 1m (31/4ft); leaves are 3-
intermediate between parents; includes with entire to spiny-toothed bracts to lobed and spiny-toothed; flowerheads
white, bright pink and double-flowered 1cm (1/2in) long; often confused with to 1cm (1/2in) metallic blue, exceeded by
cultivars). E.bromeliifolium); E.alpinum (Europe; narrow, blue-tinted bracts); E.variifolium
to 60cm (24in); leaves ovate to heart- (N Africa; to 45cm (18in); leaves
erose irregularly dentate, as if shaped, spiny-toothed; flowerheads rounded to heart-shaped, margins
gnawed or eroded. to 4cm (11/2in), steel blue to sky blue, toothed, dark green marbled white;
violet, lilac or white with softly spiny, flowerheads to 2cm (3/4in) diameter,
Eryngium (from Greek eyringion, pinnately lobed bracts to 6cm (21/2in)); silver-blue exceeded by spiny, white-
name used by Theophrastus). Umbellif- E.amethystinum (Italy, Sicily, Balkans; to blue to steel grey bracts); E.yuccifolium
erae. Cosmopolitan. ERYNGO, ERINGOE, 70cm (28in); leaves obovate to finely (SW US; similar to E.agavifolium,
SEA HOLLY. 230 species, perennial, palmately divided, the segments pin- although usually deciduous, with blue-
biennial and annual herbs (those listed nately lobed and spiny; flowerheads to green glaucous leaves and green-white
below are perennial unless otherwise 2cm (3/4in), electric blue to amethyst on flowerheads).
stated) with mostly basal leaves ranging silver stems, with spiny bracts to 5cm
in shape from sword-like to heart- (2in)); E.bourgatii (Spain, E Mediter- Erysimum (name used by Hip-
shaped, the margins toothed to intri- ranean; to 40cm (16in); leaves 3-parted, pocrates, from Greek eryo, to draw out:
cately cut, lobed and spiny. Produced each segment narrowly pinnately some species produce blisters). Cru-
in late spring and summer, the flowers lobed, spiny and silver-veined; flower- ciferae. Europe to W and C Asia, N
are small, generally blue-grey or white heads to 3cm (11/4in), sky blue with Africa and N America. Around 80
and packed in a cone-like, hemispheri- electric blue and silver, toothed bracts species, annual, biennial or perennial,
cal to cylindrical head, subtended by a to 5cm (2in)); E.bromeliifolium (Mexico; evergreen herbs, usually bushy with
ruff of spiny to lacerate, decorative differs from E.agavifolium in the white- clumped, woody-based stems and
bracts. Most are hardy to –15°C/5°F; blue flowerheads to 2.5cm (1in) oblong to linear leaves. Carried in ter-
South American species such as E.agav- exceeded by many rigid, sharp bracts); minal racemes, the flowers are more or
ifolium and E.bromeliifolium are less reli- E.campestre (C and E Europe; leaves less fragrant and consist of four,
able where temperatures fall far below pinnately divided; flowerheads small, spreading, obovate petals.
freezing point, but have been success- massed, blue-grey); E.eburneum (S Derived from E.cheiri, most wallflow-
fully cultivated in sheltered niches with America; differs from E.agavifolium in ers are grown for spring and early 289
perfect drainage. Grow in full sun on the entire but spiny-margined leaves summer flowering and most commonly
Erysimum
In places where winter temperatures E.crista-galli is usually grown in the

fall consistently below –15°C/5°F to cool greenhouse or conservatory in
–20°C/–4°F, overwinter in the cold temperate zones. It will, however, grow
frame and plant out in early spring. outdoors with the shelter of a south-
Propagate perennials from seed in facing wall, and will tolerate tempera-
spring and early summer, or from heel tures as low as –10°C/14°F provided
cuttings in summer, rooted in a sandy the stem bases are thickly mulched
propagating medium in the cold frame; with leaf litter or sawdust and covered
E alternatively, increase by division.
E. x allionii (syn. Cheiranthus x allionii;
with bracken. In harsh climates, the
stems are usually killed by frost to
SIBERIAN WALLFLOWER; perennial ground level. They are best left until
grown as a biennial; flowers large, mid- to late spring when they can be
bright orange); E.bicolor (Madeira, cut down and removed along with the
Canary Islands; subshrub or shrub to bracken cover. By this time new shoots
90cm (36in); flowers lightly fragrant, should be in evidence; these will
cream to pale yellow or bronze turning develop quickly, flowering by late
Erysimum cheiri ‘Blood Red’ pale lilac; E.mutabile differs in its summer.
Wallflowers were formerly placed in the mauve-pink flowers turning orange- E. x bidwillii has a thick woody root-
genus Cheiranthus. Propagate named bronze); E. ‘Bowles Mauve’ (shrub or stock and shows similar tolerances. The
selections by cuttings soon after flowering. subshrub to 75cm (30in); leaves grey- roots of this species are sometimes
green; flowers small, rich mauve); lifted and stored in frost-free conditions
used for bedding, cutting and for con- E.cheiri (syn. Cheiranthus cheiri; WALL- over winter. In warm temperate zones,
tainers. Selection has yielded dwarf, FLOWER; S Europe; perennial subshrub grow in full sun in moderately fertile,
intermediate and tall forms, and cultivated as a biennial, 25–80cm well-drained soils. Under glass, grow in
colours that include pastels and range (10–32in) tall; flowers bright orange- direct sun in a freely draining, high-fer-
from white and pale lemon yellows yellow, usually striped or spotted tility, loam-based mix; water plentifully
through orange-yellow to deep crim- purple-red); E.helveticum (syn. E.pumilum; when in growth, gradually withdrawing
son, brown and purple; many are C and E Europe; clump-forming, water in autumn to overwinter in cool,
scented. They are short-lived perenni- tufted perennial to 10cm (4in); flowers dry conditions with a minimum tem-
als, treated as biennials. Fully hardy, small, fragrant, bright yellow in flat perature of 5–7°C/41–45°F. Propagate
they need a moist but well-drained, heads opening from purple-tinted from seed sown in gentle heat in
neutral to slightly alkaline soil in full buds); E.hieraciifolium (syn. E.alpinum; spring; seed-grown plants usually
sun. E. x allionii, the SIBERIAN WALL- biennial or perennial, 30–120cm flower in their third or fourth year.
FLOWER, is used similarly but is less (12–48in) tall; flowers yellow with Alternatively, increase by semi-ripe cut-
commonly grown, having a colour hairy undersides to petals; sometimes tings in summer, or by heeled cuttings
range restricted to orange, golds and treated as a synonym of E. x allionii); of young growth in spring.
apricots. Nevertheless, it has a number E.kotschyanum (Turkey; densely tufted E. x bidwillii (E.crista-galli x E.herbacea;
of advantages, being denser in habit perennial to 10cm (4in); flowers woody-based perennial herb or shrub
than E.cheiri, spicier of scent, more orange-yellow to yellow); E.linifolium to 4m (13ft) with dark red flowers to
tolerant of cold, and flowering (syn. Cheiranthus linifolius; Spain, Portu- 5cm (2in) long); E.crista-galli (CORAL
slightly later. gal; woody-based perennial 12–70cm TREE, COCKSPUR CORAL TREE; S Amer-
The genus includes several perenni- (43/4–28in) tall with numerous slender ica; prickly erect shrub or small tree to
als, some of them shrubby, including stems; flowers mauve or violet); E.pur- 9m (30ft); flowers to 7cm (23/4in) long,
the bushy, two-tone E.bicolor, the shrubby, pureum (Turkey, Syria; erect, woody- bright scarlet, in large, leafy, terminal
silver and mauve E. ‘Bowles Mauve’, based perennial to 30cm (12in); leaves racemes).
the low and tufted E.kotschyanum, found grey-green; flowers violet-mauve).
on high scree, the violet, bushy E.lini- Erythronium (from Greek erythros,
folium and E.purpureum with beautiful Erythrina (from Greek erythros, red, red, more or less the colour of E.dens-
ash-grey leaves and purple flowers. referring to the colour of the flowers). canis). Liliaceae (Liliaceae). N US,
These are hardy in zone 6 given Leguminosae. Pantropical. CORAL Europe and Asia. DOG’S-TOOTH
sharply draining, rather poor soils in TREE. 108 species, deciduous or ever- VIOLET, ADDER’S TONGUE, TROUT LILY,
full sun, with protection from harsh green shrubs, trees and perennial FAWN LILY. Some 20 species, perennial
winds and prolonged cold. Repropa- herbs, usually with blunt, conical herbs with yellow-white bulbs, which
gate and replace regularly; overwinter thorns or recurved prickles, and trifoli- are elongated and tooth-like. The
small, new plants in a cold greenhouse. olate to pinnate leaves. Produced in leaves are basal, ovate to elliptic, and
Biennials should be sown in late late summer in erect racemes, the mottled white, pink, chocolate or
spring/early summer; grow on in a flowers are large, pea-like and usually maroon, or plain. Produced in spring,
290 nursery bed, and transfer to their red with a large, cowl- or boat-like the nodding flowers are borne singly or
flowering positions in early autumn. standard petal. several together on an erect scape.
Escobaria
Deeply bell- to hat-shaped, they consist autumn. In cool and exposed maritime Donard’ (compact to 1.5m (5ft), with
of six, ovate to lanceolate perianth seg- gardens, many of the taller species are rose flowers); E.virgata (Chile,
ments, their tips sometimes strongly useful screens and windbreaks, and in Argentina; deciduous shrub to 2m
reflexed. Hardy to –15°C/5°F and milder regions can be clipped as hedg- (61/2ft), with slender, arching branches;
below. Most species are suited to shady ing for more formal situations. Most flowers small, white or palest pink).
pockets in the rock garden and for nat- are valuable additions to the shrub
uralizing in the shrub and mixed border, grown for their small, usually escape (1) a garden plant that has
border, but are perhaps seen at their dark glossy leaves and for their flowers become established in the wild; (2) a
best in the dappled sunlight of the
woodland garden. Grow in partial
– these are often carried late in the
season, from summer into early
plant capable of surviving in adverse
environmental conditions through
E
shade in a well-drained, humus-rich autumn. Where temperatures fall much adaptation of its life cycle; (3) a suscep-
and moisture-retentive soil. E.dens-canis below –10°C/14°F, most species need tible plant which fails to succumb to a
is sturdy enough to naturalize in thin the protection of a south-facing wall. If prevalent disease.
grass. Mulch established clumps annu- cut back by frost they will usually
ally with leafmould. Propagate by divi- regenerate from the base or from older Eschscholzia (for Johann Friedrich
sion of established clumps as leaves wood if thickly mulched at the roots. Eschscholz (1793–1831), German
fade, and replant immediately to avoid The Donard Hybrids (E. x langleyensis), physician and naturalist). Papaver-
desiccation of the bulbs. Increase also especially ‘Slieve Donard’ and ‘Apple aceae. Western N America, naturalized
by ripe seed sown fresh in a moist and Blossom’, and E. rubra cultivars are in Europe. Some 10 species, annual or
humus-rich propagating mix. among the hardiest, surviving tempera- perennial herbs with glaucous and
E.americanum (YELLOW ADDER’S tures to –20°C/–4°F. E.‘Iveyi’ is almost deeply dissected leaves. Solitary and
TONGUE, TROUT LILY, AMBERBELL; east- as hardy, being cut back at tempera- long-stalked, the flowers are broadly
ern N America; leaves mottled brown tures at about –15°C/5°F. Grow in full funnel-shaped and consist of four to
and white; flowers solitary, yellow, exte- sun to light shade in deep, moisture- eight petals that fold together in para-
rior marked brown or purple, interior retentive and well-drained soils. sol-fashion in dull weather. They are
spotted); E.californicum (FAWN LILY; Cali- Summer-flowering species bloom on brilliantly colourful, the best blooms
fornia; leaves mottled brown-green; wood made in the previous season and and strongest colours being obtained
flowers 1–3, creamy white with a cen- can be cut back after flowering to on poor, well-drained soils, where the
tral ring of orange-brown); E.dens-canis remove old, weak and overcrowded plants may self-sow and overwinter
(DOG’S TOOTH VIOLET; Europe, Asia; growth; those that flower late in the after blooming. Sow seed in situ.
leaves mottled pink and chocolate; season are best cut back in spring. Removing faded blooms will prolong
flowers solitary, rose to mauve, some- Propagate species by seed. For cultivars flowering.
times pale pink, lilac, plum purple or and hybrids, increase by softwood cut- E.caespitosa (TUFTED CALIFORNIA
pure white); E.grandiflorum (AVALANCHE tings in early summer, by nodal, basal POPPY; C California; tufted annual to
LILY; W US; leaves plain green; flowers or heeled semi-ripe cuttings in summer, 25cm (10in), branching freely below;
1–3, yellow); E.hendersonii (SW Oregon, or by hardwood cuttings in autumn or leaves more finely and narrowly
NW California; leaves dark green, mot- early winter. divided than in E.californica, blue-grey;
tled, margins crisped; flowers to 10, E. ‘Apple Blossom’ (erect to 1.2m flowers to 5cm (2in) across, bright
lilac-pink with a purple centre); E.ore- (4ft); flowers profuse, pale pink with yellow); E.californica (CALIFORNIA POPPY;
gonum (Oregon to British Columbia; white ‘eyes’); E. ‘Donard Scarlet’ (erect W US, naturalized elsewhere; annual
differs from E.californicum in its flowers and narrow to 2m (61/2ft), with scarlet or short-lived perennial to 60cm (24in)
with yellow centres); E.revolutum (N Cal- flowers); E. ‘Edinensis’ (arching shrub tall; leaves glaucous grey-green; flowers
ifornia, Vancouver Island; leaves mot- to 2m (61/2ft) tall; flowers deep pink); to 7cm (23/4in) across, typically yellow
tled, margins crisped; flowers 1–3 per E. ‘Iveyi’ (erect shrub to 3m (10ft); to orange; cultivars and seed races
stem, deep pink with a yellow centre; flowers fragrant, white opening from include dwarf and large plants, with
E. ‘Pagoda’ has bronze-marbled leaves pink buds); E. ‘Langleyensis’ (semi- single, semi-double or double flowers in
and pale sulphur flowers with brown evergreen, to 2m (61/2ft), with rose-red shades of white, cream, yellow, orange,
centres). flowers); E.leucantha (Chile, Argentina; vermilion, flame, scarlet, salmon, rose,
large shrub or small tree to 12m (40ft); cerise, carmine and purple-bronze).
Escallonia (for Señor Escallon, a flowers white in racemes to 5cm (2in)
Spaniard who travelled in South Amer- long); E.rubra (Chile; shrub to 4m (13ft) Escobaria (for the Mexican brothers
ica in the late 18th century). Grossular- tall; flowers pink to red; includes var. Romulo and Numa Escobar, early 20th
iaceae (Escalloniaceae). S America. macrantha, a dense and vigorous shrub century). Cactaceae. W US, S Canada,
Some 50 species, aromatic and more or to 4m (13ft) tall with darker flowers, N Mexico and Cuba. About 17 species
less viscid, evergreen shrubs and small and its cultivars ‘Crimson Spire’, erect of low-growing cacti, the stems simple
trees with glossy, dark green leaves and to 2m (61/2ft), with very dark, glossy or clustering, squatly globose to cylin-
racemes or panicles of shortly funnel- leaves and crimson-red flowers, and dric, tuberculate and spiny; the flowers
shaped flowers, each with five, spread- ‘Woodside’, dense, dwarf and spread- are short and tubular. Provide a mini- 291
ing lobes, from late spring to early ing with intense red flowers); E. ‘Slieve mum temperature of 5–7°C/41–45°F.
Escobaria
Grow in a gritty compost of low to slightly acid to neutral compost, pro- Phaeomeria magnifica; to 5m (16ft) tall;
neutral pH, in full sun and low humid- viding a minimum temperature of inflorescence to 30cm (12in) across,
ity; keep dry from mid-autumn until 10–15°C/50–59°F. Shade in hot standing 1m (31/4ft) tall, bracts pale
early spring, except for an occasional weather and maintain low humidity. coral to deep flamingo pink; flowers
light misting on warm days during late Keep dry from mid-autumn until early white or yellow with a dark crimson lip).
winter. Increase by seeds, alternatively spring, except for light misting on
by offsets. E.vivipara (syn. Coryphantha warm days in late winter. Seedlings are Euanthe (from Greek euanthes, bloom-
vivipara; S Canada, US, N Mexico; readily raised, and young plants of all ing well, referring to the spectacular
E stems 6–15cm (21/2–6in), densely grey-
spiny; flowers 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in), pink,
species are valued for their attractive,
very dense covering of fine spines
inflorescence). Orchidaceae. Philip-
pines. 1 species, E.sanderiana (syn. Vanda
purple or yellow). and/or hairs. E.lanata (Ecuador, Peru; sanderiana), a robust epiphytic orchid to
stems 4–7m (13–23ft) x 15cm (6in) with 1m (31/4ft) tall. It resembles Vanda, with
esculent suitable for human con- 20–30 ribs, covered in long, silky hairs, two ranks of strap-shaped leaves along
sumption. spines yellow to black; flowers 4–8cm an erect stem. Borne in an axillary
(11/2–3in) in diameter, white to purple, raceme, the flowers are 6–10cm (21/2–4in)
from a white to tawny cephalium). in diameter and flat with broad sepals:
the dorsal sepal is rose, tinged white
estrade a type of trained tree in and variably spotted blood red; the lat-
which the branches form successive eral sepals are tawny-yellow, net-veined
horizontal tiers around the trunk. or flushed brick-red to rose; the petals
are ovate to rhombic and dotted red;
ethnobotany the study of man’s use the short, fleshy lip is honey-coloured,
of and relationships with plants, espe- and streaked, veined or stained purple-
cially within a given community or race. red. Cultivate as for Vanda.
ethylene a colourless flammable gas Eucalyptus (from the Greek, eu, well,
(C2H4), of horticultural relevance and kalypto, to cover, referring to the
because of its association with ripening calyptra or lid that covers the flowers
fruits. For example, stored apples emit before opening). Myrtaceae. GUM. Aus-
ethylene as their respiration rate tralia, Malesia, Philippines. Over 500
increases, encouraging other fruits in species, evergreen trees and shrubs,
Espalier apple store to ripen prematurely. usually oily and intensely aromatic.
Both apples and pears make fine espaliers. The bark flakes or peels, exposing the
They take several years to train, but the etiolated describing pale and/or pale new surface beneath. Often tough
result is a very long-lasting garden feature. spindly, elongated plant growths which and glaucous, the leaves vary greatly in
are due to the exclusion of light. Etio- form, from the circular to the narrow
espalier strictly, a system of supports lation is employed to advantage in the and willowy. Moreover, many have dis-
for training plants, especially fruit trees, process of blanching. tinct juvenile phases where the leaves
consisting of horizontal wires stretched are quite different from those of the
along a wall, or between upright posts etiology (aetiology) the study of the adult plant. The flowers consist of
(a variation correctly described as contre causes of disease. numerous stamens set on a top-shaped
espalier). The wires are spaced 40–50cm or cup-like hypanthium. Prior to open-
(16–20in) apart. Conventionally, Etlingera (for the botanist A.E. ing, this is sealed by a lid or calyptra,
‘espalier’ refers to the trained woody Etlinger, (fl. 1774). Zingiberaceae. Sri derived from the calyx and corolla.
plant structure itself, which usually Lanka to New Guinea. 57 species, rhi- The fruits are cylindrical to squatly
consists of a vertical stem with three or zomatous, perennial herbs with cane- spherical, woody, and may persist for
more horizontal tiers of branches, all like stems. Scapose inflorescences arise many years. The following need full
in the same plane. from the rhizome: they consist of sun, shelter from harsh winds and a
many, waxy, overlapping bracts, the freely draining soil. They cope well
Espostoa (for Nicholas E. Esposto, lowermost spreading to reflexed like with drought. E.globulus, E.gunnii and
Peruvian botanist, early 20th century). the tepals of a water lily or an E.pauciflora ssp. niphophila are hardy in
Cactaceae. S America (S Ecuador, overblown Magnolia, the uppermost sheltered places in climate zone 6, and
Peru, Bolivia). 10 species, shrubs or forming a dense and torch-like cone. will usually regenerate if cut down by
small trees, the stems are succulent, These bracts virtually conceal small hard frosts. E.coccifera, E.dalrympleana
columnar, many-ribbed and spiny; the flowers, each with a tubular, frilly lip and E.perriniana will survive outdoors in
flowers are tubular to campanulate, and three petals. Grow as for Alpinia. zone 8, or in favoured positions in zone
usually nocturnal, and develop at a dis- E.elatior (TORCH GINGER, PHILIPPINE 7. The remaining species need a cool
292 tinct cap or patch of wool at the stem WAXFLOWER; syn. Alpinia elatior, Alpinia greenhouse or conservatory. Increase
apex (cephalium). Grow in a gritty, magnifica, Nicolaia elatior, Nicolaia speciosa, by seed.
Eucalyptus
E UCALYPTUS
Name Habit Bark Juvenile leaves Adult leaves Flowers
E.camaldulensis tree to 45m smooth, white, grey, ovate to broadly 8–30cm (3–12in), cream, small
RIVER RED GUM (150ft) brown or red lanceolate, grey- to narrowly lanceolate,
blue-green thick, grey-green
Comments: Z8/9.
E.citriodora
LEMON-SCENTED GUM
tree, 25–50m
(80–160ft)
white, powdery,
sometimes pink, red
narrowly to broadly
lanceolate
8–16cm (3–6in),
lanceolate, lemon-scented
white E
or blue-grey when crushed
Comments: Z9.
E.coccifera shrub or tree smooth, white-grey, broadly elliptic to 5–10cm (2–4in), elliptic white
TASMANIAN SNOW GUM to 10m (33ft) yellow or pink when rounded. somewhat or lanceolate, pointed to
fresh and peeling glaucous scimitar-like, thick, grey-
Comments: Z8. green, peppermint-scented
E.dalrympleana tree to 40m blotched white and sometimes stem-clasping, 10–20cm (4–8in), white
MOUNTAIN GUM (130ft) grey to yellow-white, rounded to ovate, light narrowly lanceolate,
peeling to expose green to glaucous tapering finely, shiny
pink, green to olive
Comments: Z8. patches
E.eremophila shrub to 4.5m smooth, light brown alternate, ovate to 8cm (3in), narrowly white
TALL SAND MALLEE (15ft) or yellow-brown to lanceolate, acuminate
grey-white
Comments: Z9.
E.ficifolia tree to 10m rough, fibrous, shaggy ovate to broadly 8–15cm (3–6in), broadly showy, crimson
FLOWERING GUM; RED- (33ft) lanceolate, bristly lanceolate to ovate,
FLOWERING GUM tapering, thick, glossy,
dark green
Comments: Z9.
E.forrestiana tree or shrub rough, grey, flaky to alternate, ovate to 9cm (31⁄2ft), lanceolate, white or red
FUCHSIA GUM to 5m (16ft) smooth and grey, tapering finely, shining giving rise to red
exposed new bark deep green pear-shaped fruit
Comments: Z9. grey-brown
E.globulus tree to 70m white to cream, ovate to lanceolate, grey- 12–25cm (43⁄4–10in), white
TASMANIAN BLUE GUM; (230ft) yellow or grey, green, glaucous to lanceolate to falcate,
BLUE GUM smooth then peeling resinous, opposed in glossy to dull mid-green
in ribbons stem-clasping pairs
Comments: Z8. The most popular gum in British gardens after E.gunnii – very fast-growing with bolder, duller, rather rank foliage. Young plants
are often used in subtropical bedding schemes.
E.camaldulensis E.citriodora E.dalrympleana E.ficifolia 293

Eucalyptus
E UCALYPTUS
Name Habit Bark Juvenile leaves Adult leaves Flowers
E.gunnii tree to 25m smooth, brown grey- neat, ovate to rounded, to 8cm (3in), broadly white
CIDER GUM (80ft) green, peeling to blue-grey to grey-green, elliptic to ovate, grey-
expose pink to grey- glaucous, perfoliate or green, glaucous
white areas opposed in stem-clasping
pairs
E Comments: Z7. The most hardy and popular gum in British gardens; pruned hard or even stooled in spring, it produces a mop of fresh blue,
juvenile growth – an ideal complement for silver-grey or purple foliage and pastel flowers in shrubberies and mixed borders.
E.macrocarpa shrub to 5m smooth, grey opposite, broadly elliptic to 12cm (43⁄4in), opposite, showy, red, pink
(16ft), to rounded, grey-green, broadly ovate, glaucous or cream
spreading or glaucous
Comments: Z9. sprawling
E.nicholii tree to 15m rough, fibrous, small, linear, grey-green, 6–13cm (21⁄2–5in), white
NARROW-LEAVED (50ft), willowy yellow-brown crowded narrowly lanceolate and
PEPPERMINT with a light, tapering finely, blue- to
airy crown grey-green, peppermint-
Comments: Z8. scented
E.pauciflora tree or smooth, white to large, ovate to elliptic, to 20cm (8in), lanceolate white
GHOST GUM suckering ghostly grey or brown- thick, grey-green with a to falcate, blue-green
shrub to 20m red, falling away in white bloom
(66ft) patches and strips
giving a mottled
appearance
Comments: Z7. More common in gardens is the SNOW GUM, ssp. with red margins and stalks. Hardier than the type, this gum has
niphophila (syn. E.niphophila), to 6m tall with silvery grey, tough, ovate striking bark – a patchwork of white, ivory and pale rusty pink.
juvenile leaves and ovate to lanceolate, blue-green adult leaves, often
E.perriniana tree or multi- white to grey with circular, perfoliate, bright to 15cm (6in), lanceolate white
SILVER DOLLAR GUM; stemmed brown patches silver-grey to scimitar-shaped,
SPINNING GUM shrub to 8m pendulous, blue-grey
(26ft)
Comments: Z8. Especially showy when juvenile; sometimes hardy in sheltered areas.
E.pyriformis shrub to 5m (16ft) smooth, grey to light alternate, ovate-lanceolate to 8cm (3in), ovate to red, pink, yellow
DOWERIN ROSE; PEAR- brown to rounded lanceolate, light green or ivory from large
FRUITED MALLEE Comments: Z9. pear-shaped buds
E.viminalis tree to 50m smooth, grey, white lanceolate to cordate, to 20cm (8in), narrowly white
MANNA GUM; RIBBON (160ft) or yellow-white and sometimes stem-clasping lanceolate, tapering finely,
GUM rough, peeling on dark green Comments: Z9.
upper branches
294 E.gunnii E.nicholii E.pauciflora ssp. niphophila

Euonymus
Eucharis (from Greek eu, good, and plentifully while in growth. Propagate Propagate by semiripe cuttings in late
charis, attraction, in reference to the from seed sown in spring, or by offsets. summer, by seed sown when ripe or by
blooms). Amaryllidaceae. W Amazon E.autumnalis (syn. E.undulata; to 50cm layers or suckers.
and adjacent E Andes (Guatemala to (20in); leaves with wavy margins; flow- E.cordifolia (ROBLE DE CHILE, ULMO;
Bolivia). 17 species and 2 natural ers white or pale olive at first becoming C and S Chile; columnar tree to 20m
hybrids, summer-flowering, bulbous deeper green, bracts wavy); E.bicolor (to (66ft); leaves to 7cm (23/4in), simple
evergreen perennial herbs, with dark 60cm (24in); leaves with wavy margins; oblong; flowers to 5cm (2in) diameter);
green, shiny, ovate to broadly lanceo- scape flecked maroon, flowers edged E.glutinosa (NIRRHE; C Chile; upright
late stalked leaves. The flowers are
carried in a scapose umbel; they are
purple, bracts wavy, edged purple);
E.comosa (to 70cm (28in); leaves with
tree or shrub to 10m (33ft); leaves to
5cm (2in), leaflets 3–5, elliptic to
E
usually white and highly fragrant with wavy margins, spotted to striped purple oblong, colouring well in autumn if
six, spreading, ovate tepals. The six sta- beneath; scape spotted purple; flowers deciduous; flowers to 6cm (21/2in)
mens are broadened at their bases and purple-tinted, bracts sometimes edged diameter); E.lucida (LEATHERWOOD,
fused to form a cup. Grow in dappled or spotted purple); E.pallidiflora (to 75cm PINKWOOD; Tasmania; erect shrub or
sunlight or shade, with a minimum (30in); leaves with crispate margins; tree to 8m (26ft); leaves to 5cm (2in),
temperature of 10°C/50°F, in a fibrous flowers green-white, bracts crispate). juveniles with 3 leaflets, adults simple,
loam-based medium, with added leaf- oblong to lanceolate; flowers 3–5cm
mould and sharp sand. Keep dry but Eucommia (from the Greek eu, well, (11/4–2in) diameter, nodding; includes
not arid until growth commences early and kommi, gum, from the rubber-like pink- and cream-flowered cultivars);
in the year, then water moderately, latex produced by this tree). Eucommi- E.milliganii (Tasmania; differs from
applying a balanced liquid fertilizer aceae. C China. 1 species, E.ulmoides, E.lucida in its narrowly columnar habit,
weekly when in full growth. Propagate the GUTTA-PERCHA TREE, a deciduous smaller leaves and cup-shaped flowers
by offsets. tree to 20m (66ft) tall. The leaves are to 2cm (3/4in) diameter); E. x nymansensis
E.amazonica (Ecuador, N Peru, S 7–15cm (23/4–6in) long, narrowly ovate (E.cordifolia x E.glutinosa; dense, vigorous,
Colombia; scape to 70cm (28in); flow- to elliptic and finely toothed. Hairy at columnar tree to 15m (50ft) tall; leaves
ers to 10cm (4in) diameter, white); E. x first, they soon become glossy, dark simple or with 3 leaflets to 8cm (3in)
grandiflora (AMAZON LILY, EUCHARIST green and will exude threads of latex if long; flowers to 7.5cm (3in) diameter).
LILY, STAR OF BETHLEHEM; a natural broken. The flowers lack petals and are
hybrid from Colombia involving E.ama- borne in axillary clusters with or before Euonymus (from the ancient Greek
zonica and very similar to it, usually dif- leaves; the males consist of numerous name euonymon dendron, hence to Latin
fering in its slightly smaller flowers). red-brown anthers. Hardy to –15°C/5°F meaning ‘of good name’ – an ironic
or lower. Grow in full sun; shelter from allusion to its toxicity). Celastraceae.
Eucomis (from Greek eukomos, lovely- cold winds. Propagate from seed sown Asia, Europe, N and C America,
haired, referring to the crown of bracts in autumn, or from softwood cuttings. Madagascar, Australia. Over 170
at the apex of the inflorescence). Lili- species, deciduous or evergreen shrubs
aceae (Hyacinthaceae). PINEAPPLE LILY. Eucryphia (from Greek eu, well, and or trees with inconspicuous, green-
Africa (those listed below are from kryphios, covered; the sepals form a cap white to yellow flowers. These give rise
South Africa). Some 15 species, robust, over the flower bud). Eucryphiaceae. to clusters of 3–5-valved, shell- or
bulbous perennials with strap-shaped Chile, SE Australia (Tasmania, New envelope-like fruit, splitting to reveal
to broadly lanceolate, smooth leaves. South Wales, Victoria). 6 species, ever- beadlike, white to coral or orange-
The flowers are small, usually green, green trees or shrubs (E.glutinosa is yellow seeds, enclosed in fleshy, colour-
and star-shaped. They appear in late deciduous in cultivation), with tough ful arils. Evergreen species are hardy in
summer, packed in dense, cylindrical and often glossy, simple or pinnate, climate zone 6, deciduous species in
spikes; these are carried atop stout finely toothed leaves. Often fragrant, zone 4. Plant all in well-drained, moist
scapes and crowned with a tuft of leaf- the solitary flowers are white and and fertile soils in full sun or light
like bracts. The following species appear in summer and early autumn. shade. Evergreens used for hedging or
favour a minimum temperature of Generally, they consist of four broad edging may be trimmed in spring. Give
4–10°C/39–50°F, but may be tried petals and numerous fine stamens with support to climbing cultivars where
outdoors in mild regions of zones 7 pink anthers. They are best grown in required. Increase by nodal cuttings
and over, and either lifted in winter or a moist, but well-drained acid soil; taken between summer and autumn or
grown in a very sheltered site and pro- E.cordifolia and E. x nymansensis will grow by fresh seed sown under glass or in
tected with a heavy dry mulch. Plant on alkaline soils. Ideally, site among the cold frame.
about 15cm (6in) deep in autumn, in a other trees and shrubs which will shade E.alatus (WINGED SPINDLE TREE; N
sunny position, in rich, well-drained the base from hot sun and keep the soil Asia; much-branched, deciduous shrub
soil. In pots, grow one bulb to a 12.5cm cool and moist, but allow the crown to to 3m (10ft); branches with 4, deep and
(5in) pot or three bulbs to a larger-sized grow into the light. Most species are corky wings; leaves 2–7cm (3/4–23/4in),
pot, with bulb tips just showing. Give hardy in climate zone 7, although pro- ovate to elliptic, serrate, pale green
bright, filtered light and good ventila- tection from cold winds is essential. turning crimson to brilliant scarlet in 295
tion. Water sparingly when dormant, Pruning is generally not required. autumn; fruit pale red with orange
Euonymus
arils); E.americanus (STRAWBERRY BUSH; cus (China, Korea, Japan; erect, ever- The succulent species need a mini-
E US; erect, deciduous shrub to 3m green shrub or small tree to 8m (26ft); mum temperature of 10°C/50°F, full
(10ft); branches 4-angled; leaves to 8cm leaves to 7cm (23/4in), elliptic to oblong, sun and low humidity. Grow in a gritty
(3in), narrowly ovate to lanceolate, bluntly and finely toothed, tough, and sandy, loam-based medium. Water
tough, persisting well into autumn; smooth, glossy deep green; fruit pink, and feed moderately in warm weather;
fruit pink, warty, aril bright red); arils orange; a popular and much- keep more or less dry at other times,
E.europaeus (COMMON SPINDLE TREE; developed species often used for hedg- watering only to prevent shrivelling of
Europe to W Asia; deciduous shrub or ing and edging, it includes many the stems.
E small tree to 7m (23ft); branches with
corky stripes; leaves to 8cm (3in), ovate
cultivars ranging in habit from the
dwarf and box-like to the tall and
The herbaceous perennial species
are hardy in climate zone 6. Ever-
to oblong, mid-green, finely toothed, shrubby, in leaf form from very small greens and semi-evergreens with
turning scarlet in autumn; fruit pink to and narrow to large and broad, in glaucous, fleshy leaves need a sunny,
bright red, arils orange; includes dwarf colour from grey-green to deep emer- sheltered site on a fast-draining, gritty
and large cultivars, some with leaves ald, edged, zoned or splashed white, soil. They are excellent plants for rock,
pale yellow-green, variegated or turn- cream or yellow); E.obovatus (RUNNING gravel and silver gardens. Other peren-
ing very deep purple-red in autumn, STRAWBERRY BUSH; N America; slen- nials will grow in a range of situations,
some with orange-red fruit); E.fortunei der-stemmed, deciduous shrub, pros- from sun to light shade, and prefer a
(China; evergreen, slender-stemmed trate and rooting, or climbing if damp and fertile, humus-rich soil. That
shrub, procumbent or climbing to 5m supported; leaves to 6cm (21/2in), obo- said, E.amygdaloides var. robbiae and
(15ft); leaves to 6cm (21/2in), ovate to vate to elliptic, crenate, pale green; E.cyparissias will tolerate full sun and
elliptic, finely toothed, leathery and fruit carmine, warty, aril red). impoverished, drought-stricken clay,
glossy dark green; fruit ivory to yellow, often spreading to the point of nui-
arils orange to pink; a variable and Eupatorium (for Eupator, King of sance. The semi-shrubby E.characias is
much-developed species including Pontus, who used one species as an fully hardy and will grow in sun or
selections with erect and bushy, vigor- antidote for poison). Compositae. E shade. The shrub E.mellifera will be
ously climbing, dwarf and compact or US, Eurasia. JOE PYE WEED, THOR- tender in climate zone 7, unless grown
densely ground-smothering habits, the OUGHWORT, BONESET. About 40 peren- in a sheltered position.
leaves ranging in size from 1 to 6cm nial herbs, subshrubs or shrubs with Annuals and biennials should be
(1/2 to 21/2in), in colour from dark green many, button-like flowerheads packed sown in situ in spring on well-drained
assuming purple-red autumn tints, to in terminal panicles or corymbs in late soil in full sun. E.lathyris is unlikely to
white-, cream-, or yellow-variegated); summer and autumn. Fully hardy. be welcome in any garden, but E.mar-
E.hamiltonianus (Himalayas to Japan; Grow in any moderately fertile, well- ginata is highly desirable, a fine cut
deciduous shrub or small tree, similar drained but moisture-retentive soil in flower and an excellent filler for white
to E.europaeus but with smooth sun or part shade. Propagate by seed borders.
branches and longer, narrower and or division. E.purpureum (JOE PYE WEED, E.fulgens and E.pulcherrima (poinsettia)
thicker leaves; fruit pink, arils red; TRUMPET WEED; E US; purple-tinged, need a minimum temperature of
includes cultivars with good autumn perennial herb 1–3m (31/4–10ft) tall; 5°C/41°F, full sun and a dry, buoyant
colour and bright coral fruit); E.japoni- leaves whorled, to 25cm (10in), ovate environment. Both will become size-
to lanceolate, vanilla-scented when able, if rather sparse, shrubs in time,
bruised; flowerheads pale pink to but they are usually grown as pot
green-yellow or rose-purple). plants, repropagated every few years.
Keep poinsettias moist and well-fed
Euphorbia (named for Euphorbus, during growth and flowering. After
physician to the King of Mauretania). flowering (which usually occurs in late
Euphorbiaceae. SPURGE. Cosmopolitan. winter), reduce the water until the
At least 2000 species, ranging greatly in leaves and bracts drop. Cut back the
habit, from small, weedy annuals, to stems. Keep the plants more or less dry
herbaceous perennials, shrubs and suc- and in a cool, shaded place. Repot in
culents. All have milky, toxic sap and midsummer. Increase light, tempera-
bear small flowers in cyathia. A cyathium ture, water and feed as the nights grow
is a small cup composed of bracts. It is longer. The plants should be in flower
sometimes furnished with glands and by Christmas.
subtended by other, larger bracts. Inside Increase succulents, glaucous-leaved
the cyathium are found several ‘sta- perennials and shrubs by stem cuttings;
mens’, each equivalent to a male herbaceous perennials by division in
Euphorbia pulcherrimum flower, and a stalked ovary equivalent to early spring; annuals and biennials
Naturally a tall shrub, this is grown as the the female. The cyathia themselves are by seed. The milky sap is toxic and
296 florists’ pot plant poinsettia, popular for often disposed on radiating branches irritant: care should be taken when
Christmas sale. and surrounded by showy bracts. handling all species.
Euphorbia
E UPHORBIA
Name Distribution Habit Leaves Inflorescences
E.abyssinica Ethiopia, tree to 10m (33ft) tall with absent dense, inconspicuous
Eritrea, Somalia candelabra-like branches
each thickly succulent
with several deep, wavy
Comments: Z10. and spiny wings
E.amygdaloides
WOOD SPURGE
Europe, W Asia evergreen perennial herb to
50cm (20in) with clumped
5–12cm (2–43⁄4in), spathulate
to narrowly obovate, dark
lime green to bright yellow in an
erect to nodding, terminal spike amid
E
and suckering stems green, more or less hairy at leaf-like bracts in early spring
first, then smooth
Comments: Z5. includes ‘Purpurea’, a compact and bushy plant with var. robbiae (syn. E.robbiae), a freely spreading plant with broader,
stems and foliage flushed ruby red to deep purple-red, especially in smooth and dark green leaves in a ruff-like arrangement and tall, loose
winter and early spring, and bright lime green flowers; also, the popular spikes of lime to pale gold flowers.
E.candelabrum NE Africa to tree to 20m (66ft) with small, short-lived yellow-green

S Africa candelabra-like branches,
each succulent and with
deep, spiny and dark-
Comments: Z10. toothed wings
E.caput-medusae S Africa succulent perennial to 30 x narrow, small, short-lived each with a white fringe, packed in
MEDUSA’S HEAD 80cm (12 x 32in) with a terminal heads
stout, more or less buried
base from which radiate
numerous low-lying
branches, each cylindrical,
snaking and covered in
Comments: Z10. cone-shaped tubercles
E.characias W Mediterranean, evergreen perennial herb to 10–22cm (4–9in), linear small, bell-shaped, yellow-green with
Portugal 1.5m (5ft) with numerous to oblong or narrowly deep maroon, eye-like glands and
clumped stems arising from oblanceolate, sea green sometimes rims, in a dense and
a woody base to grey-blue, softly and branching terminal head from spring
minutely downy to summer
Comments: Z5. Includes the taller ssp. wulfenii with grey-green flowerheads and ‘Portuguese Velvet’, compact with crowded, short and
leaves and bright lime flowerheads with yellow glands; ssp. characias broad, velvety leaves.
‘Burrow Silver’, smaller with white-variegated leaves and creamy
E.cyparissias Europe, perennial herb, fast 1.5–3cm (5⁄8–11⁄4in), linear to small, lime green to bright gold in
CYPRESS SPURGE naturalized N spreading with erect and oblong, soft sea green or frothy, branching heads in spring
America branching annual stems to bright green, giving the
30cm (12in) branches the appearance of Comments: Z5. ‘Fens Ruby’: small,
feathery cylinders; autumn bushy plant with new growth tinted
colour yellow to fox red copper red to soft bronze.
E.amygdaloides E.candelabrum E.characias E.cyparissias 297

Euphorbia
E UPHORBIA
E.dulcis Europe perennial herb to 40cm 3–8cm (11⁄4–3in), oblong to yellow in broad, branching heads,
(16in) tall, with erect, oblanceolate, mid-green, glands and bracts sometimes tinted
branching annual stems smooth, soft-textured red or purple, in early summer
arising from a thick rootstock
E Comments: Z6. ‘Chameleon’: leaves and stems flushed solid dark chocolate to purple-red; self-seeds freely and comes true from seed.
E.fulgens Mexico evergreen shrub to 2m to 16cm (6in), narrowly small, ‘flower’-like with rounded
SCARLET PLUME (61⁄2ft) with slender, arching lanceolate, dark green ‘petals’, bright scarlet in dense
branches axillary clusters throughout the year
Comments: Z10. Includes forms with white, cream, yellow, orange and pink flowers. A popular cut flower.
E.griffithii E Himalaya clump-forming perennial 8–18cm (3–7in), narrowly copper to fiery red or orange, in
herb with erect, branching oblong to lanceolate, dark dense terminal heads in spring
stems to 1m (31⁄4ft) green with a paler midrib
often tinted pink, upper
leaves and bracts flushed
pink to glowing orange-red
Comments: Z5. Includes ‘Dixter’, a compact plant with luxuriant, dark foliage tinted bronze and pink and orange inflorescences, and
‘Fireglow’, a tall plant with bronze-pink new foliage and bright fiery red inflorescences.
E.lathyris cosmopolitan biennial herb to 1.5m (5ft) 6–18cm (21⁄2–7in), oblong to yellow-green with triangular bracts
CAPER SPURGE, MYRTLE tall; stem erect, unbranched lanceolate, sea green with on the forking stems of a large,
SPURGE, MOLE PLANT below, extensively branched paler midribs, smooth, terminal head in summer
above in a broad angled downwards in four
inflorescence distinct ranks along stem
Comments: Z5. A widespread weed, sometimes encouraged for the striking regularity of its growth habit and its curious inflorescences. Also
said to deter moles. The fruits resemble capers (but are poisonous).
E.mammillaris S Africa succulent shrub or shrublet absent small and green-maroon, the stalks of
CORN COB, CORKSCREW to 30cm (12in) with 5-sided, dead flowerheads persisting as spines
dense and erect branches to 1cm (1⁄2in) long
to 6cm (21⁄2in) thick and
covered in tubercles and Comments: Z10. ‘Variegata’: stems marbled green-white, bright
spines green and tinted pink when young.
E.marginata N America softly and minutely hairy to 8cm (3in), ovate to oblong, white, surrounded by wholly white or
SNOW ON THE annual, erect to 1m grey-green, upper leaves and white-edged bracts in terminal heads
MOUNTAIN, GHOST (31⁄4ft) tall inflorescence bracts edged from spring to autumn
WEED bright white
Comments: Z5. A good cut flower.
298 E.dulcis ‘Chameleon’ E.griffithii ‘Fireglow’ E.lathyris E.marginata

Euphorbia
E UPHORBIA
E. x martinii Comments: A natural hybrid including plants intermediate between both or favouring either of the parents. The
(E.amygdaloides x plants are usually compact with ruffs of narrow leaves and columns of flowerheads; these tend to be cupped as per
E.characias) E.characias, but smaller and bright yellow or lime, often with dark wine-red glands and margins. Z5.
E.mellifera
E
Madeira, N evergreen shrub to 2m 8–18cm (3–7in), oblong to honey-scented, yellow-green with
Tenerife, La (61⁄2ft) or tree to 3m (10ft) bluntly lanceolate, smooth, maroon glands in crowded heads
Palma with stout, olive, candelabra- mid- to deep green with a in early summer
like branches and a dense, white to pale green midrib
broad crown
Comments: Z7. A handsome if rather tender shrub almost extinct in the wild and richly deserving a sheltered, sunny position in the garden.
E.meloformis S Africa dwarf succulent to 10cm (4in) inconspicuous and small, yellow-green, borne on very
MELON SPURGE tall with a more or less soon lost short stalks at the sunken stem apex
spherical stem with 8 to 12
facets; dark olive with obscure Comments: Z9. An easy succulent, often confused with E.obesa,
transecting bands of deep from which it differs in its persistently spherical stem with a
green and purple-green sunken top.
E.milii Madagascar erect to scrambling shrub to 2–6cm (3⁄4–21⁄2in), obovate slender-stalked with cupped, scarlet
E.splendens 1m (31⁄4ft) tall with grey, to oblong, dark green bracts and yellow glands, produced
CROWN OF THORNS viciously spiny branches throughout the year
Comments: Z9. A popular pot plant with numerous cultivars, the inflorescences in shades of scarlet, flame, peach, pink, yellow, ivory and white.
E.myrsinites S Europe, evergreen perennial herb with to 3cm (11⁄4in), obovate sulphur-yellow, on branching stems in
Asia Minor a stout stock from which with a short, pointed tip, dense terminal heads from late winter
arises a crown of succulent fleshy, blue-grey, glaucous, to mid spring
trailing stems, each to 30cm densely and spirally
(12in) long arranged
Comments: Z6. A superb plant for sunny situations on the rock and dry garden. E.rigida and E.seguieriana are similar but have narrower leaves.
E.nicaeensis S, C, E Europe evergreen perennial to 80cm to 8cm (3in), oblong to yellow-green in broad heads in
(32in) with clumped, red- lanceolate, grey-green, summer
tinted stems arising to 80cm tough to thinly fleshy,
Comments: Z6. (32in) from a woody stock blunt
E.obesa S Africa succulent perennial to 30cm inconspicuous, short-lived small, more or less stalkless, yellow-
GINGHAM GOLFBALL (12in); 6-facetted stem, or absent green
spherical at first, then stoutly
cylindrical with a pointed
Comments: Z9. A popular succulent; apex, dull green with bands of
cf. E.meloformis. pale olive, grey or dull purple
E. x martinii E.mellifera E.milii E.myrsinites 299

Euphorbia
E UPHORBIA
E.palustris Europe deciduous perennial to 8cm (3in), elliptic to bright sulphur yellow or pale gold in
resembling a taller, oblong or lanceolate, mid- large, domed heads in spring
smoother, cleaner green with a paler midrib,
E.polychroma, with upper leaves sometimes
Comments: Z5. A robust, handome clumped stems sparsely turning rusty red or orange
E spurge suitable for damp, even

waterlogged sites.
branching above and
erect to 1.25m (4ft)
in autumn
E.polychroma C & SE deciduous perennial herb 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), obovate sulphur yellow to bright gold in
E.epithymoides Europe, Asia with a bushy clump of to elliptic or oblong, soft and broad, cap-like heads
Minor erect, unbranched or minutely hairy at first, bright
sparsely branched stems green often with a purple Comments: Z5. Includes cultivars
to 40cm (16in) tall blush, becoming mid-green with bright gold and purple-tinted
inflorescences.
E.portlandica W Europe neat, deciduous or 0.5–2cm (1⁄4–3⁄4in), oblong to in loose terminal clusters with
PORTLAND SPURGE evergreen biennial or oblanceolate, bluntly pointed, triangular, sea-green bracts and
perennial herb with thinly fleshy, sea green to blue- yellow-orange glands
Comments: Z5. Provide full sun clumped, bushy stems green sometimes flushed red
and a well-drained soil. erect to 30cm (12in)
E.pulcherrima Mexico deciduous shrub to 3m 10–20cm (4–8in), ovate to small and green-yellow in terminal
POINSETTIA (10ft), typically gaunt elliptic with jagged or sinuate, clusters surrounded by very showy,
and flowering on bare pointed lobes or teeth leaf-like bracts to 20cm (8in) long and
Comments: Z9. A popular houseplant, branches, but usually seen ranging in colour from dark scarlet to
grown for display at Christmas and as a pot plant, short, leafy flamingo pink, peach, cream or white
available in a range of colours and sizes. and bushy
E.rigida S Europe to evergreen perennial herb to 5cm (2in), lanceolate, golden yellow sometimes with
E.biglandulosa Caucasus resembling an erect tapering to a sharp point, maroon glands, in broad terminal
E.myrsinites to 40cm tough, fleshy, pale grey- heads at various times of year; in full
(16in) tall blue, glaucous, sometimes sun and with age, the bracts become
tinted rose amber or scarlet with glowing
Comments: Z7. Plant in full sun on a sharply drained soil. orange-red tints
E.schillingii Nepal deciduous, erect, clump- to 13cm (5in), oblong to bright yellow in broad, rounded
forming perennial to 1m bluntly lanceolate, fresh terminal heads in spring and summer
(31⁄4ft) tall emerald green with a white
midrib, pale veins and a
Comments: Z6. thin, clear red margin
E.seguieriana SW to C and evergreen perennial herb to 7cm (23⁄4in), narrowly linear bright sulphur yellow in broad,
E Europe, W resembling E.myrsinites but to oblong, finely tapering, branching terminal heads, usually
Asia with looser, narrower and thinly fleshy, blue green, from mid-summer
Comments: Z7. less rigid foliage glaucous, forward-pointing
300 E.obesa E.polychroma E.pulcherrima ‘Lilo White’ E.schillingii

Eustoma
E UPHORBIA
E.sikkimensis E Himalaya differs from E.griffithii in its
coral pink, ruby-veined new
growth and the inflorescence
bracts, which are yellow, not
Comments: Z6. orange or red
E.wallichii Himalaya deciduous perennial herb

with erect, clumped stems
to 12cm (43⁄4in), narrowly
elliptic to oblong, dark jade
terminal, yellow-green with large,
green glands
E
to 50cm (20in) green with a white midrib and
Comments: Z6. fine, purple-tinted margins
Euptelea (from Greek eu, well, and alternatively by semi-ripe cuttings in Grow in full sun on a gritty, neutral to
ptelea, elm, referring to the edible fruit). late summer. slightly acid soil. Trim over after flow-
Eupteleaceae. E Asia. 3 species, decid- E.emarginata (Japan; shrub or small ering if necessary. Propagate by seed or
uous trees and shrubs, usually with tree; leaves 2–3.5cm (3/4–11/2in), obovate by greenwood or semi-ripe cuttings
broadly pyramidal crowns. The leaves to oblong, emarginate; flowers yellow- with a heel.
are toothed and often tinted red on green; fruit purple-black); E.japonica (E E.acraeus (syn. E.evansii of gardens;
emergence. Small and lacking sepals Asia; shrub or tree to 10m (33ft); leaves dense rounded shrub to 1m (31/4ft) tall;
and petals, the flowers are produced 3–8cm (11/4–3in), oval to obovate, apex leaves to 3cm (11/4in), narrowly oblong,
before the leaves in clusters along bluntly acute; flowers white; fruit black. tip 3-toothed, blue-green, glaucous);
shoots and consist of numerous sta- E.pectinatus (vigorous shrub 1–2m
mens with red anthers. Hardy in zone Euryops (from Greek euryops, having (31/4–61/2ft) tall, often grey-hairy; leaves
6 and suitable for open situations in large or wide eyes, referring to the to 10cm (4in), pinnately lobed, silvery).
the woodland garden or shrub border. broad discs of some species). Composi-
Propagate by fresh seed sown as soon tae. Arabia, Africa (those listed below Eustoma (from Greek eu, good, and
as it becomes ripe, or by layers. are from South Africa). About 100 stoma, mouth, referring to the beautiful
E.pleiosperma (W China; to 10m species, evergreen shrubs and sub- corolla throat). Gentianaceae. Southern
(33ft); leaves to 12cm (43/4in), broadly shrubs to perennial or annual herbs N America to northern S America. 3
ovate, apex tapering, with shallow, reg- with yellow daisy-like flowerheads in species, annual, biennial or perennial
ular teeth, colouring red in autumn); summer. herbs usually with glaucous, ovate to
E.polyandra (Japan; to 7m (22ft); leaves The following species are suitable linear or lanceolate leaves in opposite
to 12cm (43/4in), broadly ovate with for rock gardens, containers and raised pairs. The long-stalked flowers are soli-
deep, irregular teeth, colouring red and beds. They need excellent drainage tary or in loose, erect panicles. The
yellow in autumn). and some shelter (for example, a south- corolla is funnel-shaped to campanu-
facing wall). They are able to withstand late with five to six, oblong or obovate
Eurya (from Greek, eury, broad, per- temperatures as low as –13°C/9°F. and satiny lobes. Beautiful plants for
haps referring to the broad petals). the cool greenhouse or conservatory,
Theaceae. S and E Asia, Pacific where they need a minimum winter
Islands. Some 70 species, mostly ever- temperature of 5°C/41°F. Treat as
green trees and shrubs, usually with a biennials. Raise from seed in autumn
herringbone branch pattern and tough, and prick out into a sandy, soilless mix-
dark green and crenately toothed ture. Grow on in bright, well-ventilated
leaves. Small, 5-petalled flowers with conditions. Cool temperatures with
many stamens appear in summer. good light and fresh air are vital; over-
These are sometimes followed by small heating at the roots is disastrous. The
berries. Hardy in zone 8, given a pro- slender stalks may require support.
tected site. Where winters are more Protect blooms from strong sunlight.
harsh, grow Eurya in the cool green- E.exaltatum (S US, Mexico, West
house or conservatory. Plant in sun or Indies; glaucous annual or short-lived
part shade, with shelter from cold, perennial to 60cm (24in); flowers to
drying winds. Protect from frost when 4cm (11/2in) deep, white, blue, pink or
young. Under glass, water the plants purple); E.grandiflorum (syn. Lisianthius
plentifully when in full growth. Keep Euryops acraeus russellianus; PRAIRIE GENTIAN; US,
just moist in winter, ensuring a mini- This dense, rounded shrub with its evergreen Mexico; erect, glaucous annual or
mum temperature of 5°C/41°F. Propa- grey foliage and bright flowers is suited to perennial to 60cm (24in); flowers to 301
gate by seed sown fresh or in spring, the larger rock garden or raised bed. 10cm (4in) deep; a popular cut flower
Eustoma
available in shades of white, cream, excrescence an outgrowth or abnor- exotic a plant that has been intro-
pale yellow, peach, pink, deep rose, mal development. duced from its natural habitat into a
purple, indigo and blue, often with a different habitat. The term is often
darker or far paler central patch or excurrent (1) projecting beyond the loosely used of showy tropical speci-
margins). margin or apex of its organ, for exam- mens, but it is not necessarily linked
ple a midvein terminating in an awn; to hardiness.
eutrophication the increase of algal (2) a growth habit where the primary
and bacterial growth in a pond or axis remains dominant and recogniz- explanate spread out, flat.
E other receptacle of water, which occurs
as a result of nutrient enrichment.
able throughout life, with the branches
secondary to it – as in a strongly single- explant in micropropagation, a tiny
stemmed tree with a remote, tiered portion of a plant which is inserted in
evapotranspiration the combined branching pattern. an aseptic growing medium.
loss of water from evaporation and
transpiration. exfoliating peeling off in thin layers, exserted obviously projecting or
shreds or plates. extending beyond the organs or parts
evergreen a plant that retains green that surround it – for example, stamens
leaves through more than one growing exo- prefix meaning outward. that stick out from the corolla; cf.
season, as opposed to a deciduous included.
plant. exocarp the outermost wall of a peri-
carp. extension shoot, extension
everlasting flowers that retain their growth a shoot, especially on a fruit
form for a very long period after cut- Exochorda (from Greek exo, outside, tree, which has been selected to extend
ting, especially if they are carefully and chorde, a cord, referring to the the branch framework. It is more often
dried – for example, Helichrysum fibres outside the placenta). Rosaceae. called a leader.
species. Many everlastings belong to China. PEARLBUSH. 4 species, decidu-
the Compositae, and have papery ous shrubs with entire or serrate, pale extra- prefix meaning outside; for
petals or bracts; grasses and prepared green, and usually softly hairy leaves. example extra-floral, outside the flower
foliage such as beech are also included Showy, white flowers are produced in proper.
in the description. Everlasting flowers spring in erect to spreading racemes;
are also referred to as immortelle. they consist of five, obovate petals and extrorse turned or facing outwards,
numerous stamens. Fully hardy. Grow often used of the dehiscence of an
evolute unfolded. in sun or dappled shade. Prune after anther; cf. introrse.
flowering if necessary, to reduce over-
Exacum (from Latin ex, out, and crowding or to remove weak growths.
agere, to drive, which refers to the Propagate by simple layering, by
purgative properties of members of the removal of rooted suckers, or by seed
genus). Gentianaceae. Old World trop- sown in autumn. Alternatively, increase
ics and subtropics. 25 species, annual, by semi-ripe cuttings in a closed case,
biennial or perennial herbs with small, or basal softwood cuttings in spring –
salverform to rotate flowers in cymes. these should be wounded and treated
Exacum is a free-flowering pot plant with hormone rooting preparation, and
for the home or conservatory, where it grown under mist or in a closed case
requires a minimum temperature of with bottom heat.
10°C/50°F in winter. Sow seed in late E.giraldii (China; to 3m (10ft),
summer, at 15°C/59°F, and prick out spreading; flowers to 2.5cm (1in) diam- Chitting seed potatoes
into a soilless mix. Keep moist but eter in racemes to 8cm (3in)); E. x Shoots emerge from ‘eyes’ situated at the
never wet; provide good light and a macrantha (E.korolkowii x E.racemosa; erect ‘rose’ end of a potato tuber. The stimulus of
weak liquid feed. Increase also by cut- to 2m (61/2ft); flowers to 3cm (11/4in) light encourages sprouting.
tings in autumn. E.affine (GERMAN diameter; includes the popular culti-
VIOLET, PERSIAN VIOLET; S Yemen, nat- vars ‘Irish Pearl’ (syn. ‘The Pearl’), with eye (1) a latent growth bud, especially
uralized elsewhere; densely bushy very long, spreading flowering shoots, on tubers such as potatoes; (2) the
annual or short-lived perennial, leaves pale green above and tinted centre of a flower when it is coloured
20–60cm (8–24in); leaves small and blue-grey beneath, and ‘The Bride’, differently from the rest, as in many
neat; flowers 0.8–2cm (3/8–3/4in) diame- compact with arching to spreading pinks, pansies, auriculas and delphini-
ter, fragrant, sky blue to pale violet or branches, pea green leaves and large ums; (3) the centre of primula flowers,
rich purple with yellow anthers; flowers produced in great abundance); which may be described as pin-eyed or
includes dwarf and large cultivars and E.racemosa (China; to 3m (10ft); flowers thrum-eyed according to whether the
302 flowers in various shades of mauve, to 4cm (11/2in) diameter, in racemes to stigma or stamens are visible at the top
blue, pink and white). 10cm (4in) long). of the corolla tube. See heterostyly.
Fallopia
F
der-stalked heads. The female flowers for example ‘Dawyck’, DAWYCK
give rise to cup-like, thinly woody cas- BEECH, the purple-leaved ‘Dawyck
ings, often covered in soft spines and Purple’ and the purple-, cut-leaved
splitting open in four sections to release ‘Rohan Obelisk’).
small, chestnut brown triangular nuts.
The following species are fully hardy fairy ring a ring of toadstools formed
and tolerant of most fertile, well-drained in lawns by fruiting bodies of a number
soils and sites. However, they perform of fungi. In the UK, fairy rings are most
poorly, in coastal exposures and drought- commonly formed by Marasmius oreades.
stricken areas. They make fine specimen The ring of dead grass at the edge of
trees for large gardens; F.sylvatica is also
an excellent hedge plant, and will retain
the circle is usually surrounded by rings
of darker green grass, which benefit F
F1 the first generation progeny of a its withered foliage in winter if juvenility from nutrients produced by fungal activ-
cross. The F1 hybrid relates to seed is simulated by pruning. The US and ity. Fungicides may be applied after spik-
derived from two highly selected, Chinese species may grow only slowly in ing and de-thatching the turf, subject to
inbred parent lines and is of particular the cool summers of Britain while doing local pesticide approvals. Removal of
value in vegetables and flowers, for the well in the eastern US. Propagate as for infected soil is also effective.
desirable characteristics of uniformity, Quercus, although the seeds are a little
vigour and high yield. F1 hybrids will more tolerant of drying, and seedlings falcate strongly curved sideways,
not breed true from their own seed. do not produce a taproot. Plant out at resembling a scythe or sickle.
2–4 years old and 30–60cm (12–24in)
F2 the progeny from self- or cross- tall. Seed should be from extensive fall in irises, the outer petaloid peri-
pollinated F1 plants. They are less uni- single-species stands or wild-collected if anth segments, which may be pendu-
form and vigorous than their parents, identity is to be guaranteed. Cultivars lous or horizontal in presentation. It is
but often have desirable characteristics. are grafted on seedlings of F.sylvatica. a prominent feature of bearded irises.
Young trees are shade-tolerant and need
Fabiana (for Francisco Fabian y shelter for the first few years; in open Fallopia (for Gabriele Fallopi 1523–62)
Fuero (1719–1801), Spanish botanist). ground, they may be damaged by frost. Italian anatomist) Polygonaceae. W
Solanaceae. Warm temperate S America. F.grandifolia (syn. F.americana; AMERI- China, Tadzhikistan. 7 species of hardy,
Some 25 species, heath-like, evergreen CAN BEECH; eastern N America; to woody-based, climbing or scrambling
shrubs. Borne in early summer, the flow- 35m (120ft) tall; leaves 6–15cm perennials. Leaves simple, entire, alter-
ers are tubular with a limb of five, short (21/2–6in), obovate to oblong, serrate, nate, triangular or ovate; inflorescences
lobes. Hardy to about –5°C/23°F if blue-green above, paler beneath, large panicles of small, funnel shaped,
given a sheltered position at the base of a turning golden in autumn); F.orientalis white tinged-pink flowers, in summer.
warm, south-facing wall. Plant in sun on (ORIENTAL BEECH; SE Europe to W F.baldschuanicum (MILE-A-MINUTE VINE,
light, well-drained soils. Prune in spring Asia; to 40m (130ft); leaves 8–17cm RUSSIAN VINE. E.Europe, Iran; rampant
to shape straggly older plants. Propagate (3–61/2in), elliptic-oblong to obovate, twining woody vine to 15m(50ft); leaves
from seed sown in a sandy medium in dentate, dark green turning yellow in 3-10cm (11/4–4in), ovate to ovate
spring, or by greenwood cuttings rooted autumn); F.sylvatica (COMMON BEECH, oblong, apex acute, slightly cordate at
with gentle bottom heat in summer. EUROPEAN BEECH; Europe; to 48m base; flower 6-8mm across in broad
F.imbricata (Chile; erect to 2m (61/2ft) with (157ft) leaves 5–11cm (2–41/2in), ellip- drooping panicles, white tinged pink in
many short, downy lateral branches and tic-ovate, wavy-edged, pale and softly time; late summer – autumn, followed
minute, dark green, overlapping leaves; downy at first, becoming deep, glossy by small, angled pinkish-white fruits.
flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) long, white to rose green and turning yellow to rusty Rampant grower, challenging to con-
– pale mauve to blue-violet in f. violacea). brown in autumn; includes var. hetero- trol. Successful on most sites in sun or
phylla f. laciniata, CUT- OR FERN-LEAF part shade. Require sturdy support.
facultative saprophyte a pathogen BEECH, with deeply cut leaves; ‘Pen- Propagate from seed in spring or semi-
that can grow on dead organic matter as dula’, WEEPING BEECH, with strongly ripe heel or hardwood cuttings.) Vari-
well as on living hosts; cf. obligate parasite. weeping branches, and Atropurpurea ous forms occur; a quite common less
Group, COPPER BEECH, with purple- woody variant, with smaller flowers,
Fagus (the Classical name for this bronze leaves; cultivars are available frequently catalogued as F.aubertii which
tree). Fagaceae. Northern temperate which display these traits in combina- is now regarded as botanically synony-
regions. BEECH. 10 species, deciduous tion, for example ‘Rohanii’ with mous. F.japonica (JAPANESE KNOTWEED,
trees, usually with smooth, grey bark, deeply cut, purple leaves; two further MEXICAN BAMBOO; Japan, massive
slender young shoots and narrowly important trends in variation are rep- freely suckering rhizomatous perennial
ellipsoid buds. Oblong to elliptic or resented by clones with yellow new to 2m (6ft); stems stout, cane-like,
ovate, the leaves are alternate, 2- foliage, for example ‘Aurea Pendula’, branched above; leaves broadly ovate,
ranked, entire to dentate and shiny. ‘Zlatia’, GOLDEN BEECH, and by acuminate, base truncate, 6-12cm 303
Small, male flowers are borne in slen- clones with strongly fastigiate habit, (21/2–43/4 in); panicles axillary; flowers
Fallopia
cream-white; ‘Spectabile’: leaves red training is most often used for peaches, farinose, farinaceous floury,
later marbled with yellow. See also nectarines and apricots, and sometimes having a mealy, granular texture.
Japanese knotweed.) for plums, cherries and bush fruits
suitable for planting against a wall. fasciation see malformation.
fallow the practice of leaving ground
clear of crops for a period, either short- fancy (1) of flowers, espe- fascicle a cluster or bundle of
term in the course of natural rotation, or cially carnations, that have flowers, racemes, leaves, stems
long-term in preparing a site. A fallow variegated markings, as or roots, almost always inde-
period benefits soil structure by allowing opposed to those of a distorted, pendent but appearing to arise
weathering. It can reduce soil-borne pests single colour known as flattened from a common point.
F because the lack of cover gives predators
easier access to prey; it is also a good
selfs; (2) a 19th-century
term denoting a particu-
flower
stem
Fascicularia (from Latin fascicu-
opportunity for weed removal. lar pursuit, especially the lus, a small bundle, alluding to the
art of breeding and showing growth habit). Bromeliaceae. Chile.
false fruit a fruit in which the recep- specific plants – the specialist 5 species, low, evergreen, perennial
tacle, and not the ovary, forms the most being called a fancier; (3) a term herbs with rigid, narrow and spiny-
conspicuous part, e.g. a strawberry. used of names published in accor- toothed leaves in a dense, flat and
dance with the International Code stemless rosette. In summer and
family the principal category of taxa of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants autumn, small flowers are carried in
between order and genus, e.g. Rosaceae, and applied to cultivars, grexes a dense, head-like spike – these are
the rose family. The names of most fami- and hybrids. It is invariably formed embedded in the rosette centre and
lies derive from that of the type genus (in in a vernacular language, not Latin surrounded by spiny and often
the above example, Rosa) and are plural – for example Lupinus ‘Loveliness’, colourful bracts. Hardy in climate
nouns ending in aceae. Exceptions to this Heuchera ‘Palace Purple’. Fasciation zone 8, with full sun and a warm,
include Palmae, Gramineae, Legumi- perfectly drained position as can
nosae, Umbelliferae; these have modern Farfugium (name used by Pliny). be found in raised borders on south-
equivalents in Arecaceae, Poaceae, Compositae. E Asia. 2 species, rhi- facing walls, dry, sheltered rock gardens
Fabaceae and Apiaceae, respectively. zomatous, evergreen perennial herbs and xeriscapes. Plant in a slightly acid
with long-stalked leaves in clumps, soil rich in sand and grit. Increase by
family tree in fruit cultivation, a tree their blades rounded to fan-shaped rooted offsets in late spring. F.bicolor
comprising two or more cultivars and broad. Daisy-like flowerheads are (leaves to 50cm (20in), deep green
grafted on to a common framework. borne in loose corymbs. Hardy to covered with silver scales, those at the
The concept is of ancient origin and –10°C/14°F, and a fine foliage plant centre of the rosette turning bright
depicted in Greek and Roman records. for pond and stream margins, Japanese scarlet at flowering time; flowers small,
Besides providing garden interest as a gardens and partly shaded terraces. blue, amid red to white bracts).
novelty feature a family tree offers one Plant in full or dappled sun on a moist,
possible solution where growing space fertile soil. Increase by division in early fastigiate describing the habit of
is limited. The occurrence of cross- spring. F.japonicum (syn. Ligularia trees and shrubs that have a strongly
compatible, simultaneous flowering of kaempferi, Ligularia tussilaginea, Tussilago erect, narrow crown, and branches
more than one cultivar on the same japonica; Japan; leaves to 30cm (12in) virtually parallel with the main stem.
tree facilitates successful pollination across, long-stalked and rounded to
and good fruit set. Family trees of kidney-shaped, toothed to entire, thick- father plant the pollen parent of a
apples and pears are formed by multi- textured, dark green; flowerheads hybrid.
ple grafting dormant scion shoots, of yellow, to 6cm (21/2in) across, inflores-
different cultivars of the same fruit, cences to 75cm (30in) tall; includes x Fatshedera (Fatsia japonica ‘Moseri’
onto a very young tree raised prefer- ‘Argenteum’ with leaves stippled and x Hedera hibernica). Araliaceae. Garden
ably on a dwarfing rootstock. For open blotched grey-green and cream on origin. x F.lizei, is an evergreen shrub of
ground family apples suitable root- deep green, and ‘Aureomaculatum’, loose sprawling habit, to 1.2m (4ft) tall
stocks are the semi-dwarfing M26 and with leaves spotted yellow). with palmately and deeply 5-lobed,
dwarfing M9. The very dwarfing M27 dark lustrous green leaves to 20cm (8in)
is suitable for trees grown in large con- Fargesia (for Paul Guillame Farges across. Small and sterile, the green-
tainers. For pears, the semi-dwarfing (1844–1912), French missionary and nat- white flowers are borne in umbellate
Quince C rootstock is an acceptable uralist in Central China). Gramineae. panicles in late summer and autumn.
choice for grafting more than one China, Himalaya. Some 40 species of Cultivars include ‘Annemieke’ with
cultivar. clumping bamboos; see bamboos. yellow-variegated leaves, ‘Pia’, with
wavy leaves, and the cream-marked
fan a form of trained tree with farina a powdery or mealy coating on ‘Variegata’. Hardy to about
304 branches radiating from a short stem the stems, leaves, and sometimes flow- –15°C/5°F. Grow in sun or shade.
like the ribs of a fan. This method of ers of certain plants. Although not self-clinging like its Hedera
fence
conservatory, where it prefers cool, markings spring from a central rib;

humid conditions. Grow in sun or part hence, feather-veined.
shade. Prune to remove lax growth or
leggy stems. Propagate from seed sown feather-veined describing leaves
at 15–20°C/59–68°F in autumn, by whose veins all arise pinnately from a
air-layering or by greenwood cuttings single mid-rib.
(with all but one leaf removed) rooted
with bottom heat in summer. Root cut- fedge a composite word from fence
tings will also succeed. F.japonica (syn. and hedge, denoting a garden feature
Aralia japonica; JAPANESE ARALIA; Japan; that consists of a fence or net-clad
shrub to 5m (16ft), with widely spread-
ing, sparsely branched stems becoming
structure up which mostly climbing or
scrambling plants are grown to form a
F
bare below; leaves to 50 x 40cm (20 x screen.
16in), with 7–11, oblong-elliptic,
toothed lobes, dark glossy green above, Felicia (for Herr Felix (d. 1846),
long-stalked; flowers creamy white in German official). Compositae. Tropical
X Fatshedera lizei rounded umbels along the branches of & South Africa, Arabia. BLUE MAR-
Characteristics of both parents, one Fatsia a loosely pyramidal panicle to 80cm GUERITE, BLUE DAISY, KINGFISHER
and the other Hedera, can clearly be seen (32in) long, produced in autumn; fruits DAISY. 83 species, annual to perennial
in both the foliage and the habit of this small, black; includes ‘Aurea’, with herbs, dwarf subshrubs and shrubs
intergeneric hybrid evergreen shrub. gold-variegated leaves, ‘Marginata’, with long-stalked, daisy-like flower-
with grey-green leaves edged off-white, heads in summer, the ray florets blue,
parent, it does show a slight tendency ‘Moseri’, compact and vigorous, and mauve, pink or white, and the disc flo-
to climb and may be tied to trellis, the white-edged ‘Variegata’). rets yellow. Suitable for bedding, bas-
pillars or other supports; it is also kets, containers and rock gardens.
useful as a conservatory or houseplant. Faucaria (from Latin fauces, jaw: the Plant in full sun on well-drained soil.
Specimens with single, straight and toothed leaves resemble gaping jaws). Both species listed here are soon killed
clean stems make excellent stocks for Aizoaceae. TIGER JAWS. South Africa. by hard frosts and overwet conditions.
standard ivy ‘trees’ – take an upright, 30 species, succulent, almost stemless Remove dead flowerheads and trim
40–100cm (16–39in) tall x Fatshedera, perennials. The fleshy leaves are decus- back any weak growth. Increase by
and remove leaves, branches and apex sate and spread outwards; in outline seed sown under glass in spring, or, for
before cutting deeply and cleanly cross- they are rhombic, spathulate or F.amelloides, by cuttings taken in late
wise into the tip; then insert two or broadly lanceolate, often with a flat- summer or autumn and overwintered
four scions of Hedera, bind the wound tened upper surface fringed with fero- under glass.
and grow on in warm, sheltered condi- cious-looking marginal teeth. The F.amelloides (BLUE DAISY, BLUE MAR-
tions. Increase by greenwood cuttings underside is deeper, resembling the GUERITE; South Africa; bright green,
in summer. keel and prow of a ship. Large, daisy- perennial subshrub to 60cm (24in);
like flowers open during the afternoon stems slender, trailing to erect; flower-
Fatsia (from the Japanese name of from late summer to late autumn. Cul- heads to 4cm (11/2in) diameter, long-
F.japonica, Fatsi). Araliaceae. E Asia tivate as for Conophytum, although these stalked, ray florets pale blue; includes
(Japan, Taiwan, Bonin Islands), intro- plants are more robust and will take ‘Santa Anita’, with large, clear blue
duced Hawaii. 3 species, evergreen sporadic and sparing waterings flowerheads, and the cream-blotched
shrubs or small trees with stout, usually throughout the spring and summer; the ‘Santa Anita Variegata’); F.bergeriana
sparsely branched stems and foliage leaves usually persist for several sea- (KINGFISHER DAISY; South Africa; hairy,
crowded towards branch tips. The sons. F.tigrina (leaves 3–5cm (11/4–2in), grey-green annual herb to 25cm (10in)
leaves are large, leathery and palmately margins with 10 hair-tipped teeth, tall, forming bushy mats; flowerheads
lobed. Small, 5-petalled flowers are grey-green with numerous, small dots; to 3cm (11/4in) diameter, short-stalked,
borne in umbels on the branches of flowers yellow). ray florets bright blue).
a large panicle, and are followed by
small, drupaceous fruits. Hardy to faveolate, favose honey-combed. felted-tomentose tomentose, but
–5°C/23°F, although in cold areas it more woolly and matted, the hairs
should be given the protection of a feathered (1) of a maiden or first- curling and closely adpressed to the
south- or west-facing wall. It is an year tree with a slender upright trunk surface.
excellent choice for sheltered city bearing a number of lateral growths or
gardens. The more compact and feathers; hence, ‘feathered maiden’; (2) fence a barrier constructed of wood,
variegated cultivars are slightly less in flowers, especially tulips, used of or sometimes plastic, in contrast to
frost-hardy and demand a richer soil feather-like markings of one colour walls of brick or stone. There is a wide
and part shade in the garden. In colder upon a different ground colour; (3) of choice of fence designs including close- 305
areas, it is also grown in the home or leaf surfaces where the veins or colour boarded, interwoven, weather-boarded,
fence
split chestnut, and planed paling, plant. F.vulgare var. azoricum, FLORENCE delicate symmetry of their fronds, for
rustic, wattle and trellis. Some are FENNEL or FINNOCHIO, is cultivated as textural contrasts, and for colour – for
available as prefabricated panels 1.8m an annual. It is smaller than F. vulgare example, the beautifully coloured
(6ft) wide. and is grown for the succulent, swollen, emerging croziers of Adiantum and
aniseed-flavoured bases of the leaf Blechnum species, the autumn colour of
Fenestraria (from Latin fenestra, stalks, which are served fresh in salads Osmunda regalis, and the metallic sheen
window, referring to the translucent or cooked; the foliage can be used as on the emergent fronds of Pityrogramma,
leaf tips). Aizoaceae. Namibia. 2 flavouring. Sow May–June in situ for and Cheilanthes species. Variegated
species, succulent, evergreen perennial thinning, or raise in cell modules for sports are established in cultivation (e.g.
herbs. Smooth and fleshy, the leaves transplanting no later than the 3–4-leaf Pteris cultivars), as are cristate forms.
F are 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in) long, mid- to
dark green and stand erect in stemless
stage to final spacings of 30cm (12in),
in rows 50cm (20in) apart. For trans-
Aromatic fronds are produced in some
Pityrogramma and Dryopteris species.
clusters. Each leaf is club-shaped, planting under glass to extend the Hardy ferns are valuable for shady
expanding upwards to a flattened or cropping season, choose bolt-resistant areas and are undemanding except for
domed tip with a translucent zone, or cultivars and sow in mid-July–early requiring moisture; some, like Dryopteris
‘window’. Daisy-like flowers appear in August. filix-mas and Blechnum penna-marina, are
late summer and autumn. Cultivation useful groundcover plants. In New
as for Conophytum. In habitat, these ferns any of a group of plants Zealand Dicksonia squarrosa is used to
plants grow with only their leaf tips belonging to the division Pteridophyta, stabilize roadside banks. They have few
showing, but they are best cultivated prominent in the Earth’s vegetation for culinary uses since many ferns contain
with their leaves largely exposed. millions of years; their fossilized form carcinogens, but the steamed croziers
F.aurantiaca (flowers 3–7cm is the origin of the vast coal deposits of Matteuccia struthiopteris and Osmunda
(11/4–23/4in) in diameter, golden yellow); that were laid down in the Carbonifer- cinnamomea are eaten for their aspara-
F.rhopalophylla (BABY’S TOES; flowers ous period. Ferns are established widely gus-like flavour, and the soft pith of
1.8–3cm (3/4in–11/4in) in diameter, in temperate zones, are prolific and Cyathea species may be baked or
white). dominant in the tropics and are absent roasted.
only in extremely cold or dry regions. Successful fern cultivation requires
fenestrate irregularly perforated by They occur at altitudes from sea level an understanding of the three types of
numerous openings or translucent up to 4400m (14,500ft) the majority natural habitat. (1) Woodland or rain-
zones (windows). in wet climates from humid lowland forest ferns are native to the herba-
aniseed-scented jungle to highland cloud forests. Their ceous understorey and will grow in
foliage lightweight spores are carried very long dappled, sometimes total shade with
distances on air currents and local medium to high levels of humidity.
adaptations arise. Ferns have long been Rooting is usually shallow. These
used for medicinal purposes including include taller forest plants such as the
disorders of the spleen, hence the tree ferns Dicksonia and Cyathea and epi-
common name spleenwort. phytes such as Platycerium, as well as
Exotic ferns have been grown in climbers (e.g. Lygodium species),
edible
swollen England for display since 1628, when hemiepiphytes and many of the hardy,
leaf base specimens were imported by John woodland species familiar to gardeners.
Tradescant from Virginia to his garden (2) Ferns of rocky, more exposed condi-
in Lambeth, London. Interest in their tions or of subalpine meadows, such as
cultivation increased in the late 18th Cryptogamma and Woodsia species, may
century with the development of reli- be treated as alpine subjects either in
able techniques for raising fresh spores, an alpine house or on walls and dry
Florence fennel
giving rise to a spectacular popularity rockeries. The group includes high-
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) a native of which peaked in the Victorian ‘Pterido- altitude species naturally subject to
Europe, including coastal parts of mania’. This in turn gave rise to wide- snow cover and long periods of freez-
Britain. COMMON FENNEL (F.vulgare), spread plundering of native habitats, ing, and subjects which encounter
is a perennial grown for its aniseed- particularly in Britain. The fashion for scree, rock crevice, wet rocky grassland
flavoured leaves and leaf sheaths, fern cultivation diminished from the or stream and waterfall overhangs.
which are used in salads, meat and late 19th century, and between the two Their light requirements may be
fish dishes, and for its seeds, which are world wars collections declined, with higher but a moist, shaded root run is
used in baking, fish dishes and herbal an estimated 60% loss of old collected essential. (3) Natives of arid or semi-
tea. Sow in situ outdoors after the risk variants. arid zones with limited seasonal rainfall
of frost has passed, or divide existing There exist between 230 and 250 include the ‘Resurrection Ferns’ of the
plants in spring and set out at final genera, including 10–12,000 species, New World, such as Cheilanthes species,
306 spacings of 30–35cm (12–14in). from greatly diverse environments. which regenerate from shrivelled
F. ‘Purpureum’ is an attractive border Ferns are grown for the elegant and growth. Such species may grow on
Ferocactus
Repot every other year and feed at 14 sterilization of the sowing area before
day intervals during the growing season the spores are sown. Use a sterile mix-
with an organically based fertilizer. ture of equal parts peat and sharp sand,
Potting media for ferns should be and surface sow in sterilized clay pots
free-draining and enriched with organic covered with a sheet of glass. Hardy
matter. Most species prefer a slightly and temperate species are maintained at
acid medium of pH 6–6.5, though there 15–16°C/59–61°F and tropical species
are other preferences, such as a very at 21°C/70°F. The pots should be stood
alkaline mix for the limestone polypody, in shade in 1cm (1/2in) depth of water to
Gynnocarpium robertianum, For terrestrial maintain a moist medium for the pro-
temperate and tropical ferns, a suitable
mix is 1 part loam: 2 parts sharp sand: 3
thalli – these will usually form after a
few weeks. They resemble fragile liver-
F
parts leafmould: 1 part medium grade worts or mosses. If very crowded, they
forest bark, with hoof-and-horn added. may be separated into small blocks
For epiphytic ferns, use 1 part fine-grade using a sterile scalpel and replanted with
bark: 1 part charcoal: 1 part perlite, and space around them in larger pans.
mount to establish on slabs of cork or Again, keep moist and covered and
Osmunda regalis tree-fern fibre with a pad of sphagmum grow on in shade. Young sporophytes
The magnificent royal fern is especially moss. Aquatic ferns are grown in ponds, will develop within a period ranging
striking in spring when its crook-shaped aquaria or slow-moving water, where from two weeks to several months. Once
young fronds first begin to uncoil. potted plants should be in a medium they fill the pot, they may be carefully
that is low in organic matter to avoid fer- moved on to a fine, soilless medium and
exposed ground, rock ledges, scree, mentation. Hardy ferns for the garden raised in shade with humidity.
gullies and crevices; in cultivation, they include Adiantum, Asplenium, Athyrium, Possible problems: aphids, scale
require alpine house or rock garden Blechnum, Dicksonia, Dryopteris, Gymno- insects; rust.
conditions. carpium, Matteuccia, Onoclea, Osmunda,
Growing regimes reflect these differ- Polypodium, Polystichum and Woodsia. fern-case a glazed container, some-
ent habitats. In cool temperate zones, Some ferns are propagated from times of bellglass form, used to protect
tropical ferns should be treated as active or dormant bulbils and plantlets ferns grown indoors from dry air and
greenhouse or indoor subjects, requir- (e.g. Asplenium bulbiferum), or from offsets draughts. It is akin to a Wardian case
ing a minimum temperature of (e.g. Dicksonia species); others by air-lay- (q.v.).
18°C/64°F, high humidity with fre- ering (e.g. Davallia species) and by stem
quent damping down in the summer propagation (e.g. Lycopodium species). fernery a place devoted to the culti-
months, indirect sunlight from mid- Most ferns, however, are propagated vation of ferns. It may be a glasshouse,
spring to mid-autumn, and direct sun- by division or from spores. Division of fern-case or, as featured in Victorian
light at other times. Warm-temperate plants should take place in spring. gardens, an outdoor area where ferns
ferns should be grown indoors or in the Ensure that basal roots are included, are placed among rocks, tree stumps
glasshouse, with a minimum tempera- shallowly potted and kept in warm, and roots.
ture of 13°C/55°F, medium humidity moist conditions. Reproduction by
and bright filtered sunlight. Cool spores entails a cycle in which two gen- fern-leaf a descriptive term for the
temperates should be grown in cool erations (sporophyte and gametophyte) narrow and elongated leaves of toma-
greenhouses (minimum temperature lead an independent existence, each toes infected with tobacco or cucumber
7°C/45°F), indoors or in a sunless requiring different cultural conditions. mosaic viruses.
position outdoors, with medium The mature fern plant (sporophyte)
humidity. Alpine, non-hardy ferns develops specialized spore-producing Ferocactus (from Latin ferox, fierce,
require cold, frost-free greenhouse con- structures on the underside of its and Cactus). Cactaceae. SW US,
ditions: damp down and ventilate when leaves. Spores germinate under damp Mexico. BARREL CACTUS. 23 species,
the temperature exceeds 20°C/68°F, shady conditions to produce a flattened large cacti with simple or clustered,
and shade and water plentifully in plate of cells called a prothallus (game- squat and rounded to barrel-shaped or
summer. Moderate watering and fre- tophyte), on the underside of which cylindric stems covered in ribs and
quent misting are essential if grown male and female structures arise to fierce spines. The flowers are bell- to
indoors. In centrally heated rooms, facilitate fertilization. Cross-fertilization funnel-shaped. Provide a minimum
tropical and subtropical species are the of these organs results in the develop- temperature of 2–5°C/36–40°F. Grow
best choice. For a cool room, choose ment of new sporophytes – the ‘ferns’ in a gritty, slightly acidic to neutral
cool temperate types, mist occasionally we know and grow. medium in full sun with low humidity.
and water moderately in summer and Spores of temperate and hardy ferns Keep dry from mid-autumn until early
sparingly in winter. Ferns are well are generally long-lasting and those of spring, except for light misting on
adapted to thrive indoors in low light tropical habitats short-lived. Successful warm days in late winter. Propagate by 307
levels placed away from draughts. raising from spores requires the careful seed. F.chrysacanthus (NW Mexico; stem
Ferocactus
globose to shortly cylindric, to 100 x ferrous sulphate a constituent of fertilizer correctly, any material that
30cm (39 x 12in), spines to 5cm (2in), lawn sand and other moss-killer prod- provides plant nutrients in relatively
yellow or red, flattened and twisted; ucts. It is sometimes recommended as a concentrated form, as opposed to bulky
flowers yellow to orange with red- corrective treatment for iron deficiency manure, although the terms fertilizer
tinted midveins to tepals); F.cylindraceus in plants. and manure are often used loosely and
(syn. F.acanthodes of gardens; NW interchangeably. Fertilizers can be of
Mexico, SW US; stem to 3m (10ft) x organic or inorganic origin, produced
50cm (20in), cylindric or barrel-shaped, naturally or synthetically, and may be
spines 7–17cm (23/4–61/2in) long, red, formulated as powder, granules, or
orange or yellow, sometimes hooked; liquid. The concentration of nutrients
F flowers tinged green yellow or red);
F.hamatacanthus (syn. Hamatocactus hamat-
is stated on containers as a percentage;
for compounded products containing
acanthus; N Mexico, SW US; stems to the three primary nutrients, this will be
60 x 30cm (24 x 12in), hemispheric to expressed in code form, thus 7–7–10
cylindric, spines to 8cm (3in), some indicates 7% nitrogen, 7% phosphate
hooked; flowers to 10cm (4in), yellow); and 10% potassium. The higher the
F.latispinus (C & S Mexico; stems 10–40 percentage, the greater the concentra-
(4–16in) x 16–40cm (6–16in), squatly tion of nutrient per unit of weight;
globose or flattened; spines flattened; see compound fertilizer; slow-release; straight
flowers purple-pink or yellow); F.wis- fertilizer.
lizeni (SW US, NW Mexico; stem
1.6–3m (51/2–10ft) x 45–80cm (18–32in), Ferula (Latin name for fennel).
globose to barrel-shaped or cylindric, Umbelliferae. Mediterranean to C
tapering above, spines to 10cm (4in), Asia. GIANT FENNEL. 172 species, robust
brown to grey, the lowermost usually perennial herbs arising from a thick
flattened and hooked; flowers to yellow, rootstock. The leaves are finely divided
orange or red). into very narrow segments. Small,
yellow or yellow-white flowers are car-
Ferraria (for Giovanni Battista Fer- Digitalis ferruginea ried in large, compound umbels in late
rari (1584–1655), Italian botanist). Iri- The specific epithet for this perennial or spring and summer. Suitable for the
daceae. Tropical and South Africa. 10 biennial, rosette-forming foxglove describes large herbaceous and mixed border, or
species, small, cormous perennial herbs the rusty, or ferruginous, hue of its flowers. for waterside plantings and hardy to at
with sword-shaped leaves. Produced in least –5°C/23°F. Grow in moist, deep
spring and summer, the flowers are ferruginous brown-red, rust- and fertile soils in sun. They do not
short-lived, often malodorous and com- coloured. transplant well and should be given
posed of six, radiating and ovate to permanent positions when young.
lanceolate segments. Hardy to about fertile (1) producing viable seed; Mulch thickly in winter. Propagate by
–5°C/23°F. Plant 15cm (6in) deep in a used of anthers containing functional fresh seed in late summer, or by careful
warm, sunny and sheltered site with a pollen, of flowers with active pistils, of division. This is not the edible fennel,
protective mulch of bracken litter in fruit bearing seeds and of spore-bear- for which see Foeniculum. F.communis
winter. Where grown under glass they ing fern fronds; (2) used to describe a (GIANT FENNEL; Mediterranean; 2–3m
are best planted directly into the green- flower-bearing shoot. (61/2–10ft) tall; leaves mid-green with
house border, or else in deep pots. thread-like segments; flowers yellow;
Grow in direct sunlight in a well- fertility (1) of soil; its suitability to giant, bronze- and purple-leaved forms
drained potting mix with additional support good plant growth. Soil are sometimes grown).
sharp sand; maintain a minimum tem- fertility is influenced by drainage, phys-
perature of 10°C/50°F in spring and ical structure and the presence of festooning the bending of shoots or
summer. Reduce watering after flower- organic matter, lime and nutrients; (2) branches of fruit trees into a more hor-
ing until leaves wither; keep completely of plants; the capacity to produce izontal position by means of weights or
dry and frost-free when dormant. viable seeds, in which an important ties; it is also practised on some orna-
Propagate by seed sown in late summer factor is self- or cross-compatibility of mentals. Festooning is done to control
or autumn, or by offsets in autumn. pollen. vigour or stimulate flowering, and is
F.crispa (syn. F.undulata; South Africa; to employed especially in the arcure form
45cm (18in); flowers to 5cm (2in) fertilization (1) the union of male of training.
diam., deep, velvety chestnut with and female sexual cells (gametes),
cream to white markings at centre, resulting in a unicellular zygote from Festuca (from Latin festuca, stalk or
spotted and lined in a paler shade, or which an embryo develops; see cross- stem; in Pliny the wild oat growing
308 yellow to tan spotted and lined dark fertilization, pollination, self-fertilization; among barley). Gramineae. Cos-
maroon, margins wavy to crisped). (2) (in the US) the use of fertilizers. mopolitan (mainly cold and temperate
Ficus
regions). FESCUE. Some 300 species, encloses the new growth in a rolled, (NARROW-LEAF FIG; SE Asia; evergreen
rhizomatous or tufted perennial grasses pointed tube. This falls away as the shrub or tree to 20m (66ft), branches
up to 2m (61/2ft), usually very much leaves emerge, leaving a ring-like scar. somewhat weeping; leaves to 20cm
shorter, with flat, folded or involute The minute flowers are embedded on (8in), pendulous, narrowly lanceolate,
leaves. The species described below are the inner surface of a fleshy receptacle tip finely pointed, tough; the cultivar
ornamental, valued for the attractive, (the ‘fig’, or syconium). This may be usually grown is ‘Amstelveen’ with
often brilliant blue-greens of the low, large or small, rounded, pear-shaped or narrow, glossy dark green leaves hang-
hair-like foliage tussocks. Most are tol- oblong, but is usually – if tautologously ing dagger-like); F.carica (BROWN
erant of cold to at least –15°C/5°F, – ‘fig-shaped’. Pollination is effected by TURKEY FIG, COMMON FIG; Cyprus,
although many do not tolerate heavy various genera of wasps, which are Turkey, Middle East, W Asia; decidu-
snow cover or prolonged winter wet.
Plant in light, well-drained soil in full
specially adapted to enter the syconium
through the tight aperture at its apex
ous shrub or tree to 10m (33ft); leaves
to 30cm (12in) with three to five broad
F
sun. Clip over in spring to encourage and lay their eggs within. lobes, coarsely textured and somewhat
dense fresh foliage; divide and replant With the exception of F.carica, the downy; fruit to 5cm (2in) diam., dull
older plants. Propagate by division or following species require a minimum green to brown or deep, glaucous
seed, although species hybridize readily temperature of 10°C/50°F, bright, maroon, edible; for cultivars see FIG
and may not come true from seed. indirect light and medium to high below); F.deltoidea (MISTLETOE FIG; SE
F.eskia (Europe; densely tufted, form- humidity. Some, however, survive in Asia; evergreen shrub or small tree to
ing a low tussock or thatch of very less than ideal conditions and show 7m (23ft); leaves to 8cm (3in), broadly
slender dark green leaves to 8cm (3in) remarkable tolerance of drought, dry spathulate to deltoid, apex rounded,
long); F.glauca (BLUE FESCUE, GREY air and harsh light, especially when base cuneate, tough, olive to dark
FESCUE; Europe; densely tufted, form- pressed into service as houseplants and green, dull or somewhat glossy; fruits
ing a tussock, cushion or mop of very staples of the interior landscaper’s art; small, inedible, abundant even on
slender leaves to 12cm (43/4in) long; most notable among these are F.benjam- young plants); F.elastica (RUBBER PLANT,
these are typically glaucous blue-green; ina, F.binnendykii ‘Amstelveen’, F.deltoidea, INDIA RUBBER TREE; evergreen tree to
a varied and confused group with the universal rubber plant, F.elastica, 60m (200ft) with many buttresses and
many cultivars, some of which doubt- and F.lyrata. The climbing species listed aerial roots, usually seen as a smaller,
less belong to other species, for exam- below make excellent houseplants sparsely unbranched shrub; stipules
ple, F.cinerea, F.ovina, its blue-grey when young and still creeping – small large, dull coral pink to scarlet; leaves
subspecies coxii, and F.rubra – they specimens of F.pumila are very com- to 40cm (16in), oblong to elliptic, tip
range in habit from relatively tall, loose monly used to cascade over the rims of acuminate or apiculate, tough, some-
and spilling to dense and compact, and mixed planters. Plant in a fertile, what rigid, glossy dark green with a
in colour from deep green to bronze- porous, soil-free medium. Water, prominent, pale or red midrib; a very
red-tinted, sea green, and blue-green to syringe and feed generously during popular houseplant, it includes tall,
silver-grey). summer or when temperatures are dwarf, rarely branched and bushy
high. At other times, keep just moist clones with leaves ranging from small
fibrillate finely striated or fibrous. and protect from draughts. Propagate and broad to long and narrow, some
by stem cuttings, air-layering, or, for variegated white, grey or creamy
fibrillose with thread-like fibres or climbing species, by detaching rooted yellow or flushed wine red); F.lyrata
scales. lengths of stem. For cultivation of (FIDDLE-LEAF FIG; Tropical Africa; ever-
F.carica see FIG below. green tree to 12m (40ft); leaves to 50cm
fibrous (1) of a thread-like, woody F.benghalensis (BANYAN TREE; S Asia; (20in), obovate to lyrate or pandurate,
texture; (2) used of plant roots pro- evergreen tree to 30m (100ft), ulti- apex rounded, very tough but flexible,
duced as a mass of fine growth, in con- mately with many stem buttresses and glossy mid-green with corrugated
trast to fewer coarse or fleshy roots; (3) massive aerial roots; leaves to 25cm upper surface); F.macrophylla (MORETON
used of loam with a high content of (10in), broadly ovate, base rounded to BAY FIG, AUSTRALIAN BANYAN; Australia;
fibre derived from dead grass roots and cordate, apex blunt or briefly tapered, evergreen tree to 55m (180ft), some-
rotted turf. leathery, mid to dark green; ‘Krishnae’: times developing massive buttresses
leaves cup-like with inrolled, fused and aerial roots; leaves to 25cm (10in),
Ficus (Latin name for the edible fig). margins); F.benjamina (WEEPING FIG; S oblong to elliptic or ovate, tough, glossy
Moraceae. Tropics and subtropics. Asia to Australia and Pacific; graceful dark green above, paler beneath; young
FIG. About 800 species, deciduous or evergreen shrub or tree to 30m (100ft), plants superficially similar to F.elastica
evergreen trees, shrubs and woody branches weeping; leaves to 13cm (5in), but with leaves less leathery); F.micro-
root-climbing vines (those listed below ovate-lanceolate, cuspidate, thinly carpa (syn. F.retusa of gardens, F.nitida of
are usually evergreen in cultivation, leathery, dark green; includes dwarf, gardens; INDIAN LAUREL, CURTAIN FIG,
except F.carica). Their growth habits strongly weeping and bushy clones with GLOSSY-LEAF FIG; E Asia to Australia
and foliage vary enormously from foliage ranging from large and long to and Pacific; evergreen tree to 30m
species to species, although all show the short and tufted, some variegated (100ft), ultimately producing many but- 309
characteristic protective stipule which white, cream, grey or gold); F.binnendykii tresses and festoons of aerial roots;
Ficus
leaves to 12cm (43/4in), elliptic to obo- psenes) in the process known as caprifi-
vate, tough, glossy dark green; includes cation. Modern cultivars are self-fertile.
var. crassifolia with broad, thickly tex- In warm climates, goblet-shaped
tured leaves, and dwarf clones with bushes are successful, spaced
variegated leaves); F.pumila (CREEPING 6–9m (20–29ft) apart with five or
FIG, CLIMBING FIG; E Asia; evergreen or six branches quite severely
semi-deciduous creeping or climbing pruned and thinned. In
shrub with matted, slender cooler climates, such as the
branches clinging by dense, short UK, trees are best planted against a
aerial roots; leaves 1–5cm (1/2–2in), south-facing wall as fan-trained speci-
F broadly oblong to elliptic or
ovate, thinly leathery with a
mens: wall protection aids fruit ripen-
ing, shields the plant from rain and
puckered, papery texture, dark provides some safeguard against
green to bright mid-green; a severe winter weather. Roots should
very popular pot plant with numer- be restricted by constructing a sealed
ous cultivars, the leaves ranging from brick-, concrete block- or slab-
very small and rounded to broadly lined bed, 75cm (30in) long and
toothed or strongly wavy, some var- 60cm (24in) wide and deep,
iegated white or gold); F.religiosa with the soil base covered by a
(SACRED FIG; BO TREE, PEEPUL; fast- current 30cm (12in) layer of rubble.
year’s fruit
growing, deciduous or semi-deciduous (may not Propagate from suckers, by
tree to 10m (33ft), sometimes produc- previous year’s ripen in cool cuttings or layering. One- or two-year-
ing buttresses and aerial roots; leaves fruit, now ripening climates) old specimens are best planted in
to 18cm (7in), broadly triangular with Stages in fig fruit development March or April, when there is no
a finely tapering tip, thinly leathery, longer a risk of severe frost; position
rather papery, dull to deep green); fig is believed to originate in the Tajik 22cm (9in) from the wall with 3.6m
F.rubiginosa (RUSTY FIG; Australia; ever- mountains of Transcaucasia, but has (12ft) between plants. Train the main
green tree to 12m (40ft); leaves to 18cm long been native to southwest Asia and ribs so that they are no less than 30cm
(7in), oblong to elliptic or ovate, tough, the eastern Mediterranean, growing (12in) apart.
flushed red at first and with rusty hairs wild in southern Europe and northern Figs can also be grown successfully
beneath, later dark green and smooth; Africa. Its cultivation is recorded from in 25–37cm (10–141/2in) pots, provided
includes cultivars with variegated 2700 BC. It is valued for its nutritious the base is well-crocked and firmly
leaves); F.sagittata (E Asia; similar in fruits, which can be dried and stored, filled with a soil-based medium. Small
habit to F.pumila, but more robust and and for its use as a shade tree. bushy trees up to 1.3m (41/4ft) should be
with larger, cordate to sagittate leaves, The fig was introduced into Britain trained and repotted every second year
the surface not puckered; includes var- by the Romans but there is little evi- when dormant, with the old compost
iegated clones); F.sarmentosa (E Asia; dif- dence of its later cultivation until the carefully replaced with a fertile mix.
fers from F.pumila in its larger leaves, 16th century. In the 18th century new Renew the surface compost in the
lobed in juvenile plants, lanceolate in cultivars were introduced from Europe intervening year, and apply high-potash
adults; includes variegated cultivars). including ‘Brown Naples’, later known liquid feed every ten days during
as ‘Brown Turkey’ and still the most summer.
field capacity the maximum widely grown cultivar in the UK. By In cooler climates, only one harvest
amount of water a freely drained soil the late 18th century 75 cultivars were is possible per season outdoors; the
will hold before it is lost to drainage by grown by the Horticultural Society at crop arises from small pea-sized fruitlets
the force of gravity. Chiswick, the fruit being found to formed towards the end of short later-
thrive against relatively warm walls and als from late summer. Frost damage to
field heat heat held by a crop at the in glasshouses, some with heat. Fig cul- young fruitlets can be prevented by
time of harvest. tivation increased progressively into the covering the plants with bracken or
20th century but declined with the some other insulating material after
field-immune used of plants that great country estates after World War leaf fall, or by moving pot-grown figs
are not infected by a pathogen under II. Today the fig is grown widely in under glass. Fruits ripen in late summer
normal growing conditions despite commercial plantings in Calfornia, or early autumn; those fruitlets formed
being experimentally susceptible. Turkey, southern Europe and northern early on new shoots of the current year
Africa, principally for its dried fruit. will not ripen but turn yellow, and
fig (Ficus carica) a deciduous bush or The ancient cultivar ‘Smyrna’ is most should be removed. Regular light prun-
tree, with large, lobed leaves, grown famous because of its high quality and ing and thinning is necessary to con-
for its small, rounded, green, maroon suitability for drying; in common with tain growth. In late spring cut out old
310 or brown coloured fruits. One of the older selections, it relies on cross-polli- damaged wood and any shoots that do
oldest fruits known in cultivation, the nation by the small fig wasp (Blastophaga not lie on the same plane as the wall; a
firmer
proportion of the remainder should be they are suitable for streamside and It has been known in North America
cut back near to the main branch to bog garden plantings, for the herba- since 1780, where it has occasionally
stimulate new growth. Encourage suit- ceous and mixed border, and for moist, also infected other rosaceous plants,
able short growths from around mid- cool woodland or other naturalistic including apricot, cherry, Kerria, plum
summer by pinching shoots at the plantings. Plant on well-drained but and rose. Identified in New Zealand in
fourth or fifth leaf no later than late moisture-retentive soils in sun or semi- 1920 and in England 1956–57, it has
June. Water in dry summers, particu- shade. With variegated cultivars, spread to other parts of western
larly pot- or bed-grown trees, but not removal of young flower shoots will Europe, the eastern Mediterranean
near ripening time. Fruit thinning may result in successive flushes of fresh, and the Far East.
be necessary in warm climates where colourful foliage. Propagate by division Fireblight was the first plant disease
a crop may be produced from both
overwintered fruits and those initiated
in autumn or winter, or by seed in
autumn or spring.
shown to be caused by a bacterium, and
the name refers to the fact that the flow-
F
early in the current year. Every other F.camtschatica (Kamchatka, Korea, ers, leaves and twigs are blackened as if
fruit may be removed at swelling for Japan; to 3m (10ft) tall, hairy; flowers burnt by fire. It overwinters in cankers,
improved quality. Fruits are best picked white to pale pink); F.palmata (Siberia to from which it exudes as a slime at about
warm, fully ripe and hanging down- China and Japan; to 1m (31/4ft) tall; flow- the same time as the flowers open in
ward, particularly where showing a ers white with red anthers; includes cul- spring. The bacteria are disseminated by
longitudinal split and a drop of nectar tivars with pure white, pink, red and wind, rain or insects and infect the
at the eye. Netting to protect against purple-red flowers); F.purpurea (Japan; to shoots of blossoms (especially in pears),
birds is usually necessary. 1.3m (41/4ft) tall, more or less glabrous from where they spread down the
Possible problems: scale insects; grey and purple-tinted; flowers purple-red branches. In pears, the disease can
mould, virus. or pink; includes cultivars with white spread rapidly and kill the trees, but in
flowers and with strongly purple-tinted apple and other hosts the main branches
filament (1) a stalk bearing an anther foliage); F.rubra (QUEEN OF THE PRAIRIE; and trunk are not usually affected. In
at its tip, the two forming a stamen; (2) US; to 2.5m (8ft) tall; flowers deep gardens and orchards, hawthorn hedges
a thread-like or filiform organ, hair or peach to rose); F.ulmaria (MEADOWSWEET, are often a source of infection.
appendage. QUEEN OF THE MEADOWS; Europe, W Badly affected trees must be removed
Asia; 1–2m (31/4–61/2ft) tall, more or less completely; in other cases, branches may
filamentous composed of or bear- hairy; flowers creamy white in frothy be cut back to a point at least 60cm
ing filaments. corymbs; includes double- and pink- (24in) below where there is any sign of
flowered cultivars and plants with leaves the disease beneath the bark. Pruning
filbert see hazelnut. flushed gold or consistently striped or tools should be immersed in strong disin-
zoned creamy-yellow – ‘Aurea’ is one fectant after each cut, and the severed
filial generation a cross-bred gen- of the finest pure gold foliage plants); surfaces treated with a wound sealant
eration; hybrid offspring, that of the F.vulgaris (DROPWORT; Europe, N & C and all infected tissues burnt. The dis-
first crossing being denoted by the Asia; to 80cm (32in) tall; flowers white, ease is no longer subject to statutory
symbol F1, the second by F2. sometimes tinted red or purple; includes control in the UK, but some restrictions
cultivars with large, double and pale remain on the movement of susceptible
filiform of leaves, branches etc., pink flowers). plants within the nursery trade.
filament-like, i.e. long and very slender,
rounded in cross-section. fillis a strong soft string of various ply,
usually coloured brown or green. It is
Filipendula (from Latin filum, specially made for tying plants.
thread, and pendulus, drooping, refer-
ring to the root tubers of some species, fimbriate bordered with a fringe of
which hang together with threads. slender outgrowths, usually derived
Rosaceae. Northern temperate regions. from the lamina rather than attached
MEADOWSWEET; DROPWORT. 10 species, as hairs.
rhizomatous perennial herbs, some-
times tuberous. The leaves are basal or fir a common name applied to trees of
alternate on erect stems and pinnate, the genus Abies, but also used of the
with pairs of large leaflets alternating genera Pseudotsuga and Cunninghamia.
with smaller ones. The terminal leaflet Using a firmer
is largest and coarsely toothed to fireblight (Erwinia amylovora) a bacter- A circular-shaped flat firmer being used to
palmately cut. White or pink and often ial disease principally affecting pome gently compress the surface of compost prior
with contrasting stamens, the small, fruits in the family Rosaceae, including to seed sowing.
5-petalled flowers are borne in great apple, Amelanchier, Chaenomeles,
abundance in frothy, cymose corymbs Cotoneaster, hawthorn, loquat, Photinia, firmer an oblong or round imple- 311
in spring and summer. Fully hardy, Pyracantha, Sorbus and especially pear. ment, usually consisting of a flat piece
firmer
of wood with an additional smaller home and glasshouse (minimum tem- flaked describing bicoloured flowers,
piece fixed to one surface as a handle; perature 15°C/59°F). Plant in shallow especially carnations and tulips, where
used for levelling and firming compost pots or pans containing a porous, soil- one colour overlies a ground colour in
in a seed box or pot. less mix. Water and feed freely during large splashes.
warm weather; keep barely moist at
Firmiana (for Karl Josef von Fir- other times. Position in light shade, flamed describing flowers, especially
mian (d.1782), governor of Lombardy with moderate to high humidity and tulips, where in the centre of each
and patron of the Padua botanic protection from draughts. The flower petal there is a band of solid colour in
garden). Sterculiaceae. E Asia, 1 spikes are often pinched out to encour- combination with fine feathering.
species E Africa. 9 species, trees or age bushy and luxuriant growth. Prop-
F shrubs with entire or palmately lobed
leaves. The flowers are borne in axil-
agate by stem cuttings or spontaneous
layers. F.albivenis (Argyroneura Group:
flame gun a large, hand-held or
wheel-mounted blow-torch, used prin-
lary and terminal panicles or racemes. syn. F.argyroneura, SILVER NET-LEAF, cipally to destroy surface weeds. It pro-
Usually yellow, they lack petals but SILVER THREADS, with silver-white- duces a long flame with intense local
consist of a showy, bell-shaped and 5- veined, emerald green leaves; ‘Pearcei’: heat from the ignition of paraffin
lobed calyx with a prominent, stamen SNAKESKIN PLANT, with larger and thin- vaporized under pressure.
bearing pistil. Suitable for outdoor cul- ner-textured leaves in sage green, net-
tivation in sheltered gardens where veined carmine; Verschaffeltii Group; flat a shallow tray with open-jointed
temperatures seldom fall below freez- syn. F.verschaffeltii MOSAIC PLANT; to base strips, often used for plant raising.
ing. Otherwise, grow in the cool 8cm (3in); leaves 5–10cm (2–4in), soft- See seed box, seed tray.
glasshouse in full light or part-shade. textured and finely downy, olive green
Water plentifully when in growth. to purple-bronze with an intricate flatworms (Platyhelminthes: Turbellaria)
Maintain good ventilation, with a network of ruby to scarlet veins). Many flatworms live in ponds, lakes
winter minimum temperature of and waterways where they prey on
2–5°C/36–41°F. Prune only when nec- Fitzroya (for Robert FitzRoy RN small animals or feed on detritus. Some
essary to confine to allotted space. (1809–65), Captain of HMS Beagle). live on land, especially in tropical and
Propagate by seed sown under glass as Cupressaceae. C Chile, N Patagonia. subtropical areas. They have flat,
soon as it ripens. F.simplex (syn. F.platani- 1 species, F.cupressoides (syn. F.patagonica), ribbon-like unsegmented bodies and
folia, Sterculia platanifolia; CHINESE PARA- PATAGONIAN CYPRESS, an evergreen, some species are up to 20cm (8in) long
SOL TREE, CHINESE BOTTLETREE, coniferous tree to 45m (150ft) or when extended. The New Zealand flat-
JAPANESE VARNISH TREE, PHOENIX shrubby at altitude in the wild. The worm (Artioposthia triangulata) and the
TREE; E Asia; deciduous tree to 20m thick trunk is clothed with fissured and Australian flatworm (Australasion san-
(66ft); leaves 30–40cm (12–16in) across, peeling, rusty red bark. Slender and guinea) have become established in the
with 3–7 deep lobes, deep green; flow- pendulous, the branchlets bear overlap- UK and Ireland. Both feed on earth-
ers to 4cm (11/2in) across, lemon yellow; ping leaves, each to 0.5cm (1/4in) long, worms and in some areas they have
‘Variegata’: leaves white-mottled). oblong and dark green with a paler reduced earthworms to a very low
midrib. An enormous and very long- level. They reproduce by laying egg
fish manure, fish meal, fish lived but slow-growing tree in the hills capsules that contain 6–10 eggs. There
guano an organic compound fertilizer of Chile and Argentina. It favours are no suitable means of controlling
made by drying and pulverizing fish mild, damp maritime climates, growing flatworms.
waste. It contains 7–10% nitrogen, well on the Pacific coast of North
5–15% phosphate, and 2–3% potash. America from central California to
Vancouver. Its needs are similar to
fistulose, fistular hollow and those of Abies, although it requires
cylindrical like a pipe. extra shelter, humidity and a moist,
acid soil. Propagate by seed sown in a
Fittonia (for Elizabeth and Sarah cold frame or by cuttings.
May Fitton, authors of Conversations on
Botany (1823)). Acanthaceae. S Amer- flabellate, flabelliform fan-
Flea beetle
ica. 2 species, downy evergreen peren- shaped, with a wedge-shaped outline
nial herbs with low or creeping and and sometimes conspicuously pleated flea beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomeli-
rooting stems. The leaves are oblong to or nerved. dae) small beetles, up to about 3mm
broadly and bluntly elliptic, soft- (1/8in) long and mostly black, although
textured and overlaid with a network flag, flagstone a flat slab of stone some species have a broad yellow stripe
of metallic or brightly coloured veins. used for paving. Various simulated on their wing cases. The common
Small, white and two-lipped, the tubu- products are available in concrete. name refers to their ability to jump
lar flowers are carried in slender spikes when disturbed. Five species of Phyl-
312 clothed with overlapping, green bracts. flagellate with whip-like runners; lotreta are of most concern in Europe:
Striking, small foliage plants for the sarmentose. the SMALL STRIPED FLEA BEETLE (P.undu-
floral diagram
lata), the LARGE STRIPED FLEA BEETLE floating mulch a temporary ground
(P.nemorum), and the TURNIP FLEA BEE- or crop covering made of plastic fabric,
TLES (P.atra, P.cruciferae and P.nigripes). described as ‘floating’ on account of its
Other Phyllotreta species occur in North loose but secure fitting. It is used to
America and their habits are similar. advance soil temperature, extend the
Adults overwinter in such places as season of vegetable crops and, in some
hedge bottoms, under loose bark, or in cases, provide protection against frost
grass tussocks; on emergence in spring, and insects. The most usual kinds are
they are attracted to brassicas and related perforated polythene sheet film, close-
plants. Eggs are deposited on or near the woven net and fleecy film.
plants and the resulting larvae feed on
the roots or (in the case of P.nemorum) floccose possessing dense, woolly F
tunnel the leaves, but consequent injury hairs that fall away easily in tufts.
is seldom serious. The adult beetles
attack emerging seedlings, biting small flocculation the process whereby
holes in leaves and stems causing severe fine soil particles join together into
damage, especially in dry seasons when Fleecy film larger aggregates as a result of the
seedling establishment is slow. Crucifer- Carefully anchored horticultural fleece can be neutralizing of clay colloids. Lime,
ous plants are particularly susceptible; used to advance seed sown crops and to give gypsum, humus and other soil condi-
other plants attacked by other species of protection from wind and certain pest attack. tioners are used for the flocculation of
flea beetle include beet, anemones, fuch- clay soils to improve structure and,
sias, Solanum spp., godetias, and irises. penetrate and is best laid over shallow hence, drainage, aeration and root
Damage may be reduced by keeping V-shaped drills of sown crops such as penetration.
seedlings well-watered to hasten growth carrot, or over cell-raised plants, such
and by clearing away plant debris from as lettuce, after they have been set out. flocculent, flocculose slightly
beneath hedge bottoms to reduce adult Cover for no more than four weeks in floccose, woolly.
hibernation sites. Seed dressings and the spring, longer in autumn. Where
recommended contact insecticides are carefully anchored, the film provides a flood bench a level, water-tight
effective as control measures, subject to barrier against aphids, root flies, bulb bench which is periodically flooded
local pesticide approvals. flies, moths and butterflies. Fleecy film and then pumped dry. It is one form of
Another flea beetle, the CABBAGE can also be used for greenhouse insula- irrigation for pot plants.
STEM BEETLE (Psylliodes chrysocephala), tion and shading.
occurs in Europe and has been recorded floral diagram a diagram providing
in Canada. The adults are metallic flexible paving paving slabs bedded a condensed and simplified view of the
green or blue and up to 5mm (1/4in) long close together on sand, without mortar. flower from above, with the parts of
with reddish legs. The larvae tunnel the flower shown in one plane and
inside the stems and leaf veins of bras- flexuous of an axis, zig-zag, bending symbols representing each part. The
sica plants causing a growth check and or curving in alternate and opposite organs of a flower displayed in a floral
often death. The pest can be controlled directions. diagram (starting from the centre) are
with contact insecticide applied at setting the ovary, stamens, corolla and calyx,
out, subject to local pesticide approvals. flies one of the largest groups of with the bracts and bracteoles, if pre-
In North America, the GRAPE FLEA insects, classified in the order Diptera. sent, shown beyond, in relation to their
BEETLE (Altica chalybea), with metallic They are widely distributed and position beside the flower. The ovary in
blue-green adults up to 5mm (1/4in) include many serious pests of culti- cross-section shows the arrangement of
long, attacks the buds and unfolding vated plants. True flies are easily recog- carpels, and the side on which the
leaves of grape; the larvae skeletonize nised as the adult insects have only one anthers open to release pollen is indi-
the leaves. Other plants subject to pair of wings, the hind pair being cated. An absent organ, in terms of
attack include Virginia creeper, plum, modified into club-like structures used expected symmetry, is indicated by a
apple, pear, quince, beech and elm. as sensory and balancing organs. The dot or an asterisk. If one part is
Infestation can be controlled with larval stages are legless maggots which attached to another, lines are drawn
appropriate contact insecticides, subject often have no obvious head or other between them, and the separation or
to local pesticide approvals. external features. Damage to plants is linkage of petals and sepals is also
usually caused by the larvae which in made clear.
fleecy film a soft fibrous material of most species are concealed in the soil, To supplement a diagram and sec-
spun plastic, used to cover the soil sur- in galls or other plant tissue. See bean tion a floral formula can be used, in
face to advance warming, or placed seed fly; bulb flies; cabbage-root fly; carrot fly; which K = calyx, C = corolla, A =
over plants to extend their season of celery fly; chrysanthemum stool miner; frit fly; androecium, G = gynoecium. To these
maturing and to provide frost protec- fruit flies; fungus gnat; gall midge; hoverfly; symbols are appended figures showing 313
tion. The film allows air and rain to leaf miners; leatherjacket; onion fly; sawfly. the numbers of each part, brackets
floral diagram
around a number showing that the flower a structure bearing one or fly speck a superficial growth of the
parts are united. Where the number more pistils or stamens, or both, usu- fungus Schizothyrium pomi on apple,
of a part is large and indefinite, the ally with some floral envelope. If sur- citrus, pear, plum and possibly other
symbol ∞ is used; if a part is absent, a rounded by a perianth of calyx and fruits. It is often associated with sooty
zero (0). Where perianth whorls are corolla, it is termed perfect. blotch and occurs as groups of tiny,
linked, a bridging line or square brack- black, circular dots, the individual
ets indicate this. A bar above or below flower bud see fruit bud. dots being just 0.2–0.4mm (1/128–1/64in)
the number for the gynoecium indi- in diameter. No damage is caused.
cates an inferior or superior ovary, a flower gatherer a pair of secateurs
feature visible in the flower section. It or scissors specially designed to hold a Fockea (for Gustav Woldemar Focke
F should be noted that the floral diagram
does not indicate the overall shape of
flower stem as it is cut. (early 19th century), German physician
and plant physiologist). Asclepiadaceae.
the flower. This can be rectified by fluid drilling, fluid sowing the Southern Africa (Angola to the
accompanying it with a realistic half- process of sowing pre-germinated seeds Karroo). 10 species, perennial succu-
flower section which at once indicates mixed with a specially prepared gelati- lent shrubs, developing a massive,
its actual form. nous carrier. It was developed to woody, turnip-like caudex crowned
advance the establishment of plants in with slender, twining to sprawling
flore pleno (abbrev. fl.pl.) see double. instances where soil is too cold for branches. The leaves are oblong to
direct sowing, and also to economize ovate. To 4cm (11/2in) diameter, the
floret (1) a very small flower, generally on seed. starfish-like flowers are borne singly or
part of a congested inflorescence; (2) in In fluid drilling, seeds are sown several together in leaf axils. Plant in
grasses, a collective term embracing under protection on damp absorbent deep pots or large pans containing a
various structures of the flower head. paper at a suitable temperature, and fast-draining, gritty, loam-based
when the roots are no more than 5mm medium. Maintain a minimum winter
floricane a biennial stem which fruits (1/4in) long the germinated seeds are temperature of 10°C/50°F in full sun
and flowers in its second year, as found mixed throughout the gel. The mixture with low humidity. Water and feed
in, for example, Rubus species. is transferred to a polythene bag; one generously during the spring and
corner of the bag is then cut off, and summer growing season, but ensure
floriferous bearing flowers freely. the gel mixture ‘piped’ along prepared that the plants are allowed to dry out
soil drills, which must be kept moist. between waterings. Keep dry from
florigen a hypothetical plant hor- mid-autumn to early spring except for
mone, responsible for initiating flush a surge in the production of occasional mistings or drenchings to
flowering. flowers, fruits, or fruiting bodies, espe- prevent withering and collapse of
cially used of roses and mushrooms. caudex. Propagate by seed sown under
florilegium a collection or selection glass or by stem cuttings in spring
of flowers; occasionally, also used of a fluted of a trunk with long, deep, (plants gained from cuttings seldom
book or selected list of plants. rounded grooves running vertically. develop the attractive caudex).
F LUID SOWING
1 Pregerminate the seed on

moist absorbent paper such as
kitchen roll. Place a sheet on the
2 Immediately the seeds show
signs of germination, very
carefully wash them off the
3 Mix up some wallpaper paste
(without fungicide) in a
container. Make about 250ml
4 Transfer the mixture to a
plastic bag, knot it firmly, and
snip off a corner. Use the bag to
base of a plastic container, wet it, paper. A plastic sieve and a slow- (8fl oz) of paste for 100 seeds. “pipe” an even line of paste and
314 and then spread on the seeds in a running stream of water risks the Tip the seeds in and stir until seeds into a prepared, wetted seed
single layer. least damage. they are evenly distributed. drill. Cover the mixture lightly.
foot rot
F.crispa (syn. F.capensis; to 4m specimens of a species, and pro- folly a garden structure designed to
(13ft); leaves to 3cm (11/4in), vides a means of increasing a catch the eye, but with no functional
finely hairy, oval with wavy- stock. This may be a natural purpose, often taking the form of a
margins; flowers grey-green, occurrence in the case of pyramid, pinnacle, tower or mock ruin.
blitched brown); F.edulis plants such as Tolmiea menziesii,
(differs from the last foliar Bryophyllum pinnatum and the Fontanesia (for R.L. Desfontaines
in its smooth, dark embryos ferns Asplenium bulbiferum (1750–1833), French botanist).
green leaves, which form and Cystopteris bulbifera. Oleaceae. Near East, China. 1 species,
around
lack wavy margins). margin The production of F.phillyreoides, a deciduous shrub to 3m
foliar embryos at specific (10ft). The leaves are 2–10cm (3/4–4in)
Foeniculum (the
Latin name for fennel).
locations on a leaf can
be stimulated in certain
long, ovate to lanceolate, glossy,
glabrous and serrulate to entire. In
F
Umbelliferae. Europe, plants. Sedums will pro- early summer, small, 4-petalled flowers
Mediterranean. duce small plantlets only are borne in dense axillary racemes
1 species, F.vulgare, at the point where the leaf or terminal panicles. It is fully hardy.
FENNEL, an aromatic, was detached from its parent Grow in a well-drained soil in sun
glaucescent perennial and these may be encouraged or partial shade. Propagate by semi-
or biennial herb to 2m to root by pressing the leaf base hardwood cuttings in late summer in
(61/2ft). The leaves are to single leaf lightly into the surface of a a cold frame, or by hardwood cuttings
50cm (20in) long, triangular sandy compost, which should be outside in autumn; sow seed in a cold
in outline, 3–4-pinnate, and kept dry. Tiarella species, Mitella frame in spring.
very finely cut, with thread-like Kalanchoe species and Cardamine trifoliata
daigremontiana
segments to 5cm (2in) long. produce plantlets at the junction Fontinalis (from Latin fontalis, mean-
Small, yellow flowers are borne in com- of the leaf petiole and leaf blade. In ing of or belonging to a spring or foun-
pound umbels in summer. The cultivar these species, fully expanded leaves are tain). Fontinalaceae. Cosmopolitan.
‘Purpureum’ (syn. ‘Purpurascens’) has removed, retaining about 20mm (3/4in) WATER MOSS. Some 55 species, aquatic
especially fine, purple-bronze-flushed of petiole, and inserted into a rooting mosses forming clumps of long and
leaves and is a beautiful foil for pastel compost with the leaves lying flat on slender, submerged stems covered in
flowers and silvery foliage in the herba- the surface; these are then placed small, dark green leaves. The following
ceous border. Hardy in zone 6. Grow in in a humid, shaded environment at species grows rooted to rocks and tree
a well-drained site in a warm sunny 20°C/68°F until plantlets develop. roots submerged in cold, fast-flowing
position. Propagate by seed, or by Kalanchoe blossfeldiana will produce rivers and streams, in ditches and
dividing established plants in the spring plantlets only around the indented ponds and on cliff faces in water seep-
as soon as fresh growth appears; seeds leaf-margin; suitable leaves may be age. It will grow as an oxygenator in
may be sown outside once the risk of removed, anchored on the surface ponds or cold-water aquaria, providing
frost has passed. See fennel. of a sandy medium and kept dry until useful cover for spawning fish and
plantlets have formed. Also known as acting as host to the small invertebrates
fogger, fogging nozzle a device for proliferation and vivipary. they feed upon. Grow in lime-free
producing very small droplets of water water in indirect light. Propagate by
or pesticide solution. foliar feeding the application of a division of large clumps in spring.
dilute solution of fertilizer to the leaves Take stems with part of the anchorage
fogging the application of a pesticide of plants; useful as an emergency treat- attached or tie gently to new anchor-
carried in droplets so fine that visibility ment for correcting deficient trace ele- age in the form of rough stone or
in an enclosed treated area is reduced. ments, and of value for supplementary brick. F.antipyretica (Northern Hemi-
The pesticide particles slowly settle, well feeding. The absorption of liquid fertil- sphere; stems to 80cm (32in), slender,
distributed mainly on the upper surfaces izer is greatest where leaf cuticles are mossy and feathery, dark emerald to
of leaves. Formulations are usually oil- thin, as on the undersides of leaves or olive green).
based and are applied with special where they are just expanding. Liquid
equipment to produce an aerosol. fertilizer should not be applied in bright foot rot a rot of the lower part of the
sun, because foliage may be scorched. stem-root axis. Where used generally to
foliaceous resembling a leaf, in describe a base rot disease symptom, it
appearance or texture. foliate bearing leaves. often overlaps with the terms collar rot,
damping-off and root rot. Foot rot is
foliage plant a plant grown predom- foliolate bearing leaflets. also used more specifically to refer to
inantly for the colour, markings, shape particular diseases, such as those
or texture of its leaves. follicle a dry, dehiscent, one- to caused by the soil-borne fungi Fusarium
many-seeded fruit, derived from a solani on peas and beans, Mycosphaerella
foliar embryo an embryonic plant single carpel and dehiscing by a single pinodes on peas and Phytophthora cryptogea 315
that arises on the leaves of mature suture along its ventral side. on tomatoes.
forcing
forcing the acceleration of vegetative raised from seed and especially suitable longer, without a handgrip; it is used
growth and especially flowering or for planting on a large scale or in diffi- for cultivating small areas.
fruiting, usually by temperature and cult sites. A three-year-old transplant (2) a point on a tree where two
light manipulation. Rhubarb, sea kale, decribed as 2+1 indicates two years in a branches of similar size meet.
chicory, daffodils and hyacinths are seed bed and one year in a nursery row.
commonly forced. Commercial forcing form, forma (abbrev. f.) an infraspe-
is carried out in specially designed fork (1) a hand implement comprising cific taxon, subordinate to subspecies
greenhouses or sheds, often with addi- a steel shaft with a head of three or and variety. The lowest rank in the tax-
tional bottom heat; but in the domestic four narrow prongs; the shaft is onomic hierarchy, forms are usually
garden it is usually improvised in attached to a handle usually made of distinguished only by minor character-
F greenhouses and frames or achieved
with the use of forcing pots.
wood. Handgrips may be D-, T- or Y-
shaped, or occasionally absent. A stan-
istics. These characteristics may be of
importance to the gardener, however,
dard digging fork has four tines about and include such features as habit and
Forestiera (for Charles le Forestier, 30cm (12in) long, which are round or leaf and flower colour, e.g. Hosta
French physician and naturalist). square in section, with the shaft crispula f. viridis.
Oleaceae. N & C America. 20 species, mounted on a handle about 60cm
usually deciduous trees or shrubs. The (24in) long; there are curved-tine and formaldehyde a chemical substance
leaves resemble those of Ligustrum. long-handled versions for various pur- (H-HCO) effective as a fungicide, for-
Small, cream or green-white flowers poses. A border or lady’s fork differs in merly widely used for sterilizing bulbs,
are borne on axillary clusters or in its shorter tines and narrower head. A soil, containers and tools, and for
racemes. They are followed by small, flat-tined, spading or potato fork has greenhouse hygiene. Formaldehyde
black, fleshy fruits. Hardy in climate broad flat tines, suitable for digging volatilizes rapidly and is toxic to plants
zone 6. Plant on a well-drained soil in heavy-textured soil. in active growth. It is a severe irritant
a sunny site. Propagate by half-ripe A dragfork is a long-handled fork to the eyes and nose. It is not available
cuttings in summer or by seed when without a handgrip, the tines bent at for use in gardens in the UK.
ripe in a cold frame. right angles to the shaft. Dragforks
F.acuminata (US; shrub or small tree come in various sizes and designs, and formal garden a garden of geomet-
to 2m (61/2ft) with smooth branches; are used as cultivating tools or for ric, usually symmetrical design, typi-
leaves 3–10cm (11/4–4in), ovate-oblong pulling garden refuse or manure. A cally incorporating architectural
to lanceolate, tip serrate; flowers green- hollow-tine fork has tubular tines, features, clipped trees and water.
white; fruit to 1.2cm (1/2in), purple); designed to remove cores of soil from
F.pubescens (SW US; shrub to 3m (10ft) lawns to aid drainage, aeration and top Forsythia (for William Forsyth
with somewhat armed branches; leaves dressing. A pitchfork has only two tines, (1737–1804), superintendent of the
to 5cm (2in), ovate to lanceolate, crenu- which are slightly curved upwards and Royal Gardens, Kensington). Oleaceae.
late; flowers yellow-white; fruit to fixed to a straight handle. It is suitable E Asia, C Europe. 6 species, deciduous
0.5cm (1/4in), purple, pruinose). for handling straw or very long cut shrubs with golden-green branches
grass. A hand-fork has three or four flat covered with lenticels. The leaves are
forest transplant a young tree, usu- tines about 10cm (4in) long on a simple or three-parted with entire to
ally of forestry or native species, that is handle about 12.5cm (5in) long or toothed margins. The short-stalked,
yellow flowers are borne before the
leaves, singly or in clusters and usually
F ORCING RHUBARB nodding; tubular to bell-shaped, they
consist of four, oblong lobes. Among
the most colourful and floriferous of
early spring-flowering shrubs, they are
fully hardy. They will tolerate part
shade but bloom more prolifically in
sun. Cut back after flowering to within
a few centimetres of the old wood.
Older plants may be rejuvenated by
thinning by one third to one half every
two to three years. The slender
branches of F.suspensa should be
allowed to develop in weeping profu-
1 Early, tender stems of
rhubarb are one of the
first crops of the year in the
2 Invert a light-proof
container over the crown.
These custom-made, lidded
3 The young blanched
stems and leaves of this
temporarily uncovered crown
sion, given some support but otherwise
unhindered. For hedging, choose vigor-
kitchen garden. Watch the terracotta forcers can be are a few weeks from maturity. ous, erect cultivars. Propagate by half-
316 crowns in late winter for expensive to buy – a small After pulling, a second ripe cuttings in summer in a case or
signs of growth. plastic bin works just as well. unforced crop may be taken. cold frame, or by hardwood cuttings
Francoa
outside in autumn. Susceptible to leaf each to 2.5cm (1in) long. Fully hardy have variegated cultivars. Fragaria ‘Pink
spot fungi, forsythia gall (which may and among the finest shrubs for Panda’ is a pleasing, pale-tomentose
disfigure but not damage) and bacterial autumn colour, they are fairly low- plant with large, candy pink flowers.
blight. growing and need a cool, moist, acid For F.indica, see Duchesnea indica. See
F. x intermedia (F.suspensa x F.viridissima; soil in sun. Otherwise, cultivation as for also strawberry.
garden origin; to 3m (10ft), erect to Hamamelis.
spreading; flowers in clusters, deep F.gardenii (syn. F.alnifolia, F.carolina Frailea (for Manuel Fraile, (b. 1850 at
yellow; includes ‘Arnold Giant’, with F.parvifolia; SE US; leaves to 6.5cm Salamanca Spain), curator of cacti at
large, nodding, golden flowers, ‘Beatrix (21/2in), toothed in upper half; flowers the US Department of Agriculture,
Farrand’, large, with deep gold flowers with white filaments to 2.5cm (1in) Washington DC). Cactaceae. E Bolivia,
with broad lobes, ‘Karl Sax’, vigorous
and free-flowering, with deep yellow
long; includes compact, blue-green-
leaved cultivars and forms with pink
S Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and N
Argentina. About 15 species, dwarf F
flowers marked orange in the throat flowers, possibly hybrids with the next cacti with tufted or solitary, squatly glo-
and foliage turning purple-red in species); F.major (F.monticola; Allegheny bose to cylindric stems, usually weakly
autumn, ‘Lynwood Variety’, free-flow- Mountains; leaves to 10cm (4in), more ribbed or tuberculate. Produced amid
ering, vigorous and erect, and the erect or less entire or sparsely toothed in wool and bristles, the yellow, shortly
and vigorous ‘Spectabilis’, with densely upper half; flowers with pink-tinged, funnelform flowers open only briefly, if
packed, deep yellow flowers with white filaments to 2cm (3/4in) long). at all. Provide a minimum temperature
4–5–6, twisted lobes); F.ovata (KOREAN of 10–15°C/50–59°F, full sun and low
FORSYTHIA; Korea; to 1m (31/4ft), foundation planting in garden humidity. Plant in an acidic medium,
domed, compact; flowers small, bright design, the basic structural planting of high in grit. Water very sparingly in
yellow, sparse, solitary or paired; trees and hedges. winter (to avoid shrivelling). Most
includes the hardy, erect and profusely species of Frailea can be raised to matu-
flowering ‘Ottawa’); F.suspensa (China; fountain a jet or spout of water, pro- rity from seed in less than three years.
semi-scandent to erect shrub to 3m duced artificially by pumping and/or They need ample watering during the
(10ft) tall; leaves often 3-parted; flowers gravity. Fountains are an important warmer months and may flower inter-
clustered, nodding, pale to deep yellow feature of formal gardens. mittently over the summer and
with somewhat twisted lobes; includes autumn; except in the brightest
var. fortunei, erect to arching with deep foveolate with shallow small pits or weather, the flowers often fail to
yellow flowers, and var. sieboldii, slen- precise indentations. develop fully or to open, but fruits will
der-stemmed and weeping to semi- still be formed, F.pygmaea (syn. F.pulcher-
scandent with clear, pale yellow fractiflex in intermittent zig-zag lines. rima; Argentina, S Brazil, Uruguay;
flowers, f. atrocaulis, with maroon-tinted stems 1–7 (1/2–23/4) x 1–2.5cm (1/2–1in),
branchlets and pale flowers, and Fragaria (the Latin name for the globose to squatly cylindric, dark green
‘Nymans’, which is similar to f. atro- strawberry, from fragrans, fragrant, to purple-red, with small tubercles,
caulis but produces larger, brighter referring to the aroma of the fruit). woolly areoles and short yellow to
flowers later in the season, i.e. mid- to Rosaceae. Northern temperate zones, white spines; flowers small, yellow).
late spring); F.viridissima (China; erect to Chile. STRAWBERRY. Some 12 species,
3m (10ft) with persistently green, 4- stoloniferous, perennial herbs with 3- frame a structure with a removable
angled branches; leaves flushing claret parted, toothed leaflets. Made up of or hinged glass or plastic cover resting
to plum-purple in autumn; flowers five, rounded to obovate petals and on a low framework of masonry, wood
bright yellow stained green with numerous stamens, the flowers are car- or metal; it is used for propagation,
narrow lobes). ried in cymes in spring and summer. forcing, hardening-off or winter protec-
The fruit consists of many small ach- tion. It is usually unheated, when it is
Fothergilla (for Dr John Fothergill enes scattered on the surface of an known as a cold frame, but is some-
(1712–80), who cultivated many Amer- enlarged, conical, fleshy, red receptacle. times provided with a source of bottom
ican plants at Stratford-le-Bow, Essex). Grow in fertile, well-drained, moisture- heat. See hotbed, soil warming.
Hamamelidaceae. E US. 2 species, retentive soil in sun. When grown on
deciduous, low-growing shrubs, to 3m very rich soils, variegated cultivars may frameworking a form of grafting
(10ft) tall with widely spreading produce green crowns. Propagate from fruit trees in which scions of a different
branches. Obovate to oval and coarsely seed in early spring, or by removal of cultivar are inserted on the prepared
toothed, the leaves are pale green when runners (plant-bearing stolons). Among framework of an established tree. See
first opening, mature to mid-green in the edible strawberries, several orna- grafting.
summer and turn a glorious crimson or mental cultivars can be found. F. x
orange-yellow in autumn. The fragrant ananassa (F.chiloensis x F.virginiana), the Francoa (for F. Franco MD, who
flowers open before the leaves in bottle GARDEN or CULTIVATED STRAWBERRY, encouraged the study of botany in
brush-like, terminal heads or spikes. the WILD STRAWBERRY, F.vesca and its 16th-century Spain). Saxifragaceae.
They lack petals, but are made up of variant ‘Semperflorens’, the ALPINE Chile. BRIDAL WREATH. 5 species, 317
about 24 stamens with white filaments, STRAWBERRY or FRAISE DU BOIS; all perennial evergreen herbs with a
Francoa
clump of obovate to broadly lanceolate are deciduous) with pinnate leaves and veins sunken beneath); F.ornus (FLOWER-
leaves pinnately cut into blunt lobes. panicles of small flowers borne before ING ASH, MANNA ASH; S Europe, Asia
Abundant small flowers are produced or alongside the leaves. The fruits are Minor; broad-crowned tree to 8m
in summer in long-stalked racemes; 1-seeded samaras, each with a long, (26ft); leaflets to 7, to 7cm (23/4in),
they consist of four, oblong petals, usu- flattened wing. Fully hardy, the follow- obovate, serrulate, dark green above,
ally white and with a dark pink spot at ing species should be planted on moist paler beneath with a somewhat downy
base of claw. Plant in a well-drained, but well-drained soils in full sun. Prop- midrib; flowers white and fragrant in
fairly moist, sunny position. In colder agate from stratified seed in spring. showy, lacy panicles; fruit wing narrow-
areas, overwinter in frost-free condi- Graft cultivars in spring or bud in oblong, to 2.5cm (1in)); F.pennsylvanica
tions and plant outdoors the following summer on seedling stock of the same (RED ASH; N America; tree to 18m
F spring. Although frost-hardy, these
plants are commonly grown indoors in
species under glass. Susceptible to ash
heart rot and ash bark beetle.
(60ft); leaflets to 9, 7–15cm (23/4–6in),
lanceolate, entire or serrulate toward
cool, bright conditions. Propagate from F.americana (syn. F.alba, F.juglandifolia; tip, olive green; fruit wings spathulate
seed in early spring or by division. WHITE ASH; NE US; tree to 40m (130ft) to lanceolate; includes ‘Patmore’,
F.appendiculata (inflorescence to 68cm tall, crown spreading; leaflets to 9, to vigorous and strongly erect with good
(27in), sparingly branched, compact; 15cm (6in), oblong to lanceolate, entire pest-resistance and dark green foliage
flowers shell pink, sometimes spotted); or serrate, slightly downy beneath; fruit lasting well into autumn, ‘Summit’,
F.ramosa (inflorescence to 90cm (36in), wing oblong, 3–5cm (11/4–2in); includes with a broadly pyramidal crown and
much-branched; flowers white); ‘Acuminata’, with long-tapering, entire gold autumn tints, and ‘Urbanite’, tol-
F.sonchifolia (leaves with broadly winged leaflets, dark green above and almost erant of city pollution and sun scorch,
petioles; inflorescence to 60cm (24in), white beneath, turning purple-red in with a broadly pyramidal crown and
simple to sparingly branched; flowers autumn, ‘Autumn Applause’, with a thick, glossy leaves becoming bronze
pink with red spots). rounded, dense crown and deep red in autumn); F.sieboldiana (syn. F.mariesii;
to mahogany autumn colour, and Japan, China; compact-crowned tree
Franklinia (for Benjamin Franklin ‘Autumn Purple’, with leaves persisting to 8m (26ft); leaflets to 7, to 7cm
(1706–90), American statesman). late into autumn and turning purple to (23/4in), ovate, serrate or entire, dark
Theaceae. SE US (Georgia, now chocolate mottled mauve and bronze); green, glabrous except for downy
extinct in the wild). 1 species, F.angustifolia (syn. F.oxycarpa; NARROW- midrib; flowers cream, fragrant in pan-
F.alatamaha (syn. Gordonia alatamaha), a LEAVED ASH; S Europe, N Africa; tree icles to 15cm (6in)); F.velutina (ARIZONA
deciduous tree or shrub, erect to 10m to 25m (80ft); leaflets to 13, to 7cm ASH; SW US; shrub or small tree;
(33ft) tall with smooth bark. To 15cm (23/4in), oblong to lanceolate, finely ser- leaflets 3–5–7, lanceolate to elliptic,
(6in) long, the leaves are obovate to rate, dark green above, paler beneath, coarsely serrate, dull green above, more
oblong, sparsely toothed and dark glabrous; fruit wing elliptic-oblong, to or less hairy beneath, tough-textured;
glossy green, turning bright red in 4cm (11/2in); includes the striking ‘Ray- includes ‘Fan-Tex’, fast-growing and
autumn. Produced in late summer, the wood’, with an elegant, feathery crown, well-proportioned with large, deep
cup-shaped, solitary flowers are fra- the leaflets narrow and dark green, green and leathery leaves).
grant, 8cm (3in) across and composed assuming a hazy, metallic appearance
of five, rounded, white petals and a toward summer’s end and turning deep Freesia (for Friedrich Heinrich
boss of golden stamens. This tree plum to claret in autumn – an excep- Theodore Freese (d. 1876), a pupil of
needs long hot summers to flower well tional street tree); F.excelsior (COMMON the botanist Ecklon). Iridaceae. Sout
and for wood to ripen – specimens per- EUROPEAN ASH; Europe to Caucasus; Africa. 11 species, cormous perennial
form exceptionally only in continental tree to 40m (130ft); leaflets to 11, to herbs with a fan of lightly pleated,
climates, where they prove hardy to at 12cm (43/4in), obovate, serrate, dark narrow leaves and erect to horizontal,
least –15°C/5°F. In less favoured cli- green above, paler beneath, glabrous; simple or branched flowering stems in
mates, plant in a sheltered south-facing fruit wing oblong, to 4cm (11/2in); winter and spring. Often fragrant, the
niche with good drainage and full sun. includes f. diversifolia, with only one or flowers are more or less funnel- or
Grow on moisture-retentive but well- three leaflets per leaf, ‘Jaspidea’, with goblet-shaped, sometimes 2-lipped,
drained, neutral to slightly acid soils. yellow new growth turning gold in and consist of six tepals.
Propagate by fresh seed sown ripe, by autumn, and ‘Pendula’ with a gnarled, Frost-tender bulbs, grown in the
softwood cuttings or by semi-ripe cut- spreading crown and branches weeping cool glasshouse for winter and early
tings in mid-summer; alternatively, to the ground); F.nigra (BLACK ASH; N spring flowers, or, using prepared
increase by simple layering of low America; tree to 25m (80ft); leaflets bulbs, in the open garden for flowers
branches. to 11, to 12cm (43/4in), oblanceolate, in summer. Grow indoor bulbs in a
serrulate, veins brown and downy medium-fertility sandy mix, at 5–8cm
Fraxinus (the Latin name for the beneath; fruit wing bluntly oblong, to (2–3in) spacings in prepared beds,
ash). Oleaceae. Temperate Europe, 4cm (11/2in); includes ‘Fallgold’, with boxes or pots; plant in succession
Asia, N America, a few in tropics. ASH. leaves turning gold in autumn; F.mand- from late summer through to winter.
318 65 species, medium-sized to large trees, shurica, MANCHURIAN ASH, differs in its Water and keep in the frame or cold
mostly deciduous (those listed below more distinctly toothed leaflets with glasshouse (5°C/41°F) and cover with
Fritillaria
a 3cm (11/4in) layer of coir and a top Fremontodendron (for Major- friable used of soil that is of good
dressing of grit. Gradually increase General John Charles Frémont (d. crumb structure, and suitable for work-
water as growth resumes, and raise the 1890), US explorer, botanist and horti- ing down to a seed bed or tilth.
temperature to 10°C/50°F; provide full culturist). Sterculiaceae. Southwest N
light and good ventilation, and feed America. FLANNEL BUSH; CALIFORNIA frill girdling the formation of
fortnightly with a dilute liquid feed as BEAUTY. 2 species, evergreen shrubs downward-sloping overlapping cuts
flower buds show. Provide support. and trees covered in short, felty hair. around the trunk of a tree, near soil
Temperatures above 15°C/59°F will The leaves are unlobed or palmately level, using a light axe or billhook. Frill
result in spindly plants with quickly 3-, 5-, or 7-lobed. Produced from late girdling is done in preparation for the
fading blooms. Reduce water as plants spring to early autumn, the solitary, application of brushwood killer or
die back and keep completely dry
when dormant; lift and store cool and
short-stalked flowers consist of a
cupped, showy calyx with five, ovate to
ammonium sulphamate, either of
which is deposited in the cuts as a F
dry until the following season. In mild, elliptic, petal-like lobes and a staminal treatment to kill the tree.
essentially frost-free areas, corms may tube divided into 5 parts toward the tip
be planted directly into the open and ending in a filiform style. Hardy to frit a formulation of fertilizer that is
ground in late summer/early autumn –15°C/5°F. Grow in full sun against a incorporated into a melted glass
into fertile sandy soils in a sunny and sheltered, south-facing wall. They matrix, which is then shattered into
sheltered position. Propagate by pre- prefer poor, dry soils. It may be neces- ‘frits’ and ground up to produce an
soaked seed in the cool glasshouse or sary to tie in branches to a framework insoluble nutrient additive. Frits are
cold frame, alternatively by offsets of trellis or wire. Cut out any frost- often used to supply trace elements,
during autumn. damaged growth in spring. Pruning is particularly in potting composts.
F.caryophyllacea (stem 12–40cm otherwise inadvisable (the countless
(43/4–16in); flowers 2.5–6cm (1–21/2in) short hairs are extremely irritating). frit fly (Oscinella frit) a very small fly,
long, sweetly scented, white, sometimes Propagate by seed or by softwood or the maggots of which are about 3mm
flushed purple outside and lined with semi-ripe cuttings in a sandy propagat- (1/8in) long and may attack sweet corn
purple in throat, lowest tepals some- ing mix with gentle bottom heat. during May and June. The growing
times marked with yellow); F.corymbosa F.californicum (syn. Fremontia californica; points of seedlings are bored into and
(syn. F.armstrongii; stem to 50cm (20in) shrub to 7m (23ft); leaves unlobed to 3- there is distortion, wilting and death.
with several branches, spikes 3–10- lobed, sparsely hairy above, densely so Seedlings are most susceptible up to
flowered; flowers 2.5–3.5cm (1–11/2in), beneath; flowers opening all at once, the five to six leaf stage. Where the
scented or not, ivory or pale yellow 3.5–6cm (11/2–21/2in) in diameter, shin- fly is a troublesome pest, raise the
with the lower tepals marked bright ing golden yellow); F.mexicanum (syn. sweet corn in cell modules in a green-
yellow, or pink with a yellow throat); Fremontia mexicana; differs from the first house, or spray emerging shoots out-
F.leichtlinii (stem 8–20cm (3–8in); flow- species in its 5–7-lobed leaves and flow- doors with a recommended insecticide,
ers 2.5–4cm (1–11/2in) long, scented, ers opening in succession, 6–9cm subject to local pesticide approvals.
cream or pale yellow, the lower tepals (21/2–31/2in) in diameter, deep gold to
orange-yellow, the upper tepals some- orange yellow, becoming stained brick- Fritillaria (from Latin fritillus, a dice-
times flushed with purple-brown on the red at the base; this species has crossed box, referring to the shape of the cap-
outside); F.refracta (close to F.caryophyl- with the first, producing F. ‘California sules, or to the chequered pattern on
lacea and F.leichtlinii, but with spicily Glory’, a vigorous and free-flowering the flowers of some species, reminis-
scented, two-lipped flowers in pale plant hardier than either parent with cent of the traditional decoration on a
yellow, sometimes flushed green or lemon yellow flowers tinged red on the dice-box). Liliaceae (Liliaceae). Tem-
purple, the lower tepals marked orange exterior). perate regions of northern hemisphere,
and the throat veined purple). The particularly Mediterranean, SW Asia
florist’s freesias are complex hybrids French garden the grand garden (mountainous regions), western N
involving the above species; they have style developed by Le Nôtre during the America. Some 100 species, bulbous
been grouped under various names – F. reign of Louis XIV in which a garden perennial herbs with alternate to
x hybrida, F. x kewensis, F. x ragioneri, and was centred on the house and designed whorled, oblanceolate to linear leaves.
F. x tubergenii. They range in height with a series of axes, often combined The flowers are usually nodding and
from 10cm (4in) to 30cm (12in). The with water features in the form of broadly bell-shaped. The six tepals are
flowers may be single or ‘double’, canals. Also incorporated were elabo- commonly marked with tessellations or
scarcely to sweetly scented, and vary in rate parterres, formal lakes, clipped have dark nectaries at the base on their
colour from silvery white to ivory, trees and hedges along straight walks, inner surfaces.
yellow or bronze and from soft pink to geometric woods and circular open The species described here are
red and mauve, blue and indigo. These spaces from which avenues radiated in spring-flowering and fully hardy unless
colours are frequently combined, for a fan pattern. otherwise specified. The smaller species
example as bronze, pearly or lavender will, however, suffer in cold, wet win-
flushing on the exterior, or as a pale French intensive method see deep ters and dull damp summers. For this 319
yellow or white throat. bed method. reason, they tend to be grown in the
Fritillaria
F RITILLARIA
Name Distribution Height and foliage Flowers
F.acmopetala W Asia, E Mediterranean 15–45cm (6–18in) tall; leaves linear 1–3, broadly campanulate, tepals 2.5–4cm
(1–11⁄2in), lanceolate to oblanceolate, green
stained brown
F.aurea Turkey 4–15cm (11⁄2–6in) tall; leaves lanceolate solitary, broadly and deeply campanulate, tepals
syn. F.bornmuelleri to ovate-lanceolate, glaucous 2–5cm (3⁄4–2in), ovate-oblong, yellow with
orange or red-brown tessellations
F F.bucharica C Asia, NW Afghanistan 10–35cm (4–14in) tall; leaves

lanceolate to ovate
1–10, cup-shaped, tepals 1.5–2cm (5⁄8–3⁄4in),
lanceolate, white or off-white with green veins
F.camschatcensis NE Asia to 15–75cm (6–30in) tall; leaves broadly 1–8, broadly campanulate to cup-shaped, tepals
BLACK SARANA NW N America lanceolate, whorled below 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄8in), oblong-ovate, shining purple-
brown to black with finely grooved and ridged
inner surfaces
F.cirrhosa E Himalaya, China 20–60cm (8–24in) tall; leaves linear, 1–4, broadly campanulate, tepals 3.5–5cm
whorled below, the upper leaves or (13⁄8–2in), narrowly elliptic, basically green or
bracts very slender with coiling, yellow-green, often tinted or tessellated purple-
tendril-like tips brown
F.crassifolia Anatolia 6–20cm (21⁄2–8in) tall; leaves 1–3, broadly campanulate, tepals 1.8–2.5cm
lanceolate (3⁄4–1in), ovate, green with brown tessellations
Comments: ssp. kurdica has yellow-green tepals heavily suffused with maroon and a central yellow stripe.
F.imperialis S Turkey to Kashmir 50–150cm (20–60in) tall, muskily 3–5, campanulate, nodding in a terminal umbel
CROWN IMPERIAL scented; leaves lanceolate, whorled, crowned with leafy bracts, tepals 4–5cm
bright green (11⁄2–2in), ovate-oblong, orange to red
Comments: Includes cultivars with yellow, tangerine, deep orange and red flowers.
F.meleagris Europe 12–30cm (43⁄4–12in) tall; leaves linear solitary or paired, broadly campanulate, nodding,
SNAKE’S HEAD tepals 3–4.5cm (11⁄8–13⁄4in), oblong-elliptic, white
FRITILLARY, GUINEA-HEN Comments: A variable species, chequered to varying degrees, or pink heavily chequered purple-red
FLOWER, CHEQUERED some flowers pure white, some with the faintest tessellations,
LILY, LEPER LILY others darkest purple-red with a leaden cast.
F.michailovskyi NE Turkey 6–24cm (21⁄2–10in) tall; leaves 1–4, broadly campanulate, clustered together,
lanceolate tepals 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄8in), ovate-elliptic, purple-
brown to green with yellow tips
F.pallidiflora E Siberia, NW China 10–80cm (4–32in) tall; leaves broadly 2–5, campanulate, tepals 2.5–4.5cm (1–13⁄4in),
lanceolate, glaucous oblong-elliptic, pale buttery yellow, sometimes
tinted green or faintly chequered
320 F.camschatcensis F.imperialis F.meleagris F.pallidiflora

Fritillaria
F RITILLARIA
Name Distribution Height and foliage Flowers
F.persica Middle East, W Asia 20–90cm (8–36in) tall; leaves 7–20, nodding in an erect, terminal raceme,
F.eggeri, F.libanotica lanceolate, glaucous grey-green, narrowly campanulate; tepals 1.5–2.5cm
many alternating on stems (5⁄8–1in), dull purple-black to chalky maroon
Comments: ‘Adiyaman’: to 1m (31⁄4ft) tall with or green
many dark maroon flowers.
F.pontica Balkans, N Greece, 8–30cm (3–12in) tall; leaves linear- solitary or paired, broadly campanulate,
NW Turkey lanceolate nodding, tepals 2.5–4.5cm (1–13⁄4in), oblong-
obovate, green faintly marbled and edged brown
within and with dark, visible nectaries
F
F.pudica W N America 8–30cm (3–12in) tall; leaves linear 1–6, campanulate, nodding, tepals 1–2.5cm
YELLOW FRITILLARY to narrowly lanceolate (3⁄8–1in), elliptic-obovate, deep yellow sometimes
suffused with warm orange or red
F.pyrenaica SW France, NW Spain 15–30cm (6–12in) tall; leaves linear solitary or paired, broadly campanulate,
to lanceolate nodding; tepals 2.5–3.5cm (1–13⁄8in), oblong-
elliptic, the tips recurved, yellow chequered
brown and heavily suffused dark purple-brown
on exterior
F.raddeana NW Iran, Turkmenia 50–150cm (20–60in) tall; leaves 6–20, broadly campanulate in a terminal umbel
lanceolate, whorled and alternate, crowned with leafy bracts, tepals 4–5cm
dark green (11⁄2–2in), oblong to rhombic, white to palest
yellow suffused green
F.recurva California, S Oregon 20–90cm (8–36in) tall; leaves linear- 3–12, narrowly campanulate, nodding in a
SCARLET FRITILLARY lanceolate, grey-green, whorled raceme, tepals 2–3cm (3⁄8–11⁄8in), ovate to
oblong-lanceolate, the tips recurved, orange-red
to scarlet with yellow tessellations
F.sewerzowii C Asia, NW China 15–20cm (6–8in) tall; leaves lanceolate 4–12 in a raceme or solitary, narrowly
Korolkowia sewerzowii campanulate with a broadly flared mouth, tepals
2.5–3cm (1–11⁄8in), oblong-obovate, green to
livid purple without and yellow to brick red at
base and within
F.stenanthera E Russia 10–30cm (4–12in) tall; leaves linear 1–10 in a raceme, narrowly campanulate and
to ovate-lanceolate flared at mouth, tepals 1.5–2cm (5⁄8–3⁄4in),
obovate-lanceolate, pale pink
F.verticillata C Asia, W Siberia 20–60cm (8–24in) tall; leaves 1–5, broadly campanulate, nodding, tepals to
narrowly lanceolate to linear, 4.5cm (13⁄4in), oblong-obovate, white, suffused
whorled, the upper leaves or and faintly chequered green to brown
bracts with tendril-like tips
F.pudica F.raddeana F.sewerzowii F.verticillata 321

Fritillaria
alpine house, bulb frame or raised bed, surfaces, the condition is known as Their white maggots feed on fleshy
with cloche protection in winter. Most white or hoar frost. Temperatures fruits and the flowerheads of Composi-
of the smaller species require a sharply between 0° and –3°C/32–27°F are tae, but some mine leaves or make
draining, fertile soil, full sun, ample generally referred to as slight frost, galls. The CHERRY FRUIT FLY (Rhagoletis
moisture during the growing and flow- between –4°C/25°F and –6°C/21°F cerasi), which is found in Europe but
ering season and a dry (but not arid) as keen frost, between –7°C/19°F and not the UK, in parts of Asia and in
rest in summer. F.meleagris prefers per- –10°C/14°F as hard frost, and below North America, attacks cherries, hon-
manently damp sites and is suitable for –10°C/14°F as severe frost. The sus- eysuckle and Prunus species; as many as
naturalizing in long grass, providing ceptibility of plant tissues to frost six larvae may invade a single fruit.
that the first lawn cut does not occur damage varies according to species, The APPLE FRUIT FLY (R.pomonella) is a
F until the leaves have died back in
summer. F.camschatcensis needs a lightly-
provenance, acclimatization and site
exposure. Some parts of a plant may
major pest of apple in North America;
the maggots make winding tunnels in
shaded position on a cool damp and be more susceptible than others: in the flesh of the fruit and also attack
humus-rich soil. The larger F.imperialis fruit trees, for example, the blossom plum, pear, cherry, blueberry, huckle-
and F.persica are suited in scale to the more so than the bark. The effects of berry and hawthorn. In North Amer-
mixed border, and will thrive in full sun frost may depend on its duration as ica, currant and gooseberry fruits may
on well-drained, fertile loams. In cli- well as its severity: repeated freezing be attacked by the CURRANT FRUIT
mate zones 6 and over, they require no and thawing or very rapid thawing can FLY (Epochra canadensis). WALNUT HUSK
additional winter protection. Increase be particularly damaging. FLIES (Rhagoletis species) occur through-
by seed sown when ripe or in spring, in The effects of frost can be lessened out the US; the larvae burrow into
a loam-based propagating mix with by choosing frost-resistant plants, by the green husks of walnuts, turning
additional sharp sand; germination protecting plants with insulating mate- them black and slimy. The MEDITER-
may take six months. Propagate also by rials including glass, and by artificial RANEAN FRUIT FLY (Ceratitis capitata)
bulbils. Fritillaria is attacked by lily heating. Protection from freezing wind attacks peach, citrus, plum, apple and
beetle and, in the case of F.meleagris, is desirable, and for frost-tender species various other fruits in the subtropics.
greedy pheasants. sites likely to accumulate cold air European species include the BERBERIS
behind barriers or in hollows should be SEED FLY (Anomoia purmunda), which
froghoppers (Hemiptera: Cercopi- avoided. Frost can benefit soil struc- damages berries of Berberis, Pyracantha
dae) sap-sucking insects, up to 6mm ture, especially that of clay soils, where and Cotoneaster, and the ROSE HIP FLY
(1/4in) long, which are so named the freezing of soil water causes the (Rhagoletis alternata), which feeds on the
because of the adults’ frog-like shape shattering of large clods. flesh and seed of rose hips. Of the
and ability to jump. The US common leaf-mining species, only the celery
name of SPITTLEBUG refers to the char- frost heave the lifting upwards of fly (Euleia heraclei) is a serious pest
acteristic white froth or ‘cuckoo spit’ soil and plants resulting from expan- in Europe.
which surrounds the pale-coloured sion when ice forms in the soil. Chemical control methods must be
nymphs when they feed. The COMMON aimed at the adults. In North America,
FROGHOPPER (Philaenus spumarius) varies frost pocket a site where cold air pheromone traps and biological controls
in colour from yellow through shades accumulates behind a barrier or in a are used. In the UK, the name fruit fly
of brown to almost black; in the US, it hollow, giving rise to frequent frosts. is normally given to Drosophila species,
is known as the MEADOW SPITTLEBUG. which are not pests of cultivated plants.
The adult female lays eggs in the fruit a fertilized and ripened plant
autumn, and nymphs hatch in spring, ovary, together with any adnate parts. fruit house a glasshouse designed for
feeding on plants until reaching matu- growing fruit. Typically a tall, narrow
rity in midsummer. A wide range of fruit bud, blossom bud, flower lean-to structure with fruit trees trained
plants may be attacked, including bud a bud which on opening gives rise on the back wall. Also known as an
blackberries, raspberries, perennial to flowers (or flowers and leaves), with orchard house.
asters, campanulas, chrysanthemums, potential for fruit production. It is dis-
Coreopsis, geums, lavender, Lychnis, tinguished from a vegetative bud by its fruitlet an immature fruit. See bud
Phlox, roses, rudbeckias, solidagos and larger size and more rounded shape. stages.
willows, but insecticides are seldom
necessary and a powerful jet of water fruit cage a wood or metal frame- fruit set the open flower condition in
will normally remove cuckoo spit and work, to about 1.8m (6ft) high, clad with gooseberry fruit development. See bud
nymphs. plastic or wire netting, and used espe- stages.
cially to protect soft fruits from birds.
frost the condition occurring when air fruit setting the development of
temperature falls below 0°C/32°F, the fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) fruit following the pollination and fer-
freezing point of water. When atmos- small, greyish-yellow flies often with tilization of flowers, especially used of
322 pheric moisture freezes to produce ice mottled wings, which are distributed top and soft fruits, tomatoes and cucur-
crystals on the ground or on other worldwide but mostly in the tropics. bits. Fruit setting can be artificially
fungus
induced by certain plant hormones. to 2m (61/2ft) tall, flowering from mid- main stem has reached two-thirds of
See dry set. summer until late autumn. The tender the desired height of the finished stan-
cultivars and species are lifted in late dard. The next five or six pairs of side
fruit swelling an early development autumn and stored in a frost-free shoots are left and the growing tip then
stage of top and soft fruits. See bud environment during the winter months. removed. Side shoots are pinched out
stages. Garden plants will grow in any fertile, at every 2–3 pairs of leaves until the
free-draining soil. Some protection head of the standard is formed. For
fruit thinning the removal of a pro- from frost should be given in winter, weeping standards, train laterals down-
portion of immature fruitlets from fruit either by earthing up the crowns or by wards to a wire framework.
plants in order to improve the size and covering them with sand or leaf litter. Propagate from seed or by cuttings.
colour of those remaining, or to pre-
vent overcropping, or as a means of
Plant outdoor fuchsias in late spring
and early summer; they are best
(See table overleaf.)
F
discouraging biennial bearing. It is also planted deeply to afford the rootstock full blossom an early development
referred to as de-fruiting. some protection and a chance of stage of top fruits. See bud stages.
regeneration in areas where frosts are
Fuchsia (for Leonhart Fuchs severe. Summer bedding fuchsias are fumigation the application of a pes-
(1501–66), German herbalist and planted out in early summer. Garden ticide to an enclosed growing area in
botanical illustrator). Onagraceae. C plants should be watered during hot, the form of vapour or smoke. On a
& S America including Mexico and dry weather. Prune in spring once new large scale, for example, in stores or
Tierra del Fuego, also New Zealand, growth has started, cutting away all commercial greenhouses, volatile sub-
Tahiti. LADY’S EAR DROPS. 105 species, old, flowered wood. stances are vaporized to produce toxic
evergreen to deciduous shrubs and All fuchsias may be grown in the gases. Similar formulations may be
trees. Often drooping on slender glasshouse, either in pots or planted injected into the soil or applied under
pedicels, the flowers consist of a tubu- directly in the ground. A minimum plastic sheeting for soil sterilization.
lar to bell-shaped calyx with four, ovate winter temperature of 7°C/45°F is In the UK, only sulphur candles are
to lanceolate, outspread lobes and four required for species and Triphylla approved for garden use, in empty
or no petals – these are often shorter types, but cultivars can be successfully greenhouses.
and broader than the sepals, differently overwintered at 1°C/34°F. Maintain
coloured and rolled together or spread- humidity during the summer months fungicide a substance used to control
ing. The stamens and long stigma are by damping-down and misting, except diseases caused by fungi. Fungicides
usually exserted. Globose to oblong, when plants are in bud or flower. may eradicate established infections,
berry-like fruit follow in late summer Water moderately in spring and plenti- prevent spread, or both. Most have
and autumn. fully in summer. Shade from direct sun. contact action, a few are systemic.
Most fuchsia cultivars are the result Under glass, pot in either a medium Fungicides are most usually applied as
of breeding between many species, fertility loam-based potting mix (high- sprays or dips, but seed dressings can
much of it undocumented. F.magellanica fertility for baskets) or a soilless be very effective. The term fungistat
and possibly F.coccinea arrived at Kew medium with added grit (this will need may be used to describe a substance
around 1788. F.magellanica and F.fulgens more frequent feeding). Repot when capable of preventing growth of a
appear to be the original parents of growth commences in spring. Feed with fungus without killing it.
plants resembling modern cultivars, a high-nitrogen fertilizer in spring to Commonly used fungicides are
though perhaps 10 other species may encourage growth, changing to a high- derived from a wide range of chemi-
have been involved later. F.magellanica potash fertilizer in mid-season to cals and their effectiveness may depend
has a few variants and hybrids, and encourage flowering and ripen growth. on environmental conditions, and
F.triphylla probably crossed with F.boli- Greenhouse plants may be set outside always on timely application. Approved
viana and then with F.fulgens and F.splen- in autumn to ripen the wood before products should only be used where
dens, giving rise to several cultivars they are overwintered in frost-free con- essential. Careful husbandry and good
grouped as Triphylla Hybrids, which ditions. They must not be allowed to management of the growing environ-
typically have flowers in clusters with dry out completely during this period. ment, including rotation, attention to
very long tubes and very short sepals. For plants grown under glass, little drainage and general crop hygiene, will
There are also some cultivars and pruning is needed other than in spring, all mitigate against fungal attack. Over
hybrids among the small-flowered when the previous season’s plants are use may lead to the build-up of resis-
species. started into growth and are cut back to tant fungus strains.
Fuchsias are of great value for 2–3 nodes from the main branch, pri-
summer bedding, windowboxes, hang- marily to shape the plant. During the fungus an organism belonging to a
ing baskets and containers on terraces; early part of the growing season, pinch group distinct from plants and animals.
they will grow in any aspect except out the growing tips to encourage the They are incapable of photosynthesis,
deep shade. Hardy species and culti- plant to bush out. When training stan- and obtain sustenance either as para-
vars are useful in permanent shrub dards, leave the leading shoot intact sites of other living organisms or as 323
borders and as ornamental hedges up and pinch out the side shoots until the saprophytes of dead organic material.
Fuchsia
F UCHSIA
F.arborescens Mexico shrub or small tree, 10–20cm (4–8in), oblong-elliptic to to 1cm (1⁄2in), pink to pale purple with
TREE FUCHSIA 3–8m (10–26ft) tall obovate-lanceolate, entire, dark contrasting stamens, in dense, erect
green above, paler beneath panicles
Comments: Z10.
F. x bacillaris garden origin erect or spreading, 0.5–2cm (1⁄4–3⁄4in), ovate to broadly to 1.5cm (5⁄8in), rose-pink to red,
F.cinnabarina; (F.microphylla twiggy, small lanceolate, entire to serrate, bright solitary
F x F.thymifolia) shrub, 30–200cm

(12–79in) tall
green
Comments: Z9. Includes ‘Reflexa’ with minute leaves and very small, cerise flowers.
F.boliviana N Argentina to erect shrub or 5–20cm (2–8in), narrowly elliptic to 5–8cm (2–3in), pale pink to vermilion
syn. F.cuspidata Peru small tree, 2–4m broadly ovate, finely toothed, upper with a scarlet limb, narrowly tubular,
(61⁄2–13ft) tall surface deep green and smooth to pendulous in short racemes or
Comments: Z10. ‘Alba’ has pale green downy, often with red-tinted veins, panicles
leaves and pure white flowers. undersurface paler and downy
F.denticulata Peru and erect to scrambling 4–17cm (11⁄2–61⁄2in), elliptic to 5–7cm (2–23⁄4in), pink to pale red
Bolivia or sprawling shrub, lanceolate, denticulate, firm, dark tipped green-white, petals orange to
4–10m (13–33ft) green and smooth above, paler or vermilion, tubular, clustered toward
Comments: Z10. tall red-tinted beneath branch tips
F.excorticata New Zealand shrub or small tree 5–10cm (2–4in), ovate-lanceolate, 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in), green marked
l–2m (31⁄4–61⁄2ft), more or less entire maroon with blue anthers, solitary,
with peeling and long-stalked
papery, rust-
Comments: Z9. coloured bark
F.fulgens Mexico tuberous-rooted 9–15cm (31⁄2–6in), ovate-cordate 5–8cm (2–3in), pink to orange or fiery
shrub, 0.5–3m with fine red teeth, glandular, pale scarlet, tubular, pendulous, in racemes
Comments: Z10. (20in–10ft) tall green above, flushed red beneath
F.magellanica Chile, erect shrub to 3m 1.5–5cm (5⁄8–2in), ovate-elliptic, 2–4cm (3⁄4–11⁄2in), deep crimson to
F.globosa, F.gracilis Argentina, (10ft) tall wavy-toothed, mid-green, pink or white with purple to pink or
widely sometimes tinted red white petals, solitary or paired,
naturalized pendent
elsewhere
Comments: Z6. A variable and hardy species; includes var. (‘Tricolor’) with foliage tinted red or pink at first, becoming grey-green
eburnea (‘Alba’), with white flowers, var. gracilis, a slender and tinted silver and pink and irregularly edged creamy white. One of the
highly floriferous shrub with small, scarlet and violet flowers, and most commonly grown cultivars is ‘Riccartonii’, a robust, suckering
var. molinae, with the palest shell pink flowers. Variegated cultivars and hardy shrub with dark calyx and broader sepals.
include ‘Variegata’, with leaves edged cream, and ‘Versicolor’
324 F.arborescens F.boliviana var. alba F.fulgens F. Triphylla Group ‘Thalia’

FYM
F UCHSIA
F.microphylla Mexico to bushy or scrambling, 0.6–4cm (1⁄4–11⁄2in), broadly 0.5–1cm (1⁄4–1⁄2in), white to pink,
F.minutiflora Costa Rica densely twiggy and lanceolate to oblanceolate, entire magenta, cerise or deep red with
and Panama small shrub, 0.5–5m or toothed, bright green similarly coloured, or paler, or purple
Comments: Z10. (20in–16ft) tall petals, solitary
F.procumbens New Zealand wiry-stemmed, 0.6–2cm (1⁄4–3⁄4in), more or less 1–1.8cm (1⁄2–3⁄4in), gold to pale orange
prostrate to climbing rounded with a cordate base suffused green and tipped with
Comments: Z9.
or cascading shrub
to 1m (31⁄4ft) tall
maroon, with blue anthers, erect,
solitary
F
F.splendens Mexico to erect shrub, 3.5–13cm (11⁄2–5in), ovate to 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), rose pink to
Costa Rica 0.5–2.5m cordate, serrate, smooth or hairy, orange-red tipped green, solitary,
Comments: Z9. (20in–8ft) tall often flushed red and hairy beneath pendent to spreading
F.thymifolia Mexico to erect to spreading, 0.8–6cm (3⁄8–21⁄2in), elliptic to 0.5–1cm (1⁄4–1⁄2in), green-white to pale
Guatemala twiggy shrub, 0.5–3m ovate, entire or toothed, pale, pink, the colour deepening with age,
Comments: Z9. (20in–10ft) tall bright green solitary, pendent
F.triphylla Hispaniola erect shrub or 2.5–10cm (1–4in), elliptic to 4–6cm (11⁄2–21⁄2in), orange-red to
subshrub, 0.3–2m oblanceolate, entire to finely coral pink, narrowly tubular with a
(12in–61⁄2ft) tall toothed, mid- to deep green, hairy bulbous base, in erect to nodding
and often tinted bronze above, racemes
Comments: Z10. flushed purple beneath
Fungi reproduce by spores and include as a drench. Non-chemical control is large numbers of bulbils. F.foetida (syn.
such diverse types as yeasts, lichen possible with sticky traps and with the F.gigantea; MAURITIUS HEMP, GREEN ALOE;
fungi, moulds, mushrooms and pathogenic eelworm Steinernema feltiae or C America; leaves to 180cm (71in),
pathogens of plants and animals. the predatory mite Hypoaspis miles. sword-shaped, in a basal rosette, with
In North America, the POTATO SCAB entire to spiny-toothed margins; inflores-
fungus gnats (Diptera: Sciaridae) GNAT (Pnyxia scabiei) can be a serious cence to 7m (23ft) tall; flowers strongly
midge-like flies, up to 4mm (1/8in) long, pest of potatoes. The larvae invade scented, milky white inside; var.
mostly black or dark grey with relatively tubers and continue to develop after mediopicta: spineless, dark green leaves,
long legs. Also known as SCIARID FLIES. harvest. Clean seed and crop rotation striped cream and brushed with pale to
They are often seen moving rapidly over provide good control. blue-green).
the soil surface on pot plants and in
cucumber crops, occasionally making funicle, funiculus the stalk or fusarium patch disease (Mono-
short slow flights. Fungus gnats occur in thread bearing the ovule or seed and graphella nivalis) a common and damaging
fungi, leafmould, rotting wood, manure attaching it to the placenta. fungal disease of lawns and sports turf,
and compost heaps, and soils containing especially Poa species in the UK.
any of these are readily infested; they funnelform funnel-shaped, e.g. a It causes patches of dead grass, edged
are often abundant in peat compost. corolla tube that widens gradually from dark brown or orange, and wet and
Under favourable conditions, such as in its base. slimy, with white or pink fungal bodies
greenhouses where temperatures are matting dead leaves. It is favoured by wet
high and on moist media with high furcate forked; the terminal lobes conditions, high nitrogen and dense
organic content, breeding continues prong-like. thatch. Control by good management or
throughout most of the year. by applying a recommended fungicide in
Most are harmless, but some may Furcraea (for Antoine François de the growing season, although none are
damage seedlings, cuttings and young Fourcroy (1755–1809), French chemist). approved for garden use in the UK.
plants. Lycoriella auripila and L.solani are Agavaceae. Mexico, C America. Some
important pests of mushrooms. The 20 species, evergreen, perennial herbs fuseau see dwarf pyramid.
larvae burrow into small buttons, and with large rosettes of sword-like, succu-
the stalk and cap of mature specimens. lent leaves. Tubular, fragrant flowers fusiform spindle-shaped; swollen in
In greenhouses, avoid accumulations of composed of six, oblong tepals are the middle and tapering to both ends.
the plant debris on which flies breed; carried in very tall, scapose panicles.
where the gnats are troublesome, insec- Cultivate as for Agave, with a minimum FYM farmyard manure; cow, horse or
ticides can be used, either pre-mixed temperature of about 6°C/43°F. Furcraea pig dung, usually mixed with straw; good 325
with the growing medium or watered rarely sets seed but frequently produces for improving soil fertility. See manure.
Gagea
G
mulch covered with pea sticks or brush- from the frame to cold greenhouse in
wood. Propagate by seed, cultivars by early autumn when bulbs are dormant.
root cuttings in winter also by division. Increase by division of clumps after
G.aristata (N America; perennial to flowering or sow ripe seed sown in a
70cm (28in); flowerheads to 10cm (4in) cool shaded frame.
across, ray florets yellow or yellow Grey mould is indicated when
stained red, especially at base); G. x infected shoots first appear above the
grandiflora (G.aristata x G.pulchella; like ground covered with grey mycelium
G.aristata but larger and more vigorous; and spores of the fungus; the rot
includes many cultivars with flower- extends into the bulbs. Small black
heads ranging from pure yellow to sclerotia develop on affected bulbs and
burnished gold, dark orange, bronze- contaminate the soil, so that any bulbs
G Gagea (for the amateur botanist Sir

Thomas Gage (1761–1820), of Hen-
grave Hall, Suffolk). Liliaceae. Europe,
red or blood red, in pure shades or
bicolours); G.pulchella (INDIAN BLANKET,
FIRE FLOWER, FIRE WHEELS; US,
bearing these resting stages of the
fungus should be discarded.
G.elwesii (Balkans, W Turkey; winter-
C Asia, N Africa. About 50 species, Mexico; annual or short-lived peren- flowering; leaves broadly oblong to
small, bulbous perennial herbs with nial to 60cm (24in); flowerheads to elliptic, glaucous, hooded at tip; scape
linear leaves. Borne singly or in umbels 6cm (21/2in) across, ray florets red with to 10cm (4in), flowers honey-scented,
or racemes in spring, the flowers are yellow tips or bands, or entirely yellow outer segments broadly obovate to
cylindric to campanulate or rotate and or red; largely represented in cultiva- rounded, usually flared, to 3cm (11/4in),
consist of six segments. The following tion by ‘Lorenziana’, with many inner segments marked green at tip
species need shallow soils and hot, dry enlarged and tubular disc florets in red, and base); var. monostichus (syn. G.cauca-
conditions in summer for bulb ripen- yellow or bicolours). sicus hort.): Caucasus; winter-flowering;
ing. They are best grown in shallow leaves oblong, glaucous; scape to 14cm
pans in a sunny bulb frame, watered Galanthus (from Greek gala, milk, (51/2in), outer flower segments obovate,
copiously when in growth, and dried and anthos, flower). Amaryllidaceae. 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in), inner segments
out when dormant, with just sufficient W Europe to Iranian Caucasus and marked green at tips); Hiemalis Group:
moisture left to prevent shrivelling. Caspian Sea. SNOWDROP. About smaller, flowering in late autumn and
Outdoors in zones 7 and over, grow 15 species, dwarf to small bulbous early winter); G.gracilis (syn. G.graecus;
them in well-drained, sandy soils in perennials ultimately forming clumps. Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey; winter-flow-
full sun, in situations that are dry but Strap-shaped to elliptic, the leaves ering; leaves narrow, twisted, glaucous;
not completely arid in summer. Provide emerge from a slender, tubular sheath scape to 10cm (4in), flowers sometimes
adequate moisture when in growth. alongside the flowers. Solitary flowers violet-scented, outer segments broadly
Propagate by division of bulbils or appear in autumn, winter and early obovate and rounded, to 2.5cm (1in),
by seed in spring, under glass. spring, nodding atop slender scapes. inner segments marked green at apex
G.graeca (syn. Lloydia graeca; E They are bell-shaped with three larger and base); G.ikariae (syn. G.latifolius;
Mediterranean, Greece, Crete; flowers outer petals, usually oblong to obovate Aegean Is., Turkey, Caucasus; winter-
1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in) across, white with and white, and three smaller, inner flowering; leaves strap-shaped to
purple stripes); G.peduncularis (N Africa, petals that form a cup and are marked broadly oblong, bright, glossy green;
Balkans, Aegean; flowers 1–2cm green. scape 7–15cm (23/4–6in), outer flower
(1/2–3/4in) across, yellow). Grow in dappled sun on moist but segments oblong to spathulate to
well-drained, humus-rich soils that do 3cm (11/4in), inner segments notched
Gaillardia (for M. Gaillard de Char- not dry out excessively in summer; a and marked green at tips); G.nivalis
entoneau, French patron of botany). mulch of leafmould is beneficial. Dried (COMMON SNOWDROP; Europe; winter-
Compositae. S US, Mexico, S Amer- snowdrop bulbs do not establish easily. and early spring-flowering; leaves
ica. BLANKET FLOWER. About 30 Plants are better if bought and planted linear to narrowly strap-shaped, more
species, annual, biennial and perennial ‘in the green’, that is, after flowering or less glaucous; scape to 10cm (4in);
herbs with entire, toothed or pinnatifid, and with fully developed leaves. G.regi- flowers sometimes faintly scented,
hairy leaves. Daisy-like flowerheads are nae-olgae requires more sun and greater outer segments oblong, to 2cm (3/4in),
produced in summer, the ray florets protection from cold winds than other inner segments marked green at tip; f.
yellow to red, tipped with yellow or species. In pots, grow in a mix of equal pleniflorus ‘Flore Pleno’: flowers double
red-purple, the disc florets purple to parts loam, leafmould and sharp sand, with many, sometimes ruffled inner
red-bronze. Grow in sun in any moder- in a cool shaded frame in summer, segments; f. pleniflorus ‘Pusey Green
ately fertile, well-drained soil; they are bringing into the alpine house in early Tips’: flowers with a long, ear-like
hardy but generally perform best on winter. Most species are reliably hardy bracteole, long, arching, green-tipped
poor soils and in hot dry conditions. to at least –15°C/5°F. G.ikariae is more outer segments and numerous ruffled
Cut back after flowering. In zones tender and will suffer below –5°C/23°F. inner segments; Sandersii Group: small
326 experiencing heavy snows, protect the To bring into bloom in mid-winter, pot and delicate with a yellow-green scape,
crowns of perennial species with a dry up in spring after flowering and move yellow ovary and yellow markings on
gall midges
the inner segments; Scharlockii Group: E Africa. Some 6 species, erect, peren-
flowers with two long, ear-like bracte- nial herbs with pinnate leaves. The
oles and outer segments marked green pea-like flowers are carried in axillary
at tips); G.plicatus (E Europe; winter- racemes in summer. Galega is a vigorous
flowering; leaves broadly strap-shaped perennial for the large herbaceous and
with recurved margins and loosely mixed border and for more informal
folded upper surface, glaucous; scape plantings in the wild garden. It is hardy
10–20cm (4–8in), outer flower at least to –15°C/5°F. Grow in sun or
segments oblong to narrowly elliptic, light shade on moisture-retentive soil.
to 2.5cm (1in), inner segments marked Propagate by division or by seed soaked
green at tips; subsp. byzantinus: inner for 12 hours before sowing. G.officinalis
segments marked green at tips and (GOAT’S RUE; C and S Europe, Asia
base); G.reginae-olgae (Sicily, Greece,
SW Turkey; typically autumn-flowering;
leaves linear with a glaucous stripe,
Minor; to 1.5m (5ft); flowers to 1cm
(1/2in) long, white to lavender; includes
the Hartlandii Group, syn. G. x hart-
G
Marble gall
produced after flowers; scape to 10cm landii, with flowers in shades of white, Pithy “oak apples” or woody marble galls are
(4in), flowers faintly scented, outer palest lavender, lilac blue and mauve- familiar and benign, spherical outgrowths
segments to 2.5cm (1in), inner seg- pink, also combinations thereof). formed on many Quercus species by chemi-
ments marked green at tips; subsp. cals secreted by tiny wasps as they feed.
reginae-olgae: plants flowering in late Galium (from Greek gala, milk;
autumn with leaves developed; subsp. referring to former use of G.verum in the number of plant cells or from indi-
vernalis: plants flowering in spring with curdling milk for cheese manufacture). vidual cells becoming enlarged. Galls
leaves developed); G.rizehensis (Turkey; Rubiaceae. Subcosmopolitan (temper- can be caused by bacteria (for example,
late winter- and early spring-flowering; ate). BEDSTRAW, CLEAVERS. Some 400 the beneficial nitrogen-fixing root
leaves linear, dull deep green; scape species, annual or perennial herbs with nodules on legumes caused by Rhizo-
10–20cm (4–8in), outer flower seg- clumped, erect to climbing stems and bium species, or the damaging CROWN
ments oblong to oval, to 2cm (3/4in), whorled leaves. Starry, 4-parted flowers GALL (Agrobacterium tumefaciens); by fungi
inner segments marked green at tips). are borne in cymes in summer. (for example, CLUBROOT of brassicas,
G.odoratum develops its persistent, sweet caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae); by
Galax (from Greek gala, milk; mean- coumarin fragrance on drying and is eelworms (for example, ROOT KNOT
ing obscure). Diapensiaceae. SE US. an ingredient of pot-pourri and sachets, EELWORM, Meloidogyne species, on
WANDFLOWER, WAND PLANT, BEETLE traditionally used as a moth-deterrent. tomatoes); by viruses, which may cause
WEED, GALAXY, COLTSFOOT. 1 species, It has been collected and cultivated LEAFY OUTGROWTHS referred to as ena-
G.urceolata (syn. G.aphylla), a tufted, since the Middle Ages at least, to flavour tions; by mites (for example, BIG BUD of
evergreen perennial herb with a wines, brandy, apple jellies, sorbets, blackcurrants, caused by Cecidophyopsis
matted, creeping rootstock. The leaves creams and fruit salads. As a tisane ribis); or by insects (for example, RED
are basal and slender-stalked with (allow to wilt slightly before infusing), it LEAF BLISTER of red and white currants
blades 2.5–7.5cm (1–3in) in diameter, has a fresh grassy flavour and a gently caused by the aphid Cryptomyzus ribis,
circular to cordate and toothed. Glossy sedative effect. Harvest before flowering, OAK APPLES caused by the gall wasp
dark green, they often become bronze and dry in a cool dry and shaded place. Biorhiza pallida and ROOT GALLS on
in cold weather or bright sunlight. As an ornamental, it provides useful brassicas caused by the TURNIP GALL
Small, white flowers are carried in groundcover for cool shade, under WEEVIL, Ceutorhynchus pleurostigma).
spike-like racemes to 45cm (18in) tall shrubs or in the woodland garden. It is
in late spring and early summer. Fully hardy to at least –15°C/5°F. Propagate gall midges (Diptera: Cecidomyi-
hardy and suitable for the woodland from seed sown fresh in late summer. idae) small fragile flies, up to 3mm
garden and for underplanting in Divide in spring or at any later time (1/8in) in length, mostly with delicate
shrubberies. Excellent groundcover, during the growing season. hairy wings. The legless larvae, up to
the foliage also lasts well when cut. G.odoratum (syn. Asperula odorata; 4mm (1/8in) long, have diverse feeding
Grow in moist, leafy, lime-free soils WOODRUFF, SWEET WOODRUFF; habits depending upon the species to
with part shade, and mulch annually Europe, N Africa; creeping to which they belong. Some are predators,
in spring with acidic organic matter, ascending perennial to 45cm (18in) mainly of aphids or, sometimes, mites;
such as pine needles. Propagate by with slender, 4-angled stems, the others feed on decaying organic
division in early spring, or by seed dried shoots strongly scented of matter; some feed on fungi, especially
sown in early spring or in autumn and hay; leaves whorled, 1–5cm (1/2–2in), rusts and mildew; many are plant para-
kept moist in the shaded cold frame. dark to bright green; flowers white sites, sometimes inducing plant galls.
in terminal clusters). Several gall midges are pests of top
Galega (from Greek gala, milk; once and soft fruit, including two common
thought to increase milk flow). Legumi- gall a localized swelling or outgrowth in both Europe and North America. 327
nosae. S Europe to Asia Minor, tropical resulting from an abnormal increase in The PEAR MIDGE (Contarinia pyrivora) has
gall midges
yellow or white larvae which infest woody plants, such as the NAIL GALL G.candicans is the hardiest species.
pear fruitlets, causing them to become MITE of Europe (Eriophyes tiliae), which With deep mulch protection, it may
blackened and fall prematurely; the makes small, pointed red galls on the be grown where winter temperatures
PEAR LEAF MIDGE (Dasineura pyri) has upper surface of lime (Tilia species) fall to –15°C/5°F; the remaining
white larvae which live and feed within leaves. Several species common to species are slightly less cold-tolerant,
the upwardly rolled margins of pear Europe and parts of North America suffering at temperatures between –5
leaves. Other species that attack fruit live in leaf buds causing them to swell, to –10°C/23–14°F. Grow in a sunny,
in Europe include the BLACKCURRANT including the YEW GALL MITE (Cecido- sheltered position on any well-drained
LEAF MIDGE (D.tetensi), the RASPBERRY phyopsis psilaspis). Amongst the rust mite soil that does not dry out when plants
CANE MIDGE (Resseliella theobaldi), and species that feed openly on leaves, the are in leaf. In harsh climates, lift the
a related species, the RED BUD BORER APPLE RUST MITE (Aculus schlechtendali) bulbs in winter and store them in dry,
(R.occuliperda), which is a pest of is widespread in Europe and North frost-free conditions prior to replanting
G newly-budded fruit trees and roses.

European species responsible for
damage to vegetables include the
America; it causes severe russeting
of leaves and fruitlets.
The BROOM GALL MITE (Aceria
in spring. Propagate by ripe seed sown
in spring, or by offsets.
G.candicans (SUMMER HYACINTH; to 1m
SWEDE MIDGE (Contarinia nasturtii), genistae) invades the vegetative buds of (31/4ft) tall; leaves 50–100cm (20–39in) x
whose yellow-white larvae feed on Cytisus, which as a result develop into 5cm (2in); flowers fragrant, to 3cm
young leaves and shoots of various cauliflower-like growths. Several species (11/4in), white faintly tinted green at
brassicas, often causing blindness of gall mite have been associated with base); G.princeps (differs from G.candicans
(where growing points fail to develop), witches’ brooms, which commonly in its flowers, strongly tinted green at
and the PEA MIDGE (C.pisi), whose occur on birch and willows, although base and on lobes, these are carried in
larvae feed on the flowers, leaves the implication of the mites has never shorter, broader spikes); G.viridiflora (to
and pods of peas. been confirmed. 1m (31/4ft); flowers 2–5cm (3/4–2in), pale
Gall midges common on ornamen- Gall mites are difficult to control in green with white-edged lobes).
tal plants in both Europe and North gardens due to the restricted availabil-
America include the honey locust or ity of effective chemicals. Most damage gamete a fertile reproductive cell of
GLEDITSIA GALL MIDGE (Dasineura is only cosmetic and can be tolerated; either sex, which unites with another
gleditchiae), which converts leaflets into where damage is more severe, it may gamete at fertilization to form a zygote.
pod-like structures. European species be necessary to replace plants.
targetting ornamentals include the gametophyte the sexual, or haploid,
HEMEROCALLIS GALL MIDGE (Contarinia gall wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipi- stage in the life-cycle of a plant show-
quinenotata), which enlarges and destroys dae) small, inconspicuous insects, up to ing alternation of generations, when
the flower buds, and the VIOLET GALL 8mm (3/8in) long, with brown or black the gametes are produced on a spe-
MIDGE (Dasineura affinis), which causes bodies and two pairs of wings, or cially developed form of the plant.
swollen and rolled leaves on violets. sometimes wingless. They lay eggs in
The ROSE MIDGE (Dasineura rhodophaga) plant tissue, the majority infesting oaks gamopetalous with petals united by
is an important pest of roses in North and others living mostly on wild roses. their margins, in the form of a tubular
America, its white to light orange As the eggs hatch, the larvae feed on or funnelform corolla, at least at
larvae deforming shoot tips with mal- the plant tissue which swells up around their bases.
formation and death of flower buds. them to form galls. Within the life cycle
Control by hand-picking and of oak gall wasps, two different types gamophyllous with leaves or leaf-
destruction of the galls. Residual of gall may be produced on different like organs united by their margins.
contact insecticides can be effective parts of the host plant to accommodate
if applied when gall midges are likely alternate sexual and asexual genera- gamosepalous with sepals united
to be laying eggs. tions. Gall wasps seldom cause suffi- by their margins.
cient damage to warrant control
gall mites (Acarina: Eriophyidae) measures; see bedeguar. garden line a length of thin cord
very small mites, up to 0.25mm (1/100in) or string wound directly or by a spool
long, with white or yellow, elongated, Galtonia (for Sir Francis Galton on to a stout wooden or metal pin,
maggot-like bodies; they differ from (1822–1911), geneticist, anthropologist with the free end tied to a second pin.
other mites in having two pairs of legs and explorer). Liliaceae (Hyacinthaceae). Pulled taut between two marker canes,
rather than four. Gall mites are capable Eastern South Africa. 3 species, bul- it is used to lay out straight lines for
of moving only short distances and bous perennial herbs. The leaves are seed drills or planting rows.
are mainly dispersed by wind. All are rather fleshy and narrowly lanceolate
plant feeders and most attack a single to strap-shaped. Long-stalked and gardenesque a style of gardening
plant species or closely related plants. cylindric to conical, the flower spikes promoted by J.C. Loudon in the mid-
Often there is no discernible damage arise in late summer and autumn. 19th century and based on the princi-
328 but some mites are associated with White or green, the flowers are showy, pal of attributing equal importance to
characteristic galls on the leaves of funnel- to bell-shaped and nodding. carefully cultivated exotic plants and
Gasteria
their setting. It aimed to make the intensely fragrant, rose-like in shape Garrya (for Nicholas Garry (d. 1830)
garden appear as a work of art rather and usually double with a shortly of the Hudson Bay Company, who
than of nature. Later writers used the cylindric corolla tube to 3cm (11/4in) helped David Douglas on his plant col-
term derogatorily when referring to long; includes several cultivars, among lecting expeditions in western North
Victorian gardens, which they felt them ‘Fortuniana’, with large, heavily America). Garryaceae. W US, Mexico,
lacked a sense of design. perfumed flowers turning from pure West Indies. Some 18 species, dioe-
white to ivory); G. thunbergia (WHITE cious, evergreen trees or shrubs with
Gardenia (for Dr Alexander Garden GARDENIA; South Africa; evergreen leathery leaves. Inconspicuous flowers
(1735–91), botanist of South Carolina shrub or tree to 5m (16ft); leaves glossy; are carried amid overlapping, paired
and correspondent of Linnaeus). Rubi- flowers white to cream, fragrant, with bracts along pendulous, tassel-like
aceae. Tropical Old World. Some 250 a limb of overlapping segments each to catkins – these are more showy on
species, shrubs or trees with leathery 3cm (11/4in) long, and a narrow corolla male plants. Hardy in zone 7, espe-
leaves and axillary or terminal flowers.
Typically white to cream and produced
at various times of year, the flowers are
tube to 7cm (23/4in) long).
garlic (Allium sativum) a hardy onion-

cially if grown as a wall shrub. Plant in
spring on any well-drained soil, in sun
or shade. Propagate in late summer by
G
either solitary or in few-flowered cymes like perennial, probably of Central cuttings of semi-ripe side shoots with
and usually fragrant. They consist of Asian origin but cultivated in Egypt a heel, or, in late winter, by hardwood
a cylindric to campanulate corolla tube before 2000 BC; grown for its strongly basal cuttings rooted under mist, or in
and a spreading limb of 5–12 lobes. aromatic oily bulbs, consisting typically a case. Prune only to establish shape or
Grow in a humus-rich, acidic, soilless of a number of offsets, or cloves. The to remove deadwood; do this immedi-
medium, with high humidity and cloves are used, either raw or cooked, ately after flowering since catkins are
bright indirect light. Water freely when as a savoury flavouring, and the young borne at the tips of the previous
in growth and moderately at other green leaves may be finely chopped in season’s wood. Purple blotches or
times. Maintain a minimum tempera- salads; also for medicinal purposes. blackening of the leaves are symptoms
ture of 15°C/59°F in winter. In areas Bulb formation is encouraged by of frost damage and wind scorch.
where tap water is alkaline, use rainwa- increased day-length and higher tem- G.elliptica (SILK TASSEL, TASSEL TREE;
ter or apply sequestered iron at approx- peratures, but garlic is hardier and W US; shrub or small tree to 4m (13ft)
imately fortnightly intervals. Propagate more easily grown than often thought. tall; leaves to 8cm (3in), oblong to
in spring by greenwood cuttings. Alter- Cool storage of dormant cloves at elliptic, wavy-edged, tough, glossy grey-
natively, take ripewood cuttings, with a 0–10°C/32–50°F hastens bulbing; high green to matt dark green; male catkins
heel, in late summer or autumn, and temperature delays or prevents it. to 20cm (8in) long, grey narrow, hang-
root these in a sandy mix in a closed Plant only healthy individual cloves, ing in clusters in winter and spring;
case with a bottom heat. of at least 13mm (1/2in) diam. or about includes ‘James Roof ’, with deep sea
G.jasminoides (syn. G.augusta; GARDE- 10g (1/3oz) in weight, in early spring green leaves and silver-grey to mush-
NIA, JASMIN, CAPE JESSAMINE; E Asia; (from cold store) or in autumn. Space room-coloured catkins, to 20cm (8in)
evergreen shrub or tree to 12m (40ft) 15cm (6in) apart in rows 30cm (12in) long and in abundant clusters).
tall, usually far smaller in cultivation; apart, and cover with soil to a depth
leaves glossy dark green; flowers of 25mm (1in) above the clove tip. Gasteria (from Greek gaster, belly,
5–10cm (2–4in) across, white to ivory, Garlic can be raised in small pots or alluding to the inflated base of the
cell modules prior to setting out, perianth tube). Liliaceae (Aloeaceae).
although a cold period out-of-doors is South Africa. 14 species, compact,
necessary. Bulbs become dormant in more or less stemless perennial
summer, and should be lifted when the succulents. The fleshy leaves are
leaves die down. After drying, they can strap-shaped and distichous or spirally
be stored as ropes through to spring, arranged in compact rosettes. Nodding
or for longer in cold storage. Pink and on a lax, simple or sparingly branched
white forms exist and some store better raceme, the flowers are tubular and
than others. pink to vermilion tipped green.
Garlic chives (Allium tuberosum) is a Cultivate as for the smaller Aloe species.
perennial grown for the mild garlic G.bicolor (syn. G.caespitosa; leaves
flavour of its flat leaves and flowers. 3–22cm (11/4–9in), dark green spotted
Cultivate as chives (q.v.). white in obscure crossbands, tip
pointed; G.liliputana (miniature with
garotting a method of restricting leaves to 6cm (21/2in) long, blotched
growth and improving the yield of fruit white); G.carinata (leaves 3–12cm
Garden line trees by twisting a metal wire tightly (11/4–43/4in), keeled beneath, dark green
Used here as a planting guide, pulled taut around a branch or the main trunk. It covered in pale tubercles); G.verrucosa
between row marker canes. A measuring is similar in principle to bark ringing (leaves not keeled but densely covered 329
rod lies along the line. but less drastic in effect. in white tubercles).
Gaultheria
(1/8in), white; fruit to 1cm (1/2in), white red-tinted, the fruit showy and white
or pale pink); G.mucronata (syn. Pernettya to purple-red or ruby; includes
mucronata; Chile, Argentina; rigidly numerous cultivars).
branched, suckering shrub to 1.5m
(5ft); leaves 0.8–1.8cm (3/8–3/4in), oval Gaura (from Greek gauros, superb,
to elliptic, sharply pointed, entire to referring to the flowers). Onagraceae.
toothed, rigid, dark green; flowers N America. 21 species, annual, bien-
to 0.6cm (1/4in), white to pink; fruit to nial or perennial herbs. Borne in spikes
1.2cm (1/2in) white, rose or lilac to crim- in summer and autumn, the short-lived
son or purple-black; includes numerous flowers are tubular to funnel-shaped
cultivars); G.nummularioides (Himalaya; and consist of four, clawed petals. A
prostrate shrublet; leaves 0.6–1.5cm graceful hardy plant for herbaceous
G (1/4–5/8in), ovate to elliptic, rounded,

bristly-serrate, rugose, dull green; flow-
ers to 0.6cm (1/4in), white to pink or
borders, the wild garden or collections
of native plants. Plant in sun on any
well-drained soil. Propagate from seed
Gaultheria mucronata
‘Wintertime’ red-brown; fruit to 0.8cm (3/8in), blue- in spring or early summer. G.lindheimeri
The shrubby genus Gaultheria includes black); G.procumbens (WINTERGREEN, (Texas, Louisiana; willowy perennial to
species formerly named Pernettya. CHECKERBERRY, TEA BERRY, MOUNTAIN 1.5m (5ft) tall; flowers to 3cm (11/4in)
TEA; eastern N America; creeping across, white suffused with pink in
Gaultheria (for Dr Gaultier, a mid- shrublet to 30cm (12in); leaves 2–5cm loose, erect spikes).
18th-century physician and botanist (3/4–2in), elliptic to obovate, finely
from Quebec). Ericaceae. Americas, crenate to bristly serrate, otherwise Gaylussacia (for J.L. Gay-Lussac
Japan to Australasia. (Including smooth, mid- to deep green; flowers to (1778–1850), French chemist).
Pernettya.) Around 170 species, ever- 0.7cm (1/4in), white to pale pink; fruit Ericaceae. Americas. Some 40 species,
green shrubs and shrublets with tough- to 1.5cm (5/8in), dark pink to deep red, deciduous or evergreen shrubs. The
textured leaves and small, urn-shaped flesh white to pink, strongly scented flowers are small and tubular, urceolate
flowers in spring and early summer. of wintergreen); G.pumila (syn. Pernettya or campanulate with five lobes. They
These are followed by spherical fruits, pumila; southern S America, Falkland are carried in axillary racemes in late
often vividly coloured, lasting well and Islands; prostrate shrub; leaves to spring and give rise to berry-like fruit.
with a scent of winter-green. Fully 0.6cm (1/4in), ovate to lanceolate, blunt Fully hardy. Plant on moist, sandy, acid
hardy. Grow in sun or semi-shade to rounded, leathery, glossy, smooth; soils in the shrub border, open wood-
in moist, humus-rich, lime-free soils. flowers to 0.6cm (1/4in), white; fruit to land or rock garden, in part shade or
Prune only when necessary to remove 2cm (3/4in), white or red-tinted; ‘Harold full sun. Propagate by softwood cut-
deadwood and weak growth. Vigorous Comber’: fruit large, deep pink); tings in summer, by division of rooted
species such as G.shallon will withstand G.shallon (SALAL, SHALLON; Alaska to suckers or by seed in autumn. G.baccata
close clipping. Species previously California; low-growing, suckering and (BLACK HUCKLEBERRY; E US; erect,
included in Pernettya are particularly spreading shrub to 60cm (24in); leaves deciduous shrub to 1m (31/4ft) tall;
useful when mass-planted as medium- 5–10cm (2–4in), broadly ovate, apex leaves pale green turning red in
height groundcover. Species such as acute, bristly serrate; flowers to 0.5cm autumn, resinous; flowers dull red;
G.mucronata and G.pumila may require (1/4in), white tinged pink, in drooping fruit black, glossy, edible).
one male pollinator to 5–10 fruiting racemes; fruit to 1cm (1/2in), red ripen-
plants to fruit well. Propagate by greening with a black tinge); G.tasmanica Gazania (perhaps named for
wood cuttings in summer, by division (syn. Pernettya tasmanica; Tasmania; mat- Theodore of Gaza (1398–1478),
in early spring or autumn, or by seed forming shrub; leaves to 0.8cm (3/8in), who translated the botanical works of
sown in early spring. oblong, acute, more or less crenate, Theophrastus into Latin). Compositae.
G.cuneata (W China; dwarf, compact leathery and glossy; flowers to 0.6cm Tropical and southern Africa. TREA-
shrub to 30cm (12in); leaves 1–3cm (1/4in), white; fruit to 1cm (1/2in) with SURE FLOWER. About 16 species, peren-
(1/2–11/4in), ovate to obovate, glandular- a vivid red, enlarged fleshy calyx); nial or annual herbs. They produce
serrate, leathery; flowers white; fruit G.trichophylla (W China, Himalaya; showy, daisy-like flowerheads on slender
to 0.6cm (1/4in), white); G.forrestii (SW wiry-stemmed, cushion-forming shrub; stalks in summer. In dry climates that
China; rounded bush to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 1cm (1/2in), elliptic or ovate to are frost-free or almost so, the following
leaves 5–9cm (2–31/2in), narrowly ovate narrowly oblong, bristly-serrate; flowers are grown as annuals or perennials in
to oblong or oblanceolate, bristly- to 0.4cm (1/8in), red to pink or white; flower borders and rockeries. In cool
serrate, leathery; flowers to 0.5cm fruit to 1cm (1/2in), pale blue); G. x temperate gardens, they are grown as
(1/4in), fragrant, milky white; fruit to wisleyensis (G.shallon x G.mucronata; syn. x half-hardy annuals, but, in warm sunny
0.6cm (1/4in), blue); G.miqueliana (Japan; Gaulnettya wisleyensis; vigorous, suckering positions with good drainage, they
shrub to 30cm (12in); leaves 2–4cm shrubs to 1m (31/4ft), forming dense may overwinter successfully. They are
330 (3/4–11/2in), ovate to bluntly obovate, thickets of small, tough, dark green drought-tolerant and will withstand
glandular-serrate; flowers to 0.4cm leaves, the flowers white to pink or salt-laden winds. Propagate by seed in
Genista
early spring under glass or in situ after S US, C America; to 6m (20ft) tall; beds. G.hispanica is hardy to about
the last frost. Root heeled cuttings in leaves glossy; flowers sweetly scented, –20°C/–4°F and one of the best
summer; in sand in a closed case with to 3cm (11/4in), yellow with an shrubs for clothing dry sunny banks.
bottom heat; overwinter new plants at orange centre). Most Genista species are cold-tolerant
10°C/50°F. G.rigens (TREASURE to at least –15°C/5°F, including
FLOWER; S Africa; decumbent peren- gel sowing see fluid drilling. the graceful weeping tree broom,
nial to 30cm (12in) tall; leaves oblong G.aetnensis. G.tinctoria can show cold
to spathulate, entire to pinnately lobed, geminate paired. tolerance to –35°C/–31°F and below.
dark green above, silvery beneath with Genista does not shoot freely if cut hard
margins incurved; flowerheads to 8cm gemma an asexual reproductive back. Increase by softwood or semi-ripe
(3in) across, ray florets orange with body, bud-like and detaching itself cuttings or by seed in autumn.
black basal spots, disc florets orange- from the parent plant. G.aetnensis (MOUNT AETNA BROOM;
brown; var. uniflora: syn. G.uniflora,
smaller flowerheads with bright yellow
ray florets; many cultivars and hybrids
gemmation a form of secondary
growth in potato tubers, occurring
Sardinia, Sicily; slender shrub or tree
to 6m (20ft) with fine, weeping
branches; leaves linear, sparse or
G
have been developed, including plants especially after spasmodic development absent; flowers golden yellow);
with very silvery, or yellow-variegated as a result of a drought period. Char- G.canariensis (syn. Cytisus canariensis;
leaves, and flowerheads in tones of acteristically, areas near the eyes swell Canary Islands; bushy shrub to 2m
white, yellow, tangerine, orange, red, into smooth knob-like protuberances. (61/2ft); leaves trifoliolate, downy, each
pink and purple-bronze). leaflet to 1cm (1/2in); flowers bright
gemmiparous bearing vegetative yellow, fragrant); G.cinerea (SW Europe,
gazebo a roofed structure designed to buds. NW Africa; erect shrub to 3m (10ft)
command a view. A gazebo may take with long, slender branches; leaves to
the form of a turret or lantern on a gene a segment of chromosome 1cm (1/2in), narrowly elliptic, downy
housetop or, often, a separate garden which encodes for a specific character- beneath; flowers bright yellow);
house. It is also known as a belvedere. istic; a unit of inheritance in plants. G.hispanica (SPANISH GORSE; S France,
The term gazebo is sometimes used N Spain; spiny, erect shrub to 70cm
of a projecting window or balcony. genetic modification (GM), (28in); leaves to 1cm (1/2in), ovate-
genetic engineering a laboratory oblong, downy beneath, present only
gazon coupe a form of parterre in process whereby particular genes are on flowering branches; flowers golden
which shapes are cut from turf and identified, extracted and transferred yellow); G.lydia (E Balkans, Syria;
filled with coloured sand or gravel. from one plant cell to another, includ- prostrate shrub to 30cm (12in), the
ing to a cell of a different species. By branches ascending with prickly tips,
Gelsemium (from Italian, gelsomino, this means, desirable characteristics grey-green; leaves to 1cm (1/2in), linear
jasmine). Loganiaceae. Americas, SE can be implanted and perpetuated to elliptic; flowers golden yellow);
Asia. YELLOW JESSAMINE, CAROLINA JAS- by propagation. G.pilosa (W and C Europe; prostrate to
MINE. 3 species, perennial, evergreen, erect shrub to 45cm (18in), branches
twining shrubs with clusters of sweetly genetics the study of heredity and ascending, downy; leaves to 1.5cm
fragrant flowers in late spring and variation; sometimes loosely used to (5/8in), oblanceolate, silky beneath, dark
summer – these are funnel-shaped and describe the practice of plant breeding. green above; flowers golden yellow;
five-lobed. In zones that are more or includes prostrate and mound-forming
less frost-free, the following species is geniculum a knee-like joint or node cultivars); G.sagittalis (syn. G.delphinensis;
suitable for training on trellis and where an organ or axis is sharply bent. S and C Europe; prostrate shrub to
pergolas or for growing on steep banks. 15cm (6in), branches green with broad
Elsewhere, it will need the shelter of Genista (name used by Virgil). Legu- wings, giving the whole a leafy, ever-
a warm, south-facing wall. In such con- minosae. Europe, Mediterranean to green appearance; leaves to 2cm (3/4in),
ditions and where long, hot summers W Asia. BROOM, WOAD-WAXEN. Some lanceolate; flowers golden yellow);
ensure ripening, it may tolerate tem- 90 species, shrubs, or small trees, G. x spachiana (G.stenopetala x G.canariensis;
peratures to –10°C/14°F or below. sometimes spiny, mostly deciduous, but syn. Cytisus x spachianus, G.fragrans; ever-
Otherwise, grow in the cool green- appearing evergreen due to green, flat- green shrub 3–6m (10–20ft) tall; leaves
house or conservatory. Plant in full tened branchlets. Pea-like, yellow flow- trifoliolate, leaflets to 1.5cm (5/8in),
sun or light shade. Under glass, this ers are carried in terminal racemes or obovate, rounded, dark green above,
climber flowers more profusely if heads in spring and summer. Grow in silky beneath; flowers yellow); G.tenera
restricted at the roots. Prune hard after full sun on well-drained and not too- (Madeira, Tenerife; resembles G.cinerea,
flowering. Propagate by seed in spring fertile soils. The low-growing and com- but with shorter, stouter branches,
at 18–20°C/64–68°F, or by semi-ripe pact species are suited to warm, sunny becoming twiggy; leaves grey-green;
cuttings in a closed case with gentle ledges in the rock garden. G.sagittalis flowers yellow; ‘Golden Shower’: flow-
bottom heat. G.sempervirens (FALSE thrives on the tops of dry-stone walls, ers bright gold in profusion); G.tinctoria 331
JASMINE, EVENING TRUMPET FLOWER; or trailing over the edges of raised (DYER’S GREENWEED; Europe, Asia
Genista
Minor, Ukraine; variable, more or less and white-flowered forms are also
erect shrub to 2m (61/2ft); leaves to 5cm grown); G.clusii (C and S Europe;
(2in), elliptic to oblanceolate, bright tufted; leaves in rosettes; flowers
green, glabrous; flowers golden yellow; solitary, to 5cm (2in), funnelform or
‘Royal Gold’: profuse, conical panicles campanulate, deep azure, paler and
of rich yellow flowers). spotted olive green within); G.farreri
(NW China; stems slender, branched,
genotype the genetic constitution of trailing; leaves tufted or paired; flowers
an organism; cf. phenotype. solitary, to 6cm (21/2in), narrowly
funnel-shaped, Cambridge blue tinged
Gentiana (named for Gentius, green, tube white within, striped deep
ancient King of Illyria, said to be violet-blue and white on exterior);
G the discoverer of medicinal properties

of gentian roots). Gentianaceae.
Cosmopolitan except Africa, usually in
G.gracilipes (NW China; stem to 25cm
(10in), branched, decumbent; flowers
solitary, long-stalked, 3.5cm (11/2in),
mountainous regions. GENTIAN. About narrowly campanulate, deep purple-
400 species, annual, biennial or peren- blue, exterior green); G.lutea (GREAT
nial herbs (those here perennial). The YELLOW GENTIAN; Europe; robust, erect
flowers are rotate to funnel-shaped, Gentiana septemfida to 2m (61/2ft), stems thick; leaves paired
the corolla tube sometimes pleated, This spreading, low-growing plant is suitable and opposite; flowers yellow in axillary
and the limb divided into five to seven for both the front of the border and the rock clusters, to 2.5cm (1in), rotate to cam-
short and pointed lobes. garden, and is more tolerant of full sun than panulate); G. x macaulayi (G.sino-ornata x
The smaller alpine species do well some of the other smaller gentians. G.farreri; vigorous with low, branching
on scree beds with underlying mois- and rooting stems; flowers solitary, to
ture, especially G.verna. Dwarf gentians Sow seed as soon as ripe, thinly and 6.5cm (21/2in), widely funnel-shaped,
(G.ornata, G.sino-ornata and G.acaulis) are combined with fine, dry sand into a deep blue, striped violet and panelled
well-suited to moist sites in the rock light, porous, sandy mix, and plunge green-white outside; includes the mid-
garden. Although they should not be pots in the cold frame. All species blue, late-flowering ‘Edinburgh’, the
planted where they will suffer tree drip, require light for germination. Take large, deep blue ‘Kidbrooke Seedling’,
they do appreciate some protection 4–6cm (11/2–21/2in) cuttings of those and the pale blue ‘Wells Variety’);
from fierce sunlight. G.saxosa is best cul- species that do not form a central G.ornata (C Nepal to SW China; pros-
tivated in the alpine house, in a 2:2:1 rosette and taproot; cut cleanly with trate, to 10cm (4in); flowers solitary,
mix of loam, sand and leafmould or a sharp knife, close to the crown, and to 3.5cm (11/2in), broadly campanulate,
coir, with a collar of sharp grit around insert firmly into a sandy sterilized mix. pale blue striped purple-blue with
the neck. G.acaulis, G.farreri, G.verna and Place in a cool, shaded frame and keep white panels outside); G.saxosa (New
their hybrids may also be accommo- moist. Mat-forming species with Zealand; tufted, stems prostrate then
dated in the alpine house, where their fibrous root systems may be divided ascending; leaves fleshy; flowers solitary
flowers will not be damaged by rain in early spring. Layering, which often or two to five per cyme, to 2cm (3/4in),
and their winter requirements (for cool occurs naturally, can be induced by white veined purple-brown, campanu-
and relatively dry conditions) can be pegging down shoots in spring; these late, with blunt, oblong lobes); G.septem-
met more easily. may be detached in the following fida (W and C Asia; erect or ascending,
Some species lend themselves to season. Rust fungus gives rise to brown 15–30cm (6–12in), clumped; leaves
pocket plantings in paving where, given pustules on the leaves and stems. paired; flowers in terminal clusters, to
a gritty substrate, they will appreciate G.acaulis (syn. G.excisa, G.kochiana; 3.5cm (11/2in), narrowly campanulate,
the coolness at their roots. These Europe, Spain to Balkans; tufted; leaves deep blue with pale spots, paler within);
include G.acaulis, G.septemfida and in a basal rosette; flowers solitary, to G.sino-ornata (W China, Tibet; prostrate
G.sino-ornata. For border plantings, 5cm (2in), campanulate, dark blue, with sprawling and rooting stems;
two types are useful: those forming spotted green within tube); G.angustifolia leaves paired; flowers solitary, to 5.5cm
low-growing mats, such as G.sino-ornata, (Europe, particularly SW Alps, Jura, (21/4in) funnel-shaped, deep blue, paler
G.acaulis, G.farreri and G.septemfida, Pyrenees; tufted; leaves in a rosette; within, exterior with stripes of purple-
suitable for drifts and groups at the flowers solitary to 5cm (2in), funnel- blue, panelled green-white); G.verna
border’s edge, and taller-growing sub- shaped, deep sky blue, paler and spot- (SPRING GENTIAN; low, tufted, flowering
jects, such as G.asclepiadea and G.lutea. ted green within tube); G.asclepiadea stems to 10cm (4in); flowers solitary,
These last two are shade-tolerant and (WILLOW GENTIAN; Europe, Asia 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in) in diameter, rotate,
may naturalize in the wild, woodland Minor; clump-forming with erect to brilliant blue, sometimes pale blue,
and bog gardens, on moist, acid soils. arching stems to 30cm (12in); flowers or pink to purple-red, throat white).
All require perfect drainage and ample in clusters, to 3.5cm (11/2in), narrowly
332 moisture at the roots during their campanulate, azure, spotted purple genus (pl. genera) the principal rank
growing season. within white-striped throat; sky blue in the taxonomic hierarchy between
Geranium
family and species. The genus repre- are, however, easily propagated from (20in); leaves with 7 pinnately lobed
sents a single highly distinctive species seed and well-worth risking outdoors. and toothed segments; flowers to
(monotypic or monospecific genus) The remaining species are hardy. 4cm (11/2in) across, deep purple,
such as Ginkgo or, more often, a number Several of the smaller plants thrive pink or white with purple-pink veins);
of species united by a common suite on the rock garden, old walls, among G.dalmaticum (Balkans, Albania; trailing
of distinctive characters. The genus paving stones and in raised beds and dwarf to 15cm (6in); leaves to 4cm
or generic name is italicized and takes sinks, including G.cinereum, G.dalmaticum, (11/2in) across, round, glossy green with
a capital letter. G.orientalitibeticum, G.pylzowianum and 5–7 toothed to lobed segments; flowers
G.sanguineum var. striatum. They prefer to 3cm (11/4in) across, bright pink);
geocarpy the subterranean ripening full sun and free-draining soil. Increase G.endressii (Pyrenees; hairy, clump-
of fruits developed from flowers borne by division, rooted lengths of stem and forming, to 50cm (20in); leaves to 15cm
above ground, as in the peanut runners. Two of the smaller species, (6in) across, with 5 lobed and toothed
(Arachis hypogaea).
geophyte a plant growing with a

G.renardii and G.sessiliflorum, have differ-
ing needs – the first seems happier in
the dry garden among pinks, artemisias
segments; flowers 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in)
across, pale rose becoming candy pink
with darker veins; ‘Wargrave’s Pink’:
G
stem or tuber below ground; usually and silver sages; the second favours a a popular cultivar with pale salmon
applied to tuberous or bulbous species cool, moist but gritty soil, still in full sun. flowers, good weed-smothering
from arid or semi-arid lands. The others described here are groundcover); G.farreri (China; dwarf,
superb hardy perennials for the herba- tap-rooted, rosette-forming; leaves to
geotropism directional growth of ceous and mixed border, woodland 5cm (2in) across, round to reniform,
a plant in response to gravity. Positive garden and for underplanting shrub- cut into 7 segments, each 3-lobed and
geotropism is demonstrated by roots beries. They tolerate a wide range of toothed, stalks and margins tinted red;
growing downwards, negative geotro- conditions, from full sun to shade, flowers to 3.5cm (11/2in) across, pale
pism by shoots growing upwards. and will usually withstand periods mauve-pink with blue-black anthers);
See stimulus movements. of drought. Some, like G.endressii and G.himalayense (syn. G.grandiflorum;
G.macrorrhizum are near-invincible Himalaya; carpet-forming, hairy, to
Geranium (from Greek, groundcover. G.pratense is a lovely 30cm (12in); leaves to 20cm (8in)
geranos, crane, referring to plant for the wild or meadow garden. across, cut into 7 lobed and toothed
the long beak of the fruit; G.phaeum and G.sinense are segments; flowers to 6cm (21/2in) across,
the name geranion was among the most deep violet-blue, fading to magenta
used by Discorides). richly and then white at centre); G.ibericum (Cauca-
Geraniaceae. subtly coloured sus, Turkey, Iran; clump-forming, to
Temperate regions. of all hardy 60cm (24in); leaves to 10cm (4in)
CRANE’S BILL. plants; whilst the across, hairy, cut into 9–10, overlap-
Some 300 vibrant lime and ping, lobed and toothed segments;
species of magenta of the flowers to 5cm (2in) across, rich laven-
mostly perennial, ‘cranesbill’ scrambling G. ‘Anne der blue with feathered purple veins);
but also annual fruits Folkard’ is almost G.incanum (S Africa; bushy, branching,
herbs and some sub- too bright to 1m (31/4ft); leaves aromatic, cut into
shrubs, not to be confused with to behold. 5 narrow, toothed and lobed segments,
Pelargonium, which is popularly All of these grey- to white-hairy; flowers to 2cm
known as geranium. Those here should be propa- (3/4in) across, deep magenta with a
are perennial herbs, often hairy gated by division white ‘V’ at the base of each petal
and to varying degrees glandu- in early spring. and darker veins); G. ‘Johnson’s Blue’
lar. Their leaves are typically G. ‘Ann Folkard’ (G.procurrens x (G.himalayense x G.pratense; garden origin;
rounded in outline and G.psilostemon; garden origin; leaves clump-forming, to 30cm (12in); leaves
palmately divided, the segments emerging pale gold, later lime to 15cm (6in) across, cut into 5–7 seg-
themselves may be lobed, forked Geranium green; inflorescence to 1m (31/4ft), ments each deeply lobed and toothed;
and toothed. Produced in spring phaeum sprawling and scrambling, much- flowers to 5cm (2in) across, deep laven-
and summer, the flowers have branched, flowers produced in succes- der blue); G.macrorrhizum (S Europe;
5, usually obovate petals. sion over a long period, to 3cm (11/4in) clump-forming and carpeting, to 40cm
G.canariense, G.incanum, G.maderense across, deepest magenta veined black); (16in), muskily scented and clammy;
and G.traversii var. elegans are not fully G.cinereum (Pyrenees; rosette-forming, to leaves to 20cm (8in) across with 5–7
hardy. In climate zones 8 and under, 15cm (6in); leaves to 5cm (2in) across, broad, lobed and toothed segments,
they need a warm and sheltered site, round, cut into 5–7 wedge-shaped, colouring well in autumn; flower stalks
fast-draining soil and protection from lobed segments, grey-green, softly and calyces tinted purple-red to brown,
overwet winter conditions. They might hairy; flowers to 2.5cm (1in) across, flowers to 3cm (11/4in) across, magenta to
equally be grown in the cold green- white to pink with purple or white pale pink or white; an excellent, weed- 333
house or conservatory. These species veins); G.clarkei (Kashmir; to 50cm smothering groundcover); G.maculatum
Geranium
(NE US; clump-forming, hairy, to 4.5cm (13/4in) across, violet to blue or coral red as they die); G.sinense (China;
75cm (30in); leaves to 20cm (8in) white, sometimes with paler, or pink clump-forming, to 40cm (16in); leaves
across, deeply cut into 5–7 widely veins; includes cultivars with white, to 20cm (8in) across, deep green, with
spaced and deeply toothed segments, opalescent, sky blue, deep blue, violet, 5–7 deep, toothed segments; flowers to
colouring well in autumn; flowers pink and mauve flowers); G.procurrens 3cm (11/4in) across, velvety dark maroon
to 4cm (11/2in) across, pink or white); (Himalaya; clump-forming, glandular- to chocolate brown with a pink centre
G.maderense (Madeira; to 1.5m (5ft); hairy with trailing and rooting stems; and red anther filaments); G.sylvaticum
leaves to 60cm (24in) across, deeply leaves to 10cm (4in) across with 5 (Europe; clump-forming, glandular-
lobed and finely cut and toothed, dark segments, each 3-lobed and toothed; hairy, to 70cm (28in); leaves to 20cm
green, in a rosette atop a short, stout flowers to 3cm (11/4in) across, deep (8in) across, deeply cut with 7–9,
‘trunk’, stalks tinted red-brown; flowers purple-pink with black veins and mark- toothed and lobed segments; flowers to
to 4cm (11/2in) across, deep magenta ings at the centre); G.psilostemon (Turkey; 3cm (11/4in) across, blue to violet with
G with paler veins); G. x magnificum (G.iber-

icum x G.platypetalum; garden origin;
flowers rich violet-purple with darker
clump-forming, erect, to 100cm (39in);
leaves to 25cm (10in) across with 7 seg-
ments and deep, sharp lobes and teeth,
a white base, sometimes lilac, white or
rose; ‘Mayflower’: flowers rich violet-
blue with a white centre); G.traversii var.
veins); G.nodosum (Pyrenees to Balkans; colouring well in autumn; flowers to elegans (Chatham Is.; low-growing and
clump-forming and spreading, to 50cm 3.5cm (11/2in) across, intense magenta, spreading, silvery throughout; leaves to
(20in); leaves 5–20cm (2–8in) across, veined and stained black at centre); 10cm (4in) across, with 5–7 lobed and
glossy, broadly and sparsely lobed and G.pylzowianum (China; 5–20cm (2–8in), toothed segments; flowers to 3cm
shallowly toothed; flowers to 4cm tuberous, carpeting and spreading by (11/4in) across, cloudy pink with darker
(11/2in) across, lilac-pink with darker runners; leaves to 5cm (2in) across, cut veins); G.wallichianum (Himalaya;
markings at centre); G.orientalitibeticum into toothed and lobed, wedge-shaped clump-forming, low-growing, to 45cm
(syn. G.stapfianum ‘Roseum’; China; segments, dark green; flowers to 4.5cm (18in); leaves with 3–5, deep, sharply
dwarf tuberous carpeter to 20cm (8in), (13/4in) across, pink, centre white to lobed and toothed segments; flowers
differs from G.pylzowianum in its larger, green, veins darker); G.renardii (Cauca- to 3.5cm (11/2in) across, purple-pink
marbled leaves and petals lacking sus; clump-forming, to 20cm (8in); with a white centre; ‘Buxton’s Variety’:
claws, these are bright purple-pink with leaves 5–10cm (2–4in) across, rounded, syn. ‘Buxton’s Blue’, dense, carpeting,
a white base); G. x oxonianum (G.endressii shallowly and bluntly lobed, dull grey leaves emerald green flecked with pale
x G.versicolor; garden origin; vigorous to sage green with fine, pale down and green or silvery white, flowers porce-
clump-forming and carpeting, to 65cm impressed wrinkled veins; flowers to lain blue with a bright white centre);
(26in); leaves sometimes marked; flow- 3.5cm (11/2in) across, white to palest G.wlassovianum (E Russia to China;
ers pink with notched petals and dark lavender with dark purple, branching clump-forming, bushy, softly hairy,
veins; ‘Claridge Druce’: leaves dark veins); G.reuteri (Canary Is; short-lived, to 40cm (16in); leaves to 15cm (6in)
and rather glossy, flowers rose pink to 40cm (16in) tall; leaves to 30cm across, rounded, shallowly cut into
with darker veins; ‘Walter’s Gift’: (12in) across in a spreading rosette atop 7 pinnately lobed segments; flowers
new growth brown tinted orange, later a short ‘trunk’, stalks stained purple- to 4.5cm (13/4in) across, dark to pale
bronze-green, flowers pale pink, heav- red, blades cut into 5 pinnately lobed purple-violet with a white centre and
ily veined); G.palmatum (Madeira; differs and toothed segments; flowers to 5cm feathered, deep violet veins).
from G.reuteri in developing a trunk (2in) across, deep pink); G.sanguineum
only with age, in its stalked, central (BLOODY CRANE’S BILL; Europe; spread- Gerbera (for the German naturalist
leaf segments, and in its purple-pink ing, hummock-forming, to 25cm (10in); Traugott Gerber (d. 1743), who trav-
flowers with cream, not red, anthers); leaves 5–10cm (2–4in) across, rounded, elled in Russia). Compositae. Africa,
G.phaeum (BLACK WIDOW; Europe; deeply cut into 5–7, toothed and lobed Madagascar, Asia, Indonesia. TRANS-
clump-forming, to 70cm (28in); leaves segments; flowers to 4cm (11/2in) across, VAAL DAISY, BARBERTON DAISY. About
to 20cm (8in) across, rounded, shal- deep purple-red to bright carmine, 40 species, hairy, stemless, perennial
lowly lobed and toothed, usually with pink or white, the centre white and the herbs with entire to toothed or pin-
maroon markings near the base; flow- veins usually darker; includes numer- nately lobed leaves and showy, long-
ers to 2cm (3/4in) across, silky purple- ous cultivars; var striatum: syn. var. lan- stalked, daisy-like flowerheads. The
black to maroon, deep mauve-pink, castriense, a low-growing plant suitable following species and its hybrids provide
lilac or white; includes numerous culti- for the rock garden with clear pink very long-lasting cut flowers, notable
vars, one of the finest is var. phaeum flowers marked with darker veins); for their range of radiant colours, from
‘Samobor’, with broad rounded leaves G.sessiliflorum (New Zealand; dwarf, softer pastels to deep shades of red and
clearly marked with a chocolate horse- clump-forming, to 8cm (3in); leaves to orange. Scald the bases of the flower
shoe, and flowers fading from maroon 2.5cm (1in) across, rounded, shallowly stalks and stand them in cool deep
to cloudy mauve); G.pratense (MEADOW lobed; flowers to 1cm (1/2in) across, water before arranging. In essentially
CRANE’S BILL; Europe, Asia; clump- white to dull cream; selections such as frost-free zones, grow permanently in
forming, to 70cm (28in); leaves to subsp. novae-zealandiae ‘Nigricans’ and the open garden in full sun on a free-
334 20cm (8in) across, with 7–9 deeply cut, ‘Porter’s Pass’ have pale bronze to deep draining soil; otherwise, grow in the
lobed and toothed segments; flowers to chocolate leaves turning orange to cool, well-ventilated greenhouse, in the
Geum
border or in pots. Dwarf hybrids such The family includes small shrubs carefully, avoiding wetting the leaves.
as ‘Happipot’ are particularly well- and trees, epiphytic vines and almost Store dormant rhizomes and tubers
suited to pot cultivation and may be stemless rosette-forming plants, of free of frost and repot each season.
brought into the house for temporary tropical, sub-tropical, Asian and In their active growth stage, all ges-
display when in bloom. Under glass, European origin. The majority have neriads prefer medium to high humid-
provide a freely draining, medium- fine fibrous root systems (for example, ity and, in high-temperature areas,
fertility, loam-based mix and ensure Columnea, Ramonda), in some cases outdoors misting twice a day is benefi-
some shade from the hottest summer producing rhizomes bearing scales of cial. Some genera, (e.g. Episcia, Gesneria,
sun; water plentifully and liquid feed modified leaves (for example, Achimenes, and Phinaea), require high humidity to
fortnightly when in growth. Overwinter Gloxinia). Others form tubers with fine grow well in temperate zones, as can
at a temperature of 5–7°C/41–45°F, roots arising on the upper surface (for be obtained in a closed case. Plants
and keep just moist. Divide and repot example, Sinningia). Fibrous rooters benefit from modest, balanced supple-
in spring. G.jamesonii (BARBERTON DAISY,
TRANSVAAL DAISY; flowerheads to 15cm
(6in) across, on stalks to 70cm (28in)
grow continuously, whilst rhizome
and tuber formers have a period of
dormancy which varies according
mentary feeding during their growing
period; nitrogen should be omitted
during flowering. Pot into shallow con-
G
tall; many cultivars and seed races are to species. tainers of peat-based compost or equal
available with single or double flower- Cool-temperate genera are native parts sterilized loam, sphagnum peat,
heads, some very large, and in shades of high altitudes in Europe, Asia, and perlite and vermiculite; ensure a pH
of yellow, orange, vermilion, deep the Americas and can be grown in the range of 6.5–7.0, except for Phinaea
scarlet, brick red, salmon, crimson, rock garden or alpine house. For out- which requires 7.5. Grow large vining
pale pink, magenta and white). door cultivation in temperate zones, and epiphytic sorts in hanging mesh
well-drained positions such as rocky baskets or pots, and high-humidity
germination a complex sequence crevices are necessary to avoid excess lovers in terraria.
of physiological and structural winter wet. Plant rosette-forming Gesneriads may be propagated from
changes which occurs as genera such as Haberlea and Ramonda seed or cuttings. Sow freshly harvested
a seed starts into growth. Percentage of in vertical crevices; provide support seed, without covering, at a tempera-
seeds germinating for shrubby/climbing genera such as ture of 20–25°C/68–77°F to achieve
is calculated Asteranthera and Mitraria to keep the germination in 4 weeks. Some genera
plants above wet ground. For outdoor (e.g. Streptocarpus) suspend development
cultivation in warmer zones, plant in and should be pricked out very early.
moisture-retentive soils. It is important Leaf cuttings should be set into 5–6.5cm
to identify soil pH requirements; for (2–21/2in) pots, and placed in a propa-
example, Conandron and Ramonda serbica gator, at 20–25°C/68–77°F, or in a
are acid lovers, while Haberlea, Jankaea, warm position under a polythene-bag
and Ramonda myconi are lime lovers. cover. Increase large-leafed types, (e.g.
Protect from prolonged hard frost, Streptocarpus), by leaf cuttings made
and hot sunshine. In the alpine house, as 5cm (2in)-long, wedge-shaped seg-
pot in shallow containers of well- ments. Stem cuttings, with or without
Germination test drained, soil-based compost. Water growing tips, may be taken, cutting
sparingly during the winter resting below leaf nodes, into portions 5–10cm
germination test any of various phase; water moderately and position (2–4in) long; the lowest leaves should
methods for determining the viability in bright, filtered light in summer. be removed. This method can be used
of seeds, including germinating a seed Subtropical and tropical genera can for shoots arising from tubers.
sample under optimum conditions, be grown indoors in temperate areas Scaly rhizomes can be broken into
studying a sample’s reaction to chemi- at 7–30°C/45–86°F, with shrubs and segments 1cm (1/2in) long and several
cal treatment, or germinating excised terrestrial species (e.g. Lysionotus, Petro- inserted into individual 9cm (31/2in)
embryos. Viability is expressed as a cosmea) at the lower end of the range, pots to a depth of 1cm (1/2in). Tubers
percentage of seeds successfully tested. epiphytes (e.g. Aeschynanthus, Columnea) may be increased by cutting into indi-
at the higher end and others (e.g. Saint- vidual segments, each possessing a bud;
Gesneriads a group name for plants paulia and Streptocarpus) in the mid dust cut surfaces with fungicide and
of the family Gesneriaceae, including range of 15–20°C/59–68°F. In tem- allow to dry for a while before potting
Achimenes, Aeschynanthus, Alloplectus, perate zones, position plants in bright with the bud eye standing just proud
Asteranthera, Briggsia, Chirita, Codonanthe, filtered light during summer. They are of the surface.
Columnea, Conandron, Episcia, Eucodonia, day-length responsive so, for optimum
Gesneria, Gloxinia, Haberlea, Jankaea, results, supplement by artificial means Geum (name used by Pliny).
Kohleria, Lysionotus, Mitraria, Nautilocalyx, to provide 12–14 hours lighting. Rosaceae. Europe, Asia, New Zealand,
Nematanthus, Niphaea, Paraboea, Outdoors in long-day warmer zones, N and S America, Africa. AVENS. Some
Petrocosmea, Phinaea, Ramonda, Rehmannia, provide shade, especially for Episcia 50 species, perennial herbs and sub- 335
Saintpaulia, Sinningia, and Streptocarpus. and Aeschynanthus. Water plentifully but shrubs (those listed below are perennial
Geum
herbs). The leaves are lyrate or pinnate, It may also be grown in tubs in the situ in spring or early autumn. For
usually hairy, in basal clumps and on cool greenhouse or conservatory. Grow late-winter flowering under glass, sow
the erect flowering stems. The bell- to in semi-shade on a cool, moist soil rich in late summer and overwinter in well-
bowl-shaped flowers, produced in spring in sand and leafmould. Shield from ventilated conditions with a minimum
and summer in stalked cymes, consist harsh winds. Propagate by semi-ripe night temperature of 7°C/45°F.
of five, persistent calyx lobes and five cuttings or by seed. G.achilleifolia (S California; glandular-
broad petals. The following species are hairy annual to 70cm (28in); flowers
hardy to at least –15°C/5°F, but in Gibbaeum (from Latin gibba, hump, 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), violet-blue in a dense,
areas of prolonged low temperatures, referring to the hump-shaped plant fan-like cluster of cymes); G.capitata
should be protected in winter with bodies of many species). Aizoaceae. (western N America; smooth to
evergreen branches or a dry mulch S Africa (W Cape). 20 species, highly glandular-hairy annual to 80cm (32in);
of bracken litter or leafmould. Grow succulent, more or less stemless, clump- flowers to 0.8cm (3/8in), lavender, in
G in well-drained, moisture-retentive soils

rich in organic matter. Propagate culti-
vars by division in autumn or spring
forming perennial herbs, with paired
and fleshy leaves united at their base
to a greater or lesser extent. Daisy-like
small, crowded terminal heads).
Gillenia (for Arnold Gille, 17th-cen-

and divide plants every three to four flowers open at the junction of the tury German botanist, who had a
years to maintain vigour. Species may leaves on bright days. Provide a mini- garden at Cassel). Rosaceae. N Amer-
be propagated by seed, sown in autumn mum winter temperature of 7°C/45°F, ica. 2 species, rhizomatous perennial
or spring, although species hybridize with full sun and a dry, draught-free herbs with erect to arching, branching
freely and seed may not come true. environment. Water sparingly during stems and trifoliolate leaves. Five-
G. ‘Borisii’ (clump-forming, to 50cm periods of sunny weather when in petalled flowers are carried in loose
(20in); flowers bright yellow or, in growth and not at all when dormant. panicles in summer. Hardy to at least
the forms usually cultivated, orange- Plant in a perfectly drained, gritty –15°C/5°F. Grow in sun or semi-shade
scarlet); G.chiloense (Chile; to 60cm medium. Feed during periods of active in a lime-free, moist but porous soil.
(24in); flowers scarlet to yellow, washed growth in sunny weather, using a very Provide support by staking. Propagate
deep fiery orange, in erect cymes); weak, low-nitrogen, liquid fertilizer. by division, or by seed sown in autumn
G.coccineum (Balkans; to 45cm (18in); Propagate as for Conophytum. or spring. G.trifoliata (BOWMAN’S ROOT,
flowers to 3cm (11/4in) in diameter, G.petrense (leaves to 1cm (1/2in), trian- INDIAN PHYSIC; NE US, Canada; erect,
cupped to outspread, deep fiery red to gular, smooth, pale grey-green; flowers slender, finely branched; flowers to
orange or apricot); G. x heldreichii (G.coc- pink to red); G.velutinum (leaves to 6cm 2cm (3/4in) across with narrow,
cineum x G.montanum; to 30cm (12in); (21/2in), narrowly triangular, pale grey- white petals).
flowers large, orange-red); G.montanum green, velvety; flowers white or pink).
(ALPINE AVENS; C and S Europe; to ginger Zingiber officinale. Zingiber-
30cm (12in); flowers to 3cm (11/4in) in gibberellins a group of naturally aceae. Tropical Asia. A tender, decidu-
diameter, pale yellow); G.rivale (WATER occurring plant hormones that influ- ous perennial, to 1.5m (5ft) with
AVENS, INDIAN CHOCOLATE, PURPLE ence growth, especially as stimulators. lanceolate leaves; grown for its highly
AVENS, CHOCOLATE ROOT; Europe; to They are synthesized as gibberellic aromatic, thick, branching rhizomes
35cm (14in); flowers to 2.5cm (1in) in acid. See growth regulators. and for stem ginger. Requires a mini-
diameter, nodding, calyx dark purple- mum temperature of 15ºC/59ºF,
brown, corolla campanulate, cream to gibbous swollen on one side or at plentiful water and high humidity,
dusky pink or brick red to pale orange the base. and space to accommodate lax growth.
streaked purple-red). Propagate by division of rhizomes in
Gilia (for Filippo Gilii (1756–1821), spring or by seed, sown at 18ºC/64ºF.
Gevuina (the native name). Pro- an astronomer in Rome and author,
teaceae. Chile. CHILE NUT, CHILEAN with Caspar Xuarez, of Osservazioni fito- Ginkgo (from Chinese yin-kuo, silver
HAZELNUT. 1 species, G.avellana, an logiche). Polemoniaceae. SW US, south- apricot, via Japanese pronunciation,
evergreen shrub or tree to 12m (40ft), ern S America. 25 species, annual, ginko.) Ginkgoaceae. China. 1 species,
with rusty-tomentose new growth. rarely perennial herbs. The leaves are G.biloba, (MAIDENHAIR TREE) a decidu-
The leaves are pinnate or bipinnate, usually pinnately lobed, rarely entire, ous, dioecious tree to 40m (130ft). The
20–42cm (8–161/4in) long, coriaceous, and often downy or glandular. Carried trunk is erect, and the crown basically
sap-green and coarsely toothed. in summer and autumn in panicles or open and conical with several, large
Appearing in late summer in narrow clusters atop slender stems, the flowers and upswept stems from a low fork.
racemes, the flowers are spidery and are tubular to funnelform. Suitable for The branches are spreading with weep-
cream to pale buff. These are followed annual and cut-flower borders, or for ing tips. The leaves are fan-shaped with
by fleshy-coated fruits that turn from pots in the cool greenhouse where late an irregular upper margin often shal-
red to black. Usually considered tender, winter/early spring blooms are lowly cut into two lobes. They are
G.avellana is nevertheless known to required. Grow in full sun on a very 5–12cm (2–43/4in) across, tough, yellow-
336 tolerate temperatures to –10°C/14°F well-drained, fertile soil; provide sup- green above and paler beneath, turn-
in a sheltered woodland environment. port in exposed situations. Sow seed in ing pale gold to rich butter yellow in
Gladiolus
often the result of the activity of rab- taller cultivars if necessary. Although
bits or deer but sometimes due to other many of the hybrids will survive the
mechanical damage. It usually results winter outdoors if protected from slugs
in the death of the tree or limb; see and wet, it is safe practice to lift the
bark ringing; (2) (US) the growth of roots corms in the autumn and store them
around a tree trunk, or other larger in dry, frost-free conditions. Increase
roots, so tightly as to prevent normal by cormlets removed from the dormant
expansion. parent corms. Affected by rots when in
storage (dust with fungicide). Gladiolus
glabrate, glabrescent (1) nearly scab produces lesions and blotches on
glabrous, or becoming glabrous with the foliage. Foliage streaked with yellow
age; (2) minutely and almost invisibly and dying prematurely probably
Ginkgo biloba
Makes a distinctive and beautiful specimen
pubescent.
glabrous smooth, hairless.

indicates gladiolus yellows. Destroy
infected plants.
G.atroviolaceus (Greece, Turkey, Iraq,
G
tree. Not known in the wild though well Iran; 35–70cm (14–28in); flowers deep
represented in the fossil state. gladiate sword-like. violet-purple, almost black); G.callianthus
(syn. Acidanthera bicolor; E Tropical
autumn. Male flowers are carried in Gladiolus (from Latin gladiolus, Africa; 50–100cm (20–39in); flowers
short, yellow-green catkins in spring. diminutive of gladius, a sword, referring scented, white with dark purple-red
The female inflorescences consist of to the leaf shape). Iridaceae. Africa, marks or staining in throat); G.cardinalis
two, cap-shaped ovules at the head mainly South Africa, Madagascar, (WATERFALL GLADIOLUS, NEW YEAR
of a short, drooping stalk. The fruit Europe, Arabia, W Asia. About 180 LILY; S Africa; 60–100cm (24–39in);
matures the following autumn, and is species, cormous perennial herbs with flowers crimson or scarlet with a white
fleshy-coated, spherical and to 2.5cm linear to sword-shaped leaves. Pro- or cream, mauve-edged marking on
(1in) long. Pale olive at first, it ripens duced in spring and summer in narrow each of the lower perianth lobes);
to purple-black and smells of rancid spikes, the flowers consist of six equal G.carneus (syn. G.blandus; PAINTED LADY;
butter. A remarkable tree, the Gingko is or unequal perianth lobes. These may S Africa; 20–100cm (8–39in); flowers
grown for its beautiful maidenhair-like be broad or narrow, ruffled or pointed, white, cream, mauve or pink, usually
foliage, elegant crown, and its curiosity and closed or spreading, their bases with yellow, red or purple markings on
value as a ‘living fossil’. It resists many forming a long or short, usually the lower perianth lobes or with dark
pests, diseases and urban pollution, and curved tube. blotches in throat); G. x colvillii (G.tristis x
is particularly suitable as a street tree The species will flower in late winter G.cardinalis; syn. G.nanus; a garden
(especially the cultivar ‘Fastigiata’ and or spring if grown under glass. In the hybrid and parent of the Nanus or
similar clones); the autumn colour is open garden, they flower in summer Miniature Hybrids); G.communis subsp.
brief but spectacular. It does best in and early autumn, as do the hybrids. byzantinus (syn. G.byzantinus; BYZANTINE
climates with hot summers. Male The species are generally rather tender GLADIOLUS; S Spain, Sicily; 50–100cm
clones are often grown in the US and and may not survive the winter in cli- (20–39in); flowers deep purple-red with
Europe, for the fruit is malodorous and mate zones 7 and below. Gladiolus com- narrow, paler marks bordered with
messy when ripe. Female plants are munis subsp. byzantinus and G.italicus are, purple on the lower perianth lobes;
more often seen in Japan and China, however, reliably hardy in climate zone white, pink and vivid cerise forms are
where ginkgo nuts are eaten and used 7, while G.atroviolaceus, G.callianthus and also grown); G.dalenii (syn. G.natalensis,
in medicine. Plant on any well-drained G.papilio may last for many years in a G.primulinus, G.psittacinus; Tropical
soil in a fairly sheltered site. Hard sheltered, sunny position. The remain- Africa, S Africa; 50–100cm (20–39in);
pruning will result in the production of ing species should be planted outdoors flowers green, yellow, orange, red, pink
long, soft watershoots, and felled trees in spring and lifted for dry, frost-free or purple, sometimes striped or mottled
will coppice. Old specimens may storage in autumn. Otherwise, keep with another colour); G.italicus (syn.
become hollow-trunked. Propagate them under glass, planted in autumn G.segetum; FIELD GLADIOLUS; S Europe;
from seed stratified and sown in for spring flowering – in which case, 40–100cm (16–39in); flowers purple-
autumn. Take half-ripe cuttings in dry the corms off when the new pink to magenta, lower perianth lobes
summer or hardwood cuttings in growth is complete and store them dry with a narrow pink blotch outlined in
winter. Graft scions of desirable clones in their pots until repotting in the purple); G.papilio (syn. G.purpureo-auratus;
and males (side-veneer) on to seedling autumn. All need full sun and a sandy S Africa; 50–90cm (20–36in); flowers
stock in spring, providing intermediate or gritty soil that dries out thoroughly off-white to dull yellow suffused cloudy
greenhouse conditions, medium light once the foliage has withered. The purple to dove grey especially on exte-
and occasional syringing. hybrids should be planted out in rior, lower lobes with buff to golden,
spring, 10–15cm (4–6in) apart and wedge-shaped patches outlined with
girdling (1) the removal of a circle of deep, in fertile, well-drained soil in full mauve); G.tristis (MARSH AFRIKAANER; 337
bark around a tree trunk or branch, sun. Water in dry weather and stake S Africa; 40–100cm (16–39in); flowers
Gladiolus
G LADIOLUS TYPES
G
Grandiflorus Group (‘Tesoro’) Nanus Group (‘Amanda Mahy’) Species (Gladiolus papilio)
Cultivars in this Group are especially suitable The Primulinus and Nanus Groups have shorter, Of the numerous perennial Gladiolus species
for cutting and showing. They are identified more slender flower stems, producing up to G.papilio is hardy enough to overwinter out-
within five classes by size. three and one spike per corm respectively. doors in all but the coldest areas.
white, pale cream or yellow, often tinged such as oil, calcium or sugar – for contain ferns or orchids, and to house
with green, usually dotted, lined or example, nectaries. cuttings and germinating seeds; such
flushed dark green, brown or purple). units are sometimes referred to as close
The following informal horticultural glandspine in some Cactaceae, a cases. Occasionally, the term is used to
classification of Gladiolus is used: But- short spine borne in the upper part of refer to a bell glass, which is a type
terfly (B), Exotic (E), Giant (G), Large an areole, which is nectariferous in its of cloche.
(L), Medium (M), Miniature (Min), first year.
Nanus (N), Primulinus (P), Small (S), glaucescent slightly glaucous.
Tubergenii (Tub). A great number of glandular-pubescent either
garden hybrids and cultivars exist with covered with intermixed glands and Glaucidium (‘resembles Glaucium’ –
wide variation in form, size, and flower hairs, or possessing hairs terminated the general shape of the flowers is
colour, except true blue. These are by glands. similar). Paeoniaceae. Japan. 1 species,
divided into groups, of which three are G.palmatum, a perennial, rhizomatous
most widely representative. Grandiflorus glass a widely used cladding material herb to 40cm (16in) tall, and white-
Group: large flowered hybrids in bloom for greenhouses, frames and cloches, pubescent when young. Rigid stems
mid- to late summer; spikes to 90cm which has the advantages of being bear 2 leaves at their summits, each to
(36in) bearing up to 28 closely-arranged long-lasting, with very high levels of 20cm (8in), kidney-shaped to rounded,
buds with half open simultaneously. sunlight transmission and good heat palmately lobed and toothed to incised.
Flowers 6–14cm (21/2–51/2in) across; retention. Its disadvantages are fragility, Produced in late spring, the solitary,
tepals may be plain (Dutch origin) or and weight and cost compared with terminal flowers are to 8cm (3in) wide
ruffled (American origin); Nanus Group: substitutes such as acrylic, polycarbon- and consist of four broad, petal-like
miniature hybrids, flowering early ate, polyester, polyethylene or polyvinyl sepals; these are mauve to pale lilac,
summer; two or three slender spikes chloride. For garden purposes, horticul- (rarely white), with a boss of yellow sta-
per corm, to 36cm (14in) bearing up to tural glass at least 3mm (1/8in) thick mens. Hardy to –15°C/5°F and below.
seven loosely arranged buds with three should be chosen; the most common It requires shelter from cold drying
to five open at the same time. Flowers pane size is 60cm (24in) square. For winds, protection from summer heat
up to 5cm (2in) across, often frilled; conservatory glazing, thicker tough- and drought and is well-suited to the
Primulinus Group: flowering mid- to ened glass is essential, often in double- woodland garden, peat terrace or
late summer; one single, slender spike layered sheets for improved heat north-facing herbaceous border. Grow
per corm, to 60cm (24in), bearing 20 + retention. in a cool, moisture-retentive, humus-
loosely-arranged buds with up to seven rich soil in partial shade. Propagate
open at the same time. Flowers up to glass case any of a wide range of by seed or careful division in spring.
7.5cm (3in) across, with the upper most glazed structures for protecting plants.
perianth lobe hooded and arching over Long wall cases were formerly a Glaucium (from Greek glaukos, grey-
stigma and anthers. common feature of large gardens, green, referring to the leaf colour).
used for protecting trained forms of Papaveraceae. Europe, N. Africa, C
338 gland any cell or group of cells that is peaches, pears and cherries. Within and SW Asia. HORNED POPPY. Some 25
able to secrete a substance or substances, greenhouses, glass cases may be used to species, annual, biennial or perennial
globose
herbs with orange latex. The oblong to perennial species is usually cultivated in each to 5cm (2in), ovate to oval and
oblanceolate leaves are pinnately lobed its variegated form and is a very useful finely crenate); G.japonica (Japan, China,
or dissected and toothed. Produced trailing plant for hanging baskets and introduced E US, California; to 20m
in summer in loosely and broadly containers. It makes equally depend- (66ft), trunk thorns to 8cm (3in),
branched terminal panicles, the flowers able, if invasive, groundcover. Increase branched, slightly flattened; leaves to
are cup-shaped, short-lived and consist by detaching rooted lengths of stem. 30cm (12in), bipinnate or pinnate with
of four petals. They are followed by G.hederacea (GROUND IVY, ALEHOOF, oblong to lanceolate leaflets to 4cm
long, narrowly cylindric and sharply FIELD BALM, GILL-OVER-THE-GROUND, (11/2in), glossy, entire to sparsely cre-
tapered (horn-like) seed pods. Hardy in RUNAWAY ROBIN; Europe to Caucasus, nate); G.triacanthos (HONEY LOCUST;
climate zone 6 and an excellent plant naturalized N America; flowering N America, introduced temperate
for silver, dry and coastal gardens. stems ascending, 5–30cm (2–12in) tall, Old World; to 45m (148ft), trunk and
Grow in a warm, sunny position on a non-flowering stems creeping to trail- branches armed with stout, sharp,
fast-draining soil. Sow seed in situ in
spring, or in the cold frame in summer.
G.flavum (YELLOW HORNED POPPY;
ing, mat-forming and rooting; leaves
to 3cm (11/4in), broadly ovate, toothed;
flowers to 2cm (3/4in), violet to mauve
simple or branched, flat thorns; leaves
to 20cm (8in), bipinnate or pinnate
with oblong to lanceolate, crenulate,
G
Europe, N Africa, W Asia; biennial or or lilac, sometimes white or pink; deep green leaflets to 4cm (11/2in) long;
short-lived perennial to 1m (31/4ft) tall, includes the pink-flowered ‘Rosea’, includes thornless cultivars and others
usually shorter; leaves bright grey- and ‘Variegata’, with leaves with with golden to lime green foliage (e.g.
green to cool blue-green; flowers to broken edges and zones of silver-grey ‘Sunburst’), or dark bronze red foliage
5cm (2in) across, deep golden yellow; and white). (e.g. ‘Rubylace’), some weeping, and
fruit to 30cm (12in); G.corniculatum has some with dark green foliage persisting
darker flowers, from deep orange to Gleditsia (for Johann Gottlieb Gled- well into autumn – for example,
scarlet). itsch (1714–1786), German botanist, ‘Shademaster’).
director of Berlin Botanical Garden,
and friend of Linnaeus). Leguminosae. gley used of soils that have developed
C and E Asia, N and S America, Iran, under impeded drainage conditions.
tropical Africa. HONEY LOCUST. 14 Typically, the soil has a comparatively
species, deciduous trees, usually with shallow surface horizon and grey
stout, simple or branched thorns on colouring, with a thin coating to granu-
the trunks and branches. The leaves lar components and frequently rust-
are pinnate and/or bipinnate. Small, coloured discolouration from ferric
green-white flowers are carried in oxide deposit.
spring and summer in axillary racemes
and may give rise to large seed pods. Globba (from galoba, native name in
Honey locusts are widely used in land- Amboina, Indonesia). Zingiberaceae.
scaping and frequently grown in parks SE Asia. Some 70 species, rhizomatous
and gardens. Some species are used perennial herbs with clumped, reed-
as hedges, and some for fences and as like stems. Produced in late spring and
resilient street trees – most notably summer, the inflorescence is a pendu-
G.triacanthos in the US, which tolerates lous raceme with showy, reflexed
Glaucium flavum large-scale container cultivation in bracts. The delicate flowers consist of
Often seen growing wild along shorelines, northeastern cities. Where fallen pods three petals, petal-like staminodes and
the yellow horned poppy is tolerant of would cause litter problems, the sterile one fertile stamen with a slender, curl-
salt-laden winds and thus is an ideal and unarmed G.triacanthos ‘Moraine’ ing filament. The lower flowers are
choice for coastal gardens. may prove useful. They are able to sometimes replaced by bulbils. During
withstand temperatures down to at growth, maintain a minimum tempera-
glaucous coated with a fine bloom, least –30°C/–22°F. Grow in full sun. ture of 18°C/64°F, with high humidity,
whitish, or blue-green or grey, and Propagate species by scarified seed, plentiful water and bright indirect light.
easily rubbed off. cultivars by grafting or by budding In the winter months, keep virtually
on to seedling stocks of G.triacanthos. dry, provide full sun and a minimum
Glechoma (from Greek glechon, name In the US, Gleditsia is affected by temperature of 10°C/50°F. Propagate
for a plant in PseudoDioscorides). mimosa webworm. The G.triacanthos by division in spring, or by removing
Labiatae. Europe, naturalized N Amer- cultivars, ‘Green Glory’ and ‘Moraine’, bulbils. G.winitii (Thailand; to 1m
ica. Some 12 species, evergreen peren- show some resistance. (31/4ft); inflorescence to 15cm (6in), with
nial herbs, most with creeping and G.caspica (CASPIAN LOCUST; N Iran, pink to magenta or mauve bracts and
rooting stems. Small, two-lipped, tubu- Transcaucasia; to 12m (40ft), trunk yellow flowers).
lar flowers are carried in whorls in thorns to 15cm (6in), branched, slightly
summer. Fully hardy and tolerant of flattened; leaves to 25cm (10in) long, globose spherical, sometimes used to 339
sun, shade and most soils, the following pinnate, with shining green leaflets, mean near spherical.
globular
globular composed of globose forms, at tip. They range in colour from yellow glutinose, glutinous see viscid.
as in the aggregate fruits of Rubus. to red or purple or bicoloured, with the
margins often incurved, undulate or Glyceria (from Greek glykys, sweet,
Globularia (from Latin globulus, a crisped. The most popular named vari- referring to the flavour of the seeds).
small round head, from the form of ants are the lemon yellow-flowered Gramineae. Northern temperate
the flowerhead). Globulariaceae. Cape ‘Citrina’, ‘Rothschildiana’, to 2m (61/2ft) regions, Australia, New Zealand, S
Verde Islands, Canary Islands, Europe tall, with wavy flowers to 18cm (7in) America. SWEET GRASS, MANNA GRASS.
and Asia Minor. GLOBE DAISY. 22 across in scarlet or ruby stained and 16 species, perennial grasses, often
species, usually evergreen perennial edged golden yellow, and ‘Simplex’, a found in wet and marshy places. They
herbs or shrublets. They form low shorter plant with broader, if smaller, form extensive colonies of pithy, reed-
hummocks or mats of neat foliage, tepals in deep orange and yellow. like stems with narrowly strap-shaped
giving rise in spring and early summer Beautiful climbers for the warm leaves. The flowers are borne in
G to fluffy, ball- or button-like flower-

heads. Hardy in climate zone 6 and
well-suited to the rock garden. Grow in
greenhouse or home. Grow in full sun
in a freely draining, fertile mix. Sup-
port the climbing stems on pea sticks, a
summer in plume-like, terminal pani-
cles. Fully hardy, the following species
thrives in fertile, moisture-retentive soil
gritty, well-drained, neutral or slightly cane frame or a wire hoop. Water plen- in the herbaceous and mixed border,
alkaline soil in full sun. Propagate by tifully and feed fortnightly with dilute but is more often used as an aquatic
division, by softwood or semi-ripe liquid feed when in full growth. With- or marginal. Grow in full sun. Glyceria
cuttings or by seed sown when ripe. hold water as growth dies back in late spreads vigorously in watery places and
G.cordifolia (Europe; dwarf, creeping summer/early autumn; store the long, should be confined in a tub or basket
and mat-forming shrublet with spathu- narrow tubers dry in their pots at a in smaller pools. Propagate by division
late, notched leaves and button-like, sky minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F. in early spring. G.maxima (syn.
blue to lavender (rarely white or pink) Repot every one or two years in early G.aquatica; REED SWEET GRASS, REED
flowerheads); G.meridionalis (Europe; spring. Propagate by seed sown in a MEADOW GRASS; Europe, Asia; to 2.5m
more robust than G.cordifolia with sandy propagating mix in late winter, (8ft) tall in flower; includes var. variegata,
oblanceolate, rarely notched leaves and with gentle bottom heat, by careful with leaves striped green and cream,
mauve-blue to lilac-pink flowerheads). division in spring, or by offsets. flushed pink on emergence, and
‘Pallida’, with leaves boldly striped
glochid a barbed spine or bristle, Glottiphyllum (from Greek glotta, off-white).
often tufted, on the areoles of cacti. tongue, and phyllon, leaf, referring to
the thick, fleshy, tongue-like leaves). goblet a form of fruit tree or bush in
glomerate aggregated in one or Aizoaceae. South Africa. More than which the main branches are trained
more dense or compact clusters. 50 species, highly succulent perennials to encircle an open centre.
with low, branching stems giving rise to
glomerule a cluster of capitula or clumps of thickly fleshy leaves. Solitary Gomphrena (name used by Pliny for
grouped flowers, usually subtended and virtually stalkless, the daisy-like a kind of Amaranth). Amaranthaceae.
by a single involucre. flowers open on bright days in spring Tropical America, Australia. 90
and summer. Provide a minimum species, annual, rarely perennial herbs.
gloriet in Spanish gardens, a pavilion winter temperature of 7°C/45°F, low Produced in spring and summer, the
or arbour placed in a central open humidity and full sun. Grow in a low- individual flowers are inconspicuous,
space from which paths may radiate. fertility potting mix with high propor- but are carried in dense ball- or
tions of sand and grit. Water very button-like heads amid highly
gloriette a hill-top focal point in a sparingly during periods of very warm coloured, chaffy bracts. In cool temper-
landscape garden. weather. Keep dry from autumn to ate zones, Gomphrena is treated as a
spring. Propagation as for Conophytum. frost-tender annual in beds and bor-
Gloriosa (Latin gloriosus, glorious). G.nelii (leaves to 5 x 2 x 1cm (2 x 3/4 x ders, for cutting and drying and as a
1
Liliaceae (Colchicaceae). Tropical /2in), upper surface flat, lower surface pot plant for the greenhouse or conser-
Africa and Asia. GLORY LILY, CLIMBING obscurely carinate, light green with vatory. It is grown for its ‘clover-like’
LILY, CREEPING LILY. 1 species, translucent angles; flowers golden- flowerheads in strong colours that are
G.superba, a tuberous, perennial herb. yellow); G.semi-cylindricum (leaves to retained on drying. Grow in full sun,
Its slender stems climb to 2m (61/2ft) by 5 x 0.6 x 0.6cm (2 x 1/4 x 1/4in), semi- in a sheltered sunny position in a deep,
means of tendrils at the leaf tips. Soli- cylindric, fresh glossy green with faint fertile, well-drained soil. Sow in situ in
tary flowers are produced in summer dots and small, tooth-like projections spring in warm temperate areas; else-
and autumn on long pedicels in the on margins; flowers yellow). where, sow under glass in early spring,
leaf axils. The flowers are usually hardening off before planting out after
angled downwards and consist of six glume a small, dry, membranous the last frosts. G.globosa (GLOBE AMA-
spreading tepals, each 4–10cm bract found in the inflorescences of RANTH, BATCHELOR’S BUTTONS;
340 (11/2–4in) long, lanceolate, bowed at Gramineae and Cyperaceae and Panama, Guatemala; annual, usually
centre and gently but distinctly reflexed usually disposed in two ranks. erect, to 60cm (24in) tall; flowerheads
gourds
2–6cm (3/4–21/2in), globose to broadly gootee see layering.

two-year-old
cylindric, in shades of white, pink, fruit-bearing
scarlet, deep crimson, purple-red or wood gopher a small burrowing rodent that
mauve; includes dwarf, compact and with other ground squirrels are occa-
rounded and decumbent cultivars). sional garden pests in western North
America, burrowing into garden areas
gooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa) a current with resultant damage to plants. The
hardy, deciduous, spiny shrub, season’s usual control is to place poisoned bait
non-fruit-
grown for its ovoid berries. The bearing in the burrows, but this causes painful
many hundreds of European shoot death and is not permitted in some
cultivars derive from R.uva- states. Trapping is an alternative
crispa, which is a native of method. Advice from local pest-control
the Mediterranean
region, North Africa,
the Caucasus and north-
officials should be sought.
Gordonia (for James Gordon,

G
ern China. North American cultivars, London nurseryman, d.1781).
which have smaller fruits on less com- Gooseberry Theaceae. SE Asia, warm N America.
pact or upright bushes, derive from the 70 species, evergreen trees and shrubs
native R.hirtellum, which is often crossed current year’s growth; taken just before with saucer-shaped, solitary flowers
with European hybrids and shows resis- leaf fall, with all but the topmost four composed of broad petals and a showy
tance to mildew. Recently introduced buds removed. Leaving some basal boss of stamens. Cultivation require-
into Europe, genes of the American buds will improve rooting, but it then ments are mainly as for Franklinia,
species R.divaricatum confer resistance to becomes necessary to remove the although it requires higher tempera-
American gooseberry mildew fungus. consequent shoots at planting time. In tures (ideally frost-free conditions) and
The first recorded date of cultiva- North America and Germany, mound hot humid summers.
tion in England is 1276, but there was layering is practised. After planting, cut G.axillaris (syn. G.anomala; China,
no general development until the main branches by one half and lateral Taiwan; shrub or tree to 12m (39ft);
introduction of gooseberries and other shoots to one bud. Prune in the early leaves to 17cm (61/2in), oblong, leathery,
fruits from the Continent in the early years to establish a bush framework of dark glossy green; flowers to 15cm (6in)
16th century. Much hybridizing six to eight branches radiating from the across, with five to six, creamy white
followed throughout the 18th and top of the stem. Fruit is borne on one- petals and orange yellow stamens from
19th centuries, and gooseberry clubs and two-year-old shoots. Annual prun- early winter to spring); G.lasianthus
flourished in the north of England ing aims at maintaining a supply of (LOBLOLLY BAY; SE US; shrub or tree to
during the 19th century, of which a new shoots and removing congestion: 20m (66ft); leaves to 20cm (8in), obo-
few survive, members competing to basically, shorten leaders by half, cut- vate to lanceolate, deep glossy green;
produce heavy fruits. ting to an upward bud on spreading flowers 6–8cm (21/2–3in) across, with
Fruits are available green for cultivars, and reduce laterals to 8cm five white petals and yellow stamens
cooking from late spring through to (3in). Cordons are treated as a branch in summer).
summer when ripe for dessert. The of a bush, where old spurs require
cool, moist climates of northern thinning with age. Summer pruning of gourds hard-shelled fruits of the
Europe, the northern US and Canada laterals to five buds at green-fruit stage family Cucurbitaceae, some of which
favour fruit development, although encourages spur formation, light and are grown for ornament or utensils,
frost can damage flowers and young air penetration, and removes mildew- others primarily as edible crops. Often
fruits. Wind shelter is desirable. infected tips. Gooseberries require the immature fruit is edible and the
In gardens, the gooseberry is usually netting as protection from birds which mature fruit hard-shelled, for example
grown as a bush on a 15cm (6in) leg, depredate buds in winter. Successful Lagenaria siceraria. Some species provide
or trained as a cordon or fan; commer- cultivars for the UK include the earlies both hard-shelled, inedible fruits and
cially, often as a suckering bush or ‘Careless’ (green), ‘May Duke’ (red) distinct edible ones whose shells are
hedgerow. Bushes of European and ‘Golden Drop’ (yellow); midseason, not durable, for example Cucurbita pepo,
cultivars should be planted 1.5–2m ‘Invicta’ (green) and ‘Leveller’ (yellow- which includes summer squashes. All
(5–61/2ft) apart, and American cultivars green); lates, ‘Lancashire Lad’ (red) and gourds are frost-sensitive and in tem-
3m (10ft) apart. Plant single cordons ‘Lancer’ (green). Of the American perate climates should be raised in a
0.5m (20in) apart, double ones 1m gooseberries ‘Captivator’, ‘Josselyn’, greenhouse at 18–20°C/64–68°F. Sow
(31/4ft) apart. Select two- or three-year- ‘Oregon Champion’ and ‘Welcome’ in containers for transplanting outside
old plants for bushes, and one-year-olds are notable. when the plants are 10–15cm (4–6in)
to train against canes as cordons. In all Possible problems: aphids, birds, tall, and have been hardened off. In
cases, remove stem suckers. capsid bug, caterpillars, sawflies; warm areas seeds may be sown direct
Propagate from 30–40cm (12–16in) American gooseberry mildew (see pow- into the open ground. A spacing of 341
long hardwood cuttings, made from the dery mildew), grey mould, leaf spot. 2.5 x 2.5m (8 x 8ft) is appropriate for
gourds
most cultivars, and 1m (31/4ft) apart for exceptionally large fruits and requires MARROWS; also the vegetable spaghetti,
small-fruited kinds. A rich, well-drained stout supports. C.moschata which has with flesh that separates into spaghetti-
soil is needed with liberal amounts of red, green, white and butternut forms, like strands when boiled; C.maxima,
water applied throughout the growing and is adapted for training, shows resis- which includes WINTER SQUASHES and
season. Supports are necessary for tance to virus diseases and vine borer. the SQUASH GOURD; C.mixta, the
some gourds, while others naturally C.pepo (CUSTARD, CROOKNECK and WINTER SQUASH and pumpkin. See
trail on the ground. Pruning the vines ORANGE GOURDS) and C.pepo var. ovifera, cucumber, melons; pumpkins and squashes.
of most species is recommended, (YELLOW-FLOWERED GOURD) are popu-
reducing the main shoots to 2.5m (8ft) lar ornamental gourds; Lagenaria sicer- gourmand see water shoot.
and the laterals to 4–6 leaves. aria (WHITE-FLOWERED CALABASH or
Ornamental gourds In Africa BOTTLE GOURD) includes the MINIA- graft (1) a plant resulting from graft-
and South and Central America the TURE BOTTLE GOURD, WARTED BOTTLE ing; (2) loosely, a plant shoot, or scion,
G shells of gourds are traditionally

carved, decorated, used as kitchen
utensils and made into musical
GOURD, POWDER HORN, CLUB and
DOLPHIN types, but does not readily
fruit in temperate areas; Luffa cylindrica
suitable for grafting; (3) an old word
for a spade depth of soil; (4) a type
of spade with a long slightly concave
instruments and ceremonial masks (SMOOTH LOOFAH, DISHCLOTH GOURD) blade, used for digging drains; it is
In the garden, ornamental gourd and L.acutangula (ANGLED LOOFAH, also called a grafting tool.
plants may be trained on poles, fences RIDGED GOURD) can be grown out-
or trellises to form screens, and they doors in subtropical areas or under graft hybrid see chimaera.
provide decorative display over arbours greenhouse conditions in temperate
and pergolas. Plants may be allowed climates. The bathroom loofah is the grafting a method of vegetative
to trail over terraces or steep banks bleached, fibrous interior of L.aegyptiaca; propagation which normally involves
as a decorative feature, and in some When grown under warm greenhouse joining together two separate plants in
situations to help stabilize soil. conditions Momordica charantia (BITTER such a way that they eventually func-
Ornamental gourds include attrac- GOURD) produces highly decorative tion as one. Grafts may arise naturally
tive cultivars of: Benincasa hispida fruits, light green, ripening to bright or be purposely made. Closely clipped
(BOTTLE GOURD, CHINESE MELON) red, and covered with prominent warts hedges such as BEECH (Fagus sylvatica)
which in temperate climates requires which burst open when ripe; Trichosan- and FIELD MAPLE (Acer campestre) will
warm greenhouse conditions and pro- thes cucumerina produces gourds up to often form an interconnecting network
duces 25cm (10in) long fruits, covered 60cm (24in) long, which are bright of natural grafts. Similarly, where trees
in fine hairs and a waxy secretion; green when young, becoming bright with thin bark, such as Eucalyptus,
Cucurbita ficifolia (MALABAR MELON, orange when mature and often twisted Fagus, Fraxinus, Pinus, Platanus and Popu-
FIG-LEAVED or SIAMESE GOURD), is the and curled in shape. lus, are growing close together, natural
hardiest of the ornamental gourds suit- After harvest, gourd fruits are usu- bridge grafts may form between indi-
able for training over pergolas and pro- ally washed with a mild disinfectant, viduals of the same species.
ducing large, green fruits resembling a dried for 4–6 weeks and waxed to Grafting is a means of replicating
watermelon. C.maxima (TURK’S CAP and ensure preservation. Fruit shape can selected plants which do not come true
large yellow forms) which produces be modified by tying plastic-coated from seed or which are difficult to
wires around the young developing propagate by other vegetative methods.
fruits, or confining them in a rigid Bench grafting refers to any grafting
container. They may be stored for method performed at a bench, where
weeks or months if hung in a dry, the rootstocks may be bare-root plants,
well-ventilated room. unrooted cuttings or young plants
Edible gourds In tropical and established in pots.
subtropical climates, Benincasa, Coccinia, Grafted plants often produce a
Lagenaria, Luffa, Momordica, Telfairia and larger plant in a shorter period of time,
Trichosanthes are fairly widely grown, and the selection of an appropriate
and in temperate zones many of these rootstock can improve the plant’s toler-
can be grown successfully under green- ance of soil type, pH and temperature,
house conditions. and provide resistance to certain pests
The most important species of and diseases. Specified rootstocks can
edible gourds cultivated in warm- induce vigorous or dwarfing growth
temperate areas are Cucumis anguria response, as exploited in the propaga-
(WEST INDIAN GOURD or GHERKIN); tion of most tree fruits. To overcome
Luffa cylindrica C.melo (CANTALOUPE, HONEYDEW, MUSK incompatibility, preserve cold or disease
The loofah or dishcloth gourds make unusual, or SWEET MELON); Cucurbita moschata, resistance or control vigour, it is some-
ornamental climbers for the warm green- which includes the WINTER SQUASHES; times necessary to graft an intermedi-
342 house or conservatory. They may be grown C.pepo, which includes PUMPKINS, ate variety or inter-stock, a technique
outdoors in subtropical climates. SUMMER SQUASHES and VEGETABLE known as double working.
grafting
Grafting may also be used to pro- surfaces have grown together, the scion Whip and tongue grafting is widely used
duce curiosities, such as a prostrate plant is cut just below the point of to produce young plants in the field,
form grafted on to an upright stock, or union and the upper part of the stock notably where bud grafts have failed
family fruit trees, with different culti- removed. to take. The rootstock is trimmed of all
vars grafted on to a single plant. Graft- A similar method may be used for side growth and the top cut to within
ing can promote the early development providing disease-resistant rootstocks 10cm (4in) of the ground. The scion
of features that would take many years for the production of tomatoes and is prepared from a stout one-year-old
if plants were raised from seed; for cucumbers in infected border soil. shoot and a piece selected that contains
instance the distinctive bark of Betula One type of inarching can be used to at least three or four buds, the lowest
ermanii or the flowering of Wisteria. change the rootstock of an established being about 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in) above
Dioecious plants such as Ilex aquifolium orchard tree, and involves planting at the bottom end. The tip should be
may be grafted with a scion of the least three plants of the new choice of neatly trimmed back just above the
opposite sex, to improve the probability
of fruiting, while bridge grafting can be
used to to overcome an incompatible
rootstock close to the trunk of the tree
and grafting the top of each into
the trunk.
adjacent top bud. The tongue is made
in the top half of the slanting cut sur-
face, pointing downwards. The slanting
G
graft union or to combat the results Detached scion grafting This is cut on the rootstock must match the
of the girdling of stems by vandalism, the most widely used grafting method dimensions of that on the scion, allow-
machinery or rodents. and involves removing a scion from a ing for the scion cut to overshoot the
Grafted plants of the same species stock plant and working it on to a top of the rootstock by 3–5mm
will generally form a compatible union rootstock. The timing of the operation (1/8–1/4in). An equivalent facing tongue
although occasionally (in particular is crucial, so too is the physiological is made near the top of the rootstock
with conifers) the graft may either fail condition of both rootstock and scion: cut, allowing the scion to be fitted.
to form a union or the union may fail the rootstock should preferably be The graft is tied and made watertight.
after ten years or so. Some species will more advanced in growth than the Saddle grafting is a more difficult
form compatible unions with a differ- scion, thus ensuring that the healing of apical graft, traditionally used for
ent species belonging to the same the union occurs well before the scion large-flowered hybrid rhododendrons.
genus, as with Sorbus hupehensis on breaks into growth. Water loss from the Rootstock and scion must be of the
S.aucuparia. Two different genera can scion and graft union must be kept to same diameter. The cut rootstock is
form compatible unions, for instance a minimum, and for this reason the prepared by removing the top to leave
Amelanchier on Crataegus; such successful graft should be made quickly, and then a clear stem of about 10cm (4in), the
intergeneric grafts will invariably be firmly secured and covered with wax top end of which is cut on both sides
between members of the same family. or another waterproofing substance. to form a central apex about 3–4cm
Long-term compatibility of scions of Detached scion grafting may be carried (11/4–11/2in) long. The base of the scion
one genus upon a rootstock of another out in the open field or under protec- is cut by removing a wedge of tissue
is however unreliable. tion, usually between the time the sap matching the shape of the cut root-
There are two main grafting begins to rise in the spring and before stock, so that the scion may neatly
techniques. it ceases in autumn; except in the case straddle it. The cambium layers should
Approach grafting (inarching) of bud grafting, it is advisable to avoid exactly match. The graft is securely
This technique is a means of propagat- midsummer. Evergreen and tender tied and sealed.
ing plants that are difficult to graft by plants should be grafted under cold Wedge or cleft grafting is a simplified
other methods, and also of saving frames or in cool or heated green- inverted saddle graft, achieved by split-
valued dying trees. Here, the scion con- houses with high humidity and shade. ting the top of the rootstock through
tinues to grow on its own roots until The two principal methods of the centre. It is normally practised on
the union with the rootstock is made. detached scion grafting are apical easy subjects like Hibiscus syriacus culti-
The plant providing the scion may be grafting and side grafting. vars and evergreen azaleas. The base
grown in a container, and sometimes APICAL GRAFTING, where the top of the scion is cut in a V-shape and
the stock plant also. The plants are of the rootstock is decapitated and pushed into the split rootstock. The
arranged so that the stems are along- replaced by a scion. union may be secured with a simple
side each other, and, in the simplest Splice grafting (whip grafting), a simple clip like a small plastic clothes peg.
method, a sliver of bark and wood method suitable for bench grafting, Rind or crown grafting is a method of
about 50mm (2in) long is taken off which is the process of joining a root overcoming the problem of oversized
each stem, on the facing sides; other stock with a scion before potting. The rootstocks, and is also used for top-
methods include the use of tongues rootstock and scion are held together working mature fruit trees to change
and inlays. The two cut surfaces are by hand when tying and must be of them from one cultivar to another. A
then bound together with plastic film, similar diameter. The scion cut should slanting cut is made at the base of the
rubber strips or wax tape; in some overshoot the top of the rootstock by scion, and a further incision, about
cases, the whole area may need to be about 3–5mm (1/8–1/4in) to ensure that 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in) long, made through
covered with grafting wax to form a the developing callus forms a bridge the rind of the decapitated rootstock, 343
water-proof seal. When the two cut between the two components. allowing the rind to be peeled back.
grafting
W HIP - AND - TONGUE GRAFTING
cambium grafting
layer wax
exposed top of cut
on scion
keep other
hand well
down the
stock 2.5cm
(1in) tape
G
1 A tongue is created on the cut
surface of the prepared scion
shoot by incising to a depth of
2 A matching tongue is made
similarly on the exposed cut 3The scion shoot and rootstock
are fixed by the respective
surface of the rootstock, by means tongues, ensuring that at least
4
The union is bound firmly
with grafting tape and any
surfaces remaining exposed are
1cm (1/2in). of a gentle downward slicing some of the cut surface cambium painted with grafting wax.
movement. layers are aligned.
The scion is pushed behind the rind to Side cleft grafting is where two slanting ROOT GRAFTING covers any method
the required depth, leaving an arch of cuts are made on opposite sides of the of grafting shoots upon pieces of root.
a few millimetres visible on the cut face base of the scion to form a wedge It can be used for a wide range of
of the scion at the top of the rootstock about 2–3mm (1/16–1/8in) long; one of woody and herbaceous perennials,
to allow the callus to form a bridge the cuts should be slightly longer than including Clematis, Gypsophila, Hibiscus
between the two components. Since the other. An angled incision of about syriacus, Wisteria and Campsis, and is
the scions are held firmly under the 20° is made in the side of the root- recorded as successful with apples and
rind, tying is not required, but the stock, of sufficient depth to accommo- rhododendrons. When there are large
unions must be made waterproof date the scion. The incision is sprung fleshy roots and thin scion wood, as in
with a suitable sealant. open and the scion pushed home, tree peonies, an inlay-type graft is nor-
SIDE GRAFTING involves inserting ensuring that the longer cut is opposite mally used. Where the root and scion
scions without beheading the rootstock. the inner face of the rootstock and in are of approximately the same diame-
This method of grafting is useful for line with the cambium. The graft is ter, splice, wedge or saddle grafts are
propagating and for supplying an extra tied and sealed. suitable. Nurse grafting is a form of
branch in any part of a tree; a spliced FRAMEWORKING AND TOP GRAFTING root grafting useful for propagating
side graft (veneer side graft) is used or topworking are procedures for difficult stem cuttings or for plants
for a wide range of evergreen and changing the cultivar in mature trees, where other sorts of grafting are likely
deciduous trees and shrubs where one- especially apples. In frameworking, to produce excessive rootstock suckers.
or two-year-old rootstocks have been the main structure is retained and Normal root grafting methods are used
established in pots. Betula, Fagus and branches headed back (‘dehorned’) by except that the scion/cutting is encour-
Rhododendron are best grafted in late about one metre; only strong healthy aged to root and the nurse root is
winter and Acer palmatum, Hamamelis laterals are retained and these are cut removed once this has occurred. Plants
and Cedrus in summer. The foliage back to about 5cm (2in). The remain- that are nurse grafted include Clematis
should be retained on evergreens, but ing shoots are grafted by whip and cultivars, using a tailed-scion graft
removed on summer-grafted deciduous tongue or rind methods and the frame- on to roots of C.vitalba or C.viticella.
plants to reduce water loss, with the work supplemented with side grafts set CUTTING GRAFTING is practised
leaf petioles retained to allow for nat- into the branches. Topworking involves on plants that are difficult to root: the
ural abscission and to prevent bleeding. cutting the main branches right back to graft is made on to a stem or root cut-
The scion should be prepared by near the crotch and inserting a number ting, which is easily regenerated. The
making a 45° cut at the bottom, of scions, usually as rind grafts, around method is used commercially on a
followed by a slice-cut down the stem, each cut. Topworked trees take longer limited range of plants, including Salix
about 2.5–3.5cm (1–11/2in) long, which to come into bearing and may be more caprea ‘Pendula’, large-flowered hybrid
meets the sharp end of the 45° basal prone to infection from diseases such rhododendrons, and grape vines.
cut. The stem of the rootstock should as silverleaf. BUDDING is a detached side-grafting
be thoroughly cleaned of shoots, and The term topworking is also com- technique, which employs a single bud
then a matching cut made as low down monly used to describe the nursery to propagate fruit and ornamental trees
344 as is practical. Various modifications practice of bud-grafting high up on and shrubs. The methods most widely
of this graft are used. rootstock whips. used are shield-budding (T-budding) and
grape
chip budding, normally carried out wide, is used to completely cover the graminaceous grassy, resembling
between midsummer and early autumn; stem tissue, with pressure points above grass in texture or habit.
also practised is patch budding of wal- and below the bud, which may itself be
nuts. In all cases the rootstock should be covered. Union will take between 5–8 granules a pesticide formulation, in
well-established and actively growing, weeks, depending on the plant, time of which a chemical substance is com-
with selected buds dormant, uniform budding, and weather conditions. Hot bined with a carrier to form small pel-
in size, well-developed and vegetative. dry weather encourages speedy unions. lets, usually for application to the soil.
In shield or T-budding the scion buds, The bud-take can be assessed the fol- Granules facilitate even distribution
which occur in the axils of leaves, are lowing February and the rootstock through special applicators. They are
removed from shoots of the current headed back to the top of the live bud. suitable for the continuous release of
year’s growth by means of a shallow A slanting cut of about 22°, away from an active chemical and for band treat-
slicing cut. This commences about the bud, should be made. Clip and ment of insecticide along crop rows,
12mm (1/2in) below the bud, passing
well under it and being completed
some distance above it, so that there
stake devices can be used initially to
support the extension growth and keep
it straight.
and for broadcasting herbicide
substances. G
is a tail of rind which is convenient for Grafting and sealing grape any of several species of Vitis,
handling. The removal of a sliver of materials For tying grafts, raffia has cultivated for their fruit. The grape
wood at the back of the bud is gener- been largely superseded by plastic grown in Europe and Asia is derived
ally required, especially for roses. The materials but it is still used for delicate from Vitis vinifera, the EUROPEAN WILD
prepared bud forms the shield, and this operations, such as the split scion on GRAPE. Several Vitis species indigenous
is inserted beneath the rind of the Clematis, and rind grafts on miniature to America (in particular the SUMMER
rootstock, which is prepared with a roses. For bench grafts, suitable tying GRAPE, V.aestivalis, the MUSCADINE,
T-shaped cut made down to the wood. materials are waxed cotton (or waxed V.rotundifolia, and the FOX GRAPE,
The bud graft is tied with a suitable fillis for large diameter scions), 15cm V.labrusca) have also been the sources
binding to secure the components in (6in) strips of 5mm (1/4in)-wide rubber of a range of cultivars.
close contact, to minimise dessication bands, or paraffin wax tape, which is Ancient vine growing is indicated by
and to make a watertight seal. self-sealing and gradually disintegrates. grape seeds found in Early Bronze Age
Paper and cotton tapes may be used sites at Jericho and Lachish. It spread
for outdoor grafts, but the union must west and north and also into Egypt,
be made rainproof with a sealant. and figures prominently in Greek and
Plastic grafting tapes are available in Roman literature and in the Bible. Viti-
widths of 12mm or 25mm (1/2in or 1in), culture was introduced to Britain by
and unions can usually be made water- the Romans, and by the time of the
tight without the use of a sealant. Domesday Book 38 vineyards were
Proprietary sealants include bitu- recorded in the south of England from
mastic emulsions, applied cold to cut Kent to Gloucestershire. Imports of
ends of scions and rootstocks where superior wine gradually undermined
the union has been made rainproof by the importance of the home-grown
tying. Resin-based mastics, formulated product, and vine-growing in Britain
with grease, mineral oil, synthetic wax has ebbed and flowed with changing
or ethyl alcohol, are good alternatives climatic conditions.
to hot resin-based sealants, which need In North America, early efforts to
Chip budding a portable heat source when used out- cultivate vines in the eastern states
The bud chip is initially held in place by press- doors. Paraffin wax is widely used for foundered through the ravages of
ing the lower end into a shallow lip raised on bench grafting; rubberised latex com- Phylloxera vastatrix, but this pest was
cutting the rootstock. The bud is set off centre pounds are suitable for both bench and not present in California and vineyards
so that the cambium layers are in contact. outdoor grafts, applied cold to set and flourished there. Resistant Californian
forming a flexible rainproof covering. grape vines became the rootstocks on
Chip budding is used extensively and to which Phylloxera-susceptible Euro-
involves a single bud graft that does not grafting knife a strong folding knife pean vines were grafted in the late 19th
rely on lifting the rootstock bark. It is designed for grafting, comprising a century, thereby saving the great vine-
essentially a cleft graft, with the bud blade about 7.5cm (3in) long, with an yards from extinction. At about the
fitting exactly on to the chip of stem angled point at its end, set in a handle same time, European vines were cross-
tissue removed from the rootstock. 10–12.5cm (4–5in) long. pollinated with American cultivars,
Both cambiums should be in line with producing Phylloxera-resistant hybrids
each other to produce a neat speedy grafting tool see graft. which are widely grown today.
union with minimal callus tissue. Chip Grapes under glass A green-
buds need to be tied more securely graft union the point on a grafted house needs to provide adequate space 345
than T-buds. Plastic tape, 25mm (1in) plant where the scion and stock join. and ventilation and sufficient root run
grape
into a good growing medium, with sur- In subsequent winters the leading
face access to it for routine top-dressing shoot is shortened and restricted to the
and watering. A lean-to structure is available space; laterals are repeatedly
most suitable, the back wall offering shortened to one bud, and with annual
residual heat. The soil must be fertile cuts spurs are formed which eventually
and well-drained, and the vine can be require thinning out with a pruning
planted inside or outside the green- saw. Where laterals are trained at an
house; if outside, the stem or rod is led upward angle, they should be cut loose
through an opening in the supporting in winter and allowed to hang, or
wall of the structure. Grapes for green- retied horizontally, until growth begins,
house cultivation are classified as (1) to ensure even growth at each spur; the
Sweetwater: early-ripening cultivars, laterals are then returned to their
G which are the best choice for unheated

houses, for example ‘Black Hamburgh’
and ‘Foster’s Seedling’. (2) Muscats:
normal positions.
As growth starts in spring, only two
fruiting laterals must be retained at
the finest flavoured grapes normally each spur. The weaker of the two is
requiring heat, for example ‘Muscat pinched to two leaves and is kept as Cordon-trained grapevine
of Alexandria’ and ‘Madresfield insurance against any accident to the A single cordon, with fruiting stems radiating
Court’. (3) Vinous: the latest to ripen, lateral which will normally carry the horizontally from a vertical main stem, may
requiring adequate heat for example crop. As this develops, flower trusses be trained across the roof of a greenhouse
‘Alicante’ and ‘Gros Colmar’. and usually also vine leaves will appear on a system of wires.
PLANTING AND TRAINING. Planting up to 60cm (24in) along its length. The
of bare-roots plants is carried out in tip of the fruiting lateral should be the foliage in early morning is recom-
November or December, but container- pinched out two leaves beyond the best mended, until the first sign of fruit
grown specimens may be planted at flower truss, other trusses being cut ripening.
any time. In small houses, planting at out. If no flower truss appears, such Fruit thinning is essential and special
one end and training the vine up and shoots should be pinched at six to eight grape thinning scissors are used to
along the ridge is suitable, with fittings leaves. Any sub-laterals are pruned to remove smaller, crowded fruits within
inserted to support wires that should one leaf and tendrils removed. the bunch, a forked stick being used
hold the vine 35cm (14in) away from In the third summer, just one or to manipulate the bunch.
the glass, although in a small green- two bunches of grapes are allowed Winter treatment involves pricking
house 25cm (10in) will suffice. Where to develop, gradually increasing the the soil over lightly with a fork in order
there is space, suitable extra main number of bunches in subsequent to remove the top 4–5cm (11/2–2in)
shoots are trained along wires spaced summers. In general, at least 30cm layer, which is replaced with a fresh,
1.2m (4ft) apart. (12in) of stem should be left between rich, soil-based mixture. Following the
The simple rod and spur training each bunch. first waterings, a mulch of well-rotted
method is commonly used in green- MANAGEMENT. Most vines are self- farmyward manure or compost should
house culture. After planting, shorten fertile but tapping the laterals around be applied. Once active growth is
the stem to about 7.5cm (3in) above midday to distribute pollen will assist evident, feeding at two- to three-week
soil level or the graft union; always setting in many cultivars. The Muscats, intervals with a high-potash fertilizer
prune by the New Year to prevent especially, benefit from cupping hands should be given, until the fruits show
bleeding of sap. One leading shoot gently and passing them over the colour.
(also called rod or stem) should be flower truss from one vine to another; Bunches of grapes should be har-
allowed to grow up and tied loosely to lightly dusting flower trusses with a vested with a small piece of the spur
the wire during the first summer. Later- soft brush is an alternative procedure. attached to act as a handle to avoid
als (also called rods or canes) growing Glasshouse ventilators must be damaging the bloom on the surface
out from the leading shoot are short- opened to provide a cold environment of the fruit.
ened to five leaves and any sub-laterals until late winter after which they Grapes in containers. If space
to one leaf. Competing leaders should should be progressively closed to main- is limited grapes can be grown in pots,
be removed in the first winter, the lead- tain a uniform temperature for the tubs or other containers with a mini-
ing shoot reduced by two-thirds of its encouragement of early growth. Venti- mum diameter of 30cm (12in).
length and the laterals pruned to one lation should be restricted during polli- Drainage holes are essential, and
bud from the leading shoot stem. nation but given freely after fruit set to should be covered with a layer of
In the second summer, the leading reduce risk of disease. Ventilators may broken crocks and fibrous turf. The
shoot extends and is tied to the wires, need to be fitted with covers of fruit container is filled with a fertile soil-
and the treatment of laterals and sub- netting if birds are troublesome. based medium in preference to a
laterals repeated. Any flower trusses Damping down is advantageous on peat-based mix.
346 must be pruned off to prevent fruiting sunny days except during flowering Where practical, a containerized
before the third year. and fruit ripening, and mist spraying of vine should be moved in and out of
grecian saw
a greenhouse or conservatory on to a seeds have properties similar to very (2in) long or more, usually brown or
sheltered terrace to aid growth and coarse sand. green, with biting mouthparts and hind
ripening. Cultivation requirements are legs modified for jumping. Most feed
similar to those of greenhouse vines, grape scissors scissors with long predominantly on grasses but some have
involving development of a permanent narrow tapering blades, specially a wide range of host plants. Locusts are
rod which is spur-pruned each winter. designed for thinning bunches of grasshoppers that have both a solitary
A suitable support for the rod is essen- grapes. Also known as vine scissors. phase in their life cycle and a gregarious
tial to a height of about 1.75m (53/4ft) one when they swarm. Grasshoppers
and only five or six bunches should be grape stage see bud stages. and locusts lay their eggs in the soil.
retained per plant. A mulch of rotted Locusts are important pests in Africa
farmyard manure and regular feeding Graptopetalum (from Greek graptos, and Asia. In Australia, the AUSTRALIAN
as for greenhouse crops is beneficial. painted or written upon, and petalon, PLAGUE LOCUST (Chortoicetes terminifera)
Thorough daily watering is essential
once growth begins, being reduced as
the grapes begin to colour. Repot in
petal). Crassulaceae. Paraguay, Mexico
to Arizona. Around 12 species, succu-
lent perennial herbs and shrubs. The
damages pastures, field crops and veg-
etables. The SPUR-THROATED LOCUST
(Austacris guttulosa) and the SMALL PLAGUE
G
mid-winter every two or three years. fleshy leaves are usually borne in LOCUST (Austroicetes cruciata) are less seri-
Grapes on outdoor walls. Shel- rosettes. Small, 5-petalled flowers are ous pests. In North America, grasshop-
tered, warm sunny walls are suitable carried in spring and summer in lax pers are more important pests than
for grape growing, the vines being cymes. Cultivate as for Echeveria. locusts. The CLEARWING GRASSHOPPER
trained and pruned as for greenhouse G.amethystinum (JEWEL-LEAF PLANT; (Camnula pellucida) attacks cereals and
culture. Control of dense growth by Mexico; subshrub to 30cm (12in) tall; other crops and several Melanoplus
thinning and pinching and by annual leaves 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in) in loose species are pests of a wide range of
pruning in winter is essential for suc- rosettes, oblong to ovate, blunt, margin plants. Control of locusts often requires
cess. The soil should be thoroughly rounded, blue-green to lavender or national or international action on a
and deeply prepared and only where purple-red); G.paraguayense (GHOST concerted scale; like grasshoppers, they
the soil is poor should small amounts PLANT, MOTHER OF PEARL PLANT; are susceptible to non-persistent insecti-
of rotted manure or compost be Mexico; decumbent herb to 30cm cides, often applied aerially at ultra-
incorporated; otherwise excessive (12in); leaves 3–5cm (11/4–2in) in open low volume rates. Baits are used for
growth and delayed cropping will rosettes, obovate to spathulate, thick, grasshopper control, but not for locusts.
result. A 1–2 year-old vine should be short-pointed, emerging pale mauve,
planted 20–25cm (8–10in) away from becoming thickly grey-white-glaucous). grassing down the sowing of grass;
the wall, in winter in milder climates especially around fruit trees to slow
and in early spring in regions with Graptophyllum (from Greek graptos down the rate of growth through
cold winters. Feed, renew the top soil to write, and phyllon, leaf, alluding to competition for water and nutrients,
and mulch as for the greenhouse crop. the beautifully marked leaves). Acan- and thereby encourage fruiting.
Early-ripening cultivars are the best thaceae. Australasia, SW Pacific. 10
choice. species, evergreen shrubs, often with grease banding a technique used
Where phylloxera or nematodes are colourfully marked leaves and produc- mainly on fruit and ornamental trees
a problem grapes must be propagated ing racemes of two-lipped, tubular to control winter moths and related
on to resistant rootstocks. For other flowers in summer. The following species; it involves encircling the trunk
situations most vines can be propa- species is grown primarily for its hand- with a 100mm (4in) band of grease-
gated from hardwood cuttings taken some foliage. It will tolerate poor light proof paper smeared with grease.
in early winter and rooted outdoors. levels and drier atmospheres in the Female WINTER MOTHS are wingless
Muscadine cultivars do not root readily office and home. Provide a minimum and gain access to trees by climbing the
from cuttings and are usually layered. temperature of 10°C/50°F, with pro- trunk where they become trapped in
For other cultivars, green softwood tection from draughts, and full sun. the greaseband. The device should be
cuttings also provide a suitable means Water and feed freely when in growth, applied in mid-autumn and regularly
of increase. but keep barely moist in winter. maintained throughout the winter. A
Possible problems: birds, mealy G.pictum (CARICATURE PLANT; habitat band of vaseline around the stems of
bug, phylloxerids, red spider mite, obscure, widepread as an escape in SE chrysanthemums can help to prevent
scale insects, wasps; black rot, downy Asia; to 2m (61/2ft); leaves to 15cm (6in), CHRYSANTHEMUM EELWORM (Aphelen-
mildew, grey mould, powdery mildew; oval, glossy dark green blotched or choides ritzema-bosi) from ascending the
shanking. marbled cream in central zone; flowers stems in humid weather. Grease band-
crimson to purple). ing is also referred to as barrier band-
grape marc the seed, skin and stem ing or treebanding.
residue from grape pressing, which can grass hook see scythe
be composted and used in growing grecian saw a pruning saw with a
media. The compost is saline, with a grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acridi- narrow curved blade, with the teeth set 347
high potassium content, and the residual dae) mostly large insects, up to 50mm for pulling action.
greenback
greenback a condition of tomato be smaller for some wooden green- range and season of plants can be
fruits in which an area around the stalk houses; Dutch-light panes are 1422 x extended. However, it must be remem-
remains hard and green whilst other 730mm (56 x 29in). A thickness of bered that the cost of heating escalates
parts ripen. It is associated with hot 3mm (1/8in) is adequate for panes up dramatically as the minimum tempera-
sunshine and an inadequate supply to 600mm (24in) wide, except in situa- ture requirement is raised. Commercial
of potash. There are differences in tions where there are particular safety greenhouses are usually heated either by
susceptibility between cultivars. risks; special types are available for hot water circulated through fixed pipes,
Prevention is by greenhouse shading double glazing. or by fan-propelled hot air distributed
and careful feeding and watering. Where timber glazing bars are used, through large-diameter polythene tubes.
the glass is normally bedded on putty More common and convenient for
green bud see bud stages. and secured by brass pins; the bars garden greenhouses are portable units
may be capped with aluminium strip fuelled by electricity, paraffin or gas.
G green cluster see bud stages.
greenfly see aphids.

and soft mastic. With aluminium bars,
the glass is bedded on mastic or into
profiled polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or
Electric fan heaters are a suitable
choice for the small greenhouse,
circulating air quickly and providing a
neoprene extrusion and secured with source of cool air in summer. Electric
greenhouse a structure in which stainless-steel clips. Dutch-light panes tubular heaters, fixed about 10cm (4in)
plants are cultivated for the production are normally dry glazed, each sheet from the walls, can maintain a higher
of a harvested crop or for display. It being held in grooves machined along temperature in large greenhouses, and
may be covered with glass, rigid plastic the frame members. they give more even distribution of
sheeting or plastic film. In the UK, the Glass alternatives are available in heat. Both sorts must be thermostati-
terms greenhouse and glasshouse are the form of rigid plastic sheeting and cally controlled for efficiency.
interchangeable but to avoid confusion plastic film. Acrylic and acrylic-coated Paraffin heaters are relatively cheap
arising from the introduction of plastic polycarbonate are the most satisfactory to buy and operate, although they
alternatives to glass, there is interna- sheet plastics, having optical properties cannot be thermostatically controlled.
tional agreement to use the term similar to glass and being available in They emit water vapour, which can
‘greenhouse’ in all technical and twin-walled form for improved insula- encourage disease, and at high settings
scientific publications. tion; acrylic can be formed into curved or where inadequately maintained may
Glass-clad greenhouses, regardless of profiles. Very tough and durable film produce harmful gases; they are best
design, are often described according to plastics can also be used to manufacture regarded as a stand-by where only frost
the temperature level normally main- tensioned glazing panels. protection is required.
tained: COLD HOUSE, without heating; Polythene film cannot be regarded Flueless gas-fired heaters employing
COOL HOUSE, heated to maintain frost as a direct replacement for glass but it natural or bottled gas are available,
protection only or a minimum of about provides suitable covering for low-cost and these may be thermostatically con-
7°C/45°F; TEMPERATE HOUSE, heated tunnel greenhouses. The risk of it trolled and will enhance atmospheric
to maintain about 13°C/55°F mini- degrading in sunlight is greatly reduced carbon dioxide level. Both types of
mum; HOT HOUSE (also warm house or where the product contains an ultravio- fuel-burning heaters require regular
stove house), heated to maintain about let light inhibitor, and the incorpora- maintenance, and a little ventilation
18°C/64°F minimum. tion of the copolymer, EVA, improves should be provided.
The design of greenhouses must heat retention characteristics. The film The required output capacity of
take into account five main require- is stretched over galvanized-steel tubu- greenhouse heaters can be calculated,
ments – maximum light transmission, lar arches anchored in the soil, to form each based on temperature lift, which
minimum obstruction of the growing walk-in tunnels. Single-span structures is the degree difference between the
area, structural integrity, energy effi- are available in widths of 4.3–10m required minimum inside the
ciency and cost. Light transmission is (14–33ft), and multi-span forms, up glasshouse and the likely minimum
affected by the proportion of opaque to 2.4m (9ft) high, with connecting outside. Another factor to take into
structural material, orientation and gutters, in spans of 6.4–10m (21–33ft). account is the co-efficient of heat loss
roof shape. The use of steel and alu- These structures are more susceptible through the cladding, which necessi-
minium extrusions gives increased to wind than glasshouses so the arches tates calculating the area of all exposed
strength for size and reduces the must be well-secured, the structure surfaces and dividing that for brick
amount of opaque material. An east- braced and the cover applied as a walling by two because of its better
west orientation increases light trans- single sheet secured to a base rail or insulating properties. A suitable for-
mission as does a high south-facing dug into the ground. Polythene tunnels mula for calculating required electric-
eave, with the side wall inclined. are mainly used for the production heater capacity in kilowatts is then:
Cladding materials Glass is the of salad crops, celery, peppers and
8 x equiv. surface area (m2) x temp. lift (°C)
best choice in terms of light transmis- strawberries, and for the protection
1000
sion, heat retention, durability and of container-grown nursery stock.
348 cost-effectiveness. Panes usually mea- Heating and ventilation Where Greenhouse ventilation limits the
sure 600 x 600mm (24 x 24in), but may supplementary heating is provided, the rise of air temperature, provides cool-
grey bulb rot
ing, controls the rise of humidity and if given a perfectly drained soil and grey-green; flowers pink to red with
maintains the ambient level of carbon a sheltered position against a south- cream, sometimes pure creamy yellow).
dioxide. Ventilators built into the ridge facing wall. Many of the cultivars show
and low down on the sides of the struc- a greater tolerance than their parents.
ture are recommended for good air cir- G.alpina, G.juniperina and G.rosmarinifolia
culation; and their total area when fully are among the hardiest species, the
open should be equivalent to at least last having survived temperatures
one sixth of the greenhouse floor area. to 10°C/50°F. The genus is grown
Extractor fans give positive air move- primarily for its nectar-rich flowers,
ment but result in uneven temperature although some species also have very
distribution. They should be fitted high attractive foliage – for example,
in the gable-end away from the door, G.robusta, a popular plant for the home
and can be thermostatically controlled.
See bench, shading.
or office, grown either as a compact,
rooted stem cutting or as a specimen
shrub. Most thrive given full sun and
G
green manuring the practice of good drainage in a neutral or slightly
growing certain quick-maturing plants acid soil. Propagate from fresh seed
and subsequently digging them in to in spring, or by semi-ripe cuttings. Paphiopedilum Buckhurst
improve soil fertility. Examples of G.robusta is resistant to root-rotting ‘Mont Millais’
green manures are RAPE (Brassica napus), fungus and is used as a rootstock for Here, Buckhurst is a group or grex name,
WHITE MUSTARD (Sinapis alba), CLOVER grafting western Australian species peculiar to orchid nomenclature, indicating
(Trifolium species), WINTER FIELD BEANS and as a stock for standard and hybrids with the same, established parentage.
(Vicia faba) and GRAZING RYE GRASS weeping specimens.
(Secale cereale). Usually sown broadcast G.alpina (E Australia; prostrate to grex a group name for all plants
in close rows, green manures must be erect shrub to 2m (61/2ft); leaves 1–3cm derived from the crossing of the same
dug in whilst lush. (1/2–11/4in), linear to rounded; flowers two or more species. The grex (herd
Green manuring provides a source red, pink, green, yellow and white, or hybrid swarm) is close in some
of humus, thereby improving soil struc- crowded in short, spidery racemes); senses to the group, but relates more
ture; where leguminous nitrogen-fixing G.banksii (RED-FLOWERED SILKY OAK; specifically to an established parentage
species are grown, it is also a means of E Australia; shrub to 4m (13ft); leaves or lineage. The term has become lim-
adding nitrogen to the soil. However, to 25cm (10in), pinnatifid, lobes linear, ited to orchid hybrids. It is printed in
green manuring is essentially a tech- silky grey beneath; flowers red or white roman with a capital initial. The grex
nique supplementary to manuring in cylindrical racemes to 10cm (4in)); may be combined with a cultivar or
and fertilizing and should not be solely G. ‘Canberra Gem’ (G.juniperina x G.ros- clonal name which is printed within
relied upon on poor soils. On light- marinifolia; vigorous, rounded shrub to quotation marks, for example,
textured soils, it provides protection 2.5m (8ft); leaves to 3cm (11/4in), linear, Paphiopedilum Maudiae ‘The Queen’.
from winter erosion. Also known as sharply pointed; flowers bright pink,
cover cropping, sheet composting. waxy, in clusters sometimes throughout grey bulb rot (Rhizoctonia tuliparum)
the year); G.juniperina (E Australia; a soil-borne disease of ornamental
green tip see bud stages. dense rounded shrub to 2m (61/2ft) tall; bulbs in cool temperate regions. Poor
leaves 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), narrowly lance- emergence is an early indication of
greenwaste collected plant residues, olate to linear; flowers green to yellow the disease, and lifted plants have
which following composting are a valu- pink or red); G. Poorinda Hybrids rotted shoots with soil adhering even
able source of organic matter for soil (a group of garden hybrids including though the roots may appear healthy.
amelioration and mulching. ‘Poorinda Constance’, a large, rounded The fungus shows as greyish mycelia
shrub to 4m (13ft) with sharply around rotted bulbs and between bulb
Grevillea (for Charles F. Greville pointed, oblong leaves to 3cm (11/4in) scales, with numerous large flattened
(1749–1809), a founder of the Royal and red flowers in spidery clusters, the white or black fruiting bodies on the
Horticultural Society, once vice presi- purple-red ‘Poorinda Peter’, with bulbs and in the surrounding soil; by
dent of the Royal Society). Proteaceae. bronze-tinted, pinnate leaves, and the means of these fruiting bodies, the
Australia, New Caledonia. SPIDER apricot-flowered ‘Poorinda Queen’; fungus can survive for several years.
FLOWER. Some 250 species, evergreen G.robusta (SILKY OAK; E Australia; fast- It is most serious on tulips, but
trees or shrubs. The leaves range in growing tree to 35m (115ft); leaves to Colchicum, Crocus, hyacinths, Iris, Ixia,
shape from small, rigid and needle-like 30cm (12in), bronze at first, becoming lilies and Narcissus can also be infected.
to broad, soft and pinnately lobed. olive, broadly oblong, pinnatifid, Control by removing all affected bulbs
Tubular, curving flowers are borne in segments deeply cut, silky; flowers and the surrounding soil as soon as
racemes or panicles usually in spring orange); G.rosmarinifolia (E Australia; symptoms are noticed. The affected
and summer. Many species are known dense shrub to 2m (61/2ft) tall; leaves area should not be used for bulb 349
to tolerate frost to about –5°C/23°F, to 3cm (11/4in), linear, rigid, bright to growing for at least five years.
Greyia
Greyia (for Sir George Grey (1812– berries lose moisture and thereby yield mid-green, glossy; includes the large-
1898), governor general of Cape juice of a higher sugar content. The and round-leaved var. macrophylla and
Colony). Greyiaceae. South Africa. infection is essential to the production the yellow-cream-marked ‘Variegata’).
NATAL BOTTLEBRUSH. Some 3 species, of some wines, such as Sauternes
shrubs or small trees. The toothed and Tokay. grit very small stone fragments, larger
leaves are white-woolly when young. than sharp sand, used as an ingredient
Produced in spring and summer, the greywater see irrigation. of certain growing media, or on the
small flowers have showy stamens and surfaces of pots and sinks for
are carried in dense, bottlebrush-like Grindelia (for David Hieronymus alpines especially.
spikes. Plant in a well-drained, sandy Grindel (1776–1836), Russian botanist).
medium in full sun. Under glass, pro- Compositae. Western N and S Amer- grotto an artificial garden feature
vide good ventilation, maintain a mini- ica. GUM PLANT, TARWEED, ROSIN- made to resemble a small, picturesque
G mum temperature of 7–10°C/45–50°F,

and water moderately when in growth.
Keep almost dry in winter. Propagate
WEED. About 60 species, resinous
annual or perennial herbs, rarely
shrubs. They produce large, daisy-like
cave. Grottos have been known since
Roman times and have been either
excavated or constructed, often from
by seed in spring, by basal cuttings of flowerheads in summer. Suitable for tufa rock, and ornamented with stones,
new growth, by semi-ripe cuttings, or the larger rock garden, for the warm shells or attractive minerals. They
by removal of rooted suckers. G.suther- sunny border, and for dry, sunny banks, sometimes incorporate water works.
landii (to 4.5m (15ft); leaves up to especially on poor dry soils. Hardy to
7cm (23/4in), rounded to heart-shaped, –15°C/5°F. Grow in any well-drained ground bed usually a temporary
toothed; flower spikes up to 10 x 5cm soil in full sun. Propagate by seed, or cold frame, comprising low board
(4 x 2in), red). by semi-ripe cuttings in late summer. or block walls covered by glass lights
G.chiloensis (syn. G.speciosa; Patagonia; or film plastic.
grey mould the visible growth of the clammy, shrubby perennial to 1m
ubiquitous fungus Botrytis cinerea. It is (31/4ft); flowerheads deep golden ground beetles (Coleoptera: Cara-
found on many different hosts and yellow). bidae) a very large and widely distrib-
causes leaf, flower and bud rots, die- uted family of small to medium-large
back of woody plants and rots of fruits Griselinia (for F. Griselini beetles. Most are black, with long
and vegetables. Affected organs are (1717–1783) Italian botanist). bead-like antennae,
covered with a fluffy grey mould from Cornaceae (Griseliniaceae). biting mouthparts and
which clouds of spores are released, New Zealand, Brazil, Chile. slender legs adapted
rapidly spreading the disease. The 6 species, evergreen trees for running. Many
fungus is common on decaying plant and shrubs with leathery species are flightless.
material and is a weak parasite which leaves and inconspicuous Normally, ground
mainly attacks damaged or stressed flowers in racemes or beetles are active at
plants growing under cool, damp, panicles. Where temper- Ground beetle night and spend the
overcrowded conditions. atures do not fall below day under stones, leaves,
Control depends on good hygiene, –5°C/23°F, G.littoralis may logs etc., especially in damp
involving the removal of crop debris be grown in the open garden; places. Adults and larvae feed on small
and damaged or affected tissues, good it will thrive in colder areas still worms, slugs, snails and a wide range
ventilation, especially in greenhouses, (to –12°C/10°F) if given a sheltered, of insects, and the species Bembidion
and the avoidance of damp or over- south-facing niche and good drainage; lampros and Trechus quadristriatus are
crowded conditions. Chemical control it is suitable for screens and hedging predators of the eggs and larvae of the
is possible with recommended systemic in coastal areas. G.lucida is frost-tender, cabbage root fly (Delia radicum). Some
and protectant fungicides. However, but may be grown in the conservatory ground beetles, including the straw-
control by the continual use of sys- in cold areas. Grow in sun or part berry seed beetle (Harpalus rufipes) and
temic fungicides alone may lead to shade. Trim hedges in summer. the strawberry ground beetles (Pteros-
the build-up of resistant strains of the Propagate from nodal cuttings in late tichus madidus and P.melanarius), may
fungus, or development of infection by summer/early autumn, in a sandy damage ripening fruits of strawberries.
other fungi, such as Alternaria and propagating mix in the cold frame.
Stemphylium, which are not controlled G.littoralis (New Zealand; shrub or groundcover selected species
by the group of fungicides in use. tree to 8m (26ft); leaves to 9cm (31/2in), planted between shrubs to cover the
Although a major disease of vines, ovate to oblong, olive to apple green, ground and conceal all signs of the soil
requiring costly control measures glossy, slightly fleshy, more or less beneath. Provided that perennial weeds
during the growing season, grey mould undulate; includes ‘Dixon’s Cream’, are removed before planting, ground-
can also be beneficial to certain wine- with leaves splashed creamy white, and cover will smother other weeds and can
producers. Botrytis is the agent causing ‘Variegata’, with leaves blotched or provide an attractive garden feature in
350 ‘noble rot’ (pourriture noble) of ripe zoned white); G.lucida (New Zealand; itself, as well as enhancing plants
grapes, the condition in which the shrub to 4m (13ft); leaves to 18, beneath which it grows. Groundcover
growing bag
may also be useful as a mulch for inexpensive in outlay. These include soil and give rise to thick leaf cover
conserving moisture, but where well- the less rampant forms of Hedera, which can stifle all but the most vigor-
established it can compete with main Hydrangea petiolaris and Lonicera japonica ous of plants. Left unchecked, ground
plantings for moisture and nutrients. ‘Halliana’. Certain ferns can be used, elder can spread up to a metre per
Plants used as groundcover are two British natives, the male fern, year. Control by forking is difficult
usually less than 30cm (12in) high, Dryopteris filix-mas, and the hart’s because of the need to remove all root
although in large areas some shrubs tongue, Asplenium scolopendrium, being portions, which readily become estab-
can be grown for the purpose. Species among the most valuable. Others are lished amongst the roots of garden
should not be so vigorous as to become Athyrium filix-femina, Blechnum chilense, plants. The best recourse is to lift
weeds, and the majority of plants Cystopteris bulbifera, Matteuccia struthiopteris infested plants for renewal whilst the
should be evergreen. However, individ- and Poly-podium vulgare. site is thoroughly cleared by meticulous
ual species that spread over an area Prostrate and semi-prostrate conifers forking out of the fleshy underground
of about 60cm (24in) diameter and
die back in the autumn are useful for
underplanting spring-flowering dwarf
are worth consideration, especially those
with coloured foliage, for example, the
procumbent, grey selections of Juniperus.
stems, or by applying a total weedkiller
if possible. Where practicable, smother
with a light-excluding fabric such as
G
bulbs. For groundcover, flower qualities Ornamental grasses and sedges, among thick polythene sheeting, left down for
are secondary to foliage effect. them Festuca glauca, Luzula species, several growing seasons. Glyphosate
Herbaceous perennials are valuable Phalaris arundinacea, Stipa calamagrostis and glyphosate trimesium are effective
groundcovering plants and among and Carex species, can also be used. as total weedkillers.
these are the evergreen ‘carpeters’ All of the foregoing are satisfactory
Saxifraga umbrosa (London Pride), Ajuga in most gardens in the UK and the groundkeeper used particularly of
reptans, (bugle), Potentilla alba and Wald- eastern states of North America. In a potato tuber that is unharvested and
steinia ternata, all of which will spread temperate regions like the Mediter- gives rise to a plant in the following
over a wide area from a single plant. ranean and the western seaboard areas season. It may be of significance as a
Larger plants, making clumps which of North America, where frost in source of disease infection in the new
eventually join together, include winter is unlikely and the summer season. Also known as a volunteer.
Alchemilla mollis, Geranium endressii and is characterized by long dry periods,
G. x magnificum, Tellima grandiflora, dense-growing low shrubs can be groundwork the ground level of a
Brunnera macrophylla, Bergenia species, selected from the natural range of bedding scheme comprised of low
Pachyphragma macrophyllum and Pul- maquis and garigue plants, while low growing plants.
monaria species. Suitable taller hardy creepers can be found among such
perennials which are effective in expan- plants as Acaena species, Armeria, dwarf group a category intermediate
sive colonies are Hosta, Hemerocallis, Ceratostigma species, Convolvulus cneorum, between species and cultivar, used to
Helleborus orientalis and Nepeta. Effective spreading Chamaecytisus and Genista, distinguish: (1) an assemblage of two or
small-scale groundcover of dense Liriope, mesembryanthemums, more similar cultivars and/or individu-
spreading growth is provided by the Osteomeles, the dwarf saxifrages, Sedum als within a species or hybrid; (2) plants
alpine campanulas and phloxes, Dryas species and Teucrium species. derived from a hybrid of uncertain
octopetala, Polygonum vacciniifolium, Asarum Subtropical areas, such as parts of parentage. Group names are written
europaeum and the smaller cultivars of Florida, can support perennials which in roman script, take a capital initial
Geranium sanguineum. are often grown as tender summer bed- letter, no quotation marks and are
Low-growing shrubs, such as Cornus ding in northern parts, for example always followed by the word Group,
canadensis, Cotoneaster dammeri, Euonymus Chlorophytum, coleus, Iresine, Helichrysum with an upper case initial.
fortunei, Lonicera pileata, Mahonia repens, petiolare and Tradescantia. Other plants
Pachysandra terminalis, Rubus pentalobus for full sun include Asystasia gangetica, growing bag a sealed, plastic bag,
and Vinca species, can be effective. Hemigraphis alternata and Lantana montevi- about 32cm (121/2in) wide and 1m
Suitable taller shrubs include lavender, densis. Ferns provide important ground- (31/4ft) long, filled with 50–60 litres
hydrangeas, Prunus laurocerasus ‘Otto cover plants for shade in such climates, (13/4–21/4 cu ft) of compressed soilless
Luyken’, Sarcococca species, Viburnum together with species such as Episcia, growing medium, usually fertilized peat
davidii, and, for acid soil, Arctostaphylos, Fittonia, Peperomia and Pilea nummularifo- or composted bark. Growing bags are
Gaultheria and Vaccinium species. Heaths lia. Asparagus sprengeri grows in sun or used for the cultivation of tomatoes
and heathers are some of the most shade. See mulch. and other plants where it is beneficial
valuable of all groundcover. Erica carnea to avoid rooting into greenhouse
and E.erigena hybrids flourish on alka- ground elder (Aegopodium podagraria) border soil, and for growing on con-
line soil, E.vagans on neutral ground, an invasive perennial weed of unculti- crete surfaces. Two or three planting
and all other species of Erica and vated ground, borders and sometimes holes are cut into the top of the
Calluna in soils free of lime. lawns. It occasionally establishes itself module and 5cm (2in)-drainage slits
Some climbing plants make effective from seed but is mainly transported by made in the sides, about 2.5cm (1in)
groundcover, eventually covering large fleshy underground stems. These form from the base. Regular watering and 351
areas and being therefore relatively a dense network in the top layer of supplementary feeding are essential.
growing point
growing point the tip of a stem. occur naturally in association with tree or small shrub to 7m (23ft).
plant tissue or are manufactured and Guavas are grown for their ovoid to
growing room, growth cham- applied to achieve a desired effect. pear-shaped edible fruits which are
ber a windowless room, usually within Ethylene gas is produced by ripen- 2.5–10cm (1–4in) in diameter, with
an existing building, in which light, ing apples and hastens maturity in white or pink flesh. Requires minimum
temperature, and humidity are con- unripened fruits and wilting in cut temperature of 10ºC/50ºF, thriving
trolled. Commonly used for raising flowers. Various complex chemicals, above 22ºC/72ºF, with high humidity.
bedding plants, tomatoes, cucumbers often referred to as hormones, occur Can be grown in large containers.
and lettuce in winter and early spring, within plants. Among these are auxins, Propagate by cuttings of ripe shoots
and for research purposes. Typically, which cause stem elongation and root at 24ºC/75ºF in summer.
lighting is provided by static or mobile formation on cuttings, gibberellins,
rigs of 2.4m- (8ft-) long 125W fluores- which break dormancy and induce gumming the exudation of gum-like
G cent tubes, giving a visible irradiance

of 40W/m2 or 20W/m2 depending on
12- or 24-hour cycles of operating.
flowering and stem elongation,
cytokinins, which stimulate cell division
and abscisic acid which inhibits growth.
resins by plants, particularly Prunus
species and conifers, often in response
to injury or disease, but sometimes as
Synthetic imitations of plant a reaction to poor soil conditions or
Growmore a standard, compound, hormones are developed to produce insect attack. In stone-fruit trees, gum-
balanced fertilizer, made to a formula abnormal growth as in the weed-killers ming is a physiological condition trig-
first recommended by the UK Ministry 2,4-D and mecoprop. Other manufac- gered by stress; plum fruits may form
of Agriculture during World War II, tured growth regulators include maleic gum around the stone.
and marketed as National Growmore. hydrazide, which suppresses sprout
It contains 7% nitrogen: 7% phos- development in potatoes and sucker gummosis the exudation of gum
phate: 7% potash. growth in trees and shrubs, dikegulac, from sunken spots on fungus-infected
which retards growth of hedges, cucumber fruits, upon which dark
growth cycle periods of active chlormequat, which restricts stem mould may develop. The condition is
growth in plants alternating with dor- growth in ornamentals, and IBA encouraged in a wet, cool environment
mancy or slowed growth brought about (4-indole-3-butyric acid), which with limited ventilation.
by low rainfall or changed levels of promotes the rooting of cuttings.
temperature or day length. In temper- Gunnera (for Ernst Gunnerus
ate zones, it is illustrated by deciduous growth rings see annual rings. (1718–1773), Norwegian bishop and
trees losing their leaves in autumn and botanist). Gunneraceae (Haloragi-
by evergreen growth slowing during grubber see mattock; daisy grubber. daceae). Australasia, South Africa,
cold spells and in poor light conditions. S America, Pacific region north to
grubs a popular term for the larvae Hawaii. Some 50 species, dwarf or
of beetles (Coleoptera); also sometimes giant rhizomatous, perennial herbs. The
applied to those of bees, wasps and small species form interlacing mats, the
ants (Hymenoptera). Beetle larvae have large ones, clumps or colonies. In either
biting mouthparts, a well-developed, case, the leaves are broadly ovate to
hardened head capsule and usually rounded, basal and long-stalked. In
three pairs of thoracic legs. The larvae spring and summer, inconspicuous flow-
of ants, wasps and bees are legless with ers are borne massed in panicles and
the head only slightly hardened and give rise to dry or fleshy fruit. The two
less prominent. giants described here (G.manicata and
G.tinctoria) are magnificent foliage plants
guano originally, sea-bird droppings for the waterside, wet ditches and bog
used as a rich natural fertilizer. The gardens. In climate zones 6 and over,
term is now loosely applied to other they thrive on moist or wet, rich soils in
concentrated organic ferilizers, espe- sun or part shade. In autumn protect
cially those that are made from fish them from frost by covering crowns with
and known as fish guano. the current season’s foliage (break the
leafstalks and bend the leaves down to
guard cells two cells that surround cover the growing point), or with straw
Growth regulator each stoma (which are the pore-like or bracken. G.magellanica is suitable for
Proprietary rooting powders containing syn- openings distributed over the epidermis moist areas in the rock garden or peat
thesized plant hormones, and often fungi- of the aerial parts of plants), and that bed, and for pans in the alpine or cool
cide, can encourage rooting of cuttings. serve to open and close it. greenhouse. Grow in full sunlight or
partial shade in a moist medium, rich
352 growth regulators chemicals that guavas Psidium guajava. Myrtaceae. in organic content. Increase all species
influence plant growth. They either Tropical America. A tender evergreen by division in spring.
Gymnospermium
G.magellanica (southern S America, (16in); leaves pale green, often with adpressed, somewhat bristly, horn-
Falkland Islands; dwarf, mat-forming; brown stripes or tint at base; flowers coloured, red-brown toward base; flow-
leaves 2–9cm (3/4–31/2in) in diameter, white, lower bracts green striped ers to 4cm (11/2in), white with a red
blades reniform, somewhat cupped, brown-black, upper bracts bright scar- throat); G.schickendantzii (N Argentina;
deep green, crenate, stalks 2–15cm let); G.sanguinea (C and S America; to stem, to 15 x 30cm (6 x 12in), broadly
(3/4–6in); fruit a cluster of orange-red 30cm (12in); leaves mid- to dark green, flattened to globose, turning bronze in
berries); G.manicata (GIANT RHUBARB; flushing red at centre when in flower; full sun, ribs somewhat spiralled, spines
S Brazil, Colombia; rhizomes massive flowers yellow amid red to orange- flattened and recurved, grey-red to
and shaggy; leaves 1–2m (31/4–61/2ft) in yellow bracts); G.vittata (Brazil, Colom- horn-coloured, often darker-tipped;
diameter, blades rounded to reniform, bia; to 60cm (24in); leaves dark green flowers white tinged pink or red-green).
margins broadly lobed and jaggedly with paler bands and sometimes
toothed, upper surface dull green and banded purple beneath; flowers white Gymnocladus (from Greek gymnos,
bullate, lower surface with very promi-
nent, prickly veins, stalks 1.5–2.5m
(5–8ft) tall, stout, prickly; flowers
amid purple-spotted, green bracts).
Gymnocalycium (from Greek

naked, and klados, a branch). Legumi-
nosae. US, China. Some 5 species,
deciduous trees with bipinnate leaves.
G
minute, rust to fox red, massed in a gymnos, naked, and kalyx, bud). Cac- The flowers are small, green-white
conical to cylindrical panicle to 1.5m taceae. Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, and borne in short terminal panicles
(5ft) tall); G.tinctoria (syn. G.chilensis, Uruguay, Argentina. Perhaps 50 or racemes in early summer. The fruit
G.scabra; Chile; differs from G.manicata species of low-growing cacti. Their is a large, woody pod. Hardy to
in forming smaller clumps with shorter stems are globose and mostly –30°C/–22°F and tolerant of salt,
leafstalks and blades to 1.5m (5ft) wide, unbranched with prominent ribs and drought and alkaline soils. Propagate
these more sharply toothed and lobed; spines. The flowers are funnelform from seed sown fresh or in spring, after
the flowers and fruit, and sometimes to campanulate. Provide a minimum chipping or soaking in hot water. Alter-
the leaf veins, have a strong wine winter temperature of 7°C/45°F. natively, take root cuttings in winter.
red tint). Grow in a neutral compost containing G.dioica (KENTUCKY COFFEE TREE; cen-
more than 50% grit. Maintain low tral and eastern N America; to 25m
guttation the exudation of drops of humidity; keep dry from mid-autumn (80ft), bark coarsely fissured, branchlets
water, mostly from the margins or tips until early spring, except for light mist- thick; leaves 30–80cm (12–32in),
of leaves, seen for example in Tropae- ing on warm days in late winter. Slight emerging pale pink, turning dark
olum majus, Alchemilla mollis and lawn shading during the summer months is green, yellow in autumn; flowers dull
grass. It usually takes place under desirable in greenhouses exposed to full green-white, downy, in racemes; fruit to
humid atmospheric conditions which sun. The flowering season is spring to 15 x 4cm (6 x 11/2in), brown or maroon,
give rise to low transpiration when early summer, although a few species thick, succulent becoming woody).
water absorption is occurring freely may produce a few flowers well into
and root pressure develops. autumn. Increase by seed, stem cut- gymnosperm a plant in which seeds
tings or grafting. are borne naked on a sporophyll,
guying the use of guy wires to sup- G.andreae (N Argentina; stems to rather than enclosed in an ovary, as in
port trees. The wires are fixed high up 4.5cm (13/4in) in diameter, globose, lus- angiosperms; the ovules develop with-
around the trunk, and attached to pegs trous dark blue- or black-green, spines out the enclosing pericarp found in
driven into the ground. dull white or dark brown, needle-like, angiosperms. Gymnosperms include
often curved; flowers to 3cm (11/4in), conifers, cycads, Welwitschia, Ephedra,
Guzmania (for Anastasio Guzman yellow); G.gibbosum (Argentina; stems to and Gnetum.
(d. 1802), Spanish naturalist and 20 x 15cm (8 x 6in), glaucous, globose
apothecary). Bromeliaceae. C and becoming club-shaped, brown-green, Gymnospermium (from Greek
S America. 126 species, perennial, spines brown to grey, straight or slightly gymnos, naked, and sperma, seed).
epiphytic herbs. The leaves are strap- curved; flowers to 6cm (21/2in), pure Berberidaceae. Europe to C Asia. 4
shaped and smooth and arranged in a white or outer tepals tinted pale pink); species, deciduous perennial herbs with
basal rosette, their bases forming a cup G.mihanovichii (N Paraguay; stems to 8cm tuberous rhizomes. The ferny leaves
or vase. From its centre, the flower (3in) in diameter or more, squatly glo- are ternately divided into pinnately
spike emerges at various times of year, bose to shortly cylindric, dark olive green lobed leaflets. The flowers loosely
branched or unbranched and usually with cross banding, spines dull yellow resemble those of Berberis but are borne
covered in waxy, colourful bracts. The tipped brown; flowers to 4.5cm (13/4in), in slender-stalked, terminal racemes.
flowers are small and broadly tubular. yellow-green tipped red; cultivars exist Cultivate as for Bongardia.
Cultivate as for Aechmea. that lack chlorophyll, having stems G.albertii (C Asia; to 25cm (10in);
G.lingulata (C and S America; to wholly and brightly coloured yellow, red flowers to 2cm (3/4in) across, yellow with
45cm (18in); leaves pale to mid-green; or pink; to survive, these clones must be red-brown veins on sepals and a stalked
flowers white to yellow amid orange to grafted); G.quehlianum (N Argentina; stem ovary); G.altaicum (Black Sea; differs
red or yellow bracts); G.monostachya (syn. to 3.5 x 7cm (11/2x 23/4in), flattened to glo- from G.alberti in having plain yellow 353
G.tricolor, C and S America; to 40cm bose, turning bronze in full sun, spines sepals and an ovary that is not stalked).
Gynandriris
Gynandriris (from Greek gyne, gynoecium, as in the column of but favour a warm and sheltered posi-
female, andros, male, and Iris – referring Orchidaceae. tion with protection from excessive
to the united stamens and pistil). Iri- winter wet. Grow in full sun on well-
daceae. Southern Africa, Mediter- Gynura (from Greek gyne, woman, drained soils – sandy, poor and stony
ranean, east to Pakistan. 9 species, and oura, a tail: the stigma is long and for the alpine species, deep and fertile
cormous perennial herbs. Short-lived, rough). Compositae. Old World trop- for the larger species. Avoid disturbing
Iris-like flowers are produced in spring. ics. VELVET PLANT. About 50 species, established plants. Cut back or trim
Hardy to about –5°C/23°F, the follow- perennial herbs and subshrubs with over after flowering. Propagate peren-
ing species needs plentiful moisture entire to pinnately dissected leaves and nials by softwood cuttings in summer,
when in growth but requires a dry orange-yellow button-like flowerheads. by seed in spring, or (G.paniculata culti-
summer baking to ensure flowering. The following are striking foliage plants vars) by grafting in winter. Sow seed of
Plant deeply, at about 15cm (6in), in suitable for pot or basket cultivation in G.elegans under glass in early spring for
G a well-drained, gritty soil in a warm

sunny position. Sow seed in a sandy
propagating mix in early spring at
the greenhouse or home. Grow in a
fertile and well-drained potting mix in
bright indirect light, ensuring shade
planting out after the last frosts, or in
situ in mid-spring.
G.cerastioides (Himalaya; loose, grey-
about 10°C/50°F; increase also by off- from strong summer sun. Maintain a hairy, mat-forming perennial; flowers
sets. G.sisyrinchium (Portugal, Mediter- minimum temperature of 15°C/59°F. to 2cm (3/4in) diam., white or lilac
ranean to SW Asia; 10–40cm (4–16in); Keep evenly moist. Propagate by soft- veined pink, in loose corymbs); G.elegans
leaves slender, usually prostrate and wood or semi-ripe cuttings in a shaded, (Asia Minor, Caucasus, S Ukraine;
curling; flowers produced in succession, closed case with gentle bottom heat. glabrous annual to 50cm (20in),
1–6 per cyme, faintly scented, violet- G.aurantiaca (VELVET PLANT, PURPLE branching above; flowers up to 3cm
blue to lavender, the falls with a white VELVET PLANT, ROYAL VELVET PLANT; (11/4in) in diameter, white veined pink
or white and orange patch). perennial herb, erect to sprawling or or purple, on long, slender stalks in a
clambering, to 60cm (24in), all parts finely but loosely branched panicle; a
gynodioecious having female and covered in short purple hairs; leaves popular cut flower, rather coarser and
hermaphrodite flowers on separate coarsely toothed, dark green with a larger than the G.paniculata; cultivars
plants of the same species, as occurs velvety purple sheen from the hairs; include the large, pure white ‘Covent
in, for example, ground ivy includes the popular ‘Purple Passion’, Garden’ and ‘Giant White’, the pale
(Glechoma hederacea). syn. G.sarmentosa of gardens, a decum- pink ‘Rosea’, the vinous ‘Purpurea’
bent plant, the leaves narrow with and the carmine ‘Red Cloud’); G.panic-
gynoecium the female element of a wavy-lobed and toothed margins and ulata (BABY’S BREATH; C and E Europe,
flower, comprising the pistil or pistils. thickly covered in velvety purple hairs). C Asia; stoutly rhizomatous, diffusely
pistil (female branched perennial to 120cm (48in),
parts or Gypsophila (from Greek gypsos, usually smooth and glaucous; flowers
gynoecium) chalk, and philos, loving, referring to up to 0.8cm (3/8in) in diameter, white or
the preference of some species for limy pink, many in a finely branched, cloud-
soils). Caryophyllaceae. Eurasia, partic- like panicle; includes cultivars with
ularly common in SE Europe. BABY’S large or dwarf habit, and single or
BREATH. About 100 species, annual or double flowers); G.repens (C and S
perennial herbs of varying habit. The Europe; mat-forming, grey-glaucous
leaves are often somewhat fleshy and perennial with flowering stems ascend-
glaucous. Usually numerous and small ing to 20cm (8in); flowers up to 1.5cm
in spreading panicles, rarely large and (5/8in) in diameter, white, pink or
stamens solitary, the flowers are borne in spring purple-pink in loose panicles; cultivars
(male parts) and summer. They are broadly funnel- include pale to deep rose-flowered
Gynoecium prominent in tulip shaped and consist of five, obovate plants and forms with single or double
gynomonoecious having female petals. flowers, one of the finest being
and hermaphrodite flowers on the Gypsophila is represented in cultiva- ‘Dorothy Teacher’, a neat, compact,
same plant, as occurs in, for example, tion by the small montane species, such blue-green plant with profuse flowers
Syringa x persica. as G.repens, and larger species, such as turning from white to soft pink).
G.paniculata, from dry, stony or sandy
gynophore the stalk of a pistil, habitats. The perennial G.paniculata and gypsum hydrated calcium sulphate
which raises it above the receptacle. the fast-growing annual G.elegans are (sulphate of lime), used to improve the
particularly useful in the flower border. structure of clay soils without affecting
gynostegium the staminal crown in They are grown for the light airy their alkalinity. It is valuable for land
Asclepiadaceae. masses of tiny flowers, carried in reclamation after flooding by sea water.
summer on slender much-branched
354 gynostemium a single structure stems. Both species are excellent cut gyrate curving in a circular or spiral
combining androecium and flowers. The following are fully hardy, fashion.
Haemanthus
H
loose scapose umbels, the flowers are no frost. H.tubispathus is reliably hardy
broadly tubular with five rounded in zone 8, especially if established in
lobes. Cultivate as for Ramonda. a dry, sheltered and sunny position.
H.ferdinandi-coburgi (C Bulgaria; simi- Grow in a fibrous loam-based mix with
lar to H.rhodopensis, except that the additional leafmould, planting firmly
leaves are more or less glabrous above; with neck and shoulders above soil
flowers lilac, tube darker above, throat level. Propagate by offsets and also
yellow-spotted); H.rhodopensis (C and from fresh ripe seed.
S Bulgaria, NE Greece; leaves softly H.brachyandrus (S Brazil; to 30cm
hairy; flowers 1.5–2.5cm (5/8–1in) pale (12in), flowers to 9cm (31/2in), brilliant
blue-violet; includes the white-flowered or pale pink, tube red-black at base);
‘Virginalis’). H.tubispathus (syn. H.andersonii; S Chile,
ha-ha a deep wide ditch separating a Argentina, S Brazil, Uruguay; to 15cm
garden or park from the surrounding (6in), tinged red, flowers to 7cm (23/4in),
countryside, designed to exclude ani-
mals without creating a visual barrier.
Originating in the early 18th century,
burnt orange, yellow or golden-bronze
above, grey-pink with darker stripes
beneath).
H
the device became a characteristic of
the English Landscape style of garden Hacquetia (for Balthasar Hacquet
designer ‘Capability’ Brown (1716–83) (1740–1815), author of Plantae Alpinae
and his followers. Carniolicae). Umbelliferae. Europe.
1 species, H.epipactis, a clump-forming,
Haageocereus (for F. Haage, and perennial herb to 7cm (23/4in) tall
Cereus). Cactaceae. Peru, N Chile. To (usually shorter). The emerald green
10 species, shrubby or arborescent cacti leaves are near-circular in outline and
with ribbed and spiny stems. Mostly palmately cleft and toothed. Small
white or dull red, the tubular to fun- yellow flowers are produced in early
nelform flowers bloom at night and, spring in a dense, rounded umbel,
often remain open through the follow- subtended by a ruff of leaf-like bracts
ing morning. Grow in a cool frost-free – the whole arrangement gives the
greenhouse (minimum temperature impression of a single, green-petalled
2–7°C/36–45°F). Use ‘standard’ cactus flower with a boss of golden stamens.
compost, with a moderate to high Distinctive habit: Corylus avellana ‘Contorta’ A slowly spreading perennial for the
inorganic content (more than 50% grit) rock and woodland garden and under-
and a pH of 6–7.5. Provide full sun habit (1) the characteristic growth planting among winter- and spring-
and low air humidity. Keep dry from form of a plant; for example the flowering shrubs. Hardy to –15°C/5°F.
mid-autumn until early spring, except spreading, columnar or weeping habit Grow in any moist, humus-rich soil,
for light misting on warm days in late of trees; (2) loosely used to describe in part shade. Propagate by sowing
winter. Increase by stem cuttings. plant type; for example herb, shrub fresh seed, by careful division of well-
H.decumbens (S Peru; stems to about or tree. established plants in early spring, and
1m (31/4ft) x 4–8cm (11/2–3in), decum- by root cuttings.
bent or pendent, spines very stout, habitat the natural environment in
dark; flowers white); H.multangularis which a species lives, characterized by Haemanthus (from Greek haima,
(syn. H.chosicensis; C Peru; stems to climate, elevation, soil type and associ- blood, and anthos, flower, referring to
1.5m (5ft) x 6–10cm (21/2–4in), erect ation with other organisms. the colour of the flowers.) Amarylli-
or ascending, spines very stout; flowers daceae. South Africa, Namibia. 21
red, pink or white); H.versicolor (N Peru; Habranthus (from Greek habros, species, deciduous or evergreen bul-
stems slender, erect, to 1.5m (5ft) x 5cm graceful, and anthos, a flower). Amaryll- bous herbs with broadly strap-shaped
(2in), spines variable in colour; idaceae Temperate S America, espe- 2-ranked leaves and small flowers
flowers white). cially Argentina, Uruguay and adjacent packed in scapose umbels and sub-
regions of Brazil and Paraguay. 10 tended by several bracts. The fruits are
Haberlea (for Karl Konstantin species, perennial bulbous herbs with coloured berries. Plant with the bulb
Haberle (1764–1832), Professor of narrowly strap-shaped leaves and neck at or just above soil level, in well-
Botany at Budapest). Gesneriaceae. solitary, scapose flowers – these are crocked pots of humus-rich loam-based
Balkans. 2 species, tufted perennial funnel-shaped and 6-lobed. Somewhat potting medium, with added coarse
herbs. Borne in low rosettes, the leaves tender bulbs grown for their flowers. grit and well-rotted manure. Maintain
are obovate to broadly oblong, coarsely H.brachyandrus may be grown at the a winter minimum temperature of
crenate and more or less hairy. Pro- base of a south- or southwest-facing 10°C/50°F; grow in bright filtered 355
duced in late spring and summer in wall in sheltered gardens with little or light, but move into part shade as the
Haemanthus
flower buds develop to preserve colour ters); H.suaveolens (West Australia; erect layering in spring, or, in the same
and prolong flowering. Dry off decidu- shrub, 1.5–2m (5–61/2ft); leaves 7–20cm season, by softwood basal cuttings,
ous species as leaves yellow; keep ever- (23/4–8in), pinnate, segments erect, treated with hormone-rooting powder,
green species dry but not arid during sharply pointed; flowers cream in under mist or in a closed case. Over-
rest. The plants flower better when dense racemes). winter young plants in the cold frame.
under-potted and resent disturbance. Seed exhibits a complex dormancy:
Propagate by offsets, removed as new Hakonechloa (from Hakone in sow fresh in autumn, and maintain at
growth begins and grown on in a Honshu, Japan). Gramineae. Japan. 14–25°C/57–77°F for 60–100 days,
closed case until established; or 1 species, H.macra, a perennial grass followed by cold stratification at
from ripe seed. 30–75cm (12–30in) tall. The stems 0–5°C/32–41°F for a further 2–3
H.albiflos (South Africa; leaves some- are slender and clumped, bending months. Bring into equable conditions
times spotted white, usually downy; outwards in a graceful ‘shaggy’ crown. when germination starts.
scape to 35cm (14in), green, glabrous The leaves are narrowly lance-shaped H.carolina (syn. H.tetraptera; S US;
or pubescent, spathe white veined and fresh green, becoming rust- and small tree or shrub, to 6m (20ft); leaves
H green, ciliate, flowers white; fruit white,

orange or red); H.coccineus (CAPE TULIP;
South Africa; leaves sometimes barred
orange-tinted in autumn. In the culti-
var ‘Aureola’, the leaves are striped
lime and creamy yellow to gold; in
5–6cm (2–21/2in), ovate to lanceolate,
serrulate, glabrous above, grey-downy
beneath; flowers white, 1–1.5cm
maroon, green or white, glabrous or ‘Alboaurea’, they are lime green, gold (1/2–5/8in); includes ‘Meehanii’, with
downy; scape to 37cm (141/2in), cream and cream, acquiring pink to maroon broader, wrinkled leaves and smaller
to pale red streaked dark red, umbel to stripes and tints in bright sun and in flowers with more deeply cut lobes,
10cm (4in) across, spathe 6–9-valved, autumn. Given shelter from cold and var. mollis, with broader, downy
coral, vermillion or scarlet, flowers drying winds, they are hardy to leaves and larger flowers); H.monticola
coral to scarlet with white markings; between –15 and –20°C/5 to –4°F and (syn. H.carolina var. monticola; SE US;
fruit white to deep pink); H.sanguineus easily grown in any moderately fertile, tree to 28m (92ft) leaves 8–16cm
(South Africa; leaves scabrid above, moisture-retentive soil with additional (3–6in), elliptic to obovate, serrate,
glossy beneath, margin red or transpar- leafmould. Light shade will enhance soon glabrous except veins beneath;
ent; scape to 27cm (11in), claret red, leaf colour. Plants spread slowly once flowers white, 1.5–2.5cm (5/8–1in);
spathe red-pink, flowers red to salmon established to form substantial clumps; f. rosea, with pale rose flowers, and
pink marked white; fruit glassy white also excellent for container cultivation. var. vestita, with leaves white-tomentose
to claret). Propagate by division in spring. beneath when young and sometimes
a rose tint to the flowers).
haft the base of an organ bears 10–16
when narrow or constricted; stamens half hardy applied to plants which,
most often applied to the haft in a given climatic zone, may be grown
of the falls in Iris flowers. outdoors after the risk of frost has
passed. Used particularly of bedding
hair an outgrowth of the plants, and other annuals. See hardiness.
epidermis; unicellular or
comprising a row of cells, and half-pot see pots and potting.
conforming to one of several
types (e.g. dendritic, stellate, scale- x Halimiocistus Cistaceae.
like, peltate) according to branching, S Europe. Hybrids between Cistus
form, grouping and attachment. and Halimium, small to medium-
Halesia carolina sized evergreen shrubs with small,
Hakea (for Baron Christian Ludwig narrow and downy leaves and lax
von Hake (1745–1818), German Halesia (for Dr S. H. Hales cymes of five-petalled flowers in
patron of botany). Proteaceae. PIN- (1677–1761), author of Vegetable Staticks summer. Cultivate as for Cistus.
CUSHION TREE. W Australia. Some (1727)). Styracaceae. SILVERBELL TREE, H.‘Ingwersenii’ (Halimium umbellatum
110 species, shrubs or small trees, SNOWDROP TREE. China, eastern x Cistus hirsutus; Portugal; to 50cm
usually hairy and with leathery to rigid N America. 5 species, deciduous trees (20in); flowers white in sparse, long-
leaves. Borne in short axillary racemes or shrubs. In late spring and early stalked branching cymes); H.sahucii
or clusters, the flowers are tubular with summer, the flowers hang in clusters (Halimium umbellatum x Cistus salviifolius;
slender lobes and a protruding style. from the previous year’s wood. White S France; to 1m (31/4ft); flowers 3–5 per
Cultivate as for Banksia. or pale rose, they are broadly bell- cyme, white); H.wintonensis (Halimium
H.lissosperma (syn. H.sericea of gar- shaped and four-lobed, and are fol- ocymoides x Cistus salviifolius; garden
dens; NEEDLE BUSH; E Australia; shrub lowed by winged fruit. Plant in deep, origin; to 60cm (24in); flowers white,
or small tree to 6m (20ft) tall; leaves to humus-rich, lime-free soils that are often yellow at centre with maroon
356 10cm (4in), terete, sharply pointed, moist but well-drained, in sun with blotches in long-stalked, 2–4-flowered
curved upwards; flowers white in clus- shelter from wind. Propagate by simple cymes; includes ‘Merrist Wood
Hamamelis
Cream’, with flowers deep cream to ‘Allgold’, with ascending branches,

primrose blotched dark maroon). leaves that are yellow in autumn, and
butter-yellow flowers with narrow,
Halimium (from Greek halimos twisted petals and red calyces; ‘Arnold
belonging to the sea). Cistaceae. Promise’, with densely clustered, deep
Mediterranean, SW Europe, N Africa, sulphur-yellow flowers, with red-green
Asia Minor. Some 12 species, ever- calyces; the late-flowering ‘Carmine
green shrubs and subshrubs, differing Red’, with narrow, twisted, pale bronze
from the closely related Cistus in their petals to 2cm (3/4in), with tips suffused
predominantly yellow flowers. Grey- copper; ‘Diane’, with yellow and scarlet
leaved summer-flowering plants, hardy foliage during autumn and coppery
in zone 7 and suited to areas with mild carmine flowers with purple-bronze
winters and warm dry summers. calyces; ‘Hiltingbury’, with large,
Cultivate as for Cistus. rounded leaves turning red, orange and
H.lasianthum (SW Europe; to 70cm
(28in); flowers to 4cm (11/2in) in diame-
ter, petals golden with a dark basal
copper in autumn, and pale copper-red
flowers with maroon calyces; the large
ascending shrub ‘Jelena’ – also known
H
spot; includes ‘Concolor’, with unspot- Suckers on Hamamelis as ‘Copper Beauty’ – with leaves turn-
ted flowers, ‘Sandling’, with the flowers Many witch-hazels are grafted, and this may ing bronze, red and orange in autumn
conspicuously blotched maroon, and lead to suckering at the base. Shoots from and densely clustered, yellow flowers
subsp. formosum, with larger flowers and the rootstock should be pulled away cleanly suffused deep copper-red, with twisted
the basal spot higher up each petal); at their point of origin. petals and burgundy calyces; the erect
H.ocymoides (SW Europe; to 1m (31/4ft); medium-sized shrub ‘Feuerzauber’ –
flowers golden, typically with a wide additional organic matter, such as leaf- also known as ‘Magic Fire’ or ‘Fire
maroon spot at the base of each petal, mould or well-rotted compost, at plant- Charm’ – with leaves turning yellow in
in erect, terminal panicles forming a ing time. Deep soils overlying chalk are autumn and copper-orange petals, suf-
broad inflorescence; includes the com- acceptable; lime-induced chlorosis may fused red and twisted; the medium to
pact, broad-leaved ‘Susan’); H.umbella- be treated with sequestered iron. All large shrub ‘Moonlight’, with circular
tum (Mediterranean; to 40cm (16in); species prefer moisture-retentive soils. leaves turning yellow in autumn, and
flowers white stained yellow at base Pruning is necessary only to remove highly fragrant, densely clustered, pale
of petals, to 2cm (3/4in) in diameter, deadwood. Grafted specimens may sulphur-yellow flowers, with a bur-
3–6 per umbel-like panicle). produce suckers which should be gundy basal blotch; ‘Nana’, with deep
removed at the base as they appear. yellow petals to 3cm (11/4in); ‘Orange
halo blight a bacterial disease of Cultivars may be propagated by Beauty’, with golden yellow to orange-
beans. See bacterial diseases. side-grafting in gentle heat in late yellow flowers; ‘Pallida’, with flowers
winter/early spring, or by budding in covering branches, sulphur yellow;
halophyte a plant adapted to, or late summer on to seedling understock ‘Primavera’, with flowers densely
tolerant of, saline soil, such as the of H.virginiana. Layering in autumn clustered and sickle-shaped, primrose
glassworts (Salicornia species) found is useful where small numbers are yellow petals to 2cm (3/4in); ‘Ruby Glow’
on salt marshes. required. Take softwood cuttings in – also known as ‘Rubra Superba’ or
summer, treat with 0.8% IBA and root ‘Adonis’ – with leaves turning orange,
Hamamelis (from Greek for a pear- under mist or in a closed case with bronze and scarlet in autumn, and
shaped fruit). Hamamelidaceae. bottom heat; overwinter in the first copper-red petals to 2cm (3/4in); the
WITCH-HAZEL. N America, Europe, year in the cold greenhouse or frame. early flowering ‘Sunburst’, with sulphur
E Asia. 5 species, deciduous shrubs or Propagate species by ripe seed sown yellow flowers; the late-flowering ‘West-
small trees with tomentose branches fresh in the open cold frame; some ger- erstede’, with pale yellow flowers; and
and buds and ovate to obovate, toothed mination may occur in the first spring, ‘Winter Beauty’, with flowers similar to
leaves, most turning yellow in autumn but seed usually requires a second ‘Orange Beauty’ but larger, and petals
but also showing tints of orange and winter in the cold frame before germi- brown-red at base); H.japonica (JAPANESE
red. Produced in late winter in axillary nating. Dormancy may be broken by WITCH-HAZEL; Japan; shrub or tree to
clusters, the scented, spidery flowers warm treatment, for a period of nine 3m (10ft); flowers yellow with petals to
consist of four slender petals arising weeks at 20°C/68°F, followed by 14 2cm (3/4in) and calyces green or purple
from the cup of a glossy, chestnut- weeks at 5°C/41°F. within; cultivars include: the vigorous
coloured calyx. H. x intermedia (H.japonica x H.mollis; ‘Arborea’, to 5m (16ft), with yellow,
Most Hamamelis species are hardy to garden origin; shrub to 4m (13ft); flow- wavy petals and maroon calyces; ‘Sul-
–20°C/–4°F. Grow with shelter from ers to 3cm (11/4in) in diameter, petals phurea’, with sulphur yellow petals to
cold drying wind, in fertile, neutral or crumpled; cultivars include: ‘Advent’, 1.5cm (5/8in); ‘Zuccariniana’, with erect
preferably slightly acid, well-drained the earliest flowering, with bright to spreading branches, leaves turning 357
and humus-rich soils; incorporate yellow flowers; the medium-sized yellow in autumn, flowers with twisted,
Hamamelis
wavy, sulphur yellow petals to 1.2cm for growing pendulous dwarf tomatoes. integral support may be plunged out-
(1/2in); H.mollis (CHINESE WITCH-HAZEL; Square baskets made of wooden slats doors in summer. Propagate by seed
W China; shrub or small tree to 5m are used for orchid-growing. Hanging sown in spring; pre-soak for 24 hours
(16ft); flowers sweetly fragrant, with baskets are commonly used for summer prior to sowing at 20°C/68°F and
calyces red-purple within and straight decoration outdoors but make valuable cover with fine grit. Alternatively, root
petals to 1.7cm (3/4in), golden yellow additions to the large greenhouse or tip cuttings in late spring in moist sand
and tinged red at base; cultivars include conservatory. or vermiculite, in a closed case with
the early flowering ‘Brevipetala’ with To retain the growing medium, the bottom heat.
orange-yellow petals to 1cm (1/2in); basket needs to be lined with moss H.comptoniana (WESTERN AUSTRALIA
‘Coombe Wood’, with golden yellow (where it can be obtained from an CORAL PEA; W Australia; evergreen
flowers, suffused red at base; the large approved source), plastic sheeting or vine to 3m (10ft); leaves with 3–5
shrub ‘Goldcrest’, with golden petals netting, coconut fibre, foam plastic, leaflets; flowers blue to purple, stan-
to 2cm (3/4in), each with a wavy tip and impregnated cardboard or wool waste. dard with a green-spotted, white blotch
a burgundy basal blotch, and calyces Soilless composts are suitable, and the at base); H.violacea (syn. H.monophylla;
H with a purple-red interior); H.vernalis

(Southern Central US; upright sucker-
ing shrub to 2m (61/2ft), similar to
incorporation of moisture-absorbing
polymers and slow-release fertilizer is
advantageous. Dead-heading flowers,
VINE LILAC, PURPLE CORAL PEA, FALSE
SARSPARILLA; E Australia, Tasmania;
evergreen vine to 2m (61/2ft)+; leaves
H.virginiana, except calyx interior red, regular watering and supplementary with only one leaflet; flowers purple,
petals yellow to red; cultivars include feeding are essential practices for the white, pink, or lilac, standard spotted
‘Carnea’, with pale fleshy pink flowers; maintenance of a good display. yellow or green at centre).
‘Lombart’s Weeping’, with pendulous
branches, blue-green leaves and pale red hapaxanthic with only a single
flowers; ‘Red Imp’, with claret petal flowering period.
bases and copper tips; ‘Sandra’, with
violet-purple young foliage, becoming haploid describing the basic number
green, flushed purple beneath, turning of chromosomes borne in the unpaired
red, scarlet and orange in autumn, pollen and ovule cells of a diploid
with cadmium yellow flowers; and plant. It is commonly annotated x;
‘Squib’, with cadmium yellow petals c.f. polyploid.
and green calyces); H.virginiana (VIRGIN-
IAN WITCH-HAZEL; E US; shrub or small haptonasty, haptotropism the Hardening off
tree, to 5m (16ft); leaves yellow during response of plants to contact or touch, Seed-raised plants of half-hardy bedding
autumn, calyces green or brown inside, as demonstrated by the tendrils of such as Tagetes must be gradually acclima-
petals 17mm (3/4in), crinkled, golden climbing plants and by some carnivo- tized to outdoor temperatures.
yellow; includes ‘Rubescens’, with petal rous plants. See stimulus movements.
bases suffused red; H.macrophylla from hardening off the process of
the SE US has larger leaves with Hardenbergia (for Countess von acclimatizing plants to more rigorous
superb autumn colour and small, Hardenberg, sister of the celebrated conditions. Hardening off is achieved
crinkled, pale yellow flowers, opening traveller Baron von Hügel, who col- by gradually increasing exposure to
in late autumn and winter). lected plants in western Australia in lower temperature and air movement,
1833). Leguminosae. Australia, Tasma- often by transferring containerized
hamate hooked at the tip. nia. 3 species, evergreen vines. The plants to unheated frames. It is usually
leaves consist of one to five, ovate to practised with half-hardy or tender
handbarrow a wooden platform, lanceolate leaflets. Small, pea-like flow- plants raised under glass and intended
about 120cm (48in) long and 70cm ers are produced in spring and summer for planting outside.
(28in) wide, with the side bearers in long, axillary racemes. Where winter
extended to form handles, and usually temperatures do not fall much below hardiness a complex quality attrib-
having a short leg at each corner of the –5°C/23°F, they are well-suited to uted to plants that are capable of
platform. It is used mostly to transport growing over arches, fences or pergo- withstanding climatic rigours without
plants in containers, with one person las, or trailing over a retaining wall. In greenhouse protection. In tropical and
standing between each pair of handles cooler zones, they may be pot-grown subtropical climates, the term may
for holding and lifting. in the cool greenhouse or conservatory, extend to drought tolerance. Natural
with a minimum winter temperature of adaptations among plants to ensure
handlight see bellglass; cloche. 7–10°C/45–50°F. Grow in moist, well- hardiness include a reduced surface
drained, lime-free soils in sun or light area, a deciduous or herbaceous habit,
hanging basket a hemispherical dappled shade. Water moderately and seed dormancy, an accelerated life
container of galvanized or plastic- feed monthly with dilute liquid feed cycle, hairiness, thickened cell walls,
358 coated wire suspended on chains to dis- when in growth; keep just moist in thick bark, procumbent growth, and a
play ornamental plants or, sometimes, winter. Container-grown plants with lack of fleshy parts (except in xerophytes).
hardiness
In cells, the presence of oils and cell walls. Many plants develop a Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening
crystals are effective against freezing. hardier constitution as they mature, (1992). Zone maps have been pub-
Hardiness may be much affected and stock grown in containers under lished for South Africa, Australia,
by macroclimate. For example, plants protection must be hardened off. New Zealand, Japan and China.
overwintering with their metabolic Where this is not done, it is advisable Maps based on isotherms represent
processes naturally at a near standstill to delay planting out until the spring, meteorological patterns, not hardiness
may succumb to periods of unusually or to protect evergreens from severe zones. Hardiness is a complex phenom-
persistent rainfall. A seasonal rise in weather. Most slightly tender species enon, a highly relative quality of the
the temperature of a locality promotes may rejuvenate if cut hard back after individual plant – not of its projected
rapid growth and full ripening of wood frost injury. site – and is affected by various linked
and flower buds, which are therefore Radiation frost injury is more factors of which cold is only one.
more tolerant of wind and very low common and can be sudden, the most The Royal Horticultural Society’s
winter temperatures. These factors are serious damage occurring in late spring Award of Garden Merit to plants
influenced by the prevailing climate, or early summer. Soft growth of trees designates hardiness limits for Britain
which in turn may be affected by
topography. Whereas little can be done
to alter the effect of macroclimate on
and shrubs as well as fruit crops is very
vulnerable, as are half-hardy or tender
bedding display plants. Damage is
as follows – H1: heated glass; H2:
unheated glass; H3: hardy in some
regions or particular situations; H4:
H
plant hardiness, there are opportunities severe after a mild spell has stimulated generally hardy throughout the
for improving the microclimate in the new growths or early flowers. Cell sap British Isles.
garden: drainage may be improved by expands on freezing and this may The European Garden Flora has a more
building raised beds, soil structure can destroy plant cell walls, thus killing elaborate classification – G2: requires
be ameliorated, shelter and surface tender plants or parts of plants. Severe a heated greenhouse even in south
insulation can be provided with layered cold may cause the bark of some Europe; G1: requires a cool green-
mulches and by wrapping up frost- woody plants to split. Repeated hard house even in south Europe; H5: hardy
susceptible plants and protecting them freezing followed by rapid thawing in favourable areas, can withstand
with glass or plastic. Natural selection causes the greatest damage to roots. 0–5°C/32–41°F minimum; H4: hardy
and hybridization can contribute to Remedial measures include locating in mild areas, can withstand –5° to
plant hardiness, and seeds and plants frost pockets and draining off cold –10°C/23°–14°F minimum; H3: hardy
should be chosen with their prove- air from behind walls and hedges in cool areas, can withstand –10° to
nance in mind. by creating suitable openings with –15°C/14°–5°F minimum; H2: hardy
Low-temperature hardiness. permeable fences; tender plants almost everywhere, can withstand –15°
In the northern Hemisphere, injury to should not be planted out until the to –20°C/5° to –4°F minimum; H1:
plants from wind frosts and sustained main risk of frost is past. hardy everywhere, can withstand
low temperatures is usually associated Hardiness zones Hardiness –20°C/–4°F and below.
with bursts of cold air from the north zones based on winter isotherms are a These guides to plant hardiness
or northeast, most likely during the means of expressing the cold tolerance must be regarded as flexible and there-
winter months from December to of garden plants. The isotherm is a fore of general use only. In this volume,
March. The precise cause and effect line on a map connecting places with the climatic zone numbers given in
of low temperature damage is variable the same mean temperature at a given individual plant entries follow those
and, besides species, provenance and time. Alfred Rehder in his Manual for adopted by the New RHS Dictionary of
growing locality, includes the influence Cultivated Trees and Shrubs (1972) devel- Gardening and the USDA. They can
of mineral nutrition, sugar content, oped a system using eight zones to be summarized as follows:
shoot ripeness and frequency and dura- cover the cold-temperate areas of the
tion of exposure. A period of sub-zero US, with five-degree Fahrenheit bands Zone °C °F
temperatures often causes the ground based on the lowest mean temperatures 1 <–45.5 <–50
to freeze to some depth and evergreen of the coldest months. In 1960 the US 2 –45.5 to –40.0 –50 to –40
trees and shrubs may suffer particularly Department of Agriculture (USDA), in 3 –40.0 to –34.4 –40 to –30
since water from the soil is difficult to cooperation with the American Horti- 4 –34.4 to –28.9 –30 to –20
extract and they cannot transpire; cultural Society, published a map based 5 –28.9 to –23.3 –20 to –10
severe wind chill can ‘burn’ or kill on ten-degree Fahrenheit differences in 6 –23.3 to –17.8 –10 to 0
green shoots and stems. There may be the annual minimum temperature, on 7 –17.8 to –12.2 0 to +10
bark splitting in trees and shrubs and which the US State boundaries were 8 –12.2 to –6.7 +10 to +20
physical ‘lifting’ disturbance of plants superimposed. The map was revised 9 –6.7 to –1.1 +20 to +30
in the soil; also death of plant cells fol- in 1990 to include Alaska, Canada, 10 –1.1 to +4.4 +30 to +40
lowing the formation of ice crystals on Mexico and Hawaii and has 11 zones, 11 ≥+4.4 ≥+40
freezing, or following rapid tempera- using data from 124,500 weather sta-
ture rise at thawing when water flow tions. A new zoning system modelled The zones are an approximate indi-
is replenished suddenly and forcefully, on that of the USDA was introduced cation of the coldest temperature band 359
causing protoplast to swell and rupture for western Europe in The New Royal in which a plant will thrive.
harding
harding a vernacular term for a (5/8–2in); flowers to 1.3cm (1/2in), yellow acuminate, rough from white tubercles
plant that does not thrive. to orange; fruit globose, white). in bands on underside; includes
‘Variegata’, with variegated leaves;
hardwood (1) a common name for a haulm the stems of potatoes, peas H.clariperla, a widely grown plant with
broad-leaved tree, and descriptive of its and beans, especially. orange, pearl-dotted leaves, is a variant
timber; cf. softwood; (2) used to describe of this species); H.fasciata (ZEBRA
cuttings made from mature shoots of haustorium (plural haustoria) a HAWORTHIA; South East Cape; similar
woody plants. sucker attachment in parasitic plants to H.attenuate but with shorter leaves
penetrating the host. that are smooth on the upper side and
hastate arrow-shaped; with bands of white tubercles beneath);
triangular, with two equal haw (1) fruit of the H.maughanii (Western Cape; plant body
and approximately trian- hawthorn (Crataegus below soil level with only the flat,
gular basal lobes, pointing monogyna); (2) an archaic translucent window tip of each leaf
laterally outward rather term for a hedged exposed); H.truncata (Western Cape;
H than toward the stalk;

cf. sagittate.
enclosure or a hedge.
Haworthia (for
similar to H.maughanii but with flatter,
broader leaves in two series like the
pages of an open book).
Hatiora (anagram of Adrian Hardy Haworth
Hariota, an earlier generic (1765–1833), English hazelnuts the fruits of the hazel
name commemorating plantsman, amateur (Corylus), of which the most important
Thomas Hariot (1560–1621), botanist and entomolo- are the COBNUT (C.avellana) and the
English scientist and historian, gist, author of books on FILBERT (C.maxima) both of which are
mentor to Sir Walter Raleigh). succulent plants and bulbs). natives of Europe; in the US, the name
Cactaceae. SE Brazil. 4 species, Liliaceae (Aloeaceae). South filbert is commonly applied to both
epiphytic or lithophytic cacti Africa, extending to Namibia, these species. The widespread use of
with freely branching, cylindric, Swaziland and Mozambique. C.avellana dates back to prehistoric
angled, winged or flat stems com- Hastate leaf Over 70 species, dwarf, peren- times, since the hardened shoots were
posed of short segments. These are (Alocasia) nial, evergreen, rosette-form- suitable for roadmaking and for thatch-
unarmed or bear soft, bristly spines. ing succulents, distinguished from Aloe ing, wattle, stakes and utensils. Selected
The flowers are campanulate with a by their smaller, usually tufted habit forms of hazelnuts were grown by the
short tube and a spreading perianth and 2-lipped white or off-white flowers. Greeks and Romans, and by the 16th-
of intense yellow, pink or red. Small, They require a winter minimum of century the distinction between cobs
obovoid fruits follow. Grow in an inter- 4–7°C/39–45°F, a porous, well-drained and filberts was recognised in cultiva-
mediate greenhouse (minimum temper- but nutritious soil and good ventilation tion. Named cultivars resulting from
ature 10–15°C/50–59°F) in ‘epiphyte’ and lighting, although the softer-leaved breeding programmes were introduced
compost, consisting of equal parts species appreciate partial shade. As in the early 19th century, and the twin-
organic/inorganic matter and a pH house plants, they are among the few shelled cobnut ‘Cosford Cob’ remains
below 6. Provide shade in summer and succulents to accept a sunless, north- famous, together with the filberts
maintain high humidity. Reduce water- facing windowsill. Annual repotting is ‘Lambert’s Filbert’ and ‘Kentish Cob’.
ing in autumn/winter until flower-buds recommended, as the thick fleshy roots Hazelnuts are unsuited to small gar-
begin to develop. H.gaertneri, often die back and are renewed each grow- dens because trees may reach 4.5m
incorrectly called Schlumbergera gaertneri ing season. During the colder winter (15ft) in width, and ensuring good
and the hybrid H. x graeseri (H.gaetrneri x months, impose a dry rest; water freely pollination requires more than one cul-
H.rosea) are floriferous and popular during warm, bright spring and tivar. The male flowers produce attrac-
house plants, flowering in the northern summer days. Increase by offsets tive yellow catkins in late winter on the
Hemisphere at about Eastertide. and division of clumps. same plant as the inconspicuous red
Increase by stem cuttings. H.arachnoidea (COBWEB ALOE; Cape female flowers. Unlike cobnuts, filbert
H.gaertneri (EASTER CACTUS; E Brazil; Province; stemless, clustering; rosettes fruits bear a husk longer than the nut
stem segments mostly flat, oblong or 2–13cm (3/4–5in) in diameter, leaves and usually completely enclosing it.
1 3
elliptic, truncate, 4–7cm (1 /2–2 /4in), arachnoid, ascending to incurved to Selections with frilled and twisted husks
shallowly crenate; flowers to 4.5cm 7cm (23/4in), oblong to lanceolate, are known as frizzled filberts; others
(13/4in), intense scarlet, rose, magenta, green, soft and juicy, semi-translucent produce ornamental purple leaves.
ruby and orange to gold in some flecked, aristate, longitudinally lined, Plant bushes about 4.5m (15ft) apart
cultivars and hybrids; fruit oblong, margins and upper part of keel with with 8–12 main branches trained to
red); H.salicornioides (BOTTLE CACTUS, white to pale brown teeth); H.attenuata form an open centre. Pruning should
BOTTLE PLANT, DRUNKARD’S DREAM; (Cape Province; stemless or short- restrict height to 2m (61/2ft), with the
SE Brazil; small shrub, much-branched, stemmed with basal offsets; leaves erect leading shoot of a one-year-old speci-
360 erect or pendent, stem-segments or slightly curving, to 8cm (3in), dark men pruned at 45cm (18in) to induce
whorled, bottle-shaped, 1.5–5cm green, flexible, narrowly triangular, branch leaders from the top 15cm
Hebe
Artificial hybrids include the TRAZEL, E.carnea and E. x darleyensis will tolerate
C. x colurnoides (C.avellana x C.colurna), alkaline soils. The term heath strictly
with large long nuts; the HAZELBERT or describes species of Erica and Daboecia,
MILDRED FILBERT (C.avellana x C.ameri- and these occur on poor soils with little
cana), with large nuts resistant to shelter, and, in Europe, where rainfall
Eastern filbert blight; and the FILAZEL is high. Cape heaths are southern
(C.avellana x C.cornuta), which is hardy African species, which do not survive
into zone 4. winter temperatures below –7°C/19°F.
Possible problems: sawflies, squirrels. Heather refers to the great number of
cultivars of Calluna vulgaris, also called
head (1) a dense cluster or spike of ling, which thrive on moor and moun-
flowers; (2) the part of a tree above the tain. Grow in full sun on a moist but
clear trunk; (3) the harvestable part of free-draining soil. Some will tolerate
hearted leaf and stem vegetables, such drought once established.
as lettuce, cabbage and celery, when
alternatively it may be referred to as a
heart. It is also used for the edible part
Propagate from cuttings of semi-ripe
shoots, 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in) long, taken
in summer and inserted in a peat/sand
H
of a cauliflower. mixture under plastic film. Layering in
Hazelnut brutting
Yield and quality of hazelnuts is improved by September/October is possible and
the visually drastic measure of snapping long heading back drastic cutting back especially useful for certain dwarf culti-
vigorous shoots during late summer, in the of trees or shrubs by shortening for vars of Calluna. Trimming keeps plants
procedure known as ‘brutting’. This stimulates all or most of the main branches. in good shape. Summer-flowering
female flower production. It is done in preparation for topwork kinds should be trimmed in March to
grafting of fruit trees, for reshaping, just below the old flower heads but not
(6in), and any below this level removed. and for inducing vigour in ornamentals. into old wood. Winter and spring flow-
In the following winters, branch leaders erers are treated similarly, immediately
are shortened by about one-third heart (1) see head; (2) used to describe after flowering. The tree heaths should
and side-shoots crowding the centre soil, which is said to be in ‘good heart’ be pruned only when there is a need
of the tree removed together with when it is adequately aerated, irrigated for rejuvenation or containment, in
basal shoots; any suckers must be cut and otherwise fertile. April or May. Spring planting is gener-
out with a spade to avoid proliferation. ally preferable; choose well-hardened
Once the desired height has been heart rot (1) a general term describ- plants and apply an annual mulch of
reached, branch leaders should be ing rot of the heartwood of trees, usu- pulverized bark or similar.
cut back to a weak side-shoot and ally caused by bracket fungi. These
any strong upright shoots removed. mostly enter through wounds, and heavy used of soils containing a high
On an established bush, summer rotting may not be evident until a tree proportion of clay, which therefore
pruning is important, using a technique is blown over or felled. Pruning and need careful and timely management.
known as ‘brutting’. This consists of treating wounds with a fungicidal See soil.
breaking by hand stronger side shoots sealant may help prevent the spread of
at about half their length in August such fungi, but little can be done once Hebe (from Hebe, goddess of youth
and allowing the broken part to the main trunk heartwood is infected. and cup-bearer to the Gods). Scrophu-
hang by the rind, the shoot not being (2) used to describe celery heart rot, a lariaceae. New Zealand, Australia,
completely severed. This reduces wet, slimy brown rot at the centre of temperate S America (those here from
vigour and encourages the formation plants, caused by the bacterium Erwinia New Zealand unless otherwise stated).
of female flowers, as well as allowing carotovora; heart rot of swede results Some 75 species, small to medium-
greater light and air penetration to from boron deficiency. sized evergreen shrubs ranging in habit
improve the quality of the maturing from dwarf and procumbent to erect
crop. The brutted shoots are cut back heartwood the inner, non-functional and bushy, to tree-like. The leaves vary
to 3–4 buds in winter, the pruning xylem layers of a woody stem, which from needle- or scale-like and overlap-
best timed to coincide with flowering are harder and usually darker than the ping on whipcord- or cypress-like
so that the disturbance of shoots outer sap wood. branchlets, to rounded or lanceolate
assists pollination. and more openly arranged on stouter
The nuts are harvested as the husks heaths and heathers a common shoots. Small, four-lobed flowers are
yellow, laid out in trays in an airy room group name for species of Erica, Daboe- carried in axillary or subterminal
and turned to ensure even drying. For cia and Calluna (q.v.) that are native of racemes or heads usually in spring and
prolonged storage, they may be packed Europe and Africa. For most of the summer. Hardy to –15°C/5°F. Plant in
in layers in earthenware jars, intermin- group, a maximum soil pH of 4.5–5.0 a position sheltered from cold winds,
gled with coconut fibre mixed with a is required for good growth, although in full sun and on well-drained soils. 361
little salt. E.erigena, E.terminalis and cultivars of Propagate by heeled, semi-ripe cuttings
Hebe
in a gritty medium in the cold frame in 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 1.7cm (3/4in), (compact, upright to 60cm (24in), close
late summer; whipcord types are more loosely overlapping, distichous, elliptic to H.hulkeana but with branches rigidly
prone to rotting off and need careful to obovate, subcoriaceous, margins erect, duller leaves, shorter, stout inflo-
and judicious watering. pubescent, apex acute; inflorescence to rescence and larger lilac flowers); H. x
H.albicans (compact spreading or 2.5cm (1in), crowded, flowers white; franciscana (H.elliptica x H.speciosa.; shrub
rounded shrub to 60cm (24in); leaves includes the procumbent ‘Prostrata’, to 1.3m (41/4ft), habit rounded, dense;
to 2 x 1.5cm (3/4 x 5/8in), spreading to with internodes flushed red and bright leaves to 6 x 2.5cm (21/2 x 1in), larger,
imbricate, ovate to oblong, glaucous, green leaves, twisted back and overlap- duller than H.elliptica, distichous,
fleshy; racemes to 6cm (21/2in), flowers ping); H. ‘Carnea’ (dense, glabrous, obovate to elliptic, fleshy, dark green,
white, anthers purple; cultivars include to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 6cm (21/2in), apiculate; inflorescence to 7.5cm (3in),
the low, domed shrub ‘Cranleigh narrowly oblong to lanceolate, green cylindrical; flowers purple tinged pink;
Gem’, to 60cm (24in), with grey leaves, faintly tinted red at margins and includes ‘Blue Gem’, with red-violet
flowers in short broad racemes, and midrib; racemes 6–8cm (21/2–3in), flowers and violet anthers, and ‘Varie-
dark anthers; ‘Red Edge’, with leaves flowers pink fading to white, giving gata’, with leaves mottled and mar-
H edged red and mauve flowers; and the

hardy ‘Sussex Carpet’, to
30cm (12in), spreading, paired leaves
a 2-tone appearance to inflorescence);
H.carnosula (shrub to 40cm (16in), form-
ing leafy tufts of erect shoots; leaves to
gined yellow at beginning of season);
H. ‘Great Orme’ (similar to H. ‘Carnea’,
although more robust, with dark
with glaucous leaves and flower 2cm (3/4in), closely overlapping, internodes, leaves to 9cm (31/2in),
clusters
and a short inflores- decussate, obovate, con- oblong-lanceolate, somewhat falcate);
cence; H. ‘Alicia cave, thick, some- H. ‘Hagley Park’ (to 40 x 60cm (16 x
Amherst’ (robust what glaucous; 24in); leaves obovate to spathulate,
with deep green, flowers white, in serrate; flowers in terminal panicles
lustrous leaves and terminal rounded to 30cm (12in), similar to H.hulkeana
showy racemes inflorescence to but a stronger lilac-pink); H.hectorii
of strong purple 1.5cm (5/8in) (whipcord to 75cm (30in); branches
flowers); H. x diameter, crowded, or spreading to decumbent
andersonii (H.salicifo- anthers purple; with age, yellow-green; leaves to 0.4cm
lia x H.speciosa; commonly mistaken (1/8in), scale-like, overlapping, closely
spreading shrub to for H.pinguifolia, from adpressed, concealing stems, glossy,
1.6m (51/2ft); leaves to which it can be distin- yellow-green; flowers white to pink in
10 x 3cm (4 x 11/4in), ovate guished by its less glau- congested terminal heads); H.hulkeana
to lanceolate, obtuse, deep cous leaves); H. ‘County (NEW ZEALAND LILAC; sprawling shrub
green; flowers crowded on Park’ (as H.pimelioides, to to 1m (31/4ft), usually slender, habit
spikes to 10cm (4in), violet; Hebe x franciscana 20 x 50cm (8 x 20in), decum- loose, internodes tinted purple-red;
includes the vigorous ‘Varie- ‘Blue Gem’ bent with grey-green leaves leaves to 5 x 3cm (2 x 11/4in), spreading,
gata’, with dark green leaves, mottled edged red, flushed red-purple in cold elliptic to rounded, subcoriaceous,
or graded with grey-green and irregu- weather, and violet flowers); H.cupres- glabrous, deep lustrous green above,
larly edged white to ivory, and lilac soides (cypress-like whipcord, with pale beneath, margin often flushed red,
flowers); H.armstrongii (erect shrub to dense, rounded or open habit, to 1.5 x serrate; flowers lavender to white in
1m (31/4ft); branches whipcord, spread- 2m (5 x 61/2ft); branchlets sometimes panicles to 30cm (12in); includes
ing then ascending, terete, yellow-green glutinous and aromatic; juvenile leaves ‘Averil’, with pale green leaves not
particularly in winter; leaves to 1.8mm are linear, occasionally lobed, mature edged red and more compact inflores-
(1/16in), closely adpressed; flowers white, leaves up to 0.15cm (1/16in), scale-like, cences); H. ‘La Séduisante’ (young
in erect terminal clusters; differs from closely adpressed but not hiding stems, leaves lustrous, tinted purple; flowers
H.ochracea in its yellow-green (not narrow-ovate to triangular, ciliate; flow- red-purple in long showy racemes in
ochre) branches and less arching habit); ers very pale blue, anthers red-brown; late summer); H.lycopodioides (rigid and
H. ‘Autumn Glory’ (to 80cm (32in); includes ‘Boughton Dome’, to 30 x narrowly erect whipcord to 60cm
stems flushed dark red; leaves to 3cm 50cm (12 x 20in), forming a broad and (24in); resembles H.hectoris but branch-
(11/4in), broadly obovate, dark green densely branched dome of fine grey- lets tetragonal; juvenile leaves linear-
edged red when young; flowers violet- green branchlets clothed with both subulate, mature leaves to 3mm (1/8in),
blue in long racemes); H.buchananii juvenile and adult leaves); H.elliptica scale-like, adpressed, ribbed or striped
(shrub to 20cm (8in), forming clumps (New Zealand, Tierra del Fuego, Falk- yellow, margins yellow; flowers white
to 90cm (36in) across; branches land Islands; shrub to small tree to 5m with lilac-blue anthers); H. ‘Midsum-
tortuous, black; leaves to 0.7cm (1/4in), (16ft), usually about 1.5m (5ft); leaves mer Beauty’ (robust, soon attaining 2m
spreading, ovate and concave, dull dark to 2.4cm (1in), spreading, often (61/2ft) or more; leaves oblong to lanceo-
green; flowers white, crowded; includes oriented in one direction, elliptic to late or broadly elliptic, deep green
the smaller and more compact ‘Minor’, oblong, coriaceous, lustrous dark green, tinted purple-red when young; flowers
362 forming a hummock of minute green ciliate; flowers clustered at branch tips, pale blue to lilac or magenta, often
leaves); H.canterburiensis (low shrub to white to violet or pink); H. ‘Fairfieldii’ fading to pale rose, in long slender
Hedera
racemes); H.ochracea (whipcord to 60cm (New Zealand, Chile; shrub to 5m particularly fine against red-brick back-
(24in); branches spreading, rigid, dark, (16ft), usually shorter; branchlets green; grounds and add immensely to the
bowed outwards; branchlets olive green leaves to 15cm (6in), suberect to winter beauty of the garden. The
to ochre, arising from upper side of spreading, lanceolate to oblong, apex yellow-green leaved clones, such as
branches; leaves to 1.5mm (1/16in), acuminate, entire or denticulate, glossy H.helix ‘Buttercup’, associate well with
ochre to olive, tightly adpressed; dark green; racemes to 20cm (8in), purple-leaved shrubs or blue-flowered
flowers small, white, in short spikes; narrowly conical to cylindric, flowers plants, while against white walls the
often confused with H.armstrongii, this white, usually tinted pale lilac); H.spe- winter purple of the leaves of H.helix
species is the more commonly culti- ciosa (strong-growing shrub to 2m ‘Atropurpurea’ can make a dramatic
vated and can be distinguished by its (61/2ft); branches stout, somewhat angu- contrast.
ochre branches and strongly outspread lar; leaves to 10cm (4in), broadly ellip- Its creeping habit and preference for
to arching habit; includes the very tic to obovate, glossy, margin shade make ivy an excellent ground-
compact ‘James Stirling’); H. ‘Pewter cartilaginous; flowers dark red to cover plant and one whose variegated
Dome’ (as H.albicans with small, dull magenta, crowded in conic-cylindric cultivars can be used with great effect
grey-silver leaves, very compact);
H.pimeleoides (densely branched low-
growing shrub to 45cm (18in); leaves
racemes to 7cm (23/4in) long; a highly
variable species giving rise to many cul-
tivars and hybrids); H.tetragona (erect
to brighten dark corners. The sulphur-
cream H.hibernica ‘Sulphurea’ under-
planted with autumn crocus (Colchicum
H
6–15mm (1/4–5/8in), elliptic to broadly whipcord to 1m (31/4ft), much-branched; species) makes an attractive colour
obovate, sometimes concave, spreading branchlets distinctly tetragonal, yellow- combination and will guard the flowers
to recurved, glaucous, blue-grey, mar- green; leaves to 3.5mm (1/8in), decussate, against mud splash.
gins occasionally red; flowers white adpressed, deltoid to subulate); H. Concern is sometimes expressed as
flushed pale lilac to pale violet; cultivars ‘Trixie’ (as H.albicans with green leaves to the effects of ivy on trees or build-
and varieties include: the very small, and white flowers); H. ‘Wingletye’ (close ings. Ivy is not parasitic and, while the
creeping ‘Minor’, with flowers tinted to ‘County Park’ but lower-growing, growth of ivy on trees of value or
lilac blue; ‘Quicksilver’, with small, with strongly glaucous leaves that do not beauty is to be deprecated, an unloved
recurved, especially glaucous leaves; flush red in cold weather, and lilac blue tree may well be given up to it. When
var. glaucocaerulea, erect to 35cm (14in) flowers); H. ‘Youngii’ (to 15cm (6in), such a tree becomes ivy-laden, it makes
becoming decumbent, with larger, procumbent, compact; leaves to 0.75cm a most pleasing winter picture and a
broadly elliptic, concave, strongly (3/8in), elliptic, dark green, faintly edged refuge for birds. On sound buildings
glaucous leaves, edged red in summer, red at times; flowers deep violet fading and walls, ivy is harmless but can
and violet-blue flowers); H.pinguifolia to white in short racemes). become unwieldy and harbour insects.
(procumbent or ascending to 1m (31/4ft); To obviate this, it should be clipped
leaves to 1.5cm (5/8in), overlapping to Hedera (Latin name for the plant.) over in late spring every other year or
spreading, obovate to elliptic, concave, Araliaceae. Europe, Asia, N Africa. IVY. so. Walls and fences that are very weak
thick, glaucous, blue-green, often edged 11 species of evergreen, woody, climb- may fall if a mass of ivy becomes
red, obtuse to subacute; flowers white, ing or creeping plants with distinct heavy with snow or rain; clipping will
anthers blue; often confused with sterile, juvenile and fertile, arborescent prevent this. (Continued on p.365.)
H.carnosula, which has broader leaves stages. The stems of the juvenile stage
and a glabrous ovary and style; includes climb by means of aerial rootlets. Juve-
the popular cultivar ‘Pagei’, with grey, nile leaves are conspicuously lobed or
oblong to obovate, scarcely concave cordate, those of arborescent stage are
leaves, and white flowers in dense more nearly entire; all are glabrous and
short spikes); H.rakaiensis (shrub to 90cm often waxy and shining above, stellate-
(36in); branchlets slender with rough hairy or scaly beneath. Small, cream
leaf scars; leaves to 2cm (3/4in), spread- to yellow-green flowers are carried in
ing, obovate to oblong, entire, subcoria- globose umbels. They are followed by
ceous, glossy, bright green; racemes to small, spherical drupes; these are usu-
4cm (11/2in), simple, covering plant, ally black, sometimes orange, yellow
flowers white; often labelled H.subalpina or cream.
or H.buxifolia in gardens); H.recurva Ivies are valued as coverage for
(spreading shrub to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to walls, sheds and even unsightly tree
5cm (2in), spreading to deflexed, nar- stumps; ivy-clad buildings have consid-
rowly lanceolate, glabrous, grey-green; erable charm. For large expanses of
flowers white – often pink in bud – in wall the larger-leaved kinds such as
spikes to 6cm (21/2in) long; selections H.colchica and H.hibernica are the most Hedera trimming
of H.recurva are available with longer, suitable; for smaller areas, the diversity Ivy encroaching house eaves and guttering
plain green leaves, or particularly strong of leaf shape and variegation of the should be trimmed periodically to prevent
grey tones, and in some cases, mauve many cultivars of H.helix can be used damage caused by invasive and thickening 363
flowers fading to white); H.salicifolia to advantage. Variegated ivies look stems, plant litter, and the weight of growths.
Hedera
H EDERA
Name Distribution Leaves
H.azorica Azores 9–11 x 10–12cm (31⁄2–41⁄2 x 4–43⁄4in), with 5–7 bluntly acute lobes, centre lobe only
slightly longer than laterals, sinuses shallow, light matt green, hairs stellate, 3–5-
rayed, white and so extensive as to give young stems and leaves a felted appearance
H.canariensis Canary Is., N Africa juvenile leaves unlobed or 3-lobed, 10–15 x 8–12cm (4–6 x 3–43⁄4in), bluntly acute,
H.algeriensis base cordate, margin entire, mid-green and glossy, stems purple-red; adult leaves
ALGERIAN IVY elliptic-lanceolate, hairs scale-like, with 1–15 rays
Comments: ‘Gloire de Marengo’: leaves with areas of silvery-grey creamy yellow. ‘Montgomery’: leaves 3-lobed, stems and petioles wine-
and creamy yellow; a popular houseplant but an outdoor climber in red ‘Ravensholst’: with large, mostly 3-lobed leaves, centre lobe acute
favoured districts. ‘Marginomaculata’: leaves extensively mottled and broad, some leaves unlobed and elliptical; dark glossy green.
H H.colchica
PERSIAN IVY; BULLOCK’S
HEART IVY; COLCHIS IVY
Caucasus to Asiatic Turkey ovate, generally unlobed, 6–12 x 6–8cm (21⁄2–43⁄4 x 21⁄2–3in), apex acute, base
cordate, margin entire, dark green, resin-scented when crushed; adult leaves
lanceolate; hairs scale-like, with 12–20 rays
Comments: ‘Dentata’ (ELEPHANT’S EARS): leaves pendent, larger than of grey-green and irregular marginal areas of cream-yellow. ‘Sulphur
the type, 15–20 x 15–18cm (6–8 x 6–7in), base auriculate, the margins Heart’ (‘Paddy’s Pride’): similar to ‘Dentata Variegata’ but leaves a
carrying widely spaced fine teeth, light green. ‘Dentata Variegata’: deeper green with an irregular central splash of yellow.
similar to ‘Dentata’ but leaves smaller, light green variegated with areas
H.helix Europe and E Russia juvenile leaves 3–5-lobed, 5–8cm (2–3in), leathery, entire with cordate base and pale
COMMON IVY; venation, young stems and leaves with white-stellate, 4–6-rayed hairs; leaves of
ENGLISH IVY arborescent stage elliptic, entire, less than 5cm (2in) wide
Comments: ‘Angularis’: leaves 5-lobed, centre lobe prolonged and variegation slight and mainly at the edge. ‘Manda’s Crested’: leaves 3–
acuminate, laterals bluntly acute, dark green in summer, colouring 5-lobed, lobes convolute with blunt, downward-pointing apices giving a
purple in winter. ‘Atropurpurea’: leaves 3-lobed, centre lobe prolonged curly effect. ‘Maple Leaf ’: leaves 5-lobed, apex acuminate, centre lobe
and acuminate, laterals bluntly acute, dark green in summer, purple in 1.5 times length of laters, edges irregularly indented, mid-green.
winter. ‘Buttercup’: leaves 5-lobed, apex acute, base cordate, light ‘Midas Touch’: leaves unlobed, deltoid or triangular, apex bluntly
green, butter yellow in sunlight. ‘Chrysophylla’ (‘Spectabilis Aurea’; acute, base cordate, dark green, irregularly variegated bright yellow.
‘Aurea Spectabilis’): leaves 3-lobed, lobes acute, leaf base truncate, ‘Minor Marmorata’ (SALT AND PEPPER IVY): leaves 3-lobed, small
mid- to deep green, slightly suffused yellow. ‘Congesta’: non-climbing, dark green, spotted and splashed cream-white. ‘Oro di Bogliasco’
erect; leaves 3-lobed, dark green, in a distichous arrangement. (‘Goldheart’): leaves 3-lobed, dark green with prominent yellow splash
‘Conglomerata’: creeping but producing short upright shoots; leaves in centre. ‘Parsley Crested’: leaves unlobed, ovate to almost circular,
unlobed, margins undulate and waved. ‘Dealbata’ (‘Discolor’): leaves 3- margins crimped and crested, light green. ‘Pedata’ (BIRD’S FOOT IVY):
lobed, dark green mottled cream-white. ‘Erecta’: non-climbing, erect; leaves 5-lobed, centre lobe prolonged and narrow, basal lobes back-
leaves 3-lobed; stems green; larger in all parts than ‘Congesta’. ‘Eva’: pointing, dark green, veins grey-white. ‘Shamrock’: leaves 3-lobed,
leaves small with grey-green centre, splashed deep green, margined centre lobe broad, lateral lobes sometimes folded in pleated fashion
cream. ‘Fantasia’: leaves 5-lobed, bright green heavily mottled cream- alongside centre lobe, dark green. ‘Spetchley’: leaves 3-lobed, very
yellow. ‘Goldchild’: leaves 3–5-lobed, base cordate, mid-green with small, centre lobe prolonged, dark green. ‘Tricolor’: leaves unlobed,
bright yellow, mostly marginal variegation. ‘Glacier’: leaves 3-lobed, triangular, small, grey-green with cream-yellow edge that is slightly
apex acute, mid-green overlaid grey-green with occasional cream pink in summer, intensifying to purple in winter. ‘William Kennedy’:
variegation. ‘Glymii’: leaves unlobed, ovate-acuminate, glossy, leaves 3-lobed but laterals often reduced to give a single lobed small
becoming deep purple in winter. ‘Ivalace’: leaves 5-lobed, margins (1.5–3cm) (5⁄8–11⁄4in), leaf. f. poetarum (syn. var. poetica): POET’S IVY;
strongly undulate, convolute at the sinus giving a crimped and laced ITALIAN IVY; leaves 5-lobed, the two basal lobes much reduced giving a
effect, dark green and glossy. ‘Kolibri’: leaves 3–5-lobed, light green somewhat ‘square’ appearance to the light green leaf; grown for the
with flecks of grey-green and areas of cream variegation. ‘Little novelty of its dull orange berries.
Diamond’: leaves unlobed, diamond-shaped, grey-green, white
364 H.canariensis ‘Ravensholst’ H.colchica ‘Dentata’ H.helix ‘Oro di Bogliasco’ H.pastuchovii var. cypria
hedge
H EDERA
Name Distribution Leaves
H.hibernica Atlantic coast of GB, juvenile leaves 5-lobed, 5–9 x 8–14cm (2–31⁄2 x 3–51⁄2in), lobes triangular and bluntly
H.helix subsp. hibernica Ireland, W France, acute, central lobe larger, base cordate, dark green, with stellate hairs tending to lie in
IRISH IVY Spain, Portugal parallel fashion rather than the haphazard fashion of H.helix; adult leaves ovate-elliptic
Comments: ‘Deltoidea’ (SWEETHEART IVY): leaves sometimes right angles to the long-acuminate central lobe. ‘Rona’: leaves 5-lobed,
3-lobed but more often deltoid and unlobed, base strongly cordate mid-green with freckled and diffused yellow variegation; less green
with overlapping lobes giving an almost heart-shaped leaf, dark leaf intrusion than with ‘Variegata’. ‘Rottingdean’: leaves 5-lobed,
green. ‘Hamilton’: leaves 5-lobed, centre lobe only slightly longer digitate, centre lobe slightly longer than laterals, sinuses narrow and
than laterals, mid-green, edge thickened. ‘Helford River’: leaves convolute at the clefts, dark green. ‘Sulphurea’: leaves edged and
5-lobed, centre lobe prolonged and acuminate, mid-green with splashed sulphur yellow. ‘Variegata’: some leaves entirely yellow or
grey-white veins. ‘Lobata Major’: leaves 3-lobed, lateral lobes at part-coloured.
H
H.maderensis Madeira juvenile leaves 3-lobed, occasionally unlobed, 4–5 x 6–7cm (11⁄2–2 x 21⁄2–23⁄4in), sinuses
very shallow or absent, lobes obtuse, base truncate or slightly cordate, mid- to dark
green, very glossy at first; hairs scale-like with 10–16 rays
H.maroccana Morocco 3-lobed, 7–9 x 7cm (23⁄4–31⁄2 x 23⁄4in), centre lobe twice as long as laterals, sinuses
MOROCCAN IVY shallow, apex acute, base cuneate or truncate, dark green; hairs scale-like, rays 6–8;
petioles purple-red
Comments: ‘Spanish Canary’: leaves very large;
hardy and fast growing.
H.nepalensis Himalaya to Kashmir juvenile leaves ovate to lanceolate, 6–10 x 4–5cm (21⁄2–4 x 11⁄2–2in), obscurely lobed,
H.himalaica, H.cinerea lobes often little more than 3–6 marginal indentations, apex acute, base truncate, matt
HIMALAYAN IVY olive-green, hairs scale-like, 12–15-rayed; adult leaves elliptic-lanceolate, unlobed
Comments: Readily identified by the dull orange berries. var. sinensis from Northern China, the juvenile leaves are usually unlobed
nepalensis ‘Suzanne’: differs from type in 5-lobed leaves, the short basal and ovate-acuminate with a cuneate base, they emerge maroon, rapidly
lobes back-pointing to give a ‘bird’s foot’ effect, dark green. In var. maturing to matt mid-green.
H.pastuchovii Russia, Iran juvenile leaves narrowly ovate, 4–9 x 3–4cm (11⁄2–31⁄2 x 11⁄4–11⁄2in), unlobed, apex
acuminate, base slightly cordate, dark green, glossy, slightly leathery, hairs scale-like with
8–12 rays, sparse
H.rhombea Japan juvenile leave ovate to triangular, unlobed, 2–4 x 4–5cm (3⁄4–11⁄2 x 11⁄2–2in), apex acute,
H.japonica JAPANESE IVY mid-green, leathery, stems green, hairs scale-like, rays 10–18
Comments: ‘Pierrot’: leaves smaller, stems thin and wiry. var. rhombea ‘Variegata’: leaves slightly smaller, finely edged with white.
The non-climbing forms of H.helix, potted into a medium-fertility soil- the ground, possibly ascending at a
‘Congesta’ and ‘Erecta’, and the slow- based mix. When well rooted and point not envisaged by the planter.
growing, rock-hugging ‘Conglomerata’ growing, plant out or, if specimen or
make good feature plants for rock conservatory plants are required, pot hedge a continuous row of trees or
garden or patio. In completely shaded on into larger pots and then train shrubs, usually low-growing and closely
town gardens, ivy will grow perfectly either to canes in the form of a trellis planted to provide a boundary line,
well and here the variegated kinds can or on moss poles. In the conservatory screen or ornamental feature. There is
be used to brighten a dark site. ‘Stan- or home, ivies should never be placed no hard and fast definition of a hedge
dard’ ivies can be produced through in direct sunlight or be allowed to dry by height, but living barriers more than
grafting small-leaved, trailing kinds on out. During summer, a balanced liquid 5m (16ft) tall are usually referred to as
the single stems of x Fatshedera. feed every 14 days is beneficial. shelter belts, and continuous plantings
Increase by nodal cuttings of juve- Soil preparation for ivies growing less than 50cm (20in) high as edging.
nile growth with one or two leaves. outside should be generous, as for any Hedges may be formally clipped or
Woody shoots of the adult stage are permanent planting. In non-lime areas, informal, and a very wide range of
less easy and may require mist facilities. the inclusion of chalk, lime or mortar species are suitable subjects, for exam-
Cuttings are best taken between June rubble can be advantageous but is not ple: FORMAL EVERGREEN Aucuba,
and October when the young growth essential. Plants intended to climb need Berberis, Cotoneaster, Escallonia, Ilex,
has hardened sufficiently. Inserted in to be guided by being tied to a cane Lonicera nitida, Quercus ilex, Taxus baccata;
sharp sand in lightly shaded frames, leading to their support. If this is not FORMAL DECIDUOUS Alnus glutinosa, 365
these root rapidly and may then be done the ivy will initially creep along Carpinus betulus, Crataegus monogyna,
hedge
Fagus sylvatica, Prunus cerasifera, Salix, across; filaments red; includes ‘Assam divide every second or third year, and
Sambucus nigra, Sorbus intermedia; INFOR- Orange’, with shorter stems and very discard less vigorous portions of the
MAL EVERGREEN Brachyglottis, Camellia fragrant, vivid burnt orange flowers); clump. Provide a winter mulch where
japonica, Choisya ternata, Cotoneaster, H.flavescens (YELLOW GINGER; Bengal; low temperatures are prolonged. Prop-
Mahonia aquifolium, Rhododendron to 3m (10ft); flowers in dense 20cm agate also by seed or basal cuttings.
ponticum, Rosmarinus, Viburnum tinus; (8in) spike; corolla pale yellow with H.autumnale (SNEEZEWEED; N Amer-
INFORMAL DECIDUOUS Amelanchier lamar- linear, green lobes, lip red-yellow at ica; perennial to 1.5m (5ft); flower-
ckii, Cornus stolonifera, Deutzia scabra, base, staminodes yellow, filaments heads to 5cm (2in) diameter, clustered
Forsythia; Fuchsia magellanica; Hydrangea yellow); H.gardnerianum (KAHILI GINGER; in a corymb, ray florets yellow to bright
macrophylla, Kerria; Rosa species. N India, Himalaya; 1–2m (31/4–61/2ft)+; yellow; includes ‘Grandicephalum’, to
flowers fragrant, white and yellow, in 150cm (60in), with large, yellow flower-
Hedychium (from Greek hedys, sweet, dense 25–35cm (10–14in) spike, lip heads, the dwarf ‘Nanum Praecox’,
and chion, snow: H.coronarium has fra- 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in) across, yellow, filaments with yellow flowerheads produced
grant white flowers). Zingiberaceae. bright red). early, ‘Praecox’, with yellow, brown
H Tropical Asia, Himalaya and Madagas-

car. GINGER LILY, GARLAND LILY. About
40 species, perennial herbs with stout
Hedysarum (the Greek name
hedysaron, from hedys, sweet). Legumi-
and red flowerheads, produced early,
‘Rubrum’, with dark red flowerheads,
and ‘Superbum’, to 150cm (60in) tall,
rhizomes and reed-like stems bearing nosae. Northern temperate regions. with large, bright yellow flowerheads
two-ranked, oblong to lanceolate Some 100 species, perennial herbs, with wavy ray florets; see below for
leaves. Fragrant flowers are carried in subshrubs or shrubs with racemes of further cultivars); H.bigelovii (California,
dense, terminal spikes in summer. They pea-like flowers in summer. Suitable for Oregon; perennial, to 90cm (36in);
consist of three petals, a showy lip, the herbaceous border; the flowers also flowerheads long-stalked, to 6cm
petal-like staminodes and long, slender last well when cut. Grow Hedysarum in (21/2in) diameter; ray florets yellow;
filaments. The Himalayan species, full sun, in any moderately deep and includes ‘Aurantiacum’, with gold ray
particularly H.coccineum and H.densiforum fertile, well-drained soil. Hardy to florets). Cultivars Taller selections
and its cultivars, are hardy to –15°C/5°F. Propagate by seed, alterna- include the 150cm (60in) yellow ‘Son-
–2°C/28°F if grown at the foot of a tively by careful division in spring. nenwunder’, the gold, brown-centred
south-facing wall or given a mulch as H.coronarium (FRENCH HONEYSUCKLE; ‘Goldrausch’, ‘Zimbelstern’, with wavy
winter protection. H.gardnerianum is S Europe; herb, 30–100cm (12–39in); ray florets, and the brown-red, 120cm
a fine plant for the cool conservatory or leaflets 1.5–3.5cm (5/8–11/2in), 7–15, (48in)-tall ‘Wonnadonga’ and ‘Margot’,
subtropical bedding scheme. H.coronar- elliptic to orbicular; flowers intensely and the 120cm (48in) ‘Flammenrad’
ium and H.flavescens need a minimum fragrant, bright red to purple-red; and ‘Riverton Beauty’, yellow with
of 18°C/65°F with high humidity, and ‘Album’: flowers white). red edges and eyes; medium cultivars
plentiful water. Liquid feed plants in include the gold ‘Butterpat’, ‘Waltraut’,
pots throughout growth. Reduce water heel a small strip of wood and bark ‘Bressingham Gold’ and the bronze to
considerably in winter and allow plants retained at the base of a cutting at the velvety wine red ‘Moerheim Beauty’,
to become dormant, cutting out old time of removal from the main shoot. ‘Goldlackzwerg’, ‘Baudirektor Linne’
spikes. Propagate by division in spring The presence of a heel often improves and ‘Bruno’. Smaller clones include
or by seeds sown fresh at 18°C/64°F. rooting potential. the yellow ‘Aurantiacum’, the gold
H.coccineum (RED GINGER LILY, SCAR- and copper ‘Wyndley’, the red-brown
LET GINGER LILY; Himalaya; to 3m heeling in the temporary insertion ‘Kupferzwerg’ and the soft mahogany
(10ft); flowers pale to deep red or of plants in soil, usually prior to per- ‘Crimson Beauty’.
orange, lip 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in) across, red manent planting, in order to prevent
and yellow to mauve; includes ‘Tara’, deterioration due to drying out. Heliamphora (either from Greek
with bold spikes of orange flowers, and helios the sun, or from helos a marsh,
var. angustifolium, with narrower leaves Helenium (from Greek helenion, for and amphora, a jug or pitcher, referring
and orange flowers); H.coronarium (BUT- an Old World plant (perhaps Inula hele- to its appearance and habitat). Sarrace-
TERFLY LILY, GARLAND FLOWER, WHITE nium), said to have been named for niaceae. Guyana Highlands, Guyana
GINGER; India; to 3m (10ft); flowers Helen of Troy). Compositae. Americas. and Venezuela. SUN PITCHER. 6 species,
very fragrant, white, lip 5cm (2in) SNEEZEWEED. About 40 species, annual, carnivorous perennial herbs. Borne in
across, white with yellow-green centre; biennial or perennial herbs with linear a basal clump, the leaves are pitcher-
‘F. W. Moore’: H.coronarium x H.coc- to lanceolate leaves and daisy-like flow- shaped and bright green, assuming a
cineum, showy spikes and fragrant, erheads with a prominent, domed disc red tint in full sun. Stoutly tubular in
amber yellow flowers, with a base of produced from midsummer to autumn. the lower half, they then narrow in a
segment blotched orange-yellow; var. Fully hardy. Grow in full sun in fertile short bottle-neck before expanding
maximum: larger flowers and filaments and moisture-retentive soil, enriched above in a flattened blade; this termi-
tinged pink); H.densiflorum (Himalaya; with well-rotted organic matter; apply nates in a spoon-shaped cap. White
366 1–5m (31/4–16ft); flowers vermilion, in balanced fertilizer in spring and pro- flowers nod in loose, arching racemes
dense, cylindric spikes; lip 0.7cm (1/4in) vide support for taller plants. Lift and in spring and summer. Heliamphora
Helichrysum
requires a very open but absorbent including dwarf (30–60cm (12–24in)),

compost, such as perlite and living intermediate (100–120cm (39–48in))
sphagnum and perfect drainage (that and tall forms (3m (10ft) and more).
said, these plants sometimes thrive in Smaller cultivars make fine cut flowers.
terraria). Under glass, air should circu- Sow seed under glass in early spring for
late freely and high humidity be main- planting out in early summer, or sow in
tained by regular overhead spraying. situ in late spring. Grow in full sun in
Provide bright light but shade from any fertile well drained soil. Mulch
fierce sun. Maintain winter tempera- perennials annually in spring with well-
tures of between 5.5–20°C/42–68°F, rotted farmyard manure. Stake tall cul-
and summer temperatures that do not tivars and provide a deep winter mulch
exceed 25°C/77°F. In the open green- where prolonged low winter tempera-
house, drench with rainwater once or tures are not accompanied by snow
twice daily in warm weather; keep cover. Lift and divide perennials every
moist and humid at all times. Dilute
foliar feed or slow-release fertilizers
are beneficial but must be carefully
third or fourth year to maintain vigour.
Propagate by seed and (perennials) by
division or basal cuttings.
H
applied. H.annuus (COMMON SUNFLOWER; US;
H.heterodoxa (pitchers cauline, to stout, often giant, annual with an erect,
30cm (12in), upper part of pitcher Helianthemum ‘Wisley White’ more or less unbranched stem to 5m
interior with velvety hairs or glabrous, Most of the helianthemums found in gardens (16ft); leaves to 40cm (16in), broad-
cap large); H.minor (pitchers constricted are hybrids, grown for their long, free- ovate to cordate, acute, coarsely
above and below middle, usually not flowering season and drought tolerance. toothed, roughly hairy or bristly, dark
exceeding 7.5 x 1cm (3 x 1/2in) in culti- green to silver; flowerheads terminal,
vation, pubescent in upper portion of late summer, rooted in a sandy mix; one or few, to 60cm (24in) across, ray
interior, cap very small, or absent); overwinter in a cold frame for planting florets yellow, occasionally tinged red,
H.nutans (pitchers basal, constricted out in spring. bronze or purple, disc florets red or
above and below middle, to 20cm (8in), H.apenninum (Europe, Asia Minor; purple; includes numerous cultivars
green with red margins, hairy in upper to 50cm (20in); flowers to 2.8cm (11/8in) and seed races – dwarf (50cm (20in)) to
portion of interior, cap medium-sized, in diameter, petals white, yellow at giant (6m (20ft)), flowerheads 15–60cm
i.e. to 1.5cm (5/8in) across). base; var. roseum: flowers pink); (6–24in) in diameter, ‘single’ or ‘double’,
H.nummularium (Europe, Asia Minor; with florets in pale primrose to deep
Helianthemum (from Greek helios, to 50cm (20in); flowers 2–5cm (3/4–2in) gold or copper red or with purple-
sun, and anthemon, flower – the flowers in diameter, golden yellow, pale yellow, bronze tints); H. x multiflorus (H.annuus x
open only in bright sunshine). Cis- pink, white or orange, rarely cream; H.decapetalus; perennial, to 2m (61/2ft),
taceae. Americas, Europe, Mediter- H.oelandicum (Europe; to 20cm (8in); with flowerheads to 12cm (43/4in) in
ranean, N Africa, Asia Minor to flowers to 0.8cm (3/8in) in diameter, diameter, florets golden yellow, disc
C Asia. ROCK ROSE, SUN ROSE. 110 yellow). florets occasionally replaced by ray
species, evergreen or semi-evergreen Cultivars The rock roses most fre- florets; includes numerous cultivars, to
shrublets with small, more or less grey- quently encountered in gardens tend to 180cm (72in) tall, ‘single’ or ‘double’,
downy, oblong to linear leaves. Borne be hybrids with H.apenninum, H.nummu- pale primrose to deep gold); H.salici-
on one-sided, racemose cymes in larium, and H.croceum involved in their folius (Southern Central US; perennial,
spring and summer, the short-lived parentage. They range in flower colour to 3m (10ft); leaves to 20cm (8in), nar-
flowers are dish-shaped and consist from white to cream, pale yellow, gold, rowly linear to lanceolate, slightly hairy,
of five, crêpe-like petals and numerous orange, tangerine, flame, scarlet, wine arching; flowerheads numerous, to 8cm
golden stamens. Suitable for rock gar- red, crimson, rose pink and blush and (3in) in diameter, ray florets golden
dens (in company with similarly tough have grey, sage green or silvery foliage. yellow, disc florets purple, rarely
and fast-growing species), for the front yellow).
of sunny borders and for wall crevices Helianthus (from Greek helios, sun,
or gravel beds. All are hardy to at least and anthos, flower). Compositae. N and Helichrysum (from Greek helios,
–10°C/14°F and may be overwintered S America. SUNFLOWER. About 70 sun, and chrysos, golden). Compositae.
with a covering of bracken or sacking species, annual to perennial herbs with Warm Old World, especially South
in colder areas. Provide a sunny open showy daisy-like flowerheads in Africa and Australia. EVERLASTING
site and a light well-drained soil. Trim summer. H.tuberosus is the JERUSALEM FLOWER. About 500 species, annual,
back after flowering for a second flush ARTICHOKE (see artichoke). H.salicifolius, biennial and perennial herbs, sub-
of flowers in late summer. Plants are is a hardy, spreading perennial, well- shrubs and shrubs, often hairy and
short-lived, and may require replace- adapted to dry, sunny situations in the glandular and producing button- or
ment when too leggy and sparse. Prop- garden. The annual H.annuus is avail- daisy-like flowerheads, usually in 367
agate by softwood or heeled cuttings in able in a wide range of cultivars, summer. Almost without exception
Helichrysum
Helichrysum species require a sheltered Zealand; perennial herb to 20cm (8in), to 6cm (21/2in), linear to lanceolate,
position in sun with well-drained soil, stems prostrate; leaves to 6mm (1/4in), tomentose beneath, revolute; flower-
although they are suited to a diversity orbicular, silvery-arachnoid; flowerheads to 5mm (1/4in) in diameter, in
of situations in the garden depending heads to 3cm (11/4in) in diameter, soli- crowded or loose, terminal corymbs,
on size and habit; some also have flow- tary, phyllaries linear, papery white); bright yellow, rarely orange). For
ers that are suitable for drying. The H.bracteatum (syn. Xerochrysum bracteatum, H.coralloides, see Ozothamnus coralloides;
low-growing perennials and dwarf Bracteantha bracteata; STRAWFLOWER, for H.rosmarinifolium, see Ozothamnus
shrublets (for example, H.bellidioides), GOLDEN EVERLASTING, YELLOW PAPER rosmarinifolius; for H.selago,
are suitable for a sunny position in DAISY; Australia; annual or perennial see Ozothamnus selago.
gritty, freely draining soils in the rock herb to 1.5m (5ft); leaves to 12cm
garden, but will require at least some (43/4in), oblong to lanceolate, acumi- Heliconia (for Mount Helicon in
protection from excessive wet in winter. nate, glabrous or subglabrous, some- Greece, the home of Muses, a pun
Cushion-forming types, such as H.mil- times downy and silver-grey; reflecting the closeness of this genus to
fordiae, are more reliable when given flowerheads solitary, to 7cm (23/4in) in Musa). Heliconiaceae. C and S Amer-
H the protection from winter wet afforded

by the alpine house; H.milfordiae is also
suited to tufa plantings. Many species
diameter; seed races include dwarf to
tall plants with large or small flower-
heads in shades of sulphur, golden
ica, S Pacific Islands, to Indonesia.
FALSE BIRD OF PARADISE, WILD
PLANTAIN. About 100 species, large,
have beautiful foliage, extremely useful yellow, orange, bronze, copper, red, evergreen perennial herbs with clumped
for colour and textural contrast in the rose, purple and white); H.italicum (syn. pseudostems and paddle-shaped leaves.
herbaceous border and invaluable in H.angustifolium; S Europe; bushy aro- Borne amid waxy, brilliantly coloured
the silver border; these include taller matic subshrub or small shrub to 1m boat-shaped bracts in erect to pendu-
aromatic species, such as H.italicum, var. (31/4ft); leaves to 6cm (21/2in), narrowly lous spikes, the flowers are white to
serotinum. In regions where winters are linear, pale-tomentose to glabrescent, yellow or orange, often tipped or striped
severe, protect with a mulch of bracken revolute; flowerheads yellow, 2–4mm with blue-black. Magnificent perennials
litter and cut back damaged growth in (1/16–1/8in) in diameter in a cluster to for the warm greenhouse or moist,
spring. H.petiolare is frequently grown as 8cm (3in) across; includes subsp. serot- semi-shaded positions in subtropical
a half-hardy annual in cool tempera- inum, the CURRY PLANT, to 60cm (24in), and tropical gardens, Heliconia species
tures zone for edging, groundcover and with silver, slender, strongly curry- are grown for their stately, banana-like
hanging baskets. The species most scented foliage); H.milfordiae (syn. habit (sometimes to 6m (20ft) tall),
often grown for cutting and drying, H.marginatum; South Africa; subshrub handsome foliage (beautifully marked in
H.bracteatum, comes in a wide to 15cm (6in), cushion-forming, pros- H.indica) and their superb waxy inflores-
range of heights and trate; leaves to 1.5cm (5/8in), obovate to cences. These may be erect or pendu-
colours. It is easily subspathulate, densely tomentose, apex lous, flat or spiralling, and range in
grown in any moder- scarious; flowerheads 4cm (11/2in) in colour from yellow to pink to sealing-
ately fertile and mois- diameter, solitary, phyllaries glossy wax red and combinations thereof. All
ture-retentive soil in full white, usually crimson- or are suitable for cutting. They need a
sun and may be sown in situ brown-tipped); H.petiolare moisture-retentive open bark mix, rich
in spring, but better harvests (syn. H.petiolatum; in leafmould and well-rotted manure.
are obtained by starting earlier LIQUORICE PLANT; South Plant in tubs or borders (dwarf cultivars
under glass, especially in Africa; climbing or sprawling of H.stricta are excellent potplants) in
regions where summers are subshrub or shrub to 1m semi-shaded, humid conditions (mini-
short. Cut the flowers before (31/4ft); stems slender, mum temperature 15°C/59°F); syringe
they are fully open; dry branched, thinly grey- and foliar-feed frequently, except during
upside down and away from tomentose; leaves to flowering period and at the coolest
direct light in small bunches; 3.5cm (11/2in), rounded to times of the year. Cut away flowered
strip foliage from stems to broadly ovate, silver-grey- growths once new suckers have formed.
avoid rotting. This species tomentose; flowerheads to Propagate by division.
is usually treated as an 7mm (1/4in) in diameter, in H.acuminata (Brazil to S Venezuela
annual, but may live for loose corymbs; includes and SE Peru; stem 0.5–3cm (1/4–11/4in);
several years if pro- ‘Limelight’ with gold to leaves 15–70cm (6–28in); inflorescence
tected from cold, wet conditions. lime-green leaves, erect, 50–100cm (20–39in), bracts disti-
Propagate shrubby species by ‘Roundabout’, dwarf and chous, 6–25cm (21/2–10in), 4–6, red,
heeled semi-ripe cuttings in compact to 15cm (6in), with orange or yellow, glabrous to hairy,
summer; perennials by division variegated leaves, and ‘Varie- flowers white, orange or yellow, usually
or seed in spring. Remove rosettes gatum’, with variegated grey with dark green ‘eye-spots’ toward apex,
of H.milfordiae and root in a and cream leaves); H.splendidum or olive-green with white or pale orange
sandy propagating mix in (E and South Africa; shrub to tips); H.bihai (WILD PLANTAIN, MACAW
368 the cold frame. Helichrysum bracteatum 1.5m (5ft); stems branched, FLOWER, BALISIER; C and S America;
H.bellidioides (New King Size Series leafy, thinly tomentose; leaves stem 0.5–5m (20–15ft); leaves 25cm–2m
Heliotropium
leafy appendages, green, flowers green; 1m (31/4ft) tall and is one of the finest
includes ‘Spectabilis’, with leaves green of the blue and silver grasses, making
above, purple-bronze beneath or a fountain of blue-grey foliage over-
purple-green throughout, often with topped by weeping, ash-blond flower-
fine rose to white markings, and spikes. Grow in well-drained soil in
‘Striata’, with green leaves with green- sun; give mulch protection where
yellow or white markings); H.metallica winter temperatures fall much below
(Honduras to NW Colombia and –15°C/5°F. Remove dead foliage
Bolivia; stems 0.5–4m (11/2–13ft); leaves regularly to retain form. Propagate
25cm–1.4m (10in–41/2ft), emerald by division or seed in spring.
green above, metallic purple beneath;
inflorescence 30–90cm (12–36in), Heliopsis (from Greek helios, sun,
erect, bracts 5–14cm (2–51/2in), 3–8, and opsis, appearance, referring to the
distichous, linear to lanceolate, green showy flowerheads). Compositae.
to red, cobwebby, flowers rose pink to
purple tipped white); H.psittacorum
(PARROT’S FLOWER, PARAKEET FLOWER,
N America. OX-EYE. About 13 species,
loosely branched, erect perennial herbs
with daisy-like flowerheads in late
H
PARROT’S PLANTAIN; E Brazil to Lesser summer. Noted for ease of cultivation,
Heliconia psittacorum Antilles; stems 0.5–2m (11/2–61/2ft); extreme cold-hardiness, longevity,
The black flower tips, reminiscent of a leaves 10–50cm (4–20in); inflorescence vigour and the warm colours of the
parrot’s beak, give this colourful exotic the 12–70cm (43/4–28in), erect, bracts large daisy flowers that appear from
common name Parrot’s or Parakeet’s flower. 4–16cm (11/2–6in), 2–7, pink, orange or mid- to late summer and autumn.
red, sometimes edged yellow or green, Best grown on a moisture-retentive,
(10in–61/2ft); inflorescence erect, upcurved, glabrous, waxy, not overlap- fertile soil in full sun. Propagate by
45–110cm (18–42in), bracts 3–15, ping, slender, flowers yellow-green, division. H.helianthoides (eastern
distichous or alternate, sides red, keel orange or red with a dark green apical N America; to 1.5m (5ft); flowerheads
yellow, margins green and/or yellow, band and tipped white); H.stricta (S to 7.5cm (3in) in diameter, ray florets
more or less glabrous, flowers white, Venezuela and Surinam to Bolivia and pale to deep yellow, apex toothed, disc
apex pale green); H.caribaea (WILD Ecuador; stems 0.5–4m (11/2–13ft); florets yellow; cultivars range from
PLANTAIN, BALISIER; Jamaica and E leaves 40–150cm (16–60in); inflores- 1–5m (31/4–16ft) high with 1- or many-
Cuba to St. Vincent; stems 2–5.5m cence 20–30cm (8–12in), erect, bracts ranked ray florets ranging in colour
(61/2–18ft); leaves 60–130cm (24–54in); 7–11cm (23/4–41/2in), distichous, over- from light to dark gold).
inflorescence 20–40cm (8–16in), erect, lapping, broadly carinate, slightly
bracts to 25cm (10in), 6–15 in 2 over- inflated, red or orange, keel and mar- heliotropism see phototropism.
lapping rows, broadly triangular, red gins yellow, tipped green, flowers white
or yellow, keels and apices sometimes or pale yellow at base and apex, with Heliotropium (from Greek helios,
green or yellow, flowers white, apex a bright green band toward apex); sun, and trope, turning, from the long-
green); H.chartacea (Amazon Basin; H.zebrina (Central E Peru; stems 1–2m disproved idea that the inflorescence
stems to 4m (13ft); leaves to 1.2m (4ft); (31/4–61/2ft); leaves to 75cm (30in), dark turned with the sun). Boraginaceae.
inflorescence to 1m (31/4ft), pendent, green, often with dark green or purple Tropical and temperate regions.
bracts to 40cm (16in), 4–28, slender, bands and blotches, purple beneath; HELIOTROPE; TURNSOLE. Some 250
loosely spiralling, carmine to blush inflorescence 20–50cm (8–20in), erect, species, annual or perennial herbs, sub-
pink edged lime green, somewhat glau- bracts 6–21cm (21/2–8in), 6–9 distic- shrubs or shrubs with small, 5-lobed
cous, flowers dark green; includes the hous, narrow, spreading, red, glabrous, flowers in scorpioid spikes or racemes
candy pink and deep rose-magenta flowers pale yellow-green). in summer. The most commonly culti-
‘Sexy Pink’ and ‘Sexy Scarlet’); H.hir- vated plants are those hybrids derived
suta (Antilles and Belize to Bolivia, N helicoid spirally clustered, in the from H.arborescens; when treated as
Paraguay and E Brazil; stems 0.5–5m shape of a spring or a snail-shell. frost-tender annuals, these are suitable
(20–15ft); leaves 15–50cm (6–20in); for borders, pots and window boxes.
inflorescence 20–70cm (8–28in), erect, helicoid-cyme see bostryx. When container-grown, they may be
often hairy or cobwebby, bracts 3–9 trained as pyramids or standards, for
slender, upcurved, loosely 2-ranked, Helictotrichon (from Greek heliktos, summer bedding or for permanent
orange to red, flowers yellow to orange twisted, and thrix, trichos, hair or bristle, positions in the cool greenhouse or
or red, with dark green eyespots near referring to the shape of the awn). conservatory, where their delightful
apex); H.indica (Papua New Guinea; Gramineae. OATGRASS. Temperate perfume may be more easily appreci-
stems to 5m (16ft), stout; leaves to 2.5m northern Hemisphere, South Africa. ated. Grow in moist but well-drained,
(8ft); inflorescence to 1m (31/4ft), erect, 60 species of perennial grasses with moderately fertile soils in full sun. For
bracts to 35cm (14in), distichous, slender, clump-forming culms and fine, potplants, use a medium-fertility, loam- 369
tough, carinate, spreading, often with arching foliage. H.sempervirens grows to based mix and water plentifully when
Heliotropium
in growth. Maintain a winter minimum leaflike bracts; in some (caulescent)

temperature of 5–7°C/41–45°F and species, many flowers will be carried
ventilate freely as temperatures rise to in a paniculate cyme. Usually nodding,
13°C/55°F. Propagate from seed sown they are dish- to bell-shaped and
in early spring at 16–18°C/61–64°F. consist of five broadly ovate to elliptic
Many cultivars are available. Propagate segments, numerous shortly tubular
these by greenwood cuttings in summer nectaries and many stamens.
or by semi-ripe cuttings in late summer But for H.argutifolius, H.lividus, their
or autumn. Alternatively, take soft tip offspring and H. thibetanus, the follow-
cuttings in late winter from stock plants ing are hardy in zone 5. They should
grown on under glass over winter at be planted on a moist but well-drained
13°C/55°F. Standards are usually and fertile soil – heavy clay is tolerated
grown on through the winter at but over-wet conditions may encourage
10–16°C/50–61°F from late summer leaf spot. Site in sun or part-shade with
H semi-ripe cuttings; training for stan-

dards and pyramids follows procedures
similar to those used for Fuchsia.
protection from harsh winds. Feed in
spring and summer. Most flower from
late winter to mid-spring. With stemless
H.arborescens (syn. H.peruvianum; species bearing all-basal leaves (e.g. Self-seeding in Helleborus
HELIOTROPE, CHERRY PIE; Peru; hairy, H.orientalis), it is advisable to remove Hellebores set seed readily. Whilst self-sown
perennial shrub to 2m (61/2ft); flowers the old foliage once the flowerbuds are seedlings can become a nuisance, such
sweetly scented, violet or purple to visible, the better to display the flowers. progeny often show desirable variation in
white; cultivars include ‘Chatsworth’, H.argutifolius, H.lividus and their hybrid flower colour over the parent plants.
with rich purple-blue, very fragrant offspring need full sun, shelter and a
flowers; ‘Florence Nightingale’, with fast-draining gritty soil in zones 6 and dark green, pedate, glabrous, central
pale mauve flowers; ‘Grandiflorum’, over. Where cold, wet weather threat- leaflet, 10–20cm (4–8in), lateral leaflets
with large flowers; ‘Iowa’, bushy and ens, protect H.lividus with a dry mulch, divided into 3–5 lobes (to 7 segments
erect, with dark green leaves, lightly a cloche, or grow in the cold green- in all), coarsely serrate; inflorescence to
tinted purple, and dark purple, house. H. thibetanus is still quite new to 30cm (12in), flowers produced before
fragrant flowers in large clusters; gardens, but it seems likely to need a leaves, 2–3, deep purple suffused green
‘Lemoine’, to 60cm (24in), with deep shaded, humid position on a cool, per- within, pendent, flat or shallowly
purple, fragrant flowers; ‘Lord manently moist soil rich in leafmould. saucer-shaped, 4–5cm (11/2–2in) across);
Roberts’, small, with soft violet flowers; It may die back by midsummer, is H.foetidus (STINKING HELLEBORE, SET-
‘Princess Marina’, with deep violet somewhat tender and should be TERWORT, STINKWORT, BEAR’S FOOT;
flowers; ‘Marine’, bushy and compact, mulched in cold winters. W and C Europe; stems to 80cm
to 45cm (18in) high, with dark green, Division is possible for most species (32in), erect, hard, dying after fruiting;
wrinkled leaves and deep violet, fra- (not H.foetidus). Fresh seed sown in cold leaves cauline, coriaceous, dark green
grant flowers in large clusters; ‘Regal frames in early summer is also worth- or grey-green, pedate; segments 7–10,
Dwarf ’, dwarf, with dark blue, fragrant while and seedlings grow quickly into linear to lanceolate or narrowly-elliptic,
flowers in large clusters; ‘Spectabile’, good plants, flowering in 2–3 years tapering finely, to 20cm (8in), coarsely
compact, to 1.2m (4ft) high, with pale and often producing attractive colour serrate or nearly entire; inflorescence
violet, scented flowers; and ‘White forms. In suitable conditions, they terminal, to 30cm (12in), branches
Lady’, small and shrubby, with white will seed freely; the self-sown seedlings many-flowered, flowers pendent, green,
flowers, tinged pink in bud). may be carefully transplanted in early usually flushed red-purple at apex,
spring. H.argutifolius, H.foetidus and campanulate, to 2 x 2.5cm (3/4 x 1in),
Helleborus (name used by H.lividus may also be propagated using sometimes fragrant; includes Wester
Theophrastus for medicinal herbs, cuttings of young vegetative shoots. All Flisk Group, with stems, petioles and
probably not of this genus, but later (especially those with softer leaves such inflorescence branches tinted red and
always associated with it and with as H.niger) are susceptible to leaf spot. flowers yellow-green edged maroon);
Veratrum). Ranunculaceae. Europe, H.argutifolius (syn. H.corsicus; Corsica, H.lividus (Majorca; to 45cm (18in)+;
especially Italy and Balkans, Turkey Sardinia; stems to 1m (31/4ft), erect stems erect or sprawling, dying after
to Caucasus, W China. HELLEBORE. 15 or sprawling, soon becoming naked fruiting; leaves cauline, trifoliolate,
species, rhizomatous perennial herbs below; leaves cauline, trifoliate, coria- coriaceous, leaflets 10–20cm (4–8in),
for the most part evergreen. The leaves ceous, leaflets to 25cm (10in), elliptic obliquely elliptic, deep green to grey-
are trifoliolate to palmate or pedately to lanceolate, glabrous, olive to grey- green with silvery white veins above,
compound. They may be basal, or, in green, spiny-toothed; inflorescence suffused pink-purple beneath, serrate
caulescent species, borne on the flower- terminal, many-flowered, flowers pale or entire; inflorescence terminal, flow-
ing stem. The flowers may be solitary green, cup or bowl-shaped, to 5cm ers to 10, creamy-green suffused pink-
370 or, more usually, produced a few (2in) across); H.atrorubens (NW Balkans; purple, flat to bowl-shaped, 3–5cm
together in loose cymes subtended by to 35cm (14in); leaves basal, deciduous, (11/4–2in) across); H.multifidus (C Balkans;
Helonias
leaves basal, usually deciduous, coria- 35cm (14in), branched, flowers 1–4, marbled as in H.lividus); H. thibetanus
ceous, pedate, leaflets deep green saucer-shaped, 6–7cm (21/2–23/4in) (SW China; to 30cm (12in); leaves simi-
much-divided, segments 20–45, linear across, white to cream or cream tinged lar to H. orientalis, but softer-textured,
to narrowly lanceolate, to 13cm (5in), green, flushed purple or pink particu- more finely toothed, emerging bronze-
serrate; inflorescence exceeding leaves, larly below and at centre, green or green turning pea green; flowers nod-
branched, flowers 3–8, conic to purple-green following fertilization; ding, bowl- to bell-shaped, to 3cm
cup-shaped, nodding, green, to 4.5cm includes subsp. abchasicus, syn. H.abcha- (11/4in) diam., palest rose with textured
(13/4in) diameter, scented); H.niger sicus, with flowers suffused red-purple, veins, or white with pale pink veins);
(CHRISTMAS ROSE; C Europe; to 30cm often finely spotted, and subsp. guttatus, H.torquatus (Balkans; to 40cm (16in);
(12in), evergreen; leaves basal, leathery, syn. H.guttatus, with white or cream leaves basal, deciduous, emerging with
dark green, pedate, segments 7–9, flowers, spotted red-purple. Members or after flowers, coriaceous, pedate
oblong or oblanceolate, to 20cm (8in), of the H.orientalis complex will with 10–30 narrow segments to 18cm
toothed towards apex; flowers solitary hybridize freely, producing plants with (7in), tapered, dark green above,
or 2–3 on stout peduncle, waxy white, flowers in shades of white, pale pink, puberulent beneath, coarsely serrate;
tinged green at centre, flushed pink,
peach or dull purple with age, saucer-
to bowl-shaped, to 8cm (3in) across;
rose, plum and deep purple, often
flushed with another of these tones
or spotted or streaked purple-red.
inflorescence with apical leafy bracts,
flowers 1–10, nodding or facing out-
wards, saucer- to cup-shaped, to 5.5cm
H
includes numerous cultivars with large Hybridization also occurs between (51/4in) across, externally dark plum
and well-rounded flowers, often in very H.orientalis and other species. The influ- purple, pruinose, internally same
pure tones of white, but some ivory or ence of H.purpurascens will produce dark colour or blue-green; includes ‘Aeneas’,
near-yellow, others assuming rose, pruinose purple shades, for example H. with double, predominantly green
tawny or apricot tints, especially as x hybridus ‘Queen of the Night’. Cross- flowers, with exterior shaded maroon,
the flowers age, or when the plants are ing with H.torquatus introduces strong, and ‘Dido’, with double flowers, with
grown on very lean soils in full sun; glaucous, purple-black tones, for exam- a lime green interior and dark purple
clones with variegated leaves are some- ple H. x hybridus ‘Pluto’, wine-purple exterior); H.vesicarius (S Turkey,
times offered); H.niger x H.lividus (leaves outside, green and slaty purple inside, N Syria; to 60cm (24in), becoming
pedate to trifoliate, deep green with with purple nectaries. Hybrids involv- dormant in summer; leaves basal, thin,
pale veins; flowers large, flat, white ing H.odorus, H.cyclophyllus or H.multi- bright green, pedate, with 3 primary
suffused pink-brown or pink-purple, fidus exhibit shades of yellow and divisions each to 18cm (7in), the
turning dull purple with age); H.niger x green, e.g. H. x hybridus ‘Citron’, clear leaflets lobed and toothed; inflores-
H. x sternii (very variable; leaves some- pale yellow, and H. x hybridus ‘Orion’, cence loosely cymose with leafy bracts,
what pedate with some of the attrac- cream tinged green, purple stain in flowers bell-shaped, green tipped
tive veining of H.lividus; flowers large, centre and purple nectaries); H.pur- maroon or chocolate; fruit to 7.5cm
white, tinged pink-brown or green out- purascens (east central Europe; to 20cm (3in), pale yellow-green, inflated with
side, colouring more deeply with age); (8in) at flowering; leaves basal, decidu- distinct wings); H.viridis (W Europe;
H. x nigercors (H.niger x H.argutifolius; stem ous, coriaceous, palmate with 5 leaflets, to 40cm (16in); leaves deciduous, thin,
short, leafy, with terminal clusters of each divided into 2–6 lanceolate seg- glossy, pedate, segments 7–13, oblong-
flowers, but some leaves and flowers ments, to 20cm (8in), hairy beneath, lanceolate to narrow-elliptic, to 10cm
basal; leaves large, grey- to dark green, coarsely serrate; inflorescence appear- (4in), pubescent beneath, serrate; inflo-
semi-rigid, trifoliate to pedate with 7 ing before leaves, branched or simple, rescence emerging with leaves, long-
segments, dentate or spinulose; flowers flowers 2–4, nodding, cup-shaped, to branched; flowers 2–4, nodding,
large, saucer-shaped, waxy white some- 7cm (23/4in) across, externally purple- saucer-shaped or rather flat, to
times tinged green); H.odorus (Balkans, violet or red-purple to brown or green, 5cm (2in) across, green).
S Hungary, S Romania; to 30cm glaucous, internally sometimes green);
(12in); leaves basal, coriaceous, pedate, H. x sternii (H.argutifolius x H.lividus; helminthoid worm-shaped.
central leaflet undivided, laterals with leaves pewter to dark grey-green,
3–5 lobes, elliptic or oblanceolate, to obscurely veined green-white or silver, Helonias (from Greek helos, swamp,
20cm (8in), hairy beneath, coarsely suffused purple to pale rose, entire or the natural habitat of the plant). Lili-
serrate; inflorescence branched, short spiny-toothed; flowers lime green to aceae (Melanthiaceae). N America.
at first; flowers fragrant, usually 3–5, green flushed pink or purple-brown; SWAMP PINK. 1 species, H.bullata, an
saucer-shaped, facing outwards, to 6cm includes ‘Ashwood Strain’ with silver, evergreen tuberous perennial. Bright
(21/2in) in diameter, green to yellow); jagged leaves, the compact ‘Boughton green and glossy, the leaves are to
H.orientalis (LENTEN ROSE; NE Greece, Beauty’, with grey-green leaves marked 45cm (18in) long, oblong to lanceolate
N and NE Turkey, Caucasian Russia; and sometimes tinted rose-purple and and form a basal rosette. Starry and
to 45cm (18in); leaves basal, coria- flowers and floral axis suffused rose; scented, the flowers are pink, with pale
ceous, deep green, pedate with central Blackthorn Group, with leaves leaden blue anthers, and appear in spring in
leaflet entire, laterals divided giving grey-green, conspicuously veined, and dense, conical racemes atop scapes to
7–9 elliptic or oblanceolate segments, flowers slightly flushed with pink, and 45cm (18in) tall. Suited to bog garden 371
to 25cm (10in), serrate; inflorescence to ‘Bulmer’s Strain’ with neat grey foliage, and waterside plantings. Hardy at least
Helonias
to –15°C/5°F. Grow in moist, fertile,

humus-rich, acidic soils in sun or light, M ODERN HEMEROCALLIS FLOWER FORMS
dappled shade. Propagate by division
after flowering.
Heloniopsis (from Helonias and

Greek opsis, resemblance). Liliaceae
(Melanthiaceae). Japan, Korea,
Taiwan. 4 species, rhizomatous, peren-
nial, evergreen herbs with oblong or
lanceolate leaves in a basal rosette. In
spring, one or a few flowers nod in a
loose, scapose, umbellate raceme; these
differ from those of Helonias in the
H larger and broader perianth segments

and the purple-blue to dark violet
anthers. Hardy to between –10 and
Circular (‘Moonlight Mist’) Triangular (‘Jason Salter’)
–15°C/14–5°F. Grow in a moisture-

retentive, humus-rich soil in light
shade, with some protection from cold
winds. Propagate by division of
established clumps or by seed
sown when ripe or in spring.
H.orientalis (syn. H.japonica; Japan,
Korea, Sakhalin Islands; leaves 8–10cm
(3–4in), tinged red-brown toward apex;
scape to 20cm (8in); flowers to 4cm Star-shaped (‘Red Rum’) Spider-like (‘Cat’s Cradle’)
(11/2in) diameter, tepals pink or violet;
anthers blue-violet).
Chimes’, H. ‘Lemon Bells’) will tolerate It is encouraged by the ground’s heav-
helophyte a plant that grows in per- part shade, but the palest, pastel forms, ing at times of alternate freezing and
manent or seasonal mud, under water especially pink-toned cultivars, may not thawing. It can be prevented by thick
or around the water’s edge. open fully unless exposed to long peri- winter mulching.
ods of strong sunlight. Some dark red Daylilies hybridize readily and some
Hemerocallis (from Gk hemere, day, and deep purple cultivars benefit from 20,000 cultivars are now registered
and kallos, beauty; the flowers only live part shade in tropical and subtropical with the International Registration
for one day.) Liliaceae (Hemerocalli- climates. Unless naturalized, plants Authority; this figure is being increased
daceae). E Asia, Japan, China. DAYLILY. should be lifted and divided every three by some 400–800 each year. The
Some 15 species, rhizomatous, clump- years to maintain vigour and promote American Hemerocallis Society has
forming, perennial herbs with linear, flowering. Divide cultivars in spring, or categorized daylily cultivars in several
arching leaves and short-lived flowers after flowering. Most species, except useful ways. Plants are classed as ever-
in summer; these are produced in suc- some forms of H.fulva, produce fertile green, semi-evergreen or dormant.
cession on tall, more or less branching seed, although the seedlings may not Evergreen sorts are best suited to zones
stems, and are funnel-shaped with resemble the parent. 6–9; many will not thrive in cold cli-
6 ovate to lanceolate, spreading seg- Young foliage is particularly suscep- mates, especially if there is no snow
ments. They will grow in most fertile tible to slug and snail damage, but cover. Dormant sorts are suited to
garden soils including sand and heavy daylilies are also prone to attack by the zones 2–6 and may not perform well in
clay, but do best at a pH of 6–7. Abun- gall midge, which is indicated by the warmer climates. Semi-evergreen sorts
dant blooms will be produced if they presence of small white maggots in are best suited to temperate climates
are planted in a soil liberally enriched the flower bud, and the daylily aphid, but some can do well in hotter or
with well-rotted manure. Copious which leaves white flecks on the foliage colder regions. Some evergreens will
water is required to maximize both the in spring. Daylilies can be affected by acclimatize to colder conditions as they
size and number of blooms, but the ‘spring sickness’, which rots the new mature. It is a matter of trial and error.
ground must be free-draining. If grown inner leaves. This is more likely to be a Leaves vary from graceful and grasslike
in waterlogged ground or rough grass, problem in temperate climates and will (H.minor) to coarse and strap-like
daylilies produce more foliage and fewer prevent flowering for a least a year. It is (H.fulva) and range from 30cm (12in)
flowers. Most daylilies require long seldom a problem where continental (H.‘Eenie Weenie’) to 1.5m (5ft)
372 periods of full sun. Some species and winters are the norm. Crown rot is also (H.altissima). Mature foliage colour
older hybrids (H. ‘Corky’, H. ‘Golden a problem in temperate regions. ranges from blue-green to mid- or dark
Hepatica
green, sometimes yellowish, although in late afternoon and remain open all tropical greenhouse or in gardens in
excessive yellowness can denote an night. H.lilioasphodelus is an extended the humid tropics and subtropics.
unhealthy plant. A few cultivars have bloomer, the flower sometimes remain- Grow in bright filtered or indirect light.
leaves with unstable longitudinal varie- ing open up to 16 hours. Both diurnal Otherwise cultivate as for Eranthemum.
gation. Daylilies are further categorized and nocturnal types can also have this H.alternata (syn. H.colorata; RED IVY,
according to height of flower stems characteristic. H.lilioasphodelus and RED FLAME IVY; India, Java; evergreen,
which, for garden value, should be H.citrina are very strongly fragrant, a downy, prostate perennial herb; leaves
proportional to height of leaf-mound. characteristic inherited by some of to 9cm (31/2in), cordate to ovate, cre-
Dwarf: below 30cm (12in); low: their offspring. The season of blooming nate, bullate, silver-grey above, flushed
30–60cm (12–24in); medium: 60–90cm is categorized as extra early, early, purple beneath); H.repanda (Malaysia;
(24–36in); tall: over 1m (31/4ft). Daylilies early-midseason, midseason, late-mid- evergreen, prostrate, perennial herb,
are also categorized by flower size, season, late and very late. Some are more or less hairless, flushed red or
expressed as a diameter. Miniature: remontant, either flowering early and maroon; leaves to 5cm (2in), linear to
less than 7.5cm (3in); small-flowered: repeating in autumn, or flowering over lanceolate, bluntly toothed to lobed,
7.5–11.5cm (3–41/2in); large-flowered:
over 11.5cm (41/2in). They are further
classified by flower colour and pattern
a quick succession of bloom periods.
Repeat blooming is often influenced
by growing conditions.
satiny leaden-grey, deeply flushed red
or purple). H
as selfs, blends, polychrome, bi-tone, H.citrina (China; flowering stems hen and chickens see malformations.
reverse bi-tone, bicolour, reverse erect, branched above, taller than
bicolour, banded, eye-zoned, edged, foliage; flowers 20–65, 9–12cm Hepatica (from Greek hepar, liver:
haloed, tipped or watermarked. Throat (31/2–43/4in), fragrant, pale lemon, the leaves were thought to resemble the
and eye colour can be an attractive tinged brown beneath, opening at liver in outline and colour and thus, by
contrast. The perianth consists of six night, perianth tube to 4cm (11/2in), the doctrine of signatures, to cure liver
segments arranged in threes, the outer, tepals narrow); H.fulva (origin uncer- disease). Ranunculaceae. Northern
narrower sepals lying below the petals. tain, perhaps Japan or China; flower- Temperate Regions. Some 10 species,
The midribs of the segments may differ ing stems taller than foliage, forked; small perennials. The leaves are basal,
in colour from the segments; the stamens flowers 10–20, 7–10cm (23/4–4in), 3–5-lobed, entire to crenately toothed
may also differ in colour from the seg- widely funnelform, rusty orange-red, and often dull grey-green flushed
ments, giving added garden value. Flow- usually with darker median zones and purple, particularly beneath and during
ers of heaviest substance are found in stripes, perianth tube 2–5cm (3/4–2in)); dormant season, when they usually
tetraploid cultivars, where the colours H.lilioasphodelus (syn. H.flava; flowering persist. Solitary, scapose flowers appear
are usually brighter and the blooms stems branched above, weak, ascend- before the new growth in spring. A
more prolific. Some of the species’ ing, taller than foliage; flowers 8–12, calyx-like involucre of three reduced
characteristic gracefulness can be lost 7–8cm (23/4–3in), fragrant, shortly fun- leaves subtends a bowl-shaped flower
in tetraploid cultivars. Bloom texture nelform, yellow, perianth tube to 2.5cm of 5–12 petaloid sepals. Fully hardy.
varies from smooth, satiny to velvety and (1in)); H.minor (Japan, China; flowering Grow in cool, moist, but well-drained
creped, and may have an overlay known stems taller than foliage, forked or humus-rich soil in part shade. Apply a
as diamond dusting. The edges may be shortly branched above; flowers 2–5, mulch of organic matter in autumn or
ruffled. Natural flower form is trumpet- 5–7cm (2–23/4in), shortly funnelform, late spring; annual dressings of slow-
shaped but the flowers of modern lemon yellow, tinged brown outside, release fertilizer will improve flowering.
hybrids may be circular, triangular, star- tepals narrow, perianth tube less than Propagate by division in late spring or
shaped, flat or spider-like. Those with 2cm (3/4in)). autumn. Fresh seed sown in early
more than six segments are known as summer will germinate the following
doubles or camellia forms. Flower hemicryptophyte a plant whose spring.
colour in the species ranges from lemon- latent buds are located at or just above H. x media (H.transsilvanica x H.nobilis;
chrome to tawny-orange. Hybridizers the soil surface, and which is shallow intermediate between parents; includes
have raised cultivars in almost every rooted and poorly anchored. ‘Ballardii’, with deep blue flowers and
colour except true blue and pure white, many sepals, and ‘Millstream Merlin’,
although some daylilies appear virtually Hemigraphis (from Greek hemi, with semi-double, deep blue flowers);
white if exposed to strong sunlight. All half, and graphis, brush – a reference to H.nobilis (syn. H.triloba; Europe; leaf
daylilies have a yellow undertone to a the hairy outer filaments). Acanthaceae. lobes 3, ovate, tinged purple and hairy
greater or lesser degree and the colour Tropical Asia. Some 90 species, annual beneath, petioles 5–15cm (2–6in);
range usually encountered runs from or perennial herbs and subshrubs, flowers 1.5–2.5cm (5/8–1in) in diameter,
pale citron yellow to glowing orange usually with toothed or crenate leaves. blue-purple to white or pink);
and gold overlaid with darkest blood Slender and 5-lobed, the tubular, usu- H.transsilvanica (syn. H.angulosa; Roma-
red. Heavy rain can cause the pigment ally white flowers appear intermittently nia; similar to H.nobilis but leaf lobes
to scatter in some rich red cultivars. in terminal spikes with conspicuous crenately toothed, flowers 2.5–4.5cm
Most species are diurnal. Nocturnal bracts. Suited to hanging baskets, (1–13/4in) in diameter, pale blue or 373
species (e.g. H.citrina) open their flowers terraria and as groundcover in the opal-white, rarely tinted pink).
herb
herb (1) a plant grown for its medici- grown outside with a deep protective Herbs often produce a better essential
nal or flavouring properties, or for its mulch of bracken litter. Otherwise, oil when grown in poor or dry soil, and
scented foliage (see herbs). The term pot cultivate as for Homeria. it is best to mulch annually with garden
herb refers to those grown for culinary H.amoena (Argentina, Uruguay; compost, rather than to apply manures
purposes (2) strictly, a plant without scapes to 30cm (12in), flowers violet, or fertilizers.
persistent stems above ground, often outer perianth segments to 2cm (3/4in)); Herbs must be harvested when the
confined to perennials with annual H.lahue (S Chile, Argentina; scape oils are at their most concentrated, usu-
stems or leaves arising from a persistent 8–15cm (3–6in); outer perianth seg- ally just as the flowers reach maturity.
subterranean stem or rootstock. More ments 1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in), violet stained Dry, clean material should be selected.
generally, any non-woody plant. blue near base, inner perianth seg- Plants with roots containing essential
ments violet); H.pulchella (southern oils should be harvested during early
herbaceous (1) describing a plant S America to S Brazil; scape 8–15cm autumn, then rubbed or washed free
without persistent stems above ground; (3–6in); outer perianth segments of soil and dried off. Examples include
(2) pertaining to soft green leaves. 2.5–2.8cm (1–11/8in), blue to lilac or horseradish (Armoracia rusticana),
H herbaceous border a garden

planting primarily devoted to the culti-
purple tinted pink, often with a central
white stripe, claw white and bearded,
flecked or flushed violet, inner seg-
liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), and orris
(Iris florentina). For seed crops, such as
anise (Pimpinella anisum), caraway
vation of herbaceous perennials. It was ments mauve). (Carum carvi) and coriander (Coriandrum
first introduced in the early 1800s and sativum), enfold the seed heads in paper
significantly developed around the end herbicide a chemical substance that bags and suspend these in a dry, warm,
of the century under the influence of destroys plants. Herbicides are used
Gertrude Jekyll and William Robinson, especially to control those plants golden leaves add
when it became an essential feature regarded as weeds and are usually to ornamental value
of British gardens. Today, herbaceous applied in spray or granular form.
perennials are often grown with
annuals and bedding plants, bulbs herbs plants grown primarily for
and shrubs, in what is correctly their culinary or medicinal proper-
referred to as a mixed border. ties or aromatic foliage, and often
planted in combination for orna-
herbal originally, a book describing mental effect.
plants in general; now referring to one A herb garden can be an
that covers only plants grown for medi- attractive garden feature, with
cinal or culinary purposes. simple designs being the most
effective, for example, those
herbarium a collection of preserved based upon circles, squares or rec-
plant specimens used for identification tangles surrounding a central feature,
and classification, and typically main- such as a statue, sundial, fountain or
tained in a botanic garden. Originally, beehive. Cultivation in raised beds
a herbarium was a small garden or can be both practical and decorative,
lawn; it later became synonymous and for further labour-saving, herbs
with an arbour. may be grown successfully in gravel. Melissa officinalis ‘Aurea’
When planted in a border in groups
herber see arbour. of three or five individual plants herbs shaded place for at least three weeks to
make an effective contribution of con- facilitate shedding.
Herbertia (for Dr William Herbert trasting colour, texture and leaf shape. Drying may be carried out in a con-
(1778–1847), a dean of Manchester Herbs are ideal for patios, balconies, stantly warm airing cupboard, with the
and expert on bulbous plants). Iri- window boxes, troughs and other herbs spread out on trays to allow air
daceae. Temperate S America. 6 containers; those especially suitable to circulate and turned occasionally.
species of perennial cormous herbs, for containers include basil (Ocimum Alternatively, the herbs can be dried
allied to Tigridia and bearing 1–2 short- basilicum), borage (Borago officinalis), on racks in an oven at a temperature
lived flowers, each composed of 6 seg- chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), lemon of not more than 32°C/90°F; for
ments, the 3 outer broadly triangular balm (Melissa officinalis), rosemary (Ros- really fast drying, they may be heated
to ovate and spreading or reflexed, and marinus officinalis), rue (Ruta graveolens), in small quantities in a microwave oven
the 3 inner segments, smaller rounded sage (Salvia officinalis), great burnet (San- for about one-and-a-half minutes.
and erect. In zones that are frost-free guisorba officinalis), tarragon (Artemisia Some herbs, such as parsley (Pet-
or almost so, they are suited to the dracunculus), parsley (Petroselinum crispum), roselinum crispum), dill (Anethum graveolens)
warm and well-drained sunny border; mint (Mentha species), thyme (Thymus and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), do not
374 where temperatures only occasionally species), chives (Allium schoenoprasum) dry well and are better frozen without
fall to about –5°C/23°F, they can be and marjoram (Origanum species). blanching soon after picking.
heteroecious
Hermannia (for Paul Hermann Hesperaloe (from Greek hesperos, scented, especially at evening, petals
(d. 1695), German botanist and profes- western, and Aloe, from the plant’s 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), white to lilac; includes
sor of Botany at Leiden). Sterculiaceae. habitat and appearance). Agavaceae. cultivars with single and double flowers
Tropical and South Africa. HONEY- SW US, Mexico. 3 species, evergreen in shades of white, pink, rose, purple
BELLS. Over 100 species, herbs and perennial herbs, forming grassy clumps and lilac).
subshrubs, generally hairy. Solitary or of linear leaves with white marginal
in cymes, the flowers are campanulate fibres. Short-lived, the narrowly cam- Hesperocallis (from Greek hesperos,
to rounded and consist of five obovate panulate flowers are carried in sparsely western, and kallos, beauty). Liliaceae
to oblong petals, their bases often branched racemes in summer and (Agavaceae). SW US (S California,
narrowed into a claw and more or less autumn. Cultivate as for Nolina. H.parv- W Arizona). 1 species, H.undulata, the
spirally twisted. Suited to sunny banks iflora (syn. H.yuccifolia; SW Texas; leaves DESERT LILY, a bulbous perennial herb
and rock gardens in essentially frost- to 1.3m (41/4ft), leathery, margins with to 30cm (12in) tall, with wavy-edged
free Mediterranean-type climates. fine white threads; panicle slender, to linear leaves and terminal racemes of
In cooler zones, grow Hermannia in 1.2m (4ft); flowers dark to light red, fragrant, funnelform flowers, to 7cm
the cool to intermediate greenhouse.
Plant in sun, with some shade during
the hottest parts of the day, in any
golden yellow within, not opening fully;
‘Rubra’: flowers bright red).
(23/4in) long and white striped with
green. Native to desert and semi-
desert, where the bulbs are often found
H
well-drained soil. Under glass, water Hesperantha (from Greek hespera, at great depth, Hesperocallis is especially
moderately when in growth, less at evening, and anthos, flower). Iridaceae. useful for dry, frost-free gardens. In
other times, and maintain a minimum Subsaharan Africa, with most species cool temperate zones, it may be grown
temperature of 7–10°C/45–50°F in South Africa. 55 species, cormous in the cool greenhouse or conservatory.
during winter. Repot and prune leggy perennial herbs with linear leaves and Plant in a sandy and gritty medium.
specimens before growth resumes in spikes of starry to saucer-shaped flow- Position in full sun with a dry, buoyant
late winter/early spring. Propagate by ers opening after dusk in spring and atmosphere. Water moderately when in
seed or softwood cuttings in spring. summer. Cultivate as for Ixia. H.cucul- growth, but keep dry when dormant.
H.incana (syn. H.candicans; South Africa; lata (syn. H.buhrii; South Africa; to Propagate by seed and offsets.
grey-hairy perennial herb to 2m (61/2ft); 30cm (12in); flowers scented, to 4cm
flowers to 2cm (3/4in) diam., honey- (11/2in) diameter, white with outer hessian a strong, coarse cloth, also
scented, yellow, petals broadly rounded tepals stained red). known as burlap, used in gardens to
or truncate, hairy). insulate frames or cloches from frost,
hesperidium a berry, pulpy within to form windbreaks and to wrap root
hermaphroditic bisexual, having with a tough rind, for example the balls after lifting trees or shrubs.
both pistils and stamens in the fruits of Citrus.
same flower. Heterocentron (from Greek heteros,
Hesperis (from Greek hespera, different or variable, and kentron, spur).
Hermodactylus (variant of old evening, when the flowers are most Melastomataceae. C and S America.
Greek name for Colchicum, from Hermes, fragrant). Cruciferae. Europe, N and Some 27 species, tender perennial
Mercury, and dactylos, finger). Iridaceae. W Asia. 60 species, biennial or peren- herbs and low-growing shrubs with
S Europe, from France through the nial, erect herbs with lax racemes of 4-petalled, bowl-shaped flowers borne
Balkans, to Greece, Turkey, and Israel. 4-petalled flowers in late spring and singly or in small panicles from late
1 species, H.tuberosus, (syn. Iris tuberosa), summer – these are especially fragrant summer to winter. In frost-free regions,
MOURNING WIDOW IRIS, a winter- to in the evening. A plant for the herba- grow in sun in any fertile and well-
spring-flowering tuberous-rooted ceous border and wild garden. It tends drained soil. Under glass, admit full
perennial herb. It grows to 30cm (12in) to become woody, tired and less florif- sun and use a medium-fertility loam-
and resembles a large Reticulata iris. erous with age: new stock should be based mix. Water plentifully and feed
The flowers are scented, to 5cm (2in) propagated every 2–3 years. Double- weekly with dilute liquid fertilizer when
diameter, and pale olive to apple green flowered cultivars are especially good in full growth; maintain a winter mini-
with velvety brown-black falls. It is for cutting. Hardy to at least mum temperature of 7°C/45°F. Propa-
undemanding in cultivation, well-suited –15°C/5°F. Plant in moist but well- gate by seed, by softwood or stem tip
to dry chalky soils, and will form large drained neutral to alkaline soils, in full cuttings and by division. H.elegans
clumps where conditions suit. Although sun or light shade. Propagate cultivars (SPANISH SHAWL; Mexico, Guatemala,
hardy to –15°C/5°F, Hermodactylus is from basal cuttings in spring. Sow seed Honduras; carpet-forming subshrub;
sometimes given cold greenhouse pro- in situ in autumn or spring; the white- flowers solitary; petals to 2.5cm (1in),
tection in regions where early spring flowered cultivars come approximately magenta to mauve).
weather may spoil the flowers. Grow in true, some individuals being tinted pale
sun in any well-drained soil. The flow- pink. H.matronalis (DAMASK VIOLET, heteroecious requiring two unre-
ers last fairly well when cut and kept DAME’S VIOLET, SWEET ROCKET; S lated plant hosts in order to complete
in a cool room. Propagate by division Europe to Siberia; biennial or peren- a life cycle, as in many rust fungi; cf. 375
during late summer. nial, 60–100cm (24–39in); flowers autoecious.
heterogamous
heterogamous (1) bearing two by division or from seed in spring.

types of flower, as in the ray and H. x brizoides (a range of hybrids
disc florets of Compositae; (2) with with H.sanguinea as part of the
sexual organs abnormally arranged parentage; the precise application
or developed, or with the sexual “pin- of this name is obscure, but it is also
function transferred from flowers eyed” likely to embrace hybrids involving
of one sex to another. H.micrantha and H.americana); H.cylindrica
“thrum- (flowers cream, tinged green or red;
Heteromeles (from Greek heteros, eyed” includes ‘Greenfinch’, vigorous with
different, and mela, the apple tree). Heterostyly in primrose sulphur-green flowers, ‘Hyperion’,
Rosaceae. US (California). CHRISTMAS with coral pink flowers on 6cm (21/2in)
BERRY, TOLLON. 1 species, H.salicifolia salicaria, trimorphic heterostyly exists, spikes, ‘Siskiyou Mountains’, dwarf
(syn. Photinia arbutifolia), an evergreen, with three variations of style and with scalloped leaves and cream flow-
tree-like shrub to 9m (30ft) tall. To stamen length. ers in a 10cm (4in) raceme); H.micrantha
H 10cm (4in) long, the leathery leaves are

lanceolate to obovate, thick-textured
and sharply toothed. Small and 5-
heterozygous describing a plant
that bears both dominant and recessive
(stem and petioles white-pilose at base,
leaves shallowly lobed; often assigned
to this species but likely to be of hybrid
petalled, the flowers are white and genetic components for a particular origin is the popular H. ‘Palace Purple
borne in large, flattened panicles in character, giving rise to a hybrid. It is Select’, all parts of which are deep
summer. They give rise to bright-red, used of cross-pollinated species or glossy purple-bronze except for its
berry-like fruit. Its general require- cultivars; cf. homozygous. small white flowers); H.sanguinea (New
ments are as for Photinia, but with a Mexico, Arizona; to 60cm (24in); leaves
warm and sheltered site if grown in Heuchera (for Johann Heinrich 2–5.5cm (3/4–21/4in), broadly reniform
zones 8 and lower. Heucher (1677–1747), a professor to ovate, near pentagonal in outline,
of medicine at Wittenberg). glandular, veins hairy beneath; flowers
heteromorphic describing a plant Saxifragaceae. N America. ALUM bright red, 6–12mm (1/4–1/2in); includes
that assumes different forms or shapes ROOT, CORAL BELLS. Some 55 species, ‘Alba’, with white flowers, ‘Maxima’,
at different stages in its life history cf. evergreen perennial herbs with a semi- with burgundy flowers, ‘Splendens’,
polymorphic. woody rootstock and basal clumps with rich red flowers, ‘Variegata’, with
of slender-stalked rounded to heart- variegated leaves, and ‘Virginalis’, with
heterophyllous used of a plant shaped leaves. Small, bell-shaped flow- white flowers). Other notable Heuchera
bearing two or more different forms ers are produced in spire-like panicles hybrids are Bressingham Hybrids, with
of leaf on the same plant. or racemes in spring and summer. graceful inflorescences and flowers
Evergreen groundcover for the wood- ranging in colour from pink through
heterosis the improvement in vigour, land garden and damp, sunny, border rose, carmine and red with some
fertility or yield potential exhibited by edges, valued for foliage and graceful whites, ‘Green Ivory’, with a robust
F1 hybrids. It is also known as hybrid flowering spikes in subtle shades of inflorescence and green and white
vigour. coral pink and green. H. ‘Palace Purple flowers, ‘Scintillation’, with silver mar-
Select’ is one of the most striking small bled leaves and flowers tipped vivid
heterosporous producing spores of herbaceous perennials: its dark maroon pink, ‘Snowflake’, to 60cm (24in) with
two sexes, which develop into male and foliage and delicate white flowers com- white flowers in a lax panicle, and
female gametophytes. mend it as a contrast plant for mixed ‘Taff ’s Joy’, with leaves variegated
borders, preferably on slightly damp cream and tinted pink.
heterostylous of species whose soils; it has also been used in bedding
flowers differ in the existence or schemes, propagated from seed in the x Heucherella (Heuchera x Tiarella.)
number of styles. year prior to display. A new generation Saxifragaceae. Garden origin. Ever-
of smaller cultivars offers still more green, perennial herbs to 45cm (18in)
heterostyly condition in which the exciting foliage colour – for example, tall with rounded leaves to 13cm (5in)
styles and stamens of flowers are of H. ‘Stormy Seas’, with cloudy pewter in diameter, the margins shallowly
different lengths in individual plants of leaves, shot with silver and ruby, or the lobed and toothed, the surfaces bristly-
the same species. Heterostyly is a nat- satiny, liver red H. ‘Cascade Dawn’, hairy and light green (mottled brown
ural adaptation to ensure cross-pollina- a marvellous companion for Millium when young, becoming dark green with
tion, found, for example, in species of effusum ‘Aureum’. Plant in well-drained age and turning bronze in autumn). In
Primula and Linum. In dimorphic het- but moisture-retentive soil, in sun or spring and summer, small pink flowers
erostyly, there are two types of flower: part shade, with the crowns just above are carried in loose, slender panicles
‘thrum-eyed’, where the style is short soil level. Mulch well against soil heave to 40cm (16in) tall. Cultivate as for
and the stamens long, and ‘pin-eyed’, in areas with cold winters. Reduce and Heuchera. Propagate by division.
376 where the opposite condition exists. In replant or mulch if the crowns lift in x H.alba. (Heuchera x brizoides x Tiarella
some plants, such as Oxalis and Lythrum subsequent years. Propagate in autumn wherryi; close to x H.tiarelloides, but lacks
Hibiscus
stolons and is normally white-flowered; with, at their centre, a long, and pro- bushiness, and cut hard back in spring.
includes ‘Bridget Bloom’, with shell truding staminal column. The hardiest Propagate annuals from seed sown
pink flowers in dense spikes); x H.tiarel- here include H.sinosyriacus, tolerant of under glass in early spring or in situ in
loides (Heuchera x brizoides x Tiarella temperatures to –15°C/5°F, and H.syri- late spring. Propagate shrubs by green-
cordifolia; stoloniferous; leaves cordate acus, with many exceptional cultivars, wood or semi-ripe cuttings in a shaded
to suborbicular, coarsely toothed and most tolerating cold to –20°C/–4°F. case with bottom heat, or by simple
lobed, crenate; scapes tinted brown, H.mutabilis is frost tender, but will layering in midsummer/early autumn.
flowers pink). regenerate from the woody base if Increase perennials by division.
cut back by light frost. In subtropical H.acetosella (E and C Africa; annual
xHibanobambusa (Bamboo of and warm temperate, essentially frost- or woody-based perennial herb to 1.5m
Mount Hiba). Gramineae. Japan. free zones, H.rosa-sinensis is used for (5ft), usually smooth, tinted red; leaves
1 species. See bamboos. hedging and screening and, as with unlobed or 3- or 5-lobed; flowers soli-
H.schizopetalus, makes a fine specimen tary, petals purple-red or yellow, deep
Hibbertia (for George Hibbert (d. for large containers. Species from moist purple at base; includes ‘Red Shield’
1838), a patron of botany). Dilleni-
aceae. Madagascar, Australasia, Poly-
nesia. BUTTON FLOWER, GUINEA GOLD
habitats, such as H.coccineus are suited
to waterside plantings. H.moscheutos is a
vigorous perennial for similar situations
with brilliant maroon leaves); H. x
archeri. (H.rosa-sinensis x H.schizopetalus;
similar to H.rosa-sinensis, but leaves
H
VINE. Some 125 species, evergreen where winter temperatures do not more coarsely toothed, petals red,
shrubs, many of them climbers. fall much below –5°C/23°F. Several laciniate or crenate); H.cannabinus
Chiefly produced in summer, the flow- are grown as frost-tender annuals in (INDIAN HEMP, BIMIL, DECCAN HEMP;
ers are large, solitary and terminal, cool temperate regions, including origin unknown, probably East
consisting of five, broad and spreading H.acelosella and H.sabdariffa. H.trionum Indies; annual or short-lived woody-
petals and numerous stamens. Given has naturalized as a weed in parts based perennial to 3.5m (111/2ft);
the shelter of a warm south- or south- of North America. The F1 leaves 3-, 5-, or 7-lobed;
west-facing wall, the following may hybrids H. Southern Belle flowers axillary, form-
tolerate very light and short-lived frosts. Group and ‘Dixie ing racemes, petals
In cooler regions, grow in the cool Belle’ are treated as 4–8cm (11/2–3in),
greenhouse or conservatory. Plant in annuals but may sur- pale yellow or
sun or part shade. Provide support. vive several degrees less commonly pale
Under glass, admit bright filtered light, of frost, especially purple, with red-purple
but provide shade from the hottest if protected with distinctive spot at the base); H.coccineus
summer sun. Water plentifully and feed bracken litter. staminal column (SE US; tall, hemp-like, woody
fortnightly when in full growth, reduc- Grow hardy based, perennial herb to 3m
ing water as light levels and tempera- species in a well- (10ft); leaves glaucous, palmately
tures fall. Maintain a minimum winter drained, humus-rich, lobed; flowers solitary, petals to
temperature of 10°C/50°F. Prune to fertile soil in full sun, with 8cm (3in), deep red); H.moscheutos
thin out congested growth in early mulch protection at the (COMMON ROSE MALLOW, SWAMP
spring. Propagate by semi-ripe cuttings roots and the shelter of a Hibiscus ROSE MALLOW; S US; robust,
in a sandy propagating mix, or by warm south-facing wall in rosa-sinensis woody-based perennial herb to
layers. H.scandens (SNAKE VINE, GOLD zones at the limits of hardiness. 2.5m (8ft); leaves 8–22cm
GUINEA PLANT; Australia; shrub to 12m Little regular pruning is necessary; long (3–9in), broadly ovate to lanceolate,
(39ft), procumbent or twining; leaves shoots may be tipped back immediately unlobed or 3- or 5-lobed, downy; flow-
5–10cm (2–4in), obovate to lanceolate, after flowering and overgrown speci- ers solitary, petals 8–10cm (3–4in),
silky-hairy; flowers to 5cm (2in) diame- mens may be cut hard back and white, pink, rose, base sometimes
ter, malodorous, petals golden yellow, thinned out in spring. Grow tender banded crimson, or petals wholly or
obovate to triangular, with ragged tips). species in a medium- to high-fertility edged crimson); H.mutabilis (COTTON
loam-based mix or soilless medium. ROSE, CONFEDERATE ROSE MALLOW;
hibernaculum the winter-resting Water plentifully when in growth and, China; shrub to 3m (10ft) or small tree
body of some plants; usually a bud-like unless high winter temperatures of to 5m (16ft); leaves 8–17cm (3–61/2in),
arrangement of reduced leaves. about 16°C/61°F can be maintained, palmately 3-, 5- or 7-lobed, hairy
reduce water in winter to keep almost beneath; flowers solitary or in clusters,
Hibiscus (Greek name for mallow). dry until growth resumes in spring. petals 5–7cm (2–23/4in), white, pink or
Malvaceae. Warm temperate, subtropi- Maintain a minimum temperature of scarlet, with darker base); H.rosa-sinenis
cal and tropical regions. MALLOW, ROSE 7–10°C/45–50°F for H.rosa-sinensis, (CHINESE HIBISCUS, HAWAIIAN HIBISCUS,
MALLOW, GIANT MALLOW. About 220 H.mutabilis and H.coccineus; tropical ROSE-OF-CHINA, CHINA ROSE, SHOE
species, annual or perennial herbs, species such as H.schizopetalus need BLACK; probably Asian tropics; shrub to
shrubs, subshrubs and trees. Bowl- to higher temperatures 16°C/61°F. Venti- 2.5m (8ft) or tree to 5m (16ft), sparsely
funnel-shaped, the showy flowers con- late at 20°C/68°F and above. Tip puberulent to glabrate; leaves to 15cm 377
sist of five, more or less obovate petals prune young plants to encourage (6in), ovate to broadly lanceolate,
Hibiscus
toothed; flowers solitary, petals 6–12cm or blue-lavender, with crimrose base. low-fertility, gritty neutral or alkaline
(21/2–43/4in), very variable in colour, but Cultivars selected for foliage include soils in sun. Propagate by seed, alterna-
commonly red to deep red, darker ‘Meehanii’: habit low, leaves edged tively by division.
towards the base. Cultivars selected for yellow, flowers single, lavender; ‘Pur- H.lanatum (SE France, W Switzer-
foliage include: ‘Cooperi’, leaves nar- pureus Variegatus’: leaves variegated land, NW Italy; 10–15cm (4–6in);
rowly lanceolate, olive green marbled white. Those selected for flower colour leaves covered with dense, white,
red, pink and white, flowers rose; and form include ‘Admiral Dewey’: woolly hairs, to 10cm (4in), elliptic
‘Lateritia Variegata’, leaves pointed flowers double, wide, snow white, to lanceolate); H.maculatum. (W and
and irregularly lobed, heavily varie- abundant; ‘Ardens’, habit broad, flow- C Europe, only sporadically elsewhere;
gated off-white, flowers gold; ‘Snow ers densely double, purple tinted blue; 20–80cm (8–32in); leaves spotted or
Queen’, leaves broadly ovate, marbled ‘Coelestis’: pale violet, rose at base, blotched brown-purple, to 4.5cm
white, and grey-green. Those selected single; ‘Diana’: habit upright, leaves (13/4in), ovate to lanceolate).
for flower colour and form include trilobed, flowers single, white, very
‘Aurora’, flowers, pom-pom shape, wide, crinkled edges, profuse; ‘Duc hilum the scar on a seed
H blushing pink; ‘Bridal Veil’, flowers

large, single, crêpe-textured, pure
white; ‘Crown of Bohemia’, flowers
de Brabant’: deep rosy purple,
double; ‘Hamabo’: flowers single,
light pink, crimson markings scar at
at the point at which the
funicle was attached.
fully double, gold with flaming orange and eye; ‘Hélène’: flowers single, attachment hip, hep the fleshy
throat; ‘Fiesta’, flowers large, single, large, white with dark red edge point developed floral cup,
crinkled, deep apricot orange with and surrounding veins, abundant; with enclosed achenes,
pink-red eye; ‘Kissed’, petals reflexed, ‘Jeanne d’Arc’: white, semi-double; Hilum that forms the fruit of a rose.
vivid red; ‘Percy Lancaster’, flowers ‘Lady Stanley’: white suffused shell
single, petals narrow, palest pink pink, maroon at base, semi-double; Hippeastrum (from Greek hippeus,
washed apricot, eye russet; ‘Ruby ‘Lucy’: flowers double red; ‘Monstro- a rider, and astron, a star; reference
Brown’, flowers single, large, brown sus’: white with maroon eye, single; unclear). Amaryllidaceae. Americas.
tinted orange with dark red throat; ‘Oiseau Bleu (‘Blue Bird’): habit erect, AMARYLLIS; KNIGHT’S STAR LILY. About
‘Sunny Delight’, flowers single, large, flowers wide, very large, sky blue with 80 species, bulbous perennial herbs
brilliant yellow, throat white); H.sabdar- small red eye; ‘Snowdrift’: white, large, with strap-shaped leaves and flowers
iffa (ROSELLE, JAMAICA SORREL, RED single; ‘Violet Clair Double’: vinous atop a hollow scape. These consist of
SORREL, SORREL; Old World tropics, purple, red-purple at centre, double; a tubular to funnelform perianth tube
widely cultivated; annual or robust, ‘William R. Smith’: pure white, single, often, dilating at the throat, and six,
woody-based perennial herb or sub- very large; ‘Woodbridge’: flowers spreading lobes, the inner 3 sometimes
shrub to 2.5m (8ft); leaves 8–15cm single, large, rich pink to carmine at narrower than the others.
(3–6in), ovate, undivided or palmately centre); H.trionum (FLOWER-OF-AN- Grow under glass in bright filtered
3- or 5-divided; flowers solitary or in HOUR, BLADDER KETMIA: arid Old light, in a free-draining, loam-based
short leafy raceme; petals 4–5cm World tropics; erect or ascending hispid mix of medium-fertility (e.g. 3:1:1 loam,
(11/2–2in), light yellow, purple-red at annual or short-lived perennial herb to leafmould, sharp sand). Plant firmly
base); H.schizopetalus (JAPANESE 1.2m (4ft); leaves to 7cm (23/4in), deeply with the neck and shoulders of the
HIBISCUS, JAPANESE LANTERN; Kenya, 3- or 5-lobed or -parted, incised or bulb above soil level. Winter-flowering
Tanzania and N Mozambique; shrub entire; flowers solitary, calyx with species and cultivars should be planted
to 3m (10ft); leaves to 12cm (43/4in), purple veins, becoming inflated, petals in late summer/early autumn, and
ovate, serrate; flowers on long slender to 4cm (11/2in), white, cream or yellow, summer-flowering species in early
pedicels; petals to 7cm (23/4in), deeply with red base). spring. Maintain a minimum tempera-
and irregularly laciniate, pink or ture of 13–16°C/55–61°F and water
red; staminal column long-exserted; Hieracium (from the classical Greek sparingly until growth commences;
H.sinosyriacus (C China; similar to H.syr- name hierakion used for a range of at this point, temperatures may be
iacus, but leaves large; includes ‘Autumn yellow-flowered Compositae). Com- increased to 16–18°C/61–64°F for ear-
Surprise’, flowers white, base feathered positae. Europe, to N and W Asia, NW lier flowers, although flowering is pro-
cherry, ‘Lilac Queen’, flowers white, Africa and N America HAWKWEED. longed at lower temperatures. When in
lightly tinted mauve, base clear bur- Some 10,000 species, perennial, more active growth, water plentifully, syringe
gundy, profuse, ‘Red Centre’, stem or less hairy herbs, with milky sap. The the leaves with soft water, and feed
with silver sheen when mature, flowers leaves are arranged in basal rosettes or weekly with a dilute liquid fertilizer.
white, centre red, ‘Ruby Glow’, flowers on the flowering stems. Yellow, daisy- Leaves continue their development
white, base clear burgundy); H.syriacus like flowerheads are carried in long- after flowering, and feeding and water-
(Old World, widely cultivated; shrub or stalked and slender-branched panicles ing should be continued until growth
small tree to 3m (10ft); leaves 3–7cm in spring and summer. The following ceases and leaves yellow – usually by
(11/4–23/4in), 3-lobed, coarsely toothed; are hardy in zone 6 and suitable for the midsummer. Reduce water gradually
378 flowers solitary or paired, petals large rock garden or the foreground of and withhold completely when dor-
3.5–7cm (11/2–23/4in), white, red-purple well-drained borders. Easily grown in mant, keeping bulbs dry and warm
Hoheria
(not below 5–7°C/41–45°F) until Asia. SEA BUCKTHORN. hoe (also known as the
growth resumes. Hippeastrum dislikes 3 species, thorny, deciduous, push hoe or scuffle hoe),
root disturbance: repot only once every dioecious trees or shrubs. primarily used for surface
three of four years, before the new Lanceolate to linear, the leaves hoeing, and the more versatile
cycle of growth begins. are more or less covered in draw hoe, which is useful for
Propagate by offsets, and by seed somewhat metallic, scale- or cultivation, drill drawing, thin-
sown when ripe at 16–18°C/61–64°F; chaff-like hairs, as is the new- ning seedlings and earthing up.
if grown on without dry rest during growth. Inconspicuous flowers The Dutch hoe has the blade
their first year, seedlings mature and appear before the leaves and, set on the same plane as the
flower more quickly, and may flower in where male and female plants handle, with the operator
their second or third year from sowing. are grown together, give rise to walking backwards to leave the
Red spot disease, caused by the fungus long-lasting and brightly cultivated ground untrodden.
Stagonospora curtisii, produces watery red coloured berries. The genus is The draw hoe has the blade
lesions on the bulbs, leaves and flower primarily used for its orna- set at right angles to the
stalks, while red scabs form on the
outer scales of the bulbs. The emerg-
ing foliage and flower buds may be
mental qualities, especially in
maritime plantings, although
H.rhamnoides is also used in
handle, with the operator
adopting a more stooping pos-
ture and walking forward over
H
sprayed with a copper-based or dithio- shelterbelts and in soil stabi- the cultivated ground. An
carbamate fungicide. lization, especially on coastal onion hoe is a type of draw
H.aulicum (LILY OF THE PALACE; Brazil, dunes, and may subsequently hoe, fixed to a handle about
Paraguay; flowers usually 2, crimson, to naturalize. Plant in full sun or 30cm (12in) long, and used
15cm (6in), throat green, lobes obovate, part shade. Prune only to for cultivating amongst closely
pointed, the 2 upper inner ones much remove straggling shoots in spaced plants.
broader than the others); H.papilio (S later summer. Propagate by
Brazil; flowers 2, pale green streaked layering in autumn, from suck- hoggin a fine gritty aggre-
and stained dark red, perianth segments ers, by semi-ripe cuttings in gate, often with clay content,
oblanceolate, to 14 x 5cm (51/2 x 2in)); summer, or by hardwood cut- used for bedding paving slabs
H.reginae (MEXICAN LILY; Mexico to tings in late autumn. Alterna- and providing a firm undersur-
Peru and Brazil, West Indies, W Africa; tively, sow seed fresh during face for gravel.
flowers 2–4, drooping red, perianth autumn, or in spring following
tube to 2.5cm (1in), lobes to 13cm stratification at 4°C/39°F over Hoheria (Latinized form
(5in), obovate, bright red with a large three months. H.rhamnoides (W of the Maori name for
green-white star in the throat); H.stria- Europe to China; thorny Dutch hoe Draw hoe these plants). Malvaceae.
tum (Brazil; flowers 2–4, to 10cm (4in), shrub, 1–9m (31/4–29ft); twigs New Zealand. LACEBARK.
crimson, keeled green to halfway up rigid, metallic-scaly then grey, thorny; 5 species of evergreen or deciduous
the lobes); H.vittatum (Peruvian Andes; leaves to 6cm (21/2in), linear to lanceo- shrubs and small trees with thinly
flowers 3–6, to 12cm (43/4in) diameter, late, silver; fruit to 6mm (1/4in) diameter, leathery leaves. Solitary or clustered,
perianth tube to 2.5cm (1in), lobes orange, clothing bare branchlets in the flowers are produced in the leaf
obovate to oblong, to 4cm (11/2in) winter). axils in summer. They consist of five,
across, keel white, margins irregular obovate, white, cream or ivory petals
and white, striped red in between). hirsute with long hairs, usually rather and a boss of many stamens. Given
Cultivars ‘AppleBlossom’, white suffused coarse and distinct. shelter from cold, drying winds, most
soft pink; ‘Beautiful Lady’, pale man- species tolerate temperatures to
darin red; ‘Bestseller’, scape short, flow- hirsutullous slightly hirsute. –15°C/5°F. Deciduous species will
ers cerise; ‘Bouquet’, salmon; ‘Byjou’, regenerate freely from the base if
soft burnt apricot; ‘Cantate’, milky hispid with stiff, bristly hairs; not cut back by frost. H.populnea is more
deep red; ‘Christmas Gift’, white; ‘Daz- so distinct or sharp as when setose. tender and prone to damage at
zler’, pure white; ‘Dutch Belle’, opal –5°C/23°F; in severe conditions,
rose; ‘Ludwig’s Goliath’, large, bright hispidulous minutely hispid. H.sexstylosa may defoliate, but usually
scarlet; ‘Lydia’, pale salmon; ‘Oskar’, recovers in spring. The soft growth
rich deep red; ‘Orange Sovereign’, pure hoary densely covered with white generated on over-rich soils is more
orange; ‘Picotee’, white rimmed red; or grey hairs. prone to frost damage and, in addition,
‘White Dazzler’, pure white. may suffer sudden die-back for other,
hoe a hand implement used for sur- physiological reasons. Grow in sun or
hippocrepiform shaped like a face cultivation and destroying weeds, light dappled shade, on a deep, well-
horseshoe. typically consisting of a flat, usually drained, humus-rich and moderately
oblong, metal plate, or blade, attached fertile soil. In regions at the limits of
Hippophaë (from Greek hippophaes, a to a handle about 1.5m (5ft) long. The hardiness, provide the shelter of a 379
kind of spurge). Elaeagnaceae. Europe, two most common types are the Dutch warm south- or southwest-facing wall,
Hoheria
and a protective mulch of organic shrubs with palmately compound lipped corolla. Once established, Holm-
matter in winter. Prune in spring: leaves and unisexual flowers in spring skioldia is highly drought-tolerant and
removing deadwood and weak or over- and summer. These are small, waxy extremely useful for plantings in poor
crowded growth. Propagate by semi- and bell-like. They are grown for their sandy soils in tropical and subtropical
ripe cuttings or by layers. Ripe seed handsome, evergreen foliage and small, gardens. In cooler climates, it needs
sown in autumn germinates freely; delicately coloured flowers, and may warm greenhouse protection (mini-
H.sexstylosa in particular self-seeds in be used to drape a wall or cover a tree mum temperature 15°C/59°F), and
profusion. Seed-raised specimens will stump, or to climb small trees, a trellis treatment as for climbing Clerodendrum.
pass through a juvenile stage. or a tripod system in a border. The H.sanguinea (CUP AND SAUCER PLANT,
H.angustifolia (evergreen tree to 10m cream to shell-pink H.coriacea is consid- MANDARIN’S-HAT, CHINESE-HAT PLANT;
(30ft) with slender flexible branches; ered to be the hardiest species, but may Himalaya; calyx to 2.5cm (1in) diame-
leaves 2–5cm (3/4–2in), narrowly suffer damage during prolonged spells ter, brick red to orange, net-veined,
obovate, oblanceolate to lanceolate, below –5°C/23°F. Cut back weaker corolla scarlet).
coarsely spinulose, dentate to serrate; growths and dead wood during spring.
H flowers to 2cm (3/4in) diameter, petals

snow white, narrowly oblong, notched);
H.glabrata (deciduous tree to 10m (30ft);
Holboellia succeeds on most garden
soils, either in sun or shade. Increase
by seeds and cuttings, alternatively
Holodiscus (from Greek holos entire,
and diskos, disc, referring to the entire
disc of the flower). Rosaceae. Western
leaves 5–14cm (2–51/2in), glabrate, by layering. N America to Colombia. 8 species,
broadly ovate to ovate-lanceolate, deciduous shrubs with pinnately lobed
acuminate, crenate to dentate; flowers Holcus (from Greek holkos, a kind of and toothed leaves and small, creamy
to 4cm (11/2in) diameter; petals white cereal). Gramineae. Europe, temperate white flowers massed in cascading
to cream, obovate, anthers purple); Asia, N and South Africa. 8 species, sprays in summer. Holodiscus is hardy
H. ‘Glory of Amlwich’ (H.glabrate x annual or perennial grasses with flimsy, to –15°C/5°F. Grow in full sun or light
H.sexstylosa; small tree; leaves to 9cm tufted culms and linear leaves. The shade in moist, fertile soil that does not
(31/2in), ovate and slender-pointed, ser- flowers are borne in spike-like, dense or dry out in summer. Prune after flower-
rate, pale green; flowers to 4cm (11/2in) open panicles in summer. Fully hardy. ing or in early spring, only to remove
diameter, snow white, profuse); H.lyallii Grow in sun in well-drained but mois- old or overcrowded branches. Increase
(LACEBARK; deciduous tree to 6m (20ft); ture-retentive soil. Clip over H. ‘Albo- by layering; also, by semi-ripe heeled
leaves 5–10cm (2–4in), cordate to variegatus’ after flowering. Propagate cuttings. H.discolor (CREAMBUSH,
ovate, grey-green, white-pubescent by division, and, for species, also by OCEAN-SPRAY; western N America;
and felty; flowers 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in) in seed. H.mollis (CREEPING SOFT GRASS; to 5m (16ft); flowers in a 30cm (12in)
diameter, snow white, petals obovate, Europe; perennial to 45cm (18in); plume-like panicle).
anthers purple); H.populnea (LACEBARK; leaves to 1cm (1/2in) wide, grey-green,
evergreen tree to 10m (30ft), branchlets glabrous to slightly hairy; flowers in Homeria (from Greek homereo, to
slender, bark exfoliating in fine ash- narrowly oblong to ovate, dense to meet together: the filaments are united
grey strips; leaves 7–14cm (23/4–51/2in), loosely branched panicles to 12cm in a sheath around the style). Iridaceae.
broadly ovate to elliptic, acuminate, (43/4in); ‘Albovariegatus’: with leaves South Africa. 31 species, cormous
serrate; flowers 2.5–3cm (1–11/4in) in broadly edged white with a narrow perennial herbs with linear to sword-
diameter, pure white; includes ‘Alba green stripe). shaped leaves. The flowers are short-
Variegata’, with leaves broadly edged lived but produced in long succession
white, ‘Purpurea’, with leaves flushed hollow heart a disordered condition over the summer. They consist of six
and veined maroon beneath, and ‘Var- of potatoes, most usually found in large perianth segments in a broadly cup-
iegata’, with pale yellow-green leaves tubers, where a sound cavity is appar- shaped arrangement. Grow in the cool
edged dark green); H.sexstylosa (RIBBON- ent when the potato is cut across. It is greenhouse in a medium-fertility, loam-
WOOD; evergreen tree to 6m (20ft); the result of checked development, based mix with additional leafmould
bark glossy red-brown, overlaid with most likely due to a drought period and sharp sand; maintain good ventila-
grey exfoliating strips; leaves 5–15cm being followed by abundant rain, tion and a minimum temperature of
(2–6in), lanceolate to ovate, glossy; which causes rupturing of the 5–7°C/41–45°F. Water plentifully
flowers 2–2.5cm (3/4–1in) in diameter, central tissue. when in growth and dry off gradually
pure white, fragrant, petals oblong, as flowers fade. Store dormant corms
notched, anthers white; includes Holmskioldia (for Theodor Holm- in a cool dry place. Propagate by seed
‘Crataegifolia’, with small, coarsely skiold (1732–94), Danish botanist). in autumn, or by division or offsets.
toothed juvenile leaves). Verbenaceae. Tropical Africa, Asia. H.ochroleuca (to 80cm (32in); flowers to
Some 10 species, evergreen climbing 8cm (3in) diameter, pale yellow, occa-
Holboellia (for Frederik Ludvig shrubs. Produced in autumn and sionally stained orange at centre,
Holboell (fl. 1847), a superintendent winter in panicles or racemes, the flow- muskily scented).
at the Copenhagen Botanic Garden). ers consist of a bowl- to bell-shaped
380 Lardizabalaceae. N India to China. calyx with a short tube and a circular, homogamous having hermaphro-
About 5 species, evergreen, twining spreading rim, and a tubular, two- dite flowers, or flowers of the same sex.
horseradish
homologous of organs ants honeydew a sugary fluid the nutrient content is low. Hop
or parts that resemble each visiting excreted by sap-feeding manure is made by adding fertilizers to
other in form or function. insects such as aphids, matured hops, and the analysis varies
whiteflies, mealybugs considerably according to the manufac-
homomorphic having and scale insects, which turer. Spent hops can be applied at any
the same shape. creates a sticky coating time, but hop manure is best applied
on leaves and stems. in spring.
homonym the same scien- It is most markedly seen
tific name given to two or under Tilia species in Hordeum (Latin hordeum, barley, a
more distinct plants. Under urban areas, where paving is corruption of horridus, bearded with
the rules of nomenclature, often covered with the sticky bristles, referring to the bristle-like,
only one plant may assume residue. Honeydew, which is long-awned glumes and vestigial
theƒ. name, and this is sweet, is eagerly sought and spikelets). Gramineae. Temperate
usually the first plant imbibed by ants; it is often northern Hemisphere and S America
to have received it.
homosporous
sap feeders
excreting
sugary
colonized by the sooty mould
fungus. Any sign of stickiness
on a plant indicates the possi-
BARLEY. Some 20 species of annual or
perennial grasses. Grown for graceful,
feathery flowerheads, which dry and
H
fluid
(1) producing only bility of attack by one of dye well. H.jubatum is a highly orna-
one kind of seed; (2) these sap-feeding pests, either mental barley, with delicate, long,
developed from only of the plant or one nearby. straight and silky awns faintly tinged
one kind of spore. crimson. Pick immature heads and
Honeydew attracts honey fungus see armillaria air dry. Sow seed in situ in autumn or
homozygous describing foraging ants root rot. spring, on light, well-drained, soils in
a plant bearing the same genetic full sun. H.jubatum (SQUIRRELTAIL
components at a given position on a hooded cucullate or, more loosely, BARLEY, FOX-TAIL BARLEY; N America,
chromosome, so that there can be no referring to inarching parts enclosing NE Asia; annual or perennial to 60cm
genetic segregation. It is used of self- others. (24in); flowers in dense, finely bristly,
pollinated species or cultivars; silky, nodding, pale green to purple-
cf. heterozygous. Hoodia (for Mr Hood (fl. 1830), a tinged spikes to 12cm (43/4in)).
grower of succulent plants). Asclepi-
honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) adaceae. South Africa, Namibia. Some Horminum (from Greek hormao, I
(Apis mellifera) a widely distributed 17 species, succulent, perennial, leafless excite, referring to the use of the plant
social insect of benefit to gardening. herbs. The stems are grey-green, as an aphrodisiac). Labiatae. Pyrenees,
Thought to be of tropical origin, it angled and covered in conical tubercles Alps. PYRENEAN DEAD-NETTLE, DRAGON
has been introduced into most and hard, thorn-like teeth. Saucer- or MOUTH. 1 species, H.pyrenaicum, a
countries of the world for its honey. cup-shaped with five, short and pointed rhizomatous perennial herb to 45cm
A colony consists of three well-defined lobes, the large flowers appear near the (18in). Borne in basal rosettes, the dark
castes: a queen, worker bees stem apex at various times of year. green leaves are to 7 x 5cm (23/4 x 2in),
(sterile females) and drones (males). Cultivate as for Stapelia. H.bainii (Cape ovate to cordate and toothed. Tubular,
In summer, large colonies may Province; stem to 15-angled, tubercles 2-lipped and violet, the flowers nod
contain up to 80,000 workers and compressed, spiralled, spines pale in whorls held clear of the foliage in
several hundred drones. Workers brown; flowers 2–7cm (3/4–23/4in) in summer. Hardy to –20°C/–4°F and
leave the hive to forage for water, diameter, deeply cup-shaped to flat, suitable for the front of the border
nectar, pollen or propolis (a resinous pale yellow to buff, veins darker, with or for cultivation in the rock garden.
plant exudate collected from buds a dark red-brown corona). Grow in moderately fertile, well-
and other parts of trees, used to fill drained soil in full sun. Propagate by
unwanted gaps in the hive). Nectar is hoof-and-horn a slow-release division in spring or autumn, or from
the main substance collected, and this organic fertilizer made from the seed sown in a cold frame in winter
is imbibed by the bees; pollen and ground-up hooves and horns of cattle; for germination in spring.
propolis are collected in the pollen it contains 7–15% nitrogen and 1–10%
baskets on the hind legs. phosphate, with some calcium. It hormone see growth regulators.
In visiting flowers honey bees are should be sterilized to eliminate
of great value as pollinators; most pathogens, and handled with suitable hornet see wasps.
fruits, vegetables and ornamental precautions to avoid inhalation and
plants relying on insect pollination. other personal contact. horny hard and brittle, but with
To avoid harming honey bees, a fine texture and easily cut.
careful timing of pesticide application hops, hop manure matured spent
is crucial, choosing to spray during hops from breweries, which can be horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) a 381
their periods of least activity. used to improve soil structure although fleshy-rooted perennial, also known as
horseradish
Complete eradication of dense Emperor). Liliaceae (Hostaceae, Funki-

established stands is unlikely. Repeated aceae). Japan, China, Korea. PLANTAIN
application of approved herbicides will LILY. 40 species, clump-forming herba-
at least weaken plants, and glyphosate ceous perennials, fleshy-rooted with
and glyphosate trimesium are effective thick, short rhizomes and stout resting
foliage-applied total weedkillers, suit- buds. Emerging in mid-spring, the
able for use on uncropped ground. leaves form a basal mound or rosette.
Vigilance is needed to avoid the intro- They are broadly heart-shaped to nar-
duction of horsetail; light infestations rowly lanceolate in outline, glossy to
should be tackled early with meticulous glaucous, thin and pliable to thick and
cultivation of the ground to remove all tough, smooth to ruggedly textured.
parts of the plants. Where horsetail is Produced in summer and autumn, the
established in neglected lawns, it can funnel-shaped flowers are ranked along
usually be suppressed by regular one side of a slender raceme, or gath-
H Horseradish
The large leaves of horseradish form impres-
sive clumps, but plants are extremely inva-
mowing.
hort., horti, of the garden; horto-

ered among bracts at the top of a
scape. The following are among the
most valuable hardy foliage plants.
sive, with stout, spreading, thong-like roots. rum of gardens; hortulanorum, Their flowers and papery, wind-swept
of gardeners; all three are abbreviated seed heads are also beautiful. Hostas
RED COLE, which is native to temperate hort.; never capitalized. The use of may be grown as single specimens,
regions of Europe and Asia and natu- hort. after a plant name indicates massed for dense groundcover, or used
ralized in North America. It has been either the misapplication of a name by in containers. All listed here will grow
used since ancient times as a medicinal gardeners or denotes a name of con- in full sun given adequate moisture, but
and condiment herb. The grated root fused authorship or of no standing. leaf quality is usually better in dappled
is used in a traditional English sauce to The citation hort. or horti. preceding sun or shade and especially so in the
accompany meat or fish, or (in small a surname indicates a plant name case of plants with blue-grey, lime
quantities) as a salad garnish; young published in a nursery catalogue, green and golden leaves. Hostas are
leaves may be added to salads. for example hort. Lemoine. hardy in climate zone 5 if thickly
Since horseradish regenerates from mulched in winter. Plant in a fertile,
its spreading roots, it is potentially a horticulture the art, practice and open soil rich in leafmould and com-
pernicious weed and in gardens its science of garden cultivation; in post. Keep moist throughout the year;
territory must be contained and all common parlance, it includes the com- avoid freezing, waterlogged conditions
portions of root removed on lifting. mercial production of fruit, vegetables in winter and early spring. Increase
Propagate by pencil-thick roots, or and ornamentals. by division in spring. Martyrs to
thongs, 15–20cm (6–8in) long, taken slugs and snails.
from mother-plants to overwinter; store hortus conclusus ‘enclosed garden’ H.crispula (Japan; leaves to 25 x 15cm
in bundles buried in sand under cool – a mediaeval garden within a garden, (10 x 6in), ovate-lanceolate, undulate,
conditions. Plant sprouted thongs in enclosed by a hedge, fence, or wall, dull olive green, deeply and irregularly
spring 5–7cm (2–23/4in) deep at 45cm and containing a lawn and often a edged white; flowers pale mauve);
(18in) spacings in rows 60cm (24in) fountain, roses, arbours, and turf seats. H.decorata (Japan; leaves to 16 x 12cm
apart. Harvest roots in autumn and (6 x 43/4in), ovate to rounded, dull dark
store in darkness. Quality can be hortus siccus ‘dried garden’ – a col- green, leathery, narrowly edged white;
improved by removing the top soil lection of dried specimens comprising flowers rich violet or white); H.fortunei
when plant growth reaches 20cm (8in) a herbarium. (garden origin; leaves to 30 x 20cm
high and rubbing off side roots. (12 x 8in), heart-shaped to rounded or
Replant in beds annually, or at inter- hose-in-hose see double; malformations. broadly lanceolate, heavy-textured, mid-
vals of no more than three years, to to deep green, sometimes glaucous and
maintain quality. hose reel a device for rolling up a rugose above; flowers mauve to pale
garden watering hose. The through- violet; var. albopicta: leaves unfurling
horsetail Equisetum arvense is the feed type is the most convenient, with pale creamy yellow with a green
COMMON HORSETAIL, a flowerless a special valve enabling the hose to be margin, ultimately pale green with a
perennial with leafless, branching wound or unwound whilst the water hint of variegation; var. aureomarginata:
rough-textured stems. Unchecked, supply remains connected. leaves edged gold; ‘Marginato-alba’:
it can be a serious weed spreading leaves edged white); H.hypoleuca (Japan;
by tuber-bearing underground stems host an organism upon which another leaves to 45 x 30cm (18 x 12in), broadly
which may penetrate to a depth of 2m lives and may feed. ovate-cordate, somewhat leathery, pale
(61/2ft). Stalked shoots bearing fruiting green, glossy or glaucous above, pow-
382 bodies appear in early spring, but prop- Hosta (for Nicolaus Tomas Host dery white beneath; flowers pale laven-
agation by spores is less common. (1761–1834), physician to the Austrian der to milky white); H.lancifolia (garden
hot water treatment
origin; leaves to 17 x 3cm (61/2 x 11/4in), thin-textured, glossy dark green; host plant any plant that provides
lanceolate, finely tapering, thin-textured, flowers deep mauve; var. aureomaculata: sustenance, or other support, for
glossy, deep olive green; flowers deep leaves bright yellow in centre, fading another organism, such as a plant,
mauve); H.montana (Japan; leaves to by midsummer); H.venusta (Korea, virus, bacterium, fungus or insect.
30 x 18cm (12 x 7in), broadly ovate Japan; leaves to 3 x 2cm (11/4 x 3/4in),
to heart-shaped, dull or shiny mid- to lanceolate-elliptic to ovate-cordate, hotbed a specially prepared growing
deep green or glaucous, veins deeply dull to glossy olive to dark green; bed producing a warm-growing
impressed; flowers grey-mauve to flowers pale violet). Cultivars There medium to advance the growth or
white; ‘Aureomarginata’: leaves nar- are many hosta cultivars and hybrids, maturity of plants and crops. A hotbed
rower, broadly and irregularly edged ranging in size from the very large is particularly valuable for growing
gold, undulate); H.plantaginea (AUGUST and robust to dwarf plants suitable cucumbers and melons, advancing cer-
LILY; China; leaves to 28 x 20cm (11 x for rock and container gardens. The tain root and salad vegetables, and for
8in), ovate-cordate, glossy olive green leaves vary in shape from the narrowly rooting cuttings or providing bottom-
with sunken veins; flowers white, fra- lanceolate to almost round, in texture heat for seed germination. It may be
grant, opening at dusk; sometimes
confused with H. ‘Thomas Hogg’);
H.rectifolia (Japan; leaves to 15 x 5cm
from thick and puckered to thin and
smooth, glossy to glaucous. Leaf
colour runs through frosty blue-grey
constructed in a frame or greenhouse
or freestanding outdoors.
Traditionally, hotbeds were based
H
(6 x 2in), ovate to ellliptic, erect, mar- to aquamarine, olive and dark jade on fermenting horse manure, although
gins somewhat inrolled, dull mid- to green, including some solid golds and tanning bark was also used, either
dark green; flowers violet); H.sieboldiana limes. Variegation may be marginal, alone or with animal manure. A
(Japan; leaves to 50 x 30cm (20 x 12in), central or throughout, and take the common practice involved mixing
ovate to cordate or rounded, heavily form of white, cream, gold or lime equal parts fresh stable litter and fallen
textured, puckered, matt glaucous flashes, stripes, patches and clouding. leaves into a well-watered heap, which
grey-blue to blue-green or olive above, There follows a selection of popular was turned several times within a week.
paler beneath; flowers pale lilac-grey cultivars – ‘August Moon’ (leaves The substrate was then stacked on to
fading to white clouded with pale lilac; large, ovate, pale golden yellow, faintly a well-drained growing site, and up to
var. elegans: leaves heavily textured, glaucous, corrugated, flowers near- 15cm (6in) of growing medium added.
strongly puckered, thickly glaucous white); ‘Big Daddy’ (leaves very large, As a result of the relative scarcity of
blue-grey, flowers pale pearly lilac; round, thickly textured, puckered, stable manure, hotbeds were bottom-
‘Frances Williams’: leaves yellow- glaucous blue, flowers near-white); heated through hot-water pipe systems,
edged); H.sieboldii (Japan, Sakhalin Is; ‘Blue Moon’ (leaves small, heart- a method now generally superceded by
leaves to 15 x 6cm (6 x 21/2in), lanceo- shaped, glaucous blue, flowers mauve- electric warming cables.
late to elliptic, sometimes wavy, some- grey); ‘Ginko Craig’ (leaves small, low,
what puckered, matt mid-green above dark green edged clear white, flowers hot house see greenhouse.
edged pure white; flowers pale mauve, violet); ‘Gold Edger’ (small, low, neat,
striped violet and lined white); H.tardi- leaves ovate-cordate, cool lime turning hot water treatment a pest-control
flora (garden origin; leaves to 15 x 7cm soft gold, flowers pale mauve); ‘Gold treatment that involves immersing
(6 x 23/4in), erect, lanceolate to narrowly Standard’ (leaves large, ovate-cordate, plants in warm water, exploiting the
elliptic, semi-rigid, thick-textured, chartreuse green turning pale yellow, difference between the thermal death
glossy deep olive green above; flowers edged dark green, flowers lavender); point of certain pests (especially eel-
clear mauve, produced in autumn); ‘Halcyon’ (leaves medium-sized, worms) and plants. It is usually carried
H.tokudama (garden origin; leaves to 30 heart-shaped, glaucous blue-grey, flow- out when the plants are dormant.
x 15cm (12 x 6in), cordate to rounded, ers lavender-grey); ‘Popo’ (dwarf, leaves Temperature and immersion time are
heavily textured, puckered, glaucous very small, cordate, blue-grey); ‘Royal critical and vary with the subjects; a
blue-grey, flat to concave above; flowers Standard’ (leaves large, ovate, bright few degrees temperature variation
pale grey-mauve to off-white; ‘Aure- green, flowers white); ‘Shining Tot’ may kill or seriously damage plants
onebulosa’: leaves clouded yellow at (dwarf, leaves very small, dark, glossy or, alternatively, leave pests unharmed.
centre; ‘Flavocircinalis’: leaves edged green, flowers lilac); ‘Sum and Sub- Pre-warming of some stock improves
bright yellow); H.undulata (garden stance’ (leaves very large, smooth, safety or efficacy. Home-improvised
origin; leaves to 15 x 6cm (6 x 21/2in), thickly textured, pale lime green to tanks may be used, but sensitive ther-
ovate to lanceolate-elliptic, very wavy yellow, flowers pale lavender); ‘Tiny mostatic control and a means of water
and twisted, glossy mid-green with a Tears’ (dwarf, leaves very small, circulation are essential for success.
creamy white centre, later breaking narrow, dark green, flowers violet); STEM EELWORM (Ditylenchus dipsaci),
into white streaks; flowers pale purple; ‘Wide Brim’ (leaves large, heavily puck- BULB FLIES (Merodon equestris and
var. erromena: leaves wholly mid-green; ered, dark green with a wide, irregular Eumerus species) and the TARSONEMID
var. univittata: leaves large, twisted with cream margin, flowers mauve); BULB SCALE MITE (Steneotarsonemus
narrow, white centres); H.ventricosa ‘Zounds’ (leaves very large, heavy-tex- laticeps) in narcissus can be controlled
(China; leaves to 24 x 18cm (10 x 7in), tured and puckered, gold with a metal- by immersion of dormant bulbs for 383
broadly ovate to cordate, slightly wavy, lic sheen, flowers pale lavender). three hours at 44–45°C/111–113°F.
hot water treatment
Dormant forms of stem eelworm, while the spikes of white to lilac flow- stalks to 6cm (21/2in), corolla salver-
known as ‘eelworm wool’, may survive ers rise in spring above the surface. shaped, to 1cm (1/2in), pale blue to lilac
unless a wetting agent is added to the They are also useful as shallow-water or violet, or white, and yellow-eyed;
water. Hyacinths may be similarly oxygenators, especially if fish are pre- includes ‘Fred Millard’, mat-forming
treated but should be immersed for sent. They produce winter-resting buds with deep blue flowers); H.longifolia
four hours, and tulips, which are easily which sink to the bottom until the fol- (LONGLEAF BLUETS; E US; erect peren-
damaged, must first be dry stored at lowing spring. Plant in spring by throw- nial herb to 30cm (12in); flowers
34°C/93°F for three days, followed by ing divisions/cuttings into water or by numerous in cymes, corolla white or
a three-hour pre-soak in cold water. rooting into submerged marginal mud. purple, funnel-shaped to 8mm (3/8in));
Iris bulbs infested with POTATO TUBER Propagate also from seed sown in H.purpurea (MOUNTAIN HOUSTONIA;
EELWORM (Ditylenchus destructor) require spring in pans standing in water. C and S US; erect perennial herb to
immersion in water for three hours at H.inflata (AMERICAN FEATHERFOIL; 50cm (20in); flowers in dense cymes
44–45°C/111–113°F, preceded by E Europe; leaves 1–5cm (1/2–2in), ovate or clusters, corolla pale purple, lilac or
10–14 days’ dry storage at 30°C/86°F. or oblong, lobes narrow-linear; flowers white, funnel-shaped, to 8mm (3/8in));
H Lilies are subject to attack by the

LEAF EELWORM (Aphelenchoides fragariae)
and those with white bulbs may be dis-
0.5–0.8cm (1/4–3/8in), white); H.palustris
(WATER VIOLET; Europe, W Asia; leaves
2–13cm (3/4–5in), lobes linear, some-
H.serpyllifolia (SE US; perennial herb
to 8cm (3in), stem prostrate; leaves very
small; flowers on erect stalks to 4cm
infested by treating at 41°C/106°F for times further divided; flowers to 2.5cm (11/2in), corolla violet-blue or white,
two hours, following storage for 8–10 (1in) diameter, violet, throat yellow). salver-shaped, to 1cm (1/2in)).
weeks at 2°C/36°F to prevent sprout-
ing; cultivars with darker bulbs for house plant a plant that will grow Houttuynia (for Martin Houttuyn,
example, Lilium speciosum and L. regale satisfactorily in the temperature, 18th-century Dutch naturalist). Sauru-
should be similarly pre-treated, humidity and light of a house. Suitable raceae. E Asia. 1 species, H.cordata, a
followed by hot water treatment at subjects include a range of evergreen semi-evergreen perennial herb of
39°C/102°F for two hours. Ferns and foliage plants, such as Monstera, damp places. All parts of this plant
other plants, such as gloxinias and Sansevieria and Peperomia, as well as have a peppery aroma. The clumped
begonias, that are infested with the flowering plants such as Cyclamen, stems are 15–40cm (6–16in) tall and
same eelworm can be treated after soil Hippeastrum, and chrysanthemums. spread widely and often somewhat
removal at 49°C/120°F for five min- The greatest success with houseplants unpredictably by means of subter-
utes. Chrysanthemum stools, trimmed is achieved where the recommended ranean suckers. The leaves are to 6 x
and washed clean of soil, can be disin- environment is maintained without 3cm (21/2 x 11/4in), heart-shaped, smooth
fested by immersion in water for five wide fluctuation, with careful attention and dark green (brilliantly painted red
minutes at 46°C/115°F or 20–30 min- to watering and feeding. and cream in the cultivar ‘Chameleon’).
utes at 43.5°C/110°F. Phlox can be Small, green flowers are carried in
prepared in a similar way and treated Houstonia (for Dr William Houston small, squat, cone-like spikes subtended
at 43.5°C/110°F for one hour to rid (1695–1733), British botanist and by white bracts. An attractive ground-
the stools of STEM EELWORM (Ditylenchus writer on American plants). Rubiaceae. cover in the bog garden or damp
dipsaci). Strawberry runners attacked N America, Mexico. Some 50 species, border, Houttuynia can also be grown as
by D.dipsaci and Aphelenchoides fragariae hardy perennial herbs or, rarely, a pond marginal in up to 10cm (4in) of
may be disinfested by immersion at subshrubs with small, broadly funnel- water. It can be invasive but is less vig-
46°C/115°F for 10 minutes, a treat- shaped and 4-parted flowers in spring orous on drier soils. Hardy to at least
ment which also controls and summer. Low-growing, stem- –15°C/5°F, it should be grown on
tarsonemid mites. rooting, perennials, grown for their moist soil in full sun to light shade.
Hot water treatment can be used to loose mats of small shining leaves and Propagate by division in spring.
treat mint runners infected with RUST, for their dainty flowers in clear blue,
and also to protect chrysanthemum white or blue-violet. They are suitable Hovenia (for David Hoven, an Ams-
stools against WHITE RUST. for crevices in the rock garden, for the terdam senator). Rhamnaceae. E and
alpine house or frame, and for other S Asia. 2 species, deciduous shrubs or
Hottonia (for P. Hotton, Dublin shady situations in the garden. Hardy trees, usually with large leaves. Small,
botanist). Primulaceae. Northern to –20°C/–4°F. Grow in a cool, shel- fragrant and 5-petalled, the flowers are
Hemisphere. 2 species, aquatic, peren- tered site, in moist, well-drained, leafy borne in cymes in summer. With age,
nial herbs, rooting in mud or floating. soil. Propagate by division in autumn the fleshy flower stalks become red and
The leaves are submerged and finely or spring, or from seed sown in a soil- edible. Grow in fertile, sandy loam soils
dissected. Salverform with five, spread- less propagating mix in the cold frame in full sun. Hovenia is hardy to at least
ing lobes, the flowers stand clear of the in spring. –15°C/5°F. Propagate by softwood cut-
water in whorled racemes in summer. H.michauxii (BLUETS, INNOCENCE, tings in summer, by hardwood cuttings
Vigorous aquatics for ponds and QUAKER-LADIES; N America; perennial or by seed. Seed germinates freely if
384 slow-moving streams, where their ferny herb to 20cm (8in), mat-forming; leaves sown fresh; stored seed may need acid
leaves are submerged below water level small; flowers few, solitary on slender scarification before sowing. Poorly
Huernia
ripened wood is likely to be more sus- ringed, straight; pinnae to 1m (31/4ft) ovate-lanceolate, very thinly fleshy,
ceptible to coral spot; application of long, 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in) across, often pale green; flowers highly fra-
high-potash fertilizer in midsummer dark green). grant, to 1cm (1/2in) across, sparkling
may help. H.dulcis (RAISIN TREE, CHI- white, corona purple-red); H.linearis
NESE/JAPANESE RAISIN TREE; E Asia; Hoya (for Thomas Hoy, head gar- (Himalaya; stems drooping to trailing;
tree to 20m (66ft); leaves 10–20cm dener to the Duke of Northumberland leaves 2–5cm (3/4–2in), linear, more
(4–8in) broadly ovate, apex acuminate, at Syon House in the late 18th Cen- or less narrowly cylindric to terete,
base cordate, coarsely toothed, downy tury). Asclepiadaceae. WAX FLOWER, grooved, downy; flowers to 1cm (1/2in)
beneath; flowers to 6mm (1/4in) in PORCELAIN FLOWER. Asia, Polynesia, across, faintly scented, ivory, corona
diameter, green-yellow, pedicels fleshy Australia. Some 200 species, evergreen yellow tinged pink); H.longifolia (STRING
becoming red and edible after frost). shrubs and subshrubs, some climbing BEAN PLANT; Himalaya, SE Asia; stems
with slender, rooting stems, others trailing or weakly climbing; leaves to
hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) flies bushy. The leaves are tough, leathery 10cm (4in), angled downwards, linear
that are easily recognizable by their and, in some cases, thinly succulent. to narrowly lanceolate, thick, dark
habit of remaining stationary in flight
before darting to another position;
they frequent flowers to
Borne at various times of year in long-
lasting pendulous umbels, the flowers
are waxy and star-shaped.
green, smooth, with a sunken midvein;
flowers 1–4cm (1/2–11/2in) across, white
sometimes flushed pink, corona rose
H
feed on nectar or, some- They consist of five, pink to red); H.polyneura (FISHTAIL HOYA;
times, pollen. Many pointed lobes surround- Himalaya, S China; shrubby to 1m
are brightly coloured ing a fleshy and often dif- (31/4ft), branches arching; leaves to
with black and yellow ferently coloured corona. 10cm (4in), broadly ovate-rhombic,
stripes, resembling wasps; The flowers are sometimes smooth, glossy deep green with darker
their legless larvae may be sweetly fragrant and dripping veins; flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) across,
scavengers, living in decaying with nectar. white to cream, corona purple-red).
organic matter, dung or stagnant Hoverfly Provide a minimum tempera-
water. A few other species are ture of 10°C/50°F. Grow in dap- Huernia (for Justus Huernius
injurious to plants, including the bulb pled sun or light shade. Plant in an (1587–1652), a Dutch missionary and
flies (see bulb flies). A third group, open mix rich in organic matter (that the first collector of plants from the
including Syrphus ribesii and many other suitable for the orchids Paphiopedilum Cape of Good Hope). Asclepiadaceae.
species, are beneficial in gardens because will suit). Water, syringe and feed freely DRAGON FLOWER. South Africa to
their larvae feed upon aphids. in warm weather; water sparingly in Ethiopia and Arabia (1 species),
cool conditions. Train climbing species W Africa. Some 70 species, succulent,
Howea (native to Lord Howe Island, on wires, trellis and moss poles. Shrubby perennial herbs. Huernia’s stems are
in the S Pacific). Palmae. Lord Howe species, such as H.lanceolata, are excel- clumped, fleshy, and grey-green with
Island. 2 species, large palms, ulti- lent plants for baskets. Increase by toothed angles. The leaves are rudi-
mately with solitary, erect stems. The semi-ripe cuttings (allow the wound mentary and short-lived. Malodorous
leaves are pinnately compound with to dry) in a heated case, alternatively and fleshy, the flowers are bell-shaped
fibrous sheaths, unarmed petioles and by layering. with five short, pointed lobes. Cultivate
linear to lanceolate leaflets. Howea H.carnosa (WAX PLANT; India, Burma, as for Stapelia.
species are among the most elegant of S China; climber to 6m (20ft); leaves to H.boleana (Ethiopia; stem to 8 x
feather palms, and are suitable for out- 10cm (4in), elliptic-ovate, smooth, 1.5cm (3 x 5/8in), 5 angled, teeth soft
door cultivation in frost-free temperate thick; flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) across, to 6mm (1/4in), grey-green to green
climates. Elsewhere, they show remark- white to fleshy pink with a glistening, mottled purple; corolla 17mm (3/4in)
able tolerance of neglect, low light, low papillose texture, corona purple-pink in diameter, lobes deltoid, inner
temperatures and of the dry atmos- to pale red; includes cultivars with surface blood-red, covered with large
pheres that generally pertain in the leaves variegated cream and yellow, yellow papillae); H.macrocarpa (Eritrea,
home. Among the most widely used or splashed with silver; Hindu Rope’ SW Saudi Arabia, S Yemen; stem to
palms for interior decoration, they are differs in having leaves tightly folded 9cm (31/2in), 4-angled, thick, ridges
slow-growing and exceptionally beauti- together with only their lower surfaces sinuate, teeth to 8mm (3/8in); corolla
ful as juveniles, and require infrequent exposed); H.imperialis (SE Asia; climber 11–20mm (1/2–3/4in) in diameter, papil-
repotting. Propagate by seed. to 8m (26ft); leaves to 20cm (8in), ellip- lose to smooth, exterior yellow green,
H.belmoreana (BELMORE SENTRY PALM, tic-oblong, smooth, thick; flowers to interior pale yellow with concentric
CURLY PALM; up to 7m (23ft); trunk 7cm (23/4in) across, chocolate to wine maroon bands or wholly purple to
markedly ringed, usually swollen at red or magenta, corona creamy white); crimson, lobes broadly triangular,
base; pinnae up to 2.5cm (1in) across); H.lanceolata (including H.bella and attenuate); H.pillansii (COCKLEBUR;
H.forsteriana (SENTRY PALM, FORSTER H.sikkimensis of gardens; MINIATURE Cape Province; stem to 4cm (11/2in),
SENTRY PALM, KENTIA PALM, THATCH WAX PLANT; Himalaya to N Burma; sub-globose when young, with conical
LEAF PALM; to 18m (59ft) but grown as shrubby, to 45cm (18in), with arching tubercles in many rows, apices softly 385
a stemless juvenile; trunk obliquely branches; leaves to 3cm (11/4in), setose; corolla to 4mm (1/8in) in diameter,
Huernia
that employ heat exchangers or refrig- foliage blotched and streaked white);
erant cooling. Damping down, manu- H.lupulus (COMMON HOP, EUROPEAN
ally with a hose, watering can or HOP, BINE; northern temperate regions,
overhead sprinkler, will raise humidity. widely naturalized; stem rough; leaves
‘Fogging’ systems are available for 3–5-lobed, coarsely toothed, petioles
expansive greenhouses; these produce usually shorter than blades; ‘Aureus’:
free-floating droplets of less than leaves golden yellow).
5 microns with no excess water.
humus a complex mixture of com-
humification the breakdown of pounds resulting from the microbiolog-
organic matter in soil leading to the ical decomposition of organic matter
formation of humus. in soil; it forms a black or dark brown
amorphous colloid. Humus affects the
Humulus (from Latin humus, soil, retention and availability of nutrients
H Huernia pillansii
referring to the creeping habit).
Cannabidaceae. Temperate Europe, N
America, C and E Asia. HOP. 2 species,
by increasing cation exchange capacity,
and slowly releases nitrogen and phos-
phate. Humus influences soil structure
As typical of the genus this perennial succu- twining, herbaceous perennials with and, on clay soils, will assist in bonding
lent is frost tender. Its malodorous flowers more or less palmately lobed leaves and particles; on sandy soils especially, it
are borne from summer to early autumn. pendulous, cone-like inflorescences increases available water.
with papery bracts. Rapidly growing
cream to pink with red spots, lobes twiners, Humulus species are especially Hunnemannia (for John Hunneman
recurved, attenuate, interior pale useful as summer screening plants on (d. 1839), botanist and plant collector).
yellow with crimson spots, densely red- trellis or wires, and for scrambling Papaveraceae. MEXICAN TULIP POPPY,
papillose); H.primulina (Cape Province; through hedging and large open GOLDEN CUP. Mexico. 1 species,
stem to 8cm (3in), sometimes spotted shrubs; they are valued for their foliage. H.fumariifolia, a perennial, glaucous
red, ridges sinuate, with dark, hooked In autumn, H.lupulus also produces fra- herb to 1m (31/4ft) tall with finely,
teeth; corolla 2.5cm (1in) in diameter, grant straw-coloured inflorescences, ternately divided leaves. Produced in
pale to sulphur-yellow, smooth, fleshy used in brewing and, when air-dried, to summer, the yellow flowers are solitary,
and waxy, sometimes tinged with red, make swags and garlands. The young to 8cm (3in) in diameter and composed
lobes triangular-attenuate); H.zebrina. shoots are edible in salads or cooked as of four, rounded petals. Usually grown
(OWL-EYES, LITTLE OWL; N Transvaal, for spinach. H.lupulus is hardy at least as an annual, although perennial in
Botswana, Namibia; stem to 8cm (3in), to –15°C/5°F. H.japonicus is usually frost-free climates. Sow in situ in spring,
5-angled, teeth 4–5mm (1/8–1/4in), grown as annual in cool temperate cli- or in late winter in the greenhouse at
conical; corolla 3.5–4cm (11/2–11/2in) in mates, rapidly forming a green screen 13–15°C/55–59°F, in a sandy medium.
diameter, yellow blotched red-brown, that makes an admirable backdrop for Plant out in late spring, taking care not
lobes triangular, lime or sulphur-yellow, more brightly coloured flowers. Grow to disturb roots, in a sunny, well-
interior downy, banded red-brown). in any moderately fertile, well-drained drained site.
soil in sun or part shade; H.lupulus
humidity the amount of water ‘Aureus’ colours best in sun, when few hurdle see wattle.
vapour in the atmosphere, measured foliage climbers can rival the beauty of
on a scale of relative humidity (RH): its fresh gold to lime leaves. Propagate husk the outer layer of certain fruits –
RH 0% = totally dry air, RH 100% = cultivars of H.lupulus by greenwood for example Juglans, Physalis – generally
saturated air, at a given temperature. leaf-bud cuttings in midsummer, taken originating from the perianth or the
Excepting the extremes of xerophytes from material on which leaves have involucre.
and hygrophytes, most species grow fully expanded. Apply 0.2% IBA and
satisfactorily within the range of root in a closed case with bottom heat Hyacinthella (diminutive of
65–80% RH. Below 65%, growth is at 20°C/68°F. Progeny from seed is Hyacinthus). Liliaceae (Hyacinthaceae).
progressively and adversely affected; highly variable. Sow H.japonicus in situ E Europe to W Asia and Israel. Some
above 80%, there are increasing prob- in spring, or earlier under glass at 20 species of small, bulbous, perennial
lems with fungal and bacterial diseases. 15–18°C/59–64°F. Lower the temper- herbs with slender leaves and bell-
Above 90%, transpiration begins to be ature on germination, and plant out in shaped flowers in scapose racemes in
restricted and the movement of nutri- late spring. spring. Grow in a well-drained, sunny
ents, particularly calcium, is reduced to H.japonicus (JAPANESE HOP; temperate position in the rock garden. They may
the extent that deficiency symptoms E Asia; stem very rough; leaves to also be grown in the alpine house or
may appear. 20cm (8in), 5–7-lobed, strongly serrate, bulb frame where they can be given
Humidity can be reduced by apply- petioles longer than blades; includes protection from wet when dormant
386 ing heat and ventilation or, on a large ‘Lutescens’, with pale gold to lime in summer. Otherwise, cultivate
scale, with dehumidification systems green foliage, and ‘Variegatus’, with as for Muscari.
Hyacinthus
H.glabrescens (central S Turkey; flow- drooping raceme, tepals 1.5–2cm place pots in a dark cupboard, at
ers to 6mm (1/4in), tubular to campanu- (5/8–3/4in), oblong to lanceolate, violet- 18–20°C/64–68°F, and water plenti-
late, deep violet-blue, borne on distinct blue, occasionally pink or white, anthers fully. Bring into subdued light as the
pedicels); H.nervosa (SE Turkey, through cream; includes ‘Alba’, with white flow- bud emerges (usually when the shoot is
Syria, Jordan and Iraq to Israel; flowers, and ‘Rosa’, with pink flowers). between 6–8cm (21/2–3in) high) and
ers 1cm (1/2in), tubular to narrowly increase light levels as growth pro-
campanulate, sessile, pale blue). Hyacinthus (an ancient Greek name gresses and the stem elongates. Forced
used by Homer, the flowers being said hyacinths may be planted out after
Hyacinthoides (from Hyacinthus and to spring from the blood of the dead blooming in the open garden, and
Greek -oides, resembling). Liliaceae Hyakinthos). Liliaceae will flower in subsequent years,
(Hyacinthaceae). BLUEBELL. W Europe, (Hyacinthaceae). HYACINTH. although the blooms will decline
N Africa. Some 4 species, perennial, W and C Asia. 3 species, bul- in quality. Bulbs forced in a bulb
bulbous herbs with narrowly strap- bous perennial herbs with glass are best discarded after
shaped leaves and scapose racemes linear-lanceolate to broadly flowering.
of bell-shaped flowers with spreading
perianth lobes in spring. Fully hardy.
Grow in any humus-rich, moisture-
strap-shaped leaves and cylindri-
cal, scapose racemes of tubu-
lar to campanulate flowers
Propagate species by ripe seed
sown thinly in a loam-based
propagating mix in the cold
H
retentive soil in semi-shade; flower with spreading to recurved frame, so that seedlings may
colour will bleach in sun and these are, perianth lobes in spring. remain in situ during
in any case, bulbs associated by most Smaller species, such as their first season’s
with woodland carpets and dappled H.orientalis and H.litwinowii, are Bulbs may dormancy.
glades. They tolerate a range of soil suited to the sunny rock garden be grown in a Increase cultivars
special, water-
types, but prefer heavier soils. Propa- or bulb frame and to sandy, filled glass by cutting out a
gate by division of established colonies well-drained soils. Most cone of tissue from
(bulbs will be found quite deep in the commonly grown are those the bulb base, or by cut-
soil), or by seed sown in situ when ripe highly fragrant and showy ting crosswise slits through
or in spring in the shaded cold frame. cultivars derived from the base – both treatments
H.hispanica (syn. Endymion hispanicus; H.orientalis, the Dutch result in the formation of
SPANISH BLUEBELL SW Europe, N hyacinths, and the looser- large numbers of bulbils.
Africa; close to H.non-scripta; flowers flowered Roman hyacinths, Hyacinth Hyacinth fire, caused by
6–8, unscented, widely campanulate, from H.orientalis var. albulus, the fungus Botrytis hyacinthi, was
borne in a rather loose, not 1-sided which, with successional planting and so-called by Dutch growers because it
raceme, tepals spreading, not curved at selection may be had in bloom from could spread through the fields ‘like
tips, anthers blue; plants cultivated as Christmas until late spring. The Multi- fire’. Beginning at the tips, the leaves
H.hispanica are often hybrids between flora Group, producing several slender become brown and shrivelled; in damp
this species and H.non-scripta. Cultivars stems with individual blooms more conditions, a grey mould develops on
include: ‘Alba’, with white flowers; loosely set, are also suitable for indoor affected parts and the flowers may be
‘Danube’, with abundant, dark blue and outdoor use. These cultivars are destroyed. If detected early enough,
flowers; ‘Excelsior’, tall, with large, available in a wide colour range and the disease can be controlled by fungi-
blue-violet flowers, with a marine blue are used in traditional spring bedding, cide sprays. In the disease known as
stripe; ‘La Grandesse’, with pure white in beds and borders and in tubs and black slime, the leaves turn yellow and
flowers; ‘Mount Everest’, with white other containers. fall over just after flowering; they can
flowers, in a broad spike; ‘Myosotis’, Outdoor bulbs are planted in be pulled away easily because they are
with porcelain blue flowers, with a sky autumn in an open and sunny position rotten at the base. The bulb scales are
blue stripe; ‘Queen of the Pinks’, with in any well-drained, moderately fertile dry and dark grey but, under moist
deep pink flowers; ‘Rosabella’, with soft soil. Prepared bulbs for forcing are conditions, a white, fluffy mycelial
pink flowers; ‘Rose’, with violet pink potted in autumn, usually into a pro- growth develops on them. Black sclero-
flowers, in a large spike; and ‘White prietary bulb mix, and require a period tia, sometimes up to half an inch
City’, with white flowers); H.italica of about 8–10 weeks, in cool, dark, across, are formed between and within
(SE France, NW Italy, Spain, Portugal; moist conditions, to develop a good the scales and can remain in the soil to
scape 10–40cm (4–16in); flowers 6–30, root system; at this stage, temperatures perpetuate the fungus. The aphid-
borne in dense, conical, erect, not 1- should not exceed 7–10°C/45–50°F. transmitted virus diseases, hyacinth
sided raceme, tepals 5–7mm (1/4–1/4in), When necessary to apply water, avoid mosaic and ornithogalum mosaic, can
spreading widely, blue-violet, occasion- wetting the shoot, as this may cause cause a conspicuous yellow or grey leaf
ally white, anthers blue); H.non-scripta the bulb to rot. On emergence of the mottling; affected plants should be
(syn. Endymion non-scriptus; BLUEBELL; shoot tips, increase temperatures to destroyed to prevent the diseases from
W Europe; scape 20–30cm (8–12in), 10°C/50°F; thereafter, increase light spreading.
flowers 6–12, fragrant, tubular with and temperature as growth progresses. H.litwinowii (Central Asia, E Iran; 387
tepals curved at tips in loose, 1-sided, Alternatively, on shoot emergence, 10–25cm (4–10in); flowers 3–13, not
Hyacinthus
fragrant, perianth 1.8–2.5cm (3/4–1in), genera involved being usually denoted is ‘Aurora’ blackberry and a tetraploid
green-blue, tube constricted above by a prefix, for example bigeneric and raspberry; tummelberry, which ripens
ovary, lobes longer than tube, spread- trigeneric. a week later than tayberry, results from
ing and recurved above, filaments a cross between tayberry and a sister
longer than anthers); H.orientalis hybrid berries the large group of seedling. Both have larger fruits than
(COMMON HYACINTH; C and S Turkey, hybrids produced by crossing a wide loganberry and are less acid.
NW Syria, Lebanon; to 30cm (12in); range of Rubus species; often the SUNBERRY is a loganberry-type fruit
flowers 2–40, waxy, heavily scented, species crossed are far apart botani- with good flavour, introduced from the
perianth 2–3.5cm (3/4–11/2in), pale blue cally. The cultivation and propagation East Malling Research Station, Kent,
to deep violet, pink, white or cream, of hybrid berries should follow the in 1981 as a cross between Rubus ursinus
tube as long as or exceeding lobes, same practices for the blackberry. x raspberry ‘Malling Jewel’ seedling;
constricted above ovary, lobes spread- The LOGANBERRY was raised at the SILVANBERRY is an Australian raised
ing or recurved, anthers longer than end of the 19th century in California hybrid of very mixed parentage; it is
filaments. Cultivars and subspecies by Judge Logan, reportedly from Rubus very vigorous and produces large, dark
H include: ‘Amethyst’, with lilac flowers;

‘Anna Marie’, with light pink flowers;
‘Appleblossom’, miniature, with shell
ursinus ‘Auginbaugh’ x ‘Red Antwerp’
raspberry. The PHENOMENAL BERRY
was raised in 1905 in California by
red, sweet fruits; JAPANESE WINEBERRY
(R.phoenicolasius) has red bristly stems
and produces bright red conical fruits.
pink flowers; ‘Ben Nevis’, with double, Luther Burbank as a second-generation See jostaberry, Worcesterberry.
large, ivory white, compact flowers; selection from a cross between the
‘Blue Jacket’, with navy flowers, striped ‘Auginbaugh’ and ‘Cuthbert’ raspber- hybrid vigour see heterosis.
purple; the late-flowering ‘City of ries. The VEITCHBERRY was introduced
Haarlem’, with primrose flowers; ‘Delft in England in 1902 as a cross between hydathode a water-secreting gland
Blue’, with soft blue flowers; ‘Distinc- Rubus rusticanus x raspberry ‘November on the surface or margin of a leaf, usu-
tion’, with deep burgundy to purple Abundance’, and is important as a ally situated at the end of a vein and
flowers; ‘Gipsy Queen’, with pale parent of the earliest-fruiting black- often surrounded by a concretion of
salmon orange flowers; ‘Hollyhock’, berry ‘Bedford Giant’. The YOUNG- white salts. It is similar to a stoma but
with double, crimson, compact flowers; BERRY, introduced in 1926 as a cross with functionless guard cells, and is
‘Jan Bos’, with cerise flowers; ‘Lord between the phenomenal berry and a sometimes termed a lime-dot.
Balfour’, miniature, with claret flowers dewberry (‘Austin Mayes’), has sweeter
tinted violet; ‘Multiflora White’, with and better-coloured fruits than logan- Hydrangea (from Greek hydor, water,
multiple stems and sparse, white flow- berry and is widely grown in South and aggeion, vessel: an allusion to the
ers; ‘Myosotis’, with palest blue flowers; Africa as South African loganberry. cup-shaped fruit). Hydrangeaceae.
‘Ostara’, with large, purple-blue flow- BOYSENBERRY was introduced in China, Japan, the Himalaya, Philip-
ers; ‘Pink Pearl’, with deep pink 1935 and is similar to the youngberry, pines, Indonesia and N and S America.
flowers, with paler edges; ‘Sunflower’, but of unknown origin. Grown widely 100 species, deciduous or evergreen
miniature, with bright yellow flowers; in New Zealand and the north western shrubs, small trees or climbers. Numer-
subsp. orientalis, with 2–12 flowers and states of the US, it has red-purple fruits ous small flowers are borne in panicles
a 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in) perianth, pale and is moderately vigorous. The NEC- or corymbs. Many species bear larger,
violet-blue at base shading to white TARBERRY is probably a sport of boy- sterile flowers, usually at the outer
above, with lobes to four-fifths the senberry, and another selection is edges of the corymbs; in these flowers,
length of tube). ‘Riwaka’, grown in New Zealand. the conspicuous, coloured part is the
MARIONBERRY resembles boysenberry enlarged calyx.
hyaline transparent, translucent; though its origin is unrecorded. It has Hydrangea species are grown primar-
usually applied to the margins of large, black, well-flavoured fruit on vig- ily for their flowers, although a number
leaves and bracts. orous plants, and yields over a longer of species also have handsome foliage,
period than boysenberry. including H.quercifolia and H.aspera;
hybrid a plant produced by the cross- NESSBERRY was introduced in 1921 those with foliage colouring well in
breeding of two or more genetically in Texas, from breeding work at the autumn include H.serrata, H.quercifolia
dissimilar parents which generally Texas Experimental Station. It com- and H.heteromalla. Flowers show two
belong to distinct taxa. A natural bines the raspberry flavour of the fruit characteristic forms: the large, conspic-
hybrid is one arising in nature; a spon- with the drought resistance of the uous and round-headed form com-
taneous hybrid is one arising without dewberry, and has been important in posed of sterile ray florets, exemplified
the direct intervention of man, usually breeding several erect blackberries, by the Hortensia group of garden
in gardens; an artificial hybrid is a suited to commercial cultivation in the hybrids, and the ‘lacecap’ type, com-
cross deliberately made by man. southern US. prising the majority of species, where
Specific or interspecific hybrids arise TAYBERRY and TUMMELBERRY were a central boss of small, insignificant,
between species of the same genus; introduced by the Scottish Crop fertile florets is accompanied or sur-
388 intergeneric hybrids arise between taxa Research Institute in 1979 and 1983 rounded by larger sterile ray florets. In
of different genera – the number of respectively. The parentage of tayberry H.paniculata and its clones, the flowers
Hydrangea
are carried in elegant, densely flow-

ered, conical panicles.
Hydrangea species make most attrac-
tive specimens for the shrub or mixed
border. Many, such as H.quercifolia and
H.aspera, are effective in more informal
situations in the open woodland garden
(in general, large-leaved species require
a position in semi-shade). H.paniculata
is amenable to training as a single-
stemmed standard; with hard pruning,
it makes a multi-stemmed shrub, noted
for its generosity in bloom.
The many named garden hybrids,
largely derived from H.macrophylla and
H.serrata, fall into two (horticultural)
groups – the round-headed ‘Hortensia’
Lacecap hydrangea
H. villosa is a typical lacecap, with a central
Mophead hydrangea
‘Bouquet Rose’ is one of the Hortensia group
H
types, and the slightly hardier ‘lace- boss of inconspicuous, fertile florets and a of garden hybrids, with large, tightly packed
caps’. These two groups are well-suited few outer showy but infertile ray florets. heads of conspicuous, infertile ray florets.
to seaside gardens. Although tolerant
of alkaline soils, they may become forms. H.aspera and its allies and the may have the previous season’s growth
chlorotic on shallow chalk. They Hortensia and ‘lacecap’ cultivars are cut back in late winter/early spring to
include several cultivars suitable for tub generally winter hardy; in Europe, 2–3 pairs of buds, in order to obtain
cultivation or for use as house plants most appear to tolerate temperatures extra large panicles of flowers for a
(usually for a single season). As with down to –20°C to –25°C/–4°F to more formal effect. Without pruning,
some of the species, the flowers are –13°F. An undeserved reputation for such species will make large shrubs
often dried for winter decoration. Tub a lack of hardiness is due to their long with a larger number of smaller flow-
cultivation has the additional advan- growing season, which makes early ers, a result which may be preferred.
tage of permitting greater control over shoots and unripened autumn growth With clump-flowering types that pro-
flower colour than in open ground. particularly vulnerable to late spring duce shoots from the base (e.g. H.serrata
Colour is dependent on cultivar and and early autumn frosts. and H.macrophylla cultivars), flowers are
on the availability of aluminium, Grow in fertile, moist but well- carried occasionally on these shoots but
which is largely determined by soil pH. drained soils, if necessary incorporat- in the main are formed terminally on
On acid soils at pH 4.5–5.5, flowers ing well-rotted organic matter to the previous season’s wood. Pruning of
may achieve an intense deep blue improve fertility; an annual mulch of these types should be confined to the
(‘Marechal Foch’, ‘Nikko Blue’), this the same in spring, with a top dressing removal of old flower heads (leave this
changing to shades of pink as soil pH of balanced fertilizer, is beneficial. Site until spring to help frost protection)
rises; with careful selection of cultivars, in sun or part shade and, when in and weak, congested or exhausted
blooms may become a clear warm flower, provide some protection from growth at the base; this allows light and
rose pink (‘Queen Elizabeth’, ‘King cold winds and from full sun to pre- air to the centre of the bush, encourag-
George’) or deeper shade (as in ‘Ham- serve colour. H.involucrata and H.panicu- ing good ripening and flowers. Shoots
burg’ and ‘Ami Pasquier’) on soils at lata will tolerate full sun, provided there should not be simply shortened back
pH 7.4. In containers and on near-neu- is sufficient moisture in the growing since, in most cases, the removal of the
tral soils, blue coloration may be main- season. In containers, use a medium- terminal bud will cause the flowers to
tained or enhanced by a weekly or fertility, loam-based mix (omitting lime be lost for that season.
fortnightly application of blueing com- for blue flowers). For early flowers in Plants may, after many years, be
pound (aluminium sulphate) at 85gm pots, take leaf bud or stem cuttings in rejuvenated by cutting hard back to the
(3oz) per 13.5 litres (3 gallons) of water. early spring, root in a closed case with base. The crowded sheaf of shoots that
The climbing species, such as bottom heat, pot on individually and results must be thinned as it grows to
H.anomala and H.serratifolia, will climb pinch out in early summer. Overwinter allow a few strong shoots to ripen fully.
up and through trees, although they under glass, at 5–10°C/41–50°F, Climbing species, which flower on lat-
may need initial support until they watering sparingly; in late winter/early eral shoots, require minimal pruning,
develop their aerial roots. H.petiolaris spring, gradually raise the temperature other than the removal of unwanted
is particularly useful for shaded walls, to 13°C/55°F, growing on in full sun extension growth in summer and the
usually showing good tolerance of with plentiful water. restriction of the outward spread of
atmospheric pollution. A minimum of pruning is generally wall-grown plants. Cut back outward-
Some hydrangeas are extremely required. Vigorous species that flower growing laterals to a suitable bud in
hardy, such as H.paniculata and at the tips of the current season’s spring; this may best be done over sev- 389
H.arborescens subsp. discolor and their growth (e.g. H.paniculata, H.arborescens) eral seasons to minimize loss of bloom.
Hydrangea
Propagate species by seed sown flattened, 12.5–22.5cm (5–83/4in) shoots at first pubescent; leaves
under glass in early spring (offspring across, with a few, pink-white periph- 7.5–15cm (3–6in), ovate, acuminate,
may be variable). Increase climbing eral sterile flowers to 3cm (11/4in) toothed, sparsely bristly; panicle coni-
species by basal softwood cuttings of across, and numerous, small, pale cal or pyramidal, 15–20cm (6–8in),
non-flowering shoots; treat these with purple fertile flowers); H.heteromalla with few white-pink sterile flowers,
0.8% IBA and root in a closed case (Himalaya, W and N China; deciduous each 1.75–3cm (3/4–11/4in) across, and
with bottom heat at 20°C/68°F, or use shrub to 3m (10ft); shoots hairy at first numerous yellow-white fertile flowers.
the warm bench with plastic method. later glabrous; leaves 9–20cm (31/2–8in), Cultivars include: ‘Everest’, with dark
Propagate other species by hardwood narrowly ovate, rounded, crenate or green leaves and all-sterile, white to
stem or tip cuttings, or from leaf bud sometimes cordate at base, toothed pink florets in large heads; ‘Flori-
cuttings of the current season’s growth; and bristly at the margins, pubescent bunda’, with a long, narrow inflores-
root these in a closed case with bottom beneath; corymbs flattened, 15cm cence and largely sterile, packed
heat at 13–15°C/55–59°F. (6in) across, with few white or ivory flowers; ‘Grandiflora’, with small, ster-
H.anomala (Himalaya, China; decid- sterile flowers, each 2.5–5cm (1–2in) ile, white flowers, turning pink-red, in
H uous climber to 12m (39ft); shoots

becoming rough and peeling; leaves
7.5–13cm (3–5in), ovate, apex shortly
across, and numerous, small, white
fertile flowers; includes Bretschneideri
Group, with peeling bark, leaves white
very large panicles; ‘Greenspire’, with
sterile, green flowers, becoming red-
tinged; ‘Kyushu’, erect, with dark, shin-
acuminate, cordate at base, coarsely beneath, and white ‘lacecap’ flowers); ing, tapering leaves and many sterile
toothed, downy tufts in the vein axils H.involucrata (Japan, Taiwan; open, flowers; ‘Pink Diamond’, with sterile
beneath; corymbs fairly flat 15–20cm deciduous shrub to 2m (61/2ft); shoots flowers becoming pink in large pani-
(6–8in) across, with few white, periph- bristly at first; leaves 7.5–15cm (3–6in), cles; ‘Praecox’, early-flowering, with
eral sterile flowers, each 1.5–3.7cm broadly ovate to oblong, acuminate, toothed sterile flowers in small pani-
(5/8–11/2in) across, and numerous, small, finely toothed, bristly; corymbs irregu- cles; ‘Tardiva’, late-flowering; and
cream fertile flowers); H.arborescens lar, 7.5–12.5cm (3–5in) across, enclosed ‘Unique’, with a very large inflores-
(E US; loose, open, deciduous shrub, by broadly ovate bracts covered with cence with many white sterile flowers);
1–3m (31/4–10ft); shoots downy at first; flattened white hairs, with few, long- H.petiolaris (Japan, Sakhalin, Korea,
leaves 7.5–17.5cm (3–63/4in), broadly stalked, pale blue or faintly pink sterile Taiwan; deciduous climber to 20m
ovate, acuminate, with coarse, teeth, flowers, each 1.8–2.5cm (3/4–1in) (66ft); shoots becoming rough and
shiny, dark green above, paler and across, and numerous, small, blue fer- peeling; leaves 3.5–11cm (11/2–41/2in),
downy beneath on veins; corymbs tile flowers; includes ‘Hortensis’, with ovate to rounded, shortly acuminate, ±
fairly flat, much-branched, 5–15cm more numerous, double, pink-white, cordate at base, finely toothed, some-
(2–6in) across, with 0–8 long-stalked, sterile flowers); H.longipes (C and W times pubescent beneath; corymbs
creamy white sterile flowers, each China; loose, spreading, decidous, flat, 15–25cm (6–10in) across, with to
1–1.8cm (1/2–3/4in) across, and numer- shrub, 2–2.5m (61/2–8ft); shoots loosely 12 white, peripheral sterile flowers,
ous, small, dull white fertile flowers); downy at first; leaves 7.5–17cm each 2.5–4.5cm (1–13/4in) across, and
H.aspera (Himalaya, W and C China, (3–61/2in), rounded to ovate, apex numerous, small, off-white fertile
Taiwan, Java, Sumatra; spreading abruptly acuminate, cordate at base, flowers); H.quercifolia (SE US; loose,
deciduous shrub, or small tree, to 4m sharply toothed, bristly; corymbs fairly rounded, deciduous shrub, 1–2.5m
(13ft); shoots at first with spreading flat, 10–15cm (4–6in) across, sterile (31/4–8ft); shoots thick, red-downy, then
hairs, later hairless and peeling; leaves flowers 8–9, white or faintly purple, to hairless and flaky; leaves 7.5–20cm
9–25cm (31/2–10in), lanceolate to 2cm (3/4in) across, fertile flowers small, (3–8in), ovate to rounded and deeply
narrowly ovate, acute or acuminate, white, numerous); H.macrophylla (Japan; 5–7-lobed, minutely toothed, bristly,
rounded or tapered to the base, serrate, spreading deciduous shrub to 3m (10ft); turning red-bronze in winter; panicles
densely downy beneath, sparsely hairy shoots ± glabrous; leaves 10–20cm conical-pyramidal, 10–25cm (4–10in),
above; corymbs fairly flattened, to (4–8in), broadly ovate, acute or acumi- with numerous long-stalked, white ster-
25cm (10in) across, with few to many nate, coarsely toothed, glabrous; ile flowers, each 2.5–3.5cm (1–11/2in)
white to pale pink or purple, darker- corymbs flattened, much-branched, across, and numerous, small, white fer-
veined, sterile flowers with 4 rounded with few pink lilac or blue sterile flow- tile flowers; includes ‘Snow Flake’, with
sepals, each to 2.5cm (1in) across, fer- ers, each 3–5cm (11/4–2in) across, and predominant, double, green sterile flo-
tile flowers small, numerous, white- numerous small blue or pink fertile rets, turning white as they mature);
purple or pink; includes subsp. strigosa, flowers; the wild type, sometimes called H.scandens (S Japan, E Asia; spreading
with short, stiff hairs beneath leaves, H.macrophylla var. normalis (syn. H.mar- or almost pendulous shrub to 1m
and subsp. sargentiana, from China, a itima) is a maritime plant with a (31/4ft); shoots glabrous or very finely
loose, spreading, deciduous shrub to corymb of the ‘lacecap’ type; it is pubescent; leaves 5–9cm (2–31/2in),
3m (10ft); shoots with small, erect thought to be the ancestor of many lanceolate or oblong to ovate, shortly
hairs and translucent bristles; leaves cultivars of both ‘lacecap’ and ‘mop- toothed, finely pubescent on the veins
10–25cm (4–10in), broadly ovate, head’ types); H.paniculata (E and S beneath; corymbs fairly flattened, to
390 rounded at the base, velvety above, China, Japan, Sakhalin; large decidu- 7.5cm (3in) across, with a few white-
densely bristly beneath; corymb fairly ous shrub or small tree to 4m (13ft); blue sterile flowers, each 1.75–3.75cm
hydroponics
(3/4–11/2in) across, fertile flowers numer- deeply serrated sepals; ‘Heinrich aquatic, perennial herbs with slender,
ous, white, with small, clawed petals); Seidel’, of stiff growth, with cherry red stolon-like stems, usually floating and
H.seemanii (Mexico; evergreen climber to purple flowers in dense heads; ‘Hol- rooting, and rosettes of small, stalked
or creeper with dark green, leathery, stein’, with abundant, pink to sky blue leaves with smooth, rounded to reni-
elliptic, acuminate leaves and white flowers and serrate sepals; ‘Joseph form leaves. Produced in spring and
flowers; differs from H.serratifolia in its Banks’ – also known as ‘Hortensis’ – summer, the flowers are solitary or
inflorescence – a single terminal 2.25m (71/4ft), with flowers opening clustered and consist of three, broad
corymb (not many) – and the presence green, ageing pink to blue; the original petals. For sunny garden ponds. In cold
of large, sterile flowers); H.serrata introduction from China; ‘Madame areas, a sufficient depth of water must
(Japan and Korea; spreading deciduous Emile Mouillère – also known as be given to prevent freezing in winter.
shrub to 2m (61/2ft); shoots at first finely ‘Sedgwick’s White’ – stem unspotted, Plants are free-floating; alkaline water
pubescent; leaves 5–15cm (2–6in), with white flowers with a pink to blue is preferred. Resting buds are formed
lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous above, eye; the compact, late ‘Mathilde in autumn each year and sink to over-
veins beneath with short hairs; Gutges’, with intense blue to purple winter at the bottom, rising with
corymbs flattened, 5–10cm (2–4in)
across, with to 12 pink or blue sterile
flowers, each 1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in) across,
flowers; ‘Niedersachsen’, tall, with very
pale blue or pink flowers, reliable;
‘Nigra’, with an almost black stem and
increasing light levels in early summer
to produce young plants. Increase in
spring by the introduction of runners
H
and numerous, small, pink or blue fer- rose to blue flowers; ‘Nikko Blue’, with thrown on to the water surface. Alter-
tile flowers; ‘lacecap’ cultivars derived pink to bright blue flowers; ‘Otaksa’, natively, propagate from seed sown in
from H.serrata include ‘Bluebird’, ‘Blue with rounded leaves and pink to blue pots of a loam-based medium; stand
Deckle’, ‘Diadem’ and ‘Miranda’, blue, flowers; an early ‘Hortensia’ from these in shallow trays of water.
compact, tending to be hardier than Japan; ‘Pia’, dwarf, to 30cm (12in), H.morsus-ranae (FROGBIT; Europe,
those of H.macrophylla origin and some with pink to red flowers in an irregular W Asia; leaves small, rounded to heart-
of the best for general garden use); inflorescence; ‘Preziosa’, a hybrid with shaped, bright green, flowers to 2cm
H.serratifolia (Chile, Argentina; ever- H.serrata, tinged purple-red throughout, (3/4in) across, white stained yellow).
green climber, to 30m (100ft); shoots with rose to purple red flowers; ‘Vul-
at first finely pubescent; leaves 5–15cm cain’, dwarf, with deep pink-purple or hydroculture a synonym of hydro-
(2–6in), elliptic, acuminate, base often orange and green flowers; and ‘West- ponics, but often reserved for the culti-
cordate, usually entire, leathery; inflo- falen’, with red to purple flowers, near- vation of plants in nutrient-enriched
rescence to 15 x 9cm (6 x 31/2in), com- est to crimson on alkaline soils. water using sterile aggregate to support
posed of numerous small corymbs Lacecap hydrangeas These bear sterile plant roots. As such it is a valuable
arranged one above the other, each at flowers that are largely peripheral to technique for interior landscaping,
first enclosed by 4 papery bracts, flow- the flowerhead with pedicels to 5cm where ornamental plants are grown
ers small, fertile, white, some variants (2in); the inflorescences are flattened. in shallow tanks. See hydroponics.
exist with 1 or few white sterile flow- ‘Lacecaps’ include ‘Lanarth White’,
ers). Cultivars In most cultivars, the compact, with pink to blue fertile flow- hydroleca see clay granules.
colour of the corymbs is influenced by ers and white ray florets; ‘Lilacina’,
the presence of aluminium in the soil. strong growing, with pink through lilac hydrophyte a plant that grows partly
Some ‘lacecap’ cultivars, such as to blue flowers and serrate florets; or wholly submerged in water.
‘Bluebird’, are often associated with ‘Mariesii’, with pale pink flowers, reluc-
H.macrophylla; they belong, however, to tantly blue, the inflorescence including hydroponics, hydroponic
H.serrata, which some authorities treat both large and small ray florets; culture the cultivation of plants in
as a subspecies of H.macrophylla. ‘Quadricolor’, with leaves mottled nutrient-enriched water. The Nutrient
Mophead hydrangeas (Hortensias) cream, yellow, pale and dark green; Film Technique (NFT), which was
These bear predominantly sterile flow- ‘Sea Foam’, with blue flowers edged devised in the UK for commercial pro-
ers, which may be single or double and by white ray florets; arose as a branch- duction in 1975, overcomes the con-
produced throughout the flowerhead; sport on a plant of ‘Joseph Banks’; straints of poor aeration. Plants are
the inflorescences are compact to loose, ‘Tricolor’, with leaves mottled cream, raised in small blocks of rockwool and
usually rounded. They include: the yellow, pale and dark green; ‘Veitchii’, stood in polythene-film troughs con-
semi-dwarf ‘Ami Pasquier’, with crim- with dark green leaves and white flow- taining a circulated solution less than
son to plum, non-fading flowers; ers ageing pink; and ‘White Wave’, 5mm (1/4in) deep. A prepared slope of
‘Ayesha’ – also known as ‘Silver Slip- with pink to blue fertile flowers, sur- 1:75 is required from one end of the
per’ – with glossy green leaves and rounded by pearly white ray florets. greenhouse to the other for the contin-
cupped lilac-like florets in misty lilac uous troughs, the edges of which are
to pink flattened heads; ‘Générale Hydrocharis (from Greek hydor, clipped together between plants. Dilute
Vicomtesse de Vibraye’, tall, with light water, and charis, graceful, referring nutrient solution is pumped from a
aqua blue flowers in dense heads; to the appearance of these aquatic catchment tank to the feeder end of
‘Hamburg’, large, with long-lasting, plants). Hydrocharitaceae. Europe, the troughs, from where there is a flow 391
deep vivid pink to purple flowers and W Asia, N Africa. FROGBIT. 2 species, rate along the troughs of about 2 litres
hydroponics
(31/2 pints) per minute. Electronic slender, soft, rooting; immersed leaves woodland, and for the shady rock
devices monitor pH and conductivity to 10cm (4in), pinnatifid, translucent, garden. Propagate from seed sown
of the solution and inject nutrients and brittle, emersed leaves smaller, thicker, in spring, or by careful division in
acid. Typical nutrient concentrations in lanceolate to ovate, crenate; flowers early spring.
parts per million for tomatoes would be to 2cm (3/4in), lilac or violet marked
150–300 calcium, 40–50 magnesium, purple on lower lip); H.polysperma Hymenocallis (from Greek hymen,
3–6 iron, 0.5–1.0 manganese, 0.1 (India, Bhutan; deciduous; stem to membrane, and kalos, beauty, referring
copper, 0.1 zinc, 0.3–0.4 boron and 50cm (20in), submerged, rather woody; to the attractive corona). Amarylli-
0.05 molybdenum. See hydroculture. leaves to 4cm (11/2in), oblong to lanceo- daceae. Subtropical and tropical Ameri-
late, pale green; flowers to 0.8cm (3/8in), cas. SPIDER LILY. 30–40 species, bulbous
hydroseeding the sowing of white to sky blue or pale lilac, downy). perennial herbs with elliptic to strap-
imbibed seed in a stream of water, shaped leaves, their bases stalk-like or
practised with grass seed for large hygrophyte a plant that grows under sheathing. In spring and summer, stout
areas or on steep slopes. permanently moist conditions. scapes are topped with umbels of fra-
H hydrotropism growth in the direc-

tion of moisture, demonstrated espe-
hygroscopic expanding when water
is present, contracting in its absence;
grant white or ivory flowers. The peri-
anth is tubular to funnel-shaped, with
six spreading lobes. The six stamens
cially by the roots of seedlings. hygroscopic water is water retained are fused at their bases into a showy
See stimulus movements. in an essentially dry soil and cup (corona) inserted into the top of the
unavailable to plants because perianth tube. Provide a minimum tem-
hygrometer an instrument of high surface tension forces. perature of 10°C/50°F. Grow in a light,
for measuring atmospheric well-drained potting mix of equal parts
humidity, such as a wet-and- Hylocereus (from Greek loam, leafmould and sharp sand, in
dry bulb thermometer, or hyle, wood, and Cereus). Cac- bright filtered light. Water plentifully
electrolytic or dial gauge. taceae. C America, West when in growth and continue watering
Indies, Colombia and and liquid-feeding after flowering, as for
Hygrophila (from Greek Venezuela. Some 16 species, Hippeastrum. Keep just moist when rest-
hygros, wet, and -philos, loving, epiphytic, climbing or scram- ing. Propagate from offsets or by seed.
referring to the aquatic habi- bling cacti. Segmented and H. x festalis (H.longipetala x H.narcissiflora;
tats of some species). Acan- slender, the stems are usually scape 10cm (4in), flowers pure white;
thaceae. Tropics. Some 100 3-winged or angled, with perianth tube curved, 4cm (11/2in), lobes
species, aquatic or marginal short spines and aerial roots. to 11.5 x 1.3cm (41/2–1/2in), curved: sta-
perennial herbs. The leaves Large, funnel-shaped flowers minal cup to 5 x 6.5cm (2 x 21/2in), with
may range in form from open at twilight and last for reflexed teeth, free ends of filaments to
entire to finely dissected, one night only. Provide a 4cm (11/2in); style far exserted); H.latiflora
according to the degree of minimum temperature of (CAYMAN ISLANDS SPIDER-LILY, CHRYSO-
submersion. The flowers are 10°C/50°F. Grow in an acid LITE LILY; flowers 6–12cm (21/2–43/4in),
small, tubular and 2-lipped, mix rich in bark. Shade in perianth tube to 16cm (6in), lobes
and arranged in whorl-like Wet-dry thermometers summer, and maintain high to 10cm (4in), linear, arching); H. x
clusters in terminal racemes. serve as hygrometers humidity. Reduce watering in macrostephana (H.narcissiflora x H.speciosa:
Suited to the pool margin in winter. H.undatus (epiphytic or scape 30–45cm (12–18in); perianth tube
the tropical greenhouse or aquarium; climbing to 5m (16ft) or more; flowers to 8.5cm (31/4in), green below, white
the submerged foliage is almost invari- 25–30 (10 x 12in) x 15–25cm (6–10in), above, segments linear to lanceolate,
ably more attractive. Leaf form in white; fruit to 15cm (6in) in diameter, 9–11cm (31/2–41/2in), white to pale green-
H.difformis is extremely variable, the globose, edible). yellow, outer whorl with thickened green
more desirable, finely pinnate forms tips; corona funnel-shaped, to 6 x 7.5cm
depending on high light intensity for Hylomecon (from Greek hyle, wood, (21/2 x 3in), bluntly toothed, white; free
their development; maintain a mini- and mekon, poppy). Papaveraceae. part of filaments 2.5cm (1in), style far
mum water temperature of 20°C/68°F. Japan, Korea, E China. 1 species, exserted); H.narcissiflora (BASKET FLOWER,
In similar well-illuminated conditions, H.japonica, a deciduous, perennial herb, PERUVIAN DAFFODIL; scape equalling
the undemanding H.polysperma may to 30cm (12in). To 25cm (10in) long, leaves; perianth tube funnelform above,
develop a red cast to the leaves and, the leaves are pinnately divided, to 10cm (4in), spreading, green, lobes to
where water temperatures remain at or toothed and bright green. Produced in 10 x 1.2cm (4 x 1/2in), lanceolate; staminal
above 15°C/59°F, will remain ever- spring and summer, the long-stalked, cup, to 5cm (2in) long and more than
green. Detached leaves will root if solitary flowers are 5cm (2in) across 5cm (2in) in diameter, striped green, with
allowed to float freely. Hygrophila does not with four, rounded, golden yellow rounded spreading toothed processes, fil-
show marked preferences for substrates. petals. Fully hardy and suitable for aments to 12mm (1/2in), pointing inwards;
392 H.difformis (WATER WISTERIA; SE damp, cool and humus-rich soils in style exceeding limb); H.palmeri (ALLI-
Asia; evergreen; stem to 60cm (24in), the wild garden, especially in light GATOR LILLY; scape to 25cm (10in);
Hypericum
perianth tube 8cm (3in), yellow-green, H.lagenicaulis (BOTTLE PALM; Round Grown in a sunny, sheltered spot,
lobes to 10cm (4in), filiform, linear, Island; trunk to 6m (20ft), closely H.hookerianum, its hybrids and cultivars
spreading from base; staminal cup fun- ringed, grey, with vertical cracks, flask- are amongst the most attractive free-
nelform, with erect dentate margins, shaped, expanded base to 70cm (28in) standing shrubs in the genus. Many of
to 3–5cm (11/4–2in), filaments 4cm in diameter; leaves to 2m (61/2ft), the alpine, Mediterranean and South-
(11/2in)); H.speciosa (scape to 40cm pinnae to 70 each side of rachis, west Asian shrublets are found on
(16in); flowers 7–12, green tinged; peri- 17–60cm (61/2–24in), with 2 pairs of chalk or limestone soils and will benefit
anth tube to 9cm (31/2in), lobes to 15cm lateral veins prominent above and from neutral to alkaline soil in the
(6in); staminal cup funnelform, to 5cm beneath); H.verschaffeltii (SPINDLE PALM; garden. These include H.cerastioides,
(2in), margin toothed, filaments nearly Rodrigues Island; trunk to 5m (16ft), H.coris, H.olympicum and H.reptans. They
erect to 5cm (2in)). grey, markedly ringed, to 25cm (10in) require open, well-drained sites in full
in diameter, straight becoming tapered; sun on the rock garden, gravel garden,
Hymenosporum (from Greek hymen, leaves to 1.75m (53/4ft), pinnae to 80 on scree or between paving stones.
a membrane, and sporos, seed, the seed each side of rachis, glossy green above, H.empetrifolium may succumb to wet and
has a membranous wing). Pittospo-
raceae. Australia. 1 species, H.flavum,
AUSTRALIAN FRANGIPANI, an evergreen,
dull green beneath, midrib prominent
above, no veins prominent beneath).
cold unless grown in the alpine house.
The more choice, Asiatic shrubs and
the alpine shrublets may be cut to the
H
narrow-crowned tree or large shrub, to hypanthium cup-, ring- or tube-like ground at temperatures below
12m (39ft) tall. The glossy, deep green structure formed by the enlargement –10°C/14°F, but will usually regener-
leaves are 7–15cm (23/4–6in) long, oval and fusion of the basal portions of ate from the base if the rootstock has
to oblong and entire with a narrowly calyx, corolla and stamens, together been mulched. H.calycinum is hardy to
tapering apex. Produced in spring and with the receptacle on which these at least –20°C/–4°F.
summer in lax panicles to 20cm (8in) parts are borne, as in Rosaceae. It is Prune H.calycinum by shearing back
across, the flowers are intensely fragrant sometimes termed the floral cup or, almost to ground level every second
and creamy white, ageing golden-yellow. inaccurately, the calyx tube. year. Cut out deadwood for other
To 2.5cm (1in) in diameter, they consist species in spring or stool them back
of five, obovate petals, united in a short Hypericum (Greek name for this annually to within a few centimetres
tube below and spreading above. Grown plant, used by Dioscorides and earlier of the previous season’s growth. Plants
for its fragrant creamy flowers and dark authors, from hyper, above, and eikon, with long, gracefully arching stems
glossy foliage, Hymenosporum makes an image). Guttiferae. Cosmopolitan should be pruned only by removal of
attractive lawn specimen in frost-free cli- except for tropical lowlands, arctic, old shoots at the base. Propagate from
mates. It is also suited to tub cultivation high altitude and desert regions. seed sown in spring; by heeled, semi-
in the cool greenhouse or conservatory. Over 400 species, small trees, shrubs ripe cuttings in a cold frame, or (alpine
Propagation as for Pittosporum. or herbs, evergreen or deciduous and species) by basal softwood cuttings in
dotted with pale and dark glands. The early summer. Where creeping rhi-
Hyophorbe (from Greek hys, pig, stems are often ridged or angled at zomes or rooting stems are produced,
and phorbe, food: the fruits are eaten first, and the rounded to oblong to propagate by division of layers.
by pigs). Palmae. Mascarene Islands. ovate leaves are paired or sometimes Affected by the rust fungus Melampsora
BOTTLE PALM, PIGNUT PALM. 5 species, whorled. Solitary or cymose flowers are hypericorum, which produces pustules
medium-sized to large palms with a produced usually in summer. They are on the undersurfaces of leaves. Leaves
single trunk often strongly swollen at typically dish- or bowl-shaped with five may also be tied together by the cater-
the base or middle, then tapering to (rarely four) yellow petals and numer- pillars of the carnation tortrix moth.
a slender neck. The leaves are pinnate ous stamens in distinct bundles or a H.acmosepalum (China; shrub,
and arching with linear-lanceolate single boss. The fruit is a fleshy, spheri- 0.6–2m (2–61/2ft), branches erect,
leaflets and smooth petiole bases form- cal to ellipsoid capsule sometimes gradually outcurving; leaves 1.8–6cm
ing a distinct crownshaft. Beautiful ripening from dull red to purple-black. (3/4–21/2in) oblong to elliptic, apex
feather palms from the coastal forests In general terms, the following are obtuse to rounded, paler or glaucous
of the Mascarene Islands, where they hardy in climate zone 6, possibly lower. beneath, thinly coriaceous to thickly
are threatened with extinction. In the They favour full sun or part shade and papery; flowers 3–5cm (11/4–2in),
coastal gardens of the low-altitude a fertile, well-drained soil. H.calycinum diameter, 1–3, terminal, star-shaped,
tropics and subtropics, they make is rampant and resilient groundcover deep yellow, sometimes red-tinged);
curious and elegant specimens, with in shade or sun, but may become a H.balearicum (Balearic Islands; ever-
arching foliage emerging from the nuisance in smaller gardens. H. green shrub or tree, 0.6–2m (2–61/2ft),
prominent crownshaft above a more ‘Rowallane’ and H. ‘Hidcote’ are useful spreading; stem and leaves glandular;
or less swollen stem; they are some- additions to informal shrub and mixed leaves 0.6–1.5cm (1/4–5/8in), ovate to
times used there in avenue plantings. borders. The colourful fruits of H. oblong, apex rounded, somewhat
When available, they are fine palms for ‘Elstead’ extends the season of interest undulate; flowers 1.5–4cm (5/8–11/2in) in
large pots in the warm greenhouse or into autumn; they are also used by diameter, solitary, star-shaped, golden, 393
conservatory. Propagate by seed. flower arrangers, lasting well in water. exterior faintly red-tinged); H.beanii
Hypericum
(China; shrub 0.6–2m (2–61/2ft), to H.androsaemum) with large fruit that

bushy, robust, erect or arching; leaves flush rosy-red, not the usual cerise,
2.5–6.5cm (1–21/2in), narrowly elliptic during ripening); H.kouytchense (China;
or oblong to lanceolate or ovate, paler shrub 1–1.8m (31/4–6ft), bushy;
to glaucous below, thickly papery to branches arching or pendulous;
thinly coriaceous; flowers 3–4.5cm leaves 2–5.8cm (3/4–21/4in), elliptic
(11/4–13/4in) in diameter, 1–14, to ovate or lanceolate, apex acute
terminal, star-shaped to cupped, to obtuse or rounded to apiculate,
golden yellow); H.bellum (N India, paler beneath, thickly papery; flowers
China, Burma; shrub 0.3–1.5m (1–5ft), 4–6.5cm (11/2–21/2in) in diameter,
erect to arching; leaves 1.5–7.8cm star-shaped, bright golden yellow);
(5/8–3in), oblong-lanceolate to subcircu- H. x moserianum (H.patulum x H.calycinum;
lar, apex obtuse to rounded or shrub 30–70cm (12–28in), semi-ever-
indented, often apiculate, paler or Hypericum ‘Hidcote’ green, spreading or arching; leaves
H glaucous beneath, thickly papery; flow-

ers 2.5–6cm (1–21/2in) in diameter, 1–7,
terminal, cupped, golden to butter-
This garden hybrid forms a large, dense and
bushy shrub, with dark green foliage and
flowers from midsummer to early autumn.
2.2–6cm (3/4–21/2in), oblong to lanceo-
late or ovate, acute to apiculate, paler
beneath, thickly leathery; flowers
yellow or pale yellow); H.calycinum (Bul- 4.5–6cm (13/4–21/2in) in diameter, 1–8,
garia, Turkey; shrub 0.2–0.6m (8–24in) (1/2–3/4in) diameter, star-shaped, 1–40 in forming subcorymbiform inflorescence
tall, evergreen, with creeping branch- cylindric to slender pyramidal inflores- star-shaped or slightly cupped, bright
ing stolons and erect stem; leaves cence, golden yellow); H.forrestii (SW yellow; ‘Tricolor’: leaves variegated
4.5–10.4cm (13/4–4in), oblong to elliptic China, NE Burma; shrub, 0.3–1.5m cream, pink and green); H.olympicum
or narrowly ovate, apex obtuse or apic- (1–5ft), bushy ± erect; leaves 2–6cm (Greece, Balkans, Turkey; dwarf shrub,
ulate, pale beneath, leathery; flowers 1 (3/4–21/2in), lanceolate or triangular- 0.5–4cm (1/4–11/2in) erect to creeping;
(rarely 2–3), star-shaped, bright yellow); ovate to broadly ovate, apex obtuse to leaves 5–38mm (1/4–11/2in), oblong to
H.cerastioides (Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey; rounded, paler beneath, thickly papery; elliptic or ovate to linear, apex acute
perennial herb, 7–27cm (23/4–11in), flowers 2.5–6cm (1–21/2in) in diameter, to obtuse, thinly glaucous, thinly
often shrubby at base, decumbent or 1–20, usually deeply cupular, golden); coriaceous; flowers 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in) in
ascending; leaves 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in), H.‘Hidcote’ (probably H. x cyathiflorum diameter, star-shaped, golden to lemon
oblong to elliptic or ovate, apex ‘Gold Cup’ x H.calycinum; shrub to yellow, sometimes tinted red; ‘Sun-
rounded, downy, slightly paler beneath, 1.75m (53/4ft), bushy; branches arching burst’: robust, flowers large; ‘Citrinum’:
thickly papery; flowers 2–4.5cm to spreading; leaves 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in), flowers lemon yellow. ‘Sulphureum’:
(3/4–13/4in) in diameter, star-shaped, triangular to lanceolate, apex acute to leaves narrow, flowers pale yellow);
1–5, bright yellow); H.coris (SE France, obtuse or slightly mucronate, thickly H.patulum (China, introduced Taiwan,
Switzerland, N and C Italy; dwarf sub- papery; flowers 3.5–6.5cm (11/2–21/2in) Japan, shrub 0.3–1.5m (12–5ft), bushy,
shrub or perennial herb, 10–45cm in diameter, produced over a long time, arching to spreading, sometimes weakly
(4–18in); leaves 0.5–1.8cm (1/4–3/4in), in forming sub-corymbiform inflorescence, frondose; leaves 1.5–6cm (5/8–21/2in),
whorls, linear, apex shortly apiculate to cupped, golden yellow); H.hookerianum lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate to
rounded, revolute, glaucous beneath, (India, N Thailand, Bangladesh; shrub ovate, glaucous beneath, thickly
coriaceous; flowers 1.5–2cm (5/8–3/4in) 0.3–2m (1–61/2ft), bushy, round-topped papery; flowers 2.5–4cm (1–11/2in) in
in diameter, star-shaped, 1 to 20, in a erect to spreading; leaves 2.5–8cm diameter, forming subcorymbiform
broadly pyramidal to shortly cylindric (1–3in), narrowly lanceolate to oblong, inflorescence, cupped, golden yellow;
inflorescence, golden yellow, sometimes apex acute to rounded, paler or glau- H.reptans (Himalaya; shrublet, prostrate
veined red); H. x cyathiflorum (probably cous beneath, thickly papery; flowers or ascending to 0.3m (12in), forming
H.addingtonii x H.hookerianum; shrub to 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in) in diameter, 1–5, clumps or mats; leaves 0.7–2.2cm
about 1.5m (5ft), widely spreading; terminal, deeply cupped, deep to pale (1/4–3/4in), elliptic to obovate, obtuse to
leaves 3–7.5cm (11/4–3in), lanceolate, yellow); H. x inodorum (H.androsaemum x rounded, paler beneath, leathery; flow-
apex acute to apiculate, paler beneath, H.hircinum; deciduous shrub 0.6–2m ers 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in) in diameter, soli-
thickly papery; flowers 4–5cm (11/2–2in) (2–61/2ft), bushy, erect; leaves 3.5–11cm tary, ± deeply cupped; petals, deep
in diameter, cupped, golden yellow; (11/2–41/2in), oblong-lanceolate to golden yellow, sometimes tinged red);
introduced as H.patulum ‘Gold Cup’). broadly ovate, apex acute to rounded, H. ‘Rowallane’ (probably H.leschenaultii
H.empetrifolium (Albania, Greece, Crete, somewhat paler beneath papery; flow- x H.hookerianum ‘Charles Rogers’; shrub
Turkey, Cyprus, Libya; shrublet to ers 1.5–3cm (5/8–11/4in) in diameter, to 3m (10ft); branches erect, gradually
60cm (24in) erect, tufted and narrowly star-shaped or cupped, golden yellow; outcurving; leaves 2.7–6.7cm (1–23/4in),
branched, or cushion-like, sometimes widely naturalized; yellow-leaved and ovate to oblong-lanceolate, paler or
procumbent, rooting at nodes; leaves variously variegated cultivars include glaucous beneath, thinly coriaceous
0.2–1.2cm (1/16–1/2in), in whorls, linear ‘Summergold’, ‘Ysella’, ‘Goudelsje’, to thickly papery. Flowers 5–7.5cm
394 or narrowly elliptic, revolute, paler ‘Hysan’ and ‘Beattie’s Variety’; (2–3in) in diameter, 1–3, terminal,
beneath, coriaceous; flowers 1–2cm ‘Elstead’ is a selection (or back-cross shallowly cupped).
Hystrix
hypertrophy abnormal development sword- or strap-shaped, sometimes spring and summer. Well-suited to
of plant tissue due to an increase in ridged beneath and often hairy. humus-rich and moisture-retentive
cell size which may result from various Produced singly or in sparse racemes gritty soils in the rock garden, in part
causes including disease infection. in spring and summer, the flowers are to full shade. Hardy to between –5 to
starry and consist of six, outspread, –10°C/23–14°F. Propagate by division
hypertufa an artificial material with ovate to oblong tepals. Grow in a light, in spring. H.reniformis (syn. H.longiflora;
water absorbent properties similar to freely draining soil in full sun or in S America; stem to 5cm (2in), creeping;
tufa, made by mixing one part cement, light dappled shade with a minimum leaves to 1cm (1/2in), elliptic to reni-
one part sand, and one or two parts temperature of 7°C/45°F. Keep well- form; flowers small, white suffused
finely granulated peat, or a similar ventilated as the shoots appear; water pink, veined carmine, dotted yellow
material, with water. It is used for the sparingly until the roots are growing at base; includes ‘Greencourt White’,
cultivation of alpines, and for coating well, and thereafter moderately. Keep with bright green leaves and
glazed sinks to resemble troughs of plants moist when in full growth and white flowers).
natural stone. then gradually dry off and store dry
hypha, hyphae the branching

filament that is the basic form of
in a shaded and frost-free position.
Propagate by seed and offsets.
H.angustifolia (South Africa; leaves
Hyssopus (identified, possibly mis-
takenly, with a plant described by
Dioscorides). Labiatae. S Europe to
H
most fungi. 10–15cm (4–6in), weakly hairy or C Asia. Some 10 species, strongly
smooth; flowers to 2cm (3/4in) across, aromatic perennial herbs or dwarf
hypocotyl the axis of an embryo bright yellow, usually paired); H.capensis shrubs with narrow leaves and spikes
lying beneath the cotyledons and, (WHITE STAR GRASS; South Africa; of tubular and 2-lipped flowers in
on germination, developing into leaves 10–30cm (4–12in), smooth; flow- summer. Grow individually in borders
the radicle. ers 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in) across, white or or pots; alternatively, use H.officinalis as
yellow with purple basal spots, solitary). a low hedge in the herb garden. Plant
Hypoestes (from Greek hypo, under, in well-drained soils on sunny sites.
and estia, house: the calyx is enclosed Hypsela (from Greek hypselos, high, Pinch to give bushy plants. Propagate
by bracts). Acanthaceae. South Africa, referring to the occurrence of the type from seed or by softwood cuttings in
Madagascar, SE Asia. Some 40 species, species in the Andes). Campanulaceae. spring or early summer. H.officinalis
evergreen perennial herbs, subshrubs S America, New Zealand, Australia. 4 (HYSSOP; S and E Europe, widely natu-
and shrubs with clustered or solitary, species, prostrate perennial herbs, with ralized in Europe and US; erect to
tubular, two-lipped flowers. The follow- small, solitary flowers tubular below 60cm (24in); flowers violet or blue,
ing species is a popular houseplant, and spreading above in a 5-lobed, 2- occasionally white; includes ‘Albus’,
much valued for its colourful foliage. lipped limb. Creeping plants forming with white flowers, ‘Grandiflorus’, with
Cultivation as for Justicia. H.phyllostachya dense low mats of ground large flowers, ‘Purpurascens’,
(POLKA DOT PLANT, MEASLES PLANT; cover, with a mass of with deep red flowers, ‘Roseus’,
evergreen subshrub to 1m (31/4ft); leaves tiny flowers in with rose pink flowers, and
to 5cm (2in), oval, dark green flecked first ‘Sissinghurst’, dwarf and compact).
or blotched white to pink or purple- emerging shoot, leaves
red; flowers magenta to lilac). or plumule are true hysteranthous with leaves
leaves
developing after the flowers;
hypogeal describing a type of ger- cf. precocious and synanthous.
mination where the cotyledons remain
cotyledons
underground, gradually giving up their root, or radical, remain in Hystrix (from Greek hystrix, porcu-
stored food reserves to the developing emerges first the seed pine, referring to the spiky panicles).
plumule and radicle, for example Gramineae. N America, N India,
broadbean cf. epigeal. China, New Zealand. BOTTLEBRUSH
GRASS. 6 species of perennial grasses.
hypogynous borne beneath the Grown for its flowerheads, H.patula
ovary, generally on the receptacle; produces slender grey stems and sway-
used of the calyx, corolla and ing heads of long-awned, horizontally
stamens of a superior ovary. spreading spikelets. The flowerheads
should be picked when immature for
Hypoxis (from Greek hypo, beneath, air drying. Hardy in zone 6, it grows
and oxys, sharp, referring to the base best on moisture-retentive but well-
of the capsule). Hypoxidaceae. N drained soil in sun or light dappled
America, Africa, Australia, tropical shade, but also tolerates dry shade,
Asia. STAR GRASS. About 150 species, and is therefore ideal for naturalistic
perennial cormous herbs. The woodland gardens. Propagate by 395
clumped, basal leaves are narrowly Hypogeal germination division or by seed in spring.
IAA
I
sparkling white); I.umbellata (S Europe; Ilex (from its resemblance to the
bushy annual to 30cm (12in) tall; leaves leaves of Quercus ilex, the evergreen
linear to lanceolate; flowers white, pale oak). Aquifoliaceae. Cosmopolitan,
purple-pink or mauve, sometimes temperate and tropical. HOLLY. Over
bicoloured, in umbels). 400 species, evergreen and deciduous
trees, shrubs and climbers with tough,
ichneumon wasps (Hymenoptera: entire, toothed to spiny-margined
Ichneumonidae) small to medium-sized leaves. Small and yellow-green to
insects which are poten- white, the flowers are borne in the
tially beneficial to the axils singly, in clusters, or in cymes.
gardener as a biological They are followed by shiny and some-
control of pests. They times highly coloured berries.
IAA indole-3-acetic acid; an auxin have two pairs of membra- Hollies are excellent, hardy plants
capable of producing a wide range of neous wings. The first seg- for woodland or specimen planting,
growth effects in plants. Where synthe- ment of the abdomen is while some make fine hedges and
sized as a product to aid the rooting of constricted to form a narrow windbreaks They will tolerate
I cuttings, it has the disadvantage of

breaking down quickly before use in
the presence of sunlight and where
waist. The adults are active
in warm sunny weather fre-
quenting flowers such as
all but waterlogged soils.
Propagate by grafting in
spring on seedlings of
contaminated with plant or soil debris. umbellifers. Their larvae are the species. Alterna-
all parasitic, especially of but- tively, increase by cut-
IBA indole-3-butyric acid; an auxin terfly and moth caterpillars, tings in late summer;
widely used in synthesized form as an whilst some parasitize sawfly reduce the number of
aid to rooting cuttings. It is more larvae. Others show preference leaves, dip in fungicide, put
extensively used than IAA because for beetles and to a lesser extent in a sandy mix and place in
of its relative stability and effectiveness fly larvae, and a few parasitize mild heat. Cuttings will also
on many different plants. spiders, aphids and lacewings. root in an outside frame.
The red-brown Ophion species Seed can take 2–3 years to
Iberis (from Iberia, where most of are familiar, being often attracted germinate.
the species are found). Cruciferae. S to light at dusk, and these parasitize I. x altaclarensis (I.aquifolium x
Europe, W Asia. CANDYTUFT. Some various noctuid moths. Rhyssa per- I.perado; large evergreen trees
30 species, annual or perennial herbs suasoria is about 25mm (1in) long Ichneumon and shrubs to 20m (66ft), differ-
and subshrubs bearing small, white or and the female has an oviposi- wasp ing from I.aquifolium in their
mauve, 4-petalled flowers in racemes tor twice this length, with which it para- more vigorous growth, larger, broader
or corymbs in spring and summer. sitizes the larvae of wood-boring wood and more variable leaves and larger
Hardy to –15°C/5°F. Grow in well- wasps (Urocerus species) in conifer trunks. fruit; includes numerous cultivars,
drained and rather poor, neutral to among them selections with broad and
alkaline soil in full sun. Propagate Idesia (for Eberhard Ysbrant Ides dense to narrow, erect habits, leaves
annuals by seed sown in situ from early (fl. 1720), Dutch traveller in Asia). ranging in form from large, broad and
spring to summer. For greenhouse Flacourtiaceae. S Japan, Taiwan, spineless to puckered and prickly, in
blooms, sow during autumn and mid- C and W China, Korea. 1 species, colour from darkest green to lime and
winter at 15°C/59°F, growing on in I.polycarpa, a dioecious, deciduous pure gold, some variegated yellow,
light, well-ventilated conditions, with a tree to 12m (39ft) tall with stout and white and grey-green, some female
maximum temperature of 10°C/50°F. spreading branches. The leaves are to clones are very free-fruiting, with fruit
Perennials can be propagated by semi- 20cm (8in) long and cordate to ovate ranging in colour from scarlet to deep
ripe cuttings. with toothed margins, dark green brick red); I.aquifolium (COMMON HOLLY,
I.amara (W Europe; annual; erect, above and glaucous beneath. The ENGLISH HOLLY; S & W Europe, N
bushy, 15–40cm (6–16in) tall; leaves petioles are red and to 20cm (8in) long. Africa, W Asia; evergreen shrub or tree
lanceolate, entire to toothed; flowers Small, fragrant and yellow-green, the to 25m (80ft); leaves 5–10cm (2–4in),
white or purple-white, fragrant); I.sax- flowers are produced in summer in a elliptic to ovate, dark glossy green,
atilis (SW Europe; evergreen perennial pendulous panicle to 30cm (12in) long. undulate, entire or spiny; fruit red;
subshrub to 15cm (6in) tall; leaves sub- Orange-red berries persist in crowded many cultivars, broadly conforming to
cylindrical, fleshy, linear to needle-like; trusses after leaf fall. Idesia is hardy to the range described for I. x altaclarensis,
flowers white, often tinged purple with –15°C/5°F. Grow in free-draining but but embracing a far greater variety of
age); I.sempervirens (S Europe; spreading moist, neutral to slightly acid soils in habit, from low and dense to tall and
evergreen, perennial subshrub to 30cm sun or light shade. Plants of both sexes columnar; the berries may be dark
(12in); leaves oblong to spathulate; are needed for fruit-set. Propagate by blood red, scarlet, orange-red or
396 flowers white; ‘Snowflake’: mound- seed, or by softwood or semi-ripe yellow; the leaves range from small
forming, dark green leaves, flowers cuttings in summer. to large, narrow to broad, entire to
Ilex
viciously spiny; leaf colouration can

include gold, lime, white and silvery
grey splashes, tints and variegation, as
well as bright pink flushes when young);
I. x aquipernyi (I.aquifolium x I.pernyi; ever-
green shrub or small tree to 6m (20ft);
leaves similar to I.pernyi, to 4cm (11/2in),
apex prolonged, margins wavy-spiny);
I.ciliospinosa (W China; evergreen shrub
to 6m (20ft); leaves elliptic to ovate, to
5cm (2in), acute, weakly spined, dull
dark green; fruit red); I.cornuta (CHINESE
HOLLY, HORNED HOLLY; China, Korea;
dense, rounded evergreen shrub to
4m (13ft); leaves rectangular, 5–8cm
(2–3in), dull green, spines variable;
fruit red; includes cultivars with dense,
compact habits, leaves spiny to more or
less spineless, some variegated yellow,
Male and female hollies
In the genus Ilex male and female flowers are usually borne on separate plants; the female plants,
such as I.aquifolium ‘Madame Briot’ (left), bear the berries, but will not fruit unless a male, non-
I
others narrow and twisted); I.crenata fruiting cultivar, such as I. aquifolium ‘Ferox Argentea’ (right), is planted within pollinating distance.
(BOX-LEAVED HOLLY, JAPANESE HOLLY;
Japan, Korea, Sakhalin Is.; evergreen foliage flushed dark wine red during foliage ranging in colour from mid-
shrub or small tree to 5m (16ft); leaves winter); I.integra (Japan, Korea, Taiwan; green to dark, glossy blue-green);
ovate to elliptic, 1.5–3cm (5/8–11/4in), evergreen shrub to 7m (23ft); leaves I.opaca (AMERICAN HOLLY; E & C US;
acute, crenate, dark green; fruit glossy 5–8cm (2–3in), obovate to elliptic, evergreen tree to 15m (50ft); leaves
black; includes many cultivars, ranging blunt, entire, dark glossy green; fruit 5–12cm (2–43/4in), oblong to elliptic,
in habit from near-prostrate to dwarf dark red); I.kingiana (syn. I.insignis; E entire or spiny, usually tipped with a
and compact, some densely bushy, Himalaya, Yunnan; evergreen tree to spine, dull matt green above, yellow-
taller and suitable for low hedging; the 5.5m (18ft); leaves 11–22cm (41/2–9in), green beneath; fruit crimson; many
leaves range from small to miniature oblong, narrowly tapering, very spiny cultivars varying in hardiness and rate
broad to narrow, toothed to spineless, when juvenile, adults slightly serrate or of growth, some tall and open or coni-
flat to puckered, they may be bright entire, leathery, glossy green; fruit cal to densely columnar, others small
green, golden, variegated, dark green, bright red); I. x koehneana (I.aquifolium x and compact to near-dwarf; there are
purple-flushed or almost black; the I.latifolia; evergreen tree to 7m (23ft); also clones with exceptionally fine
best female clones produce glossy leaves 8–15cm (3–6in), oblong to ellip- foliage and fruit, some yellow-berried;
black berries in abundance); I.dipyrena tic, acute, glossy mid-green; fruit bright some, like ‘Mrs Santa’ are suitable for
(HIMALAYAN HOLLY; W China, E red; cultivars include free-fruiting, hedging; ‘St Mary’ is offered as a
Himalaya; evergreen tree to 15m (50ft); lime-green, bright green and black- Christmas potplant in N America);
leaves 5–11cm (2–41/2in), oblong or green-leaved clones); I.laevigata I.pedunculosa (Japan, China, Taiwan;
elliptic, acute or briefly tapering, entire (SMOOTH WINTERBERRY; E US; differs evergreen tree to 10m (33ft); leaves
or spiny in juveniles, dull mid-green; from I.verticillata in its glabrous leaves 4–8cm (11/2–3in), ovate, acuminate,
fruit red); I.fargesii (China; evergreen and longer-stalked, orange-red to entire, dark glossy green; fruit bright
shrub or small tree to 12m (39ft); leaves yellow fruit); I.latifolia (TARAJO; Japan, red, long-stalked); I.pernyi (C & W
6–12cm (21/2–43/4in), oblanceolate to China; erect, evergreen shrub to 7m China; evergreen shrub or small tree to
oblong-elliptic, apex tapering, serrate (23ft); leaves 8–18cm (3–7in), oblong to 8.5m (28ft); leaves 1.5–3cm (5/8–11/4in),
or entire near base, leathery, dull dark oblong-ovate, blunt or briefly tapered, triangular, margins 5-spined, apex
green); I.georgei (Burma, Yunnan; wide- serrate, leathery, dark glossy green; tapered, base square, dark glossy green;
spreading, dense shrub to 5m (16ft); fruit orange-red); I.macrocarpa (S China; fruit dark red; ‘Jermyns Dwarf ’: habit
leaves 3.5–5cm (11/2–2in), lanceolate to deciduous tree to 17m (56ft); branchlets low, arching); I.serrata (JAPANESE WIN-
ovate, apex acuminate, weakly spined, short, spur-like; leaves 7–11cm TERBERRY; Japan, China; deciduous
leathery, dark glossy green; fruit red); (23/4–41/2in), ovate to elliptic, tapered, shrub to 4m (13ft); leaves 4–8cm
I.glabra (GALLBERRY, INKBERRY; E N finely toothed; fruit very large, black); (11/2–3in), elliptic, apex acute to nar-
America; evergreen, erect shrub to 3m I. x meserveae (I.aquifolium x I.rugosa; ever- rowly tapered, finely toothed, some-
(10ft); leaves 2–5cm (3/4–2in), narrowly green shrub to 2m (61/2ft), resembling a what downy at least at first; fruit red;
obovate to oblanceolate, entire or with small-leaved I.aquifolium; leaves glossy, includes yellow- and white-fruited
a few teeth near the apex, glossy green; often blue-green, spiny; fruit red; culti- cultivars); I.verticillata (BLACK ALDER,
fruit black; includes cultivars with vars include clones with improved har- WINTERBERRY; E N America; decidu-
white berries, also dwarf and slow- diness, slow-growing, compact habit, ous, suckering shrub to 2m (61/2ft); 397
growing, hardy selections, some with purple-tinted stems and new growth, leaves 4–10cm (11/2–4in), obovate to
Ilex
lanceolate, acuminate, serrate, bright immersed (1) entirely submerged in summer, the flowers consist of five
green, hairy beneath; fruit red; includes water; cf. emersed; (2) features embedded petals and a curving spur. The fruit is an
cultivars with foliage that turns rich and sunken below the surface of a leaf explosive capsule which, when touched,
bronze in autumn and berries ranging blade. suddenly splits and rolls inwards, fling-
from bright scarlet to orange-red and ing the seeds in all directions. I.walleri-
yellow; the leafless, fruiting branches immortelle see everlasting. ana, I.hawkeri and I.balsamina make good
of some cultivars are sold in the cut- house plants, but are more usually
flower trade); I.yunnanensis (Burma, immunity absolute and specific resis- grown as summer-flowering half-hardy
China; evergreen shrub to 4m (13ft); tance of plants to disease or, less com- bedding for borders and containers;
leaves 2–3.5cm (3/4–11/2in), ovate to monly, to pest infestation. Immunity is they are particularly useful in shady
lanceolate, crenate to serrulate, glossy due to metabolic or morphological fac- sites. Species like I.niamniamensis and
dark green; fruit red). tors; it should not be confused with I.repens are grown in the intermediate
resistance or tolerance (two terms often to hot greenhouse – keep the larger
Illicium (from Latin illicium, allure- used interchangeably). Immunity is a perennials fairly dry during winter
ment, alluding to the attractive odour possible aim of plant breeders, and dormancy, when leaf loss may occur.
of these plants). Illiciaceae. SE Asia, successful products are known as I.glandulifera and I.capensis will survive
I SE US, West Indies. ANISE TREE. Some

40 species, evergreen, aromatic shrubs
and small trees with thick-textured,
immune cultivars. The advantages
of immune cultivars should be seen
against one potential disadvantage:
and self-sow in the open where winter
temperatures fall to –15°C/5°F and
below. They are suitable for naturaliz-
glossy leaves. Produced during late that, unlike resistant cultivars, they ing in the cool, shady wild garden, but
spring and summer, the solitary flowers present fungal, bacterial and viral may become invasive. Sow seed of
are borne in the leaf axils and consist pathogens with a threat to their exis- these hardy species in situ in late spring.
of numerous, oblong, petal-like seg- tence, and this encourages genetic For frost-tender species, sow seed
ments. Strongly anise-scented, the variation in the attacking organism. under glass in spring and prick out
fruit is star-shaped with thinly woody A consequent breakdown in immunity into individual pots of a loamless or
1-seeded carpels. The following are of the host species can have medium-fertility loam-based mix; grow
hardy in zone 7, but prefer a sheltered catastrophic effects. on in sunny, airy but frost-free condi-
situation, or wall protection. Grow in tions, and pinch and turn frequently to
sun or part shade, in lime-free, humus- imparipinnate where a pinnately create bushy plants. For bedding, plant
rich soils that are well-drained but compound leaf terminates in a single out after the last frosts, and keep well-
never dry. Propagate from simple leaflet, pinna or tendril; cf. paripinnate. watered. Regular pinching of the suc-
layers, alternatively by culent stems is necessary to obtain
semi-ripe cuttings. compact, attractive specimens. For the
I.anisatum (STAR ANISE; greenhouse or home, grow on in a
Japan, Taiwan; highly aro- low-fertility loam-based mix
matic shrub or small and give cool conditions
tree to 8m (26ft); flowers and filtered light in
to 3cm (11/4in) in diameter, summer, with a direct
segments to 30, yellow- light and a minimum temper-
green to white); I.flori- ature of 10°C/50°F in winter.
danum (PURPLE ANISE; If the side-shoots and first flower
SE US; shrub or small buds of I.balsamina are removed,
tree to 3m (10ft); flowers to tall flowering spikes result. Propa-
5cm (2in) in diameter, nodding, gate good colour forms by softwood
segments to 30, dark red, purple cuttings in spring; root in a soilless
or maroon); I.henryi (C and W fleshy stems propagating mix in a closed case with
China; shrub or small tree to 7m copious seeds
gentle bottom heat. Seed of many of
(23ft); flowers to 2cm (3/4in) in the warmer-growing species is short-
diameter, cupped, segments Impatiens glandulifera lived. This is not the case however with
10–14, copper to dark red). Impatiens (from Latin impatiens, I.balsamina, I.hawkeri and I.walleriana
impatient, referring to the elastic valves and their cultivars.
imago the adult form of an insect. of the seed pod, which violently dis- I.balsamina (GARDEN BALSAM, ROSE
charge the ripe seed). Balsaminaceae. BALSAM; SE Asia; more or less
imbibition the absorption of water Cosmopolitan except S America, Aus- unbranched annual, erect to 75cm
by seeds in preparation for germina- tralia and New Zealand. PATIENCE (30in); flowers 2.5–5cm (1–2in) in
tion. PLANT, BALSAM, BUSY LIZZIE, SULTANA. diameter, saccate, white, creamy yellow,
850 species, annual or perennial herbs pink, lilac, deep crimson, scarlet or
398 imbricate of such organs as leaves or subshrubs with more or less succu- purple, some bicoloured, some double
or bracts, overlapping. lent stems. Borne in spring and or semi-double); I.capensis (JEWELWEED,
incumbent
LADY’S EARINGS, ORANGE BALSAM; ‘Rubra’), JAPANESE BLOOD GRASS; it to 30cm (12in); corolla tube 3–6.5cm
N US, naturalized Europe; annual to seldom exceeds 30cm (12in), with new (11/4–21/2in), deep rose outside, white
1m (31/4ft), erect to spreading; flowers growth flushed bright ruby red at first, to grey or yellow inside, lobes to 3cm
to 2.5cm (1in), saccate, orange-yellow becoming brilliant blood red to deep (11/4in), rounded, wavy, crimson to deep
with red-brown spots); I.glandulifera garnet in autumn). carmine).
(HIMALAYAN BALSAM, POLICEMAN’S
HELMET; Himalaya, naturalized imperfect when certain parts usually inchworm see caterpillars.
Europe, N America; stout annual erect present are not developed. Imperfect
to 2m (61/2ft); flowers to 4cm (11/2in), flowers are unisexual. incised dissected, but cut deeply and
fragrant, deeply saccate, pink to rose- irregularly with the segments joined by
purple, to lavender or white with a impressed a feature sunken into the broad lamina.
yellow-spotted interior); I.niamniamensis surface of, for example, a leaf or stem.
(E tropical Africa; perennial to 90cm included enclosed within; as of a
(36in), more or less erect and inarching see grafting. grass floret by its glume, or stamens
unbranched; flowers to 5cm (2in), within a corolla.
deeply saccate and compressed, sepals inbreeder a genetically uniform
red, petals yellow-green; ‘Congo Cock-
atoo’: flowers large, red and bright
yellow-green); I.repens (India, Sri Lanka;
cultivar that reproduces uniformly by
self-pollination and self-fertilization. I
creeping and freely branching peren- inbreeding the process of fertilizing
nial; flowers to 4cm (11/2in), saccate, the flowers of a plant with its own
yellow, spur downy); I.schlechteri (New pollen; resultant plants may be referred
Guinea to Solomon Islands; branched to as an inbred line.
perennial herb to 10cm (4in); stems
thick, red-tinted; leaves tinged bronze; inbreeding depression the loss of
flowers 6–8cm (21/2–3in) in diameter, vigour, fertility, yield, or other desirable
red, crimson, purple, pink or white; characteristics which may result from
includes cultivars with large, double inbreeding.
and frilled flowers, some with very
deep bronze-red leaves, or variegated Incarvillea (for Pierre d’Incarville
emerald, yellow and red); I.walleriana (1706–57), French missionary in China,
(syn. I.sultanii; BUSY LIZZIE, PATIENCE and botanical correspondent of the
PLANT, SULTANA; perennial treated as botanist Bernard de Jussieu). Bignoni-
an annual, 15–60cm (6–24in) tall, aceae. C and E Asia, Himalaya. 14
bushy with translucent, succulent species, annual or perennial herbs (those Incompatibility in top fruits
branches; flowers 2.5–5cm (1–2in) listed below are perennials), usually For a good crop of quality fruits, avoid the
diameter, flat, bright red, crimson, with basal clumps of pinnate or pinna- choice of incompatible pollinators, for exam-
orange, pink, white or multicoloured; tisect leaves. Produced in summer in ple, ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ and ‘Golden Deli-
numerous cultivars and seed races terminal racemes or panicles, the flow- cious’. Choose cultivars that flower together.
include dwarf and large plants, with ers are tubular to campanulate with a
single and double flowers in a wide limb of five, broad and spreading incompatibility (1) the inability of
colour range, and leaves variegated lobes. The following species are hardy one plant to fertilize another, a factor
yellow or tinted red or purple-bronze). to –15°C/5°F, but where the ground is which is of particular relevance in top
likely to be frozen for long periods, fruit growing; (2) the inability of a
Imperata Gramineae. Cosmopoli- protect the crowns with a deep, dry given rootstock to form a long-term
tan. 8 species, clump-forming to run- mulch. Grow them in deep, fertile soils union with a scion.
ning perennial grasses with linear to neither waterlogged in winter nor dry
lanceolate leaves. Silky flowers are car- in summer. Position in full sun but with incomplete flowers lacking one or
ried in spike-like panicles from late some protection at the hottest part of more of the four whorls of the com-
summer to autumn. Grow in damp but the day. Propagate by seed in autumn plete flower.
well-drained, fertile soils, preferably in or spring, and prick out into individual
full sunlight. Hard frosts and winter pots. Division is possible but difficult: incrassate thickened.
wet may cause young plants to deterio- established plants tend to resent root
rate or perish – their crowns may need disturbance. incumbent folded inward and lying
a dry mulch in zones 6 and under. I.delavayi (China; to 60cm (24in); on or leaning against another organ. It
Increase by division in early spring. corolla tube to 6cm (21/2in), purple-pink is used of cotyledons when the radicle
I.cylindrica (Japan; leaves to 50cm (20in) and yellow outside, yellow lined purple lies on one side instead of along the
erect to arching, bright green; the plant inside, lobes to 3cm (11/4in), rounded, edge, and of an anther when it lies 399
usually grown is ‘Red Baron’, (syn. wavy, purple-pink); I.mairei (SW China; against the inner face of its filament.
incurved
incurved, incurving applied to white suffused pale crimson at base, inferior beneath.
one of the major exhibition forms of wings pink); I.dielsiana (SW China;
chrysanthemum in which the florets shrub to 150cm (60in); racemes to infertile (1) of a plant unable to pro-
turn upwards and inwards, either 15cm (6in), erect, flowers to 1.5cm duce viable gametes or seed, and fruit;
tightly to form a compact globose (5/8in), pale red-pink, downy); I.heterantha (2) sometimes used of soils which are
flower (incurved), or loosely (incurving). (syn. I.gerardiana; NW Himalaya; shrub acid or low in nutrients, or of poor
to 2.5m (8ft); leaves grey-downy; structure or with impeded drainage.
indehiscent not splitting open to racemes dense, erect, 7–15cm
release its pollen or, more usually, seeds (23/4–6in); flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in), pale infiltration the passage of rain
or spores. It is generally applied to fruit pink, rosy purple or crimson); I.pseudo- or irrigation water into the soil.
types, such as achenes, berries, drupes tinctoria (Taiwan, Japan, C China; sub-
and pomes; cf. dehiscent. shrub to 90cm (36in); racemes 4–10cm inflexed bent inwards towards the
(11/2–4in), packed; flowers to 0.5cm main plant axis.
indeterminate (1) describing an (1/4in), pale red to pale pink or white
inflorescence that does not terminate tinted rose); I.tinctoria (SE Asia; racemes inflorescence the arrangement of
in a single flower, and in which the slender, shorter than leaves, standard flowers and their accessory parts on
I spike continues to grow as lower

flowers open; (2) used of tomato
cultivars where the main stem
pale red to rose, wings and keel of a
somewhat deeper hue).
an axis.
infra- as a prefix, denotes below, as in

continues to grow to great length Indocalamus (from indo, Indian, infrastipular, meaning below the stipules.
unless stopped; cf. determinate; bush. and Greek kalamos, reed). Gramineae.
China, Japan, Malaysia. Some 25 infrageneric describing a taxon below
Indianesque a garden style reflect- species of relatively small, running the rank of genus, i.e. subgenus, species,
ing elements of Indian gardening, bamboos; see bamboos. subspecies, variety, forma, cultivar.
particularly in its use of ornaments
and architectural detail. Occasionally indumentum a covering of hair, infraspecific describing a taxon
practised in England by Humphry scurf or scales, most often used in below the rank of species, i.e. sub-
Repton and his followers in the late the general sense of hair. species, variety, forma, cultivar.
18th and early 19th centuries.
induplicate of a leaf, sheath, sepal infructescence fruiting stage of
indigenous strictly native; not exotic, or petal, folded inwards. the inflorescence.
naturalized or introduced.
indurate hardened and toughened. infundibular, infundibuliform
Indigofera (from Latin indigus indigo, funnel-shaped.
and -ferus, bearing). Leguminosae. indusium the epidermal tissue that
Widespread in tropical and subtropical covers or surrounds the spore-bearing injection the placement of a pesti-
regions. Some 700 species, small trees, region of a fern frond. cide beneath the soil surface, for exam-
shrubs, or annual or perennial herbs ple, as a possible control for eelworm;
with pea-like flowers in racemes or or, occasionally, into the branches,
spikes. Although liable to be cut back trunks, or roots of trees. In most cases,
to the ground in cold winters, they special equipment is necessary to
will tolerate temperatures to about ensure correct dosage.
–15°C/5°F. Grow in full sun, with the
shelter of a warm wall and a deep inoculum (1) potentially infective
winter mulch in zones at the limits of material present in the garden environ-
hardiness. Prune out dead and frosted ment, for example fruiting bodies of
growth and rejuvenate old, leggy speci- black spot (Diplocarpon rosae) overwinter-
mens by cutting back to ground level ing on fallen rose leaves; (2) material
in spring. Where growth above ground containing microorganisms used to
survives several winters, cut the latest inoculate a plant or substrate.
season’s growth back to framework
of older wood in spring. Propagate by Gleditsia triacanthos f. inermis inorganic denoting a substance
semi-ripe cuttings of lateral shoots This form of Gleditsia is thornless or ‘inerm’, devoid of carbon; of neither plant nor
rooted in the cold frame; alternatively, as indicated by its botanical name. Forms of animal origin. Inorganic fertilizers,
increase by root cuttings or by removal plants that atypically are without spines or whether in natural or synthesized form,
of suckers. thorns are good choices for the family garden. are of mineral origin. The identifica-
I.decora (Japan, C China; shrub to tion of organic/inorganic origins is of
400 80cm (32in); racemes erect, to 20cm inerm, inermous unarmed; with- particular relevance in considerations
(8in), flowers to 2cm (3/4in), standard out spines, prickles or teeth. of organic gardening.
insecticide
insects an extremely diverse class insecticide a chemical used to kill

of animals represented by more than or control insect pests. Insecticides are
800,000 described species, which con- sometimes given names that describe
stitute about 70 per cent of all known the type of pest or stage of its lifecycle
animal species. Adult insects have controlled – for example, acaricide
a hard external skeleton with three (mites), nematicide (nematodes or
pairs of jointed legs; the body eelworms), molluscicide (slugs and
egg adult
consists of a head, thorax and butterfly snails) and ovicide (eggs).
abdomen. The head has com- pupa, or Most insecticides work by con-
pound eyes, a pair of antennae 1st instar larva chrysalis tact action, i.e. it is necessary for
and mouthparts, which may be the pest to be either covered by
adapted for biting and chewing the chemical or to walk over a
or for sucking liquids. The 2nd instar larva treated surface in order for it to
thorax consists of three seg- 5th instar larva
be affected. Some insecticides are
ments, each of which has a pair absorbed into the plant and are
3rd instar larva
of legs, and in most insects there is effective against sap-feeding pests
a pair of wings on each of the front
two segments. Some insects, such as
worker ants, have no wings while
4th instar larva
such as aphids. Others are stomach
poisons deposited on plant surfaces to
be eaten by pests such as caterpillars
I
others, such as female winter moths, and beetles; a few insecticides are
have tiny non-functional wings. The volatile and work by vapour action. In
abdomen is made up of 11 segments, practice, many chemicals act on pests
Complete metamorphosis of the small
although some may be very small and in more than one way. Insecticides are
cabbage white butterfly
modified to form part of the genitalia. The more advanced types of insect undergo most usually applied as sprays, but also
Most insects reproduce by laying complete transformation in stages. Leafy as dusts, granules, smokes, baits and
eggs but some groups, such as the brassicas are host to the cabbage white but- aerosols.
aphids, can give birth to live young. terfly; their hatched larvae can devour the The availability of insecticides for
The immature stages in the life cycle leaf blades completely where uncontrolled. garden use is governed primarily by a
may be very different in appearance system of statutory approval. This is
to the adult form and often have feed on foliage and stems but some driven by considerations of health and
entirely different dietary requirements. species of aphid and mealybug take safety risk to humans and identified
A typical example is the cabbage white sap from roots. Many aphids, white- harmful effects within the natural
butterfly, the larvae of which are cater- flies, scale insects, suckers and mealy- environment. The chemical substances
pillars that feed on brassica leaves; the bugs excrete a sugary liquid called referred to in the following paragraphs
larval stage is followed by a non-feed- honeydew. This makes the foliage are not necessarily available or
ing resting stage called a pupa, from sticky and allows the growth of black approved for use in horticulture. Their
which the adult butterfly emerges to sooty moulds. Some aphids, leafhop- inclusion is provided to indicate types
suck nectar from various flowers. pers and thrips are efficient vectors of or examples of substances formerly or
Lacewings, moths, flies, beetles, ants, plant virus diseases, carrying viral par- currently in use as insecticides.
bees, wasps and sawflies also go ticles on their mouthparts or in their Plant-derived insecticides
through this form of development, saliva when they transfer to a new Plant-derived insecticides are naturally
known as complete metamorphosis. plant. The remaining plant pests have occurring, chemically unrelated sub-
Other insects, including earwigs, mouthparts used for biting and chew- stances, which include some of the ear-
termites, aphids, scale, mealybugs, ing plant tissues and may be root liest pesticide discoveries. Pyrethrum,
whiteflies, capsid bugs and thrips, go feeders, stem borers, defoliators, leaf derived from the flowerhead of Tanace-
through incomplete metamorphosis, miners, leaf rollers, gall formers, flower tum cinerariifolium, was used as early as
producing immature stages which are feeders or fruit borers. Some moth the 18th century in Persia. Derris, or
rather similar in appearance to the caterpillars and beetle larvae specialize rotenone, is produced from the roots of
adult form. The length of life cycle in feeding on dry plant material such Derris and Lonchocarpus species; its insec-
may be as little as two to three weeks, as seeds and stored food. ticidal properties were developed in the
as shown by aphids breeding under Not all insects are pests. The vast 1920s from the practice of South
warm conditions, while the larvae of majority are of no practical impor- American native peoples using crushed
some wood-boring insects need several tance, and some are of definite benefit roots to paralyse fish. Nicotine is
years to reach maturity. in gardens. Predators and parasites extracted from tobacco waste, which
Virtually all cultivated plants are help to keep pest numbers down (see emanates from Nicotiana species. Soft
attacked by at least one insect pest. beneficial insects, biological control), and the soaps are derived from palm oil as well
Thrips and the various insects which inconsiderate use of pesticides can lead as other natural fats. All of these sub-
belong to the Hemiptera have needle- to a resurgence of some pests once stances provide some control of pests 401
like mouthparts used to suck sap. Most their natural enemies are eliminated. but they have very short persistence.
insecticide
Their harmful effects on beneficial Resistance to insecticides insectivorous plant see carnivorous
insects are limited, and when diluted Various pests of fruit, vegetables and plant.
they are of low toxicity to humans greenhouse crops have developed
and most other vertebrate animals, resistance to at least one group of inserted attached to or placed upon.
except fish. pesticides; these include red spider
Synthesized insecticides mites, whiteflies, aphids, some root insertion the point or mode of
ORGANOCHLORINES This group of flies of vegetables, Colorado beetle, attachment for a body to its support.
insecticides, developed during the diamond back moth, codling moth
period 1939–60, combine relatively low and pear psyllids. There is no evidence instar any stage between moultings
mammalian toxicity with a high degree that pesticides induce mutations, but in the growth of an insect larva or
of insecticidal activity. Those such as rather that they act as a selective agent, nymph.
DDT, aldrin, dieldrin and chlordane killing only individuals with susceptible
have been banned in many countries genetic characteristics and leaving insulation a means of conserving
because of their persistence and accu- those possessing genes that provide heat in greenhouses, frames and
mulation within the environment and them with immunity. garden buildings, and around plants,
harmful effects on birds and animals. Three factors are conducive to the in order to maintain a required grow-
I Lindane, also known as gamma-HCH

or BHC, is of moderate persistence.
Dicofol is an acaricide effective against
development of resistance. First, the
frequency of the occurrence of resis-
tant genes in the original population:
ing temperature and/or to protect
tender plants from frost. Insulation
of heated garden structures results
tarsonemid and red spider mites, some resistant strains are very local- in economy of fuel usage.
although resistance to it is now ized, indicating, in such cases, that the On greenhouse structures, double-
widespread among the latter. resistant genes are not universally dis- glazing and double-skin cladding with
ORGANOPHOSPHATES A group of tributed. Second, the intensity of selec- rigid or film plastic are effective forms
insecticides, developed from 1950 tion, which is dependent upon the of insulation. Polythene sheet fitted to
onwards, containing many compounds magnitude of the population exposed the inside surfaces of a greenhouse
of short to medium persistence and to the pesticide and the proportion provides useful insulation, while prod-
which break down to harmless chemi- killed. Third, the number of genera- ucts made by fusing two sheets of film
cals, and are therefore less damaging to tions passed through each year. to enclose air bubbles are very efficient
the environment than organochlorines. In the development of resistance, in heat retention. In large greenhouses,
The contact insecticides malathion, there are essentially two types of mechanized installations for drawing
fenitrothion, trichlorfon, dichlorvos, mechanism involved. In one, enzymes an insulating sheet horizontally across
diazinon and pirimiphos-methyl, and undergo genetically-based changes the width of the greenhouse at about
systemics, including dimethoate, hep- which enhance their ability to break the height of the eaves are worthwhile;
tenophos and oxydemeton-methyl, are down the pesticide to a non-toxic prod- these systems are known as thermal
organophosphates effective against uct; the other, also under genetic con- screens. During cold spells, frames may
sap-feeding pests and leaf miners. trol, makes the organisms insensitive be insulated by covering with a poly-
CARBAMATES Among carbamates, to the pesticide. Although such mecha- thene sheet, hessian, old carpet or simi-
developed in the mid 1950s for use as nisms usually develop in response to lar. All of these methods of insulation
insecticides, were carbaryl and pirimi- the selective pressure of a single pesti- involve some loss of light.
carb; the latter used as a selective cide, the system when established, is Covering plants with glass or plastic
insecticide for the control of aphids invariably capable of affording protec- cloches, or horticultural fleece, provides
whilst leaving most other pests and tion against a group of related pesti- varying degrees of protection from
beneficial insects unharmed. cides. Once resistance has been heat loss. Bracken or straw wrapped
PYRETHROIDS A series of synthetic established, effective chemical pest con- around tender plants outdoors is a
pyrethroid compounds arising as a trol can only be obtained by switching valuable means of insulation but some
result of changes made to the molecu- to a chemically unrelated group of form of outer cover is necessary in
lar structure of natural pyrethrum. insecticides. However, this practice order to prevent waterlogging. Poly-
Some of the early products introduced often proves of short-lived value, thene screens are suitable for some
during the 1970s, such as resmethrin because many insects and mites have wall plants. Mounding with soil or
and bioresmethrin, have the low mam- the capacity to develop additional any organic mulching material will
malian toxicity and short persistence mechanisms that provide them with conserve heat in vegetable clamps
of natural pyrethrum, but greater multiple resistance. and around the roots of plants that
insecticidal activity. Permethrin is a Resistance develops through inten- are not reliably hardy.
pyrethroid of moderate persistence, sive and wide-spread use of insecti-
which has low toxicity to mammals cides. Where appropriate, the use of integrated pest management
and birds. Some of the later non-chemical methods are valuable in (IPM) The term IPM initially referred
pyrethroids, such as deltamethrin helping to avoid the problem. See bene- to the control of insects and other
402 and cypermethrin, are more toxic ficial insects, biological control, integrated pests, but has been extended to encom-
and have greater persistence. pest management, organic gardening. pass disease and weed control. The
Inula
reduced risk to beneficial insects. interspecific hybrid the offspring

Pesticides with a narrow-spectrum and of a cross between two species of the
short persistence should be preferred. same genus. It is designated in written
The garden is an ideal environment descriptions by a multiplication sign
for both plants and pests, and garden- between the genus name and the
ing skills are needed to tip the balance hybrid epithet, for example Forsythia x
in favour of plant health. Healthy intermedia, the hybrid offspring of
plants produced by sound husbandry F.suspensa and F.viridissima.
are less likely to fall prey to pests and
diseases. See beneficial insects, interstock the intermediate portion
Integrated pest management biological control. of stem that is grafted to the scion and
Physical pest deterrents, including fitting rootstock of a double-worked tree.
individual plant collars to prevent egg-laying inter- as a prefix, denotes between or Interstocks are used as a means of
by cabbage root fly, can be part of a system among, as in interstaminal, meaning overcoming incompatibility. For exam-
of integrated pest management. between the stamens. ple, the pear cultivar ‘Beurré Hardy’
is commonly used as an interstock
description ‘integrated control’ was first
used in the US in 1956, and in 1967
the Food and Agriculture Organization
intercropping, intersowing
growing a relatively rapid maturing
crop between rows of a slower-growing
between a quince rootstock and some
scion cultivars such as ‘Packham’s
Triumph’ and most clones of
I
defined the concept as ‘a pest manage- one in order to make maximum use of ‘William’s Bon Chrétien’. See grafting.
ment system that utilizes all suitable available ground. For example, lettuce
techniques and methods, in as compat- or radishes can be sown and harvested intra- as a prefix, denotes within or
ible a manner as possible, to maintain between widely spaced rows of estab- inside, as in intrastaminal, meaning
the pest population at levels below lishing Brussels sprouts. inside the stamens or the circle of
those causing economic damage’. stamens.
Although in its conceptual sense IPM intergeneric hybrid the offspring
involves the scientific study of targeted of a cross between plants of different intraspecific describes hybrids that
organisms, in practice its implementa- genera. It is designated in written have occurred between two distinct
tion is usually concerned with supervi- descriptions by a multiplication sign varieties of the same species.
sory control. Its broad objectives are an before the hybrid genus name, for
increase in biological control and con- example the common conifer x Cupres- introduction a non-indigenous
servation of natural enemies, together socyparis leylandii, which originates from plant, usually purposefully introduced.
with a reduction in the use of pesti- the hybridization of Cupressus macrocarpa
cides and utilization of any secondary with Chamaecyparis nootkatensis. introrse turned or facing inwards,
measures of control that are available. towards the axis, as with an anther that
Gardeners may not be in a position intermediate (1) applied to one of opens towards the centre of its flower.
to practise full IPM, but some of its the major exhibition forms of chrysan-
principles can be followed by increas- themum in which flowers are interme- intumescence a small, localized
ing the use of non-chemical control diate in form between Incurved and proliferation of plant tissue, on leaves
methods. For example, the use of Reflexed; (2) a hybrid plant showing and fruit especially, caused by a humid
greasebands on tree trunks against characteristics intermediate between growing environment or other situation
winter moths reduces the need to use both parents. where water uptake is greater than the
insecticides, as does the placing of discs rate of loss by aerial parts. Similar
around the base of brassicas to protect internal rust spot a condition of lesions which are more widespread,
them against root fly (Delia brassicae). potatoes which is only apparent when and often larger, are referred to as
Correct timing often means that a affected tubers are sectioned. It typi- oedema (q.v.).
single application of a non-chemical cally shows as small rust-coloured
control method can replace several patchy spots distributed across the Inula (name used by Pliny for a plant
protective sprays; this would apply, for tuber; these are often more concen- similar to Helenium (Greek helenion), per-
example, when using pheromone traps trated towards the surface. The condi- haps I.helenium). Compositae. Temper-
for codling moth (Cydia pomonella). tion is most prevalent in potatoes ate and warm Old World. About 90
Available pesticides can often be grown on sandy, infertile soils, espe- species, mostly perennial herbs or sub-
applied as spot treatments to individual cially those low in organic matter, and shrubs, rarely annual or biennial (those
plants or in band treatments along where plants encounter drought stress. listed below are herbaceous perennials),
plant rows; also as seed dressings, gran- There are differences in cultivar usually hairy, with daisy-like flowerheads
ules and baits. Not only are such meth- susceptibility. composed of slender, golden-yellow ray
ods less wasteful and therefore more florets, in summer. Fully hardy. Grow in
economic but, most important, they internode the length of plant stem sun in moderately fertile, well-drained 403
target the application effectively, with between nodes. soil. Propagate by seed or division.
Inula
I.acaulis (Asia Minor; to 20cm (8in), sparingly in winter. In cool temperate Ipomoea (from Greek ips, a worm,
stem tinted purple; leaves 3–6cm zones, pot-grown specimens may be and homoios, resembling). Convolvu-
(11/4–21/2in), oblanceolate to spathulate, moved outside for the summer. Prune laceae. Widely distributed in tropical
entire, ciliate, minutely glandular; ray in spring to restrict or rejuvenate. Prop- and subtropical regions. MORNING
florets to 1.5cm (5/8in)); I.ensifolia (E agate by greenwood cuttings, rooted GLORY. 450–500 species, annual to
Europe; to 60cm (24in); leaves to 9cm with bottom heat in a case in summer, perennial herbs, shrubs or small trees,
(31/2in), linear to lanceolate, entire, cili- or by seed sown in spring. I.cyaneum woody to herbaceous and usually
ate, glabrous; ray florets to 2.2cm (3/4in) (syn. I.tubulosum; northwestern S Amer- climbing. The leaves are entire to
I.hookeri (Himalaya; to 60cm (24in); ica; shrub to 3m (10ft); flowers to lobed. Solitary to cymose or paniculate,
leaves to 13cm (5in), oblong to lanceo- 3.5cm (11/2in), deep purple-blue). the flowers are deeply funnel-shaped to
late, minutely toothed, hairy; ray florets tubular with a circular, entire rim or a
2.5cm (1in)); I.magnifica (Caucasus; to Ipheion (from iphyon, a Classical limb of five lobes.
2m (61/2ft), stem tinted purple-black; Greek name used in a number of Apart from I.tricolor, the ubiquitous
leaves to 25cm (10in), elliptic to ovate, different forms for an assortment morning glory, other popular species
dentate, dark green, glabrous above, of plants, including bulbous genera). include I.alba, the spectacular moon-
villous beneath; ray florets to 2cm Liliaceae (Alliaceae). S America. 10 flower, a woody-based perennial with
I (3/4in)); I.loculus-christi (E Europe, Cauca-

sus, Tukey, Iraq, Iran; to 15cm (6in);
leaves to 14cm (51/2in), oblong to lance-
species, tufted, bulbous perennials,
most parts smelling of garlic if bruised,
the leaves especially. The bulbs are
huge white blooms, and I.coccinea,
I.quamoclit and I. x multifida – vigorous
vines, though delicate in appearance,
olate or elliptic, entire or denticulate; small and clumped and the leaves with small flowers in brilliant tones of
ray florets to 2cm (3/4in)). narrow and smooth, arising in loose crimson and scarlet. The last two, with
tussocks. Produced in spring and finely divided leaves, are especially
invalid applied to botanical summer, the flowers are salverform attractive. The Spanish flag, I.lobata, is
names published without, for with a spreading limb of six, ovate- a weakly twining annual or short-lived
example, the necessary formalities oblong tepals; they are carried perennial with erect spikes of flowers
of description, diagnosis, singly or in pairs on slen- which pass with age through scarlet,
type designation, der scapes. I.uniflorum is yellow and cream. Subtropical gardens
or not published in hardy in zone 6, but and large heated conservatories
a valid (i.e. botani- may need mulch might accommodate the two robust,
cally acceptable) protection in areas semi-woody species, I.mauritiana and
publication. that experience I.horsfalliae, the first with narrowly
prolonged frosts. funnel-shaped deep red or purple-pink
involucel a sec- Plant in a well- flowers, the second with wider blooms
ondary or diminu- drained gritty in shades of pink with a darker ‘eye’.
tive involucre. soil in dap- In cool-temperate areas, grow Ipo-
pled or full moea under glass (minimum tempera-
involucre a sun in a shel- ture 7–10°C/45–50°F) in pots and
single, highly con- tered position. tubs. Grow vigorous species in borders
spicuous bract, a Propagate by where space allows, or treat the fast-
bract pair, or a whorl seed during growing, soft-stemmed twiners as
of small bracts or spring or by offsets frost-tender annuals. Plant in fertile,
leaves subtending a whorl of in late summer when well-drained loam in a warm, sunny
flower or inflorescence. bracts the foliage dies back. site and provide support. In frost-free
I.uniflorum (syn. Triteleia areas, sow in situ. Under glass, give a
Involucre
involute rolled inward, uniflora, Milla uniflora, Bro- high-fertility, loam-based mix and
(Bougainvillea)
toward the uppermost side. diaea uniflora, Beauverdia uniflora; medium to high humidity; water
SPRING STAR-FLOWER; Argentina, plentifully during the growing season.
Iochroma (from Greek ion, violet, Uruguay; leaves to 25cm (10in), nar- Prune semi-woody species in late
and chroma, colour, referring to the rowly strap-shaped, glaucescent; scapes winter or spring to thin out old con-
flowers of some species). Solanaceae. 5–20cm (2–8in), numerous, flowers to gested growth. Propagate from seed
Tropical America. Some 20 species, 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, pale blue to sown singly in pots in spring at
shrubs or small trees with clusters of deeper lilac, with a white or cream 18°C/64°F: nick seeds or soak for 12
tubular to narrowly trumpet-shaped, suffusion in throat and darker stripes hours in tepid water to promote rapid
5-lobed flowers in summer. Provide a along the midvein of each segment; germination. Perennials may also be
minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F, includes the pure white ‘Album’, propagated by softwood or semi-ripe
full or bright indirect light and a buoy- ‘Froyle Mill’ with deep violet flowers, cuttings in summer.
ant atmosphere. Grow in a well- the clear blue ‘Rolf Fiedler’, and I.alba (syn. I.bona-nox, Calonyction
404 drained, medium-fertility, loam-based ‘Wisley Blue’ with pale blue flowers aculeatum; MOONFLOWER, BELLE DE
mixture; water plentifully in summer, with deeper tips). NUIT; Pantropical; woody-based,
Iris
herbaceous perennial climber, 5–30m with fringed or fluted limbs); I.purpurea hairy biennial, erect to 80cm (32in);
(16–100ft); leaves to 15cm (6in), ovate (syn. Convolvulus major of gardens, leaves finely pinnate; flowers to 4cm
to heart-shaped, entire to 3-lobed, Pharbitis purpurea; COMMON MORNING (11/2in), pink to magenta or bright red
smooth; flowers to 15 x 14cm (6 x GLORY; Mexico, widely naturalized mottled yellow, rarely pure yellow or
51/2in), trumpet-shaped, white faintly elsewhere in Tropics; annual herb, usu- white); I.rubra (STANDING CYPRESS; SE
striped green, fragrant at night); I.coc- ally hairy, climbing to 2.5m (8ft); leaves US; more or less glabrous, unbranched
cinea (syn Quamoclit coccinea; RED MORN- to 10cm (4in), ovate to rounded, entire biennial or perennial erect to 2m
ING GLORY, STAR IPOMOEA; US; annual or 3-lobed; flowers to 5 x 5cm (2 x 2in), (61/2ft); leaves finely pinnate; flowers
herb climbing to 4m (13ft); leaves to funnel-shaped, blue, purple, pink, red, to 2.5cm (1in), scarlet, interior yellow
10cm (4in), ovate to heart-shaped, white, or with stripes of these colours spotted red).
entire or toothed; flowers to 2.5 x 2cm on a white background; includes culti-
(1 x 3/4in), tubular, scarlet with a golden vars with silver-variegated leaves and Iresine (from Greek eiros, wool, refer-
throat, fragrant); I.hederacea (syn. Phar- deep violet, double flowers); I.quamoclit ring to a harvest garland bound with
bitis hederacea; S US to Argentina; hairy, (syn. Quamoclit vulgaris, Quamoclit pennata; wool). Amaranthaceae. Americas, Aus-
annual herb climbing to 3m (10ft); CYPRESS VINE, STAR-GLORY, INDIAN tralia. BLOODLEAF. 80 species, annual
leaves broadly ovate to heart-shaped, PINK; Tropical America; annual to perennial herbs or subshrubs with
usually 3-lobed; flowers to 4 x 3cm (11/2
x 11/4in), funnel-shaped, blue, purple or
cerise with a white tube); I.horsfalliae
climber to 3m (10ft); leaves 1–9cm
(1/2–31/2in), finely pinnately cut; flowers
to 3cm (11/4in), narrowly trumpet-
entire, often brilliantly marked or
coloured leaves and spikes of incon-
spicuous, white or green flowers. Frost-
I
(W Indies; perennial, woody climber shaped with a small, star-like limb, tender plants, valued for their colourful
to 8m (26ft); leaves to 20cm (8in), scarlet; includes cultivars with very foliage. The following species are
palmately 3–5-lobed, smooth; flowers fine, ferny foliage and flowers in shades grown outdoors in the tropics and sub-
to 4 x 5cm (11/2 x 2in), trumpet-shaped, of plum, scarlet, flame, crimson, pink tropics, and used for summer bedding
cerise to deep purple-red); I.lobata (syn. and white, some doubles); I.tricolor (syn. or as pot plants elsewhere. They need a
I.versicolor, Mina lobata, Quamoclit lobata; I.rubrocaerulea; MORNING GLORY; Central minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F.
SPANISH FLAG; Mexico; annual or short- America, widely naturalized elsewhere; Grow in sun or light shade. Water and
lived pernnial herb climbing to 5m glabrous annual or perennial climbing feed freely in summer; keep just moist
(16ft); leaves ovate to heart-shaped, herb to 4m (13ft); leaves ovate to heart- in winter. Pinch out young plants to
toothed to deeply cut or lobed; flowers shaped, tip pointed; flowers to 6 x 7cm promote a bushy habit. Increase by
in 1-sided racemes, each to 4 x 1.5cm (21/2 x 23/4in), funnel-shaped, bright sky seed sown under glass in early spring
(11/2 x 5/8in), broadly tubular, curving blue, often with faint lavender-pink at a minimum temperature of
and narrowing toward tip and appear- stripes at least at first, tube white, 15°C/59°F, or by stem cuttings
ing closed, scarlet in bud, opening golden at base within; includes culti- in spring.
yellow tipped scarlet, fading to cream); vars with very large flowers in shades I.herbstii (syn. I.reticulata; BEEF PLANT,
I.mauritiana (Pantropical; woody, peren- and combinations of white, sky blue, BEEFSTEAK PLANT, CHICKEN GIZZARD;
nial climber to 5m (15ft); leaves to cobalt, lavender, pink and carmine, the Brazil; annual erect to 1m (31/4ft) with
15cm (6in), palmately lobed; flowers most famous selection is probably the glossy and thinly succulent, purple-
to 6 x 6cm (21/2 x 21/2in), funnel-shaped, large, sky blue ‘Heavenly Blue’; this or red-tinted stems; leaves 2–6cm
pink to deep rosy red with a darker species should not be confused with (3/4–21/2in), ovate with variegation rang-
stain in throat); I. x multifida (syn. Convolvulus tricolor). ing from green with yellow veins or
I. x sloteri, Quamoclit x sloteri; I.coccinea x mottling to deep purple-red with pink
I.quamoclit; CARDINAL CLIMBER; garden Ipomopsis (from Greek ipo, to veins; includes ‘Aureoreticulata’, with
origin; annual climber to 1m (31/4ft); impress, and opsis, appearance, due to red-tinted leaves netted with yellow
leaves finely pinnately cut; flowers to 5 the showiness of many species of this veins, ‘Brilliantissima’, with rich crim-
x 2.5cm (2 x 1in), trumpet-shaped, scar- genus). Polemoniaceae. US (Pacific son leaves, and ‘Wallisii’, dwarf with
let to crimson); I.nil (syn. Pharbitis nil; coast to Florida and South Carolina), purple-black veins); I.lindenii (Ecuador;
Pantropical; hairy annual herb climb- S Argentina (1 species). 24 species, erect perennial to 1m (31/4ft); leaves
ing to 5m (16ft); leaves to 15cm (6in), annual to perennial herbs with entire 4–10cm (11/2–4in), ovate to lanceolate,
broadly ovate, entire or 3-lobed; to pinnately lobed leaves in basal glossy deep blood red with prominent
flowers to 6 x 5cm (21/2 x 2in), funnel- rosettes and on stems. The flowers are red veins; includes ‘Formosa’, with
shaped, blue, purple or red; includes tubular or hypocrateriform and appear yellow leaves veined with crimson).
numerous cultivars with flowers large in spring and summer in terminal,
to small, single or semi-double, in cymose racemes. Grow in a sandy, fer- Iris (from the Greek messenger Iris
shades or combinations of white, blue, tile medium in the conservatory or cool who came to earth via a rainbow). Iri-
cerise, scarlet, mauve, violet and greenhouse in full sun with good venti- daceae. North temperate zones. FLAG,
maroon, some non-climbing, others lation. Keep moist but never wet. Sow FLEUR-DE-LIS, SWORD LILY. About 300
with variegated foliage; I. x imperialis, seed under glass in early spring. species, rhizomatous, fleshy-rooted or
IMPERIAL JAPANESE MORNING GLORY, I.aggregata (SCARLET GILIA, SKY- bulbous perennial herbs with grassy 405
differs in its larger, double flowers often ROCKET; western N America; glandular- to sword-shaped leaves. The flowers
Iris
consist of a tubular perianth standard is, in addition, a vast higher pH and can grow well on
with six segments. Each of number of named hybrid chalky soils. Some humus should be
the three outer segments cultivars of bearded iris. incorporated but avoid fresh manure
(‘falls’) is narrowed These are classified as fol- or green compost, which may cause
toward the base into lows: Miniature rhizome rot. Raise the soil level in wet
a ‘haft’, sometimes Dwarf Bearded places or if the soil is heavy. Although
with a beard of (MDB) up to iris rhizomes can be transplanted at
coloured hairs or 20cm (8in), the any time, for the best results move only
crested or ridged, first to flower; when absolutely necessary and then
and often with a Standard Dwarf after flowering during summer dor-
patch of different Bearded (SDB), mancy. For planting on sandy soils, dig
colour (the ‘signal’); 21–40cm (8–16in); a hole allowing the roots to fall straight
the apex of the fall Intermediate down, push the nose of the rhizome
is expanded, showy petal-like Bearded (IB), into the side of the hole and fill in with
and hangs down- fall style 40–70cm (16–28in); soil, ensuring that no space is left
wards. Each of the (“stigma Miniature Tall beneath the rhizome. On heavy soil,
flap”)
I inner three segments

(‘standards’) is narrowed
toward the base into a claw
signal
Iris flower
parts
Bearded (MTB),
40–70cm (16–28in); Border
Bearded (BB), also 40–70cm
place the rhizome on a mound or ridge
within the planting hole, with the roots
spread out, cover with soil and firm in.
and usually expanded toward the tip; (16–28in), and the Tall Bearded (TB), Under most conditions leave the top
they tend to stand erect between the over 70cm (28in). The MTB and BB surface of the rhizome exposed, but
falls, but are sometimes much-reduced cultivars flower with the TBs. Many iris cover thinly in hot areas, to avoid sun
or bristle-like. The style has three species will occasionally flower for a scorch. Shorten the leaf fan to prevent
petal-like arms, which arch over the second time later in the year and wind-rocking. Water in and keep moist
falls. The fruit is a leathery capsule. this trait has been developed by the until new growth is seen. Apply low-
Irises fall into several, natural groups hybridizers, particularly of the bearded nitrogen compound fertilizers during
with distinctive characteristics and cul- cultivars, to create cultivars that bloom soil preparation and subsequently in
tural requirements. again, often repeatedly, until the first early spring and autumn. Do not trim
Rhizomatous irises frost. To sustain this additional growth off leaves of established plants in
(1) BEARDED OR POGON IRISES (sub- in one season, remontant irises may summer. After 3–4 years, when the
genus Iris, section Iris). Several species require a further application of fertil- clump becomes crowded, dig up and
are good plants for the mixed border izer after the first flowering and should separate it into single rhizomes; discard
and of these I.germanica and its white- be watered in dry summers. To flower the oldest, leafless and exhausted por-
flowered cultivar ‘Florentina’ and I.pal- well, bearded irises require a sunny sit- tions. Replant in groups with noses
lida, with its two variegated-leaf forms uation and well-drained soil. The soil together, in fresh soil. Propagate species
‘Argentea Variegata’ and ‘Variegata’, should ideally be in the pH range by seed or by detached rhizomes. Sow
are well known. Some of the smaller 6.0–7.5; they do not require lime, but seeds thinly in a soil-based medium
species such as I.lutescens and I.pumila ground limestone should be worked in with a quarter extra grit; cover with
are suitable for the rock garden. There if the soil is acid. They will tolerate a coarse grit and leaves exposed to the
D IVIDING RHIZOMATOUS IRIS
1 Lift the plant to be divided,

inserting a garden fork well
away from the rhizomes to avoid
2 Either manually, or using two
handforks back to back with a
levering action, split the clump
3 Trim off and discard any
shrivelled or weak parts. Dust
cut surfaces of rhizomes with
4 Replant 15cm (6in) apart,
with the rhizomes half-buried
in the soil. The reduced leaf area
406 damaging them. Shake excess soil into individual fans of leaves with fungicide, and trim the leaves by will minimise wind-rock, helping
from the roots. a portion of rhizome attached. two-thirds of their length. new roots establish.
Iris
weather. Cultivars are propagated by Many crosses have been made between alkaline soils. They are usually hardy in
vegetative means only. Principal dis- Oncocyclus and Regelia irises; classi- climate zone 6 and prefer a sunny to
eases of bearded iris are rhizome soft fied as Regeliocyclus Hybrids, these lightly shaded position on a moist but
rot and scorch. With rot, remove are easier to grow than either parent porous, humus-rich soil. They resent
infected tissue, cutting back to firm yet retain their strange beauty. They disturbance. Propagate by careful
rhizome, and allow to dry, then dust are good plants for the alpine house. division when the plant is showing
the new surface with a fungicide. If the Hybrids between Oncocyclus or renewed growth some months after
infection is grave (affecting more than Regelia irises with bearded iris species flowering, and keep moist and shaded
half the rhizome), discard altogether. or cultivars are called Arilbred Irises until established. They are readily
With scorch, the leaves suddenly turn and are suitable for garden use in raised from seed in a soil-based
red-brown as if burnt; the rhizome temperate areas with low rainfall. medium, but the offspring are likely to
remains firm but roots wither and the (4) EVANSIA IRISES (subgenus be hybrids. There are many cultivars
plant dies. This can occur at any time; Limniris, section Lophiris) are mostly available in a wide range of colours.
it is not believed to be contagious, but creeping to spreading plants with (7) WATER IRISES (subgenus
affected rhizomes should be removed branched rhizomes and fans of foliage. Limniris, series Laevigatae) are plants
and destroyed. Leaf spots are either I.confusa is frost-tender. In climate zones of wet places, ditches and swamps and
bacterial or fungal, usually occurring
after flowering.
(2) ONCOCYCLUS IRISES (subgenus
7 and below, it should be grown in
large pots of a fertile, neutral to acid
and gritty medium. Keep moist
are excellent candidates for the mar-
gins of ponds or streams. They are
hardy in climate zone 4. Included in
I
Iris, section Oncocyclus) occur in areas throughout the year; feed in summer this group are I.pseudacorus and I.versi-
of dry, often hot summers and dry, cool and place outside in full sun. Bring color. I.laevigata is often grown in con-
or cold winters. The winter months under cover in autumn. The remaining tainers set on shelves in garden ponds.
may be spent under snow or in desert species are more or less hardy in zone Propagation is by division of clumps
conditions; next comes a period of 6. I.cristata is suitable for the rock and is best carried out in early autumn.
growth and flowering in spring. This is garden or peat bed. I.gracilipes enjoys I.ensata has been cultivated in Japan for
followed by a long summer dormancy. a cool, peaty soil in dappled shade. centuries and many new forms, includ-
The flowers are large, often in vivid I.japonica will grow in semi-shade in ing tetraploids, are now being raised in
colours with striking patterns. Except most good soils, but needs a warm and the US and Europe. The flowers are
in places where the climatic conditions sheltered spot. I.tectorum prefers a gritty large, sometimes double, with spread-
resemble their habitat, these irises but moist soil against a sunny wall. ing standards, in a wide range of
cannot be grown in the open garden. Increase by division. colours. They flower late in the iris
Instead, they are grown either in raised (5) SIBERIAN IRISES (subgenus season, often into mid-summer. Japan-
beds outdoors and covered with glass Limniris, series Sibiricae) are easy ese irises are often grown as marginal
or plastic to protect them from winter garden plants, hardy in climate zone plants in containers, and are probably
and summer rain, or in the cold green- 4 and requiring a fertile soil which does best removed from the water and kept
house in deep pots. Soil should be not dry out during the spring and early drier in winter. Japanese irises will
gritty, free-draining and with pH above summer growth period. Although often develop chlorosis if grown in alkaline
6.5, with a low-nitrogen fertilizer grown beside streams and pools, they soils but some of the Higo strain or the
added. Allow full sun and ventilation are not true waterside plants and will CaRe (calcium resistant) cultivars will
at all times. Water moderately to initi- do equally well in a mixed border. survive up to pH 7.4. Members of this
ate growth between late winter and Hybrids between Siberian and Pacific group are occasionally attacked by the
early spring; continue to water and Coast Irises (Cal Sibs) are also known. larvae of the iris sawfly. If the plants
feed until the foliage begins to die Many selected hybrids are available, are in or near a pond take care to use
down after flowering. Thereafter keep both diploid and tetraploid, the latter a chemical control that is not harmful
dry. Germination of seed is often slow having stouter, more upright foliage to pond life.
and erratic. Oncocyclus irises are very and larger flowers of heavier substance (8) LOUISIANA IRISES (subgenus
susceptible to virus diseases. with broad flaring falls in clear rich Limniris, series Hexagonae) are showy,
(3) REGELIA IRISES (subgenus Iris, colours. Increase by division or seed. late-flowering waterside irises from the
section Regelia) differ from the last In the US, Siberian irises are attacked swamps of the southern US. They are
group in having a beard on the stan- by the iris borer and the iris weevil. robust plants with branched flower
dards and the falls. They grow on open (6) PACIFIC COAST IRISES (subgenus stems, often in a zig-zag form, and are
rocky hillsides and also have a long Limniris, series Californicae) occur in popular garden plants in the southern
summer dormancy. They are best California, Oregon and Washington, US and Western Australia, where the
suited to bulb frame culture like the growing in neutral or slightly acid, high summer temperatures necessary
Oncocyclus irises, but are easier to well-drained soil in lightly wooded for successful growth can be attained.
grow; some species, such as I.hoogiana, areas. All are very variable in colour Many superb hybrids have been raised.
can be grown outside in temperate and hybridize freely. They are easy Although hardy in climate zone 4,
climates in a well-drained sunny site to grow as garden plants, but they they seldom thrive in cool-temperate 407
if protected from heavy winter rain. develop chlorosis and lose vitality in regions, needing long, hot and humid
Iris
summers. That said, the bright blue occur. I.foetidissima var. citrina produces in Southwest Europe and North Africa.
I.brevicaulis and coppery red I.fulva will larger, clear topaz-yellow flowers. This They are fleshy-rooted, bulbous plants
flower in Western Europe if planted in species is susceptible to virus disease. with channelled leaves in one plane.
sun on a humus-rich, neutral to acid (12) THE ALGERIAN OR CRETAN The flowers are attractive, the falls
soil and kept moist and well-fed while IRIS, I.unguicularis (subgenus Limniris, large and brightly coloured, the stan-
in growth. The hybrid between them, series Unguiculares) flowers from early dards very small, often reduced to bris-
I. x fulvala, will also grow under the autumn to mid-spring. Hardy in cli- tles. The majority of the Junos grow
same conditions. mate zone 6, it needs a warm sunny in areas of hot dry summers and cold
(9) THE TRIPETALAE SERIES position, ideally against a south-facing winters with snow cover, and unless this
(subgenus Limniris, series Tripetalae) wall on a sharply draining, neutral to can be achieved naturally then over-
includes the iris with the widest alkaline soil. In summer, it should head protection from summer and
distribution, I.setosa. In this series become dry and baked. A top dressing winter rain is essential. Grow in deep
the standards are tiny and the flower of potash or bone meal in early pots in an unheated, well-ventilated
appears to have only three petals. autumn and spring will promote alpine house or plant out in a bulb
Ranging from Japan to Alaska and growth and flowering. Propagate by frame. A free-draining soil with added
eastern Canada, I.setosa exists in many division in spring and keep watered dolomitic limestone is recommended;
I variants, the smaller of which are good

for the rock garden. Fully hardy.
Increase by seed or division.
until established. This species is, how-
ever, better left undisturbed for many
years, indeed, new plants may take
feed with balanced fertilizer in the
growing period from mid-autumn until
the leaves turn yellow after flowering.
(10) SPURIA IRISES (subgenus years to flower, preferring cramped, Never wet the foliage, as water trapped
Limniris, series Spuriae) are very impoverished conditions. Seed capsules in the channelled leaves may cause rot.
diverse in habit and size, ranging from will sometimes be found in the clumps Some Junos are more tolerant of damp,
25–150cm (10–60in) tall. The taller at ground level; seed will germinate if for example I.aucheri, I.bucharica and
species are herbaceous and good plants sown in a soil-based medium by the I.magnifica will thrive in the open garden
for the back of a mixed border on following autumn. Larvae of the angle- in cool-temperate areas in well-drained
deep soils with ample humus. Some of shades moth may eat the ends of loam. The smaller forms of I.bucharica
the smaller species such as the yellow flower buds while still at ground level. are excellent plants for the rock garden,
I.kerneriana are rock-garden plants Bulbous irises (13) XIPHIUM flowering in early spring. Propagate
requiring good drainage, while the IRISES (Subgenus Xiphium) occur in from small young bulbs carefully sepa-
plum-scented I.graminea is happy in a Western Europe and North Africa, rated when replanting, or from seed.
humus-rich soil in part shade. There usually on alkaline soils. As there is a Artificial cross-pollination may be nec-
are two general groups, one typified dormant period after flowering, several essary as many species are self-sterile.
by I.orientalis, which becomes dormant of the species need bulb frame culture (15) RETICULATA IRISES (subgenus
after flowering, and the other including in wet summer areas. I.xiphium occurs Hermodactyloides) are dwarf irises,
I.spuria itself, which retains its leaves over a wide range of habitats. Both their bulbs covered in netted (reticulate)
until winter. Many excellent hybrid the typical plant and the many named tunics. Reticulata irises occur in Turkey,
plants have been raised in a range of colour forms called Spanish irises are Iran, Central Asia and south to Jordan.
bright colours, both self- and multi- reliable garden plants. Their leaves In temperate gardens both I.histrioides
coloured. Propagation is by division in appear in autumn. Hybrids between and I.reticulata will flourish in a sunny
autumn or early spring, planting the I.xiphium and I.tingitana, known collec- position in any well-drained soil, and
rhizome below the surface in a rich tively as Dutch irises, are good garden can be left undisturbed for years.
deep soil and keeping moist until estab- plants, and are widely used for the cut- There are many colour forms available,
lished. New plantings may be slow to flower market throughout the year; as well as some named hybrids. The
flower but can remain undisturbed colours range from white and yellow yellow I.winogradowii is a high mountain
for many years. to deep purple. I.latifolia, erroneously plant which likes plenty of moisture
(11) IRIS FOETIDISSIMA (subgenus named the English iris in the 16th cen- during the growing season and, unlike
Limniris, series Foetidissimae) is a tury and still so-called, is an exception, the other reticulatas, does not require
widespread native of Western Europe growing in damp grassy places in the a summer dry period. A hybrid with
and North Africa which will grow Pyrenees. An easy plant for the border, I.histrioides named I. ‘Katharine Hodgkin’
almost anywhere or in any soil. It it prefers a soil which does not dry out. is a hardy bulb which increases rapidly
seems most at home in semi-wooded or Many colour forms are available in in the open garden or a raised bed.
lightly shaded situations on humus-rich blue, violet, purple and white. I.danfordiae will flower well in the first
soil in climate zones 6 and over. This (14) JUNO IRISES (Subgenus Scor- season but then breaks up into many
hardy, evergreen iris is much prized by piris) comprise a group of over 55 tiny bulblets and should be replaced
flower arrangers for the scarlet seeds species. Most of them are difficult in annually (flowering colonies only seem
that are displayed when the capsules temperate areas. They occur in western to develop when this species is planted
split in autumn; forms with white or Asia ranging from Turkey to central deeply in a bulb frame). Increase by
408 yellow seeds are known. Slow-growing Russian Asia and south to Jordan with bulb offsets or from seed, which germi-
white- and cream-variegated forms the one exception of I.planifolia, found nates freely. Affected by ink disease.
Iris
I RIS
Name Distribution Group Habit Leaves Flowers
I.aphylla C & E Europe [1] to 30cm (12in), deciduous; arranged in fans, flowers 1–5, 6–7cm (21⁄2–23⁄4in)
to W Russia and flowering stems branched outer leaves curved, diam., pale to deep purple to
N Caucasus from middle or near base, inner leaves blue-violet, beard hairs blue-
bracts 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), upright, 0.5–2cm white, tips yellow
inflated, sometimes (1⁄4–3⁄4in) wide
Comments: Spring. purple-tipped
Aril Irises: [group 3]. Regeliocyclus Hybrids. ‘Ancilla’: flowers white and veining, the latter paler at edges, beard brown-bronze. ‘Little
veined purple, falls flaked and netted purple. ‘Chione’: standards white Orchid Annie’: to 30cm (12in); standards pale amethyst veined and
veined lilac blue, falls veined grey, blotched black-brown. ‘Clotho’: shaded green-gold, ruffled, midrib green, falls orchid edged yellow-
standards deep violet with black beard, falls brown, veins and blotch green, signal and veining red, beard dark yellow. Arilbred Irises
black. ‘Dardanus’: standards tinged lilac, falls cream blotched matt (Aril x Tall Bearded irises). ‘Lady Mohr’: to 75cm (30in); standards
purple. ‘Theseus’: standards violet with darker veins, falls ivory marked light mauve-blue, falls yellow and green with deep red markings,
deep violet. ‘Thor’: flowers grey veined purple, blotch bright purple. beard brown. ‘Loudmouth’: to 25cm (10in); fls deep red, falls with
‘Vera’: flowers chocolate-brown tinged purple with blue beard. Aril- black signal. ‘Nineveh’: standards purple shaded pink, falls violet-red,
Median Irises: (Aril x Miniature Tall Bearded irises). ‘Canasta’: to
28cm (11in); standards pale violet, falls rich beige with deep red signal
beard dark brown. ‘Saffron Charm’: fls in blend of deep yellow, grey
and lavender.
I
I.aucheri SE Turkey, [14] to 40cm (16in); roots fleshy 25 x 2.5–4.5cm 3–6, blue, rarely almost white;
N Iraq, N Syria, (10 x 1–13⁄4in), tube to 6cm (21⁄2in); fall blade
Jordan, NW completely with central yellow ridge, margin
Iran concealing stem wavy, haft broadly winged;
until fruiting standards 2–3.5cm (3⁄4–11⁄2in),
Comments: Late winter-spring. Crossed with I.persica to produce I. ‘Sindpers’. horizontal to deflexed, obovate
I.bakeriana SE Turkey, [15] to 15cm (6in); bulb tunics cylindric, 8-ribbed, solitary, white, tipped violet
N Iraq, W Iran netted otherwise close to on falls with a cream ridge
I.reticulata surrounded by violet spots and
veins, haft spotted and veined
violet, standards and style
branches lilac
Bearded (Pogon) Irises: [group 1]. (1) Border Bearded (steins to (4) Miniature Tall Bearded (stems to 70cm (28in); flowers 8 or more).
70cm (28in); fls large). ‘Brown Lasso’: standards butterscotch, falls ‘Carolyn Rose’: cream-white lined rose-pink. ‘Dappled Pony’:
pale violet and brown. ‘Carnival Glass’: red-brown, occasionally tinged standards dark blue, falls white heavily flecked violet. ‘Smarty Pants’:
blue or red. ‘Impelling’: bright pink and yellow with an orange beard. yellow with red stripes on falls. ‘Surprise Blue’: lavender blue with
‘Impetuous’: sky-blue, ruffled, beard white. ‘Marmalade Skies’: apricot- white hafts. (5) Standard Dwarf Bearded (stems to 40cm (16in); flowers 3
orange. ‘Whoop Em Up’: vivid golden-yellow, falls clear chestnut-red, or 4 per stem). ‘Austrian Sky’: blue with darker markings on falls. ‘Blue
rimmed with bright yellow. (2) Intermediate Bearded (stems to 70cm (28in); Denim’: blue, flaring with a white beard. ‘Gingerbread Man’: deep
abundant). ‘Annikins’: deep violet blue. ‘Black Watch’: very dark brown with a bright blue beard. ‘Green Halo’: pale olive-green with
velvety black-purple. ‘Golden Muffin’: standards ruffled, yellow, falls a darker ‘halo’. ‘Melon Honey’: melon-orange with a white beard.
amber-brown edged yellow. ‘Indeed’: standards clear lemon-yellow, ‘Toots’: velvet burgundy with a yellow beard. (6) Tall Bearded (over
falls translucent white edged bright yellow with a white beard. ‘Silent 70cm (28in) high; flowers large, usually ruffled). ‘Broadway’: standards
Strings’: clear blue. ‘Why Not’: bright apricot-orange with darker golden-yellow, beard orange, falls white. ‘Going My Way’: white
beard. (3) Miniature Dwarf Bearded (stems to 20cm (8in), to 2 flowers per striped violet-purple, ‘Jane Phillips’: large, pale blue. ‘Love’s Allure’:
stem). ‘April Ballet’: standards light blue with a violet-blue spot. ‘Egret standards grey-lilac flecked purple, falls edged sandy gold. ‘Red Lion’:
Snow’: standards pure while, falls occasionally flecked blue. ‘Jasper deep brown-burgundy. ‘Vanity’: light pink flashed white with a pink-
Gem’: rust-red bicolor. ‘Orchid Flare’: pink with white beard. red beard.
I. ‘Vanity’ (Bearded) I. ‘Brown Lasso’ (Bearded) I. ‘Jasper Gem’ (Bearded) I. ‘Toots’ (Bearded) 409
Iris
I RIS
I.bucharica Russia, NE [14] to 40cm (16in) to 20 x 3.5cm (8 x 2–6 in upper Ieaf axils; perianth
I.orchioides of gardens Afghanistan 11⁄2in) at flowering, tube to 4.5cm (13⁄4in), golden
later elongated on yellow to white, fall with central
expanded stem, ridge yellow surrounded by green
shiny green, to dull purple suffusion or
channelled, markings, standards spreading,
Comments: Spring. margins white trilobed or lanceolate
I.chrysographes W China, NE [5] to 50cm (20in); rhizome 50–1.5cm (20–5⁄8in) 1–4 on hollow, branched or
Burma stout unbranched stems, fragrant,
5–10cm (2–4in) diam., dark red-
Comments: Late spring–summer. Hybridizes with I.forrestii and I.sibirica. ‘Black Night’: flowers indigo- purple streaked gold on falls; falls
violet, ‘Inshriach’: flowers almost black. ‘Margot Holmes’: flowers purple-crimson lined yellow at throat. deflexed; standards spreading
‘Rubella’: flowers burgundy.
I I.clarkei E Himalaya [5] rhizome stout; stems to

60cm (24in), 1–3-branched
to 2cm (3⁄4in) wide,
glossy green above,
glaucous beneath
2 per branch, 5–10cm (2–4in)
diam., blue-violet to red-purple;
falls with large, white, central
signal patch, veined violet; haft
slightly yellow; standards bent
Comments: Late spring–early summer. to horizontal
I.confusa W China [4] vigorous, clump-forming, bright green, to 5cm (2in) diam., many borne
to 1.5m (5ft); stems green, sword-shaped, to on branching stems to 90cm
cane-like, procumbent 5cm (2in) across (36in) long, short-lived, white
and branching, then spotted yellow or mauve; falls 2.5
ascending, with an x 5cm (1 x 2in), crest yellow,
Comments: Spring. apical fan of foliage signal patch yellow
I.cristata NE US [4] rhizome small, much- to 15 x 1–3cm 1–2 per spathe, subsessile, 3–4cm
branched (6 x 1⁄2–11⁄4in) at (11⁄4–11⁄2in) diam., pale lilac to
flowering, linear purple; tube to 10cm (4in); falls
obovate, blunt, reflexed, 1 x 1cm
(1⁄2 x 1⁄2in), central patch white,
crest of 3 crisped yellow ridges;
standards erect, oblanceolate,
Comments: Early summer. ‘Alba’: fls white. ‘Caerulea’: fls blue. shorter and narrower than falls
I.crocea Kashmir [10] rhizome woody, roots wiry to 75 x 1.5–2cm flowers 12–18cm (43⁄4–7in) diam.,
(30 x 5⁄8–3⁄4in), in terminal clusters on branched
sword-shaped, stems to 1m (31⁄4ft), dark golden
leathery yellow; falls oblong, margins
crisped; standards oblanceolate,
erect, margins slightly crisped;
style branch lobes narrow-
triangular
410 I.bucharica I.chrysographes I.confusa I.danfordiae

Iris
I RIS
I.danfordiae Turkey [15] to 15cm (6in); bulb tunic 1–15cm (1⁄2–6in), solitary, to 5cm (2in) diam., yellow;
netted, tiny, producing taller than flowers, tube to 7.5cm (3in); falls lightly spotted
offset bulblets quadrangular green in centre and lower part, ridge
deeper yellow-orange; standards
Comments: Early spring. reduced, bristle-like, 3–5mm (1⁄8–1⁄4in)
I.douglasiana W US (S Oregon, [6] to 100 x 2cm (39 x 2–3, 7–10cm (23⁄4–4in) diam. on
California) 3
⁄4in), dark green, branching 15–70cm (6–28in) stems,
base stained red, lavender to purple, veins darker; tube
Comments: Summer. ‘Alba’: flowers white. ‘Southcombe Velvet’: flowers ribbed to 3cm (11⁄4in); falls yellow in centre;
deep violet. standards erect, lanceolate, clawed
I.ensata Japan, N China, [7] stoutly rhizomatous, 20–60 x 0.4–1.2cm 3 or 4 per branch on flowering stems
I.kaempferi E Russia aquatic or marginal (8–24 x 1⁄8–1⁄2in), to 90cm (36in), 8–15cm (3–6in) diam.,
JAPANESE WATER IRIS leathery, midrib purple to red-purple; tube 1–2cm
prominent (1⁄2–3⁄4in); fall haft yellow, blade elliptic-
ovate, also suffused yellow; standards
smaller, erect
I
Comments: Summer. A large number of cultivars, many of which flowers white, signal patch yellow. ‘Raspberry Rimmed’: flowers white,
originate from Japan, with a few (such as some of the Higo Hybrids) margins red-pink, signal patch yellow. ‘Returning Tide’: flowers pale
beginning to enter western gardens; flowers to 20cm (8in) in shades of blue, signal yellow. ‘Sorcerer’s Triumph’: flowers double, white, veins
white, pink, blue and violet often mottled or flecked; single to double; red-purple, signal orange. ‘Stranger in Paradise’: flowers white, margins
often with spreading standards. ‘Alba’: flowers pure white. ‘Blauer Berg’ pink, signal patch yellow. ‘Summer Storm’: flowers to 18cm (7in)
(‘Blue Mountain’): flowers bright sky blue, abundant; middle to late diam., violet tinged red, veined blue; late flowering. ‘The Great
season. ‘Gei Sho Ne’: habit unusually short; flowers violet; middle to Moghul’: flowers black-purple. ‘Unschuld’ (‘Innocence’): flowers clear
late season. ‘Good Omen’: growth strong; flowers double, violet tinged white, perianth seg. undulate; early flowering. ‘Variegata’: leaves striped
red, abundant; early season. ‘Major’: habit tall to 46cm (18in); flowers white; flowers purple. ‘Aichi-no-Kagayaki’ (I.ensata x I.pseudacorus):
darker. ‘Moonlight Waves’: flowers white with lime-green centre. flowers large, bright yellow, veins brown. ‘Chance Beauty’ (I.ensata x
‘Peacock Dance’: falls white, veins red-violet, signal patch yellow; I.pseudacorus): flowers large, bright yellow, veins red-brown.
standards dark red-purple; style branches purple. ‘Prairie Love Song’:
I.foetidissima S & W Europe, [11] evergreen, sword- to 5 per branch, 5–7cm (2–23⁄4in) diam.,
ROAST BEEF PLANT; N Africa, shaped, in basal malodorous, short-lived, on short-
GLADWYN; GLADDON Atlantic Is. fans, deep green, branching stems to 80cm (32in); falls
IRIS; STINKING to 2.5cm (1in) wide obovate, 2cm (3⁄4in) wide, blade blue-
GLADWYN lilac to topaz or yellow, veins purple,
centre fading to white, haft bronze to
Comments: Summer-flowering. Grown chiefly for its handsome foliage and scarlet, bead-like seeds brown, winged; standards smaller,
persisting in the capsules from late summer through winter. ‘Fructo Alba’: seeds white. ‘Variegata’: leaves oblanceolate, erect, flushed lilac
striped cream. var. citrina: flowers pale yellow and mauve. var. lutescens: flowers pure clear yellow.
I.forrestii W China, N [5] narrow-linear, shiny 2, on an unbranched stem to 45cm

Burma above, glaucous (18in), scented, 5–6cm (2–21⁄2in) diam.,
below, shorter yellow lined purple-brown on fall haft;
stem falls oblong-ovate, blade 5cm (2in);
Comments: Summer. standards erect, oblanceolate
I.douglasiana I.ensata I.foetidissima var. citrina I.forrestii 411

Iris
I RIS
I.fulva C US [8] to 90cm (36in); rhizome 1.5–2.5cm (5⁄8–1in) to 6.5cm (21⁄2in) diam., bright red
(Mississippi slender, green wide, green, to rust, orange or rarely deep
Valley) ensiform yellow; tube to 2.5cm (1in); falls
and standards hanging downwards,
falls oblanceolate, to 2.5cm (1in)
wide, blunt, narrowed to a claw,
standards broad, truncate,
Comments: Summer. notched, to 5 x 2cm (2 x 3⁄4in)
I. x fulvala garden origin [8] purple-red

(I.fulva x I.brevicaulis)
I.germanica widely naturalized; [1] rhizome stout, horizontal, 2-ranked, equitant, 9–10cm (31⁄2–4in) diam., in
either a branching; flowering stem 30–40 x 2.5–4.5cm shades of blue, violet, white,
Mediterranean 60–120cm (24–48in), with (12–16 x 1–13⁄4in), beard yellow, standards
I native or an
ancient fertile
hybrid
1–2 short branches and
thick, purple-tinted bracts
grey-green sometimes paler than falls
Comments: Late spring. ‘Amas’: falls deep blue-purple, standards and standards both dark purple-red tipped orange; beard blue-white
paler blue, prominent blue-white beard tipped orange. ‘Askabadensis’: grading to white. ‘Sivias’: blue; beard white, hairs scarcely tipped
tall, flowering later; falls red-purple, veins on hafts yellow-brown, beard yellow. ‘Florentina’: smaller; flowers scented, palest blue-white; veins on
tipped yellow, standards paler blue. ‘Karput’: 1eaves edged red-purple; haft of falls yellow, beard yellow.
falls narrow, black-purple, standards paler red-purple. ‘Nepalensis’: falls
I.gracilipes China, Japan [4] 10–15cm (4–6in); dwarf, grassy, ensiform, 3–4cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in) diam., pink
clump-forming, to 30 x 0.5–1cm to blue-lilac veined violet; tube
stoloniferous; stems (12 x 1⁄4–1⁄2in) 1.5cm (5⁄8in), falls obovate, to 2.5
slender, branching x 1.5cm (1 x 5⁄8in), notched,
centre white, crest wavy, yellow
Comments: Early summer. ‘Alba’: fls white. and white
I.graeberiana Russia [14] to 40cm (16in) 2-ranked, shiny 4–6, 7cm (23⁄4in)+ diam., blue
green above, grey- sometimes tinged violet; tube to
green beneath, 6cm (21⁄2in), fall blade deeper blue,
margins white centre ridge white on veined,
white ground, standards obovate,
Comments: Spring. to 2.5cm (1in), tips pointed
I.graminea NE Spain to W [10] stem 20–40cm (8–16in), borne on stem, 1–2, fruit-scented, 7–8cm
I.colchica Russia, N & W strongly flattened or 2- uppermost leaves (23⁄4–3in) diam.; falls rounded,
Caucasus winged taller than flowers 1.2cm (1⁄2in) wide, violet, blade
white at centre veined violet, haft
winged, occasionally tinged
green or yellow; standards erect,
purple, 0.5cm (1⁄4in) wide; style
branches purple, base tinged
Comments: Summer. green or brown
412 I.germanica I.germanica ‘Florentina’ I.graminea I.histrioides ‘Major’

Iris
I RIS
I.histrio S Turkey, Syria, [15] bulb offsetting, tunic 30–60cm (12–24in), 1 per spathe, 6–8cm (21⁄2–3in)
Lebanon netted 4-angled diam., falls lilac, streaked and
spotted, ridge yellow surrounded
by a pale, bluer spotted area,
standards lilac, oblanceolate,
Comments: Winter-early spring. unmarked
I.histrioides Central N [15] 4-angled in 6–7cm (21⁄2–23⁄4in) diam., blue,

Turkey section, not or fall blade pale spotted blue with
scarcely developed a yellow ridge
Comments: Early spring. ‘Golden Harvest’: yellow. ‘Imperior’: dark blue. at flowering time,
‘Major’: purple-blue, spotted white on falls. A plant with much larger, later extending to
dark violet blue flowers with almost horizontal falls has also been offered 50cm (20in)
as I.histrioides ‘Major’. ‘White Excelsior’: large white. ‘White Perfection’:
large, white var. sophenensis: flower segments narrower, dark violet-blue,
lightly spotted; fall ridge yellow. See also under I.winogradowii.
I. x hollandica – The Dutch Irises – I.xiphium x I.tingitana, possibly with the influence of I.latifolia. See I.xiphium.
I
I.hoogiana Russia [3] 40–60cm (16–24in); erect, almost straight, late spring. ‘Alba’: white, with a faint
rhizome stout, tinged purple, to 50 x overlay of pale lavender-blue. ‘Bronze
producing long 1.5cm (20 x 5⁄8in) - Beauty’: grey-violet, falls deep rich violet,
stolons 2–3 per pair of bracts, edged cinnamon-brown. ‘Noblense’: blue-
7–10cm (23⁄4–4in) violet, crest golden yellow. ‘Purpurea’:
diam., scented, plain deep purple.
grey-blue; tube to
2.5cm (1in); falls
and standards
bearded yellow
I.iberica SW Asia [2] to 20cm (8in), rhizome to 6mm (1⁄4in) diam., solitary, to 6.5cm (21⁄2in) diam., tube to
compact grey-green, linear, 3.5cm (11⁄2in), falls reflexed from base, white
curving densely veined brown and spotted, signal
patch black-brown, velvety, beard hair
Comments: Late spring. ssp. elegantissima: falls cream to ivory spotted and veined maroon, purple-brown, standards to 8.5cm (31⁄4in),
blade deflexed almost vertically, standards white, sometimes veined brown at base. erect, white to pale lilac, obscurely veined
I.innominata W US [6] to 25cm (10in) slender, 2–4mm 1–2 per stem, 6.5–7.5cm (21⁄2–3in) diam.,
(1⁄16–1⁄8in) wide, dark cream-yellow to orange or pink-lilac to dark
green, base tinged purple, veins darker; tube to 3cm (11⁄4in);
Comments: Summer. Used in hybridizing, see Pacific Coast hybrids. purple falls to 6.5mm (21⁄2in), margins of falls and
‘Lilacina’: lavender. ‘Lutea’: yellow. ‘Spinners’: soft brown-yellow, standards frilly, standards shorter, style lobes
veined and marked rich brown. broad, margins toothed
Japanese Irises: See I.ensata, I.laevigata
I.iberica I.innominata I.japonica I.kerneriana 413

Iris
I RIS
I.japonica C China, Japan [4] 45–80cm (18–32in), to 45cm (18in), in 3–4 per branch, 4–5cm (11⁄2–2in) diam.,
rhizome stoloniferous; fans, ensiform, appearing flattened due to spreading
stems erect, branched shiny green perianth lobes, margins fringed, white to
light blue-lilac; falls 2cm (3⁄4in) wide, blade
Comments: Spring. ‘Ledger’: frilled, white, marked purple, crest orange. ‘Rudolph Spring’: pale with orange frilly crest on purple blotched
purple-blue marked orange. ‘Variegata’ (‘Aphrodite’): leaves striped white and marked purple. area; standards lilac
I.kerneriana N & C Turkey. [10] rhizome slender, with linear, to 5mm 2–4 per branch, 7–10cm (23⁄4–4in) diam.,
fibrous remains of old (1⁄4in) wide, slightly deep cream to pale yellow; fall blade
leaf bases shorter than elliptic, to 2cm (3⁄4in) wide, with deep yellow
flowering stems central blotch, strongly recurved, tip almost
touching stem, haft narrow, 5mm (1⁄4in);
Comments: Summer. standards erect, margins wavy, notched
I.korolkowii Russia, NE [3] 40–60cm (16–24in); linear, 0.5–1cm 2–3 per spathe, 6–8cm (21⁄2–3in) diam.,
I Afghanistan rhizome thick, stolon-

iferous, with fibrous leaf
base remains
(1⁄4–1⁄2in) wide, base
tinged purple
appearing elongated, cream-white lightly
veined deep maroon, falls oblong, to 4 x
2.5cm (11⁄2 x 1in), acute, deflexed, signal
patch dark green to black-brown, beards
Comments: Early summer. ‘Concolor’: bright blue-purple. ‘Violacea’: cream veined red-violet. inconspicuous, standards acute, erect
I.laevigata E Asia [7] aquatic or marginal, to 1.5–4cm (5⁄8–11⁄2in), 2–4, 8–10cm (3–4in) diam., blue-violet, tube
45cm (18in); similar to without prominent to 2cm (3⁄4in); fall haft pale yellow, standard
I.ensata but stouter midrib erect, smaller than falls
Comments: Summer–autumn. var. alba: flowers white, style branches blue lined white. ‘Montrosa’: very large, deep blue, white at centre.
mauve. ‘Albopurpurea’: falls purple, mottled white around edges, ‘Mottled Beauty’: white, falls spotted pale blue. ‘Regal’: red-purple.
standards white. ‘Atropurpurea’: red-purple. ‘Colchesterensis’: flowers ‘Snowdrift’: double, white, style branches light violet. ‘Variegata’: leaves
white, fall centre dark blue. ‘Lilacina’: light blue. ‘Midnight’: very deep striped green and white; flowers pale blue.
I.latifolia Spain and [13] to 80cm (32in). appearing in spring, 1–2 per bract pair, 8–10cm (3–4in) diam.,
I.xiphioides Pyrenees to 65 x 0.8cm (26 x violet-blue, tube 5mm (1⁄4in), falls with
ENGLISH IRIS 3
⁄8in), channelled, central yellow blotch, broad, ovate-oblong,
grey-white above to 7.5cm (3in), haft winged, standards to
6cm (21⁄2in), oblanceolate
Comments: Late spring-summer. ‘Almona’: flowers light blue-lavender. ‘Blue Giant’: Standards blue-purple, speckled darker, falls deep blue.
‘Isabella’: flowers pink-mauve. ‘La Nuit’: flowers dark purple-red. ‘Mansfield’: flowers magenta-purple. ‘Montblanc’: flowers white. ‘Queen of
the Blues’: flowers rich purple-blue.
Louisiana Hybrids: [group 8]. Hybrids of the Series Hexagonae Williamson’ (I.fulva x I.brevicaulis): hardy; flowers very large, plum-
(including I.fulva) are becoming increasingly popular in the US. purple. ‘Gold Reserve’: flowers golden-orange veined red. ‘May Roy’:
They are mostly tender, and bear flowers in a wide range of colours Standards pale pink, falls pink tinged purple. ‘Roll Call’: to 90cm
including shades of yellow, pink, red, brown, purple and blue. ‘Black (36in); flowers violet with green styles. ‘Sea Wisp’: to 110cm (42in);
Gamecock’: flowers blue-black with line signal. ‘Mme. Dorothea K. flowers blue with yellow line signal.
414 I.laevigata I.laevigata ‘Variegata’ I.latifolia I.magnifica

Iris
I RIS
I.lutescens NE Spain, S [1] fast-growing, to 30cm 30 x 0.5–2.5cm (12 1–2, 6–8cm (21⁄2–3in) diam., yellow, violet,
I.chamaeiris France and (12in); rhizome stout x 1⁄4–1in), equitant, purple, white or bicoloured, tube to 3.5cm
Italy straight to curved (11⁄2in), falls oblong-spathulate, to 7.5 x 2cm
(3 x 3⁄4in), beard yellow, standards oblong,
Comments: Early to mid-spring ‘Campbellii’: dwarf; flowers bright violet-blue, falls darker. erect or converging, to 7.5 x 2.5cm (3 x
‘Jackanapes’: flowers blue and white. ‘Nancy Lindsay’: dwarf; flowers pale yellow. 1in), margins crisped
I.magnifica Russia [14] 30–60cm (12–24in); bulb many, remote, 3–7, to 8cm (3in) diam., pink-lilac, tube
tunics papery 3–5cm (11⁄4–2in) 4–4.5cm (11⁄2–13⁄4in), falls yellow at centre,
wide, channelled, crest white, fall haft widely winged, to
pale green, lustrous 2.5cm (1in) wide, standards obovate, to 3cm
Comments: Late spring. (11⁄4in), horizontal to deflexed
I.missouriensis W US [7] to 75cm leaves to 7mm (1⁄4in) 2–3 per bract pair, 5–8cm (2–3in) diam., on
(30in) wide, absent in pedicels to 20cm (8in), white, lilac, or blue;
Comments: Late spring-summer. ‘Alba’: flowers white.

winter, usually taller
than flowers
falls obovate, deflexed, veined, signal patch
yellow; standards oblanceolate, upright I
I.orchioides Russia [14] bulb tunics papery; 18 x 1–3cm (7 x 3–4, 5cm (2in) diam., light yellow suffused
1
roots fleshy ⁄2–11⁄4in), straight to mauve, tube 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), fall haft
curved, pale green, broadly winged, 2cm (3⁄4in) wide, crest gold
concealing stem on dark yellow ground, veined green or
Comments: I.orchioides of gardens is usually I.bucharica. until after flowering mauve, standards trilobed or linear
I.orientalis NE Greece, [10] to 90cm (36in), branched to 90 x 1–2cm (36 x 2–3 per pair of papery bracts, 10cm (4in)
W Turkey 1
⁄2–3⁄4in) diam., white; fall blade rounded, signal area
large, yellow, haft narrow, slightly pubesc.,
Comments: Summer. For I.orientalis of gardens, see I.sanguinea. standards to 8.5cm (31⁄4in), erect
Pacific Coast or Californian Irises: [6]. (I.douglasiana x I.innominata, orange. ‘Blue Ballerina’: flowers white, falls marked with purple.
etc.). ‘Arnold Sunrise’: flowers white flushed blue, fall marked with ‘Broadleigh Rose’: flowers marked with shades of pink.
I.pallida former [1] stems branched, to glaucous, 20–60 x 2–6, fragrant, 8–12cm (3–43⁄4in) diam., soft
DALMATIAN IRIS Yugoslavia 120cm (48in) 1–4cm (8–24 x lilac-blue, bracts silvery, papery; beard
1
⁄2–11⁄2in), usually yellow
Comments: Late spring-early summer. ‘Argentea Variegata’: leaves evergreen
striped blue-green and white. ‘Variegata’: leaves striped yellow.
I.pseudacorus Europe to W [7] marginal or aquatic; to 90 x 3cm (36 x 4–12, 5–12cm (2–43⁄4in) diam., bright
YELLOW FLAG Siberia, stems branched, to 2m 11⁄4in), grey-green, yellow veined brown or violet; tube to
Caucasus, (61⁄2ft); rhizome stout midrib prominent 1.5cm (5⁄8in), falls rounded, to 4cm (11⁄2in)
Turkey, Iran, wide, blotched deeper yellow; standards
N Africa oblanceolate, erect, to 3cm (11⁄4in)
Comments: Early–midsummer. ‘Alba’: creamy white, with brown veins near tips. ‘Golden Fleece’: deep yellow without darker veins. ‘Variegata’:
leaves striped yellow at first. var. bastardii: flowers pale yellow; fall blade not blotched deeper yellow.
I.missouriensis I.orientalis I.pallida ‘Variegata’ I.pseudacorus 415

Iris
I RIS
I.pumila SE & EC [1] dwarf, to 15cm (6in) almost straight, usually solitary, rarely 3 in some forms,
I.aequiloba, I.taurica Europe to grey-green, to 15 x mostly purple-violet, some white yellow
Urals 1.5cm (6 x 5⁄8in), or blue; tube 5–10cm (2–4in), beard blue
dying away in or yellow
Comments: Spring. A parent of the dwarf bearded cultivars. winter
I.reticulata N & S Turkey, [15] bulb pear-shaped with 4-angled, very solitary, dark violet blue to paler blue to
NE Iraq, N & netted tunic and narrow, to 30 x red-purple; tube 4–7cm (11⁄2–23⁄4in); falls
W Iran, Russia. producing bulblets 0.2cm (12 x 1⁄16in), 5cm (2in), often yellow-ridged, haft 2.5cm
after flowers synanthous or (1in); standards erect, oblanceolate, 6cm
Comments: Early spring. hysteranthous (21⁄2in)
Reticulata Hybrids [group 15]. (derived from I.histrioides and sky-blue with yellow markings and grey-brown stripes. ‘J.S. Dijt’:
I.reticulata and hybrids between them). ‘Alba’: flowers white. ‘Cantab’: flowers dark red-purple; fragrant. ‘Natascha’: flowers white tinged blue,
flowers very pale Cambridge blue, crested yellow. ‘Clairette’: Standards falls veined green with golden-yellow blotch. ‘Pauline’: flowers purple-
I sky-blue, falls deep blue marked white. ‘Edward’: flowers dark blue
marked orange. ‘Gordon’: flowers light blue with orange blotch on
white ground lightly striped blue. ‘Harmony’: Standards blue, falls
violet with dark purple falls blotched blue and white. ‘Purple Gem’:
flowers violet, falls black-purple blotched purple and white. ‘Royal
Blue’: Standard deep velvet blue, falls blotched yellow. ‘Springtime’:
royal blue blotched yellow and white. ‘Ida’: Standards light blue, Standards pale blue, falls dark blue tipped white, with purple spots and
falls paler, blotch pale yellow on white ground slightly spotted blue. yellow midrib. ‘Violet Beauty’: Standards velvet-purple, falls deep violet
‘Jeannine’: flowers violet, falls blotched orange with white-and-violet with orange crest.
striped patches; fragrant. ‘Joyce’: Standard lavender-blue, falls deep
I.rosenbachiana C Asia [14] bright glossy green, 1–3, light purple; falls blotched deep
to 5cm (2in) at purple, crest orange
flowering, later to
Comments: Winter-early spring. var. baldschuanica is smaller, with 25cm (10in), tips
pale primrose flowers veined and blotched brown-purple. curving outwards
I.sanguinea SE Russia, [5] similar to I.sibirica 2, blue-purple marked white

I.orientalis of Korea, Japan but leaves as tall as
gardens or taller than the
75cm (30in),
Comments: Early summer. ‘Alba’: white. ‘Kobana’: narrow, white. unbranched
‘Snow Queen’: ivory. flowering stems
I.serotina SE Spain [13] 40–60cm (16–24in) narrow, channelled, 1–2 on an unbranched stem, violet-blue,
appearing in tube to 1cm (1⁄2in), fall centre yellow,
autumn, dying standard reduced, to 1cm (1⁄2in),
Comments: Late summer. before flowering extremely narrow
I.reticulata I. ‘Harmony’ (Reticulata I.setosa I.sibirica ‘Butter and Sugar’

416 hybrid)
Iris
I RIS
I.setosa Northeastern N [9] 15–90cm (6–36in) rhizome stout, clad to 15, 5–9cm (2–31⁄2in) diam., tube to 1cm
America, E with old leaf bases; (1⁄2in), falls orbicular, 2.5cm (1in) diam.,
Russia, N stems usually 2–3- light blue-purple to purple, haft narrow,
Korea, Japan branched to 50 x palest yellow, veins blue-purple, standards
2.5cm (20 x 1in), greatly reduced so that flowers appear to
Comments: Late spring–early summer. ‘Kasho En’: white. f. serotina: deciduous, base have only 3 petals, bristle-like, erect
flowers solitary, sessile. suffused red
I.sibirica C & E Europe, [5] stems 1–2-branched, to 4mm (1⁄8in) wide to 5, to 7cm (23⁄4in) diam.; falls blue-purple,
NE Turkey, 50–120cm (20–48in), veined and marked white and gold, haft
Russia taller than leaves paler but darker-veined
Comments: Late spring–summer. ‘Alba’: white. ‘Ann Dasch’: flowers conspicuous white veins near throat. ‘Mrs Rowe’: flowers small, grey-
dark blue, falls marked yellow. ‘Anniversary’: flowers white with yellow pink. ‘Papillon’: flowers pale blue. ‘Ruffled Velvet’: flowers red-purple
hafts. ‘Butter and Sugar’: flowers white and yellow. ‘Caesar’s Brother’: marked yellow. ‘Sparkling Rosé’: flowers rose-mauve, falls flecked blue.
flowers dark pansy purple, ‘Ego’: flowers rich blue. ‘Ewen’: flowers
burgundy, tetraploid. ‘Helen Astor’: flowers dark plum tinged rosy red,
‘Tropic Night’: flowers blue-violet. ‘Wisley White’: flowers white.
I
I.spuria Europe, Asia, [10] to 50cm (20in) 30 x 1.2cm (12 x 1⁄2in) violet-blue, yellow or white, fall blades
Algeria rounded, to 2.5cm (1in) diam., standards
oblanceolate
Comments: Summer. ssp. spuria: to 80cm (32in); flowers 6–8cm flowers to 4, bract green, falls to 4.5cm (13⁄4in) diam., veins dense,
(21⁄2–3in) diam., lilac or blue-violet, veins violet; falls to 6cm (21⁄2in), purple, blade deep purple, haft longer than blade, centrally striped
striped yellow in centre, haft exceeding blade. ssp. carthaliniae: to green, ssp. musulmanica: syn. I.klattii, I.musulmanica, I.violacea;
95cm (38in); flowers 4–5, sky blue or white, veined deeper blue. ssp. 40–90cm (16–36in); flowers light violet to dark lavender-violet, veins
halophila: 40–85cm (16–34in); flowers 4–8, 6–7cm (21⁄2–23⁄4in) diam., darker, falls to 8cm (3in), blade striped yellow, base tinged yellow, haft
white, dull light yellow to bright yellow, veined deeper, falls to 6cm equalling or exceeding blade, ssp. notha: 70–90cm (28–36in); flowers
(21⁄2in), haft longer than blade. ssp. maritima: 30–50cm (12–20in); violet-blue, fall haft striped yellow, exceeding blade.
Spuria Group. [group 10]. Many cultivars with flowers in shades and combinations of white and yellow through orange, red and brown to blue.
‘Connoisseur’: lavender blue. ‘Elixir’: saffron. ‘Imperial Bronze’: deep yellow veined brown. ‘Protégé’: Standards blue, falls white veined blue. ‘Red
Oak’: brown-purple. ‘Shelford Hybrid’: blue.
I.susiana Origin unknown, [2] to 12cm (43⁄4in) diam., pale lilac-grey heavily
MOURNING IRIS possibly Lebanon veined deep purple, falls and standards
similarly sized and shaped, blade round, to
8cm (3in) wide, signal patch velvety purple-
Comments: Late spring. black, beard deep brown-purple
I.tectorum C & SW China, [4] rhizome stout; stems thin, ribbed, glossy 2–3 per spathe, to 10cm (4in) diam.,
ROOF IRIS possibly Burma, sometimes branched, dark green to 30 x somewhat flat, blue-lilac, veined and
naturalized Japan to 40cm (16in) 2–2.5cm (12 x 3⁄4–1in) patched darker, falls 2.5cm (1in) wide, crest
well-divided, frilly, white, spotted darker;
Comments: Early summer. ‘Alba’: white, veined yellow. ‘Variegata’: leaves streaked cream. standards and falls spreading, margins wavy
I.sibirica ‘Wisley White’ I.tectorum I.tenax I.unguicularis

417
Iris
I RIS
I.tenax NW US [6] to 30cm (12in) tinged pink at base 1–2, 7–9cm (23⁄4–31⁄2in) diam., palest yellow
to lavender or red-purple; tube short, to
1cm (1⁄2in), falls lanceolate, 2.5cm (1in)
wide, reflexed, with a white or yellow
central patch of purple, standards
Comments: Early summer. Used in hybridizing; see Pacific Coast hybrids. lanceolate, 0.6cm (1⁄4in) wide
I.unguicularis Algeria, Tunisia, [12] stemless; rhizome evergreen, in tufts, solitary short-stalked, fragrant, tube very
I.stylosa W Syria, S & W tough, branching linear-ensiform, to long, to 20cm (8in), falls obovate, reflexed,
Turkey 60 x 1cm (24 x 1⁄2in) 2.5cm (1in) wide, white veined lavender,
central band yellow, haft linear, veins dark,
standards size and shape as falls, erect, lilac;
style branches yellow-glandular above
Comments: Winter-spring. ssp. cretensis (syn. I.cretensis, I.cretica): purple, with central orange line, tips lavender. ‘Speciosa’: leaves
I dwarf; leaves very narrow and grassy; flower segments to 5.5cm (21⁄4in),
purple-blue, fall blades and hafts white veined violet, blade striped
orange in centre. ‘Alba’: flowers white, falls with central green-yellow
line. ‘Ellis’s Variety’: leaves narrow; flowers bright violet-blue.
short, narrow; flowers fragrant, deep violet, central yellow stripe.
‘Starker’s Pink’: dwarf: leaves shorter, narrower; flowers pink-lavender.
‘Variegata’: flowers mottled and streaked purple on lavender ground.
‘Walter Butt’: flowers large, fragrant, pale silver-lilac; late autumn-
‘Marginata’: flowers lilac, margins white. ‘Mary Barnard’: flowers winter.
violet-blue. ‘Oxford Dwarf ’: flowers deep blue, falls white veined
I. variegata C & SE Europe [1] 20–50cm (8–20in), dark green, sword- 3–6, 5–8cm (2–3in) diam., bright yellow to
stems branched shaped, ribbed, to white, tube to 2.5cm (1in), falls obovate,
30 x 3cm (12 x 2cm (3⁄4in) wide, reflexed, veined red-
11⁄4in) brown, standards oblong, erect
Comments: Spring-summer. Forms with brown-red falls occur. Used in hybridizing; parent plant of the miniature tall bearded hybrids.
I.verna SE US [8] to 6cm (21⁄2in) at equitant, sword- to 5cm (2in) diam., bright blue-lilac, tube
flowering shaped, to 15 x 1cm 2–5cm (3⁄4–2in), falls obovate, 4x1cm (11⁄2 x
(6 x 1⁄2in) after 1
⁄2in), centre striped orange with brown
flowering, glaucous, spots, standard obovate, erect
Comments: Spring. purple at base
I.versicolor E US [7] marginal; rhizome 35–60 x 1–2cm several per branch, 6–8cm (21⁄2–3in)
stout, creeping; (14–24 x 1⁄2–3⁄4in) diam., violet to red-purple, falls wide-
stems 20–80cm spreading, blade oval, 8–2.5cm (3–1in),
(8–32in), branched blotched green-yellow, surrounded by
white veined purple, haft white, purple-
veined, standards oblanceolate, smaller,
Comments: Summer. ‘Kermesina’: flowers red-purple. var. rosea: flowers pink. I. x robusta 4cm (11⁄2in), paler, erect
‘Gerald Darby’ (I.versicolor x I.virginica): flowers large, purple-blue.
418 I.variegata I.versicolor I.warleyensis I.winogradowii

irrigation
I RIS
I.virginica E US [7] similar to I.versicolor 1–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in) 1–4, blue, fall centre yellow-hairy
SOUTHERN BLUE but flowering stems wide, soft, tips (not bearded)
FLAG usually unbranched, drooping
often curved
Comments: Summer. ‘Alba’: flowers white. ‘Giant Blue’: flowers large, blue. ‘Wide Blue’: leaves blue-green; flowers blue.
I.warleyensis Russia [14] 20–45cm (8–18in); channelled, spaced to 5, 5–7cm (2–23⁄4in) diam., pale to dark
roots slightly along stem, to 20 x violet to blue-purple, tube 5cm (2in), fall
thickened 3cm (8 x 11⁄4in) blade orbicular, margins white, crest white
to yellow, on yellow ground, dissected, haft
Comments: Spring. ‘Warl-sind’ (I.warleyensis x I.aucheri): to 25cm (10in); falls yellow, blade unwinged, standard deflexed, linear to
blotched purple-blue, ridge yellow, standards and styles white trilobed, to 2cm (3⁄4in)
I.wendelboi SW Afghanistan [14] dwarf, to 10cm (4in); well-developed at 1–2, to 5.5cm (21⁄4in) diam., deep violet,
bulb tunics papery flowering, to 20 x
1cm (8 x 1⁄2in),
glaucous, arching,
tube 3cm (11⁄4in); falls not winged, crest
bright golden yellow, frilly, standards much
reduced, to 0.5cm (1⁄4in)
I
concealing stem until
Comments: Spring. after flowering
I.winogradowii Russia [15] to 15cm (6in); differs Comments: Early spring. ‘Frank Elder’ (I.winogradowii x I.histrioides):
from I.histrioides in flowers pale blue slightly shaded yellow. ‘Katharine Hodgkin’
producing rice- (I.winogradowii x I.histrioides): flowers yellow veined blue and faintly
grain-like bulblets tinged pale blue.
and pale primrose fls
spotted green on the
fall haft and centre
of blade
I.xiphium Iberian [13] stems to 40–60cm 20–70 x 0.3–0.5cm 1–2, usually blue or violet, sometimes
I.hispanica peninsula, (16–24in) (8–28 x 1⁄8–1⁄4in), white, yellow or mauve, tube 1-3mm
SPANISH IRIS Mediterranean channelled, (1⁄16–1⁄8in), fall blade centre usually orange
appearing in autumn or yellow
Comments: Spring-early summer. Hybridized with I.tigitana to produce Dutch irises. ‘Battandieri’ (syn. I.battandieri): flowers white, ridge on fall
blades orange-yellow. ‘Blue Angel’: flowers bright blue, central falls marked yellow. ‘Bronze Queen’: flowers golden brown, suffused purple and
bronze. ‘Cajanus’: flowers yellow. ‘King of the Blues’: flowers blue. ‘Lusitanica’ (syn. I.lusitanica): flowers yellow. ‘Praecox’ (syn. I.xiphium var.
praecox): flowering earlier; flowers large blue. ‘Professor Blaauw’: flowers bright violet-blue. ‘Queen Wilhelmina’: flowers white. ‘Taitii’ (syn. I.taitii):
flowers pale blue. ‘Thunderbolt’: falls bronze-brown, blotched yellow, standards purple-brown.
Irishman’s cutting a portion of a as chlorosis. The application of iron

plant with pre-formed roots, which has sequestrol (chelate) and mulching with
been detached from the mother-plant organic matter will successfully
to establish as an individual. Com- alleviate iron deficiency.
monly, the term is used to refer to any
very small piece of a plant taken as a irregular zygomorphic;
division, or to a naturally rooted layer. asymmetrical.
iron an essential trace element in irrigation the application of water,

plants necessary for the formation of sometimes containing nutrients in solu-
chlorophyll. Plants are especially sus- tion, to support plant growth. The
ceptible to iron deficiency on alkaline frequency of need and most effective
soil, but also through waterlogging, low timing and rate of application vary
temperature, excessive phosphate in with species, growing media and situa-
Irishman’s cutting soil or, occasionally, heavy metal conta- tion, as well as with levels of rainfall
Self-rooted or Irishman’s cuttings are a simple mination. Iron deficiency is expressed and atmospheric conditions, which are
means of plant propagation, particularly useful as interveinal or overall yellowing of in turn affected by climate and season.
with mat-forming alpines that root at the young leaves, which progresses down Careful consideration must be given to 419
growth extremities. Trim for ease of handling. the shoots; the condition is referred to these factors to ensure that irrigation is
irrigation
HOSEPIPES provide a convenient where it is required. Such lines may

means of continuously delivering water consist of small-bore plastic delivery
over a distance from the tap source, but pipes, continuously stitched along their
distribution is imprecise without special length, or of compressed rubber with
fittings. Most hosepipes are available micro-pores 5–8 microns in diameter;
in PVC, commonly 13mm- (1/2in-) with both systems water oozes along
diameter bore, and may be reinforced the length of run. Some types of seep-
to reduce kinking and interruption of hose are recommended for burying
the flow. Control of water output, dis- below the surface, thereby further
tribution pattern and droplet size can reducing evaporation loss. Flat poly-
be effected with a fitted control nozzle thene tube, which swells under water
or handgun, or by squeezing the pressure, is another form similar to
Targeted irrigation hosepipe by hand at or near its outlet. seephose, with water emitted through
Newly set out plants should be thoroughly Flat hosepipes are available, reducing small regularly spaced perforations.
watered in, using a fine, inverted rose as storage space required, and all types As the water pressure is increased,
shown. Leaving a shallow saucer-shaped are best stowed on a reel, some designs the water is discharged in thin sprays.
I depression at planting aids efficiency.
of maximum benefit, to conserve water

of which allow the water to flow evenly
when the hose is only partly unwound.
SPRINKLERS automatically deliver a
Seephose systems of garden irrigation
are both effective and economic in
water use.
as a valuable natural reserve and to spray of coarse droplets over a broadly AUTOMATIC DEVICES are available to
avoid harmful waterlogging. defined area. In large greenhouses, control water flow for indoor and out-
Incorporating organic matter into these may be mounted overhead, but in door irrigation systems and these make
the soil improves water availability, and gardens they are most commonly used an excellent contribution to economies.
the application of a mulch to the sur- as single static, rotating or oscillating Water sources and supply
face of moist soil reduces water loss units, placed on the ground and fed Irrigation water must be free of grit
through evaporation. Damping down through a hosepipe. Travelling sprin- or biological matter, including algae,
or misting around growing plants cools klers are available for large lawns, and which can block small outlets. Filtra-
leaves and reduces transpiration, and in some circumstances it may be appro- tion and the covering of stagnant stor-
similar benefits can be obtained by priate to have a permanent grid of dis- age vessels are important. Care must
careful ventilation and shading in tribution pipes below ground level into be taken not to allow water sources to
greenhouses, and by providing wind- which sprinklers can be connected. become infected with plant disease
shelter for plants outdoors. Many orna- Irrigation by sprinkler can be wasteful organisms as might happen where
mental plants desirable in gardens are because much water may be lost to plant debris or soil drainage water con-
adapted to conditions of low water evaporation or blown off target, and taminates a low-level tank. High con-
availability; most established trees and puddling may occur where plant foliage centration of dissolved mineral salts
shrubs have a great capacity to extract obstructs distribution. Most sprinklers can affect plant growth and block irri-
water from depth; and many fruit and work efficiently only above 30 psi, and gation nozzles; over 300ppm calcium
vegetable crops have different water a low trajectory is preferable. On aver- can cause lime-crusting. Gardeners
requirements at particular stages of age a sprinkler may discharge 900 litres do not have recourse to acidifying
growth. All of these considerations are (200 gallons) of water per hour. treatments, such as nitric acid used by
important in assessing the real need TRICKLE SYSTEMS are especially
for irrigation, which can be a laborious, useful for plants suited to individual
expensive and potentially wasteful watering, such as pot plants and toma-
undertaking. toes; they can also be used in outdoor
Methods of irrigation borders and on a capillary bench,
WATERING CANS are convenient for which is an effective means of irrigat-
irrigating small areas outdoors and ing pot plants. Trickle irrigation will
for plants grown under protection; a work at lower flow pressure than sprin-
capacity of 9 litres (2 gallons) is suit- klers, but output needs to be closely
able. Galvanized cans are durable but monitored and outlets kept unblocked
heavier than plastic ones and, whatever and clean. Water distribution may be
the type, a long spout is advisable to via nozzles fitted directly into the line,
enable careful placement between or through spurs of flexible tubing of
plants. A fine oval-shaped rose is 2–5mm (1/16–1/4in) diameter, which can
necessary for watering seedlings, be fitted singly or in multiples at each Seephose
while the round coarser type of rose is regularly spaced outlet. Various types of small-bore seephose deliver
a good choice for irrigating established SEEPHOSES, or soakhoses, are an water continuously and gently along crop rows
420 plants because of the larger droplet excellent means of low-level watering or throughout borders. Systems are available
size and faster delivery. because they dispense water exactly for installing beneath the soil surface.
Isopyrum
commercial growers, and domestic capacity, the level at which further by handling the surface of the soil, or
water softeners are unsuitable in view of added water passes to drainage. As the by making a judgement based on the
phytotoxic residues. The use of ionized season progresses, evaporation and weight of those containers that are
water is rarely a practical proposition, transpiration result in water loss from small enough to be easily lifted. Tap-
and the best means of avoiding high- the soil and where the loss is greater ping clay pots to test for a hollow ‘ring’
lime content is to collect rainwater. than rainfall or irrigation, a soil mois- is effective. Proprietary moisture deficit
Water butts fitted with lids and low- ture deficit (SMD) arises. indicators are available; and saucers to
level taps are useful for collecting roof Calculation of irrigation require- provide reservoirs of water, and capil-
water, although small debris will usu- ments for outdoor crops balances input lary benching are useful aids to green-
ally be washed down; the volume of of water from rainfall with losses house irrigation.
storage is also limited and quickly used through evapotranspiration. Rainfall
up during periods of little rainfall. can be measured with a rain gauge and Isatis (Greek name for woad).
Supply from wells, boreholes, rivers weekly evapotranspiration rates can be Cruciferae. Europe, Mediterranean
and streams has relevance to a limited predicted from tables of local averages, to C Asia. WOAD. Around 30 species,
number of sites, and for most garden- or more accurately through adjusted annual to perennial herbs with loose
ers mains supply is the norm. Mains data from weather centres. racemes of 4-petalled flowers in
water is filtered at the supply source
and biological and chemical content is
controlled to within limits suitable for
Average monthly values for SMD in
southern and central England are April
50mm (2in); May 75mm (3in); June
summer. The following species is hardy
to –15°C/5°F. Grow in a sunny posi-
tion, on a well-drained fertile soil. Sow
I
plant growth. Its availability may be 100mm (4in); July 100mm (4in); August seed in situ in autumn or spring. I.tincto-
subject to metering, or surcharge for 75mm (3in) and September 50mm (2in). ria (DYER’S WOAD, WOAD; Europe; bien-
certain garden uses, and also to restric- In the north of England, the SMD is nial to 1m (31/4ft); flowers yellow).
tions at times of drought. Irrigation about one third less. A reasonable
systems adapted for special uses, such target is to apply 25mm (1in) of water island bed a large bed usually
as automatic injection of liquid feed, each time the SMD reaches 25mm devoted to herbaceous perennials,
must be fitted with devices to ensure (1in), but woody plants in general may heathers or dwarf conifers, in which
that back-siphonage into the mains is tolerate a SMD of 50–75mm (2–3in). the display can be seen from all sides.
not possible; 20mm (3/4in) taps usually Note: 25mm (1in) of rainfall is equiva- It may be irregular in outline and often
discharge about 900 litres (200 gallons) lent to an application rate of 20 litres deep and curving, and may be set into
per hour from a mains supply. of water per square metre (31/4 pints a lawn or surrounded by hard standing.
Domestic waste water from washing, per square foot).
sometimes called greywater, is often Whether or not irrigation is prac- Isoplexis (from Greek isos, equal, and
suggested for irrigation use during tised with reference to collected or pro- plexis, plait, as the upper corolla seg-
drought. The problem is the variability vided data, it is important to ensure that ment and the lip are of equal length).
of content, and while it is unlikely that high SMD levels do not build up. Water Scrophulariaceae. Canary Islands,
moderate use of domestic waste water shortage in soils should be anticipated Madeira. 3 species, evergreen sub-
would have a damaging effect on soil in order to maintain steady growth. shrubs with toothed leaves and erect,
structure, soil organisms or plant In terms of irrigation needs, garden terminal racemes of tubular, 5-lobed
growth, heavy applications loaded with plants that should be given priority are and 2-lipped flowers in summer. Grow
soap detergent and other household seedlings and transplanted crops and in full sun in a medium-fertility loam-
cleaners, or water softening additives, specimen plants, together with leafy based mix, to which sand and leaf-
can give rise to an increase in soil pH, vegetables and those with swelling mould have been added. Maintain a
phosphate content and the total salinity edible parts such as peas, beans, sweet- minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F
of soil. The safest course is to avoid corn, courgettes and tomatoes. Rasp- and ventilate freely whenever possible;
repeated irrigation of the same site berries and strawberries benefit from water plentifully in summer, moder-
with waste water and to reserve its irrigation as the fruits colour and begin ately in winter. Propagate from seed in
use for established plants. to swell respectively. A good yield of a sandy seed mixture in spring or by
Need, timing and quantity early potato tubers depends on mois- greenwood cuttings in late summer.
Soil moisture loss from a growing ture availability, whereas established I.canariensis (syn. Digitalis canariensis;
medium arises through evaporation leeks, carrots, parsnips and onions are Canary Islands; to 1m (31/4ft); raceme
from the surface and transpiration less responsive. to 30cm (12in), flowers to 3cm (11/4in),
from the aerial parts of plants, collec- Irrigation techniques should be orange-yellow to brick red or
tively referred to as evapotranspiration. selected with the aim of ensuring that orange-brown).
Plant requirements are met from soil plants are thoroughly watered. Light
reserves, which are replenished by rain- sprinkling is wasteful and ineffective. Isopyrum (from Greek isos, equal,
fall or irrigation. By the end of March Crops growing under greenhouse pro- and pyros, grain: the fruit resembles
in most years soil outdoors will be fully tection need special care to meet water grains of wheat). Ranunculaceae.
charged with water from winter rain. requirements, particularly those in con- Northern Hemisphere. FALSE RUE 421
It is then described as being at field tainers. Irrigation need can be assessed ANEMONE. 30 species, tufted perennial
Isopyrum
herbs with ferny, ternately lobed leaves red-brown central marking); I.viridiflora
and small, cup-shaped flowers, each (50–100cm (20–39in); flowers 2.5–5cm
composed of five, petal-like sepals, (1–2in) in diameter, pale aquamarine
nodding on fragile stalks in spring. with a purple-black centre).
Suitable for woodland, peat beds and
the cool, shaded rock garden. Cultivate Ixiolirion (from Ixia and Greek
as for Anemonella. I.thalictroides (Europe; lirion, lily, for its resemblance to Ixia).
to 25cm (10in); flowers white). Amaryllidaceae. SW and C Asia. 4
species, bulbous perennial herbs. Pro-
Italian garden, Italianate the duced in a rosette, the leaves are linear
style of the great medieval and Renais- to lanceolate, and usually persist in
sance formal gardens of Italy, where winter. Carried in spring and summer
stonework, statuary, and waterworks in umbels or loose racemes, the starry
played the most important role. Plants flowers consist of six segments, either
were treated formally as hedges, topi- free or united toward the base in a
ary, knots, and parterres and trimmed Ixia viridiflora short tube. Hardy to –15°C/5°F, they
I in pots. It was actively copied in Britain

between 1830 and 1860.
This striking cormous perennial is frost tender
but will survive outdoors in mild areas if given
a dry surface mulch for winter protection.
need a warm and sheltered position in
a rich and perfectly drained soil, where
they can be baked in summer and pro-
Itea (from Greek itea, willow, after the tected from excessive wet in winter.
pendulous catkins). Grossulariaceae They are sometimes grown in the cool
(Iteaceae). NE Asia, eastern N Amer- Ixia (from Greek ixia, the name of conservatory or greenhouse. Plant
ica. 10 species, evergreen or deciduous a plant noted for the variability of its 15cm (6in) deep in late summer/early
shrubs and trees with toothed leaves flower colour). Iridaceae. South Africa autumn. A winter mulch of bracken
and small, green to white flowers in (Cape Province). 45–50 species, peren- litter or leafmould is beneficial. Propa-
racemes or panicles in summer. I.ilicifo- nial herbs with small corms, grassy gate by removal of offsets after flower-
lia is a fine small shrub suitable for foliage, and, in summer, slender spikes ing, or by seed in autumn. I.tataricum
well-drained, fertile soils in warm and of tubular flowers with six, spreading, (syn. I.montanum; SW and C Asia,
sunny positions. In zones 7 and under, ovate to lanceolate segments. Where Kashmir; to 40cm (16in); flowers in a
it will succumb to hard frosts, over wet temperatures seldom fall below freez- loose umbel, 2–5cm (3/4–2in), pale to
soils and cold winds, and tends there- ing, Ixia can be planted in a sunny, mid-blue or violet).
fore to be planted on south-facing south-facing border or under a south
walls and, at first, protected with dry wall, about 10–15cm (4–6in) deep, with Ixora (from the name of a Malabar
bracken or evergreen clippings. I.vir- a winter covering of bracken litter or deity to whom the flowers were
ginica is altogether hardier. It favours leafmould. Plant in autumn to bloom offered). Rubiaceae. Tropics (Old and
semi-shade or full sun and moist, in spring and summer, or in spring for New World). Some 400 species, ever-
slightly acid positions where it can summer blooms. For potted specimens, green shrubs or trees bearing paniculate
spread freely – lake or pond margins set 6–8 corms firmly in a 12cm (43/4in) or corymbose cymes of small, narrowly
and islands, for example. It is excellent pot in a mix of sandy loam and leaf- tubular flowers in summer, each with
as tall groundcover. Itea can be propa- mould. Plunge in a cool frame and four spreading lobes. Grow in warm
gated both by soft stem-tip cuttings in water very sparingly during winter until greenhouse conditions (minimum tem-
late spring, inserted in mist or under the flower spikes appear, then give full perature 15–18°C/59–64°F), with high
polythene, or by heeled semi-hard light and good ventilation. Continue to humidity and bright indirect light, in a
cuttings in a sandy mix in the cold water until foliage begins to die back, fibrous, soilless medium. Water plenti-
frame during late winter. Air-layering then dry off gradually and store dry in fully. Prune as necessary after flower-
will also succeed. cool but frost-free conditions. Offsets ing. Propagate from short-jointed
I.ilicifolia (W China; erect, evergreen usually flower in their second year. semi-ripe cuttings of non-flowering
shrub to 5m (16ft); shoots smooth, slen- Sow seed in autumn, and let seedlings shoots, potted singly and plunged in a
der; leaves 5–12cm (2–43/4in), elliptic, remain in the same pans for their first shaded closed case with bottom heat.
spiny-toothed, glossy olive to dark year. Seed-raised plants will usually I.coccinea (JUNGLE GERANIUM, FLAME
green, tough; raceme slender, pendu- flower in their third or fourth year. OF THE WOODS, JUNGLE FLAME, RED
lous with cream to gold or pale lime I.maculata (18–50cm (7–20in); flowers IXORA; tropical Asia; shrub to 2.5m
flowers); I.virginica (SWEETSPIRE, VIR- 2.5–5cm (1–2in) in diameter, orange, (8ft); flowers red, orange, apricot, pink
GINIA WILLOW, TASSEL-WHITE; E US; yellow-orange or white with a dark or yellow); I.javanica (COMMON RED
arching deciduous shrub to 3m (10ft); brown, black or purple centre); I.mon- IXORA, JAVANESE IXORA; Java; shrub or
leaves 3–10cm (11/4–4in), narrowly adelpha (15–40cm (6–16in); flowers tree to 4m (13ft); flowers red or, rarely,
elliptic to oblong, rich red in autumn; 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in) in diameter, white, pink to orange); I.thwaitesii (WHITE
422 racemes erect, to 15cm (6in), with pale pink, lilac, mauve, purple, violet, IXORA; Sri Lanka; shrub or tree to
cream flowers). blue, or claret, usually with a brown or 6m (20ft); flowers white to cream).
Japanese knotweed
J
7°C/45°F, with good ventilation. Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica)
Prune plants grown for their foliage (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) a beetle
hard back in late winter and repot or that is bluntly ovoid in shape and about
topdress at the same time. Propagate 11mm (1/2in) long, with the head,
by seed, alternatively by heeled semi- thorax and legs metallic green and the
ripe cuttings. J.mimosifolia (syn. J.ovalifo- hardened wing cases dull coppery
lia; Argentina, Bolivia, widely cultivated brown. The larvae have creamy-white
elsewhere; tree to 15m (50ft) tall with a C-shaped bodies with a swollen last
rounded crown; leaves deep green, segment and well-developed brown
ferny; flowers 2.4–5cm (1–2in), blue- heads, legs, and biting mouthparts.
purple with a white throat; ‘Alba’ is When fully fed, they are about 25mm
white-flowered). (1in) long. The larval stage lasts about
10 months, but may be longer in colder
Jamesia (for Dr Edwin James areas where the complete life cycle can
(1797–1861), who discovered the extend to two years.
plant on Major Long’s expedition to The Japanese beetle is native to the
Jaborosa (from the Arabic, jaborose, the Rocky Mountains in 1820). Far East but is widespread in North
referring to the closely related Man- Hydrangeaceae. W US. CLIFFBUSH, America since its introduction in 1916,
dragora). S America. Solanaceae. 20
species, low-growing, perennial herbs
with clumped, elliptic leaves and low-
WAXFLOWER. 1 species, J.americana, a
deciduous, rounded shrub to 1.5m (5ft)
tall, with peeling, papery bark. The
and now poses a threat to other areas
including Europe, Africa and western
Asia. It is mainly a pest of permanent
J
borne, solitary flowers in summer – downy leaves are 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in) pasture and ornamental grasses, but its
these are tubular to campanulate with long, ovate, toothed and prominently larvae also feed widely on plant roots,
a starry limb of five, narrow lobes. veined. To 1cm (1/2in) across, the 5- often causing serious damage to nurs-
Plant in a sandy, well-drained soil in petalled flowers are white (pink in ery stock. The adults fly in sunny
full sun or part shade. Although hardy ‘Rosea’) and carried in terminal pani- weather, attacking especially apple,
in climate zones 7 and 8, where hard cles to 6cm (21/2in) in early summer. cherry, plum, elm, horse chestnut, lime,
frosts are common and prolonged, the Fully hardy. Grow in any freely drain- lombardy poplar, willow, raspberry,
following species should be grown in a ing, moderately fertile soil in full sun. strawberry, dahlia, hollyhock, rose,
warm, sunny position at the base of a Prune after flowering to remove old, Virginia creeper and zinnias. Japanese
south-facing wall. Propagate by divi- weak or overcrowded growth. Propa- beetles eat holes in leaves and flowers,
sion in spring. J.integrifolia (S Brazil, gate by ripe seed, semi-ripe cuttings or and in severe attacks may cause com-
Uruguay, Argentina; leaves to 16cm by layering in spring. plete defoliation. Deep holes are made
(6in), dark green; flowers green to in ripe fruits. In North America biolog-
white, to 6cm (21/2in) diameter). Jankaea (for Victor Janka von Bulc ical control organisms have been used
(1837–1900), Austrian soldier and successfully, including the eelworm
Jacaranda (from the vernacular botanist). Gesneriaceae. C Greece Neoplectana hoptha, two hymenopterous
Brazilian name for these plants). (Mount Olympus). 1 species, parasites, and the bacterium Bacillus
Bignoniaceae. Tropical America: J.heldreichii, a perennial, evergreen herb. popilliae which causes ‘milky disease’
Belize, Guatemala, West Indies to The leaves are 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in) long, of the grubs.
Argentina. Some species, deciduous or bluntly obovate, hairy and carried in Japanese beetle is very similar in
evergreen trees, usually with bipinnate low rosettes. Bell-shaped with four to appearance to the garden chafer
leaves. Tubular to campanulate and 5- five rounded lobes, the flowers are lilac (Phyllopertha horticola), which is especially
lobed, the flowers are carried in termi- and carried in small clusters atop stalks common in Europe, but the former
nal or axillary panicles in spring and to 5cm (2in) tall. This plant resents may be readily distinguished by its
summer. J.mimosifolia is widely planted overwet conditions, and especially green legs.
in the subtropics and warm temperate water on its foliage or around the
regions as a specimen, street and crown. For this reason, it is often grown Japanese gardening an ancient art
avenue tree. In zones 8 and under, it is in the alpine house, in tufa or with a originating around 300 AD with elabo-
grown in the cool greenhouse or con- collar of stones. It will grow outdoors rate landscape creations. It evolved to
servatory, predominantly as a foliage in climate zones 7 and over, but needs reflect aspects of Japanese traditions,
plant, although it may begin to bloom the enhanced drainage of a scree or symbolism and faith. Gardens became
at about 1.5m (5ft) in a large tub. It is sink garden, and cloche protection in places for contemplation, sometimes
also used, when young, as a foliage winter. Plant in a fast-draining, gritty, with plantings reduced to a minimum
plant in summer bedding. Grow in a alkaline medium rich in leafmould. and shaped trees, moss, rocks, water
well-drained, high-fertility, loam-based Grow Jankaea in a dry, buoyant atmos- or raked sand predominating.
mix in full sun. Water plentifully when phere with full sun. Water moderately
in growth, sparingly at other times. during spring and summer, scarcely at Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japon- 423
Maintain a minimum temperature of all in winter. Propagate by division. ica) an invasive perennial with stout
Japanese knotweed
Jasione (name given by Theophrastus J.nudiflorum is also useful as a soil-stabi-

to Convolvulus). Campanulaceae. Tem- lizer on steep banks; it will cascade
perate Europe, Mediterranean. SHEEP’S over a retaining wall and is tolerant of
BIT. Some 20 species, annual, biennial urban pollution. A sunny site is best
or perennial herbs, usually with but J.officinale and J.nudiflorum will toler-
clumped, oblong to lanceolate leaves, ate the shade of a north-facing wall.
and 5-parted flowers in terminal heads J.mesnyi, with spectacular semi-double
or panicles, surrounded by one or more flowers, and J.polyanthum, vigorous
rows of spiky involucral bracts. The and intensely fragrant, for south- or
following species is fully hardy and suit- southwest-facing walls in areas with
able for the rock garden. Grow in well- little or no frost, make excellent conser-
drained sandy soils in sun. Propagate vatory plants in colder zones. J.polyan-
by division or seed. J.laevis (syn. J.peren- thum may also be grown as a house
nis; SHEPHERD’S SCABIOUS, SHEEP’S BIT; plant trained on wire hoops or canes.
tufted perennial, to 15cm (6in) tall; Cultivate frost-tender species in a
Japanese knotweed inflorescence bracts ovate to deltoid, cool greenhouse or conservatory
Originally introduced as a garden plant and toothed; flowers blue). border (minimum temperature
now widely distributed as a troublesome weed. 5°C/41°F) or in a medium-fertility
J Once established, its vigorous root system

makes it extremely difficult to eradicate.
Jasminum (Latinized form of Per-
sian yasmin). Oleaceae. Old World trop-
ics, subtropics and temperate regions.
loam-based mix, with wires or other
support. (J.polyanthum requires a tem-
perature drop to induce flowering.)
annual stems to 2m (61/2ft). Clump- JASMINE, JESSAMINE. About 200 ever- Water plentifully during summer,
forming, but spreading by means of green or deciduous shrubs and small sparingly in winter, and ventilate freely
strong, deep-penetrating rhizomes. trees, many sprawling, scandent or when possible. J.rex requires a mini-
Thrives in all soil conditions, including twining. The leaves are pinnate, trifoli- mum temperature of 18°C/64°F, and
wasteland. Difficult to control. Where olate or with only one leaflet, thus succeeds best with part-day shade.
conditions allow, a programme of con- ‘simple’. Often fragrant, the flowers are Tie in leaders of scandent species in a
tinual careful forking out, over several solitary or clustered in axils, or in fan formation after planting. Cut back
seasons, is effective provided all rhi- cymes or cymose panicles – they con- flowered growth of J.nudiflorum imme-
zomes are removed and re-growth is sist of a tubular corolla with 4 or more diately after flowering; remove any
quickly attacked. This approach is spreading lobes. Grown for their often weak growth and tie in as necessary.
more practicable in recently invaded heavily fragrant flowers, the genus Thin, but do not shorten, shoots of
areas. In the UK, lifted rhizomes are Jasminum comprises J.officinale after flowering.
categorized as ‘controlled waste’ under species for a number Other species require no
the Environmental Protection Act of garden situations, regular pruning, other
1990, and may not be disposed of from J.parkeri, than the thinning
with household waste. Glyphosate with tiny yellow of overgrown
and glyphosate trimesium will check flowers in early plants. Propagate
and destroy Japanese knotweed. The summer, which by semi-ripe cut-
herbicide is non-selective and must forms low, tings in late
not come into contact with valued dense and summer,
plants. Although the weed is most evergreen and over-
susceptible at flowering time, access hummocks suitable winter at a
is easiest when the shoots are about in scale for the rock temperature of
1m (31/4ft) high in spring. Re-growth garden, to the free- 7–10°C/45–50°F.
should be treated on further occasions standing semi- Take cuttings of
in the same year and in the evergreen J.humile, a fine J.mesnyi and J.polyanthum
following spring. wall shrub, bearing large with a heel, and root
and fragrant flowers from early with bottom heat of
jardin anglais the English garden; spring to late autumn. The twin- 15°C/59°F. Also by layers,
a European name for the landscape ing climbers, such as J.officinale Jasminum and seed sown when ripe.
garden, the fashion for which resulted and the tropical species, J.rex, officinale
in the destruction of formal gardens will scramble over trelliswork, Jatropha (from Greek iatros,
around Florence and elsewhere in shrubs, trees or other supports. physician, and trophe, food, alluding to
Europe during the late 18th and The rambling or scandent shrubby the medicinal qualities). Euphor-
19th centuries. species, which require tying with shoots biaceae. Tropics and warm temperate
carefully trained and spaced, can be regions, mainly S America. TARTOGO,
424 jardinière an ornamental plant stand used as wall shrubs, or trained over GOUT PLANT, BARBADOS NUT, PHYSIC
or container, normally used indoors. pergolas, arches, arbours and fences. NUT, CORAL PLANT, PEREGRINA,
Jasminum
JASMINUM
J.azoricum Azores evergreen climbing shrub leaflets 3, ovate, acute, fragrant, long-stalked, borne in terminal
J.fluminense undulate, cordate at base, panicles, corolla white, tube to 0.5cm
Comments: Late summer. Z9. terminal leaflet larger (1⁄4in), lobes to 6, 1cm (1⁄2in) long
J.beesianum China deciduous or semi- simple, ovate-lanceolate, 1–3 per axil, small, fragrant, pale pink
evergreen, sprawling 2–5cm (3⁄4–2in), olive green, to deep rose
shrub slightly downy
Comments: Early summer. Z7. Produces abundant shining black berries which persist in winter. A form of J.beesianum with longer leaves and
larger, pale pink flowers is often seen, this may be a backcross with J. x stephanense. True J.beesianum has smaller, darker flowers.
J.floridum China erect to arching, semi- leaflets 3–5, 1–3.5cm yellow, profuse, in cymes
evergreen shrub (1⁄2–11⁄2in), oval to ovate,
acuminate, glabrous, shining
Comments: Late summer. Z9. green above, pale beneath
J.fruticans Mediterranean, erect, evergreen or semi- leaflets 1–2cm (1⁄2–3⁄4in), to 5 per terminal cyme; corolla yellow,
Comments: Summer. Z8.

Asia Minor. evergreen shrub to
1.25m (4ft)
3, tough, narrow-oblong,
obtuse, dark green, glabrous,
minutely ciliate
tube to 1.25cm (1⁄2in), lobes 5, obtuse,
to half length tube J
J.grandiflorum S Arabia, NE semi-evergreen or leaflets 5–7, to 2cm (3⁄4in) in terminal, branching cymes, intensely
CATALONIAN Africa, widely evergreen climbing (terminal leaflet longer), fragrant; corolla white, exterior
JASMINE; grown in warm shrub ovate sometimes tinted red, tube to 2cm
ROYAL JASMINE; and temperate (3⁄4in), lobes 5–6, oblong
SPANISH JASMINE regions elsewhere Comments: Z10. Source of jasmine oil.
J.humile Middle East, evergreen or semi- leaflets to 7, to 4cm (11⁄2in), sometimes scented, in umbel-like
ITALIAN JASMINE Burma, China evergreen shrub to 6m ovate-lanceolate clusters; corolla yellow, tube to 2cm
(20ft), erect, occasionally (3⁄4in), lobes to 1cm (1⁄2in), rounded,
tree-like spreading
Comments: Summer. Z6. Includes ‘Revolutum’ (syn. J.revolutum, f. farreri (syn. J.farreri, J.giraldii): evergreen, spreading shrub to 1.5m
J.reevesii, J.triumphans): semi-evergreen, robust shrub, leaflets 3–7, (5ft), leaflets 3, oval-lanceolate, distinctly tapering, terminal leaflet to
terminal leaflet to 6cm (21⁄2in), laterals to 4cm (11⁄2in), flowers 2.5cm 10cm (4in), dull green, coarse above, hairy beneath, inflorescence
(1in) wide, yellow, fragrant, 6–12 together, stamens slightly protruding; hairy, flowers yellow, to 12 per cyme.
J.laurifolium Assam, Bangladesh evergreen slender climber narrowly elliptic-lanceolate starry, white
Comments: Summer. Z 9. Includes f. nitidum (syn. J.nitidum, J.gracile simple, elliptic-lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, glossy bright green above,
var. magnificum): ANGEL HAIR JASMINE; ANGEL WING JASMINE; WINDMILL flowers fragrant, corolla white, often tinted red in bud and on exterior,
JASMINE; STAR JASMINE; CONFEDERATE JASMINE, leaves to 8cm (3in), tube to 2cm (3⁄4in), slender, lobes to 1.5cm (5⁄8in), 9–11, linear-lanceolate.
J.mesnyi W China evergreen rambling to leaflets 3, 2.5–7cm (1–23⁄4in), 3–5cm (11⁄4–2in) wide, solitary in
J.primulinum cascading shrub to lanceolate, dark glossy green axils, corolla usually semi-double,
PRIMROSE JASMINE 3m (10ft) bright yellow, lobes to 1cm (1⁄2in)
Comments: Summer. Z8. across, obtuse
J.grandiflorum J.humile J.mesnyi 425

Jasminum
JASMINUM
J.multiflorum India evergreen pubescent to 5cm (2in), simple, ovate, large, fragrant, in sparse to crowded
J.pubescens climber base rounded to cordate clusters; corolla white, lobes oblong-
STAR JASMINE lanceolate, 5–8, to half length of tube
J.nudiflorum N China deciduous, rambling to leaflets 3, 1–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in), borne before leaves, singly in axils of
WINTER JASMINE cascading shrub, to 3 x oval-oblong, dark green, previous year’s growth; corolla to 3cm
3m (10 x 10ft), with glabrous, ciliate (11⁄4in) wide, yellow, 6-lobed
Comments: Winter–early spring. Z6. long, slender branches
J.officinale Asia Minor, deciduous climbing leaflets 5–9, 1–6cm highly fragrant, in branched cymes;
COMMON JASMINE; Himalaya, China. shrub to 10m (33ft), (1⁄2–21⁄2in), elliptic, acuminate corolla white, tube to 2cm (3⁄4in), lobes
TRUE JASMINE; shoots twining, slender 4–5, shorter than tube, +/–
JESSAMINE triangular-ovate
Comments: Summer–early autumn. Z7. f. affine: flowers larger, more lanceolate, terminal leaflet often lobed, flowers to 1.5cm (5⁄8in) long,
J profuse, exterior pink; corolla lobes broader; ‘Aureum’: leaves blotched

golden yellow; ‘Inverleith’: leaves 2–5cm (3⁄4–2in); leaflets 3–7,
cylindrical-funnelform, exterior strongly tinted pink-red, lobes 5, to
1cm (1⁄2in), broadly ovate, apiculate, white above, tinted red beneath.
J.parkeri NW India evergreen twiggy leaflets 3–5, 0.3–0.6cm usually borne singly, yellow, 1.5cm
dwarf shrub, to 30cm (1⁄8–1⁄4in), ovate-acuminate (5⁄8in) wide
(12in), forming a dense
Comments: Summer. Z7. mat or mound
J.polyanthum China deciduous or evergreen leaflets 5–7, lanceolate, in axillary panicles, highly fragrant;
J.blinii climbing and twining narrow-acuminate at apex, corolla to 2cm (3⁄4in), white within,
shrub to 8m (26ft) terminal leaflet to 8cm (3in), exterior flushed pink, lobes obovate
Comments: Summer. Z9. coriaceous, 3-nerved
J.rex Thailand glabrous climber simple, to 16cm (6in), dark on slender, drooping stalks, 2–3 per
glossy green, broadly ovate, axillary cyme, unscented; corolla white,
acuminate salverform, tube to 2.5cm (1in), lobes
Comments: Summer. Z10. 8(–9), ovate-oblong
J.sambac widespread evergreen twiner, shoots simple, semi-rigid, shiny, in clusters, highly fragrant; corolla
ARABIAN JASMINE through long pubescent, angular glabrous or hairy, broad- waxy white, pink with age, tube 1.2cm
cultivation; may ovate to 8cm (3in), acute, (1⁄2in), lobes to 1.5cm (5⁄8in), 6–9, oblong
originate in India conspicuously veined
Comments: Flowers continuously. Z10. ‘Grand Duke of Tuscany’ : flowers double, lobes rounded, resembling a small Gardenia.
J. x stephanense garden origin, also fast-growing climber, simple or 3–5-lobed, leaflets pale pink, small, in sparse cymes
(J.beesianum x said to occur wild twining, to 5m (16ft), pale olive green, pubescent
J.officinale) in W China stems often yellow-green beneath.
or cream at first
426 J.nudiflorum J.officinale ‘Argenteovariegatum’ J.sambac

Jubaea
JICAMILLA. 170 species, perennial herbs (73% nitrogen), 2 parts superphosphate

and shrubs, with poisonous sap. The (18–21% phosphate), and 1 part potas-
leaves are simple or palmately lobed or sium sulphate (48% potash) by weight.
cut. Small flowers are produced in It is formulated for use in John Innes
dense, flat-topped, thick-stalked and compost.
many-branched cymes. Grow in a min-
imum temperature of 10°C/50°F, with John Innes composts see potting
full sun and a dry atmosphere. Plant in media.
a well-drained, loam-based mix with
additional leafmould and sharp sand. jostaberry (Ribes x culverwellii) a bush
Water moderately when in full growth. fruit hybrid between blackcurrant and
Keep virtually dry during the winter gooseberry, bearing small clusters of
rest period, when the plants may dull berries which resemble blackcur-
become leafless. Propagate by seed or rants. The plant is vigorous, upright,
by semi-ripe cuttings. All parts of this spineless and self-fertile. Its flowers are Jovibarba hirta
plant are poisonous. frost-susceptible and carried on old and Similar to sempervivums in both appearance
J.multifida (CORAL PLANT, PHYSIC young wood. It may be cultivated and and requirements, jovibarbas make attractive
NUT; tropical America; shrub or tree to propagated as a blackcurrant and plants for a rock garden or trough.
7m (23ft); leaves to 30cm (12in) diame-
ter, dark green, palmately and deeply
7–11-lobed, lobes finely dissected and
grown either as a stooled bush, or a
half standard, in which case it will
require staking. Jostaberry is resistant
or flushed deep red; flowers pale
yellow-brown); J.sobolifera (syn. Semper-
J
toothed, petioles sometimes finely spot- to American gooseberry mildew, black- vivum soboliferum; C and SE Europe;
ted purple-brown, as are stems of currant leaf spot and gall mite. Also rosettes 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in) across; leaves
young plants: flowers scarlet); J.podagrica known as yostaberry. obovate to oblong, bright green tipped
(GOUT PLANT, TARTOGO; Guatemala, red with age, ciliate; flowers yellow).
Panama; stem to 2.5m (8ft), usually Jovellana (for Dr C.M. de Jovellanos
thickly gouty with branches only at its (1744–1811), student of the Peruvian Juanulloa (for Jorge Juan (1713–73)
summit and a large central swelling; flora). Scrophulariaceae. Chile, New and Antonio Ulloa (1716–95), Spanish
leaves to 30cm (12in) diameter, ovate to Zealand. Some 6 species, tender herbs, travellers in S America). Solanaceae. C
orbicular, with 3–5, broad and shallow subshrubs and shrubs, resembling Cal- and S America. Some 10 species, epi-
lobes; flowers coral red). ceolaria in the strongly saccate corolla, phytic or climbing and stem-rooting
but having two almost equal corolla shrubs. Produced in either clusters or
Jeffersonia (for Thomas Jefferson lobes (lips) with the margins flat or racemes, the flowers consist of a large,
(1743–1826), third president of the involute. The following species is usu- campanulate calyx, often fleshy and
United States, author, architect and ally grown in the cool greenhouse or ridged, with oblong to lanceolate lobes,
horticulturist). Berberidaceae. N Amer- conservatory, but will tolerate mild and a tubular, 5-lobed corolla. Grow
ica, E Asia. TWIN LEAF. 2 species, frosts if planted in a warm, sheltered in a freely draining, medium-fertility
perennial herbs with radical, 2-lobed, position and mulched in winter. Grow loam-based mix in the intermediate
rounded and toothed leaves peltately in full sun in a free-draining loam- greenhouse (minimum temperature
attached to long stalks. Carried on based medium. Avoid excessive mois- 13°C/55°F). Keep moist, humid and
slender scapes in spring, the solitary ture in winter. Propagate by seed or by well-fed in spring and summer with
flowers are cup-shaped with five to semi-ripe cuttings. J.violacea (Chile; some protection from full sunlight;
eight, oblong petals. Fully hardy. Grow puberulent shrub to 2m (61/2ft); flowers position in full sun in winter and keep
in light shade or dappled sun, in an to 1.5cm (5/8in) diameter, pale violet rather drier. Propagate by seed or cut-
acid to neutral humus-rich soil. Keep spotted purple, throat blotched yellow). tings. J.mexicana (syn. J.aurantiaca; Peru,
the root run cool and moist. Sow fresh Colombia, C America; stems to 2m
ripe seed in the cold frame or cool Jovibarba (from Latin Ioves, of (61/2ft), arching; calyx to 1.5cm (5/8in)
greenhouse, or divide well-established Jupiter, and barba, beard). Crassulaceae. diameter, waxy, pale orange, corolla to
plants in early spring. Europe. 5 species, perennial herbs with 4cm (11/2in), waxy, brilliant orange).
J.diphylla (RHEUMATISM ROOT; N monocarpic leaf rosettes. They are
America; leaves to 15cm (6in) across, close to and sometimes included in Jubaea (for King Juba of the ancient
glaucous beneath; scapes exceeding Sempervivum but distinguished from that African kingdom of Numidia). CHILEAN
petioles; flowers white); J.dubia (NE Asia; genus by their secondary leaf rosettes WINE PALM, HONEY PALM, SYRUP PALM,
leaves to 10cm (4in) across, glaucous, and campanulate flowers. Cultivate as COQUITO PALM, LITTLE COKERNUT.
tinged mauve-grey; scapes shorter than for Sempervivum. Palmae. Chile. 1 species, J.chilensis, a
petioles; flowers lavender to pale blue). J.hirta (syn. Sempervivum hirtum; C and palm to 25m (80ft) tall, the stem to
SE Europe; rosettes 5–7cm (2–23/4in) 1.3m (41/4ft) diameter at base, occasion-
John Innes base a compound fertil- across; leaves lanceolate to obovate, cil- ally swollen in middle, becoming bare, 427
izer containing 2 parts hoof and horn iate, green tipped brown to red-brown with oblique scars and vertical cracks.
Jubaea
The leaves are 1–5m (31/4–16ft) long occur in solitary trees. When ripening budding on to nursery-grown seedling
and pinnate, with linear, rigid, grey- is poor in cool damp climates, walnuts stock in summer. For heavier soils,
green segments to 50cm (20in) long. can nevertheless yield a good harvest of J.nigra is the preferred rootstock.
A large but slow-growing and elegant nuts for pickling, provided the nuts are Bacterial leaf blight causes small
feather palm, Jubaea is notable for its gathered before the development of angular black spots on the leaves and
tolerance of relatively cool conditions. the hard shell. However, walnuts are can also attack fruit. Trees may be
It is suitable for outdoor cultivation as cultivated as far north as Warsaw, and attacked by two species of walnut
a specimen or in avenue plantings in in recent years Polish cultivars (e.g. the aphids. Blister-like growths on the
dry, Mediterranean-type climates and J.regia Carpathian Group) have yielded leaves are caused by the walnut blister
may tolerate several degrees of short- promising results for cold temperate mite, which is widespread in Europe
lived frost. In colder climates, it may be zones. Increased interest is being and Asia and has been introduced into
grown in the cool to intermediate shown in Australia, where ‘Franquette’, Australia. Additional North American
greenhouse or conservatory and is par- a comparatively old French cultivar (on pests include the walnut caterpillar,
ticularly handsome as a juvenile speci- J.nigra rootstock), which is reliable, late- walnut husk fly, a fruit fly with larvae
men. Plant in a loamy mix high in grit flowering, and of excellent quality, is which tunnel into the green husks
and sand; keep moist in warm weather, widely planted. turning them black and slimy; and
rather dry in winter. Admit full sun and Plant in deep, well-drained but mod- two species of weevil, the black walnut
ventilate freely. Propagate Jubaea by erately moist, fertile and slightly alka- curculio and the butternut curculio,
J fresh seed, which may take up to six

months to germinate.
line soils. Prune only when absolutely
necessary, during late summer/early
autumn when the tree is in full leaf, or
which have larvae that burrow into
the nuts.
J.ailanthifolia (HEARTNUT, JAPANESE
Juglans (from Latin Jovis glans, ‘Jove’s else when it is completely dormant, WALNUT; Japan; tree to 15m (50ft);
acorn’). Juglandaceae. N and S Amer- otherwise wounds bleed profusely. For leaves to 50cm (20in), leaflets 11–17,
ica, SE Europe, Asia. WALNUT (q.v.). fruit production, J.regia may be pruned to 15 x 5cm (6 x 2in), oblong to elliptic,
About 15 species, deciduous trees with to a vase or cup-shaped framework acuminate, serrate, grey-tomentose
furrowed bark and pinnate leaves. when young, and, in the smaller to glabrous above, glandular-hairy
Inconspicuous male flowers are borne garden, trees may be kept relatively beneath; fruit globose to ovoid, sticky-
in axillary catkins; the female flowers in dwarfed by judicious light pruning. hairy; includes var. cordiformis, syn.
terminal spikes. The females give rise Propagate Juglans from seed sown J.cordiformis, with narrower leaflets);
to 2–4-celled drupes with thick, fur- ripe, or stratified in autumn and then J.cathayensis (CHINESE WALNUT, CHINESE
rowed pericarps and 2–4-lobed seed. sown in spring, in a sandy, humus-rich BUTTERNUT; shrub or tree to 23m
The young growth of many species propagating medium. The seeds’ dor- (75ft); leaves to 80cm (32in), viscid;
is prone to damage by late spring mancy is broken at temperatures of leaflets 11–19, to 15 x 8cm (6 x 3in),
frosts, although in the genus as a whole 5–6°C/41–43°F. Protect from rodents oblong to lanceolate, finely dentate,
spring flushing is relatively late. Sub- and, since walnuts develop deep tap- hairy; fruit ovoid to 4.5cm (13/4in));
stances produced by the roots and roots which make transplanting diffi- J.cinerea (BUTTER NUT, WHITE WALNUT;
fallen leaves of many species, notably cult, move seedlings as soon as possible NE US; to 30m (100ft); young
J.regia and J.nigra, appear to have toxic to nursery beds and then on to final branches glandular-glutinose; leaves
effects (a form of allelopathy) on a positions. Cultivars will not come true 25–50cm (10–20in), leaflets 11–19,
variety of plants. from seed; propagate by splice or 6–12cm (21/2–43/4in), oblong to lanceo-
All species produce edible nuts but veneer grafting on to seedling stock late, acuminate, serrate, hairy, glandu-
quality is highest in cultivars of J.regia. of J.regia under glass in winter, or by lar beneath; fruit to 10cm (4in),
Bearing commences between glandular-glutinose); J.microcarpa (syn.
5 and 15 years of age, and up to 9 leaflets developing J.rupestris; SW US, Mexico; shrub or
may be irregular due to a walnuts small tree to 7m (23ft); young shoots
number of factors. It seems grey to brown; leaves
likely that flower initiation with 15–23 leaflets,
depends on suitable con- finely serrate); J.nigra
ditions the previous (BLACK WALNUT; E US,
summer, and flowers naturalized C Europe; to
and young growth 45m (150ft); leaflets 15–23, to 11cm
are destroyed by (41/2in), ovate to oblong, pubescent
even short periods beneath; fruit globose, about 4cm
(hours) with temperatures of (11/2in) diameter, hairy); J.regia (ENGLISH
between –2°C/28°F and WALNUT, PERSIAN WALNUT, MADEIRA
–3°C/27°F. Although walnuts are WALNUT; SE Europe to Himalaya and
self-fertile, in some individuals male China, C Russia, naturalized US; to
428 and female flowers mature at differ- 30m (100ft); leaflets 5–9, rarely more,
ent times and pollination may not Juglans regia 6–12cm (21/2–43/4in), elliptic to obovate,
Juniperus
entire to serrate, with tufted hairs in needle-like or small, scale-like and China is a prostrate shrub to 1 x 3m
vein axils beneath; fruit subglobose, overlapping. The cones are globose, (31/4 x 10ft); branches layered to sweep-
smooth, green, 4–5cm (11/2–2in) across). ovoid or lumpy, bloomed with glaucous ing; bark red-brown; leaves needle-like
wax, fleshy and indehiscent, with the to scale-like, grey-green or dark green,
Juncus (from Latin iuncus, a rush, scales marked only by the finest lines; camphor-scented; fruit blue-black);
derived from iugere, to join, from the in colour they are green, ripening to J.communis (COMMON JUNIPER; Europe,
use of the stems in tying). Juncaceae. orange, red, brown, purple or black. Asia; dense shrub or tree, 1–20m
Cosmopolitan, but rare in the tropics. The following are fully hardy and (31/4–66ft) tall; crown erect to spread-
RUSH. About 225 species, rhizomatous will adapt to most garden situations, ing, typically bushy and erect; bark
grassy herbs growing in wet places. although full sun and a well-drained flaking or peeling; leaves subulate to
The stems and leaves are clumped soil are important. J.drupacea prefers needle-like, deep green with a single
and terete to narrowly sword-like and lime. J.recurva favours a humid, shel- pale band on inner surface; fruit
folded. The flowers are small, chaffy, tered, cool and damp site. Many of blue-grey to purple-black, glaucous;
green or brown and carried in dense, the glaucous species will tolerate poor, includes very dwarf to tall cultivars
rounded, terminal or lateral cymes. chalky and stony soils, drought and ranging in habit from tightly erect to
Fully hardy and suitable for ponds and sun. Both J.conferta and J.horizontalis pendulous and prostrate); J.davurica
boggy ground. In smaller ponds, they (especially its selection ‘Bar Harbor’) (DAHURIAN JUNIPER; Siberia, Mongolia,
can be grown in plunged containers. endure salt spray and residue from China; semi-prostrate shrub; bark grey,
Propagate by division in spring.
J.effusus (COMMON RUSH, SOFT RUSH;
virtually cosmopolitan; stems and
salt-treated roads. Many species
abound in cultivars and one at least
can usually be fitted to a particular
flaking; juvenile leaves needle-like,
adult leaves scale-like, diamond-
shaped, pointed, sage green; fruit
J
leaves indistinguishable, to 1m (31/4ft), garden need. The prostrate cultivars purple-brown; includes cultivars with
dark green, slender, smooth, terete; of several species, for example, are foliage variegated or stained golden
inflorescence a dull brown lateral cyme resilient, impenetrable groundcover. yellow); J.drupacea (SYRIAN JUNIPER;
near apex of stem; includes f. spiralis, Dwarf cultivars are excellent rock Greece, Syria, Turkey; columnar
CORKSCREW RUSH, with spirally twisted garden and heather/conifer bed tree to 15m (50ft) in the wild, bark
leaves and stems, ‘Vittatus’ with stems subjects. J.chinensis and J.chinensis var. red-brown, peeling in long strips; leaves
and leaves banded ivory, and ‘Zebri- sargentii are among the best conifers to 2.5cm (1in), needle-like, whorled,
nus’ with leaves banded white; similar for bonsai treatment. Propagation as hard, sharply pointed, shiny green;
to J.effusus but smaller and finer is for Chamaecyparis. Affected by needle fruit red-brown, violet-bloomed);
J.decipiens, whose cultivar ‘Curly Wurly’ blight and stem die-back. The causal J.horizontalis (CREEPING JUNIPER; N
has tightly spiralling foliage); J.ensifolius fungi enter through wounds or weak- America; low to prostrate, spreading
(western N America; 20–80cm ened tissue, especially in wet weather. shrub to 0.6 x 3m (2 x 10ft); leaves
(8–32in), stems clumped, clothed with Control by fungicidal spray. Junipers needle- or scale-like, grey-green or
sea green, overlapping, sword-shaped can be attacked by rusts; these cause grey-blue; fruit dark blue with a pale
leaves that resemble a miniature flag the branches to swell and erupt with bloom; includes cultivars with very low,
iris; flowers purple-black, glossy, in yellow-brown bodies. They are also feathery or dense foliage, some very
small, spherical heads). attacked by phytophthora root rot. resistant of salt spray, others ranging
Pests include tent caterpillar and the in colour from dull green to bright
June drop the natural shedding in juniper webber, which feeds en masse steely blue, the best turning purple-
early summer of a proportion of the amid a complex of webbing. Infested bronze in winter); J. x pfitzeriana
immature fruits of apple, pear, plum, foliage turns brown and dies, usually (J.sabina x J.chinensis; spreading shrub
cherry and citrus. Fruits fall over a in early summer. Approved insecticides to 2m (61/2ft), differs from J.sabina in its
short period, and the extent of the are effective if applied during late thicker shoots and spiky crown with
occurrence appears to be affected summer or early autumn, when the long, horizontal shoot tips; bark scaly,
by soil moisture status. Planned fruit caterpillars are young. Also afflicted by red-brown; leaves yellow- to grey-
thinning should be done immediately juniper scale, the conifer spinning mite green, needle- or scale-like; fruit dark
after June drop. and the bagworm. purple bloomed pale blue; cultivars
J.chinensis (CHINESE JUNIPER; China, include compact and low to robust and
Juniperus (Latin name for the tree). Mongolia, Japan; tree or shrub to 20m loosely tiered clones, some sports
Cupressaceae. Northern Hemisphere (66ft); crown conic; bark peeling in juvenile, they range in colour from
from Arctic to C America, Himalaya, strips; foliage pungently scented, dull olive green to blue-grey and gold,
Taiwan; to 20°S in E Africa. JUNIPER. juvenile leaves subulate, dark green some are yellow-variegated; one of the
Perhaps 60 species, evergreen, conifer- with 2 pale bands beneath, adult leaves best-known is ‘Wilhelm Pfitzer’ (syn.
ous trees or shrubs. The older bark is rhombic, blunt, scale-like, overlapping; ‘Pfitzeriana’), a spreading, grey-green
usually grey-brown and stringy, fruits violet to brown with a white flat-topped shrub to 3 x 5m (10 x 16ft));
exfoliating in flakes or long vertical bloom; includes golden, grey-blue and J.procumbens (BONIN ISLES JUNIPER;
strips and exposing red-brown, smooth narrowly columnar to pyramidal S Japan; to 75cm (30in), procumbent; 429
bark beneath. The leaves are sharp and cultivars; var. sargentii from Japan, bark maroon-brown, smooth; leaves in
Juniperus
whorls of 3, linear, sharply pointed, J.squamata (FLAKY JUNIPER; NW Asia to J.adhatoda (India, Sri Lanka; shrub to
pale green, the inner face with 2 grey- China; prostrate to sprawling or erect 3m (10ft); flowers to 3cm (11/4in), white
green bands; fruit dark brown; includes shrub to 8m (26ft); bark rusty brown, veined red or purple on lower lip);
dwarf, prostrate and compact cultivars, flaky; leaves in whorls of 3, subulate, J.brandegeeana (syn. Beloperone guttata,
some with gold-tipped foliage); J.recurva rigid, aromatic, deep grey-green to sil- Drejerella guttata; SHRIMP PLANT, FALSE
(DROOPING JUNIPER, HIMALAYAN WEEP- very blue-grey with a bright, blue-white HOP; Mexico; downy shrub to 2m
ING JUNIPER; SW China, E Himalaya; band; fruit glossy black; cultivars (61/2ft); flowers to 3cm (11/4in), white
tree or shrub to 20m (66ft), crown con- include dwarf, prostrate, columnar and marked purple-red in ‘shrimp-’ or
ical, branches weeping at least at tips; bushy plants, many with bright silver- ‘hop-like,’ arching spikes to 8cm (3in)
bark red-brown, peeling in strips; leaves blue leaves, some assuming lilac tints in long, clothed with overlapping, downy,
subulate to lanceolate, sharply pointed, winter; one of the best-known is yellow, or more usually dusty pink to
rigid, rather dry to touch, grey-green ‘Meyeri’, a broadly spreading shrub brick red or dull brown bracts); J.califor-
with a pale grey inner surface; fruit with dense, spiky boughs of steely blue nica (CHUPAROSA HONEYSUCKLE; south-
dark green-brown to black; var. coxii: foliage and old, dead growth rusty and ern N America; subshrub to 1.5m (5ft);
COFFIN JUNIPER; small tree or large persistent); J.virginiana (PENCIL CEDAR, branches downy, arching; flowers red);
shrub, crown spreading, branches dis- EASTERN RED CEDAR; E N America; J.carnea (syn. Jacobinia carnea; BRAZILIAN
tinctly weeping); J.rigida (TEMPLE tree to 20m (66ft), crown conic to PLUME, FLAMINGO PLANT, PARADISE
JUNIPER; Japan, Korea, N China; tree columnar, branches spreading; bark PLANT; northern S America; shrub to
J to 15m (50ft), or shrub with an open

crown and pendulous branches; bark
brown to yellow-brown, peeling; leaves
rusty brown, peeling in shreds; leaves
needle- and scale-like, grey-green
marked with white, scented weakly of
2m (61/2ft); flowers to 5cm (2in), fleshy
pink to magenta or purple-red in
dense, erect, plume-shaped spikes to
in whorls of 3, needle-like, sharply soap or white spirit; purple-maroon, 15cm (6in) with green bracts); J.rizzinii
pointed, rigid, bright green, inner face thickly bloomed fruit; includes numer- (syn. J.floribunda, J.pauciflora; Brazil;
with a single, blue-grey band; fruit dark ous cultivars – tall to low, narrowly small, rounded, downy shrub; flowers
maroon to purple-black; subsp. conferta erect to tiered and prostrate, pale to to 2cm (3/4in), scarlet tipped yellow in
SHORE JUNIPER; Japan, Sakhalin; pros- deep green or grey-green, sometimes nodding clusters); J.spicigera (syn. J.ghies-
trate to ascending shrub; bark red- turning purple-bronze in winter; this breghtiana, Jacobinia spicigera; Mexico to
brown; leaves needle-like, dark green, species is one of the parents of J. ‘Grey Colombia; shrub to 1.8m (6ft); flowers
inner surface with a pale, glaucous Owl’, a shrub to 2 x 3m (61/2 x 10ft) to 4cm (11/2in), orange or red in a
band; fruit shiny dark purple; includes with spreading branches and feathery, secund raceme).
cultivars with blue-green and emerald silver-grey foliage).
green foliage, some turning yellow- juvenile (1) used of the sexually
green to bronze in winter; all are Justicia (for J. Justice, 18th-century immature stage of a plant; (2) used of
tolerant of coastal conditions); J.sabina Scottish gardener). Acanthaceae. the immature foliage of those plants
(SAVIN; C & S Europe, C Asia, NW Tropical and subtropical northern and that bear leaves of a distinctly different
China; spreading shrub or tree to 4m southern Hemispheres, and temperate shape when young, such as Cryptomeria
(13ft); bark rust-brown, flaking; leaves N America. WATER WILLOW. Some 420 and Eucalyptus; cf. adult.
very aromatic, needle-like to scale-like, species, perennial herbs, subshrubs or
grey-green to blue-green; fruit very shrubs with jointed stems and oblong
dark blue with a white bloom; cultivars to ovate leaves. The flowers are borne narrow adult
include dwarf to robust clones of pros- in axillary or terminal spikes, cymes or foliage
trate to tiered habit with compact to panicles, usually subtended by
loosely feathered, dark green, grey or bracts; they are tubular and characteristic disc
blue-grey foliage, sometimes tipped curving, with two lips, or penny shape of
young leaves
yellow); J.scopulorum (ROCKY MOUNTAIN the uppermost narrowly
JUNIPER; Rocky Mts; shrub or tree to hood-like. Grow in a
15m (50ft); crown open; bark red- well-drained, medium-
brown, fissured; leaves scale-like, to high-fertility, loam-
sharply pointed, yellow-green to dark based mix in full sun or
green; fruit blue-black covered in a bright filtered light, with
pale bloom; includes cultivars with protection from the hottest
dense or lax foliage in shades of grey- summer sun and good venti- mature stems
green and bright blue-grey, short or tall lation. Water plentifully bear flowers
with procumbent, conical and very and feed weekly when in
narrow habits; one of the best-known full growth. Keep just
juvenile foliage
is ‘Skyrocket’, a very slender, columnar moist in winter, with a
tree to 6m (20ft) tall with feathery, minimum temperature of
430 strongly ascending blue-grey foliage, 7°C/45°F. Propagate by semi-
sometimes listed under J.virginiana); ripe stem cuttings in spring. Juvenile and adult leaves of eucalyptus
Kalanchoe
K
K.rotunda (RESURRECTION LILY; SE Asia, and its hybrids, carry exotic and
widely cultivated; leaves green marked vibrantly coloured flowers in late
silver above, tinted purple beneath; winter and spring. They are commonly
flowers white with a lilac lip). grown as house plants. The trailing
to weeping cultivars are useful for
kainit a natural mineral containing hanging pots and baskets. Grow in a
potassium chloride together with medium-fertility loam-based mix with
sodium chloride, magnesium sulphate added grit, in sun or light shade, with a
and impurities. Formerly an orchard minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F.
fertilizer, it is now rarely used on Water plentifully from spring to
account of its variability and the risk of autumn, sparingly and occasionally in
phytotoxicity caused by its impurities. winter. Propagate from stem or leaf
Kadsura (Japanese name for K.japon- cuttings. For large-leaved species such
ica). Schisandraceae. E and SE Asia. Kalanchoe (from the obscure native as K.beharensis, the midrib is cut across
22 species twining, evergreen shrubs name for a Chinese species). Crassu- in several places, and pinned to the
with entire or obscurely toothed leaves laceae. Tropics, especially Old World. surface of a sandy propagating mix.
and small flowers usually borne singly 125 species, perennial, occasionally New plants should form within a
at the leaf axils in summer. These are annual or biennial, succulent shrubs, month. A few species, such as K.daigre-
followed by fleshy berries. Hardy in herbs and climbers (those below peren- montiana, produce large numbers of
climate zone 7. In colder areas, grow nials). The leaves are fleshy and the tiny plantlets at the tips and margins of
in the greenhouse or conservatory. flowers, which are bell-shaped to tubu- mature leaves; these are easily detached
Outdoors, plant in a sheltered position,
in sun or part shade, on moderately
lar, are carried in racemes and panicles
at various times of year. Many of the
and root quickly when placed on the
soil surface. Surface sow seed of all
K
fertile, well-drained neutral to acid smaller species, notably K.blossfeldiana species in early spring at 20°C/68°F.
soils. Plants of both sexes are required
for fruit set. Increase by semi-ripe stem
cuttings. K.japonica (Japan, Korea;
L EAF CUTTINGS OF KALANCHOE
climbing to 4m (13ft); flowers to shrivelled
leaf
1.5cm (5/8in) wide, ivory; fruit scarlet).
Kaempferia (for Engelbert

Kaempfer (1651–1716), German physi-
cian). Zingiberaceae. Tropical Asia.
About 50 species, rhizomatous peren-
nial herbs with aromatic tubers and plantlets form
at stalk base
foliage Those here are low-growing
plants with clumps of broad leaves.
Produced in spring and summer in
short spikes, the flowers consist of
three petals, large, petal-like stamin-
1 K.beharensis. Remove leaves with stalks
and thread onto wire, hanging them in
a wam airy place out of direct sun. Leaves
2 After 3–6 months plantlets should form
from buds at the leaf stalk base. Once
large enough to handle, they may be potted
odes and a showy, deeply lobed lip. must not touch. up, using a compost formulated for cacti.
Grow in semi-shade with a minimum
temperature of 15°C/59°F. Plant in P ROPAGATING KALANCHOE FROM PLANTLETS
a porous, fertile medium rich in leaf-
mould. Keep warm, humid and moist
when in growth; in the winter resting
period, keep cool and dry. Propagate
by division of tubers.
K.atrovirens (PEACOCK PLANT; Borneo;
leaves bronze with a metallic sheen
above; flowers white and lavender,
pink or violet); K.pulchra (Thailand,
Malaysia; leaves pale green suffused
and feathered with dark purple-green
or bronze-green feathered silver-green;
flowers lilac); K.roscoeana (PEACOCK LILY,
DWARF GINGER LILY; Burma; leaves
1 K.delagoensis. Plantlets (adventitious
buds) that form at leaf margins may
be gently detached at any time between
2 Fill a small pot with cactus compost and
cover with grit. Set six plantlets on top,
and keep moist in a bright, airy place, out
deep green marked paler green above, spring and autumn. of direct sun. They should soon root. 431
flushed red beneath; flowers white);
Kalanchoe
K.beharensis (Madagascar; densely RAPE or SIBERIAN KALE is similar in

felty shrub to 6m (20ft); leaves to 35cm appearance to the curly kales but is a
(14in), spear-shaped to triangular, different species (Brassica napus). It will
toothed, stained brown, and silvery not withstand transplanting and must
beneath; flowers green-yellow marked be sown in situ.
violet within); K.blossfeldiana (FLAMING CHINESE KALE, CHINESE BROCCOLI
KATY; Madagascar; bushy herb to see broccoli.
60cm (24in); leaves to 7cm (23/4in), Possible problems: cabbage root fly,
oblong to ovate, glossy green, tip blunt, flea beetle; clubroot.
base rounded, crenate; flowers orange,
red, pink or yellow in erect, crowded, Kalmia (for Peter Kalm (1716–1779),
domed to flat-topped bunches); K.dai- Swedish botanist and student of Lin-
gremontiana (DEVIL’S BACKBONE; Mada- naeus). Ericaceae. US, Cuba. 7 species,
gascar; robust, erect perennial to 1m evergreen shrubs with oblong to ellip-
(31/4ft); leaves to 20cm (8in), lanceolate, tic, entire, leathery leaves and small
fleshy, smooth, marbled brown-purple flowers in corymbs, umbels or fascicles
beneath, margins toothed, bearing Kale in summer. The flowers are bell-shaped
plantlets; flowers violet-grey); K.delago- Curly or Scotch kale is a hardy vegetable to broadly tubular, with five lobes. Suit-
nensis (syn. K.tubiflora; Madagascar; from which edible leaves and shoots can be able for planting in open woodland or
perennial shrublet to 2m (61/2ft); leaves harvested throughout the winter. It can be at the woodland edge and in associa-
2–12cm (3/4–43/4in), narrow, terete, used to ornamental effect in the garden. tion with Rhododendron and other large
K grey-green, tip toothed and bearing
plantlets; flowers magenta to orange); grown as an annual for its edible shoots
Ericaceae. Hardy to –30°C/–22°F.
Grow in full sun or dappled shade, in
K.fedtschenkoi (Madagascar; dense and young leaves, which are harvested moisture-retentive, sandy soils that are
shrublet to 50cm (20in); leaves 2–6cm through the winter until spring. One of lime-free and rich in organic matter.
(3/4–21/2in), oblong to ovate, glaucous the hardiest brassicas, it is capable of Sow seed in late winter, lightly covered,
blue, toothed near apex; flowers withstanding winter temperatures as in the warm greenhouse. Propagate
purple-red; includes ‘Variegata’, with low as –15°C/5°F, but is also tolerant from wounded hardwood cuttings in
cream-marked leaves); K.pumila (Mada- of high summer temperatures. It is late winter, in a closed case with bottom
gascar; sprawling shrublet to 30cm widely distributed in both temperate heat, or by layering. Alternatively,
(12in); leaves to 3cm (11/4in), chalky, and tropical regions. propagate by softwood cuttings in
grey-white, obovate, toothed toward Transplants may be raised from a summer.
tip; flowers pink with purple lines); spring sowing and within 6–8 weeks K.angustifolia (SHEEP LAUREL, PIG
K. ‘Tessa’ (bushy, sprawling to cascading will be large enough to plant firmly, at LAUREL, LAMBKILL; E US; to 1.5m (5ft);
perennial with neat, elliptic, smooth 45–75cm (18–30in) spacings according flowers 0.7–1.2cm (1/4–1/2in) in diameter,
and deep green leaves and large, to cultivar. For an early crop of spring scarlet-pink, pink, deep rosy purple or
nodding, tubular flowers in deep greens, grow at closer spacings sowing white in axillary corymbs); K.latifolia
orange-red); K.tomentosa (PANDA PLANT; seed broadcast under cloches during (MOUNTAIN LAUREL, CALICO BUSH; E
Madagascar; erect perennial to 1m the latter part of the winter, or in the US; 3–10m (10–33ft); flowers 2–2.5cm
(31/4ft), sparingly branched; leaves open during early spring. Thin to (3/4–1in) in diameter, white to pale pink,
2–9cm (3/4–31/2in), oblong to obovate, 7–10cm (23/4–4in) spacings. Plants may deep rose or crimson, in large terminal
grey-green and covered in dense, felty, be harvested as spring greens when no corymbs).
pale hairs except for the red-brown- more than 15cm (6in) high, and the
stained tip; flowers yellow-green remaining stems allowed to resprout Kalmiopsis (‘resembling Kalmia’).
stained purple and covered in red- for a further harvest. Ericaceae. US (Oregon). 1 species,
brown hairs); K.uniflora (Madagascar; Kale forms may be classified into K.leachiana, an evergreen dwarf shrub
creeping perennial; leaves 0.5–4cm the curly or Scotch kales (borecole) and to 30cm (12in). To 3cm (11/4in) long, the
(1/4–11/2in), oblong to rounded, convex, the broader smooth-leaved types. A leaves are oval or obovate, bright green
sparsely crenate; flowers pendent, number of kales grow extremely tall, with large, yellow glands beneath. Pro-
purple-red); K. ‘Wendy’ (more or less including the so-called Jersey kale (also duced in spring in terminal racemes, the
erect, bushy perennial to 40cm (16in); known as tree cabbage, walking-stick bell-shaped flowers are 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in)
leaves elliptic to obovate, smooth, cabbage, Jersey longjacks and chou cava- across, rose-purple and 5-lobed. A choice
bluntly toothed; flowers large, urn- lier). Though normally reaching around shrub, suitable for the rock garden or
shaped, nodding, magenta with yellow 150cm (60in), Jersey kale has been alpine house and frame; hardy to
lobes). recorded to 5.4m (18ft). The straight, –15°C/5°F. Grow in moist, peaty, acid
relatively slender stems are strong soil, in semi-shade or in sun, with some
kale (Brassica oleracea, Acephala enough to dry and make into walking protection at the hottest part of the
432 Group) a biennial member of the Cru- sticks; the 75cm (30in) leaves are deco- day. Propagate by surface sown seed,
ciferae, closely related to cabbage; it is rative and can be cooked when young. by layering, or by semi-ripe cuttings.
kiwi fruit
Kalopanax (from Greek kalos, beauti- greenhouse or conservatory, trained up Kirengeshoma (from Japanese ki,
ful, and Panax). Araliaceae. China, pillars and along rafters or scrambling yellow, and rengeshoma, native name for
Korea, Sakhalin, Kuriles, Japan, through shrubs. Grow in a sandy soil in Anemopsis, which this plant is held to
Ryukyu Islands. 1 species, K.septemlobus full sun in a warm, sheltered position. resemble). Hydrangeaceae. Japan,
(syn. K.pictus, K.ricinifolius, Acanthopanax Maintain a winter minimum tempera- Korea. 1 species, K.palmata, a graceful
ricinifolius), the TREE ARALIA, a round- ture of 5–10°C/41–50°F. Water mod- perennial herb. The stems of this plant
headed, sparingly branched tree to erately when in growth, and keep are 60–120cm (24–48in) tall, erect to
30m (100ft). The branches and trunk virtually dry in winter. Prune after arching and purple- or red-tinted.
are prickly, especially in young growth. flowering to remove overcrowded The pale green leaves are 10–20cm
To 35cm (14in) across, the leaves are growth. Propagate by seed sown in (4–8in) long, broadly ovate, toothed to
palmately lobed, finely toothed, dark spring at 20°C/68°F. Immerse seed palmately incised, and with a tapering
green above and paler beneath. They briefly in boiling water and soak in tip and a heart-shaped base. Borne in
are divided into five to seven, triangu- tepid water for 12 hours before sowing. late summer, the flowers are narrowly
lar to ovate lobes and carried on peti- Take semi-ripe cuttings in summer. bell-shaped, to 3cm (11/4in) long, and
oles to 50cm (20in) long. Small white K.nigricans (BLACK CORAL PEA, BLACK slender-stalked. They consist of five,
flowers are borne in paniculate umbels BEAN; W Australia; woody climber to overlapping, pale yellow to apricot
in summer and followed by small, blue- 6m (20ft); flowers violet-purple to true petals. Hardy in zone 6. Grow in deep,
black drupes. Hardy in zone 6. Plant black blotched golden yellow); K.rubi- moist, humus-rich, lime-free soils, in
Kalopanax in deep, fertile, moisture- cunda (DUSKY CORAL PEA; New South semi-shade or with part-day sun.
retentive soil. Give sun or semi-shade. Wales, Victoria; woody-based climber Mulch in winter. Propagate by division
On young plants, unripened wood is to 3m (10ft); flowers deep coral to or by seed, which may take up to 10
susceptible to frost damage. Propagate
from seed in autumn or semi-ripe cut-
scarlet with a paler blotch at base of
standard).
months to germinate.
K
tings under mist or with bottom heat in Kitaibela (for Paul Kitaibel (d. 1817),
summer. Young plants are particularly kernel the inner part of a seed or the Hungarian botanist). Malvaceae.
slow-growing. whole body within the seed coat. Balkans. 1 species, K.vitifolia, a peren-
nial herb to 2.5m (8ft) tall. To 18cm
kaolinite a clay mineral with rela- Kerria (for William Kerr (d. 1814), (7in) long, the long-stalked leaves are
tively low cation exchange and water- Kew gardener who collected in China, rhombic to rounded, with five to seven
holding capacities. Java and the Philippines). Rosaceae. triangular and coarsely toothed lobes.
China, Japan; widely cultivated in Produced in summer, the broadly
keel (1) a prominent ridge, like the Japan. JEW’S MALLOW; JAPANESE ROSE. 1 funnel-shaped flowers are solitary or
keel of a boat, running longitudinally species, K.japonica, a deciduous shrub to carried in axillary cymes; they consist
down the centre of the undersurface of 2.25m (8ft). The branches are green of five cuneate petals, to 2.5cm (1in)
a leaf, petiole, bracts, petal or sepal; (2) and rod-like, branching in their second long and white or rose. Fully hardy,
the two lower united petals of a papil- season and suckering freely. To 7cm Kitaibela will grow in any fertile, mois-
ionaceous flower. (23/4in) long the leaves are oval and ture-retentive but well-drained soil in
saw-toothed. They are usually mid- to sun. Propagate by seed in autumn or
kelp any of various types of very dark green, but are edged and splashed spring, or by division or cuttings.
large seaweed, especially Laminaria white to cream in the cultivar ‘Picta’
species. The term is sometimes used (‘Variegata’). The buttercup-like flow- kitchen garden a plot of ground
more generally to describe any seaweed ers, borne in spring, are to 5cm (2in) in predominantly devoted to edible pro-
harvested as bulky organic manure. diameter, pale to deep golden yellow, duce but often including flowers for
with five (‘Simplex’) or more (‘Pleni- cutting, and commonly greenhouses for
Kennedia (for Lewis Kennedy flora’) ovate to orbicular petals and growing crops out of season. Tradition-
(1775–1818), a founding partner of numerous stamens. Kerria is hardy to ally, large kitchen gardens were entirely
Lee and Kennedy, nurserymen of –20°C/–4°F. Grow in a sunny position. walled in, the walls themselves being
Hammersmith, London). Leguminosae. Prune after flowering to remove old used for training fruit trees.
Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea. and overcrowded stems. Propagate by
CORAL PEA. Some 16 species, woody or semi-ripe cuttings or by suckers. kiwi fruit (Actinidia deliciosa) CHINESE
herbaceous perennial climbers. The GOOSEBERRY a hardy perennial climber,
leaves are usually trifoliolate. Showy, key a device for identifying plants, very vigorous with shoots up to 10m
pea-like flowers are produced in trusses often by means of a series of couplets (33ft) in length, bearing large heart-
or racemes in late spring and summer. of mutually exclusive statements, each shaped leaves. It is native to China, and
In frost-free regions, Kennedia species of which leads either to a further pair grown for its edible, hispid fruits that
are grown as climbers or for ground- of statements or to the identification (a are up to 10cm (4in) long and 4.5cm
cover. They are ideal for covering dry, dichotomous key). (13/4in) across. This rampant climber can
sunny banks and warm walls. In cooler become highly invasive if not pruned 433
zones, they are suited to the cool kieserite see magnesium sulphate. with care. The young blossom-bearing
kiwi fruit
shoots are susceptible to frost damage Kniphofia (for J.H. Kniphof (11/2in); sometimes confused with K.trian-
so that fruiting plants require a shel- (1704–1756), German botanist). Lili- gularis); K.triangularis (to 1m (31/4ft); leaves
tered site. Propagate from seed or aceae (Aloeaceae). REDHOT POKER. slender; flower spike small, dense, flow-
preferably from cuttings. The plants Africa (those species listed below are ers to 3.5cm (11/2in), coral to orange
should be spaced 3–4.5m (10–15ft) from South Africa). 68 species, ever- with flared perianth lobes); K.uvaria
apart, with a support system provided green perennial herbs forming clumps (1–2m (31/4–61/2ft); leaves narrowly strap-
as for blackberries and hybrid berries, of grass-like to strap-shaped leaves. shaped; flower spike oblong to ovoid-
or by means of a pergola. Under The flowers are tubular to narrowly conical, dense, flowers 3–4cm
greenhouse protection they may be funnel-shaped and point downwards in (11/4–11/2in), brilliant red to green-
trained in a similar manner to grapes. dense, cylindric to conical, long-stalked yellow). Cultivars dwarf (to 80cm (32in)):
After planting the plants should be cut spikes in summer and autumn. ‘Ada’ (primrose yellow), ‘Bressingham
back to 30cm (12in) height. One male Unopened or recently opened flower Comet’ (orange tipped red), ‘Bressing-
plant is required for up to 6 female buds may be of a far deeper or wholly ham Glow’ (deep orange to flame, late-
plants, and pollination by hand is bene- different colour, giving the spike a flowering), ‘Canary Bird’ (yellow),
ficial under greenhouse conditions. bicoloured appearance. ‘Candlelight’ (clear yellow to cream,
Young plants are tip-pruned on reach- Redhot pokers are best known for spikes slender and graceful), ‘Little
ing the top wire to encourage lateral their range of hot reds and oranges, Maid’ (ivory tipped soft yellow), ‘Tuber-
growths, which should be trained along although numerous cultivars are avail- geniana’ (soft primrose),
the support wires, pinching out the able in softer colours, for example, the ‘White Fairy’ (white); medium to tall
growing tips when the shoots reach the creamy ‘Snow Maiden’, the glowing (80–150cm (32–60in)): ‘Atlanta’ (orange-
end posts. Thereafter, any fruiting sub- yellows of ‘Maid of Orleans’, and the yellow), ‘Green Jade’ (bright green),
K laterals should be pinched back to six
or seven leaves beyond the last fruit;
cool green of ‘Green Jade’. Most
species are cold-tolerant to tempera-
‘Nobilis’ (deep, fiery orange), ‘Percy’s
Pride’ (green-yellow), ‘Royal Standard’
non-flowering shoots should be pinched tures of –15°C–5°F, although at these (bright yellow below, vermilion above),
back to five leaves throughout the low temperatures, plants require a ‘Samuel’s Sensation’ (deep flame shad-
growing season. Three-year-old fruiting warm and sheltered position and ing to yellow at base, late-flowering with
laterals are best pruned hard back to should be mulched deeply with leaf- very long spikes), ‘Spanish Gold’ (rich
encourage replacement growth. The mould or bracken litter. In the north- dark yellow).
fruit is autumn ripening and should be ern US, plants are sometimes lifted
stored in an airy shed or greenhouse and overwintered in a moist soilless knock down a term sometimes
for up to 6 weeks after picking. medium in frost-free conditions. How- applied to contact insecticides that
ever, most resent root disturbance and kill only those pests actually covered
Knautia (for Christian Knaut mulch protection is preferable wher- during the application of the material.
(1654–1716), German botanist at ever possible. Grow in full sun in deep, Such substances are quick acting and
Halle). Dipsacaceae. Europe, Caucasus, fertile and freely draining, preferably usually non-persistent.
Siberia, Mediterranean. 60 species, sandy soil, with sufficient organic
annual and perennial herbs with small matter to ensure an adequate knot, knot garden a bed laid out
flowers borne in summer in long- supply of moisture when in in an intricate pattern, sometimes
stalked, flat-topped heads subtended by growth. Propagate by seed or resembling a maze, using low-
leafy bracts. Suited to the wild flower division; increase cultivars by growing, clipped plants such as
garden, to areas managed as meadow, division only. Thrips occasion- dwarf box (Buxus), cotton laven-
and to the cottage garden. Both species ally cause mottling of the der (Santolina), and thrift
listed below are fully hardy if grown in foliage. (Armeria). The area around and
a warm sunny site on well-drained soil. K.angustifolia (to 60cm between the lining plants may
Propagate by seed or basal cuttings. (24in); leaves grass-like; flower be filled with flowering plants,
K.arvensis (BLUE BUTTONS, FIELD spike graceful, loose, flowers to which are replaced in season;
SCABIOUS, SCABIOUS; Europe, Mediter- 3cm (11/4in), white to yellow, in Tudor times especially,
ranean, Caucasus, naturalized N orange and coral); K.caulescens such areas were often left
America; perennial to 1.5m (5ft); flow- (1.5–2m (5–61/2ft); robust, form- bare or covered with colour-
ers pale purple-blue); K.macedonica (syn. ing clumps of short, stout stems; ful materials, such as sands,
Scabiosa rumelica; C Europe; perennial leaves thick, keeled, glaucous chalk or coal. Knots were
to 0.8m (32in); flowers deep purple). grey-green; flower spike dense, especially popular in the 16th
broadly cylindric, flowers to 2.5cm and 17th centuries, and were
knee a spongy outgrowth from a hori- (1in), creamy white tinted peach, originally designed to be seen
zontal subterranean root projecting flushed flame in bud); K.galpinii (to mainly from above, from terraces
above the soil surface in saturated con- 80cm (32in); leaves slender; flower or windows. The name was
ditions, as in Taxodium. spike small, dense, red at apex shad- derived from the resemblance of
434 ing to orange-yellow as flowers Kniphofia the pattern to a knot of rope
knife-ringing see bark-ringing. open below, flowers to 3.5cm ‘Green Jade’ arranged on the ground.
Koeleria (for G.L. Koeler ovoid, splitting into three
(1765–1806), botanist specializing in brown, papery segments
grasses). Gramineae. Temperate and persisting well after
regions, tropical Africa. Some 25 leaf fall).
species, annual and perennial grasses
with clumped, erect stems and narrow Kohleria (for Michael Kohler,
leaf blades. The flowers appear in 19th-century teacher of natural his-
summer in narrowly cylindric panicles tory at Zurich). Gesneriaceae. Tropical
held over the foliage. These dry a America. 50 species, perennial herbs
parchment tone and can be used in and shrubs with ovate to elliptic, hairy edible swollen
dried arrangements. Fully hardy. Grow leaves. Nodding in summer on stalked stem base
in full sun in any not too-fertile, well- cymes, the flowers are tubular and
drained soil, including calcareous soils somewhat swollen, with a narrowed
and shallow soils over chalk. Propagate throat and a limb of five, small, Kohlrabi
by seed or division in autumn or spreading lobes. Provide a minimum
spring. temperature of 15°C/59°F with light cause plants to bolt:
K.glauca (C Europe, Siberia; peren- shade, medium to high humidity and the recommended range is
nial to 60cm (24in); leaves slender protection from draughts. Grow in a 18–25°C/64–77°F with an optimum of
strongly glaucous blue-green to grey); porous, soilless medium; keep moist 22°C/72°F. For continuity, sow at regu-
K.vallesiana (W Europe; perennial to when in growth, virtually dry during lar intervals from early spring to late
40cm (16in); leaves to 10cm (4in), very the winter resting period. Increase by summer in drills 30cm (12in) apart,
narrow, blue-green to silver). division of rhizomes.
K.amabilis (Colombia; to 60cm (24in)
later thinning seedlings to 25cm (10in)
apart. Alternatively, seedlings may be
K
Koelreuteria (for Joseph G. tall, white-hairy; leaves sometimes with transplanted when no more than 5cm
Koelreuter (1733–1806), professor of silver markings, often flushed red; flow- (2in) tall. Kohlrabi is best harvested
Natural History at Karlsruhe). Sapin- ers to 2.5cm (1in), deep rose with brick when young as the swollen stems
daceae. China, Taiwan. GOLDEN RAIN red bars and stripes, limb rose with become woody; it can be stored for
TREE, SHRIMP TREE, CHINESE RAIN maroon bars and spots); K.bella (Costa winter use either in situ or in boxes
TREE. 3 species, flat-topped, deciduous Rica; to 40cm (16in) tall, pale red- of sand.
shrubs or trees. The leaves are simple hairy; flowers to 4cm (11/2in), red tinged Possible problems: cabbage root fly
or bipinnate. Yellow, 4-petalled flowers yellow below, limb yellow with purple flea beetle; clubroot.
are borne in large terminal panicles in spots); K.bogotensis (Colombia; to 60cm
summer. They are followed by conspic- (24in) tall, hairy; leaves with pale green Kolkwitzia (for Richard Kolkwitz (b.
uous, bladder-like seed pods. K.panicu- or white markings; flowers to 2.5cm 1873), professor of botany in Berlin ).
lata remains of interest throughout the (1in), red fading to yellow at base, limb Caprifoliaceae. BEAUTY BUSH. C China.
season, with red-flushed young growth, yellow spotted red); K.eriantha (shrubby 1 species, K.amabilis, a deciduous shrub
yellow autumn tints and inflated fruits perennial herb to 1m (31/4ft), red-hairy; to 3.5m (111/2ft). Produced in spring
in warm, earthy colours. It will with- flowers to 5cm (2in), orange to scarlet and early summer, the flowers are
stand winter temperatures of at least or cinnabar red, yellow-white with red paired in terminal corymbs. The slen-
–10°C/14°F, but flowering and spots); K.warscewiczii (syn. K.digitaliflora; der sepals are densely hairy to bristly.
autumn colour are much improved Colombia; to 60cm (24in) tall, covered To 2cm (3/4in) long, the bell-shaped
where a long, hot growing season, dry in white hairs; flowers to 3cm (11/4in) corolla is white stained rose pink out-
autumn and cold winter are common. long, deep rose to magenta, white side (strongly so in the cultivars ‘Pink
Plant in sun. It is tolerant of poor, dry below, limb green with deep purple Cloud’ and ‘Rosea’), with deep yellow
soils, pollution and exposure to wind spots). to orange markings in the throat and a
(not salt-laden), growing quickly to a limb of five, rounded lobes. Grown for
specimen of reasonable size; it resents kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea, Gongylodes its masses of beautiful bell-shaped
severe pruning. Young plants should be Group) TURNIP CABBAGE a biennial flowers, which resemble those of the
kept well-watered until they are three member of the Cruciferae, grown as closely allied Abelia, Kolkwitzia makes a
or four years old. Propagate from seed, an annual for its spherical, swollen valuable addition to the shrub border.
sown in autumn or stratified and sown stem which is trimmed of leaves and Its exfoliating bark is attractive in
in spring. Alternatively, increase by root boiled. It has a flavour similar to turnip winter. It thrives in chalk soils and is
cuttings in winter. K.paniculata (PRIDE OF for which it is often used as a substi- hardy to –30°C/–22°F, although it
INDIA, VARNISH TREE, GOLDEN RAIN tute, being better able to withstand may suffer die-back of shoot tips in
TREE; N China, Korea; tree to 15m drought and high temperature. very cold weather. Plant in full sun.
(50ft); leaves to 40cm (16in), ferny, Kohlrabi is most suited to temperate Prune out old, damaged or weak
emerging pink-red, falling bright regions but can be grown in warmer shoots from the base after flowering.
yellow; flowers in large, pyramidal climates. It is sensitive to low tempera- Propagate by softwood cuttings or from 435
panicles; fruit to 5cm (2in), oblong to ture and a week at 10°C/50°F will suckers, which are freely produced.
labellum
L
purple or bright rose, the pea-like flow- meet at the top of the structure, they
ers are carried in erect racemes to can be grafted together. Propagate
40cm (16in) long in summer. Grow in species from seed sown ripe under glass
well-drained soils in full sun; maintain or in the frame. Take hardwood cut-
a minimum winter temperature of tings of the past season’s growth in late
7–10°C/45–50°F; water plentifully winter; treat with rooting hormone and
when in growth. Train on canes or insert into open ground, with sharp
trellis. Apply liquid feed weekly when sand around the base. Propagate
growing strongly. Alternatively, treat as hybrids by budding on to seedling stock
half-hardy annuals grown as for runner of L.anagyroides in summer. A leaf
beans (see beans). Increase by seed miner, Leucoptera laburnella, makes spiral
in spring. mines within the leaves; although
labellum a lip, especially the rarely fatal, heavy infestations disfigure
enlarged or otherwise distinctive + Laburnocytisus (Laburnum small plants.
third petal of an orchid. combined with Cytisus). Leguminosae. L.alpinum (SCOTCH LABURNUM,
Garden origin. + L ‘Adamii’ a graft ALPINE GOLDEN CHAIN; south central
labiate possessing a lip or lips; hybrid between Laburnum anagyroides Europe; twigs glabrous; inflorescence
describing corollas of the sort found and Chamaecytisus purpureus, is a tree to to 35cm (14in)+, denser than in
in many Labiatae. 7.5m (25ft) tall, resembling Laburnum L.anagyroides; pedicels equalling flowers;
in overall habit, but with a mixture of corolla 1.5cm (5/8in)+, bright yellow;
labium one of the lip-like divisions sporadic, true growths and flowers of includes the low-crowned, weeping
of a labiate corolla or calyx. both Laburnum anagyroides and Chamae- ‘Pendulum’ and the erect ‘Pyrami-
cytisus purpureus where the chimaera dale’); L.anagyroides (COMMON LABUR-
L breaks down. Otherwise, the growth is

intermediate between the parents, thus
the racemes are Laburnum-like but with
NUM, GOLDEN CHAIN; C and S Europe;
twigs grey-green, weakly hairy; inflo-
rescence to 20cm (8in); pedicels shorter
smaller flowers in dull yellow tinged than flowers; corolla 2cm (3/4in), lemon
purple, appearing fleshy pink or pale to golden yellow; includes the weeping
bronze. Cultivate as for Laburnum. ‘Pendulum’, the yellow-leaved ‘Aureum’,
Propagate by grafting carefully chosen and ‘Autumnale’ (‘Semperflorens’),
scions of the intermediate form on which produces a second flush of flow-
to Laburnum anagyroides. ers in autumn); L. x watereri (L.alpinum x
L.anagyroides; Tyrol, S Switzerland;
Laburnum (classical Latin name). closer to L.anagyroides but only shoot
Leguminosae. SC and SE Europe, tips hairy; inflorescence to 50cm (20in);
W Asia. BEAN TREE. 2 species, small flowers fragrant; includes ‘Alford’s
to medium-sized deciduous shrubs or Weeping’, with a widely spreading,
trees with trifoliolate leaves. Produced weeping crown, and ‘Vossii’, exception-
in spring and early summer, the flowers ally floriferous, with long racemes).
are pea-like, yellow, and packed in
graceful, pendulous racemes. All parts lacebugs (Stephanitis and other species.)
Lablab beans are poisonous, the pulse-like seeds (Hemiptera: Tingidae). Small, flattened,
There are both long- and short-podded culti- especially. Fully hardy, laburnums are sap-sucking insects, up to 6mm (1/4in) in
vars of these warm-climate legumes. Most used as lawn and border specimens, length, with lace-like forewings. Of some
are climbing, but there are some dwarf culti- and may be fan-trained as screens and 700 recorded species, only a few are of
vars that can be grown without support. living fences. They are perhaps at their garden importance. They include
most beautiful when grown in walk- Stephanitis rhododendri, the RHODODEN-
Lablab (from a Hindu plant name). ways over arches and pergolas. Plant in DRON LACEBUG of Europe and North
Leguminosae. Tropical Africa, widely any moderately fertile, well-drained soil America, which inserts eggs into the
cultivated in India, SE Asia, Egypt, in sun. Pruning of free-standing speci- midrib of rhododendron leaves in late
Sudan. 1 species, L.purpureus (syn. mens is rarely necessary, but may best summer and autumn. These hatch in
Dolichos lablab; DOLICHOS BEAN, be done in late summer. To make a spring to produce grey-black, spiny-
HYACINTH BEAN, BONAVIST, LUBIA BEAN, laburnum arch, support young plants bodied nymphs, which feed on the
SEIM BEAN, INDIAN BEAN, EGYPTIAN with wooden stakes – these will eventu- underside of leaves; adults appear
BEAN), a perennial twining herb, to 6m ally rot by which time trunks will be four weeks later. Lower leaf surfaces
(20ft). The leaves are trifoliolate, com- self-supporting. Space plants at about become fouled with brown excrement
posed of ovate to triangular or rhom- 2m (61/2ft) and train side branches and pale yellow spots appear on the
436 bic leaflets to 15cm (6in), tinted purple along rigid wires between the stakes upper surfaces, giving a mottled
and colouring well in autumn. White, and arched over the top. As branches appearance. Pieris lacebugs, Stephanitis
ladybirds
takeyai, cause similar damage on Pieris held flat. Their larvae have plump grass-like; scape mottled; inflorescence
plants. Small infestations are best bodies tapering at the hind end with 6–25cm (21/2–10in), flowers campanu-
controlled by pruning and destroying relatively long legs; they feed on small late, white, apical swelling on outer seg-
affected branches, otherwise contact or aphids and mites. Of these Conwentzia ments maroon, inner segments striped
systemic insecticides should be applied species feed on the fruit tree red spider maroon near tips); L.mutabilis (leaf soli-
from mid-summer onwards. mite, Panonychus ulmi – the larvae have tary, sometimes spotted or banded
been recorded as consuming up to 35 maroon, often crispate; inflorescence
lacecap a flat-topped inflorescence of these mites a day and the adults 10–45cm (4–18in), outer perianth
in which the outer flowers are sterile 30 mature female mites in an hour. segments pale blue to white, apical
and enlarged, as in, for example swelling dark brown, inner segments
many Hydrangea cultivars. Lachenalia (for Werner von yellow with brown markings near tip);
Lachenal, late 18th-century Swiss L.orchioides (leaves strap-shaped, some-
laced used to describe flowers of botanist). Liliaceae (Hyacinthaceae). times spotted; inflorescence 8–40cm
certain cultivars of garden pinks, which South Africa. Some 90 species, bulbous (3–16in), flowers fragrant, oblong to
have a patch of contrasting colour at perennial herbs with strap-shaped to cylindrical, outer segments pale blue at
the edge of each petal forming a circular leaves and erect spikes of tubu- base shading to green-yellow or cream,
continuous, narrow, scalloped band lar to urn-shaped flowers. These con- apical swellings green; includes var.
around the flower, thereby bearing sist of six perianth segments in two glaucina, with outer perianth segments
some resemblance to lace-work. whorls: the outer whorl shorter, form- blue at base, shading to purple, and
ing a fleshy tube or cup, each segment apical swelling dark purple, sometimes
lacerate irregularly, and more or less often with a marked apical swelling; entirely blue with dark blue swelling);
broadly, shallowly and sharply cut, as the inner whorl protruding, usually L.rubida (leaves strap-shaped, often spot-
if torn. broader and more showy, with lips ted; inflorescence 6–25cm (21/2–10in),
lacewing flies (Neuroptera) insects

up to about 25mm (1in) long, with long
coloured and recurved. Most flower in
winter and spring. Grow in a medium-
fertility, sandy loam-based mix, in full
flowers pendulous, cylindrical, outer
segments bright pink to ruby red, or
pale yellow spotted red, apical swelling
L
thread-like antennae and two pairs of sun; maintain a minimum temperature yellow-green or pink-red, inner seg-
similar sized transparent lace-like of 7°C/45°F. Plant in late autumn. ments tipped purple, marked white).
wings, held like a roof over the back Water sparingly as growth commences,
when at rest; they are useful predators plentifully when in full growth. Dry off laciniate irregularly and finely cut,
in gardens. as leaves wither and keep almost com- as if slashed.
The familiar GREEN LACEWINGS pletely dry when dormant. Propagate
(Chrysopidae) are often by ripe seed when available; lacrimiform, lachrymaeform
attracted to artificial light and seedlings may flower in the tear-shaped.
have yellow-green bodies season following first dor-
and wings, and iridescent mancy. Offsets and bul- Lactuca (from Latin lac, milk).
eyes. Eggs are laid on bils are also produced. Compositae. Cosmopolitan, esp. N
stalks, separately or in L.aloides (syn. L.tri- Temperate. LETTUCE. About 100
bundles, and the bristly color; leaves strap- species of annual or perennial plants
larvae are mostly pale Adult shaped, blotched green or with milky sap. Stems usually solitary,
green or yellow with darker mark- lacewing purple; raceme to 28cm (11in), erect, branched. Leaves alternate, often
ings. They feed on aphids, other scape often mottled and tinted red- prickly. Capitulate flowerheads few to
small insects and sometimes mites, brown; flowers pendulous, tubular to many, ligulate, yellow or blue, rarely
and typically cover their backs with funnelform, outer segments fleshy, cream. Fruit is a flattened, beaked,
the empty skins of their prey. Most lemon yellow to apricot or white, some- usually ribbed, cypsela. Of special
overwinter in a spun cocoon before times flushed orange, scarlet or blue- garden interest is L.sativa (GARDEN
pupating in the spring. green from the base, apical swellings LETTUCE, COMMON LETTUCE), grown
The BROWN LACEWINGS (Hemerobi- bright green, inner segment 2–3.5cm for the succulent leaves of its many
idae) are mostly smaller, with brown or (3/4–11/2in), tipped cinnabar red, magenta, forms. See lettuce.
grey-brown wings; their eggs are not scarlet or green; includes ‘Pearsonii’,
laid on stalks. Many frequent conifers with leaves spotted red-brown above lacuna a cavity or depression, espe-
where the larvae attack aphids, and and scape to 18cm (7in), mottled red- cially an air hole in plant tissue.
some also attack thrips and mites on brown, outer segments to 1.5cm (5/8in),
other trees and herbaceous plants. apricot, apical swelling lime green, lacunose pitted with many deep
The POWDERY LACEWINGS inner segments to 3cm (11/4in), apricot depressions or holes.
(Coniopterygidae) are small fragile to gold, tips stained red to maroon, and
insects, their body and wings covered ‘Nelsonii’, with leaves spotted purple ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinelli-
with white powdery wax; they resemble and bright yellow flowers tipped green); dae) the common species are 3–7mm- 437
whiteflies except that the wings are not L.contaminata (WILD HYACINTH; leaves, (1/8–1/4in)- long beetles with oval or
ladybirds
rounded bodies and bright colouration. pest of soya beans in North America; (syn. L.majalis; Mexico; flowers
Most adults and larvae feed principally and the SQUASH BEETLE (E. borealis), 12–18cm (43/4–7in) in diameter, 1–2,
on aphids, scale insects mealybugs, which mainly infests squash and pump- tepals rose-lilac, rarely white, lip white
thrips or mites, but some, such as the kins. Both adults and larvae skeletonize spotted with deep lilac, margin pale
22-spot and 16-spot ladybirds, feed the leaves of plants; however, they can lilac); L.tenebrosa (Brazil; flowers about
on fungal spores, especially those of be controlled by appropriate contact 16cm (6in) in diameter, 4, tepals
powdery mildews. Typically, the adults insecticides. copper-bronze, lip purple, darker in
hibernate in sheltered situations throat). There are many cultivars and
beneath leaves, loose bark or in build- Laelia (for Laelia, one of the vestal grexes of Laelia, either slender or stout
ings, and in spring the females deposit virgins). Orchidaceae. C and S Amer- in habit and with large or small flowers
clusters of pale yellow spindle-shaped ica, from West Indies south to Brazil. in shades of pink, mauve, yellow,
eggs, usually on leaves. The resulting About 70 species, evergreen epiphytic orange, red and white.
larvae, mostly leaden grey or or lithophytic herbs with
grey-blue spotted with yellow globose to pear- or spindle- x Laeliocattleya (Laelia x Cattleya).
orange or white, wander at shaped pseudobulbs and Orchidaceae. A wide range of colour-
random in search of prey. leathery, ovate to linear ful hybrids. The plants are usually
When fully fed, after about leaves. The flowers basically robust, upright, with one or two leaves
three weeks, they attach them- resemble those of Cattleya, at the apex of each pseudobulb. The
selves to a leaf or other sup- but range widely in size and inflorescence is terminal, with few to
port to change into pupae. shape from the small and many flowers of various size, always
Adult ladybirds appear about spidery to the large and lacy. brightly coloured and conspicuous.
ten days later. Cultivate as for Cattleya. Cultivate as for Cattleya.
Common species include the L.anceps (Mexico, Hon-
L TWO-SPOT (Adalia bipunctata),

usually having red wing cases
with two black spots but very variable;
Ladybird larva duras; flowers 3–6, fragrant,
8–10cm (3–4in) in diameter,
rose-lilac or magenta, lip deep purple
laevigate appearing smoothly
polished.
the red and black SEVEN-SPOT (Coc- tinged with pink and yellow in the Lagarosiphon (from Greek lagaros,
cinella septempunctata); the red and black throat, sometimes wholly white); narrow, and siphon, tube, alluding to the
TEN-SPOT (Adalia decempunctata), which is L.autumnalis (Mexico; flower 3–6, female perianth). Hydrocharitaceae.
very variable in colour; and the 14-spot scented, to 10cm (4in) in diameter, Africa, introduced to Europe and New
(Propylea 14-punctata) and 22-spot rose-purple, lip rose-white with purple Zealand. CURLY WATER THYME. 9
(Psyllobora 22-punctata), which are both apex and yellow centre; L.gouldiana species, perennial, aquatic herbs with
yellow with black spots. Common is a stouter plant with broader, solid submerged long, branching stems and
North American species include the magenta blooms, possibly a cross linear to lanceolate, spiralling to oppo-
CONVERGENT LADYBIRD (Hippodamia between L.anceps and L.autumnalis); site or whorled leaves. The genus is
convergens) and the SINUATE LADYBIRD L.cinnabarina (Brazil; flowers 5–15, fully hardy, but also a good aquarium
(H.sinuata), as well as Adalia bipunctata. about 5cm (2in) in diameter, deep oxygenator. L.major (South Africa,
These and many other ladybirds orange-red, slender); L.crispa (Brazil; introduced to Europe and New
provide natural methods of controlling flowers 4–7, to 12cm (43/4in) in diame- Zealand; stem to 3mm (1/8in) in
various pests and some feature in bio- ter, white, lip usually mainly purple diameter; leaves 6.5–25 x 2–4.5mm
logical control programmes, including with some yellow marks); L.flava (Brazil; (1/4–1 x 1/16–1/6in), thick, opaque).
the VEDALIA LADYBIRD (Rodolia cardi- flowers 3–10, canary yellow, about 6cm
nalis), which was introduced from (21/2in) in diameter); L.harpophylla lageniform flask-shaped.
Australia at the end of the last century (Brazil; flowers 3–7, 5–8cm (2–3in) in
to control the fluted scale insect (Icerya diameter, vermilion, lip with a paler Lagerstroemia (for the Swedish
purchasi) in California and Florida. margin and yellow in centre); L.milleri merchant, Magnus von Lagerstrom
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, also from (Brazil; flowers 6cm (21/2in) in diameter, (1691–1759) of Göteborg, friend of
Australia, has been used to control few, orange-red, tinged with yellow in Linnaeus). Lythraceae. Tropical Asia to
mealybugs (Pseudococcus species) under throat); L.pumila (Brazil; flowers solitary, Australia. 53 species, deciduous shrubs
glass in temperate countries, and to 10cm (4in) in diameter, flat, slightly or trees, usually with peeling bark and
Coccinella septempunctata is released drooping, rose-purple, rarely white, lip leathery elliptic to obovate leaves. The
annually in Maine, US, to control deep purple with yellow throat, some- flowers have six or more, crumpled and
aphids on potatoes. times edged and veined amethyst); clawed, silken petals and many sta-
A small number of ladybirds are L.purpurata (Brazil; flowers 15–20cm mens; they are carried in summer in
plant feeders. These include the MEXI- (6–8in) in diameter, 3–7, tepals white pyramidal to cylindric panicles. These
CAN BEAN BEETLE (Epilachna varivestis), tinged with pink, sometimes pure are shrubs for warm subtropical cli-
which is up to 8mm (3/8in) long, has white, lip white at apex, purple towards mates or temperate regions with hot
438 yellow, coppery or bronze wing cases base, yellow with purple veins in summers. They are frequently used in
with 16 black spots, and is principally a throat, rarely deep violet); L.speciosa Mediterranean areas and in southern
Lamium
California and Florida for specimen, Somewhat leathery and scurfy beneath, Lamium (Latin name used by Pliny).
hedge, screen and avenue plantings. the leaves are to 10cm (4in) long, ovate Labiatae. Mediterranean. DEAD
They have the additional interest of to broadly lanceolate and entire with a NETTLE. Some 50 species, perennial
muted autumn colours and a smooth, cuneate base and blunt apex. Hibiscus- or annual herbs, with stoloniferous,
fluted, and shredding bark. In colder like, pale pink to magenta flowers, to creeping stems. Produced in spring
areas (with winter temperatures down 6cm (21/2in) in diameter, appear in the and summer in whorls, the flowers
of about –12°C/10°F), L.indica will upper leaf axils in summer. Cultivate are tubular, two-lipped and hooded.
succeed given the shelter of a warm as for tender Hibiscus. Useful, fully hardy groundcover, toler-
south-facing wall. It will tolerate still ant of a wide range of soil types, cli-
harsher winters where hot, humid sum- mates and light conditions. Generally,
mers promote rapid new growth from cultivars with pale foliage (e.g L.
bases cut back by hard frosts. L.speciosa ‘Cannon’s Gold’ and ‘White Nancy’)
is tender and requires a minimum prefer shade, or, if grown in sun, a
temperature of 10°C/50°F. cool, moist root run. L.orvala is some-
Grow in any well-drained soil in a times damaged by late frosts. Propagate
sheltered, sunny spot. Unless pollarding by removal of rooted running stems of
or coppicing is to be carried out, prune most species, by division of clumps.
annually in late winter only to remove L.galeobdolon (syn. Galeobdolon argenta-
congested older wood and to open up tum; Lamiastrum variegatum; L.luteum;
the plant centre; tip back long shoots YELLOW ARCH-ANGEL; Europe to
as required. Lagerstroemia does not trans- W Asia; vigorous perennial to 60cm
plant well and must be moved with a (24in), erect to widely creeping, occa-
large root-ball in late spring. Overwin- sionally stoloniferous; leaves toothed;
ter container-grown specimens at a
minimum temperature of 13°C/55°F
and water very sparingly. Propagate by
flowers yellow, flecked brown; cultivars
include: ‘Florentinum’, with large
leaves, splashed silver, and, in winter,
L
semi-ripe cuttings rooted under mist or Lagurus ovatus purple; ‘Hermann’s Pride’, mat-
with bottom heat in summer; alterna- Native to maritime sands of the Mediter- forming, with narrow, toothed leaves,
tively, increase by hardwood cuttings ranean coast, this annual grass thrives in streaked and spotted silver; ‘Silbertep-
in winter or from seed sown in spring, dry sites, bearing these attractive fluffy pich’ (syn. ‘Silver Carpet’), slow grow-
although the flower colour of seedlings flowerheads all summer. ing clump-forming, with silver leaves;
is often inferior. ‘Silver Angel’, prostrate, fast-growing,
L.indica (CRAPE MYRTLE, CREPE Lagurus (from Greek lagos, hare, with leaves marked silver; and
FLOWER; China, Indochina, Himalaya, and oura, tail, referring to the fluffy ‘Variegatum’, with smaller, oval leaves,
Japan; tree or shrub to 6m (20ft) pani- panicles). Gramineae. Mediterranean. mid-green marked silver; L.maculatum
cles to 20cm (8in), petals suborbicular, HARE’S TAIL. 1 species, L.ovatus, an (Europe and N Africa to W Asia;
to 1cm (1/2in), pink, purple or white; annual grass to 60cm (24in). In spring perennial to 80cm (32in), ascending to
includes numerous cultivars ranging and summer, it produces a spike-like, trailing, stoloniferous, pubescent; leaves
from dwarf shrubs to trees some 10m ovoid to oblong panicle, to 6 x 2cm toothed white-mottled or -striped; flow-
(33ft) tall and varying widely in hardi- (21/2 x 3/4in), densely and softly hairy ers pink to red or purple, rarely white;
ness, bark quality and autumn colour; and light green or tinged mauve. cultivars include: ‘Album’, with leaves
the flowers may be small or large, These may be hare’s-tail flowerheads blotched silver and white flowers;
smooth-petalled or ruffled, and in used fresh or dried in floral arrange- ‘Aureum’ (‘Golden Nuggetts’), with
tones of white, cream, pink, lavender, ments. Grow in light, sandy, freely gold leaves with a white centre, and
deep rose, pale red and darkest crim- draining soils in sun; cut or pull pink flowers; ‘Beacon Silver’, habit
son); L.speciosa (QUEEN’S CREPE MYRTLE, flowerheads for drying before low, with silver leaves, with a thin
PRIDE OF INDIA, PYINMA; tropical Asia; maturity. Seed may be sown in situ green edge, and pink flowers;
tree to 24m (79ft); panicles to 40cm in spring, or in pots in autumn and ‘Cannon’s Gold’, with pure gold leaves
(16in), petals suborbicular, to 3 x 2cm overwintered in well-ventilated and purple flowers; ‘Pink Pewter’, with
(11/4 x 3/4in), purple or white). frost-free conditions for planting leaves tinted silver and rich pink flow-
out in spring. ers; ‘Sterling Silver’, with pure silver
Lagunaria (for Andres de Laguna leaves and purple flowers; and ‘White
(d.1560), Spanish botanist.) Malvaceae. lambourde sometimes used to Nancy’, with silver leaves with a thin
Australasia (Queensland, Norfolk describe a fruit spur. green edge, and white flowers); L.orvala
Island, Lord Howe Island). 1 species, (GIANT DEAD NETTLE; S C Europe;
L.patersonii (NORFOLK ISLAND HIBISCUS, lamellate composed of one or more perennial to 100cm (39in), erect to
QUEENSLAND PYRAMID TREE, COW thin, flat scales or plates. spreading; flowers large, purple-pink
ITCH TREE), a columnar to pyramidal with a mottled lip and throat; ‘Album’: 439
evergreen tree or shrub to 15m (50ft). lamina see blade. flowers white).
Lammas growth
Lammas growth a term usually lanceolate lance-shaped; 3–6 times many cultivars ranging in habit from
applied to fruit trees to describe the as long as broad, and with the broadest dwarf to tall, with flowers mostly
growth of shoots occurring in late point below the middle; tapering to a bicolours, in shades ranging from white
summer i.e. around Lammas, the spear-like apex. through to yellow and salmon to red);
first day of August. L.montevidensis (syn. L.sellowiana; S
land drain purpose-made drainpipes America; herb or shrub to 1m (31/4ft),
Lampranthus (from Greek lampros, of earthenware or plastic, usually trailing or scandent; flowers rose-lilac
bright, brilliant, and anthos, flower, 7.5cm (3in) in diameter and 45cm to violet).
referring to the brilliant flowers). (18in) long, although plastic types often
Aizoaceae. South Africa. 200 species, come in longer lengths. Land drains Lapageria (for Joséphine Tascher
subshrubs with succulent, terete or are used to improve water drainage de la Pagérie (1763–1814), wife of
3-angled leaves and bright, daisy-like from soil. See drainage. Napoleon Bonaparte and an enthusias-
flowers. Most make excellent summer tic patron of gardening). Liliaceae
bedding or container plants in temper- landscape gardening the art of (Philesiaceae). Chile. CHILEAN BELL-
ate regions; a few are frost hardy to laying out an estate to blend with the FLOWER, CHILE BELLS, COPIHUE. 1
–1°C/30°F or –2°C/28°F and thus surrounding countryside, dating from species, L.rosea, an evergreen climber to
can be grown outside the year round in the early 18th century when there was 10m (33ft) with wiry stems clothed with
sheltered favourable sites in temperate a move against formality and enclosure sharp scale-like bracts. The leathery
regions. They require a position in full in gardening. Landscape gardening leaves are ovate or ovate to lanceolate
sun and low-fertility, well-drained soil. declined in the 19th century as the and glossy dark green. Campanulate
Plant as soon as frosts are over and number of privately owned large prop- flowers hang from the axils of upper
leave outside until the first autumn erties contracted but the principles of leaves in summer. They consist of six
frosts; the plants should then be dug up landscaping have persisted. The term waxy tepals, 6–9cm (21/2–31/2in) long,
L and potted, or cuttings taken and kept

frost-free over the winter. Under glass,
grow in full sun with low humidity and
landscape gardening is now commonly
used to cover garden design, construc-
tion and maintenance on a small scale
oblong to elliptic and luminous rose to
pale salmon, often stained, spotted or
streaked deeper crimson. Given the
a minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F; and of variable standards. protection of a partially shaded and
plant in a loam-based medium rich in sheltered wall, L.rosea will grow outside
grit and sand. Water sparingly in lanuginose as lanate, but with the where temperatures seldom fall below
summer, scarcely at all in winter. hairs shorter; somewhat woolly or –5°C/23°F; otherwise, it makes a fine
L.aurantiacus (leaves 2–3cm cottony. specimen for the borders of the cold
(3/4–11/4in), grey-pruinose; flowers greenhouse or conservatory. Grow
orange); L.haworthii (leaves light green, Lantana (from the superficial similar- Lapageria in cool, well-drained but
densely light grey-pruinose; flowers ity to Viburnum lantana). Verbenaceae. moist soils, humus-rich and lime-free,
light purple); L.multiradiatus (syn. Tropical Americas and Africa, a wide- in light shade or where direct sunlight
L.roseus; leaves 2.5–3cm (1–11/4in), spread weed elsewhere in the tropics penetrates for short periods only.
green to grey-green, glaucous with and subtropics. SHRUB VERBENA. Some Propagate by layering during spring
translucent dots; flowers pale pink to 150 species, aromatic shrubs, subshrubs or autumn, alternatively by seed,
rose-red); L.spectabilis (leaves flushed and perennial herbs with small, salver- pre-soaked for about 48 hours
red; flowers purple-red to magenta). form, 4–5-lobed flowers in compact before sowing.
terminal heads in spring and summer.
Suitable for hedging and specimen Lardizabala (for Miguel de Lardiz-
plantings in frost-free zones, and for abel y Uribe 18th-century Spanish
bedding out or for the greenhouse naturalist). Lardizabalaceae. Chile. 2
or conservatory in cool temperate species, evergreen climbers with
climates. L.camara is easily trained as a compound leaves and, in winter, slen-
standard. The trailing L.montevidensis is der spikes of small, curiously coloured
suited to groundcover in the conserva- flowers followed by attractive berries.
tory border or to hanging baskets. Hardy to –10°C/14°F; plant in a
Grow in full sun. Water plentifully shady protected site on well-drained
when in full growth; keep just moist in soils rich in decayed matter. Propagate
winter with a minimum temperature by seed in spring or by stem cuttings
Salix lanata of 10°C/50°F. Propagate by seed in in spring or autumn. L.funaria (Chile;
The woolly willow, S. lanata, takes its species spring or by semi-ripe cuttings twining to 4m (13ft); leave ternate to
and common names from the silvery grey in summer. biternate, dark green, leaflets 5–10cm
wool that covers both shoots and leaves. L.camara (tropical America, wide- (2–4in), ovate; male inflorescence to
spread weed in tropics and subtropics; 10cm (4in), flowers green edged dark
440 lanate, lanose woolly, possessing shrub to 2m (61/2ft); flowers yellow to brown-purple; fruit 6cm (21/2in), dark
long, densely matted and curling hairs. orange or red often with a brighter eye; purple).
latex
Larix (Classical Latin name). described, mostly varying in habit, keeled beneath, slightly convex above,
Pinaceae. Northern Hemisphere. from dwarf (‘Compacta’, ‘Corley’, acute, blue-green to grey-green, with
LARCH. Some 14 species, deciduous, ‘Repens’), erect (‘Fastigiata’), pendulous 2 stomatal bands beneath; cones
coniferous trees. The crown is usually (‘Pendula’, ‘Viminalis’) to twisted 2.5–4.5 (1–13/4in) x 1cm (1/2in) ovoid,
conic in young trees, becoming domed (‘Cervicornis’, ‘Tortuosa’) and sparsely scales rounded, to 12mm (1/2in) broad,
or irregular with age. The branches are branched (‘Virgata’); in ‘Alba’, the reflexed on opening, to 2.5cm (1in)
horizontal or somewhat drooping. Soft, immature cones are pale green, almost broad); L. x pendula (L.decidua x L.laricina;
needle-like leaves are arranged in loose white; subsp. polonica: POLISH LARCH, WEEPING LARCH; to 30m (100ft);
spirals on long shoots and in dense, W Poland and Ukraine, to 30m (100ft), branchlets pendent; leaves similar to
whorl-like spirals on short shoots. with a very slender crown, drooping L.decidua but blunter; cones 2–3.3cm
In cool temperate maritime climates, branchlets, and smaller, blunter cones, (3/4–11/4in), ovoid, scales 20–30, exterior
only two species, L.decidua and 1–2.8cm (1/2–11/8in), with concave base downy; includes ‘Contorta’, with
L.kaempferi (and L. x scales); L.kaempferi (JAPANESE shoots twisted when young, and
marschlinsii, the hybrid leaves LARCH; Japan; to 45m ‘Repens’, with horizontally creeping
in dense
between them), are spirals (150ft); crown broadly branches); L.sibirica (syn. L.russica;
wholly successful, conic, branches and SIBERIAN LARCH; Russia; to 30m (100ft);
making healthy shoots horizontal or crown narrowly conic; branches hori-
trees, 25–50m slightly ascending; zontal to upswept; leaves 2.5–4cm
(80–165ft) high, in leaves 2–3.5cm (1–11/2in), clustered, very narrow, soft,
most areas. All tol- (3/4–11/2in), bright green above, with 2 stomatal
erate acid and infer- slightly keeled bands beneath and scattered stomata
tile soils; L.decidua will beneath, grey- above; cones 2.5–3.5cm (1–11/2in),
also grow on chalk. cones age green, with rarely 4cm (11/2in), scales thick, pubes-
Dead branches should
be removed since they
are very brittle and can be dan-
from green
to tan
Larix
laricina
stomatal bands
throughout; cones
2–3, rarely 4cm
cent, margins incurved; includes the
columnar and compact ‘Fastigiata’,
‘Glauca’, with glaucous needles,
L
gerous. L.decidua is best choice for (11/2in), ovoid, scales trun- ‘Longifolia’, with longer needles,
specimen planting, although L. x cate to emarginate, apex reflexed; ‘Pendula’, with weeping branches,
marschlinsii may be preferred on less fer- about 20 cultivars are described, and the more vigorous ‘Robusta’).
tile sites for more rapid growth. They mainly varying in habit, and mostly
and L.kaempferi make fine shelterbelts, dwarf (‘Blue Dwarf ’, ‘Nana’, ‘Varley’, larva the immature stage in advanced
summer screening and copse groups, ‘Wehlen’) or with pendulous branchlets insects, which does not resemble the
and are covered in small purple-pink (‘Georgengarten’, ‘Inversa’, ‘Pendula’), adult form and which needs to pass
cones in early spring, leafing out bright or both (‘Hanan’); in ‘Blue Haze’ the through a chrysalis or pupal stage,
green, then turning gold to russet in leaves are brightly glaucous, likewise undergoing complete metamorphosis,
autumn. Pests common in Europe and the semi-fastigiate ‘Pyramidalis Argen- before developing into an adult. Larvae
North America include the larch tea’); L.laricina (TAMARACK, AMERICAN vary in form and habits. See caterpillars,
sawfly, with defoliating olive-green LARCH; northern N America; to grubs, maggots.
larvae up to 25mm (1in) long, and 20(–30)m (66(–100)ft); crown conic,
larch adelgids made conspicuous by a branches horizontal, branchlets droop- latent bud a bud that remains inac-
covering of white woolly wax. Cater- ing; leaves 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in), keeled, tive and concealed until stimulated into
pillars of the larch casebearer make pale green with 2 stomatal bands growth by the removal of adjacent
holes and mines in the foliage and beneath; cones ovoid, 12–24mm shoots through natural damage or
cover themselves with a cigar-shaped (1/2–1in), green or purple, becoming pruning. It may also be referred to
case made from pieces of needles. A straw-brown, scales 15–20, nearly as dormant.
needle cast disease can cause serious circular, margins slightly incurved;
damage to young larch trees in the includes ‘Arethusa Bog’, dwarf, with lateral on a tree or shrub, a side
nursery. The needles turn brown from short, narrow shoots and arching shoot or branch as distinct from a
the tips and fall off prematurely. branches, ‘Aurea’, with leaves gold leader. On woody fruit plants, laterals
L.decidua (EUROPEAN LARCH; Alps, when young, later light green, and bear fruit buds, and may be described
Carpathians; to 50m (165ft); crown ‘Glauca’, with metallic blue leaves); as one- year-old or maiden laterals, or
slender, conic, branches horizontal, L. x marschlinsii (L.decidua x L.kaempferi; two- or three-year-old laterals. The
branchlets drooping; leaves 2–4 (–6.5)cm DUNKELD LARCH, HYBRID LARCH; identification and understanding of
(3/4–11/2 (–21/2)in) , soft, flat or slightly vigorous; similar to L.decidua but with types of laterals is important to
keeled beneath, pale green; cones 1.5 shoots and leaves faintly glaucous; successful pruning.
to 5cm (5/8 to 2in), conic to cylindric, cones conic, scale tips slightly reflexed);
brown, scales 40–50, straight or L.occidentalis (WESTERN LARCH; western latex a milky fluid or sap, usually
incurved, sometimes short-hairy on N America; to 50m (165ft); branches colourless, white or pale yellow, found 441
outer surface; about 20 cultivars are horizontal; leaves 2.5–5cm (1–2in), in plants such as Asclepias and Euphorbia.
lath house
lath house a structure clad with Lathyrus (name used by Theophras- Propagate from pre-soaked seed
spaced wooden or plastic laths or trel- tus, from the Ancient Greek name for sown under glass in early spring or
liswork to provide plants with shelter the pea or pulse, combining la-, very, in situ in spring; alternatively, increase
from strong sunlight, wind and light and thoures, a stimulant: the seeds were perennials by division in early spring.
frost. Probably originating in the south- said to have excitant or irritant proper- This last method is most successful
ern US, lath houses are used for the ties.) Leguminosae. Eurasia, N Amer- with L.vernus and the non-climbing
acclimatization of nursery stock and by ica, mountains of E Africa and species; many of the climbing perenni-
some growers of bonsai and orchids. temperate S America. VETCHLING, als do not transplant well and even
WILD PEA. 110+ species, annual or seed-grown specimens are best planted
lath light a frame covered by laths, perennial herbs, often climbing by out when young and then left undis-
having the same uses as a lath house. leaf tendrils, with pinnate leaves and turbed. See also Sweetpea.
racemes of showy pea-like flowers. L.grandiflorus (TWO-FLOWERED PEA,
Lathraea (from Greek lathraios, The species described below have EVERLASTING PEA; S Italy, Sicily,
hidden). Scrophulariaceae. Temperate handsome flowers, are often fragrant S Balkans; perennial climbing to 2m
Europe, Asia. 7 species of parasitic, and most will tolerate temperatures (61/2ft); stems angled; leaves terminating
rarely saprophytic, herbs lacking below –15°C/5°F. Those climbing by in a 3-branched tendril, leaflets to 5cm
chlorophyll. Leaves in 4 rows on largely means of tendrils are useful for cloth- (2in), 1 pair (rarely 3 pairs), ovate; flow-
subterranean rhizomes, ivory to mauve. ing trellis and pergola or for trailing ers to 3cm (11/4in), standard violet, keel
Inflorescence a raceme-like extension unsupported over walls, slopes and pink, wings mauve); L.latifolius (PEREN-
of the stem, flowers axillary amongst embankments. L.nervosus, with periwin- NIAL PEA, BROAD-LEAVED EVERLASTING
scales; corolla 2-lipped, upper lip kle blue flowers, may be grown out- PEA; C and S Europe, naturalized
hooded, lower lip entire or 3-lobed; doors where winter temperatures do N America; perennial climbing to 3m
calyx erect, campanulate, 4-lobed. not fall much below zero for prolonged (10ft); stem winged; leaves terminating
L Summer. Fruit a bi-valved capsule.

Propagate by seed mixed with surface
soil containing fibrous roots of host
periods; it thrives best in zones with
cool moist summers. The non-climbing,
clump-forming L.vernus is especially
in a 3-branched tendril, leaflets to
15cm (6in), 1 pair, linear to elliptic,
somewhat blue-green; flowers to 3cm
plant, or by the transplantation of delightful in late winter when its light (11/4in) in diameter, magenta-purple,
clumps. bunches of emerging stems, packed pink, or white; ‘Albus’: white; ‘Blushing
L.squamaria (TOOTHWORT. Most with rose, blue and mauve blooms, Bride’: white flushed pink; ‘Pink
commonly grown. Perennial, white or bring relief to the woodland garden Beauty’: dark-purple and red; ‘Red
pale yellow rhizomes below ground, and the foreground of herbaceous Pearl’: carmine red; ‘Rosa Perle’: ‘Pink
pale lilac above. Stems to 30cm (12in), borders. L.sylvestris is eminently suited Pearl’, vigorous, pink, long-lasting;
erect, appearing above ground to to wild gardens and native plant ‘Splendens’: deep-pink flowers); L.nervo-
flower. Raceme spike-like; pedicels collections. L.latifolius, the everlasting sus (LORD ANSON’S BLUE PEA; S Amer-
short; bracts broadly ovate; calyx sweetpea, is a favourite plant for ica; perennial climbing to 60cm (24in);
glabrous, to 1cm (3/8in); corolla cottage gardens. L.odoratus is the leaves terminating in a 3-branched
15–20mm (5/8–3/4in), white tinted rose SWEETPEA (q.v.). tendril, leaflets to 4cm (11/2in), 1 pair,
or lilac. Parasitic especially on Alnus, Grow in any moderately fertile, well- ovate to oblong; flowers to 2.2cm (3/4in)
Corylus and Fagus. Best naturalized in drained soil in sun, or light dappled indigo); L.odoratus (SWEETPEA; Crete,
damp, dark woodland); L.clandestina shade. Provide appropriate Italy, Sicily; annual climbing
(Perennial; stems partly or completely support (i.e. canes, trellis or to 2m (61/2ft); leaflets to
subterranean, freely branching to host-shrubs for climbers; for 6cm (21/2in), 1 pair, oval
form pale yellow clumps. Scale leaves semi-scandent or erect peren- to oblong; flowers to
alternate or opposite: Raceme nials, a few birch twigs 3.5cm (11/2in), typically
4–8-flowered, subterranean except tip pushed into the ground keeled purple; now highly devel-
and flowers; pedicels to 3cm (11/4in); around the crowns should flowers oped resulting in a vast range
calyx 16–20mm (5/8–3/4in), glabrous, suffice). Dead-head through- of cultivars with flowers clustered
pale lilac. Corolla to 5cm (2in), out the season and cut back or on long racemes, large or small,
amethyst, lower lip shorter than upper. perennials in autumn to ground sometimes ruffled or ‘double’, sweetly
Parasitic on Salicaceae, flourishing on level. Feed yearly on to heavily scented, in shades of red,
open sites provided never dry). very poor soils. rose, mauve, purple, purple-black,
white, opal, blue, lilac, peach, cream,
lath screen a portable wooden unit, leaves terminate pale yellow and variously mot-
usually 3m (10ft) long and 1m (31/4ft) in tendrils tled or veined); L.rotundifolius
high, clad with 2.5cm (1in)-wide laths, (PERSIAN EVERLASTING PEA;
nailed vertically and spaced 2.5cm (1in) E Europe, W Asia; perennial
apart; plastic variants are available. It is climbing to 1m (31/4ft), stem
442 used for wind protection around low- Lathyrus angular; leaves terminating
growing plants. japonicus in a 3-branched tendril,
Lavandula
leaflets to 6cm (21/2in), 1 pair, ovate to Tolerant of clipping, it is used for back after flowering. Propagate from
orbicular; flowers to 2cm (3/4in), deep screening and hedging and for tubs seed sown under glass during spring,
pink); L.sylvestris (FLAT PEA, NARROW- and large pots, trained as a standard or from cuttings of new growth in early
LEAVED EVERLASTING PEA; Europe; pyramid. Given perfect drainage and summer, or from semi-ripe cuttings
perennial climbing to 2m (61/2ft); stem a warm, sheltered site it will withstand put into a cold frame in late summer.
angular, winged; leaves with a occasional lows to –15°C/5°F. L.azorica L.angustifolia (syn. L.spica; ENGLISH
branched tendril, leaflets to 15cm (6in), has similar requirements but prefers a LAVENDER; Mediterranean; shrub,
1 pair, linear to lanceolate; flowers to warm wall and responds badly to prun- 1–2m (31/4–61/2ft); leaves 2–6cm
2cm (3/4in), purple-pink mottled purple ing and shearing. Grow in a moisture- (3/4–21/2in), entire, lanceolate, oblong or
and green; ‘Wagneri’: deep red); retentive but well-drained fertile soil linear, revolute, tomentose, grey when
L.vernus (SPRING VETCH; Europe except in full sun. In containers, use a high- young, green with age; spike 2–8cm
extreme N; bushy, non-climbing peren- fertility loam-based mix and liquid (3/4–3in), flowers dark purple or blue;
nial to 60cm (24in), usually shorter; feed fortnightly when in full growth. ‘Alba’: flowers white; ‘Rosea’: flowers
leaves terminating in a point, not a ten- Trim formal shapes in summer, using pink; ‘Atropurpurea’: flowers very dark
dril, leaflets 3–10cm (11/4–4in), in 2–4 secateurs rather than shears to avoid purple; ‘Dutch White’: tall, with pro-
pairs, oval to lanceolate, acuminate, unsightly damage to the foliage. Propa- fuse white flowers in small heads;
dark green; flowers 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), gate by semi-ripe cuttings in summer ‘Hidcote’: to 30cm (12in), dense, with
pink to red-violet turning green-blue; or by basal hardwood cuttings of the lanceolate, grey leaves, lilac flowers,
includes ‘Albiflorus’, with blue-white previous season’s growth in mid- to late deep purple calyx in dense spikes;
flowers, ‘Alboroseus’, with rose-white winter; root in a closed case with ‘Hidcote Giant’: very tall, with deep
flowers, and ‘Roseus’ with rose to bottom heat. purple flowers; ‘Hidcote Pink’: as
lavender blue flowers; also included L.azorica (CANARY LAUREL; Canary ‘Hidcote’ but with pale pink flowers;
here are very graceful forms with Islands, Azores; tree to 10m (33ft); ‘Loddon Pink’: to 45cm (18in), with
narrow leaflets and lilac to opal blue
flowers, these may belong to other,
lesser-known species).
young branchlets downy; leaves
5–12cm (2–43/4in), broadly lanceolate
to elliptic, dark green, glabrous above,
soft pink flowers; ‘Munstead’: to 45cm
(18in), with small leaves, large blue-lilac
flowers; ‘Nana Alba’: dwarf, white-
L
paler and pubescent, especially on flowered; Old English Group: to 50cm
lattice another word for trelliswork; midrib beneath); L.nobilis (TRUE LAUREL, (20in), with leaves to 7cm (23/4in),
often referring to that made of metal. BAY LAUREL, SWEET BAY, BAY TREE; branching flowering spikes, to 115cm
Mediterranean; small tree or shrub (42in), and pale lavender to violet
Laurelia (from Spanish laurel, local 3–5m (10–16ft); young branchlets flowers; ‘Vera’: DUTCH LAVENDER, tall,
name for L.sempervirens). Monimiaceae. glabrous; leaves 5–10cm (2–4in), nar- robust, with rather broad grey leaves
New Zealand, Chile, Peru. 2 species, rowly elliptic to oblong to ovate, often and lavender flowers); L.dentata (Spain,
evergreen, aromatic trees and shrubs undulate, dark green, glabrous beneath; N Africa; shrub to 1m (31/4ft); leaves
with leathery, dark green leaves and includes ‘Aurea’, with leaves tinged 1.5–3cm (5/8–11/4in), oblong, linear or
inconspicuous flowers in panicles or yellow, f. angustifolia (syn. ‘Salicifolia’), lanceolate, wavy-toothed to pinnatifid,
racemes in summer. Hardy to about with narrow leaves, and ‘Crispa’ (syn. grey-tomentose; spikes 2.5–5cm
–5°C/23°F but susceptible to cold ‘Undulata’), with wavy leaf margins). (1–2in), bracts usually tinged purple,
winds, the following species needs a apical bracts sometimes in a coma,
warm sheltered position in zones at the Lavandula (from Latin lavo, I wash, flowers powder-blue to dark purple;
limits of its hardiness. Grow in sun or referring to lavender water, made from var. candicans: with most parts white-
part shade on moderately fertile soils oil of lavender). Labiatae. Atlantic tomentose; ‘Silver Form’: leaves soft,
that do not dry out in summer. Propa- Islands, Mediterranean, N tropical silver, flowers large, blue); L.lanata (S
gate by seed, by semi-ripe cuttings in a Africa, W Asia, Arabia, India. LAVEN- Spain; shrub to 1m (31/4ft), white-woolly
closed case, or by layering. L.sempervirens DER. 28 species, aromatic, evergreen throughout; leaves 3–5cm (11/4–2in),
(syn. L.serrata; CHILEAN LAUREL; Chile, shrubs and subshrubs with linear to linear to spathulate or oblong, scarcely
Peru; to 30m (100ft); leaves 6–9cm oblong, entire to toothed or pinnate revolute; spike 4–10cm (11/2–4in),
(21/2–31/2in), elliptic to ovate, serrate, leaves. Small, shortly tubular and flowers lilac to deep indigo); L.stoechas
glossy green). 2-lipped flowers crowd the upper (FRENCH LAVENDER; Mediterranean
portions of long-stalked spikes during region; shrub 30–100cm (12–39in);
Laurus (Latin name for these plants). summer. Aromatic shrubs grown for leaves 1–4cm (1/2–11/2in), linear to
Lauraceae. S Europe, Canary Islands, ornament and perfume. A few (L.angus- oblong or lanceolate, entire, usually
Azores. 2 species, aromatic evergreen tifolia and cultivars), are frost-tolerant grey-tomentose; spike 2–3cm
trees or shrubs with tough, ovate to to –10°C/14°F. Others (L.stoechas (3/4–11/4in), sterile bracts along spike
elliptic or oblong to lanceolate leaves and L.dentata), are hardy to at least or in a coma, 1–5cm (1/2–2in), oblong-
and small, 4-parted, white to creamy –5°C/23°F. These slightly tender obovate, erect, petal-like, red-purple,
buff flowers in axillary clusters. L.nobilis species are nonetheless worth attempt- rarely white, flowers purple, white or
is widely grown for its foliage both as ing in climate zone 7 in sheltered, pale pink; ‘Alba’: flowers white; subsp. 443
an ornamental and culinary herb. sunny sites on well-drained soils. Trim pedunculata: inflorescences long-stalked
Lavandula
with rich mauve sterile bracts tinged darker veins at the base; includes ‘Ile 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in), rounded to cordate,
red, rarely white, long and erect, and d’Hyéres’, to 3.5m (111/2ft), with large, slightly 3-, 5- or 7-lobed; flowers with
forming a showy coma; ‘James Comp- palmate leaves and small, magenta petals 2.5–4.5cm (1–13/4in), white, rose,
ton’: flowers deep purple in a spike flowers, in leaf axils, in early summer, pink or red; ‘Loveliness’: to 1.2m (4ft),
with large, pale purple bracts). and ‘Variegata’, of vigorous habit, with with large, trumpet-shaped flowers,
large, marbled white leaves); L.assurgen- of a striking deep rose; ‘Mont Blanc’:
Lavatera (for J. R. Lavater, 16th- tiflora (MALVA ROSA; SW US; deciduous dwarf and compact with dark green
century physician and naturalist in shrub to 6m (20ft); leaves 8–15cm leaves and pure white flowers; ‘Pink
Zurich). Malvaceae. Macronesia, (3–6in), 5- or 7-lobed, lobes triangular, Beauty’: dwarf and bushy habit, to
Mediterranean to NW Himalaya, coarsely toothed, white-pubescent; 60cm (24in), with large, delicate pale
C Asia, E Siberia, Australia, California flowers with petals 4cm (11/2in), red- pink flowers with violet veins and eye;
and Baja California. TREE MALLOW. 25 purple, with darker veins); L.cachemiri- ‘Silver Cup’: dwarf and bushy habit,
species, annual, biennial and perennial ana (Kashmir; annual or short-lived to 60cm (24in), with large, glowing
herbs or softwooded shrubs, usually perennial herb to 2.5m (8ft), downy; pink flowers, to 12cm (43/4in) in
downy to thickly hairy, with palmately leaves downy beneath, cordate-orbicular, diameter; ‘Splendens’: flowers large,
angled or lobed leaves, and, in summer, crenate, 3- or 5-lobed; flowers with white or red).
broadly dish- or funnel-shaped flowers petals to 4cm (11/2in), pink, deeply
composed of five obovate to cordate bifid); L.oblongifolia (Spain; erect, ever- lawn an area densely covered with
petals. The following species are hardy green shrub to 1.5m (5ft), branches grass or certain other low-growing
in climate zone 6. Grow all species in twiggy, covered in tawny hairs; leaves plants, and usually closely mown.
full sun on a light, well-drained, mod- ovate to lanceolate, silky white-hairy; As a meadow spangled with flowers,
erately fertile soil. Give shrubby peren- flowers small, sometimes not opening, it was first widely known in medieval
nials protection from cold drying winds rose pink with mauve markings); Europe, although the word ‘lawn’ is
L and a winter mulch. L.oblongifolia needs

a warm, sheltered site, and a rather
dry, gritty soil. Propagate annuals and
L.thuringiaca (syn. L.olbia of gardens;
TREE LAVATERA; C and SE Europe;
perennial herb, subshrub or shrub to
not recorded until 1674, and its con-
temporary meaning, as a closely mown
cover, not until 1733.
biennials by seed sown in situ: annuals 1.8m (6ft), softly grey-tomentose; leaves Lawns serve as decorative features
in spring, biennials in late summer. to 9cm (31/2in), cordate to rounded, in themselves, or to enhance plantings
Increase perennials by cuttings of basal 3- or 5-lobed; flowers with petals and other facets of garden design.
shoots in spring, and shrubs and peren- 1.5–4.5cm (5/8–13/4in), purple-pink; x They provide a stable surface for
nials also by softwood cuttings in spring clementii ‘Barnsley’: to 2m (61/2ft), with access and recreation.
and early summer. lobed leaves and flowers opening white Suitable species Turfgrasses may
L.arborea (TREE MALLOW; Europe, with red eye, fading to pale pink with be divided into two main groups accord-
Mediterranean, Macaronesia, natural- a rose eye; ‘Candy Floss’: with leaves ing to their temperature tolerance.
ized California and Baja California; softly tinted grey and bright pink flow- COOL-SEASON TURFGRASSES Cool-
tree-like biennial or perennial to 3m ers, with white stamens; ‘Rosea’: to season or temperate grass species
(10ft); leaves 8–18cm (3–7in), orbicular- 2m (61/2ft), with downy leaves, tinted with a temperature optimum of
cordate, 5-, 7- or 9-lobed, pilose, grey, and pale rose-mauve flowers); 15–24°C/59–75°F are employed for
crenate; flowers with petals 1.5–2.5cm L.trimestris (Mediterranean; annual herb lawns in Britain, northern Europe parts
(5/8–1in), lilac or purple-red, with to 1.2m (4ft), sparsely hairy; leaves of North America and other temperate
regions. Most commonly used are
FESCUES (Festuca rubra subsp. rubra and
F.rubra subsp. commutata), BENTS (Agrostis
tenuis, A. castellana, A.stolonifera), mead-
owgrasses, which are also known as
BLUE GRASSES (Poa pratensis, P.trivialis,
P.nemoralis), and PERENNIAL RYEGRASS
(Lolium perenne). ANNUAL MEADOWGRASS
(Poa annua) is a widely found invasive
weed-grass of temperate lawns and
may often make up the greatest pro-
portion of a lawn, although it is never
intentionally sown.
These grasses are usually sown as
mixtures, although in temperate areas
of the US smooth-stalked meadow-
Lavatera x clementii ‘Rosea’ (left) and L. trimestris ‘Loveliness’ (right) grass or KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS (Poa
444 These two species illustrate the range of lavateras. L. ‘Rosea’ is a small shrubby tree mallow pratensis) and its cultivars is sometimes
and L. ‘Loveliness’ an annual. The genus has widespread geographic natural habitats. sown as a single species.
lawn
It will tolerate drought and damp and

S OWING LAWN SEED BY HAND has been used for bowling greens.
Historically, CLOVER (Trifolium species),
MEDICK (Medicago species) and SAINFOIN
(Onobrychis species) were used for lawns
in Europe.
Site preparation The site of a
lawn should be cleared of all perennial
and annual weeds and, where necessary,
improvements made to soil drainage.
A base dressing of fertilizer should
be applied to the prepared surface.
On most soils, a compound containing
10% nitrogen, 15% phosphate and
10% potash, applied at 100–150g/m2
(3–41/2oz/yd2) and lightly raked into
1 Mark out sample sq. metre or sq. yard
areas. Scatter evenly the recommended 2 After sowing, lightly rake over the surface.
Netting or scaring devices may be
quantity of seed per unit area. Once gauged it required to protect the seed from birds.
the soil surface, will be suitable.
For most grasses, satisfactory growth
should be possible to proceed without marking. In dry conditions, water regularly. can be achieved at pH levels between
5.5 and 7.0. Fine fescues and bents
have an optimum range of 5.5–6.5,
For the finest lawns, a mixture of heavy wear. Three of the zoysia grasses while perennial ryegrass, the meadow-
bents and fescues is used. BROWNTOP are used for lawns: JAPANESE LAWN grasses and many of the warm-season
and HIGHLAND BENT (Agrostis tenuis and
A.castellana) are mixed with CHEWINGS
FESCUE and slender CREEPING RED
GRASS (Zoysia japonica), MANILA GRASS
(Z.matrella) and MASCARENE GRASS
(Z.tenuifolia). Zoysias are often used in
grasses grow better at pH levels
between 6.0 and 7.0.
Lawn establishment Lawns can
L
FESCUE (Festuca rubra subsp. commutata warm humid regions and areas where be established from seed, turf (sod in
and F.r subsp. litoralis) in a ratio of the climate is subtropical only in the the North America), or by vegetative
20–30% bent to 70–80% fescue summer months; they form a fine if propagation. Most cool-season lawns
by weight. rather slow-growing turf. St Augustine are produced from seed or turf, while
In Britain, the major wear-resistant grass is by nature a coarse-textured, those using warm-season species are
species is perennial ryegrass (Lolium invasive species. Despite this, it is an generally produced by vegetative means.
perenne), usually mixed with red fescue, acceptable species for general-purpose SEED Establishing a lawn from seed
smooth-stalked meadowgrass/Ken- lawns which do not receive heavy wear. is by far the cheapest method and
tucky bluegrass, and browntop or Other grass species for low-mainte- enables the gardener to sow specific
highland bent. Pure swards of smooth- nance coarser lawns include CENTIPEDE grass species and cultivars; however,
stalked meadowgrass/Kentucky blue- GRASS (Eremochloa ophiuroides), CARPET seed takes much longer to establish
grass (Poa pratensis) are extensively used GRASS (Axonopus species), and BAHIA than turf. It is only possible to sow seed
in the Northeast, Midwest and other GRASS (Paspalum notatum). Their coarse- during warm moist periods unless irri-
temperate regions of the US. textured leaves restrict their use to low- gation is available. Ideally, cool-season
For lawns subjected to shade, WOOD quality lawns. species are best sown in late summer or
MEADOWGRASS (Poa nemoralis) is often Warm-season grasses are not usually early autumn, with spring the second-
sown along with ROUGH-STALKED mixed because they have a strong best option. Grass seed should be sown
MEADOWGRASS (Poa trivialis). TURF creeping habit and do not integrate at a rate of 25–30g/m2 (3/4–7/8oz/yd2)
TIMOTHY (Phleum bertolonii) may be well. They become dormant and lose for most seed mixtures. Pure bent lawns
used in place of perennial ryegrass their colour at temperatures below should be sown at a rate of 8–10g/m2
on moist areas. 10°C/50°F. (1/4–1/3oz/yd2), while pure perennial
WARM-SEASON TURFGRASSES Warm- OTHER LAWN PLANTS Broad-leaved ryegrass and smooth-stalked meadow-
season species come from tropical and species are sometimes used for special grass will require higher seed rates.
subtopical areas including Asia, South effect but they are unsuitable for lawns Sowing too thickly may encourage
America, Africa and southern China, subjected to heavy wear. These include seedling diseases such as damping-off.
and these have a temperature optimum fragrant CHAMOMILE (Chamaemelum After sowing, the seed should be
of 26.5–35°C/79–95°F. The major nobile), DICHONDRA (Dichondra micrantha), lightly raked into the surface and sandy
species used for lawns are BERMUDA PENNYWORT (Hydrocotyle novae-zealandiae) soils rolled with a light (50–100kg
GRASS (Cynodon species), Zoysia species and even various species of moss, as in (110–220lb)) roller to consolidate the
and ST AUGUSTTNE GRASS some Japanese gardens. BRASS BUT- surface. Heavy soils should not be
(Stenotaphrum secundatum). TONS (Cotula dioica, C.pulchella and rolled until after germination, at which
Bermuda grass forms a dense, uni- C.maniototo) makes a fine, feathery, time a second rolling should be carried 445
form, high-quality turf which tolerates close-knit surface of some durability. out on sandy soils. The grass seedlings
lawn
extreme climates of continental Europe

A ERATING A LAWN and North America the operation will
be restricted by very hot or very cold
conditions.
Vegetative propagation Vegeta-
tively propagated lawns require less
material than turf for a given area, but
there is no instant cover and about two
months is required for rooting and
spread. Species commonly propagated
by this method are the strong, creeping,
warm-season grasses, together with
cool-season creeping bent in North
America. Vegetative propagation is
not often practised in Britain.
For stolonizing, the soil is prepared
1 In autumn, spike the lawn at closely
spaced intervals. On small areas a garden
fork can be used; insert it straight down,
2 After spiking, whether with a fork or a
mechanical aerator, top-dress the lawn
with a mix of sand, sieved soil and peat or
as for seeding and the stolons spread
at a rate of around 2.25–5 litres/m2
pulling it back a little to open up the hole. peat substitute, and brush it in. (1/2–1 gallon/yd2) and pressed into
the soil surface.
Mowing Ideally no more than
will take 7–14 days to emerge depend- Sea-marsh turf was once considered one third of the leaf growth should
ing on species, temperature, and water the finest turf in the UK, because it be removed at one mowing if growth
L availability. The lawn should be regu-

larly irrigated in dry weather. When
seedlings are 2.5–3.8cm (1–11/2in) high,
contains fine fescues and bents. However,
it often grows in estuaries where silt
and clay are deposited, and care must
is not to be adversely affected. For all
lawns, infrequent heavy mowing will
cause the greatest damage to the
they should be mown using a rotary be taken not to cover a free-draining grasses.
mower and any excess clippings raked soil with a silty impermeable barrier. Fine fescues and bents used in high-
up and removed. If sown in the late Seedling-turf, 6–15 weeks old, is quality lawns can be cut as low as 6mm
summer or autumn, the lawn should raised on a shallow soilless medium (1/4in) in the summer and 12mm (1/2in)
be mown as necessary through the late and can be quickly grown to order. It in winter, and these will need cutting
autumn period, before gradually lower- is light and easy to transport but does every other day in summer so as not
ing the height of cut the following not have the maturity of older turf to remove more than one-third of
spring to that required for summer use. and needs protection from heavy the growth.
Lawns from seed should be subjected use until established. Ryegrasses and other species used
to as little wear as possible during their Traditionally in the UK, high-quality in utility lawns grow better at heights
first season. turf was sold in 30cm (12in) squares between 1.2–2.5cm (1/2–1in) in summer
TURF Turf comes from established and lesser-quality turf in 90 x 30cm and 2.5–3.7cm (1–11/2in) in winter. In
grass sward which is lifted intact and (36 x 12in) strips. Most turf sold by addition, the greater amount of grass
transplanted to a new site. It gives an large producers is lifted by tractor- will protect the surface against wear.
immediate visual effect and can usually mounted machines and cut into one These lawns will only need cutting
be walked on within a short period of square metre pieces. once or twice a week in summer if
laying. Turf is much more expensive Turf should be laid with an alter- no more than a third of the grass
than seed, and may carry pests, nate bond, brick fashion, so that each is to be removed.
diseases and weeds. piece tightly meets the next. Moist soil Grass mowing will be least frequent
Many different types of turf are encourages rapid rooting and, after in the cold of winter and during
available, including meadow turf, laying, turf should be lightly rolled to summer drought conditions.
treated meadow turf, sea-marsh turf, eliminate air pockets between the turf The two most commonly used types
custom-grown turf and seedling turf, and the soil. In wet conditions, the of mower are the cylinder or reel
and careful inspection of the offered rolling should be left until the turf has mower, and the rotary mower, which
product is essential. knitted together. Finally a light top- includes the hover-type. The cylinder
Meadow-turf, grown initially for dressing of sand or sandy loam is mower gives the best finish, although
agricultural purposes, is likely to con- applied over the surface and brushed the rotary type gives perfectly accept-
tain coarse grasses, including annual into any gaps. Regular irrigation that able finishes for utility lawns.
meadowgrass and broad-leaved weed penetrates the turf and soil beneath For high-quality lawns, grass clip-
species such as the daisy (Bellis perennis). to a depth of 10–15cm (4–6in) will pings should be removed (boxed off)
Treated meadowgrass has had selective be needed in dry conditions. to discourage earthworms, lessen the
446 herbicide applied to eliminate broad- Turf can be laid almost year round spread of annual meadowgrass and
leaved weed species. in Britain, although in the more other seeding weeds, reduce the
layering
accumulation of organic matter and Compaction restricts root growth and spiking and slitting can be undertaken
leave a better surface finish. prevents rapid drainage, while lawns throughout the season except in dry
Fertilizers On heavy-textured that have become acidic and from which conditions.
soils, where clippings are returned and earthworms have been eliminated can Bulky topdressing is also beneficial
rainfall or irrigation rates are low, only build up surface thatch (organic debris). after autumn work since it can aid
small amounts of fertilizer will be The techniques of scarification, thatch breakdown, fill core holes, and
required; 30g/m2 (7/8oz/yd2) of a fertil- hollow tining or coring, spiking and correct surface irregularities. A top-
izer containing 10% nitrogen will be a slitting are used to remove thatch and dressing containing medium/fine sand,
suitable annual dressing. This may be relieve soil compaction. sieved soil and peat or well-rotted com-
applied as one application in mid- to post, in a ratio of 6:3:1, is suitable
late spring, or in split applications in for most lawns; apply at 1–3g/m2
early summer and after autumn reno- (1/10oz/yd2) on a dry day and lute or
vations. Phosphorus and potassium brush well into the surface and core
are likely to be needed only every holes.
3–5 years. Rolling the lawn in spring resettles
On light-textured soils where the the surface but excessive rolling can
clippings are removed and high rainfall cause compaction.
or irrigation is plentiful, as much as Brushing dew from grass, especially
150g/m2 (41/2oz/yd2) of a fertilizer con- in the autumn, helps prevent fungal
taining 10% nitrogen per annum may disease spread.
be needed. Such a large amount of Soil excreted by earthworms and
fertilizer should be applied in at least deposited as worm casts on the surface
three applications, in late spring, in of lawns can be a problem in making
summer and after autumn renovations.
Phosphorus and potassium will also
be required at a quarter and three-
Scarifying
mowing difficult or unsightly, damag-
ing the cutting edges of cylinder
mowers. When flattened, worm casts
L
A spring-tined lawn rake is the ideal tool
quarters the rate of nitrogen respec- for removing moss and debris (thatch) from smother grass, provide sites for weed
tively per annum. congested and compacted lawn grass. germination and make a lawn slippery.
Iron is included in some compound Treatments to raise acidity, such as the
fertilizers, and also widely applied as a A powered scarifier has vertical application of sulphate of ammonia
constituent of lawn sand, which is used blades that rotate at a high speed and or sulphate of iron, discourage earth-
to control moss and encourage grass penetrate the lawn up to 1.2cm (1/2in) worms. Brushing with a birch broom
growth. Lawn sand usually contains in depth. Light scarification can be will disperse worm casts.
3 parts by weight ammonium sulphate, undertaken using a wire rake. It is Broad-leaved weeds should be
1 part ferrous sulphate and 20 parts advisable to scarify in two directions, treated with hormonal herbicide or
fine sand. It should be applied at one at 30 degrees to the other. weed-and-feed fertilizer. Small infesta-
136g/m2 (4oz/yd2) in spring or Hollow tining or coring removes tions of plants, such as daisy, dandelion
summer outside of hot dry spells. cores of grass, thatch, and soil 6–18mm and plantain, can be removed with a
Fertilizer must be applied evenly (1/4–3/4in) in diameter and 7.5–10cm daisy grubber or knife, or killed by her-
over the entire surface and, unless (3–4in) in depth. It can be undertaken bicide applied with a ‘spot-weeder’.
heavy rain is expected, it should be with a special hand tool or by machine. Moss thrives in poorly drained lawns
watered in to prevent scorch. The resulting holes may be left open or with low fertility and high acidity. It
Irrigation Where ornamental filled with a suitable sandy topdressing, should be treated by cultural improve-
effect is essential and water usage can which will prevent the hole from clos- ments and chemical moss killer or lawn
be afforded, enough water should be ing and improve the soil. sand. See chafer beetles, dollar spot, earth-
applied at times of drought to ensure Spiking with a purpose-made tool or worms, fairy ring, fusarium patch disease,
that the soil is moistened to a depth of hand fork relieves soil compaction and leather-jacket, ophiobolus patch, red thread,
100–150mm (4–6in). Shallow watering allows air and water into the soil. For snow mould.
encourages detrimental surface rooting, maximum effect, the spikes are pulled
and heavy infrequent irrigation is in back after entering the soil, thereby lax loose, for example flowers widely
general better than light frequent appli- lifting the turf and creating cracks spaced in an open inflorescence.
cations. Well-established lawns are and fissures
better able to recover from drought Slitting involves penetration of laxpendent hanging loosely.
conditions that cannot be offset due the soil with flat, knife-like blades
to unavailability of irrigation water to a depth of 7.5–10cm (3–4in). layering (1) a training technique used
or restrictions in supply. Heavy scarification and hollow tining in the cordon system of growing sweet
Maintenance and weed control should be undertaken in early autumn peas, and in large-scale tomato grow-
Soil compaction and thatch accumula- when warm, moist conditions permit ing; (2) a method of vegetative propa- 447
tion are problems on well-used lawns. rapid recovery. Light scarification, gation whereby stems are induced to
layering
form adventitious roots while still Corylus avellana cultivars, C.maxima preferred method for increasing border
attached to the parent plant, to be cultivars, Cornus florida, Daphne cneorum, carnations; a tongue is made near the
eventually severed and grown on Disanthus cercidifolius, Kalmia latifolia cul- leafy end of the shoot and pegged
as separate individuals. tivars, Magnolia species and cultivars, down into a depression that is later
Plants, such as Campsis, Hedera and Rhododendron species and cultivars and refilled with soil.
Rubus, have a natural propensity to Syringa vulgaris cultivars. The time of Compound or serpentine
layer themselves. Artificial methods year can influence the success rate; layering This method is a modifica-
of layering have been devised, utilizing thus, late spring is recommended for tion of simple layering, utilizing the
inherent growth characteristics of Disanthus cercidifolius, when shoot growth trailing shoots of climbing plants; it is
plants together with varying degrees of has started, and mid-summer for suitable for subjects that do not root
shoot manipulation, including pruning, Chimonanthus praecox, when shoots easily from stem cuttings, such as Wiste-
blanching, etiolation and constriction. are supple but not easily bruised. ria, Clematis armandii, Lapageria rosea and
Such strategies, besides providing Rooting is stimulated in stems Vitis davidii. Stem blanching and con-
shoots with a high capacity to produce blanched by covering them with soil striction techniques are applied at
roots, also cause natural hormones and and by constriction. A shoot is selected intervals along the trailing stems, and
carbohydrates to accumulate, thus and pulled down to the soil to ascertain to avoid restricting the flow of suffi-
encouraging quick rooting at specific the position where the stem needs to be cient sap, cutting a shallow tongue in
locations on the stem. Layering is less buried and constricted. There are a the stem is probably the safest method.
widely used than formerly, mainly number of ways of constricting stems: During early spring, vigorous shoots
because of the advances made in root- by bending, twisting to rupture the are positioned on the soil surface in a
ing clonal material from cuttings. How- tissue, cutting a tongue about 3cm circular pattern. Starting at the basal
ever, on certain plants, such as Corylus (11/4in) long and exposing the cam- end, the first constriction is made and
maxima ‘Purpurea’, clonal Malus root- bium, girdling by removing a ring the shoot carefully bent into a hole
L stocks and certain rhododendrons, all

of which are difficult to root by cut-
tings, layering is still a prime technique
of bark about 5mm (1/4in) wide, or
by twisting copper wire into the stem
tissue. A trench about 15cm (6in) deep
about 10cm (4in) deep and secured
with a peg before filling back with soil.
This procedure is repeated along the
of production. For best results, the soil is made with one side sloping towards stem, ensuring that vegetative buds are
should be light textured, deep, well- the parent plant and a vertical side looped above the soil between each
drained, moisture-retentive, stone-free opposite. The constricted shoot is then layer. New growth developing from the
and of a pH appropriate to the species. bent down into the trench with the buds should be pinched back once or
Simple layering Simple layering shoot tip placed against the vertical twice during the growing season to
provides a means of propagating a side. The tip should be exposed above avoid excessive extension growth at the
wide range of woody plants. Vigorous the soil surface by 10–15cm (4–6in), expense of root development. When
one-year old shoots are encouraged secured with a peg and covered with sufficiently rooted, layers are severed
to develop close to the soil, mainly by soil; it may need to be tied to a small close to the base of the parent plant.
hard pruning, and are buried in such a cane to ensure vertical growth. Layers During the dormant season, these
way that the tip of the shoot is exposed will take one or two years to root and may be lifted and sectioned into
well above soil level. when sufficiently established, they can separate plants.
Many woody plants respond to this be severed from the parent plant, lifted Tip layering This method of lay-
treatment, such as Carpenteria californica, during the dormant season and subse- ering is suitable for rooting plants of
Chimonanthus praecox, Corylopsis pauciflora, quently grown on. Layering is also the the genus Rubus, including blackberry,
M ETHODS OF LAYERING
448 Simple layering Compound or serpentine layering Tip layering Air or Chinese layering
layering
loganberry, boysenberry and tayberry. Stooling or mound layering Mother plants are established for
Healthy parent plants are established This is a widely used commercial one growing season in well-prepared
for one growing season, and in the method, especially for the production soil at 2–3m- (61/2–10ft-) square pac-
spring of the second season are cut of clonal rootstocks. Roots are stimu- ings depending upon vigour. In the
back to about 15–20cm (6–8in) above lated by blanching developing shoots; following spring, the plants are cut
ground level. When new growth is this is done by heaping soil around back to 2.5–5cm (1–2in) above soil
60cm (24in) in length, each shoot their bases. Plants suitable for this tech- level and will produce 2–6 shoots,
should be tipped to stimulate side later- nique must be able to tolerate hard which should be left to develop fully.
als. Once side laterals have produced annual pruning down to ground level, During late winter in the third
1–1.5m (31/4–5ft) of growth, shoots and be able to root effectively from season after planting, long, healthy and
may be pulled down into a 15cm (6in) blanched stems only; they include ideally unfeathered shoots are pegged
deep trench, made with a sloping side clonal apple root-stocks such as M9, down on to the surface of the soil,
towards the parent plant and a vertical MM106, rootstocks for plums like arranged like the spokes of a wheel.
side opposite; this will encourage the ‘St Julien A’ and ornamentals such as Thin, weak shoots and any surplus to
shoot to grow vertically. The shoot tip Prunus cerasifera ‘Nigra’, P. tenella ‘Fire requirements should be cut hard back.
is placed so that the tip is bent upwards Hill’ and Tilia x euchlora. In spring, growth will develop at right
at the vertical side and fixed with a New stool beds are established by angles to the pegged shoots and from
wire staple before being covered with obtaining young parent plants that are the centre of the mother plant. The
soil. Rooting takes place within three free from viruses and true to name. centre shoots should be encouraged to
weeks and rooted layers can be lifted Planting should be done during the dor- develop fully as replacement layers for
during December. mant period and the young plants grown next season. Growths from the pegged
Air or Chinese layering This on over one season to become well- shoots are mounded to a depth of
layering method is valuable in creating established. During March of the follow- 15cm (6in).
new plants from the upper growth of
specimens. It is especially useful for
plants that have become too tall, as
ing year, the stems should be cut back
(stooled) about 2.5–5cm (1–2in) above
soil level. Each stool should produce 2–6
Rooted layers should be ready by
early winter, and the layered shoots
are severed close to the mother plant,
L
often occurs with house plants, such as new shoots, and once the shoots attain lifted, sectioned and grown on.
Ficus elastica cultivars, or with Mahonia 12–15cm (43/4–6in) in height, moist, Etiolation or trench layering
aquifolium cultivars. Marcottage, gootee, finely cultivated soil is carefully This method is generally reserved for
and circumposition are other names for mounded up around them leaving the plants that need to be propagated on
this method. shoot tips visible. This procedure is nor- their own roots, such as Prunus avium
A woody shoot, preferably not more mally carried out three times during the F12/1 rootstocks and walnuts. Etiola-
than two years old is selected, and growing season, the final mounding up tion layering differs from stooling
either cut to remove a ring of bark being done soon after mid-summer. inasmuch as buds are encouraged to
about 1cm (1/2in) wide, or slit shallowly Maintenance work required during the develop and extend on layered shoots
upwards for about 2.5cm (1in) length growing season will include irrigation in darkness, without foliage and virtu-
of stem and a sliver of wood pushed and weed, pest and disease control. By ally devoid of pigmentation. Such
in to keep the wound open. A rooting late autumn, layers will be well-rooted, shoots, in which the cells of the buried
hormone should be applied over a and they should be harvested when fully sections become elongated, have a
2cm (3/4in) area around the wound. dormant. The soil mounds are broken remarkable capacity to produce
A handful of moist sphagnum moss down to expose the rooted layers, which adventitious roots.
is bound in and around the cut with are gathered by cutting back to the origi- Mother plants are established from
a few turns of thread, and the area nal stool. There will be an annual single shoots about 60cm (24in) long;
wrapped in a sleeve of black plastic increase in production up to about five these are planted at a 45-degree angle,
film (30 microns), which should overlap years, but a well-maintained stool bed at 60cm (24in) spacings, in rows
and be tied firmly top and bottom. will last at least fifteen years. 1.5–3m (5–10ft) apart. Plants are
To avoid potentially lethal tempera- French or continuous layering allowed to establish for one growing
tures (35–40°C/95–104°F) building up The technique used here is similar to season, and during the early spring of
inside the black plastic through radia- stooling, except that selected shoots are the second year, a trench about 5cm
tion, the use of co-extruded plastic film pegged down so that their buds pro- (2in) deep and 30cm (12in) wide is
(black with white reverse) is advised, duce new vertical shoots and these are taken out along the row. A little soil is
with the white side outward-facing. then stimulated to root by blanching. removed just beside the base of each
Alternatively, aluminium foil or alu- Plants most suitable for this method angled stem, allowing the stem to be
minized plastic may be used. When should be capable of rooting effectively easily bent horizontally into the trench,
roots have developed sufficiently, cut the after blanching, produce long unfeath- where it is held firmly in place with
stem below the moss ball and grow the ered shoots and be tolerant of hard stout pegs.
plant on. The old stem should be cut pruning; they include Cornus alba culti- Before the buds have begun to swell,
back to vegetative buds to prevent stem vars, Cotinus coggygria cultivars, Hydrangea the shoots are covered with soil 2.5cm 449
die-back and to encourage new growth. paniculata and Viburnum plicatum. (1in) deep and just as shoots appear
layering
above ground level a further covering about 45 degrees and weaving them BEETLE (Crioceris asparagi), with conspic-
of the same depth is made. This is around wooden stakes driven into the uous yellow and black adults up to
repeated up to three times, after which hedge line at intervals. Hedges can be 6mm (1/4in) long and grey black
the shoots are allowed to attain about layed at any time between October and humped larvae, both of which feed on
15cm (6in) in height and then May but the work is easiest if done in the foliage of edible asparagus; and, in
mounded up with the tips visible. spring when sap is rising. North America, the BEAN LEAF BEETLE
Rooted layers will be ready for (Ceratoma trifurcata), a yellow and black
harvesting by early winter. One strong laying-in the process of tying in marked beetle up to 7mm (1/4in) long,
shoot is retained every 30cm (12in) young shoots against a wall, carried out which feeds on the foliage of beans
along the row to continue the sequence during the training of a fruit tree. and other legumes and has root-feed-
of production. ing larvae. In North and South Amer-
Dropping This relatively simple lazy-bed a system of growing pota- ica, cucurbits can be severely attacked
layering technique involves disposing toes, in which tubers are placed on the by CUCUMBER BEETLES (Acalymma and
of the parent plant once rooted layers soil surface and covered with soil from Diabrotica species), with pale yellow
are removed. It is normally carried out trenches dug between the rows or bed. green adults, marked with spots and
on small bushy woody plants, such as bands of black and up to 8mm (3/8in)
Berberis x stenophylla ‘Irwinii’, Calluna and leaching the drainage of water long, which feed on foliage and whose
Erica species and cultivars, and dwarf through soil or other growing media, larvae tunnel into roots; some of these
Rhododendron species and cultivars. removing soluble chemicals, especially larvae are known as CORN ROOT-
Young bushy plants are selected nitrogen. It has the deleterious effects WORMS because they can seriously
during spring and lower leaves of potential waste and/or pollution of damage the roots of maize.
removed where rooting is expected to watercourses. It can be beneficial in Fruit in North America is attacked
take place. A deep trench is dug into diluting a build-up of soil salts which by rootworms, particularly the GRAPE
L which the plants are placed with their

shoots evenly spaced out. The soil is
replaced, ensuring that the shoot tips
often follows regular supplementary
feeding, as for tomatoes; and leaching
is induced in such situations by flood-
ROOTWORM (Fidia viticida), with chest-
nut brown hairy adults up to 6mm
(1/4in) long and root-feeding larvae
are above the soil level. When the ing the soil. See nutrients and plant which damage the roots of grape vines,
shoots have rooted, between one to two nutrition. and the STRAWBERRY ROOTWORM (Paria
years later, the parent plants are lifted fragariae), a glistening brown beetle with
and the rooted layers removed and leader the main shoot of a woody black markings, up to 3mm (1/8in) long,
grown on. plant, often referred to as the central which feeds on foliage and whose
leader; also, the dominant terminal larvae infest the roots and crowns of
layer planting used of groups of shoot that extends the growth of a strawberries, raspberries, blackberries
plants in a floral bed that are arranged branch. In pruning, leaders are usually and some other plants, such as rose.
to provide successional flowering; also cut lightly (tipped) in comparison to The WATER LILY BEETLE (Galerucella
to achieve variable height for improved laterals. nymphaeae) is small and brown, up to
display. 6mm (1/4in) long, and has soft-bodied
leaf a lateral member borne on the brown-black larvae which feed on the
Layia (for George Tradescant Lay shoot or stem of a plant, generally upper surface of leaves, making fur-
(d. c1845), botanist to Captain differing from the stem in form and rows and holes. The SUNFLOWER
Beechey’s voyage in the Blossom, which structure. BEETLE (Zygogramma exclamationis) has
visited California in 1827). Composi- adults resembling the Colorado beetle
tae. W US. About 15 species, annual leaf beetles (Coleoptera: which feed, along with their hump-
herbs with daisy-like flowerheads from Chrysomelidae) one of the largest fam- backed larvae, on the foliage of sun-
summer to early autumn. They are ilies of beetles, the adults of which are flowers in North America.
frost-tender annuals for dry, sunny mostly oval-shaped, drab to brightly The adults and larvae of several
banks, and do not thrive where sum- coloured and ranging in size from species feed openly on the foliage of
mers are hot and humid. Sow seed in 1–12mm (1/16–1/2in) long. The larvae are trees. These include the ELM LEAF
situ in spring (or earlier under glass), soft, fleshy grubs with three pairs of BEETLE (Pyrrhalta luteola), with yellow or
in any well-drained soil in sun. L.platy- short, stumpy thoracic legs. Adults and green adults up to 6mm (1/4in) long,
glossa (syn. L.elegans; TIDY TIPS; Califor- larvae often feed openly on the foliage which together with their larvae cause
nia; to 30cm (12in), glandular, hairy; of plants, or the larvae mine leaves or defoliation of elm trees in Europe (not
leaves linear to narrowly oblong, den- feed on the roots. Species attacking the UK) and North America; various
tate to pinnatifid; ray florets yellow vegetables include the FLEA BEETLES small, metallic blue, red or green bee-
with white tips, anthers black). (Phyllotreta species) and related species tles, mostly Phyllodecta species up to
in North America; the COLORADO 5mm (1/4in) long, attack the foliage of
laying a traditional and effective BEETLE (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) on willows and poplars; the EUROPEAN
450 method of training hedges by bending potatoes in North America and Europe VIBURNUM BEETLE (Pyrrhalta viburni),
partially severed shoots to an angle of (not the UK or Ireland); the ASPARAGUS is a dun brown beetle, up to 6mm (1/4in)
leaf miners
long, with creamy yellow larvae with the fungal disease known as bud blast.
black markings. This leafhopper is conspicuous, up to
Leaf beetles that feed openly at both 9mm (3/8in) in length with red oblique
adult and larval stages can be con- stripes on the green wing cases. Apples
trolled with recommended contact and potatoes are subject to attack by
insecticides. Where larvae are root several different species of leafhopper;
feeders, measures must be aimed at grapes by Erythroneura species; Rubus by
eliminating the adults before egg-laying Macropsis species; and strawberry by
commences. See Colorado beetle, flea Aphrodes and Euscelis species, which
beetle, lily beetle. transmit the virus causing green petal
Leaf-cutter bee disease. Recommended contact or
leaf blister a descriptive term for These solitary bees damage leaves, but also systemic insecticides are effective,
foliage diseases caused by species of have a valuable role as pollinators, so they where control is necessary.
the fungus Taphrina, where limited should not be harmed. The damage they
infected leaf areas become swollen. cause is rarely more than superficial. leaflet one of the leaf- or blade-like
The effect is similar to, but less severe ultimate units of a compound leaf.
than, that caused by PEACH LEAF CURL found in gardens is Megachile centuncu-
(Taphrina deformans) (q.v.). T.bullata laris, which attacks the foliage of roses, leaf miners the leaf-mining larvae
causes brown blisters on pears, similar and other species cause similar injury of several different groups of insects,
to those caused by leaf blister mites; to many ornamental plants. Control including the Lepidoptera (moths),
T.caerulescens causes grey-pink blisters measures are seldom necessary. Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (flies) and
on oaks, sometimes resulting in severe Hymenoptera (some sawflies). Apple is
defoliation; T.populina causes blisters on leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadelli- attacked by some species, including the
poplars, which are bright yellow on the
underside of leaves when the fungus
is sporulating; T.sadebeckii forms yellow
dae) sap-feeding insects, mostly up to
5mm (1/4in) long, similar to froghoppers
(Cercopidae) but generally less robust,
SPOTTED TENTIFORM LEAF MINER
(Phyllonorycter species), which is a more
serious pest in North America than in
L
blisters on alder; and T.ulmi forms small and with a slender tapering body and Europe; the larvae live in raised blister-
green blisters on elm, which turn 1–3 rows of spines on part of the hind like mines. In Europe, the APPLE LEAF
brown. T.caerulescens can be damaging legs. Adults are widespread on plants in MINER (Lyonetia clerkella) is more wide-
in the US and fungicide treatment of summer, jumping, flying briefly and spread on apple, and also occurs on
the dormant buds is recommended, then resettling on leaves. Some species cherry, ornamental Prunus, hawthorn
as for peach leaf curl. Blister blight, transmit plant diseases. Typically, they and birch, but the serpentine mines
Exobasidium vexans, is an important dis- feed on the underside of leaves, mostly become numerous in late
ease of tea plants in south and south- causing small white spots to summer and autumn, when it
east Asia. Leaf blisters of various ferns appear on the upper surface. In is too late for the tree to be
are also caused by Taphrina species, but severe attacks, the spots coalesce adversely affected. Other
these are not of significance in Britain. and the whole leaf moths in Europe and North
Some gall mites cause leaf blisters on becomes chlorotic. America with leaf-mining
plants such as pear and walnut. The underside of larvae include the
infested leaves is AZALEA LEAF MINER
leaf-cutter bees (Megachile species) invariably littered (Caloptilia azaleella),
(Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) small with discarded which causes blotch
solitary bees, up to 13mm (1/2in) long, white moult-skins. coarse, mines on evergreen and
which resemble honey bees but have a In gardens, the pale some deciduous azaleas,
stouter build and are more hairy. The ROSE LEAFHOPPER spotting and the LILAC MINER
females use their mandibles to remove (Edwardsiana rosae) is (C.syringella), which causes
uniform oval or circular portions of common in both Europe Leafhopper blotch mines on lilac and
leaves to construct thimble-shaped and North America on roses damage privet; the larvae of both these
cells; these are filled with a mixture and apple; similar species attack species vacate the mines when
of pollen and nectar before an egg is hornbeam and beech hedges. The they are about half-grown to feed
deposited and the cell capped with a GLASSHOUSE LEAFHOPPER (Hauptidia within a turned-over leaf margin,
circular piece of leaf. Up to around 20 maroccana) is commonly found in green- which is held in place by silk threads.
cells are built end on end in situations houses and gardens in temperate coun- The CHRYSANTHEMUM LEAF MINER
such as tunnels made in decaying tries, attacking a wide range of plants. (Phytomyza syngenesiae) causes serpentine
wood, old brickwork or dry soil. The RHODODENDRON LEAFHOPPER mines on the leaves of chrysanthe-
Larvae feed within the cells during the (Graphocephala fennahi), common in mums, cinerarias, lettuces and some
summer and overwinter there, pupat- Europe and North America, does no other cultivated plants; the HOLLY LEAF
ing in the spring and emerging as direct damage but by depositing eggs MINER (P. ) causes blotch mines on 451
adults in early summer. Commonly in the flower buds facilitates spread of Ilex species; the columbine leaf miners
leaf miners
P.aquilegiae and P.miniscula cause blotch wire-mesh compound. Leaves decay TORTRIX (Acleris comariana) on strawberry,
and serpentine mines respectively on more slowly than mixed garden waste, geums, potentillas and azaleas; the LEAF
Aquilegia species; and the TOMATO LEAF but with turning a suitable leafmould TIER (Cnephasia longana) on chrysanthe-
MINER (Liriomyza solani) is responsible should be available for use after 18 mums, irises, strawberry, fruit trees,
for serpentine mines on the leaves of months. Oak, beech and hornbeam shrubs, the new growth of conifers and
tomatoes. Other Liriomyza species also yield the best quality leafmould. Thick various vegetables; and the STRAWBERRY
attack chrysanthemums, peas and other leaves, such as sycamore and horse LEAF ROLLER (Ancylis comptana) on straw-
vegetables in both Europe and North chestnut, take longer to decay, and berry, potentillas, thymes and Dryas
America. The CELERY FLY (Euleia hard leaves, such as holly and laurel, octopetala. In Europe, the carnation
heraclei), a serious pest of celery in are best mixed with general plant waste tortrix (Cacoecimorpha pronubana) and the
Europe, has larvae that live in commu- for composting. Pine needles decay light-briwn apple moth (Epiphyas postvit-
nal blotch mines, which subsequently over a long period to produce a useful tana) attack a wide range of ornamental
become desiccated, brown and papery, medium for acid-loving plants. plants in gardens and greenhouses.
giving the foliage a scorched appear- Several adult weevils roll one or both
ance. In Europe, the larvae of the leaf mould (Fulvia fulva) a serious sides of a leaf to form a tube in which
CARNATION FLY (Delia cardui) cause worldwide disease of tomato plants the larvae live and feed; they include the
extensive mining of carnations, pinks grown under conditions of high HAZEL LEAF ROLLER WEEVIL (Byctiscus
and sweet williams. The larvae of the humidity; it is rare on outdoor plants. betulae) on hazel, birch and other decidu-
BEET LEAF MINER (Pegomya hyoscyami), Pale yellow patches appear on the upper ous trees, and the POPLAR LEAF ROLLER
common to both continents, cause surface of older leaves as a result of vel- (B.populi) on poplars and aspens. The
blotch mines on beetroot, spinach vety green-grey fungal growth produced leaf-rolling habit also occurs among gall
beet and related plants. on the undersides. The disease spreads midges: the orange larvae of the VIOLET
Light infestations of leaf miners up the plant and affected leaves GALL MIDGE (Dasineura affinis) live in the
L can be controlled by hand-picking and

destroying affected leaves; once larvae
become established in mines, they are
progressively turn brown and shrivel;
flowers and fruit may also be infected.
Plant vigour and yield can be seriously
upward-rolled, swollen leaves of violets,
and the white larvae of the PEAR LEAF
MIDGE (D.pyri) infest the upward-rolled
not easily killed by spraying, although affected, and the fungus can carry over margins of pear leaves. One common
systemic insecticides have proved from one crop to the next as spores or European sawfly, the LEAF-ROLLING
effective against several species. fruiting bodies on debris or seed. ROSE SAWFLY (Blennocampa phyllocolpa),
Many cultivars of tomato have resis- causes a tight downward roll of both
tance to leaf mould, although different leaf margins of roses. Hand-picking and
races of the fungus may overcome crushing the larvae is usually an effec-
resistance. Preventative measures tive control measure control, as is burn-
include close attention to ventilation, ing affected leaves. Some gall mites are
aiming to keep the greenhouse relative associated with leaf rolling on plants
humidity level below 85%. Avoidance such as beech and lime trees. See gall
of prolonged wetness of foliage is also mites, tortrix moths.
beneficial. Weekly sprays of a recom-
mended fungicide will check the spread leaf scar scar tissue on a shoot
of leaf mould. All infected plant debris indicating the site of leaf abscission.
should be removed and empty green-
houses disinfected by burning sulphur. leaf scorch see scorch.
Planting corm in leafmould
Well-rotted fallen leaves make a fine, leaf rollers the larvae of several leafsoil a soil containing a high
humus-rich soil improver that suits wood- groups of insects, and some mites, are proportion of leafmould.
land plants such as cyclamen very well. associated with partial or complete leaf
rolling. The rolling may be tight or loose, leaf spot spots on plants usually
leafmould the residue of decayed and directed downwards or upwards, but caused by fungal pathogens, affecting
leaves, which forms a dark brown, fri- damage is always unsightly and reduces a range of plants, particularly when the
able material, rich in humus but low the normal functions of affected leaves. foliage is ageing. Leaf spots can be con-
in nutrients. It is valuable as a soil The larvae of tortricid moths typi- spicuous and unsightly on ornamentals,
improver and surface mulch; also as a cally feed within a rolled or folded-over but the majority cause only slight
compost ingredient, for which it was portion of a leaf, which is held in place damage in garden plants. However, leaf-
formerly widely used until superseded by silk strands. Common in Europe and spot diseases of crops, such as banana
by peat but it remains a candidate North America are the FRUIT TREE TOR- and celery, can seriously reduce yield.
alternative. Leafmould occurs naturally TRIX MOTH (Archips podana), which attacks Typical leaf spots are scattered ran-
in woodland, and can be prepared by various deciduous trees and shrubs, domly and have definite edges, often
452 collecting fallen leaves and depositing conifers, and especially apple, raspberry with darker margins. On net-veined
them in a compost bin or small and blackberry; the STRAWBERRY leaves, they are usually circular, while on
Ledum
leaves with parallel veins, they are elon- blindess, absence of flower buds, and fas- are T.oleracea and the spotted crane fly
gated along the direction of the veins. ciation. Susceptible plants include carna- (Nephrotoma maculata).
The dead centres of spots are often tions, chrysanthemums, Dahlia, Gladiolus, To reduce leatherjackets on lawns,
lighter in colour and may show the Heuchera, nasturtiums, Pelargonium, Petunia, attract them to the surface in the
spore-bearing structures. Some leaf-spot Phlox, Schizanthus, sweetpeas, sweet manner described above and then
fungi, such as Alternaria and Cercospora, williams and Verbascum. When associated remove by hand-picking. Soil insecti-
have spores which are dispersed in dry with the eelworms Aphelenchoides ritzema- cides are more effective if used in late
conditions, but the majority, including bosi or A.fragariae, the bacterium causes autumn when the larvae are young,
Ascochyta and Septoria, have sticky spores cauliflower disease of strawberry, a subject to local pesticide approvals.
that are adapted to spread in water. severe stunting and swelling of the leaf An alternative treatment is to apply
Leaf spots may also be caused by and flower stalks, but the condition is the pathogenic nematode Steinernema
bacterial pathogens (see bacterial leaf very uncommon. Leafy gall is not usually feltiae in late summer or early autumn,
spot), and some virus diseases produce serious but affected plants should be when the soil is moist and at least
(usually) chlorotic spots. Air pollution, destroyed and contaminated land kept 12°C/54°F.
pesticide injury, nutrient or water defi- free of susceptible plants.
ciency, pest attack and physical damage Ledebouria (for Carl Friedrich von
by hail, can all produce leaf spots. lean used loosely to denote soil that is Ledebour (1785–1851), German
As many fungal leaf-spot diseases are free-draining and low in organic matter botanist). Liliaceae (Hyacinthaceae).
spread by spores produced on the spots, and nutrients. South Africa. Some 16 species, bul-
a degree of control can be obtained by bous, perennial herbs with thinly fleshy,
picking off affected leaves as soon as lean-to a greenhouse or conservatory narrowly lanceolate leaves, often
symptoms appear and destroying fallen with a single pitch roof, usually built striped or spotted red or green. They
ones. Avoiding overhead watering and against a wall and often used to accom- produce spikes of small, bell-shaped
the handling of plants when they are
wet are other practical means of con-
trol. Chemical control with copper-
modate trained fruits. Lean-tos are usu-
ally economic to heat and, if well sited,
readily trap solar heat. See greenhouse.
flowers with recurved perianth seg-
ments. Grow in full sun with low
humidity, good ventilation and a mini-
L
based and other fungicides can be mum temperature of 7°C/45°F. Pot
effective, subject to local pesticide leatherjackets (Diptera: Tipulidae) in pans containing a gritty, loam-based
approvals, and celery leaf spot can larvae of the large, fragile, spindly- medium and with the bulbs for the
be controlled by seed treatment. legged daddy-long-legs, or crane flies. most part exposed. Water moderately
See anthracnose, black spot, chocolate spot. The legless, grey-brown larvae are up to in spring and summer, very sparingly
45mm (13/4in) long, with leathery skins in winter. These bulbs associate well
leaf trace a vascular bundle and inconspicuous heads. Adult females with succulents and cacti. Propagate
supplying a leaf. lay up to 300 eggs, singly or in clusters by offsets.
depending upon species, just below the L.cooperi (syn. Scilla cooperi; leaves to
leaf weevils (Phyllobius species) soil surface in grassland, including lawns, 25cm (10in), somewhat fleshy, oblong
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) small or in cereal crops, where the resulting to ovate or linear, sometimes striped
weevils, up to 10mm (1/2in) long, dark larvae feed upon roots. brown; flowers pale purple some-
brown to black and covered with dense Leatherjackets can be serious times with green keels); L.socialis
scales which often appear metallic gold lawn pests, causing brown patches (syn. Scilla socialis; leaves to 10cm
or green-bronze. Mostly present in usually in midsummer, but earlier (4in), slightly fleshy, lanceolate,
early summer, the adults bite small holes following a mild winter; their pres- pearly grey-green with some dark
in leaves and occasionally the blossom ence can be confirmed by soaking green blotches above, green or
of trees and shrubs, including top fruits, the area with water and covering it deep pink-purple beneath; flowers
birch, lime, flowering cherry, crab with black polythene, under which pale purple with green keels).
apples, poplars and mountain ash. The they will emerge within 24 hours.
larvae live in the soil and feed on roots Affected lawns may be further dam- Ledum (from Greek ledon,
without causing significant damage. aged by birds searching for leather- mastic, a name used for Cistus).
The principal species are the BROWN jackets. The underground portions Ericaceae. Northern temperate
LEAF WEEVIL (Phyllobius oblongus), the of plants such as young brassicas, regions. 3–4 species of erect or
SILVER-GREEN LEAF WEEVIL (P.argentatus) lettuces, strawberries and various diffuse evergreen shrubs with
and the COMMON LEAF WEEVIL (P.pyri). ornamentals, may be damaged Leatherjacket aromatic foliage and small, white,
Control is seldom necessary but can by leatherjackets, especially in 5-petalled flowers in umbel-like
be achieved by spraying with a newly cultivated gardens. corymbs in spring and summer. Fully
recommended contact insecticide. One of the most injurious species is hardy and suited to the bog or damp
Tipula paludosa, a native of Europe but woodland garden in shade or semi-shade
leafy gall (Corynebacterium fascians) a also established in North America, and to moist, humus-rich, acid soils.
bacterial disease causing leafy galls particularly in British Columbia and Propagate by semi-ripe cuttings in a 453
around the collar of infected plants, Washington. Other common species closed case with bottom heat, by simple
Ledum
layering or by seed. L.groenlandicum distinct bulb. Wild relatives occur in outside during the winter until late
(LABRADOR TEA; northern North Amer- the eastern Mediterranean region and spring. Cultivars with short, thick stems
ica, Greenland; 0.5–2m (11/2–61/2ft); into western and southern Russia. are known as pot leeks and are of
leaves 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in), linear to oblong, The leek is adapted to a temperate particular interest to exhibitors.
revolute, dark green and somewhat hir- climate and is more cold-tolerant than Possible problems: eelworm, onion
sute above, rusty-woolly beneath; flowers the onion, although it also is vernalized fly; rust, white rot.
white in clusters to 5cm (2in) in by low temperature and consequently
diameter; ‘Compactum’: dwarf). bolts to become unusable. Cool condi-
tions favour growth, and day tempera-
Leea (for James Lee (1715–1795), tures greater than 24°C/75°F may
London nurseryman). Leeaceae. Old reduce yields.
World tropics. 34 species, shrubs and Leeks are mostly grown as a hardy
small trees with simple or 1–3-pinnate winter vegetable but they can be
leaves, small flowers in umbels and harvested from late summer until late
berry-like fruit. Provide bright filtered spring; they are used as a cooked veg-
light or shade from direct sun in high etable and in soups. They grow best
summer, and grow in a high-fertility in a deep soil worked with well-rotted
loam-based medium. Maintain high organic manure and with a pH of
humidity, water plentifully, and feed 6.5–7.5. Germination is optimum at Heeling in leeks
fortnightly with a dilute liquid feed soil temperatures of 11–23°C/52–73°F, Leeks are hardy enough to overwinter in situ,
when in full growth; reduce water in but is drastically reduced at tempera- but if the ground they are growing in is
winter when a minimum temperature tures below 7°C/45°F and above needed, they may be lifted and heeled into
of 16°C/61°F is appropriate. Propa- 27°C/81°F. the soil in a spot that is free.
L gate by stem cuttings, air-layering.

L.amabilis (Borneo; evergreen shrub
to 2m (61/2ft); leaves 1–3-pinnate,
Earliest crops are raised in gentle
heat under protection during early
spring, either direct sown into cell
leg a short stem from which the
branches of a shrub are trained,
leaflets to 6cm (21/2in), lanceolate, modules or pricked out, and hardened as on a gooseberry bush.
sparsely toothed, lustrous bronze above off before planting. Early outdoor sow-
with a broad white central stripe, claret ings can be made under cloches or in legume (1) the one-celled seed pod of
beneath with a translucent, central, unprotected seedbeds from March to plants of the pea family Leguminosae;
green stripe; includes ‘Splendens’, the early May, in drills approximately 2cm (2) more generally, used to describe
whole of which is flushed dark bronze- (3/4in) deep. Plant out seedlings when any plant of that family, especially peas
red); L.guineensis (WEST INDIAN HOLLY; 10–15 weeks old and about 20cm (8in) and beans. Leguminous plants support
Burma; evergreen shrub to 2m (61/2ft); tall, in rows 30cm (12in) apart, with nitrogen-fixing bacteria that give rise
leaves 2–3 pinnate, leaflets 5–10cm 15cm (6in) between plants. Higher- to root nodules, thus harnessing atmos-
(2–4in), elliptic to obovate, revolute, density plantings will give similar yields pheric nitrogen for the benefit of
sometimes toothed; flowers pink). of small, more slender leeks. Seed can the host.
be sown in situ but weed control is
more difficult and the plants are likely Lemboglossum (from Greek lembos,
to have a reduced portion of blanched boat or canoe, and glossa, tongue, refer-
stem. Leaves and roots can be trimmed ring to the boat-shaped lip). Orchi-
slightly to facilitate planting, with some daceae. C America, Mexico. Some 14
loss of yield. species, evergreen, epiphytic perennials
The length of blanched leaf base formerly included in Odontoglossum
is influenced by cultivar and planting Showy flowers are borne in racemes or
method. The simplest procedure is to panicles at various times of year. Pro-
drop individual plants into 15cm (6in)- vide cool to intermediate conditions
deep holes made with a dibber, and (minimum temperature 10°C/50°F),
water immediately. The holes will in light shade with humid, buoyant air.
gradually fill up as the season pro- Water frequently when in growth, less
Planting leeks gresses, increasing the proportion of so at other times. See also
In order to encourage a good length of leaf excluded from light. Alternatively, Odontoglossum.
blanched white stem, young leeks should be plants can be set into V-shaped drills L.bictoniense (Mexico, Guatemala, El
planted in holes to at least half their depth. 7.5cm (3in) deep which are later filled Salvador; raceme erect, to 80cm (32in),
in, or they may be established on the flowers often fragrant, tepals usually
leek (Allium porrum) a monocotyledo- flat and subsequently earthed up sev- pale green or yellow-green banded or
nous biennial with long green flat eral times during growth. Leeks should spotted red-brown, sepals to 2.5cm
454 leaves, white at the base, which form be kept well-watered and lifted as (1in), elliptic to oblanceolate, petals
a tight cylinder and normally not a required. Later cultivars can remain smaller, lip to 2cm (3/4in), subcordate,
Leschenaultia
crisped or crenulate, white to rose or Leonotis (from Greek leon, lion, and lepidote covered with tiny, scurfy,
magenta-tinted; white, golden and ous, ear, alluding to the appearance of peltate scales.
lime-green self-coloured forms occur); the hair-fringed corolla lip). Labiatae.
L.cervantesii (syn. Odontoglossum cervantesii; 1 species pantropical, the others South- Leptospermum (Greek leptos, slen-
Mexico, Guatemala; raceme 5–32cm ern Africa. LION’S EAR. 30 species, der, sperma, seed). Myrtaceae. Mostly S
(2–13in), flowers fragrant, tepals white aromatic, annual or perennial herbs Australia; 1 species common in Tasma-
to rose irregularly banded brown-red in and subshrubs with tetragonal stems, nia is widespread in New Zealand, 2
basal half, sepals to 3.5cm (11/2in), nar- toothed leaves and bearded, tubular are found in SE Asia. TI-TREE, TEA
rowly ovate to oblong, petals broader, and 2-lipped flowers in terminal whorls TREE. 79 species, evergreen shrubs or
lip white to rose, striped purple at base, from late summer to early winter. trees with smooth and flaking, fibrous
to 2.5cm (1in), lateral lobes erect, mid- L.leonurus tolerates temperatures down or papery bark, tough and sometimes
lobe broadly cordate, toothed, callus to freezing. In cool climates, it is culti- aromatic leaves and axillary flowers
yellow); L.cordatum (syn. Odontoglossum vated as a conservatory specimen or with five, rounded, speading and silken
cordatum; Mexico, Guatemala, Hon- treated as a tender biennial; plants in petals. Hardy to about –10°C/14°F
duras, Costa Rica, Venezuela; raceme their second year make striking speci- but best grown in a sunny, sheltered
or panicle to 60cm (24in), tepals yellow mens for the summer border. Grow in position on a freely draining, humus-
blotched and barred deep red-brown, full sun, in a high-fertility loam-based rich, neutral or acid soil. Where pro-
sepals to 5cm (2in), elliptic to lanceo- mix. Water pot-grown plants plentifully longed and hard frosts are common,
late, petals shorter, lip to 2.5cm (1in), when in full growth, sparingly at other grow under glass in a fertile, well-
usually white spotted red-brown, cor- times. Overwinter in bright, cool but drained but moisture-retentive erica-
date, margins slightly erose); L.rossii frost-free conditions. Cut back in early ceous medium. Water moderately
(syn. Odontoglossum rossii; Guatemala, spring. Propagate by seed sown in early when in growth, reducing as tempera-
Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua; spring under glass, or from greenwood tures and light levels fall to keep just
raceme to 20cm (8in), tepals white,
pale yellow or pale pink, the sepals
and lower portions of petals mottled
cuttings in late spring. L.leonurus (South
Africa; downy, evergreen shrub to 2m
(61/2ft); flowers to 6cm (21/2in), orange-
moist in winter with a minimum tem-
perature of 5°C/41°F. Maintain good
ventilation in winter; plunge pot-grown
L
and spotted chocolate to rust, sepals red to scarlet; includes ‘Harrismith specimens outdoors in a sunny, warm
to 4.5cm (13/4in), oblong to elliptic or White’, with white flowers). place in summer months. Propagate by
lanceolate, broader, crisped to undu- semi-ripe or softwood cuttings in
late, lip to 3cm (11/4in), rounded to Leontopodium (from Greek leon, lion, summer.
cordate, undulate, callus deep yellow and pous, foot, in reference to the shape L.lanigerum (Tasmania, S Australia,
spotted red-brown); L.stellatum (syn. of the flowerheads). Compositae. Eura- N, S and W Victoria; shrub or tree to
Odontoglossum stellatum; Mexico, sia (especially mountains), possibly also 5m (16ft); leaves 0.2–1.5cm (1/16–5/8in),
Guatemala, El Salvador; raceme to Andes. EDELWEISS. About 35 species, oblong, to narrowly oblanceolate,
8.5cm (31/4in) tepals yellow-bronze perennial herbs, usually low-growing usually grey-downy; flowers white,
barred brown, to 3cm (11/4in), linear and forming clumps of narrow, grey- 1.5cm (5/8in) in diameter; ‘Silver Sheen’:
to lanceolate, petals sometimes yellow- hairy leaves. In spring and summer, they leaves silver-grey, later flowering than
white, lip white or pink marked mauve, produce erect, slender-stalked cymes of L.lanigerum, i.e. summer, not spring,
to 2cm (3/4in), ovate to triangular or felty, button-like flowerheads surrounded hardy in zone 7, probably attributable
suborbicular, lacerate to dentate). by a star-shaped arrangement of lanceo- to L.myrtifolium); L.scoparium (MANUKA,
late, usually white-woolly bracts. Hardy TEA TREE; N, S and W Victoria, Tas-
lemma the lower and stouter of the alpines, suitable for the rock garden, mania, New Zealand; shrub 2–4m
two glumes that immediately enclose trough and raised bed. Grow in full sun (61/2–13ft); leaves 0.7–2cm (1/4–3/4in),
the floret in most Gramineae; also in any gritty, perfectly drained, not too elliptic, or broadly lanceolate or
referred to as the flowering glume. fertile, circumneutral or alkaline soil; in oblanceolate, often silvery-hairy at first;
areas with damp winters, provide shelter flowers white or, rarely, pink or red,
lenticel an elliptical and raised cellu- from wet and winds. Propagate by seed 0.8–1.2cm (3/8–1/2in) in diameter;
lar pore on the surface of bark, or the sown fresh or by division. numerous cultivars are grown with
suberous tissue of fruit, through which L.alpinum (EDELWEISS; mountains of single or double flowers in shades of
gases can penetrate. Europe; loosely mat-forming perennial; white, cream, pink, rose, red or cerise;
inflorescence stalks to 20cm (8in) tall, these vary in habit from dwarf and
lenticellate possessing lenticels. crowned with an irregular star of bushy to tall and spire-like, and from
spreading, linear-oblong, densely white- tender to frost-hardy, with foliage rang-
lenticular, lenticulate lens-shaped; woolly bracts, the whole to 10cm (4in) ing in shape from needle-like to broad
almost flattened and elliptical, but with diam.); L.stracheyi (Himalaya; inflores- and glossy, and in colour from darkest
both sides convex. cence stalks to 50cm (20in) tall, crowned blood red to emerald green).
with one or two irregular stars to 6.5cm
lentiginous minutely dotted, as if (21/2in) in diameter, with many, grey- Leschenaultia (for Leschenault de 455
with dust. hairy, or green and glandular bracts). la Tour, botanist of the voyage of
Leschenaultia
discovery under Captain Nicolas dense heart and more usable outer
Baudin in 1802). Goodeniaceae. Aus- leaves. Butterhead and crisphead culti-
tralia. Some 24 species, herbs, sub- vars may be referred to as cabbage let-
shrubs or shrubs with a heath-like habit tuce. A third type of hearting lettuce is
and linear leaves. Produced in small the COS lettuce with upright, long thick
clusters in spring and summer, the leaves usually forming a loose heart
flowers consist of a short tube and five, and taking longer to mature than the
erect or spreading lobes, often winged cabbage types. Some cultivars are
and with 2-lobed tips. Grow in full described as semi-cos, producing com-
light but with some protection from the pact, crunchy hearts of sweet flavour.
strongest summer sun, in an acid, soil- Non-hearting lettuces are mainly
less mix low in phosphates and nitrates. the so-called SALAD BOWL types, which
A topdressing of grit or gravel is bene- form a rosette of leaves suitable for
ficial in pots or in the open garden. picking individually; alternatively, the
Water carefully and moderately in head may be cut for use, with re-
growth, sparingly at other times. Main- Varieties of lettuce sprouting usually occurring from the
tain good ventilation and a winter min- Lettuces may by hearting (foreground), and stump. These cultivars are the least
imum of 7–10°C/45–50°F. Trim after harvested whole, or non-hearting, forming prone to bolting, and include highly
flowering. Propagate by seed, or by a loose rosette of leaves to pick individually. decorative sorts with deeply indented
greenwood or semi-ripe cuttings in or frilly leaves, which may be in various
sand, in a closed case with gentle lettuce (Lactuca sativa) A cultigen shades of green or red according to
bottom heat. L.floribunda (W Australia; possibly derived from Lactuca serriola, it cultivar. CUT-AND-COME-AGAIN cultivars
shrubby erect, annual to 1m (31/4ft); originated in the region encompassing are sometimes referred to separately
L flowers to 1.6cm (5/8in) blue or white).
lesion a defined area of diseased

Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, Iran and
Turkestan. It was first used as a medici-
nal plant and treated as a food plant as
in the non-hearting category. They
include old European, loose-leaf types
which may be smooth or curly leaved.
tissue such as is caused by a leaf spot early as 4500 BC. Headed types did not It is possible to modify the growth
or canker. appear until the 16th-century. Lettuce habit of lettuce by planting it at high
is widely cultivated in both temperate density to encourage the formation of
Lespedeza (for Vincente Manuel and tropical regions as an annual salad leaves and inhibit head formation. The
de Cespedes, the Spanish governor vegetable; in cooler regions, it is impor- leaves can then be cut 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in)
of eastern Florida during the late tant as a greenhouse crop. It is success- above soil level; the remaining stumps
18th century at the time of the botanist fully grown where mean temperature will produce a second crop that will be
Michaux’s travels in that region; the is in the range of 10–20°C/50–68°F; ready to harvest between 4 and 7
name of the governor was rendered higher temperatures prevent heading, weeks later. Cos lettuce are best suited
Lespedez in Michaux’s Flora). Legumi- cause bolting and also produce a bitter for leaf production.
nosae. E US, E and tropical Asia, Aus- leaf flavour. Lettuce may be sown direct, or in
tralia. BUSH CLOVER. Some 40 species, The ideal site is an open area with seed trays or cell modules under pro-
shrubs or herbs with tri-foliolate leaves light, well-drained and fertile soil of tection for subsequent transplanting.
and pea-like flowers in racemes, axil- around 6.0 pH. The range of cultivars They do not establish well in hot
lary fascicles or panicles in summer. enables lettuce to be produced in the weather so summer raisings are best
Cultivate as for Indigofera. open throughout most of the year, and direct-sown. Seed should be sown in
L.bicolor (EZO-YAMA-HAGI; E Asia, some are hardy enough to overwinter drills 2cm (3/4in) deep at two-week
naturalized E US; to 3m (10ft), woody- unprotected in mild areas. Cultivars intervals for continuity of supply.
based perennial; flowers 1–12cm can be divided into hearting and non- Sowing may take place from early
(1/2–43/4in), purple-rose or rose-violet, hearting groups. Hearting types spring until autumn, but germination,
loosely packed in axillary racemes or include BUTTERHEADS (LOOSEHEADS in particularly of the butterhead types, is
terminal clusters, includes ‘Yakushima’, US), which have soft-textured, flat often erratic when soil temperatures
dwarf, to 30cm (12in) tall, with small leaves forming a dense firm head, and are greater than 25°C/77°F. Watering
leaves and flowers); L.thunbergii CRISPHEADS, which are usually larger, will reduce the soil temperature and
(MIYAGINO-HAGL; Japan, China; peren- later maturing, with less tendency to improve germination; other helpful
nial herb or subshrub, 1–2m (31/4–61/2ft); bolt, and crisp-textured, wrinkled devices include covering the seedbed
flowers to 2cm (3/4in), rose-purple, in leaves. The term ‘Iceberg’ lettuce refers with a reflective white material after
numerous pendulous racemes to 15cm to crisphead cultivars producing large sowing, or sowing after the heat of
(6in) grouped in terminal panicles to heads, from which the outer leaves are daytime has passed. Except during
80cm (32in); includes ‘Alba’, with white removed after harvest to leave the mid-summer, thinnings from direct
flowers, and ‘Summer Beauty’, of white solid hearts, which have good sowings can be used to provide a fur-
456 spreading habit, to 1.6m (51/2ft) tall, keeping quality. ‘Webbs’ lettuce refers ther crop, which will mature approxi-
with long-lasting flowers). to some crisphead cultivars with a less mately 10 days later.
Leucanthemum
Later crops will benefit from protec- develop from the base to produce red fading to golden yellow, smooth,
tion under cloches during the autumn; edible shoots. In temperate areas, seeds glossy; foliage used in floristry).
for a protected winter crop, autumn may be sown early in the year under
sowings can either be made in the greenhouse conditions, at temperatures Leucanthemella (diminutive of
open or under glass for transplanting ranging from 20–25°C/68–77°F; Greek leukos, white, and anthemon,
to unheated frames or greenhouses. seedlings are transferred to 25–30cm flower). Compositae. SE Europe, E
Cold-hardy cultivars can be overwin- (10–12in) pots when 10–15cm (4–6in) Asia. 2 species, perennial herbs with
tered outdoors to provide an early crop high. The first leaves may be harvested branched stems and daisy-like flower-
during late spring; these should be about 60 days from sowing or planting. heads in summer. Cultivate as for
sown in situ during late summer and The term Indian lettuce is also used as Tanacetum. L.serotina (SE Europe; to
thinned to approximately 8cm (3in) the popular name for Montia perfoliata 1.5m (5ft), branched above; leaves to
apart in the autumn. A final thinning (winter purslane), which is grown as a 12cm (43/4in), lanceolate to oblong, base
should be done when growth recom- salad crop. 2–4-lobed, toothed; ray florets white or
mences in spring to leave 30cm (12in) STEM LETTUCE (CELTUCE, ASPARA- red; includes ‘Herbstern’, with clear
between plants. Overwintered crops GUS LETTUCE, CHINESE LETTUCE) (Lac- white ray florets and tinted yellow disc
benefit from a topdressing of nitrogen tuca sativa var. asparagina) is widely florets).
fertilizer during early spring. grown in its native China, and culti-
Spacing of lettuce plants varies vated in tropical southeast Asia. It is Leucanthemopsis (from Leucanthe-
according to cultivar, but for general a non-heading form of lettuce whose mum, and Greek opsis, appearance).
guidance, standard butterheads can be immature stems and leaves are used as Compositae. European mountains and
grown at 25cm (10in) spacings in rows a cooked vegetable. The mature leaves N Africa. 6 species of dwarf, tufted
30cm (12in) apart; crispheads 30–38 are large, coarse and inedible and the perennials with pinnately lobed or dis-
(12–15in) x 38cm (15in) apart; and cos thickened stems may grow to 1m (31/4ft) sected leaves and daisy-like flower-
and ‘salad-bowl’ types 35 x 35cm (14 x
14in) apart. ‘Cut-and-come-again’
types may be spaced as close as 2.5cm
high. In temperate climates, the crop
can be grown under greenhouse condi-
tions, with a temperature range of
heads. Hardy in zone 7. Grow in sun
on a free-draining soil. Protect from
cold, wet conditions. Increase by stem
L
(1in), in rows 12cm (43/4in) apart. 20–25°C/68–77°F, or outdoors in tip cuttings or seed. L.alpina (Europe;
For heading lettuce, the time from warm sheltered sites. Seeds may be tufted or mat-forming to 15cm (6in);
planting to maturity varies from 60–80 sown early in the year and seedlings leaves to 4cm (11/2in), ovate to spathu-
days during the summer to 90–145 transferred to 25–30cm (10–12in) pots, late, crenate to pinnatifid or palmatifid,
days during the cooler period of the or spaced 30–35cm (12–14in) apart in grey-hairy or glabrous; flowerheads to
year. Plants should be kept well- the border, when at the 3–4-leaf stage. 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, ray florets
watered, particularly during the later Harvest at 3–4 months, when the stems white, sometimes becoming pink, disc
stages of growth. are 2.5cm (1in) in diameter and the florets orange-yellow; includes subsp.
INDIAN LETTUCE (Lactuca indica) is an plants 30cm (12in) high. Possible prob- tomentosa, dwarf, tomentose).
erect perennial up to 1.3m (41/4ft), lems: aphids, root aphids, cutworms,
grown for its edible leaves; it is of Chi- leatherjackets, slugs and snails; downy Leucanthemum (from Greek leukos,
nese origin but now grown in India, mildew, grey mould, virus; tipburn. white, and anthemon, flower). Composi-
Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines tae. Europe, N Asia. About 25 species,
and Japan. In warm climates, seeds are Leucadendron (from Greek leukos, annual or perennial herbs with daisy-
sown in nursery beds or containers and white, and dendron, tree, alluding to the like flowerheads in summer. The hardy
transplanted at 30 x 30cm (12 x 12in) best-known species, L.argenteum, the border perennials grouped under L. x
spacings. Propagation by root cuttings silver tree). Proteaceae. South Africa. superbum are greatly valued for the pro-
is possible and axillary buds may Some 80 species, shrubs or trees with fusion of blooms carried over long
tough foliage and cone-like, terminal periods in summer; they are good for
inflorescences surrounded by showy, cutting. Grow in full sun, on moder-
leaf-like bracts. Cultivate as for Protea. ately fertile, well-drained and moisture-
L.argenteum (SILVER TREE; tree to 10m retentive soils; division of clumps every
(33ft); leaves to 15cm (6in), lanceolate second or third year will maintain
with adpressed brilliant silvery hairs; flower quality, although a number of
inflorescence 12–20cm (43/4–8in) in the cultivars are easily raised from seed
diameter, bracts silver-grey, downy and flower abundantly in their first
without, shining within); L. ‘Safari year.
Sunset’ (L.salignum x L.laureolum; vigor- L. x superbum (L.maximum x L.lacustre;
ous shrub to 2.5m (8ft); leaves to 9cm SHASTA DAISY; garden origin; perennial
Cut-and-come-again lettuce (31/2in), deep green, flushed red particu- erect to 1m (31/4ft)+; flowerheads to
Salad bowl type and other recommended loose larly towards branch tips; inflorescence 10cm (4in) in diameter, ray florets pure
leaved lettuces sprout from a cut stump, and 10–20cm (4–8in) in diameter, bracts white, disc florets yellow; over 50 culti- 457
may yield several harvests from one sowing. light copper red becoming deep wine vars, mostly white; the original single
Leucanthemum
flowers are now mostly superseded by alpine house and rock garden, with L.roseum is also suited to cultivation in
fringed, semi-double and double culti- densely silver-white woolly foliage, and the alpine house or bulb frame, where
vars; notable single-flowered cultivars each flowerhead surrounded by a ray its delicate beauty can be appreciated
include the old ‘Phyllis Smith’ and the of white felted bracts. They suffer in at close quarters, and where its require-
feathery ‘Bishopstone’; notable semi- cold, wet conditions, but may survive ments for hot, dry dormancy during
doubles include ‘Aglaia’ and the 90cm outdoors in protected locations in cli- summer and protection from winter
(36in) ‘Esther Read’; anemone-centred mate zone 8. Plant in crevices in the wet will be more easily met. Propagate
doubles include ‘Wirral Supreme’ and rock garden on a lean, gritty and mois- by division in spring or autumn, after
‘T.E. Killin’; fully double flowers ture-retentive medium, in bright light flowering, alternatively by seed sown
include ‘Cobham Gold’, with yellow but with shade from hot sun. In the when ripe.
central florets, and the tall, to 100cm alpine house, grow in well-crocked pots L.aestivum (SUMMER SNOWFLAKE,
(39in), ‘Fiona Coghill’ and ‘Starburst’; in a mix of equal parts loam, leaf- LODDON LILY; Eurasia; scape to 60cm
dwarf cultivars include ‘Powis Castle’ mould and coarse sand. Keep in cool (24in), flowers produced in spring, 2–7
and the 45cm (18in) ‘Little Silver and well-ventilated conditions, avoiding per scape, faintly chocolate-scented,
Princess’); L.vulgare (OXEYE DAISY, hot sun. Water plentifully and carefully perianth segments broadly oblong, to
MOON DAISY, MARGUERITE; temperate when in growth; keep only just moist in 2cm (3/4in), white, marked green just
Europe and Asia; perennial herb; to winter. Repot as growth recommences below apex); L.autumnale (SW Europe,
1m (31/4ft), simple or branched; flower- in spring. Propagate by softwood cut- N Africa; scape slender, green- to red-
heads 2.5–9cm (1–31/2in) in diameter, tings in moist sand in early summer, or brown, usually about 15cm (6in), flow-
solitary or clustered, ray florets white, from fresh seed sown ripe. ers produced in late summer and
occasionally short or absent, disc florets L.grandiceps (SOUTH ISLAND EDEL- autumn, 1–4 per scape, perianth seg-
yellow; includes ‘Hofenkröne’, erect to WEISS; leaves to 10 x 4cm (4 x 11/2in), ments oblong, 1cm (1/2in), crystalline
60cm (24in), with ‘double’, white flow- obovate to cuneate, blunt, tomentose; white, often flushed pink at base);
L erheads, and ‘Hullavington’, with stem

and leaves blotched yellow).
flowerheads subtended by a collar of
some 15, silvery-white tomentose
leaves); L.leontopodium (NORTH ISLAND
L.nicaeense (S France; scape to 15cm
(6in), usually less, flowers 1–3 per
scape, produced in spring, perianth
Leucocoryne (from Greek leukos, EDELWEISS; leaves to 2 x 0.5cm (3/4 x segments oblanceolate, to 12mm (1/2in),
1
white, and koryne, club, referring to the /4in), linear to oblong, acute, silver- white, spreading); L.roseum (Corsica,
white staminodes). Liliaceae (Alliaceae). white- to yellow-tomentose; flower- Sardinia; scape to 15cm (6in), flowers 1
Chile. 12 species, bulbous perennial heads subtended by a collar of some per scape produced in late summer and
herbs, many with the characteristic 20, white leaves). autumn, perianth segments oblanceo-
smell of garlic. The grass-like leaves late, to 1cm (1/2in), pale pink, darker
often wither before flowering. Funnel- Leucojum (from Greek leukos, white, along median line); L.trichophyllum (S
shaped flowers with six segments are and ion, violet, a name first applied by Portugal, SW Spain, Morocco; scape
carried in scapose umbels in spring and Theophrastus to Matthiola and a white- slender, to 25cm (10in), flowers 2–4 per
early summer. Grow in direct sun, in a flowered bulbous plant). Amarylli- scape produced in winter and spring,
medium-fertility loam-based mix con- daceae. W Europe to Middle East, N perianth segments oblanceolate to
taining plentiful sharp sand. Provide Africa. SNOWFLAKE. About 10 species, oblong, white or flushed pink to
a minimum winter temperature of bulbous perennials, resembling and purple); L.vernum (SPRING-SNOWFLAKE;
5°C/41°F. Water sparingly in spring related to Galanthus. In autumn or France to east central Europe, natural-
when growth resumes. After flowering spring, they bear clusters of nodding, ized Great Britain; scape stout, to
impose a dry rest period. Propagate bell-shaped flowers on slender scapes. 20cm (8in), deep green, flowers 1(–2)
from seed sown when ripe, or under The following are fully hardy. L.vernum per scape, appearing in late winter,
glass in spring. Alternatively, increase and L.aestivum are suited to naturalizing perianth segments broadly oblong, to
by offsets. L.ixioides (GLORY OF THE SUN; in damp rough grass, or for growing in 2cm (3/4in), white, variably marked
to 45cm (18in); flowers fragrant, tepals damp pockets in the rock garden; the green or yellow just below apex).
to 1.5cm (5/8in), free portions white or latter thrives in moist, rich, heavy soils,
deeply edged lilac to violet-blue, tube especially by ponds or streams, and Leucophyta (from Greek leukos,
white, stamens and staminodes yellow- tolerates waterlogged conditions. Grow white, and phyton, plant). Compositae.
white). in partial shade, or in sun where soils Australia. 18 species, annual and
remain permanently moist. L.autumnale perennial herbs and small evergreen
Leucogenes (from Greek leukos, is suitable for the sunny border front, shrubs, usually densely covered in
white, and genea, race). Compositae. path edging and for warm sunny loca- white wool, with entire leaves and flo-
New Zealand. 2–3 species, woody- tions on the rock garden; it is one of rets packed in small, globose heads. In
based, tomentose perennial herbs with the least demanding of the smaller cool temperate gardens, Leucophyta is
dense, overlapping leaves and button- species for growing in the open, given a often damaged or killed by cold, wet
like flowerheads in a dense cluster, sub- well-drained sandy soil. Although winters. For this reason, it tends to be
458 tended by a collar of leaves. Both sometimes grown in the open in warm seen in the form of young, rather
species are extremely desirable for the and perfectly drained situations, sparse plants, used for silver effects in
Lewisia
bedding, baskets and patio pots and S America, Himalaya, E Asia, Mada- veyor’s level. Levelling land is a
repropagated annually. In milder cli- gascar. Some 44 species, deciduous or demanding operation which should
mates or in very sheltered positions in evergreen shrubs with leathery leaves only be undertaken where essential for
zone 8, it will survive, forming broad, and small, white, tubular to ovoid flow- the siting of an amenity, and where the
impenetrable hummocks; these thrive ers in terminal or axillary racemes or slope cannot be exploited as a design
in gravelly, dry places, and are able to panicles in spring. Hardy in climate feature. Terracing is a compromise
withstand severe buffetings and salt zone 6, Leucothoë is suitable for the peat option in some situations, but if the
spray. Plant in a very free-draining soil terrace, for open situations in the gradient is steep expensive retaining
in full sun. Propagate by semi-ripe cut- woodland garden and other naturalistic walls will be required.
tings in late summer, and overwinter areas, and for moist sites in the rock Much of the levelling necessary
in a cool, well-ventilated greenhouse. garden. L.keiskei makes attractive in the course of gardening can be
Plant out after frosts have passed. groundcover, and is also amenable to assessed and verified by eye, but there
L.brownii (shrublet to 50 x 80cm (20 x pot cultivation in the alpine house. may sometimes be a need to use level-
32in); branches wiry and intricate, Grow in dappled shade in moist, ling devices. On sites where the varia-
clothed with scale-like leaves and in sil- humus-rich, lime-free soils, and mulch tion is only slight, a spirit level, wooden
very white to grey scurf; flowerheads annually with leafmould. Prune when pegs and a long plank are sufficient.
resembling silver buttons). necessary to restrict growth after flow- The pegs are driven in progressively
ering, cutting out old and weak growth across the plot to such depths as allow
at ground level. Propagate by semi-ripe the bridging plank to lie dead level,
cuttings during late summer in a closed when checked with a spirit level. When
case with bottom heat. Alternatively, all of the peg tops are in position, the
increase by division of suckering soil is moved until level with the tops or
species, or by layering. with predetermined regularly spaced
L.axillaris (SE US; evergreen shrub
about 1.5m (5ft); leaves 5–11cm
(2–41/2in), ovate to oblong, dentate in
marks on each peg.
On steeper sites, the same principle
is employed using boning rods. These
L
apical half, lustrous green, glabrous are wooden stakes, each about 90cm
above, paler and sparsely hirsute (36in) long, with a pointed end and a
beneath; ‘Compacta’: compact); short horizontal crosspiece fixed at the
Leucospermum cordifolium L.fontanesiana (DOG-HOBBLE, DROOPING top to form a T-shape. The first rod is
These South African shrubs may be grown LAUREL, SWITCH IVY; SE US; evergreen driven into the soil at the lowest point
outdoors only in areas where temperatures shrub to 2m (61/2ft); branches arching, of the slope, and the second a few feet
do not fall below 5°C (41°F). tinged red; leaves 6–16cm (21/2–6in), away and manipulated in such a way
oblong to lanceolate tapering finely, that its top is level with that of the first
Leucospermum (from Greek leukos, glabrous, ciliate, dentate, dark green, rod when checked with a bridging
white, and sperma, seed). Proteaceae. lustrous above; ‘Nana’, compact, low- plank and spirit level. More boning
South Africa, Zimbabwe. 46 species, growing; ‘Rainbow’, young growth rods can then be sighted into level posi-
small, evergreen trees or shrubs with crimson, leaf variegation pink and tions by eyeing across three horizontal
tough leaves and showy, terminal flow- cream, later white and green; this members. On the steepest gradients
erheads. These are cone-like and com- species was treated by many as trenching will be necessary to accom-
posed of tubular flowers with reflexed L.walteri); L.keiskei (Japan; evergreen modate insertion of the rods to the
segments and long, deflexed styles. Cul- shrub; branches erect or prostrate, desired level. Working datum points for
tivate as for Protea. slender, young shoots red, glabrous; soil-moving can be fixed by marking
L.catherinae (CATHERINE’S leaves 4–9cm (11/2–31/2in), narrowly the individual boning rods at equal
PINCUSHION, CATHERINE-WHEEL LEU- ovate to broadly lanceolate, apex long distances from the top.
COSPERMUM; shrub to 2.5m (8ft); inflo- and slender, margins shallowly dentate, Steps should be taken to avoid bury-
rescence to 15cm (6in) in diameter, sparsely setose beneath); L.racemosa ing topsoil and exposing subsoil. To
flowers pale orange, deepening to red- (FETTER BUSH, SWEET BELLS; E US; this end, wherever possible, temporarily
gold); L.cordifolium (syn. L.nutans; shrub deciduous shrub, 1–2.5m (31/4–8ft); remove topsoil and carry out levelling
to 2m (61/2ft); inflorescence spherical, leaves 2.5–6cm (1–21/2in), oblong to on the subsoil.
to 12cm (43/4in) in diameter, flowers ovate or elliptic, acute, shallowly
yellow, orange or crimson); L.reflexum round-toothed and finely serrate). Lewisia (for Captain Meriwether
(small erect shrub to 2m (61/2ft); inflo- Lewis (1774–1809) of the Lewis and
rescence 4.5–6cm (13/4–21/2in) in levelling (US: grading) a technique Clark expedition across America). Por-
diameter, flowers crimson). for producing level surfaces on a tulacaceae. Western N America. 19
garden site by excavating banks and species glabrous, low-growing, peren-
Leucothoë (for the daughter of ridges and filling hollows; also, a nial herbs with rosettes of thinly succu-
Orchamur, King of Babylon and method of determining heights, often lent leaves and, in spring and summer, 459
beloved of Apollo). Ericaceae. US, for the same purpose, using a sur- cymes or panicles of broadly funnel-
Lewisia
shaped flowers with five or more petals. purple-pink or white); L.tweedyi (ever- Shear over in spring for a flush of fresh
Fully hardy and suitable for the rock green; leaves 4–8cm (11/2–3in), loosely blue-green growth. Fully hardy, it
garden, scree, alpine house and frame. tufted, green, often with purple suffu- needs full sun and a sandy or gritty,
Although cold-tolerant, they will rot sion, broadly oblanceolate or obovate; free-draining soil. Remove unwanted
away in wet winter conditions and may flowers 4–7cm (11/2–23/4in) in diameter, shoots to prevent its rapid spread.
need to be grown in the alpine house pink-peach to yellow or rarely white). Increase by division or rooted offsets.
or frame. Outdoors, grow deciduous L.arenarius (syn. Elymus arenarius; BLUE
species in perfectly draining, gritty and Leycesteria (for William Leycester, LYME GRASS, BUNCH GRASS, SAND WILD
humus-rich soils on sloping sites in sun. chief justice of Bengal c1820). Caprifo- RYE, LYME GRASS, SEA LYME GRASS,
Site evergreen species in a north- or liaceae. W Himalaya to SW China. 6 EUROPEAN DUNE GRASS; N and W
northeast-facing niche, ensuring shade species, deciduous or semi-evergreen Europe, Eurasia; culms to 1.5m (5ft)
from the hottest sun, in a circumneu- suckering shrubs with erect, clumped clumped and spreading by stolons; leaf
tral or slightly acid medium; provide a stems. Five-lobed, funnelform flowers blades linear, flat, to 60 x 1.5cm (24 x
5
collar of grit at the neck, or grow in a are produced in pendent racemes in /8in), tough-textured, glaucous blue-
vertical crevice where excess moisture late spring and summer and followed grey, margins becoming rolled in dry
will not accumulate in the rosette. by berries. L.formosa tolerates urban conditions; spikes to 25cm (10in), slen-
Despite their alpine origins, Lewisia and maritime conditions, limey soils der, becoming parchment-coloured).
species need a fairly fertile soil to per- and windswept locations, and is hardy
form well and the addition of bone- to about –15°C/5°F. L.crocothyrsos will liana, liane a woody climbing vine.
meal or finely graded, well-rotted tolerate temperatures to –5°C/23°F
manure to the medium is recom- with protection from cold winds. Plant Liatris (derivation of name obscure).
mended. In the alpine house, use well- both in rich moisture-retentive soil in Compositae. N America. BUTTON
crocked pots with an open mix of sun or part shade. Sow fresh seed in SNAKE ROOT, GAY FEATHER, BLAZING
L equal parts loam, leafmould and sharp

sand; top-dress with a collar of grit.
Water moderately and carefully when
autumn in the cold frame, or store in
damp peat and sand for sowing in early
spring. Divide established clumps of
STAR, SNAKE ROOT. About 35 species,
cormous or tuberous perennial herbs
with clumped, narrow leaves and
in growth, allowing the medium to L.formosa in autumn. Propagate L.cro- many, small and feathery flowerheads
become almost dry between waterings; cothyrsos by semi-ripe cuttings of lateral arranged in erect and leafy-stemmed,
withhold water from deciduous species shoots with a heel. The hollow stems of narrowly cylindrical spikes in summer.
as they enter dormancy and keep L.formosa are liable to be cut back by Fully hardy and suited to the herba-
warm and dry. Continue watering ever- frost. It benefits anyway from being cut ceous and cut-flower border and to
greens until late summer, then reduce to the ground in spring. more informal situations. Flowering is
water to keep almost dry in winter. L.crocothyrsos (Himalaya (Assam), N prolonged by removing spent blooms at
Propagate by fresh seed sown in the Burma; to 2.5m (8ft); flowers rich the tip of the spike (they flower from
shaded cold frame. Propagate ever- yellow in whorls of 6 on arching the top down). Most species are toler-
green species also by offsets in summer; racemes to 10cm (4in); fruit translu- ant of poor dry soils in cultivation but
establish these in a shaded frame in a cent, yellow-green); L.formosa (HIMALAYA perform best on fertile, well-drained
gritty propagating mix before potting on. HONEYSUCKLE; Himalaya, W China, E and moist soils. Tubers are prone to
L.columbiana (evergreen; leaves Tibet; to 2m (61/2ft); flowers white rot in soils that are excessively wet in
2–10cm (3/4–4in), narrowly oblanceolate tinted red-purple, whorled on pendu- winter and also make a desirable food
or linear, fleshy; flowers 1–2.5cm lous racemes to 10cm (4in) with wine source for various rodents. Propagate
(1/2–1in) in diameter, off-white veined red bracts; fruit bead-like, sea-green by division or seed sown ripe in
pink to pink or deep pink-magenta); becoming maroon then purple-black, autumn.
L.cotyledon (evergreen; leaves 3–4cm ripening at different speeds giving a L.pycnostachya (BUTTON SNAKEROOT;
(11/4–11/2in), spathulate, oblanceolate or multicoloured effect). SE US; to 1.5m (5ft); flowerheads red-
obovate, slightly glaucous, fleshy; flow- purple, rarely white, crowded in very
ers 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in) in diameter, pink- Leymus (from Greek elymos, a kind of dense spikes to 30 x 3cm (12 x 11/4in));
purple with pale and dark stripes, millet). Gramineae. Northern temper- L.scariosa (SE US; to 80cm (32in); flow-
sometimes white, cream with pink- ate regions, 1 species Argentina. Some erheads purple, few to many, in spikes;
orange stripes, apricot or yellow); 40 species, rhizomatous, perennial includes ‘Alba’, with white flowerheads,
L.nevadensis (deciduous; leaves 4–15cm grasses with slender, sharply pointed, ‘Magnifica’, with very large, white
(11/2–6in), narrowly linear or linear- glaucous leaves and narrow, straw- flowerheads, ‘September Glory’, to
oblanceolate, fleshy; flowers 2–3.5cm coloured inflorescences in summer. 125cm (50in), with deep purple flow-
(3/4–11/2in) in diameter, white or rarely L.arenarius is often used as a sand- ers, and ‘White Spire’, with flowers in
pink-white); L.rediviva (BITTERROOT; binder with marram grass, Ammophila long white spikes); L.spicata (BUTTON
deciduous; leaves many, 1.5–5cm arenaria, but is valuable in gardens as SNAKEWORT; E US; to 1.5m (5ft); flow-
(5/8–2in), linear or clavate, subterete, (invasive) groundcover, especially in erheads red-purple, clustered in a
460 withered at flowering; flowers 5–7cm association with other coastal natives dense spike, to 70cm (28in); includes
(2–23/4in) in diameter, rose-pink, and blue-grey and silver-leaved plants. ‘Alba’, with white flowerheads, ‘Blue
ligulate
Bird’, with vivid mauve-blue flowers, undesirable where occurring on lawns mid stage in the conversion of peat to
‘Kabold’ (syn. ‘Goblin’), dwarf to as gelatinous patches or as dog lichens, bituminous coal. It is sometimes added
40cm (16in), with bright violet flower- and where dense colonies develop on in crushed form to potting media to
heads, and ‘Snow Queen’, to 75cm fruit trees. Control can be obtained by increase the cation exchange capacity.
(30in), with snow-white flowerheads). spraying cresylic acid on paths and tar Lignite has the physical characteristics
oil on dormant deciduous trees and of sand, and its effectiveness is influ-
Libertia (for Marie A. Libert woody shrubs; infested lawns should enced by particle size, fine grades lead-
(1782–1865), Belgian student of liver- be aerated and treated with lawn sand ing to reduced drainage and aeration.
worts). Iridaceae. Australia, temperate containing dichlorophen. All of these Problems may arise from its use, due to
S America. 20 species, rhizomatous treatments should be carried out salinity. Also known as brown coal.
perennial herbs, with grassy to sword- according to product
like leaves in basal tufts or fans and recommendations. lignotuber the swollen woody base
panicles of small, saucer-shaped flow- of some shrubs adapted to withstand
ers in summer. Hardy to –10°C/14°F. lifting (1) the removal of a plant from fire and drought.
Grow in sun or dappled shade in a the ground, prior to transplanting, divi-
moist but well-drained, slightly acid sion, or winter storage; (2) used of the Ligularia (from Latin ligula, a little
soil. In regions at the limits of its hardi- harvesting of root and tuber vegetable tongue, referring to the tongue-shaped
ness, mulch in winter with bracken crops where the use of a fork is ray florets). Compositae. Temperate
litter or other organic matter. Propa- required; (3) the heaving up of Eurasia. LEOPARD PLANT. About 180
gate by division in spring or by seed. plants out of the ground following species, perennial herbs with long-
L.grandiflora (New Zealand; differs severe frost. stalked, basal leaves and, in late
from L.ixioides in its outer perianth summer, small, button- or daisy-like
segments with an olive to bronze keel, light (1) an essential requirement of flowers in tall spikes or scapose clusters.
and inner segments to 1.5cm (5/8in));
L.ixioides (New Zealand, Chatham
Islands; leaves 20–40cm (8–16in),
green plants, providing energy for the
manufacture of organic compounds
through the process of photosynthesis.
Fully hardy, Ligularia species demand
deep, moist, fertile and humus-rich
soils in full sun or dappled shade.
L
linear, rigid; inflorescence a broad Plants vary in their need and tolerance Propagate by division.
panicle composed of umbellate 2–10- of light intensity, and growth and espe- L.dentata (syn. L.clivorum; China,
flowered clusters, outer perianth seg- cially flowering in some is influenced Japan; to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 30 x
ments white tinted brown or green, by the duration of daylight; see photope- 40cm (12 x 16in), reniform to orbicular,
inner segments to 1cm (1/2in), white); riodism, supplementary lighting; (2) a mov- deeply cordate, dentate; flowerheads
L.peregrinans (New Zealand; leaves to able glazed cover of a frame. The few to many, in broad, scapose heads,
70cm (28in), olive-bronze to dull traditional English light is multi-paned ray florets bright orange; includes
orange with red-tinted veins and mar- and usually measures 1.8 x 1.2m (6 x ‘Desdemona’, to 120cm (48in), with
gins; flowers to 2cm (3/4in), white). 4ft); the Dutch light measures approxi- purple-bronze leaves and deep orange
mately 1.4 x 0.75m (41/2 x 21/3ft) and flowerheads, ‘Othello’, to 120cm
lichen a composite organism formed is formed of one sheet of glass; (3) (48in), with rounded, long-stemmed,
from the symbiotic relationship of a describing soils containing a high pro- dark purple to maroon-black leaves
fungus and an alga, the green cells of portion of sand. Such soils are natu- and deep orange flowerheads, and
the latter establishing amongst thread- rally prone to drying out and early ‘Sommergold’, with rich gold flowers);
like growths of the fungus. Lichens exhaustion of nutrients, but have the L.przewalskii (N China; to 2m (61/2ft);
take on many forms and are advantages of being early stems dark purple; leaves to 40cm
commonly found as warming and relatively (16in) in diameter, deeply palmately
coloured crusty growths on easy to cultivate. lobed, segments lobed or toothed; flow-
rocks, stone walls, roofs, erheads yellow, many, small, in long,
tree trunks and soil. ligneous, lignose woody narrow racemes); L.stenocephala (China,
In moist rural cli- pale, in texture. Japan, Taiwan; to 1.5m (5ft); stems
mates, they may crusty dark purple; leaves to 35 x 30cm (14 x
develop abundantly growth lignin a deposition within 12in), hastate to cordate or triangular,
on the branches of cell walls of woody plants apex tapering; flowerheads yellow,
trees, but rarely thrive in that is formed from phenolic many, in a long, slender raceme;
industrial areas. Their pres- polymers and which give rise includes ‘The Rocket’, to 180cm (70in),
ence in an area therefore to thickening and strength- with near-black stems and leafstalks,
provides some indication ening; the basis of woody and ‘Weihenstephan’, to 180cm (70in),
of freedom from pollution. plant structure. with large, gold flowerheads).
Lichens are slow-growing
and persistent. Although lignite a kind of coal which ligulate (1) possessing a ligule; (2)
attractive on stonework, retains abundant traces of strap-shaped, usually more narrowly 461
they are horticulturally Lichen fibrous vegatation, representing a so than in lorate.
ligule
ligule (1) a strap-shaped body, such as white); L.lucidum (CHINESE PRIVET,

the limb of ray florets in Compositae; WHITE WAX TREE; China, Korea,
(2) the thin, scarious, sometimes hairy Japan; evergreen shrub or small tree to
projection from the top of the leaf 10m (33ft); leaves to 10cm (4in), ovate to
sheath in Gramineae and some other elliptic, apex tapering; panicle 10–20cm
families, for example Palmae, Zingiber- (4–8in); fruit blue-black; ‘Aureovariega-
aceae; (3) any strap-shaped appendage; tum’: leaves yellow-variegated; ‘Com-
(4) an envelope sheathing the emerging pactum’: dense, with waxy, dark green
foliage of Palmae. leaves; ‘Latifolium’: leaves very large,
glossy dark green; ‘Macrophyllum’:
Ligustrum (Latin name for privet). leaves large; ‘Tricolor’: leaves marked
Oleaceae. Europe, N Africa, E and white and yellow, flushed pink when
SE Asia, Australia. PRIVET. Some 50 young); L.ovalifolium (CALIFORNIA Stem bulbils on lily
species, shrubs and small trees, decidu- PRIVET, OVAL-LEAVED PRIVET; Japan; The tiny bulbils that grow in leaf axils may
ous or evergreen, with smooth oblong semi-evergreen shrub to 4m (13ft), be harvested and “sown” in moist compost
or ovate leaves, panicles of small, white upright; leaves 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in), ellip- with a covering of coarse sand or fine grit.
to cream flowers in summer and dark, tic to ovate, blunt to acute, glossy, dark
fleshy fruit. The genus includes tough above, yellow-green beneath; flowers are composed of fleshy scales and pro-
shrubs or small trees useful for hedging off-white, malodorous, many, in panicle duce erect stems clothed with narrow
or informal screens, even in part shade to 10cm (4in); ‘Albomarginatum’: leaves. The flowers are carried toward
and on city sites. L.ovalifolium and its leaves edged white; ‘Argenteum’: leaves the summit of these stems in late
cultivar ‘Aureum’ have largely replaced margined silver; ‘Aureum’: leaves spring and summer. They consist of
L.vulgare as a popular hedging plant yellow with broad, golden margins; 6 tepals and are erect and cup-shaped,
L since they are more likely to remain

evergreen, although very severe winters
may kill hedges back to ground level.
‘Compactum’: dense and slow-grow-
ing; ‘Tricolor’: new growth flushed
pink and leaves ultimately variegated
horizontal and funnel- or bowl-shaped,
or pendulous and shaped like a bell or
‘turk’s-cap’ (i.e. tepals outspread with
More choice species, such as L.lucidum yellow-white; and ‘Variegatum’, with recurved tips).
and L.sinense, are grown as specimen leaves stippled pale yellow); L.sinense In general terms, the following are
shrubs or trees in sunny, sheltered sites; (China; deciduous shrub to 4m (13ft); hardy and will grow in sun or dappled
they are valued for their foliage, soft, leaves to 7cm (23/4in), elliptic to oblong, shade in a well-drained, humus-rich
plume-like spires of cream or white, olive green above, paler beneath, soil. Most lilies grow in acidic soils, but
late-summer flowers and attractive midrib downy; flowers off-white, fra- some grow on alkaline substrates. The
fruits. Although drought- and shade- grant, in panicles to 10cm (4in); fruit following are considered to be lime-
tolerant, hedges of L.ovalifolium and claret-coloured; ‘Variegatum’: leaves loving or lime-tolerant: L.amabile,
L.vulgare will make a healthier backdrop variegated soft grey-green and white); L.bulbiferum, L.canadense, L.candidum,
given sufficient moisture, sun and an L. x vicaryi (L.ovalifolium x L.vulgare; L.cernuum, L.chalcedonicum, L.davidii,
annual application of fertilizer. Prune golden origin; deciduous, spreading; L.hansonii, L.henryi, L.lankongense,
vigorous, well-established hedge plants leaves golden); L.vulgare (COMMON L.longiflorum, L.martagon, L.monadelphum,
two to three times annually. Old, strag- PRIVET; N Europe, Mediterranean, L.pardalinum, L.pyrenaicum, L.regale.
gly hedges may be rejuvenated by N Africa, Asia Minor; distribution Hybrids derived from these species are
pruning hard back and watering and enlarged and confused by cultivation; most probably lime-tolerant. Only a
feeding thoroughly. Propagate ever- deciduous shrub to 5m (16ft), upright, few lime-loving species, such as L.henryi
greens from greenwood cuttings in dense; leaves oblong to ovate or lanceo- and L.candidum, actually appear to dete-
spring or summer in a closed case or late, glabrous, dark green; flowers off- riorate when grown on acid soils. With
under mist, and deciduous species from white in dense, erect panicles to 5cm the exception of L.candidum, lilies like to
hardwood cuttings in winter. Alterna- (2in), malodorous; fruit black, glossy; be planted at a depth of about 8–10cm
tively, sow seed in spring. Privet is sus- ‘Argenteovariegatum’: leaves speckled (3–4in) and on a deep, fertile soil. Bulbs
ceptible to privet thrips, privet aphid, white; ‘Aureovariegatum’: leaves may be planted on a layer of sharp
leaf spot, and lilac leaf miner. marked golden yellow; ‘Aureum’: leaves sand where the subsoil is heavy. Mois-
L.japonicum (Japan, Korea; evergreen golden; ‘Buxifolium’: leaves persistent, ture should be plentiful in late winter
shrub to 4m (13ft); leaves to 10cm (4in), small, ovate; ‘Leucocarpum’: fruit and spring, easing gradually in summer
glabrous, dark green, broadly ovate, white-green; ‘Xanthocarpum’: fruit so that, following flowering, the soil
often with red-green margins and bright yellow; var. italicum: syn. ‘Sem- is still moist enough for the bulb to
midrib; flowers scented, in pyramidal pervirens’, leaves evergreen). replenish itself. The soil should never
panicle to 15cm (6in); ‘Revolutum’: be wet. In cool-temperate areas, plant
narrow, erect, to 1m (31/4ft), with small, Lilium (Latin form of Greek leirion) bulbs outdoors in autumn. If this is
narrow leaves; ‘Rotundifolium’: leaves Liliaceae (Liliaceae). LILY. Temperate not possible, planting should be
462 round or broadly ovate, to 4cm (11/2in); Northern Hemisphere. About 100 delayed until spring, the bulbs having
‘Variegatum’: leaves stippled and edged species, bulbous perennials. The bulbs been potted up and kept cool and
Lilium
L ILIUM
Name Distribution Height Leaves Flowers
L.amabile Korea to 90cm (36in) to 9cm (31⁄2in), scattered, 1–5, turk’s-cap, in a raceme, malodorous; tepals
L.fauriei lanceolate, 3-veined, absent on 5.5cm (21⁄4in), red with dark purple spots, 2–3
lower part of stem, numerous fleshy papillae on upper surface; pollen red;
Comments: Summer. ‘Luteum’: flowers yellow. towards top stigma red-brown
L.auratum Japan 60–200cm to 22 x 4cm (9 x 11⁄2in), 6–30, 30cm (12in) wide, bowl-shaped, horizontal
GOLDEN-RAYED (24–79in) numerous, scattered, or slightly pendulous, in a raceme, very fragrant;
LILY OF JAPAN, lanceolate, dark green, tepals 12–18 x 4–5cm (43⁄4–7 x 11⁄2–2in), white
MOUNTAIN LILY 5–7-veined, petiolate with yellow or crimson central streaks and
crimson-spotted, fleshy papillae on basal part;
pollen chocolate to red
Comments: Short-lived, requiring lime-free soil in full sun with root platyphyllum: to 2.3m (71⁄2ft); leaves broadly lanceolate; flowers
shade provided by low-growing plants. Summer–autumn. Crossed with larger with fewer spots on tepals. var. rubrovittatum: tepals banded
L.speciosum, L.japonicum and L.rubellum to give rise to a wide range of yellow at base, deep crimson at apex. var. virginale: to 2m (61⁄2ft);
cultivars – ‘Apollo’: central band and spots ruby-red. ‘Crimson Beauty’: flowers white, streaked yellow, spotted pale yellow or pink; includes
cherry red, margin white. ‘Praecox’: heavily spotted; early flowering. ‘Album’: flowers pure white.
‘Rubrum’: tepals banded crimson. ‘Tom Thumb’: dwarf. var.
L.bakerianum N Burma, 60–90cm 10 x 1.5cm (4 x 5⁄8in), scattered 1–6, bell-shaped, pendulous; tepals white,
L.lowii SW China (24–36in) on upper part of stem, linear interior spotted red-brown, exterior tinged
to lanceolate, 1–3-veined green, 7 x 1.5cm (23⁄4 x 5⁄8in); anthers orange
Comments: Summer.
L.bulbiferum
L.chaixii
S Europe 40–150cm
(16–60in)
10 x 2cm (4 x 3⁄4in), lanceolate,
scattered, 3–7-veined
to 5, occasionally to 50, erect, cup-shaped, tepals
6–8.5 x 2–3cm (21⁄2–31⁄4 x 3⁄4–11⁄4in), bright
L
FIRE LILY orange, tips darker, interior spotted maroon;
Comments: Grows in well-drained soil in summer shade. anthers brown; pollen orange
Summer. var. croceum: syn. L.croceum; tepals orange.
L.canadense Eastern N to 1.5m (5ft) 15 x 2cm (6 x 3⁄4in), lanceolate 10–12, bell-shaped, pendulous, in an umbel;
MEADOW LILY, WILD America to oblanceolate, mostly in tepals 5–7.5 x 1–2.5cm (2–3 x 1⁄2–1in),
MEADOW LILY whorls, veins 5–7 yellow, basally spotted maroon; pollen yellow
to red-brown
Comments: Plant in moist but well-drained soil. Summer. ‘Chocolate yellow near the base; pollen burnt-orange. ‘Melted Spots’: flowers
Chips’: tepal exteriors and tips crimson, fading to orange then yellow yellow-orange, spots dense on the basal two-thirds. ‘Peaches and
toward the interior base, spots large. ‘Fire Engine’: tepals slightly Pepper’: flowers peach-orange, finely spotted. var. coccineum: syn.
recurved, exterior and interior tips crimson, fading to orange then L.canadense var. rubrum; flowers red, throat yellow.
L.candidum Balkans, E 1–2m basal 1eaves 22 x 5cm (9 x 5–20, funnel-shaped, fragrant, in a raceme;
MADONNA LILY, Mediterranean (31⁄4–61⁄2ft) 2in), 3–5-veined, produced in tepals 5–8 x 1–4cm (2–3 x 1⁄2–11⁄2in) white,
WHITE LILY autumn, retained in winter, interior base yellow; pollen yellow
stem leaves scattered, 7.5 x
Comments: Summer. 1cm (3 x 1⁄2in), lanceolate
L.auratum var. platyphyllum L. ‘Apollo’ L.bulbiferum var. croceum L.canadense 463

Lilium
L ILIUM
L.cernuum Korea, NE to 60cm (24in) 8–15 x 0.1–0.5cm (3–6 x 1–14, turk’s-cap, 3.5cm (11⁄2in) wide, fragrant, in
1
NODDING LILY Manchuria, ⁄16–1⁄4in), scattered, mostly a pendent raceme; tepals lilac, purple, pink or
Russia crowded on centre third of occasionally white, spotted purple; pollen lilac
Comments: Summer. stem, 1–3-veined, sessile
L.chalcedonicum Greece, S 45–150cm to 11.5 x 1.5cm (41⁄2 x 5⁄8in), to 12, pendulous turk’s-cap, 7.5cm (3in) wide,
L.heldreichii Albania (18–60in) edged silver, spirally arranged, slightly scented; tepals scarlet, without spots;
SCARLET TURK’S-CAP sessile, 3–5-veined pollen scarlet
LILY, RED MARTAGON
OF CONSTANTINOPLE Comments: Summer. ‘Maculatum’: scarlet, spotted black.
L.x dalhansonii garden origin 1.5–2m (5–61⁄2ft) turk’s-cap, 3cm (11⁄4in), malodorous; tepals, dark
(L.hansonii x L.martagon maroon, to pink, white or yellow, spotted darker;
var. cattaniae) style purple
Comments: Summer. ‘Backhouse hybrids’: cream, yellow, pink to maroon with darker spots. ‘Damson’: plum-purple. ‘Destiny’: yellow, spotted
brown. ‘Discovery’: rose-lilac, base white, tinged pink, spotted deep crimson, tips darker, exterior pink with a silvery sheen.
L.davidii W China 1–1.4m 6–10 x 0.2–0.4cm (21⁄2–4 x 5–20, turk’s-cap, unscented, pendulous, in a
L.thayerae (31⁄4–41⁄2ft) 1
⁄16–1⁄8in), linear, acute, dark raceme, buds hairy; tepals to 8cm (3in), vermilion
green, 1-veined, margins finely spotted purple; pollen orange or scarlet
toothed and inrolled
L Comments: Summer. var. unicolor: syn. (L.biondii; stems shorter, to

1m (31⁄4ft); bulbs not stoloniferous; leaves more numerous and longer,
very crowded; flowers paler, spots red, mauve or absent. var.
willmottiae: syn. L.sutchuenense, L.chinense; stems to 2m (61⁄2ft), arching;
bulbs stoloniferous; Preston Hybrids, Patterson Hybrids, Fiesta Strain
and North Hybrids developed from L.davidii.
L.duchartrei W China 60–l00cm 10.5 x 1.5cm (41⁄4 x 5⁄8in), to 12, turk’s-cap, pendulous, fragrant, in an
L.farreri (24–39in) dark green above, pale green umbel; tepals white, spotted deep purple, tube
MARBLE MARTAGON beneath, lanceolate, green at base, exterior white flushed purple;
scattered, sessile, margins pollen orange
Comments: Summer. rough, veins 3–5
L.formosanum Taiwan 30–150cm 7.5–20 x 1cm (3–8 x 1⁄2in), 1–2, sometimes to 10, fragrant, funnel-shaped,
(12–60in) scattered, dark green, oblong- horizontal; tepals 12–20cm (43⁄4–8in), white,
lanceolate, margins revolute, exterior flushed purple, tips recurved; anthers
3–7-veined yellow to purple; pollen brown or yellow
Comments: Sometimes treated as a biennial. Summer–autumn. var. pricei: stems 30–60cm (12–24in); flowers 1–2, more deeply coloured.
L.grayi E US to 1.75m to 5–12 x 1.5–3cm (2–43⁄4 1–8, bell-shaped; tepals 6.25 x 0.5cm (21⁄2 x
(53⁄4ft) x 5⁄8–11⁄4in), lanceolate or 1
⁄4in), interior light red with yellow base, spotted
Comments: Summer. ‘Gulliver’s oblong-lanceolate, sessile, purple, exterior crimson, darker towards base;
Thimble’: bright crimson. in whorls anthers yellow; pollen orange-brown
464 L.candidum L.chalcedonicum L. x dalhansonii L.duchartrei

Lilium
L ILIUM
L.hansonii E Russia, to 120cm 18 x 4cm (7 x 11⁄2in), dark 3–12, turk’s-cap, fragrant, pendulous; tepals
Korea, Japan (48in) green, oblanceolate to elliptic, 3–4 x 1.5cm (11⁄4–11⁄2 x 5⁄8in), thick, oblanceolate,
3–5-veined deep orange-yellow, spotted purple-brown
Comments: Summer. toward base; anthers purple; pollen yellow
L.henryi China 1–3m 8–15 x 2–3cm (3–6 x 4–20, turk’s-cap, pendulous, in a raceme; tepals
3
(31⁄4–10ft) ⁄4–11⁄4in), shiny, scattered, 6–8 x 1–2cm (21⁄2–3 x 1⁄2–3⁄4in), orange, spotted
upper leaves ovate, sessile, black, lanceolate; anthers deep red
basal leaves lanceolate,
Comments: Summer. var. citrinum: fls pale lemon-yellow, petiolate, 3–5-veined,
spotted brown. crowded below flowers
L.japonicum Japan 40–90cm 15 x 2.5cm (6 x 1in), 1–5, fragrant, funnel-shaped, horizontal; tepals
BAMBOO LILY, (16–36in) scattered, lanceolate, 3–5- 10–15 x 2–3.5cm (4–6 x 3⁄4–11⁄2in), oblanceolate
SASA-YURI veined, margins rough; petiole to oblong, pink, occasionally white; anthers
to 1cm (1⁄2in) brown; pollen red or brown
Comments: Summer. ‘Albomarginatum’: leaves edged creamy-white. ‘Album’: flowers white.
L.kelloggii W US 30–125cm to 10 x 2cm (4 x 3⁄4in), in to 20, pendulous, turk’s-cap, fragrant, in a

(12–50in) whorls of 12 or more, sessile, raceme; tepals 5.5 x 1cm (21⁄4 x 1⁄2in), mauve-
lanceolate or oblanceolate, pink or white with dark purple spots and central
Comments: Summer.
L.lancifolium E China, 60–150cm

acute, 1–3-veined
12–20 x 1–2cm (43⁄4–8 x

1
yellow stripe; anthers and pollen orange
to 40, in a raceme, pendulous, turk’s-cap,

L
L.tigrinum Japan, Korea (24–60in) ⁄2–3⁄4in), numerous, to 12.5cm (5in) wide; tepals 7–10 x 1–2.5cm
DEVIL LILY, KENTAN, lanceolate, scattered, (23⁄4–4 x 1⁄2–1in), lanceolate, interior orange,
TIGER LILY 5–7-veined, margins rough spotted deep purple; anthers orange-red to
purple; pollen brown
Comments: Summer-early autumn. ‘Flore Pleno’: flowers double. var. flaviflorum: flowers yellow. var. fortunei: stems to 2m (61⁄2ft), densely
woolly; flowers 30–50, orange-red. var. splendens: flowers larger, bright orange-red, spotted black.
L.lankongense W China to 120cm 10 x 0.8cm (4 x 3⁄8in), to 15, 5cm (2in) wide, in a raceme, pendulous,
L.forrestii (48in) numerous, sessile, scattered, turk’s-cap, fragrant; tepals 4–6.5 x 1–2.5cm
crowded near base, oblong- (11⁄2–21⁄2 x 1⁄2–1in), rose-pink, spotted purple,
lanceolate, acute, 3–7-veined, green central stripe; anthers purple; pollen
Comments: Summer. margins rough brown
L.leichtlinii Japan to 120cm 15 x 1cm (6 x 1⁄2in), numerous, 1–6, in a raceme, unscented, turk’s-cap, buds
(48in) scattered, linear-lanceolate, white-hairy; tepals to 8 x 2cm (3 x 3⁄4in), lemon
1–3-veined, margins rough yellow spotted maroon, lanceolate; anthers and
pollen red-brown
Comments: Summer. var. maximowiczii: to 2.5cm (1in); flowers 1–12; tepals orange-red, spotted purple-brown; anthers and pollen red.
L.formosanum var. pricei L.grayi L.hansonii L.henryi 465

Lilium
L ILIUM
L.longiflorum S Japan, to 1m (31⁄4ft) to 18 x 1.5cm (7 x 5⁄8in), to 6, funnel-shaped, scented, in an umbel; tepals
EASTER LILY Taiwan scattered, lanceolate or to 18cm (7in), white; pollen yellow; stigma green
oblong-lanceolate
Comments: Summer. ‘Albomarginatum’: leaves edged white. ‘Gelria’: white; tepals strongly recurved, throat veined green, exterior green-
flowers white; tepals slightly recurved at apex; pollen yellow. ‘Holland’s white below, venation cream above, pollen lemon-yellow. var.
Glory’: flowers white, to 20cm (8in). ‘White American’: flowers white, takeshima: stems taller, purple-brown, flowers flushed purple
tips and nectaries green, pollen deep yellow. ‘White Europe’: flowers outside, pollen orange.
L.mackliniae NE India to 40cm (16in) 3–6 x 0.4–1cm (11⁄4–21⁄2 x 1–6, in a raceme, pendulous, bell-shaped; tepals
1
⁄8–1⁄2in), spiral, horizontal, 5 x 2cm (2 x 3⁄4in), interior rose-pink, exterior
linear-lanceolate or elliptic- purple-pink; anthers purple; pollen yellow-
Comments: Late spring–summer. lanceolate orange or brown
L. x maculatum Japan to 60cm (24in) 5–15 x 1.5cm (2–6 x 5⁄8in), cup-shaped, erect; tepals 8–10cm (3–4in), yellow,
lanceolate to elliptic, scattered, orange or red, variably spotted
3–7-veined
Comments: Summer. Considered by some to be L.dauricum x red, spots few, faint. ‘Biligulatum’: deep chestnut-red. ‘Sanguineum’:
L.concolor. ‘Alutaceum’: deep apricot, spotted purple-black. ‘Aureum’: orange-red. ‘Wallacei’: apricot with raised maroon spots.
orange-yellow, spotted black. ‘Bicolor’: brilliant orange, margins bright
L L.x marhan
(L.hansonii x L.martagon
var. album)
garden origin
Comments: Summer.
to 1.5m (5ft) pendulous, turk’s-cap, 5–6cm (2–21⁄2in) wide;
tepals thick, orange-yellow, spotted red-brown
L.martagon NW Europe, to 2m (61⁄2ft) to 16 x 6.5cm (6 x 21⁄2in), to 50, in racemes, pendulous, turk’s-cap, 5cm
MARTAGON, NW Asia oblanceolate, 7–9-veined, (2in) wide, fragrant; tepals 3–4.5 x 0.6–1cm
TURK’S-CAP in whorls of 8–14 (11⁄4–13⁄4 x 1⁄4–1⁄2in), dull pink, spotted maroon;
pollen yellow
Comments: Summer. var. albiflorum: white with pink spotting. var. album: white, not spotted, var. cattaniae: maroon, unspotted. var.
caucasicum: lilac-pink. var. sanguineopurpureum: dark maroon, spotted.
L.monadelphum NE Turkey, 100–150cm 12.5 x 2.5cm (5 x 1in), 1–5, occasionally to 30, fragrant, pendulous,
L.szovitsianum, Caucasus (39–60in) lanceolate or oblanceolate, turk’s-cap; tepals 6–10 x 1–2cm (21⁄2–4 x
L.colchicum spirally arranged, 9–13-veined 1
⁄2–3⁄4in), yellow, interior spotted purple or
CAUCASIAN LILY Comments: Summer. maroon, exterior flushed purple-brown;
pollen orange-yellow
L.nanum Himalaya, W 6–45cm to 12 x 0.5cm (43⁄4 x 1⁄4in), solitary, pendulous, bell-shaped, scented; tepals
China (21⁄2–18in) linear, scattered, 3–5-veined to 1–4 x 0.3–1.6cm (1⁄2–11⁄2 x 1⁄8–5⁄8in), pale pink
to purple with fine dark purple or brown
Comments: Summer. var. flavidum: flowers pale yellow. mottling; anthers yellow-brown
466 L.lancifolium var. splendens L.longiflorum L.mackliniae L.martagon

Lilium
L ILIUM
L.nepalense Bhutan, Nepal, to 1m (31⁄4ft) to 14 x 3cm (51⁄2 x 11⁄4in), 1–3, slightly pendulous, funnel-shaped, with a
N India oblong-lanceolate, 5–7-veined musky nocturnal scent; tepals to 15cm (6in), tips
twisting, green-white to green-yellow, base red-
Comments: Summer. Stoloniferous and requiring a large, cool and moist rootrun in mild, purple to dark maroon; anthers purple; pollen
shady conditions. orange-brown
L.occidentale W US 70–200cm to 13 x 1.5cm (5 x 5⁄8in), in 1–5, occasionally 20, in a raceme, pendulous,

EUREKA LILY (28–79in) whorls, linear-lanceolate to turk’s-cap, to 7cm (23⁄4in) wide; tepals 3.5–6 x
lanceolate, 7-veined 1.5cm (11⁄2–21⁄2 x 5⁄8in), crimson with green-yellow
throat, or vermilion with orange throat and
Comments: Summer. brown spots; anthers purple; pollen orange-red
L.pardalinum W US 2–3m to 18 x 5cm (7 x 2in), in to 10 in a raceme, unscented, pendulous, turk’s-

LEOPARD LILY, PANTHER (61⁄2–10ft) whorls of to 16, elliptic or cap, to 9 x 9cm (31⁄2 x 31⁄2in); tepals lanceolate,
LILY oblanceolate, glabrous, to orange-red to crimson, spotted deep maroon
3-veined toward base, some spots outlined yellow; anthers
red-brown; pollen orange
Comments: Summer. ‘Californicum’: deep orange, spotted maroon, tips scarlet. ‘Johnsonii’: tall; flowers finely spotted. var. giganteum: to 2.5m
(8ft); flowers crimson and yellow, densely spotted.
L.parryi SW US to 2m (61⁄2ft) to 15cm (6in), oblanceolate, 3- to 15, sometimes many more, fragrant,
LEMON LILY
Comments: Summer.
veined, margins slightly rough horizontal, funnel-shaped; tepals to 7–10 x
0.8–1.2cm (23⁄4–4 x 3⁄8–1⁄2in), oblanceolate, tips
recurved, lemon-yellow, base sparsely spotted
maroon; anthers orange-brown; pollen red
L
L.philadelphicum Eastern to 1.25m (4ft) 5–10 x 1.5cm (2–4 x 5⁄8in), 1–5, cup-shaped, erect, in an umbel; tepals
L.montanum N America mostly in whorls of 6–8, to 7.5cm (3in), oblanceolate, orange to vivid
WOOD LILY oblanceolate, margins orange-red, spotted purple, edges revolute;
Comments: Summer. sometimes rough, 3–5-veined pollen deep red
L.primulinum W China, to 2.4m (8ft) to 15 x 4cm (6 x 11⁄2in), 2–8, occasionally 18, fragrant, funnel-shaped,
OCHRE LILY N Burma, scattered, lanceolate, pendulous; tepals 6–15 x 1–5cm (21⁄2–6 x 1⁄2–2in),
Thailand 1–3-veined oblong-lanceolate, yellow, sometimes marked
purple-red; pollen brown
Comments: Summer–autumn. var. ochraceum: flowers red-purple toward base.
L.pumilum N E Asia 15–90cm to 10 x 0.3cm (4 x 1⁄8in), to 7–20, scented, pendulous, turk’s-cap, in a

L.tenuifolium, L.linifolium (6–36in) scattered, sessile, linear, raceme; buds woolly; tepals 5 x 5cm (2 x 2in),
CORAL LILY 1-veined oblong-lanceolate, scarlet, base sometimes dotted
black; pollen scarlet
Comments: Summer. ‘Golden Gleam’: apricot yellow.
L.nepalense L.pardalinum L.pumilum L.regale 467

Lilium
L ILIUM
L.pyrenaicum Europe to NE 15–135cm to 12.5 x 2cm (5 x 3⁄4in), to 12, pendulous, turk’s-cap, 5cm (2in) wide,
Turkey and (6–53in) linear-lanceolate, acute, in a raceme; tepals green-yellow, streaked
Georgia margins sometimes silver or and spotted dark maroon; pollen orange-red
ciliate
Comments: Summer. ‘Aureum’: deep yellow. ssp. pyrenaicum: 40cm (16in); flowers yellow. var. jankae: to 80cm (32in); flowers yellow.
flowers yellow, interior lined and spotted dark purple; var. rubrum: ssp. ponticum: 15–90cm (6–36in); flowers deep yellow or deep orange,
orange red. ssp. carniolicum: to 120cm (48in); flowers yellow, orange interior red-brown, spotted purple toward base. var. artvinense:
or red, sometimes spotted purple. ssp. carniolicum var. albanicum: to flowers deep orange.
L.regale W China 50–200cm 5–13 x 0.4–0.6cm (2–5 x 1–25, fragrant, horizontal, funnel-
REGAL LILY (20–79in) 1
⁄8–1⁄4in), scattered, sessile, shaped, in an umbel; tepals 12–15 x
linear, 1-veined 2–4cm (43⁄4–6 x 3⁄4–11⁄2in), white, interior
of tube yellow, exterior tinted purple;
Comments: Summer. ‘Album’: flowers almost pure white; anthers orange. ‘Royal Gold’: anthers and pollen golden
flowers yellow.
L.rubellum Japan 30–80cm 10 x 3.5cm (4 x 11⁄2in), 1–9, very fragrant, horizontal, funnel-
(12–32in) scattered, petiolate, ovate- shaped; tepals 7.5cm (3in), oblanceolate to
lanceolate to oblong-elliptic, oblong, rose-pink, base sometimes spotted
Comments: Summer. 5–7-veined maroon; pollen orange-yellow
L.speciosum China, Japan, stems to 18 x 6cm (7 x 21⁄2in), to 12, fragrant, pendulous, broadly turk’s-
L Taiwan 120–170cm
(48–67in)
scattered, lanceolate,
petiolate, 7–9-veined
cap, 15cm (6in) wide, in a raceme; tepals to
10 x 4.5cm (4 x 13⁄4in), white, base flushed
carmine, spotted pink or crimson, ovate-
lanceolate, margins wavy; pollen dark red
Comments: Late summer. ‘Grand Commander’: deep pink tinted ‘Uchida’: brilliant crimson, spotted green, tips white. var. album:
lilac, edged white, spotted red. ‘Krätzeri’: white, exterior with central white. var. magnificum: rose, spotted deep crimson, margins paler;
green stripe. ‘Melpomene’: deep carmine, segments edged white. pollen red. var. roseum: rose. var. rubrum: carmine.
L.superbum E US 1.5–3m 3.5–11 x 0.8–2.8cm (11⁄2–41⁄2 x to 40, pendulous, turk’s-cap, in a raceme;

TURK’S-CAP LILY (5–10ft) 3
⁄8–11⁄8in), lanceolate or tepals orange flushed red, spotted maroon
elliptic, 3–7-veined, in whorls toward green base; anthers red; pollen
Comments: Summer. of 4–20 and scattered orange-brown
L.x testaceum garden origin 100–150cm 5–10cm (2–4in), scattered, 6–12, scented, pendulous, turk’s-cap; tepals
L.isabellinum, L.excelsum (39–60in) linear, margins ciliate, veins to 8cm (3in), yellow to pale orange, interior
(L.candidum x L. pubesc. beneath spotted red; anthers red; pollen orange
chalcedonicum)
NANKEEN LILY Comments: Summer.
L.tsingtauense NE China, Korea to 120cm (48in) to 15 x 4cm (6 x 11⁄2in), 2–7, in a raceme, unscented, erect, bowl-
glabrous, oblanceolate, shaped; tepals to 5 x 1.5cm (2 x 5⁄8in),
Comments: Summer. var. carneum: flowers red, unspotted. petiolate, often in 2 whorls orange or vermilion with purple spotting;
var. flavum: flowers yellow, spotted red. anthers and pollen orange
468 L.rubellum L.speciosum var. rubrum L.superbum L.tsingtauense

lime
L ILIUM
L.wallichianum Himalaya to 2m (61⁄2ft) 25 x 1.2cm (10 x 1⁄2in), 1–4, scented, horizontal, funnel-shaped, 20cm
scattered, linear or (8in) wide with basal tube to 10cm (4in); tepals
lanceolate l5–30cm (6–12in), interior creamy white, exterior
Comments: Summer–autumn. tinged green; pollen yellow
L.washingtoni- W US to 2m (61⁄2ft) to 15 x 3.5cm (6 x 11⁄2in), in to 20, scented, to 11cm (41⁄2in) wide, bowl-
anum whorls, oblanceolate, shaped, horizontal to ascending, in a raceme;
margins wavy tepals 8 x 2.5cm (3 x 1in), oblanceolate, white,
spotted purple at base; pollen yellow
Comments: Summer. var. purpurascens: flowers opening white, becoming pink then purple.
moist. If the bulbs show signs of rot or below ground. Bulbs can also be lime any of several substances contain-
other moulds, they should be washed increased by division and scaling (see ing calcium which are used in the
clean and then immersed in a fungicide cuttings). Affected by botrytis, basal rots garden to improve fertility and reduce
solution for 20 minutes. and viruses. Attacked by lily beetle. acidity. Strictly, the term refers to cal-
The often-quoted advice to keep the cium oxide or quicklime,
roots in the shade while allowing the lily beetle (Lilioceris produced by heating lime-
heads to be in the sun is generally lilii) 8mm (3/8in)-long stone or chalk in a kiln, but
sound. Many of the Asiatic species, like beetle with bright red thorax this form is caustic and
L.pumilum, will accept full sun. Most of and wing cases, and black dangerous to handle and
the Oriental species and hybrids will
appreciate dappled shade for some of
the day; this applies also to forms of
head and legs; its larvae are
rounded, humped and
covered in wet black
unsuitable for garden use. Cal-
cium hydroxide, available
as slaked or hydrated lime,
L
L.martagon and Western American excrement, reaching 8mm is quicker-acting and safer to
species. The Caucasian lilies will take (3/8in) long when fully fed. It is handle, although it can damage
full sun as in the wild but must have widely distributed in Britain plant foliage. Calcium carbon-
adequate moisture, and as will L.can- and elsewhere in Europe. Lily beetle ate, in the form of crushed
didum and other southern European All Lilium species are susceptible, chalk or ground limestone, is widely
species used to the heat of sun at lower also Fritillaria imperialis, F.meleagris and used, and is the bulkiest and cheapest of
latitudes. Most lilies, other than those other Fritillaria species; other plants the three forms. One kilogram of cal-
which are stoloniferous or stoloniform sometimes attacked by the adults but cium oxide is as effective as 1.5kg (31/3lb)
(e.g. L.nepalense), may be grown in pots not the larvae are Polygonatum species, of calcium hydroxide or 2kg (42/5lb) of
– the Asiatic and Oriental and hybrid Convallaria species and Nomocharis salue- calcium carbonate, depending on the
trumpet lilies are particularly suitable. nensis. Adults and larvae cause defolia- size of particles. Magnesian or dolomitic
Space the bulbs at least 2cm (3/4in) tion and, in heavy infestations, also limestone provides both calcium and
apart and 1cm (1/2in) away from the feed on flowers, seed capsules and magnesium nutrients. Some fertilizers,
sides of the pot. The deeper the pot, stems. The larvae normally feed in such as calcium nitrate, contain lime.
the better. Loam-based mediums with groups from the leaf tips, while the Lime is important in plant nutrition
good aeration, drainage and a high adults create irregular holes at random. as a source of calcium, and also as a
humus level are best, but soilless medi- Adults overwinter in the soil, emerging means of neutralizing soil acidity, or
ums can be used if compaction is mainly in March/April to lay red eggs in producing an alkaline condition where
avoided, adequate moisture is always clusters on the undersides of leaves. All this is desirable. It improves the struc-
provided, and the appropriate liquid stages can be found in summer due to ture of clay soils by a chemical process
feeding carried out. progressive emergence from the soil and known as flocculation, which gives rise
In regions with prolonged, hard a long egg-laying period. Control limited to the aggregation of soil particles into
winters in zones lower than 7, certain infestations by hand-picking adults, eggs large, stable crumbs providing good
lilies should be grown under glass. and larvae; otherwise, spray recom- aeration. By neutralizing soil acidity,
These include L.candidum, L.formosanum, mended contact or systemic insecticides, lime dressing facilitates the activity of
L.longiflorum, L.nepalense*, L.speciosum and subject to local pesticide approvals, those soil-inhabiting bacteria that con-
L.wallichianum*. Those marked with an applied repeatedly when necessary. vert ammonium salts into nitrates, and
asterisk are stoloniferous and prefer to also increases the availability of impor-
be grown in greenhouse borders or limb (1) one of the larger branches of tant plant nutrients. The beneficial
large tubs and boxes so that their a tree; (2) (bot.) a broadened, flattened activities of earthworms and nitrogen-
stolons can wander. Lilies may be part of a plant organ extending from a fixing bacteria are encouraged, whilst
increased by seed, from bulbils formed narrower base, as in the flared upper clubroot disease and some soil-inhabiting 469
in the leaf axils and bulblets formed part of a tubular or funnelform corolla. plant pests are discouraged.
lime
Most vegetable crops actually do lime-induced chlorosis inter- cool, moist root run. The lightly
best on a slightly acid soil, although for veinal or uniform chlorosis of young scented flowers, carried over long peri-
large groups of ornamentals within the leaves, often followed by stunting, ods in summer, are a good nectar
family Ericaceae acid conditions are caused by deficiency, unavailability, source for bees. It is easily grown in
essential, and these have little or no or immobility of nutrients such as sun in any moderately fertile, moisture-
requirement for calcium. Some plants, manganese and especially iron in retentive soil. Sow seed in situ in spring
for example, many alpines, thrive in soils that are high in lime. or, in mild winter areas, in autumn.
soils high in lime, but generally over- L.douglasii (POACHED EGG FLOWER;
liming can lead to nutrient deficiency in limestone a sedimentary rock con- California, S Oregon; to 30cm (12in);
plants, especially of phosphorus, iron, sisting chiefly of calcium carbonate, leaves pinnately cut, thinly succulent,
manganese and other trace elements. although other constituents such as bright green; flowers fragrant, to 2.5cm
The degree of soil acidity is indi- magnesium carbonate and silica may (1in) in diameter, petals shiny yellow
cated by the pH level, and this should also be present. It is a source of lime with white margins, or entirely white;
be regularly checked, particularly in for application to garden soils. In includes var. sulphurea, with yellow
vegetable gardens. Most crops do best water-worn form, it has been used in petals).
at a pH of 6.5 on mineral soils and a the making of rock gardens, a practice
pH of 5.8 on peat soils. Clay soils have now condemned on the grounds of Limonium (from Greek leimon,
a high buffering capacity and require conserving the natural environment. meadow – salt meadows are a common
large quantities of lime to affect pH, habitat of these plants). Plumbagi-
whereas sandy soils require less but lime-sulphur a complex mixture of naceae. Cosmopolitan. SEA LAVENDER,
the effect may be short-lived. calcium polysulphides, prepared by MARSH ROSEMARY, STATICE. About 150
Indications of lime requirement boiling together sulphur and calcium species, perennial herbs or shrubs,
gained from soil-testing need adjust- hydroxide. It was first produced at rarely annuals, usually with rosettes of
L ment with respect to soil texture,

organic matter content, the degree
of acidity, rainfall and the evenness
Versailles in 1851, and was an impor-
tant fungicide and acaricide for many
years. It has been replaced by non-phy-
entire or pinnatifid leaves. The flowers
are small and papery with a shortly
tubular, 5-lobed corolla; they are car-
of incorporation; precise recommenda- totoxic forms of sulphur, and other ried in summer and autumn in spread-
tions require expert consideration of fungicides. ing panicles composed of short
numerous factors. However, for garden spikelets. L.bellidifolium is hardy in cli-
purposes, the following general guide- Limnanthes (from Greek limne, mate zone 7 and suited to sunny, per-
lines are suggested for using hydrated marsh, and anthos, flower, referring to fectly drained sites in alpine sinks and
lime to reduce acidity to around the habitat). Limnanthaceae. W US. the rock garden. More robust perenni-
pH 6.5 on three different soil types. MEADOW FOAM. 7 species, annual herbs als, such as L.platyphyllum, are hardy to
with pinnately divided, leaves and dish- –20°C/–4°F. As with many members
g/m2 of hydrated lime shaped, 5-petalled flowers in summer. of this genus, it is well-adapted to
A hardy annual, sowing itself in profu- coastal gardens and dry soils. Grow
Original Sandy or Medium Peat or
sion where conditions suit. It is suitable in any deep, well-drained soil in full
pH gravelly loam Clay
for path and border edging, for the sun. Good textural contrasts may be
4.5 480 690 860
interstices of paving, for the base of achieved by naturalizing in gravel or
5.0 300 490 590
walls and for other situations offering a shingle. The flowers of most species
5.5 170 280 350
can be dried for decoration; they range
6.0 100 140 300
in form and colour from the subtle and
6.5 0 0 0
delicate sprays on fine sinuous stems,
as found in L.platyphyllum, to the more
Where there is a need for lime dress- extravagant and densely flowered
ing in excess of 300g/m2 (9oz/yd2) it panicles of cultivars of L.sinuatum,
should be applied over several seasons. frequently seen as a florist’s flower.
Even then, split dressings are advisable All species are easily raised from seed.
for best effect, with each incorporated Division is possible but difficult and re-
to a depth of 15cm (6in). Autumn or establishment may be slow. L.platyphyl-
winter dressing is recommended, and lum and other large perennials may be
there should ideally be an interval of at increased by root cuttings in a sandy
least several weeks between applica- propagating mix in late winter/early
tions of animal manure and lime to spring.
avoid strong release of ammonia, with L.bellidifolium (Mediterranean and
lime always being applied after Limnanthes douglasii Black Sea to E England; perennial
manure. See pH. Poached egg flowers are attractive to bees herb, 10–30cm (4–12in), woody at
470 and also to hoverflies, beneficial insects base; flowering stem branching from
lime-dot see hydathode. whose larvae consume a number of pests. base, tuberculate; flowers about 5mm
Lindera
(1/4in), blue-violet; includes ‘Filigree’, Sow perennials in early spring under W Spain, N and C Portugal; perennial
with purple-blue flowers, and ‘Span- glass or in the cold frame; some culti- glabrous and somewhat glaucous; stem
gle’, to 1m (31/4ft), with small, pale blue vars, notably L.purpurea ‘Canon Went’, 50–130cm (20–54in), erect or diffuse;
flowers, in loose sprays); L.perezii come true from seed. Alternatively, inflorescence lax with flowers 3(–4) per
(Canary Islands; perennial subshrub to increase perennials by division, or from whorl, pale lavender striped purple in
70cm (28in); panicle downy; flowers basal or softwood cuttings in spring in tube with yellow palate, tube inflated;
with a purple to blue, downy calyx and the cold frame. ‘Rosea’: pink flowers); L.tristis (DULL-
yellow corolla); L.platyphyllum (SE and C L.alpina (ALPINE TOADFLAX; C and COLOURED LINARIA, SAD-COLOURED
Europe; woody-based perennial herb to S Europe; glaucous, dwarf annual, LINARIA; S Spain and S Portugal, NW
80cm (32in); panicle to 60cm (24in), biennial or perennial; stem 5–25cm Africa, Canary Islands; glaucous peren-
domed; flowers about 6mm (1/4in), pale (2–10in), decumbent or ascending; nial; stem 10–90cm (4–36in), decum-
violet; includes ‘Violetta’, with violet- inflorescence short; flowers violet with bent to ascending; flowers olive to
blue flowers); L.sinuatum (Mediter- yellow palate, rarely wholly yellow, yellow tinged dull purple to brown);
ranean; hairy perennial to 40cm (16in), white or pink; includes ‘Alba’, with L.vulgaris (COMMON TOADFLAX, BUTTER-
often treated as an annual; flowering white flowers, ‘Rosea’, with rose-pink AND-EGGS, WILD SNAP-DRAGON; Europe
stem winged, inflorescence dense; flow- flowers with an orange-yellow palate); except for extreme N and much of
ers with downy, white or pale violet L.bipartita (CLOVEN-LIP TOADFLAX; NW Mediterranean; perennial; stem
calyx and papery, white or pink corolla, Africa, Portugal; annual; stem to 40cm 15–90cm (6–36in), erect, simple or
becoming purple; includes many culti- (16in), slender; inflorescence lax; flow- branched, glandular-pubescent above;
vars and seed races with flowers in ers violet, lips widely diverging, palate inflorescence dense; flowers pale to
shades of white, yellow, gold, apricot, orange; includes ‘Alba’, with white bright yellow, palate coppery).
rose, deep pink, red, carmine, purple, flowers, ‘Queen of Roses’, with pink
lilac, sky blue and deep blue). flowers, and ‘Splendida’, with deep Lindera (for Johann Linder
Linaria (from Latin linum, flax, refer-

ring to the flax-like habit and foliage
purple flowers); L.genistifolia (SE and
C Europe, Asia Minor; perennial,
30–100cm (12–39in), erect, branched
(1676–1723), Swedish botanist). Lau-
raceae. Temperate and tropical E Asia
(Himalayas to Malaysia, China, Japan),
L
of some species). Scrophulariaceae. above; leaves rigid; flowers lemon- N America. 80 species, aromatic, ever-
Northern temperate regions, especially yellow to orange, palate orange- green or deciduous shrubs or trees
Europe. TOADFLAX, SPURRED SNAP- bearded; ‘Nymph’: flowers cream); grown principally for their foliage. In
DRAGON. About 100 species, annual L.maroccana (Morocco, naturalized NE spring, they produce small, yellow flow-
to perennial herbs with more or less US; annual to 45cm (18in), erect, ers. Where plants of both sexes are
erect and clumped stems clothed with branched; flowers brilliant violet- present, small drupes are produced.
narrow leaves. Tubular, 2-lipped, purple, palate orange to yellow with Grow in part shade or dappled sunlight
spurred, snapdragon-like flowers are smaller paler patch; ‘Carminea’: bright in a moisture-retentive, fertile, lime-free
carried in terminal racemes in summer. rosy carmine; ‘Diadem’: large, rich soil enriched with leafmould. L.benzoin
Hardy in climate zones 6 and over. violet with a white eye; Excelsior tolerates temperatures as low as
Grow in full sun on well-drained, Hybrids: from white to yellow and –25°C/–13°C, and L.obtusiloba as low
rather poor and sandy soils. L.purpurea, beige, to salmon, rose-carmine and as –15°C/5°F. Position plants where
with long-lived and graceful spires of crimson, to purple and blue; ‘Fairy they have some protection from late
delicate flowers, is suitable for the Bride’: white; ‘Ruby King’: deep blood spring frosts. Prune to remove dead-
flower border, L.alpina for scree, rock red); L.purpurea (C Italy to Sicily, natu- wood in spring; old leggy specimens
gardens, raised beds and wall crevices. ralized elsewhere including Great may be rejuvenated by cutting hard
The taller species such as L.maroccana Britain; glaucous perennial; stem back to the base if necessary, although
make good cut flowers. Mediterranean 20–60cm (8–24in), ascending to erect, this is best carried out over several sea-
species such as L.triornithophora and often branched above; inflorescence sons. Propagate by fresh seed sown
L.tristis are slightly more tender, tolerat- slender; flowers violet tinged purple; when ripe – seed has short viability
ing temperatures to –5°C/23°F, but includes ‘Canon J. Went’, tall, with and should not be allowed to dry out
may be treated as annuals or protected tiny, pale pink flowers, and ‘Springside before sowing. Alternatively, increase
in winter with a mulch of bracken or White’, with grey-green leaves and by semi-ripe cuttings in a closed case or
evergreen prunings. Perennial species white flowers); L.reticulata (PURPLE-NET by layering.
tend to be short-lived, but will self-seed, TOADFLAX; Portugal, N Africa; glaucous L.benzoin (SPICE BUSH, BENJAMIN
proving most persistent in perfectly annual: stem 60–120cm (24–48in); BUSH; E US; deciduous, highly aro-
drained, sunny sites. To flower L.maroc- inflorescence short, downy; flowers matic shrub to 4m (13ft); leaves
cana in pots, overwinter autumn-sown deep purple, palate coppery orange or 6–15cm (21/2–6in), obovate, thin,
plants in a low fertility, loam-based yellow with purple striations; ‘Aureop- glabrous above, entire, ciliate; fruit
medium, in sunny, well-ventilated, urpurea’: rich purple with orange or bright red; ‘Xanthocarpa’: fruit yellow);
frost-free conditions. Propagate annuals yellow palate; ‘Crown Jewels’: small, L.obtusiloba (Korea, China, Japan;
and L.alpina from seed sown in situ in maroon, red, gold and orange); deciduous shrub or small tree to 10m 471
spring or, in mild climates, in autumn. L.triornithophora (THREE-BIRDS-FLYING; (33ft); leaves 6–12cm (21/2–43/4in), ovate,
Lindera
apex often bluntly 3-lobed, glaucous Linum (Latin for flax). Linaceae. lip (1) in, for example, Labiatae, one
beneath, pale gold in autumn; fruit Temperate northern Hemisphere. of the two distinct corolla divisions,
black). FLAX. Some 200 species, annual, bien- one, the upper, often hooded, the other,
nial or perennial herbs or subshrubs lower, often forming a flattened landing
Lindheimera (for Ferdinand Jacob with short-lived, dish-shaped, 5- platform for pollinators; (2) a stamin-
Lindheim (1801–1879), German petalled flowers in terminal racemes in ode or petal modified or differentiated
botanist). Compositae. S US. 1 species, summer. Grow in a sheltered position from the others.
L.texana, TEXAS STAR, an annual herb to in sun in any light, well-drained, mod-
65cm (26in) with pinnatifid to entire erately fertile and humus-rich soil. Sow Liquidambar (from Latin liquidus,
leaves. To 4cm (11/2in) across, the daisy- seed of annual species in situ in early liquid, and ambar, amber, referring to
like flowerheads are clustered in spring, or in autumn for early flowers the fragrant resin). Hamamelidaceae.
corymbs in late summer and autumn; in pots under glass. Overwinter at N America, Eurasia, China. SWEET
they consist of white ray florets and 10°C/50°F, watering carefully and GUM. 4 species, medium-sized to large
yellow disc florets. An undemanding, sparingly until light levels and tempera- deciduous trees with palmately lobed
hardy annual for the cut-flower border tures rise in spring; as roots fill their leaves superficially similar to Acer but
and for native plant collections. Grow pots, water moderately and liquid feed in alternate, not opposite, arrange-
in sun in any well-drained soil. Sow in until flower buds form. Propagate ment. They are shiny dark green, turn-
situ in spring or earlier under glass. perennials by seed, cultivars by cuttings ing maroon, bright orange and red in
of basal shoots in spring. Perennials autumn. The flowers are inconspicu-
line a term used by plant breeders to tend to be short-lived and should be ous. L.styraciflua, the most commonly
describe a more or less uniform assem- propagated frequently. Increase shrubby cultivated species, is a stately tree with
blage of individuals; equivalent to a species by semi-ripe cuttings in a a conical head and handsome, maple-
cultivar. shaded cold frame. like foliage; it is suitable for planting
L linear slender, elongated, the margins

parallel or virtually so.
L.arboreum (S Aegean; glabrous
perennial shrub to 1m (31/4ft); flowers
yellow); L.flavum (GOLDEN FLAX; C and
in parks, avenues and large gardens,
and is hardy to at least –15°C/5°F.
The best selections produce brilliant
S Europe; erect, woody-based peren- autumn tints. Other species are often
lineate see striated. nial, 30–40cm (12–16in); flowers not hardy below –5°C/23°F. L.for-
golden yellow); L. ‘Gemmels Hybrid’ mosana Monticola Group is slightly
line out to plant out young plants or (L.campanulatum x L.elegans; to 15cm more cold-tolerant and shows attractive
hardwood cuttings in straight rows to (6in); flowers rich yellow); L.grandiflorum purple-hued foliage in spring. Plant on
be grown on for sale. (FLOWERING FLAX; N Africa; erect deep, fertile, well-drained but moisture-
glabrous annual to 75cm (30in); leaves retentive soils in full sun, giving plenty
liner a young hardy nursery-stock narrow; flowers rose with a dark of room for development. Liquidambar
plant in its first pot. centre; ‘Bright Eyes’: ivory with a deep resents transplanting and, if this is
brown centre, ‘Caeruleum’: blue- essential, prepare by root pruning a
lingulate resembling a tongue. purple; ‘Coccineum’: scarlet; ‘Roseum’: year in advance. Propagate from seed
rose pink; and ‘Rubrum’: bright red); sown in autumn into outdoor seed beds
Linnaea (for Carl Linnaeus L.narbonense (Mediterranean; glaucous or from stratified seed in spring; the
(1707–1778), botanist). Caprifoliaceae. perennial to 60cm (24in); leaves latter may take up to two years to ger-
Circumpolar regions. TWIN-FLOWER. narrow; flowers azure with white eye; minate. Increase also by softwood cut-
1 species, L.borealis, a creeping, dwarf, ‘Heavenly Blue’: clear vivid blue; ‘Six tings in summer and by layering.
evergreen shrub with slender, trailing Hills’: bright blue); L.perenne (PERENNIAL Protect young plants from frost and
and rooting branches and glossy green, FLAX; Europe; erect perennial, to 60cm plant out after the second year.
rounded leaves, seldom more than (24in); leaves narrow; flowers pale blue; L.formosana (FORMOSAN GUM; S
0.5cm (1/4in) long. Fragrant flowers ‘Album’: white; ‘Caeruleum’: sky blue; China, Taiwan; straight-trunked tree
appear in summer, paired and nod- subsp. alpinum: to 30cm (12in), with to 40m (130ft); leaves to 15cm (6in) in
ding, atop a delicate, red-flushed stalk smaller flowers); L.suffruticosum (Spain diameter, 3-lobed, sometimes with sub-
to 8cm (3in) tall. They are campanu- to N Italy; woody-based perennial, sidiary lobes at base, base cordate to
late to funnelform, 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in) 25–40cm (10–16in), flowering stem truncate, finely serrate, glabrous above,
long and white or pale candy-pink procumbent; leaves narrow; flowers usually downy beneath; includes Mon-
with deeper markings within the five, white, veined purple with a violet or ticola Group, cold-hardy, with large,
rounded lobes. A charming and fully pink centre; subsp. salsoloides: leaves glabrous, 3-lobed leaves, colouring
hardy, if rather fragile-seeming ground- narrower, flowers pearly-white; ‘Nanum’: beautifully in autumn); L.orientalis (ORI-
cover for alpine sinks, peat beds, and low-growing); L.usitatissimum (FLAX; ENTAL SWEET GUM; Asia Minor; slow-
the rock or woodland garden. Plant in Asia, widespread as long-established growing, bushy-headed, small tree to
a cool, moist but well-drained acid soil escape in Europe and N America; erect 30m (100ft) in the wild; leaves usually
472 in dappled sun. Propagate by rooted annual, to 120cm (48in); leaves narrow; 5-lobed, 5–7cm (2–23/4in) in diameter,
runners in spring. flowers blue). lobes oblong, deep, glabrous, coarsely
Lithodora
toothed and glandular); L.styraciflua upswept branch system and foliage that 60cm (24in), narrowly strap-shaped,
(SWEET GUM, AMERICAN SWEET GUM, tums butter yellow in autumn, place glossy dark green; flowers dark mauve,
RED GUM; E US; tall, narrowly pyrami- Liriodendron in the first rank of specimen densely clustered on a spike-like
dal tree, to 45m (150ft) in the wild; and avenue trees for parks, open spaces raceme; includes numerous cultivars,
leaves 5- or 7-lobed, 15cm (6in) in and larger gardens. The delicately tall or short, compact and clumped or
diameter, lobes triangular, shining and scented, pale green flowers are usually freely spreading, with pale to dark
glabrous above, hairy in vein axils obvious only at close quarters, but are green, narrow to strap-like leaves, some
beneath; ‘Aurea’: leaves mottled and beautiful when cut and displayed where striped or edged silvery white to cream
striped yellow; ‘Burgundy’: deep wine their elegant form and bright internal or gold, and with white to lilac, violet
red autumn colour, turning later and markings may be appreciated. Although or dark mauve flowers, the racemes
persisting longer than in other forms; tolerant of temperatures to at least long and slender or congested and
‘Festival’: erect with autumn leaf tints –15°C/5°F, flowering is more profuse in resembling a bunch of grapes); L.spicata
of yellow, peach, pink; ‘Golden Trea- hot summer climates. Plant in a sunny, (China, Vietnam; to 25cm (10in), rhi-
sure’: with golden yellow leaf margins; open position on deep, moisture-reten- zomatous; leaves to 35cm (14in), grass-
‘Lane Roberts’: autumn colour deep tive, fertile soils. Limit young trees to a like, minutely serrate; flowers pale
black crimson-red; ‘Moonbeam’: leaves single leader as two or more are likely to mauve to nearly white, more distinctly
variegated cream and vivid autumn incur structural weakness. Trees planted tubular than in L.muscari and on a
colour; ‘Palo Alto’: fiery orange-red in woodland, as they would grow in mauve to brown stem; includes culti-
autumn colour; ‘Pendula’: branches habitat, tend to attain considerable vars with white and pale mauve flow-
more or less weeping from an upright heights with very straight and virtually ers, dark green or white-striped leaves
bole; ‘Rotundiloba’: leaf lobes clear trunks. Propagate from seed (a and white-marbled fruit).
rounded; ‘Variegata’: leaves mottled large proportion of which may be infer-
yellow). tile) in the autumn, or, in spring, by Lithocarpus (from Greek lithos,
liquid feeding the use of a dilute

solution of fertilizers in water for feed-
grafting.
L.chinense (CHINESE TULIP TREE; C
China, Indochina; similar to L.tulipifera,
stone, and carpos, fruit, alluding to the
hard-shelled fruit). Fagaceae. SE Asia
and Indonesia, 2 in Japan and 1 in
L
ing plants, used especially for those but to 16m (52ft); leaves more deeply western N America. TANBARK OAK.
grown in containers. The solution may lobed; flowers smaller, inner tepals to 300 species, oak-like evergreen trees
be applied by watering can or through 4cm (11/2in), green, veined yellow); with leathery, mostly entire leaves and
an irrigation system using a dilutor. L.tulipifera (TULIP TREE, YELLOW hard-shelled, acorn-like nuts in calyx
Liquid feeding allows for the composi- POPLAR, TULIP POPLAR, CANARY WHITE- cupules. Lithocarpus is similar to Quercus
tion and concentration of nutrients, WOOD; eastern N America; tree to 50m but differs in the male flowers being in
and the frequency of feeds, to be read- (165ft)+; leaves to 12cm (43/4in), bright erect spikes (pendulous in Quercus) and
ily changed. green, paler beneath; flowers pale the acorns being borne few to many,
Concentrated liquid fertilizers are yellow-green, banded orange near often densely, on stout, stiff spikes.
available as proprietary products con- base, inner tepals 6 x 3cm (21/2 x 11/4in); Cultivate as for the smaller, evergreen
taining various percentages of nitrogen includes ‘Aureomarginatum’, with Quercus species.
and potassium to suit the condition yellow or green-yellow leaf margins, L.densiflorus (TANBARK OAK; N Amer-
of crops. Alternatively, they can be ‘Contortum’, with contorted leaves and ica; tree to 30m (100ft), leaves 5–13cm
obtained by collecting liquid seeping twiglets, ‘Fastigiatum’, of narrow, pyra- (2–5in), elliptic to oblong, acute, stiff
from cowsheds or manure heaps, or by midal habit, with fastigate branches, and leathery, toothed, initially downy
steeping a permeable sack of animal and ‘Integrifolium’, with leaves lacking above, white-tomentose beneath);
manure in a container of water. Infu- side lobes). L.henryi (C China; tree to 20m (66ft)+;
sions of comfrey serve a similar pur- leaves 10–25cm (4–10in), elliptic to
pose. Liquid feeds are readily absorbed Liriope (after the wood nymph oblong, finely tapering, entire, glossy
by plants and therefore quick-acting. Liriope). Liliaceae (Convallariaceae). above, paler beneath).
Japan, China, Vietnam. LILY TURF.
Liriodendron (from Greek leirion Some 5 species, perennial, evergreen, Lithodora (from Greek lithos, stone,
lily, and dendron tree). Magnoliaceae. tufted herbs with grassy leaves and and doron, gift). Boraginaceae. SW
Eastern N America, China, Indochina. small, grape-like flowers in elongated Europe to Asia Minor. Some 7 species,
2 species, large deciduous trees with spikes or racemes from late summer perennial shrublets and subshrubs, usu-
broadly oblong leaves, the apex cleft, to late autumn; these are followed by ally with bristly leaves and 5-lobed,
truncate or retuse, the base broadly black, berry-like fruits. Fairly drought- funnel- to bowl-shaped flowers in
1–2-lobed on each side. Produced in tolerant evergreen groundcover, hardy cymes in spring and summer. Given
summer, the vase-shaped, solitary flow- to –15°C/5°F, possibly lower with shel- good drainage in a raised bed, L.diffusa
ers consist of nine tepals, the outer three ter from cold drying winds. Cultivation will survive temperatures to about
sepal-like, the inner six petal-like and in as for Ophiopogon. –15°C/5°F; the remaining species will
2 whorls of 3, surrounding numerous, L.muscari (China, Taiwan, Japan; to tolerate cold to between –5 and 473
spirally arranged stamens. A graceful, 45cm (18in), tufted, tuberous; leaves to –10°C/23–14°F. Grow in full sun in
Lithodora
perfectly drained but moisture-retentive summer when the old pair of leaves
soils (acid to neutral for L.diffusa). Trim is almost totally shrivelled. In the
over after flowering to maintain com- autumn, water only during periods of
pactness. In the alpine house, use well- dry sunny weather – plants that remain
crocked clay pots with a mix of equal too wet for too long at this time of year
parts loam, leafmould and coarse sand. can split their bodies or rot. Repotting
Water moderately when in growth and is done when growth starts in late
keep almost dry in winter. Propagate spring. A weak low-nitrogen fertilizer
by seed in autumn, by soft stem cut- can be given to well-established plants.
tings, rooted in a closed case with Propagation as for Conophytum.
bottom heat, or by semi-ripe cuttings. L.aucampiae (body 20–32mm
L.diffusa (syn. Lithospermum diffusum; (3/4–11/4in), face elliptic to reniform,
NW France to SW Europe; stem to brick to sandy brown or ochre with
60cm (24in), procumbent or straggling, sienna to green-brown dots, often
bristly; flowers to 2cm (3/4in), blue, joined by slender fissures, sometimes
sometimes purple, exterior pubescent, Lithops schwantesii forming a semi-lucent green-brown
throat with a dense ring of long white These succulents have evolved a camouflage panel with blotches and a broken
hairs; includes white, pale blue and mechanism that serves to protect their margin; flowers yellow); L.bromfieldii
low-growing, deep azure cultivars, for water-rich tissues from grazing animals. (body 15–32mm (5/8–11/4in), lobes
example ‘Heavenly Blue’); L.oleifolia equal, face elliptic to reniform, buff to
(syn. Lithospermum oleifolium; E Pyrenees; Lithops (from Greek lithos, stone, and grey with wrinkles sunken, irregular,
stem to 45cm (18in), slender, diffuse, opsis, appearance). Aizoaceae. South dark red edged grey-green, brain-like;
ascending; flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in), pink Africa, Namibia. LIVING STONES, FLOW- flowers yellow); L.dorotheae (body
L becoming blue, or sky blue, exterior

silky, interior glabrous); L.zahnii (syn.
Lithospermum zahnii; S Greece; stem to
ERING STONES, PEBBLE PLANTS. 35
species, small, succulent, stemless
perennials. They consist of solitary or
20–30mm (3/4–11/4in), convex, face
rounded, dark beige or buff, panel
translucent grey-green or olive with
60cm (24in), tufted, much-branched, clumping plant bodies each formed by jagged to lobed edges and large
erect or ascending, silky-hairy; flowers the fusion of two, fleshy lobes with a blotches, sometimes reducing it to a
to 1.2cm (1/2in), white or blue, marked central fissure. The upper sur- pattern of hieroglyphs, with red dots;
interior glabrous). face of each lobe, (the face), may be flowers yellow); L.hookeri (body to
elliptic to reniform, concave, flat or 20–30mm (3/4–11/4in), face flat, reniform
Lithophragma (from Greek lithos convex, with a remarkable range of to elliptic, buff to pale glaucous brown,
stone and phragma, fence or screen, stone-like characters – cracks, pitting, panel rich brown, filled by interlocking
referring to its habitat). Saxifragaceae. wrinkles, dots, mossy hieroglyphs – or fleshy figures with deep dark grooves,
Western N America. WOODLAND STAR. with a central panel of a different forming a vermiculate pattern; flowers
9 species, perennial herbs with rosettes colour and usually semi-translucent, yellow; includes var. susannae, body
of long-stalked, rounded to trifoliolate either clear or occluded to varying 15–20mm (5/8–3/4in), face pale grey,
leaves arising from subterranean bul- degrees by island-like markings or sometimes with an obscure, darker
bils. Carried in erect racemes in spring, incursions of marginal coloration and panel, markings dark, sunken, forming
the flowers consist of five spreading veining. Solitary, daisy-like flowers are a broken network); L.julii (body
petals that are basically obovate, produced in summer and autumn. 20–30mm (3/4–11/4in), face reniform, flat
clawed and entire to 5-lobed. Hardy Provide a minimum temperature of to slightly concave, dove to dark grey,
woodland natives for well-drained 10°C/50°F, full sun and a dry atmos- panel dark brown to olive with red
peaty soils in light shade. They may phere at all times, possibly with light dots, eroded edges and broad blotches,
also be grown in the alpine house: keep shading in the height of summer if leaving a pattern of loose reticulation,
them moist while in growth, but rather ventilation is at all inadequate. Plant often with a brown stain on the inner
dry at other times. The foliage is visible in pans or half pots containing a low- lip of each lobe; flowers white; subsp.
only for a short growing season, with- fertility, loam-based medium with large fulleri: body 12–14mm (1/2in), face buff
ering during summer. Propagate in proportions of sand and fine grit. A to dull grey, panel translucent grey,
early spring by division, bulbils or from top dressing of pea gravel and pebbles sometimes with pale blotches, edges
seed. L.parviflorum (leaves 3-lobed to flush with the upper leaf surfaces will eroded and lobed, with dark brown or
trifoliate; flowering stem to 50cm help maintain soil temperature and red spots or dashes in sinuses; var. brun-
(20in), petals white-pink 7–16mm moisture, and, of course, draw atten- nea: body 12–14mm (1/2in), face slightly
(1/4–5/8in), 3-cleft). tion to the plants’ powers of mimicry. convex, buff, panel olive to chocolate-
Water very sparingly from early brown with few, minute or many, dis-
lithophyte a plant that grows on summer to late autumn; keep dry tinct markings, edges shallowly to
rocks or stony soil, deriving nourish- during the winter and merely spray deeply eroded with red-brown flecks in
474 ment from the atmosphere rather than over lightly on warm spring days. sinuses); L.karasmontana (body 30–40mm
the soil. Watering should only begin in the (11/4–11/2in), face elliptic to reniform,
Livistona
flat, concave or convex, rugose, dull white centre); L.pseudotruncatella (body succulent forms are frequently found
grey or beige, panel dark brown, with 25–30mm (1–11/4in), face broadly reni- on the surface of potted-plant growing
an impressed pattern of faint dendritic form, flat to slightly concave, grey to media; also in borders or standing
lines, or, in some variants, pale beige buff, panel olive-brown, obscured and ground. The stem or leaf structures
with face rugose and entirely suffused appearing as a fine network of dots are often branching, deeply lobed and
pale brick-red; flowers white; var. and mossy ‘veins’, terminating in dull undulating, rooting from the under-
lericheana: body 15–20mm (5/8–3/4in), red dashes, sometimes staining edges sides with long hair-like rhizoids.
lobes near equal, buff, face rounded, pale copper; flowers yellow; var. elisa- Reproduction is by spores. Liverworts
rugose, pink-tinted, pale olive to dull bethae: slightly smaller, body grey tinted thrive and quickly multiply in condi-
jade-green, markings few, large, edges lilac-blue or pink, markings dark grey, tions of plentiful moisture.
eroded with lobes irregular; var. tischeri: marginal dashes bright red; subsp. Development is discouraged where
body 20–25mm (3/4–1in), face broadly archerae: face reniform, pale grey with a the soil pH is 7 or higher; also where
reniform, flat, rugose, capped pale slightly darker central zone, faint, deli- organic fertility is maintained and there
ginger, panel dark olive to chocolate, so cate radial fissures, obscure spotting is regular cultivation including hoeing.
obscured by markings and irregular and, sometimes, marginal red dots and They can be smothered by the
marginal incursions as to be an open dashes; subsp. dendritica: face grey with application of a deep mulch to
pattern of dull, impressed ‘veins’; a regular network of fine, dark hiero- borders. Replacing the surface of
subsp. bella: body 25–30mm (1–11/4in), glyph-like markings, radiating from a pot plants with fresh growing media
face convex, grey to buff, panel dull distinct, straight line of colour at inner is the best course of action with
olive reduced to an open, jagged-edged margin); L.schwantesii (body 30–40mm container infestations.
network by broad markings and mar- (11/4–11/2in), face oblong to reniform, The application of herbicide prod-
ginal incursions); L.lesliei (body rugose, grey or buff capped pale ucts containing benzalkonium chloride,
20–45mm (3/4–13/4in), face elliptic to ginger, panel olive-grey with a network dichlorophen or fatty acids are effective
reniform, flat to convex, grey-green to
buff to pale terracotta, sometimes
capped pale gold, panel pale to dark
of cinnamon lines; flowers yellow;
subsp. gesneri: body 20–25mm (3/4–1in),
lobes apex, grey-tan, capped pale
where use is acceptable and officially
approved. L
olive, with eroded edges and dense, brown with a network of red-brown Livistona (for Patrick Murray, 17th-
dotted, irregular markings forming a lines; subsp. steineckeana: body 15mm century Baron of Livingston, whose
fine, mossy, dendritic pattern; flowers (5/8in), face semi-circular, convex, grey- collection became the basis of the
yellow; var. mariae: body 20–30mm white suffused dirty cream, usually with Edinburgh Botanic Garden). Palmae.
(3/4–11/4in), lobes grey-buff, face sandy a few grey-green dots, panel small, Asia, Australasia. 28 species, shrubby
gold, panel olive, finely and densely opaque, seldom present, possibly a or arborescent palms. The stems are
marked appearing minutely green- garden hybrid; subsp. terricolor: body solitary, erect and clothed with leaf
gold-speckled; subsp. burchellii: body 20–25mm (3/4–1in), oblong-reniform sheaths, becoming bare and ringed or
pale grey or buff, panel charcoal-grey face, slightly convex, buff to tan, covered with leaf bases; the leaves are
with many fine markings creating an closely spotted olive or mid-green, palmate. Elegant fan palms, they are
intricate, spreading network, or virtu- flowers yellow, occasionally with a grown outdoors as specimens in frost-
ally unmarked, characterized by radiat- white centre). free gardens or in deep pots in the
ing marginal lines with expanded tips); greenhouse or conservatory (minimum
L.marmorata (body 28–30mm (11/8–11/4in), Littonia (For Dr S. Litton, professor of temperature 7°C/45°F). Plant in full
face narrowly reniform, flat to convex, Botany in Dublin in the mid-19th cen- sun or light shade in a fertile, well-
pale grey or beige sometimes tinted tury). Liliaceae (Colchicaceae). South drained, acid to neutral soil. Water pot-
green or lilac, panel translucent, dark Africa, Arabia. 8 species tuberous, grown specimens only sparingly in
grey or grey-green, spreading outward perennial climbing herbs with slender winter. Propagate by seed sown in deep
from an arch on inner lip, closely and stems, tendril-tipped leaves and orange, containers.
deeply marked with jagged edges, campanulate, nodding flowers in L.australis (GIPPSLAND PALM, CABBAGE
resembling a grey fissured stone; flow- summer. Cultivate as for Gloriosa. L.mod- PALM, AUSTRALIAN PALM, AUSTRALIAN
ers white); L.olivacea (body to 20mm esta (South Africa; stem to 12m (39ft), FAN PALM; east coastal Australia; stem
(3/4in), face flat, reniform with a straight slender; leaves linear to lanceolate; tepals to 25m (80ft) x 30cm (12in), spiny-
inner margin, pale grey or beige, panel to 5cm (2in), orange-yellow, lanceolate). fibrous at first, becoming bare; leaf
translucent, olive, edge slightly eroded, blades to 1.75m (53/4ft), glossy, seg-
clear or with a few, scattered, raised littoral, litoral growing on the sea- ments to 70, with drooping, cleft tips;
markings; flowers yellow with white shore. fruit to 2cm (3/4in), red-brown to black,
centre); L.otzeniana (body 25–30mm waxy); L.chinensis (CHINESE FAN PALM;
(1–11/4in), face reniform to elliptic, liverwort common name for a primi- S Japan, Ryukyu Islands, Bonin Island,
convex, buff, panel dull olive-brown, tive, flowerless land plant belonging to S Taiwan; stem to 12m (39ft) x 30cm
semi-translucent with edges appearing the group Hepatophyta. Species of Pellia (12in), swollen at base; leaf blades dull;
deeply eroded and a few broad, intra- and Marchantia can be a nuisance in gar- fruit to 2.5cm (1in), deep blue-green to 475
marginal markings; flowers yellow with dens, where their flattened, overlapping grey-pink, glossy).
Lloydia
Lloydia (for Edward Lloyd annual or perennial herbs, shrubs and violet, in short, lax spikes; there are
(1660–1709), Welsh antiquary and nat- treelets. Produced in summer, usually many cultivars and seed races includ-
uralist, and keeper of the Ashmolean in racemes, the flowers are tubular and ing dwarf and vigorous plants, some
Museum, Oxford). Liliaceae (Liliaceae). bilabiate, with the lower three lobes bushy, some trailing, with single or
Temperate northern Hemisphere. large and spreading, and the upper double flowers ranging in colour from
About 12 species, bulbous perennials 2 lobes small and recurved. violet through blue to pink and white);
with narrowly linear leaves. Produced The ‘annual’ lobelias are small, L.fulgens (syn. L.splendens; Texas,
in summer on slender stalks, the flow- tender and half-hardy perennials com- Mexico; close to L.cardinalis but slightly
ers consist of six spreading perianth monly grown as edging and in window hairy; leaves to 15cm (6in), linear to
segments. Fully hardy. Grow in light boxes, with trailing kinds well-suited to lanceolate; inflorescence usually one-
shade or bright indirect light, in a hanging baskets. Valued for their (typi- sided, flowers scarlet, exterior more or
gritty, perfectly drained but moisture- cally) rich, deep blue flowers, modern less downy; ‘Illumination’: flowers scar-
retentive soil. Propagate by seed sown selections have extended the colour let in large spikes); L. x gerardii (L.cardi-
when ripe in the cold frame or in range to include pure white (L.erinus nalis x L.siphilitica; robust perennial, to
spring. L.serotina (SNOWDON LILY; tem- ‘White Lady’), carmine pink (L. ‘Rosa- 1.5m (5ft); flowers violet tinged with
perate northern Hemisphere; to 15cm mond’) and pale lilacs, as in L. ‘Lilac pink, to purple, lower lip with two
(6in); flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in), white, Fountain’. The hardy L.siphilitica, white marks, in large racemes;
pale yellow at base, veined red-purple). L.cardinalis, the more tender L.fulgens, ‘Rosenkavalier’: pure pink; ‘Vedrarien-
and the hybrids derived from them, sis’: dark violet); L.siphilitica (GREAT
loam a term widely used imprecisely (L. x speciosa), include some of the most LOBELIA, BLUE CARDINAL FLOWER; E
in horticultural literature to describe beautiful of garden perennials, bearing US; perennial herb to 60cm (24in);
soil considered of excellent quality for tall strong spikes of bloom in luminous stem erect, very leafy; leaves to 10cm
plant growth; ‘medium loam’ generally colours in late summer. They are suited (4in), ovate to lanceolate, somewhat
L refers to a fertile soil that is rich in

fibrous organic matter, moisture reten-
tive, easily worked, and without
to the herbaceous border and to moist
soils at stream and pond side. Although
sometimes grown as marginal water
downy, toothed; flowers to 2.5cm (1in),
blue, in dense spikes; ‘Alba’: white
flowers; ‘Nana’: compact); L. x speciosa
predominant proportions of silt, clay, plants, they are generally short-lived (L.cardinalis x L.fulgens x L.siphilitica;
sand or stones. when submerged. The hardy L.dort- erect, smooth to hispid perennial; flow-
The term ‘loam’ is used more specif- manna needs to grow in small, fairly ers to 3cm (11/4in), red or mauve tinged
ically in classification systems of soil shallow ponds, or at lake margins. with purple or violet, in tall spikes;
texture, where it does not imply fertility L.tupa is a spectacular perennial. Hardy cultivars include ‘Bees Flame’, with
but serves to describe soils with con- in zone 7, it needs a sunny, warm and bronze-red leaves and scarlet flowers,
spicuous physical characteristics, such sheltered situation, a moist but free- ‘Brightness’, with brilliant red flowers,
as silt-loam, clay-loam, sandy-loam and draining soil and mulch protection in ‘Dark Crusader’, with green to dark
fibrous loam. winter. Increase annuals by seed in bronze leaves and blood-red flowers,
Formulae for soil-based growing spring, perennials by seed or division ‘Queen Victoria’, with beetroot-red
media, such as the John Innes seed and in spring. leaves and vivid red flowers, and
potting composts, prescribe loam as an L.cardinalis (CARDINAL FLOWER, ‘Russian Princess’, with tinged red
ingredient. In this instance, it refers INDIAN PINK; N America; short-lived leaves and bright purple flowers). L.tupa
ideally to fibrous clay-loam soil taken, perennial herb, to 90cm (36in), strongly (Chile; perennial to 2m (61/2ft); stem
after obtaining the necessary permis- tinged purple-bronze; leaves to 10cm upright, robust; leaves to 30cm (12in),
sion, from the top 40–60cm (16–24in) (4in), glossy, often purple-red, narrowly lanceolate, pale sea green, finely
of long-term grass sward. The turf is ovate to oblong or lanceolate, toothed; downy; flowers large, brick red to
lifted intact and stacked, grass side flowers to 5cm (2in), bright scarlet, in blood red, in terminal spikes).
down, to mature in a heap about 3m narrow spikes; includes ‘Alba’, with
(10ft) square and 2m (61/2ft) high. white flowers, and ‘Rosea’, with pink lobulate possessing or bearing
flowers); L.dortmanna (WATER LOBELIA; lobules.
loamless compost see soilless media. N America, W Europe; aquatic,
glabrous, perennial herb to 60cm Lobularia (Latin lobulus, referring to
lobed divided into segments; the seg- (24in); leaves oblong; flowers to 2cm the small fruit). Cruciferae. North tem-
ments separated from each other by (3/4in), pale mauve, few, pendulous, in perate regions. 5 species, annual or
sinuses that do not reach to the base a raceme standing clear of the water); perennial hairy herbs with narrow
of the organ. L.erinus (EDGING LOBELIA, TRAILING leaves and small, scented, 4-petalled
LOBELIA; South Africa; small perennial flowers in compact terminal racemes,
Lobelia (for Matthias de l’Obel herb, branches slender, sprawling then in spring and summer. Hardy, low-
(1538–1616), botanist and physician to ascending or cascading; leaves small, growing, bushy annuals and short-lived
James I of England). Campanulaceae. dark green, glabrous, ovate to linear, perennials, commonly used in bedding
476 Tropical to temperate climates, particu- toothed; flowers to 2cm (3/4in), throat and edging, as temporary groundcover,
larly America. Some 365 species, yellow to white, tube and limb blue to and on dry walls. They are tolerant of
Lonicera
maritime conditions. Grow in full sun, pinnately compound leaves. Produced burrow downwards to ground level.
on well-drained soils. Sow seed under in summer in racemes, the flowers are The adults are slender, up to 12mm
glass in later winter/early spring, and obliquely tubular, with a limb splitting (1/2in) long, with two black spots on the
harden off in the cold frame before into 4 narrow twisted lobes. Cultivate yellow thorax. Damage can be reduced
planting out in spring. Alternatively as for Embothrium, but with rather more by cutting out and burning affected
sow thinly in situ in spring. Deadhead- shelter – for example, at the fringes or canes or shoots. None of the British
ing, by trimming with scissors, prolongs in clearings of woodland gardens and longhorn beetles causes damage to
flowering. Plants may be attacked by mature shrubberies, on moist, acid soil. growing garden plants.
crucifer downy mildew, crucifer white L.ferruginea (Chile, Patagonia; to 7m
blister and club root. L.maritima (SWEET (23ft); leaves to 20cm (8in), leathery, long tom see pots and potting.
ALISON, SWEET ALYSSUM; S Europe, olive-green above, tomentose beneath,
widely naturalized; low-growing bushy initially rusty-tomentose; flowers scarlet Lonicera (for Adam Lonitzer
annual or short-lived perennial, fading to olive green at tips). (1528–86), German naturalist, author
10–55cm (4–22in); leaves 1–3cm of a herbal (Kreuterbüch) much reprinted
(1/2–11/4in), linear to ligulate, somewhat loment a leguminous pod that con- between 1557 and 1783). Caprifoliaceae.
silvery-grey; flowers fragrant in com- tracts between the seeds it contains, HONEYSUCKLE, WOODBINE. N Hemi-
pact heads, petals to 3mm (1/8in), drying and splitting transversely into sphere. About 180 species, deciduous
rounded, usually white; many cultivars one-seeded segments at maturity. or evergreen shrubs, some bushy, others
and seed races available, including twining vigorously. Borne in clusters
compact and taller forms and plants long-arm pruner a pruning tool in leaf axils or in terminal heads, the
with small or large flowers in tones of consisting of cutting blades mounted flowers are tubular to campanulate; the
white, pink, purple-red and mauve). on a long pole and operated by a lever 5-lobed corolla limb may be bilabiate
attached as a handle at the opposite (with a 4-lobed upper lip) or regular.
locular, loculate furnished with
locules; divided into separate chambers
or compartments.
end; it is used for pruning parts inac-
cessible from ground level. It is often
fitted with a saw or fruit-picking attach-
The fruit is a many-seeded berry.
Lonicera has a wide range of uses in
the garden. The climbing and twining
L
ment, and is sometimes called a lopper. species are used for covering trelliswork,
locule a cavity or chamber within an walls, fences, pergolas and old tree
ovary, anther or fruit. long-day plant see photoperiodism. stumps. Although they will grow in sun
or part shade, in habitat the climbers
loculicidal a form of dehiscence, longhorn beetles (Coleoptera: tend to grow with their roots in shade
where the capsule splits longitudinally Cerambycidae) family of beetles with and their shoots reaching up to the sun.
and dorsally, directly through the cap- antennae often longer than the body. The shrubby honeysuckles will grow
sule wall. Many species are brightly coloured, in full sun or light shade. Deciduous
and some up to 100mm (4in) long, shrubby honeysuckles include several
locus the position of a gene on a though most are between 10–60mm sweetly fragrant winter-flowering
chromosome. (1/2–21/2in) in length. The larvae are soft species and some colourful shrubs such
white or yellow grubs with very small as L.tatarica. Among the evergreen
locusts see grasshoppers. or absent legs, mostly tunnellers into shrubby species, L.pileata makes good,
dead or decaying wood. loose groundcover, while L.nitida is
lodicule one of two, or sometimes Longhorn beetles are more common familiar as a hedging plant. Those listed
three, minute extrastaminal scales, in the tropics than elsewhere but two below are fully hardy except for the
adpressed to the base of the ovary species that are pests occur in gardens showy climber L.hildebrandtiana, which
in most Gramineae. in North America. Larvae of the APPLE- needs a minimum temperature of
TREE BORER (Saperda candida) tunnel the 7°C/45°F. Honeysuckles like a fertile,
loganberry see hybrid berries. cambium and heartwood of trees such well-drained soil. Prune young plants
as apple, pear, quince, plums, cherry, to encourage a good frame-work of
loggia a covered sitting or walking mountain ash and hawthorn branches. Thereafter prune
place attached to a building, with one at ground level; the adults are after flowering to keep within
side open to the air. The term is often up to 20mm (3/4in) long and bounds and thin out old wood.
applied to garden rooms or house olive-brown with conspicuous L.nitida may be sheared
extensions, even those that are com- white stripes. The pest can throughout the growing
pletely enclosed by glass. be controlled by routine season. Propagate by semi-
orchard sprays. Larvae of ripe cuttings in summer, or
Lomatia (from Greek loma, edge, the RASPBERRY CANE BORER by hardwood cuttings in
referring to the winged edge of the (Oberea bimaculata) first late autumn, also by simple
seeds). Proteaceae. Australasia, S invade shoot tips of plants, layering in late autumn.
America. 12 species, evergreen shrubs such as raspberry, blackberry Honey- Attacked by aphids, mildew. 477
with entire, toothed, pinnatifid or and sometimes roses, but later suckle aphid (See table overleaf.)
Lonicera
L ONICERA
L. x americana S & SE climber fragrant, yellow, tinted red
(L.caprifolium x L.etrusca) Europe, resembling maroon, in crowded whorls
Balkans L.caprifolium from axils of connate leaves,
to 5cm (2in), tube slender
Comments: Summer. ‘Atrosanguinea’: flowers deep red outside. ‘Quereifolia’: leaves lobed, sometimes with yellow margin or red striped.
‘Rubella’: flowers light purple outside, buds more deeply coloured. Z6.
L. x brownii garden origin deciduous climber elliptic, blue-green, somewhat orange-scarlet in heads
(L.sempervirens x L.hirsuta) to 3m (10ft) hairy beneath, uppermost leaf
SCARLET TRUMPET pairs connate
HONEYSUCKLE
Comments: Spring–summer. ‘Dropmore Scarlet’: vigorous; flowers long trumpet-shaped, bright scarlet, mid-summer-early autumn, long lasting.
‘Fuchsioides’: flowers orange-scarlet.
L.caprifolium Europe, W deciduous climber to 10cm (4in), obovate or oval, yellow-white, pink-tinged, to orange-red
ITALIAN WOODBINE; Asia to 6m (20ft) glaucous, especially beneath, 5cm (2in), fragrant, in 4–10-
ITALIAN HONEYSUCKLE terminal pair fused flowered whorls
Comments: Spring–summer. ‘Praecox’: leaves grey-green; flowers cream, often tinted light red, later turning yellow, early-flowering. Z5.
L L.etrusca Mediterranean
region
semi-evergreen
climber to 4m
(13ft)
to 8cm (3in), oval or obovate,
glaucous, blue-green, upper
leaves connate
closely packed in whorls,
yellow tinted red, becoming
deep yellow, to 5cm (2in)
red
Comments: Summer. ‘Donald Waterer’: flowers red and white, yellowing with age, fragrant. ‘Michael Rosse’: flowers cream and pale yellow,
later darkening, slightly fragrant. ‘Superba’: shoots flushed red; flowers cream, later orange, in large terminal panicles; strong-growing. Z7.
L.fragrantissima China erect to spreading, to 7.5cm (3in), oval-elliptic, to 2cm (3⁄4in), cream to dull red
WINTER-FLOWERING evergreen to dull green above, somewhat white, intensely fragrant,
HONEYSUCKLE deciduous shrub glaucous beneath paired in axils
to 3m (10ft) tall
Comments: Winter–early spring. Z5.
L.x heckrottii garden origin loosely climbing to 6cm (21⁄2in), oblong or fragrant, rich pink outside,
(L.sempervirens x to sprawling elliptic, glaucous beneath, yellow inside, 4cm (11⁄2in), in
L.x americana) deciduous shrub uppermost pairs connate whorls on terminal spikes
Comments: Summer. Sometimes called L. ‘American Beauty’. ‘Gold Flame’: leaves dark green; flowers yellow inside, flushed strong purple. Z5.
L.henryi W China evergreen or to 9cm (31⁄2in), oblong 2cm (3⁄4in), maroon or yellow, purple-black
semi-deciduous to lanceolate, deep, shiny usually paired
Comments: Summer. Z4. climber green
478 L. x americana L. x brownii ‘Dropmore Scarlet’ L.caprifolium L. x heckrottii

Lonicera
L ONICERA
L.hildebrandiana China, SE evergreen climber, to 12cm (43⁄4in), oval or to 16cm (6in), cream,
GIANT BURMESE Asia sometimes semi- rounded, deep green above changing to gold then
HONEYSUCKLE; GIANT deciduous, to amber, fragrant
HONEYSUCKLE 25m (80ft) Comments: Summer. Z9.
L.japonica Japan, Korea, evergreen or to 8cm (3in), usually white, becoming yellow, blue-black
JAPANESE China; semi-evergreen smaller, oblong to elliptic, paired, intensely fragrant,
HONEYSUCKLE; GOLD- naturalized climber to 9m incised or lobed on juvenile to 4cm (11⁄2in)
AND-SILVER FLOWER SE US (30ft) or very vigorous shoots
Comments: Spring–summer. ‘Aureoreticulata’ (‘Reticulata’): leaves yellow. ‘Hall’s Prolific’: habit climbing, to 6m (20ft) high, to 3m (10ft)
small, bright green, with golden netted veins, sometimes lobed. wide; leaves ovate; flowers white, later cream to yellow. ‘Variegata’:
‘Halliana’: leaves rich green; flowers white, sometimes tinted red, later leaves variegated yellow. Z4.
L.maackii E Asia deciduous, erect to 8cm (3in), narrowly to 2cm (3⁄4in), white then dark red
shrub to 5m (16ft) obovate to broadly yellow, paired or black
lanceolate, dark green
Comments: Spring-summer. ‘Erubescens’: flowers suffused pink, fruit red. Z3.
L.morrowii Japan deciduous shrub to 5cm (2in), oblong to 1.3cm (1⁄2in), downy, white dark red,
to 2m (61⁄2ft) to elliptic turning yellow, paired shiny
Comments: Spring-summer. Z3. L

L.nitida SW China twiggy evergreen 0.5–1.5cm (1⁄4–5⁄8in), ovate to lcm (1⁄2in), cream to white, glossy blue-
shrub to 3.5m to elliptic or rounded, dark, paired purple
(111⁄2ft) glossy green
Comments: Spring-summer. Commonly used for hedging and ground cover, with many cultivars, ranging in habit from tall, erect and dense to
low and arching, with very small leaves in tones of dark jade, emerald, lime and gold. Z6.
L.periclymenum Europe, Asia deciduous climber to 6.5cm (21⁄2in), ovate, fragrant, red and yellow- bright red
WOODBINE; Minor, Caucasus, to 4m (13ft) oval or obovate, white, to 5cm (2in), in
HONEYSUCKLE W Asia uppermost pair separate 3–5-whorled terminal spikes
Comments: Summer. ‘Belgica’: flowers white, flushed purple outside, sometimes variegated white. ‘Serotina’, LATE DUTCH HONEYSUCKLE:
later yellow, scented, in large clusters; fruit large, red, abundant. leaves narrow; flowers dark purple outside, later fading, yellow inside,
‘Graham Thomas’: flowers large, white, later yellow tinted copper, profuse; fruit red.
long-lasting. ‘Quercina’: leaves ‘oak-like’ sinuately toothed to lobed
L.pileata China evergreen or semi- to 3cm (11⁄4in), oblong, to 0.8cm (3⁄8in), yellow- translucent
evergreen shrub dark green, glossy white, paired purple-blue
to 1.5m (5ft)
Comments: Spring-summer. Includes cultivars with bright emerald foliage, some very low-growing and excellent groundcover. Z5.
L.hildebrandiana L.japonica ‘Halliana’ L.nitida ‘Baggesen’s Gold’ L.periclymenum‘GrahamThomas’ 479

Lonicera
L ONICERA
L. x purpusii garden origin erect, semi- to 10cm (4in), ovate to creamy white, to 2.5cm (1in), red
(L. fragrantissima x deciduous shrub elliptic, dark green above, paired or clustered, highly
L. standishii) to 3m (10ft) with paler beneath fragrant
WINTER-FLOWERING arching, smooth to
HONEYSUCKLE bristly branchlets
Comments: Winter to early spring. Z6.
L.sempervirens E & S US vigorous to 8cm (3in), oval, deep to 5cm (2in), rich scarlet- bright red
TRUMPET evergreen green above, blue-green orange outside, more yellow
HONEYSUCKLE; CORAL climber beneath, uppermost pair inside, in whorls
HONEYSUCKLE of leaves connate
Comments: Spring–autumn. ‘Magnifica’: red outside, interior yellow. f. sulphurea: bright yellow, long- and late-flowering.
L.standishii China erect, deciduous to 10cm (4in), broadly to 2.5cm (1in), creamy-white red
WINTER-FLOWERING or semi-evergreen oblong-lanceolate, downy to palest pink, intensely
HONEYSUCKLE shrub to 2m (61⁄2ft) fragrant, paired
with warty and
Comments: Winter–spring. Z6. bristly branchlets
L.tatarica Russia, C Asia erect, deciduous to 6cm (21⁄2in), ovate to to 2.5cm (1in), pink, paired scarlet to
shrub to 4m (13ft) lanceolate, glaucous beneath yellow-
L Comments: Spring-summer. Includes cultivars of tall to dwarf and compact habit, with
flowers in shades of deep rosy red, pink and white, and scarlet to golden fruit. Z3.
orange
L. x tellmanniana garden origin vigorous, to 10cm (4in), ovate to to 4.5cm (13⁄4in), rich orange
(L.sempervirens x deciduous oblong, deep green above, to coppery gold, whorled
L.tragophylla) climber pruinose beneath, upper
pair fused Comments: Summer. Z5.
L.tragophylla China deciduous to 14cm (51⁄2in), oblong, to 8cm (3in), orange to red
climber glaucous, uppermost yellow, often tinted red
Comments: Summer. Z6. 1–3 pairs fused above, whorled
L. x xylosteoides garden origin erect, deciduous to 6cm (21⁄2in), broadly small, light red, hairy with a yellow to red
(L.tatarica x L.xylosteum) shrub to 2m elliptic to obovate, blue- swollen base
(61⁄2ft) green, hairy
Comments: Spring-summer. Includes low-growing and compact cultivars, some with white flowers. Z6.
L.xylosteum Europe, NE Asia erect, deciduous 3–7cm (11⁄4–23⁄4in), oblong- to lcm (1⁄2in), white often red or yellow
FLY HONEYSUCKLE shrub to 3m (10ft) ovate to obovate, downy tinted red or pink, carried
on middle or lower half of
Comments: Summer. Z3. branches
480 L.pileata L.tatarica L. x tellmanniana L.xylosteum

Luma
Lopezia (for Tomas Lopez (c1540), relevant to vigorous seedling rootstocks, for hanging baskets, patio containers
Spanish botanist who studied South and it has little advantage on selected and groundcover planting in silver and
American plants). Onagraceae. C types which are best pruned by the grey gardens. Grow in full sun in a
America. 21 species, annual or peren- renewal method. sheltered site in a fast-draining soil.
nial herbs with terminal racemes of Keep moist when in full growth, but
zygomorphic, 4-petalled flowers Loropetalum (from Greek loron rather dry and in cool, airy conditions
likened to colourful insects in flight. In strap, and petalon, petal: the petals are in winter. Trim after flowering. Propa-
frost-free areas, plant in well-drained long and narrow). Hamamelidaceae. gate by scarified seed in spring, or by
soil on a sunny site or in part-day Himalaya, China, Japan. 2 species, semi-ripe cuttings in summer.
shade. In cold areas, plant in a evergreen, downy shrubs or small trees, L.berthelotii (CORAL GEM, PARROT’S
medium-fertility loam-based mix and to 3m (10ft) tall, with ovate to elliptic BEAK, PELICAN’S BEAK; Canary Islands,
grow under glass, maintaining a mini- leaves and terminal clusters of spidery, Cape Verde Islands, Tenerife, natural-
mum night temperature of 10°C/50°F; 4-petalled flowers in winter and spring. ized US; cascading, climbing or pros-
water moderately, and pinch tips for Although tolerant of temperatures trate perennial subshrub, to 1m (31/4ft);
bushier specimens. Propagate from down to –5°C/23°F, Loropetalum flowers branches slender, ash-grey; leaves very
seed, sown with a little bottom heat, well only where temperatures seldom short-stalked, leaflets 1cm (1/2in), linear,
and by cuttings in spring. L.racemosa drop below 5°C/41°F. In colder silver-grey; flowers 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in),
(MOSQUITO FLOWER; Mexico, El Sal- regions, it may be grown in the inter- typically scarlet but also orange-red or
vador; variable annual or perennial to mediate greenhouse in a well-drained maroon-black, keel long, slender, beak-
1.5m (5ft); petals to 1cm (1/2in), white but moisture-retentive, high-fertility, or claw-like; includes ‘Kew Form’, with
to palest lilac, or purple, pink to red loam-based medium to which addi- silver leaves and red flowers; L.maculatus
or vermilion, lowermost obovate to tional organic matter has been added. differs in its burnished bronze-gold and
rounded, uppermost linear to oblong). Propagation as for Hamamelis. L.chinense fiery red flowers); L.hirsutus (syn. Doryc-
Lophomyrtus (Greek lophos, crested,

and Myrtus). Myrtaceae. New Zealand.
(syn. L.indicum; India, China, Japan;
shrub to 3m (10ft); leaves to 4cm
(11/2in), dark green, bristly-white,
nium hirsutum; HAIRY CANARY CLOVER;
Mediterranean, S Portugal; densely
silver-downy subshrub to 50cm (20in);
L
2 species, evergreen shrubs or small downy; petals 2cm (3/4in), white, strap- leaflets to 2cm (3/4in), obovate; flowers
trees with leathery leaves and white, shaped and wavy, giving a feathery cream flushed shell pink in umbels to
axillary flowers with four spreading appearance to whole inflorescence; 6cm (21/2in); seed heads dark, attrac-
petals. Cultivate as for Myrtus. ‘Roseum’: flowers pink). tive); L.jacobaeus (Cape Verde Islands;
L.bullata (RAMA RAMA; to 5.4m (18ft); erect perennial, 30–90cm (12–36in),
leaves to 5cm (2in), broadly ovate to Lotus (from the Greek name lotos, more or less grey-downy; flowers in
suborbicular, strongly bullate, glossy, used by Dioscorides and Theophrastus clusters, dark maroon-black to velvety
often tinged purple-red; L.obcordata for certain Leguminosae). Legumi- brown except for olive-yellow standard).
(ROHUTU; to 4.5m (15ft); leaves to nosae. Mediterranean Europe, south to
1.25cm (1/2in), obcordate, cuneate, Sahara Desert, W Asia; W US; Aus- low-worked used of plants grafted at
emarginate); L. x ralphii (L.bullata x tralia; South Africa. Some 100 species, a point near ground level. Also known
L.obcordata; intermediate between par- annual or perennial herbs and sub- as bottom-worked.
ents; leaves puckered; flowers white shrubs with palmate or pinnate leaves
tinted pink: ‘Purpurea’: leaves deep and axillary racemes of pea-like flow- Luma (native Chilean name). Myr-
purple-red). ers in spring and summer. The shrubby taceae. Argentina, Chile. 4 species,
L.hirsutus is hardy to –15°C/5°F. Grow evergreen shrubs or small trees with
lopper see long-arm pruner. in full sun on a fast-draining soil. Prune leathery leaves, white, 4-petalled flow-
in spring. The herbaceous L.jacobaeus ers and dark-purple berries. Hardy in
lopping shears a pruning tool with and the softly shrubby, scrambling sheltered locations in zone 7. Cultivate
short stout blades on medium length L.maculatus and L.berthelotii are suitable as for Myrtus but with protection from
handles, used for cutting stout branches. for planting outdoors in gardens that strong winds and on a moist but gritty,
They are sometimes called loppers. are frost-free or almost so. In zones 8 acid to neutral soil.
and lower, these species make beautiful L.apiculata (Argentina, Chile; shrub
lorate strap-shaped. specimens for the cool greenhouse or or small tree to 10m (33ft); bark cinna-
conservatory (minimum temperature mon, peeling to expose ash-grey wood;
Lorette pruning a method of prun- 5°C/41°F). Alternatively, they can be leaves 1–4.5cm (1/2–13/4in), elliptic to
ing fruit trees, especially pears, devel- used as half-hardy bedding plants, suborbicular, apiculate; ‘Glanleam
oped by Louis Lorette in the early 19th planted out after the last frosts, and Gold’: leaves deeply edged creamy
century. All pruning is carried out from overwintered in frost-free conditions as yellow, tinged pink at first; ‘Penwith’:
spring to late summer by severe cutting stock plants or newly rooted cuttings. leaves grey-green edged cream-white,
of side laterals to stimulate a maximum With cascading stems of filigree foliage tinted red-pink in winter); L.chequen
amount of fruit bud from the base of and fiery flowers, L.maculatus and (Chile; shrub or small tree to 9m (30ft); 481
shoots. The system was developed as L.berthelotii are among the finest plants bark grey-brown; leaves 0.5–2.5cm
Luma
(1/4–1in), elliptic, ovate or lanceolate, perennials are those derived mainly also be affected by black root rot, crown
rarely suborbicular, acute). from L.polyphyllus and its crosses with gall, powdery mildew and sclerotina rot.
L.arboreus and several annual species. Lupins may become severely infested
Lunaria (from Latin luna, moon, Some of the finest of these are the Rus- with the lupin aphid. In North America,
alluding to the shape of the pod and sell Lupins, raised by George Russell of plants may be attacked by the capsid bug.
the moonlight-like quality of the York over a period of 25 years and L.arboreus (TREE LUPIN; W US; ever-
septum). Cruciferae. C and S Europe. introduced in 1937. Named selections green shrub to 3m (10ft); leaflets lanug-
3 species, biennial or perennial herbs are chosen for colour and height, from inose beneath, grey-green; flowers
with erect, branching stems, toothed, dwarf races such as Garden Gnome, sulphur-yellow, sometimes blue or
ovate to cordate leaves and terminal Minarette and Dwarf Gallery, which lavender, in erect, lax, terminal raceme
racemes of 4-petalled flowers in spring seldom exceed 45–60cm (18–24in), to 25.5cm (10in); L.chamissonis (SW
and summer. The fruit is a silique, very to L. ‘Band of Nobles’, USA; evergreen, slender-branched
compressed and oblong or elliptic which may achieve 150cm shrub to 1.5m (5ft), leaflets narrow,
to nearly circular in outline. (60in). Colours range from silver-hairy; flowers blue and cream
Stripped of its casing and cream and white shades to yellow in racemes to 10cm (4in));
seeds, all that is left of the through yellows in L.polyphyllus (California to British
fruit is a translucent, pearly L. ‘Chandelier’, orange reds Columbia; stout perennial to 1.5m
white septum. These persist in L. ‘Flaming June’, carmine (5ft), usually unbranched; flowers blue,
on the bleached branches of in L. ‘The Page’ to rich violets in purple, pink or white, verticillate, in a
the inflorescence, and are L. ‘Thundercloud’; they include somewhat dense raceme to 60cm
popular with dried flower membranous strong primary colours and (24in); includes ‘Moerheimii’, with
arrangers. Hardy to casing bicolours, as in L. ‘The Châte- white and rose flowers); L.subcarnosus
–15°C/5°F. Grow in moist laine’ and L. ‘The Governor’. (TEXAS BLUEBONNET; SW US; decum-
L fertile soils, in part shade or

sun. Propagate from seed sown
in autumn or spring; L.rediviva
Lunaria
seedpod
More subtle shades are found in
L. ‘Blushing Bride’ (ivory white),
L. ‘George Russell’ (creamy pink),
bent annual to 40cm (16in), branched
at base; flowers bright blue, standard
white at centre, turning purple,
may also be increased by division. and L. ‘Wheatsheaf ’ (golden-yellow crowded, in several-flowered raceme to
Both will naturalize. For dried flushed pink). Hybrids sold as mixed 12cm (43/4in) long). For hybrid lupins
arrangements, harvest as pods turn shades are at their most splendid when and cultivars, see above under Russell
brown; hang to dry and allow the cas- planted in groups of five or more, where Lupins.
ings and seed to fall away. fine contrasts can be achieved. Most
L.annua (syn. L.biennis; HONESTY, hybrids and species are not long-lasting lute an implement used for working
SILVER DOLLAR, PENNY FLOWER; bien- when cut, but survive longer if the cut in top-dressings, for filling hollows in
nial to 1m (31/4ft); flowers unscented, stem is filled with water before arrang- lawns, and for levelling soil. Usually
to 3cm (11/4in) across, purple to white, ing. L.polyphyllus and hybrids are hardy made in one of two forms: a length of
sometimes white streaked or flecked in climate zone 5. Grow in full sun, in wood about 1m (31/4ft) wide, fixed to a
purple; fruit 2–7cm (3/4–23/4in), oblong deep, moderately fertile, well-drained handle in the fashion of a rake, or a
to round, apiculate; includes ‘Alba’, soils that are slightly acid to neutral. series of shorter crosspieces, made into
with white flowers, ‘Haslemere’, with L.arboreus and the rather finer a frame, and fixed by a hinged bracket
leaves variegated off-white and purple L.chamissonis are useful in the shrub to the handle.
flowers, and ‘Variegata’, with leaves border, herbaceous border and for nat-
variegated and edged cream); L.rediviva uralizing on poor dry soils and in mar- Luzula (from Italian lucciola). Jun-
(PERENNIAL HONESTY; similar to L.annua itime areas. Given good drainage and caceae. Cosmopolitan, especially tem-
except perennial, flowers fragrant, fruit shelter from cold winds, they will toler- perate Eurasia. WOODRUSH. 80 species,
tapering at base and apex). ate temperatures to –15°C/5°F. perennial or, rarely, annual herbs (those
Sow seed in spring in pots and plant here perennial) with basal clumps and
lunate crescent-shaped. out when small. Lupins are generally rosettes of grassy or sedge-like leaves,
intolerant of root disturbance. Germi- sometimes with long wavy white hairs.
Lupinus (from Latin lupus, wolf, refer- nation is quicker if seeds are pre-soaked Brown, green or white, the inconspicu-
ring to the belief that these plants for 24 hours in warm water. Increase ous flowers are borne in spring amid
ravage the land, exhausting the fertility also by basal cuttings, taken with a small small, chaffy bracts in stalked umbel-
of the soil). Leguminosae. Western N part of the rootstock attached, and like corymbs. Fully hardy groundcover
America, Mediterranean, S America, rooted in sand in the cold frame. for moist and shaded conditions. Culti-
S Europe, N Africa. LUPIN. Some 200 The fungus Pleiochaeta setosa causes vars of L.sylvatica will brighten the
species, annual or perennial herbs or small black-purple spots which may darkest places; they are also useful for
shrubs with palmate leaves and pea-like enlarge so that the leaves shrivel and stabilizing banks of heavy soil. The
flowers in long, erect and cylindrical die; spots may also occur on stems and graceful L.nivea is less invasive and
482 racemes in late spring and summer. pods. The disease can be controlled by appreciates a sunny aspect. Propagate
The most commonly cultivated copper-based fungicides. Lupins can by division between autumn and
Lychnis
spring, alternatively by seed sown in orange); L.cochleata (Guatemala, Hon- L.coronaria self-seeds freely in gravelly
spring and summer. duras; similar to L.aromatica; flowers to soils. L. x haageana and L.chalcedonica
L.nivea (SNOW RUSH; Alps, C Europe; 5cm (2in) in diameter, sepals green- require more moisture to thrive; the
to 60cm (24in), loosely tufted; leaves yellow, petals deep orange, lip fimbri- latter is sometimes used in bog garden
linear, to 30 x 0.4cm (12 x 1/8in), flat, ate); L.cruenta (Mexico, Guatemala, or stream-side plantings with the roots
dark green, hairy; inflorescence loose Costa Rica, El Salvador; flowers spicily above water level. L. x haageana flowers
with up to 20 clusters of off-white flow- scented, sepals to 5 x 2.5cm (2 x 1in), in its first year from seed and may be
ers; includes ‘Little Snow Hare’, with yellow-green, petals to 4 x 2.5cm (11/2 x grown as an annual. L.alpina is a dwarf,
fine, bright white flowerheads with 1in), bright yellow to yellow-orange, mat-forming plant for the rock garden.
long hairs, and ‘Snow Bird’, with snow lip yellow, dotted maroon, spotted or Most species tolerate temperatures
white flowerheads); L.sylvatica (syn. zoned crimson at base, saccate, mid- below –15°C/5°F, although L.flos-jovis
L.maxima; GREATER WOODRUSH; S, W lobe pubescent); L.deppei (Mexico, and L. x haageana may not survive
and C Europe; to 80cm (32in), loosely Guatemala; sepals to 6 x 2.5cm (21/2 x where temperatures fall below –10°C
tufted, in large tussocks; basal leaves 1in), pale green flecked or faintly lined to –15°C/5–14°F. Propagate perenni-
to 30 x 2cm (12 x 3/4in), channelled, oxblood to red, petals to 4.5 x 2cm (13/4 als by division in autumn or spring, or
smooth or with silky hairs; inflores- x 3/4in), white, flecked red at base, lip from seed sown when ripe or in spring.
cence spreading, with many red-brown bright yellow with red dots, base L.alpina (subarctic regions and
flowers in groups of two to five; striped red, strongly veined, crenate); mountains of northern Hemisphere;
includes ‘Aurea’, with broad, golden- L.longipetala (Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, glabrous, tufted perennial to 15cm
yellow leaves, ‘Hohe Tatra’, with Venezuela; tepals yellow-green, tinged (6in); inflorescence dense, more or less
smooth, golden to lime green leaves, brown, sepals to 8.5 x 3cm (31/4 x 11/4in), capitate, of 6–20 flowers, petals usually
the colour especially bright in winter, petals smaller, lip red-brown to violet- pale purple, deeply bifid; includes culti-
‘Marginata’, with deep green leaves, purple, denticulate or fimbriate); vars with white to rose flowers); L.chal-
edged white and brown, ‘Tauernpass’,
with very broad, low-lying leaves, and
‘Woodsman’, with bright sap green
L.macrophylla (Costa Rica, Panama,
Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia;
sepals olive green, edged pink-brown,
cedonica (MALTESE CROSS; Europe,
Russia; erect, hispid perennial to 50cm
(20in); inflorescence capitate, 10–50-
L
leaves). to 4 x 2cm (11/2 x 3/4in), petals white, flowered, petals to 1.5cm (5/8in), bifid,
spotted rose-pink, to 3.5 x 2cm (11/2 x bright scarlet; includes cultivars with
Lycaste (possibly named for Lycaste, 3
/4in), lip white, margins dotted rose, white to rose, salmon and deep red
daughter of King Priam). Orchidaceae. midlobe spreading, ciliate); L.skinneri flowers, some double); L.coronaria
Mexico, C America, W Indies, S (syn. L.virginalis; Guatemala, Mexico, (DUSTY MILLER, ROSE CAMPION; SE
America. Some 45 species, perennial, Honduras, El Salvador; sepals white Europe, but naturalized locally else-
epiphytic, terrestrial or lithophytic to pink to violet-rose, to 8 x 3.5cm (3 x where from widespread cultivation;
herbs with large, ovoid pseudobulbs 11/2in), petals pink to red-violet, often biennial or short-lived perennial to
bearing bold, plicate, lanceolate leaves. marked crimson, to 7.5 x 4cm (3 x 11/2in), 80cm (32in), covered in silver-white
The flowers appear with or shortly lip white to pale rose, flecked red-violet, to grey, felty hairs; inflorescence few-
before the new growth and are borne to 5cm (2in), disc pubescent, fleshy). flowered, flowers long-stalked, petals
singly on sheathed stalks arising from to 1.2cm (1/2in), entire or shallowly 2-
the base of the pseudobulbs. They are Lychnis (From Greek lychnos, lamp; toothed, purple-red; includes cultivars
large, waxy and fragrant, with cupped the name Lychnis was used for these with white, rose, deep carmine and
to spreading lanceolate to elliptic plants by Theophrastus, and refers to double flowers); L.flos-cuculi (RAGGED
tepals; the lip is trilobed and the mid- the use of the grey-felted leaves of ROBIN; Europe, also Caucasus and
lobe spreading to decurved, pubescent, L.coronaria as lamp-wicks). Caryophyl- Siberia; sparsely hairy perennial with
entire to fimbriate or undulate. Pot in laceae. Widespread in the northern erect flowering stems to 75cm (30in);
a mix of coarse bark, charcoal, perlite, temperate zone; several species grown flowers on slender stalks in loose
sphagnum and leafmould. When in in gardens. CATCHFLY. About 20 cymes, petals to 1.5cm (5/8in), pale
growth, water and feed freely and species, mostly perennial herbs, differ- purple, deeply and narrowly 4-lobed; a
maintain humid, buoyant conditions ing from Silene only in the combination dwarf variant is sometimes grown in
with light shade (avoid leaf scorch); of 5 styles and a capsule opening with rock gardens; includes cultivars with
aim to promote the largest and firmest 5 teeth (most Silene species have 3 styles white, pink, red and double flowers);
possible pseudobulbs. Once growth is and a capsule opening with 6 teeth). L.flos-jovis (European Alps, naturalized
complete, reduce temperature (mini- Lychnis species range through northern locally elsewhere; white-tomentose
mum 10°C/50°F) and watering, and temperate regions in diverse habitats, perennial with erect, usually
increase light. Increase by division. from fenland, damp meadow and moist unbranched stem to 80cm (32in); inflo-
L.aromatica (Mexico, Honduras, woodlands (L.flos-cuculi) to rocky or rescence more or less capitate 4–10-
Guatemala; flowers scented, sepals to alpine meadow habitats (L.alpina). flowered, petals to 0.8cm (3/8in), scarlet,
4 x 2cm (11/2 x 3/4in), green-yellow, petals Woolly or downy-leaved species such as bifid with broad, often cut lobes;
to 3.5 x 2cm (11/2 x 3/4in), deep yellow, L.flos-jovis, L.coronaria and L.viscaria are includes ‘Alba’, with white flowers, and 483
lip to 3cm (11/4in), golden yellow, dotted suited to dry borders or raised beds. ‘Nana’ (‘Minor’), dwarf, to 25cm
Lychnis
(10in), with red flowers); L. x haageana two to three times in the growing purple, funnelform, lobes recurved,
(short-lived, glandular-hairy perennial season. Espaliers should be pruned slightly wavy).
to 60cm (24in); few-flowered inflores- after fruiting in winter or early spring.
cence, petals to 2cm (3/4in), broadly Propagate from seed sown in spring Lygodium (from Greek lygodes, flexi-
obovate, bifid, with a narrow tooth on and by rooted suckers. Alternatively, ble, twining, referring to the climbing
each side and toothed on margins, increase by hardwood cuttings in habit). Schizaeaceae. Cosmopolitan.
scarlet or rich orange-red; name autumn or spring, layering, or by CLIMBING FERN. About 40 species,
applied to a group of garden hybrids semi-ripe cuttings rooted with gentle climbing ferns. The roots and rhizomes
of uncertain parentage but clearly bottom heat in summer. L.barbarum form a dense clump from which arise
involving Far Eastern species, espe- (syn. L.chinense, L.europaeum, L.halimi- long and slender vining fronds with
cially L.fulgens and L.sieboldii; selections ifolium; COMMON MATRIMONY VINE, twining, wiry rachises, clasping
from crosses between these hybrids DUKE OF ARGYLL’S TEA TREE; SE rachillae and 2–3-pinnately or
and L.chalcedonica, known as L. x ark- Europe to China; deciduous, erect or palmately compound pinnae. Both
wrightii, include ‘Vesuvius’ with dark spreading, to 3.5m (111/2ft), usually species listed here prefer a minimum
foliage and very large orange-scarlet spiny; leaves to 5cm (2in), narrowly winter temperature of 7°C/45°F,
flowers; these hybrids are best treated oblong to lanceolate, grey-green to dull although L.palmatum may survive out-
as summer annuals; they include mid-green; flowers to 1cm (1/2in), in doors in climate zone 6, losing its
‘Grandiflora’, with large, red flowers, clusters of 1–4, dull lilac; fruit to 2cm fronds in winter. They need a moist,
‘Hybrida’, with red flowers, and (3/4in), orange-red or yellow). porous and fertile medium rich in leaf-
‘Salmonea’, with salmon pink flowers); mould and garden compost (pH 5 or
L.viscaria (Europe, W Asia; glabrous or Lycopersicon see tomato. lower for L.palmatum). Provide a cool,
sparsely hairy perennial with stiff stem buoyant and humid atmosphere in
to 60cm (24in), simple or slightly Lycoris (for a beautiful Roman light shade with support from wires,
L branched above, sticky below upper

nodes; panicle narrow, interrupted,
spike-like, petals to 1cm (1/2in), entire or
actress, the mistress of Mark Anthony).
Amaryllidaceae. China, Japan. 10–12
species, bulbous perennial herbs with
trellis, canes or surrounding vegetation.
Water copiously throughout the grow-
ing season, and feed at two week inter-
shallowly bifid, usually purple-red; strap-shaped leaves. The flowers are vals. Water moderately in winter. Cut
includes cultivars with white, rose, produced in late summer and autumn out faded fronds and mulch in early
magenta and bright red flowers, some in scapose umbels; they have six, slen- winter. Propagate from spores or by
double; subsp. atropurpurea: flowers deep der, reflexed and wavy tepals and division. Serpentine layering is also a
purple). prominent stamens. Lycoris species possibility: an actively growing frond is
will tolerate temperatures to at least pinned to the soil surface at each node.
Lycium (from Greek lykion, from –15°C/5°F, but need a period of dry L.japonicum (Japan to Australia;
Lycia, Asia Minor; name of a species warmth during their summer dor- fronds bright green, divisions finely
of Rhamnus transferred to this genus by mancy and minimal winter wet. They pinnately divided and ‘ferny’, to 20cm
Linnaeus). Solanaceae. Cosmopolitan, are also amenable to pot cultivation in (8in) long); L.palmatum (E US; fronds
temperate and subtropical regions. the cool greenhouse or conservatory. dark green, divisions palmately lobed,
BOXTHORN, MATRIMONY VINE. About They resent root disturbance, and may to 10cm (4in)).
100 species, deciduous and evergreen take several years to become well-
shrubs, often spiny with slender established; top-dressing is preferable Lyonia (for John Lyon (died before
branches, erect, spreading or scram- to repotting, and plants may remain in 1818), enthusiastic collector of Ameri-
bling. Small, dull white, green or the same pot for up to 4–5 years. Prop- can plants, who introduced many into
purple flowers are borne in the leaf agate by offsets or from ripe seed. England). Ericaceae. US, E Asia,
axils in spring and followed by bright L.aurea (GOLDEN HURRICANE LILY, Himalayas, Antilles. Some 35 species,
red berries. Tolerant of maritime con- GOLDEN SPIDER LILY; China, Japan; evergreen or deciduous shrubs or small
ditions and hardy to –23°C/–10°F. scape to 60cm (24in), flowers 9.5–10cm trees with leathery leaves, conspicu-
They will often succeed trained as wall (33/4–4in), golden-yellow, funnelform, ously angled branches and campanu-
plants or espaliers against a framework lobes recurved, wavy); L.radiata (SPIDER late to urceolate flowers densely packed
of wire. They also make good informal LILY, RED SPIDER LILY; Japan; scape to in axillary clusters or short racemes in
hedges, responding well to shearing, 50cm (20in), flowers 4–5cm (11/2–2in), summer. Cultivate as for Leucothoë.
and providing a thorny and impenetra- rose-red to deep red, lobes strongly L.ligustrina (MALE BERRY, HE HUCKLE-
ble barrier. Other garden uses include reflexed, wavy; includes ‘Alba’, with BERRY, MALE BLUEBERRY, BIG BOY; E
shrub plantings for stabilizing banks white flowers tinged yellow at base, US; deciduous shrub to 4m (13ft);
and clothing of unsightly tree stumps and ‘Variegata’, with crimson flowers, leaves 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in), oblong to
and retaining walls with their tangled edged white as they fade); L.squamigera elliptic or lanceolate, entire or finely
and cascading stems. Prune in late (MAGIC LILY, RESURRECTION LILY; serrate; flowers densely packed in
winter or early spring to confine to the Japan; scape to 70cm (28in), flowers downy, terminal panicles 8–15cm
484 space allocated, or to thin old, crowded fragrant, 9–10cm (31/2–4in), pale (3–6in) long, oval-urceolate to sub-
or weak wood; shear hedging plants rose-pink flushed or veined lilac or spherical, off-white, downy); L.ovalifolia
Lythrum
(Himalaya, W China, Japan, Taiwan; 5-parted, rotate flowers in spring and glabrous, stem to 50cm (20in), pros-
deciduous shrub or small tree to 12m summer. Fully hardy and easily grown trate, fast-creeping and rooting; leaves
(39ft); leaves 6–10cm (21/2–4in), ovate to in moist borders in sun or part shade to 2cm (3/4in), broadly ovate or cordate
elliptic, or oblong, finely downy, some- or at the waterside and in bog gardens. to circular; flowers solitary, rarely in
what setose beneath; flowers in downy Rampant L.nummularia is a rapidly pairs in leaf axils, 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in) in
racemes 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in) long, white, spreading, evergreen groundcover. diameter, yellow; ‘Aurea’: leaves golden
tubular to urceolate, downy). L.clethroides makes a graceful show of yellow); L.punctata (C Europe, Asia
curving white racemes in late summer Minor, naturalized N America; stem
lyrate pinnatifid, but with a large, and does well in the semi-wild garden to 90cm (36in), erect; leaves to 7cm
rounded terminal lobe and smaller lat- or in woodland. The glaucous-leaved (23/4in), lanceolate to elliptic, ciliate,
eral lobes diminishing in size toward L.atropurpurea and L.ephemerum are non- puberulent, dotted with glands
the base of the whole. invasive perennials for damper parts of beneath; flowers whorled, to 1.5cm
the grey border. L.ciliata is a handsome, (5/8in) in diameter, yellow).
Lysichiton (from Greek lysis, a loos- erect and free-flowering hardy peren-
ening, and chiton, cloak, referring to the nial for damp borders – its chocolate Lythrum (from Greek lythron, blood,
way in which the spathe opens as the and bronze-leaved cultivars providing referring to the colour of the flowers).
fruit ripens). Araceae. NE Asia, western outstanding foils for copper, bronze, Lythraceae. N America, Europe, Old
N America. SKUNK CABBAGE. 2 species, gold and lime ferns, grasses and sedges. World. LOOSESTRIFE. 38 species, peren-
robust, clump-forming, deciduous, Propagate by division or, L.nummularia, nial or annual herbs or small shrubs
perennial herbs of marshy places, with by rooted stem lengths. L.atropurpurea with 4-angled stems (those listed here
thick rhizomes and very large leaves, can be short-lived and may need to be are clump-forming hardy herbaceous
ovate to oblong, muskily scented and propagated from seed collected every perennials). In summer, flowers with
usually appearing with or after the two to three years. four to eight spreading, obovate petals
inflorescence. In early spring, minute,
green flowers are packed on a thick
club-like spadix enclosed within a
L.atropurpurea (Balkans; erect, clump-
forming, to 80cm (32in); leaves narrow,
grey-green, wavy; flowers small, darkest
are borne in slender, erect, terminal
spikes. Fully hardy perennials for the
bog garden, water margin or sunny,
L
large, cowel-like spathe. Both species wine red to purple-black in tight, moisture-retentive borders. The long,
will tolerate cold to at least –15°C/5°F. narrow spikes); L.ciliata (N America, upright wands of crumpled magenta
They are ideal for the bog garden, naturalized Europe; stem to 1m (31/4ft), flowers last for many weeks in late
streams and the pond- or lake-side; grow erect, glabrous; leaves to 14cm (51/2in), summer. Autumn foliage colour is a
in wet or damp, deep humus-rich soils ovate to lanceolate, ciliate, strongly further bonus. Propagate by seed or
in sun or part shade. They may be slow flushed chocolate to bronze in ‘Fire- division in spring.
to establish and flower. When used as a cracker’; flowers solitary or paired, L.salicaria (PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE,
waterside marginal, prepare the plant- in axils of upper leaves, to 1cm (1/2in) SPIKED LOOSESTRIFE; Old World, natu-
ing site with rich loam to a depth of at in diameter, yellow with red blotches); ralized NE US; erect, downy perennial
least 30cm (12in), built up to water level. L.clethroides (GOOSENECK LOOSESTRIFE; to 120cm (48in); flowers in whorled
Propagate by division in late winter. China, Japan; stem to 1m (31/4ft), clusters; petals to 1cm (1/2in), pink-
L.americanus (western N America; simple, erect; leaves to 13cm (5in), purple; ‘Atropurpureum’: flowers dark
leaves 50–125 x 30–80cm (20–50 x ovate to lanceolate, sparsely hairy, purple; ‘Brightness’: to 90cm (36in),
12–32in); spathe to 40cm (16in), bright glandular-punctate; flowers crowded with deep rose-pink flowers; ‘Feuerk-
yellow); L.camtschatcensis (NE Asia; close in slender, nodding, terminal racemes, erze’ (syn. ‘Firecandle’): to 90cm (36in),
to L.americanus, but more compact in all to 1cm (1/2in) in diameter, white); with slender, rose-pink spires; ‘Happy’:
parts, spathe white, not yellow). L.ephemerum (SW Europe; stem to 1m dwarf to 60cm (24in), with small leaves
(31/4ft), simple, erect; leaves to 15cm and red flowers; ‘Lady Sackville’: to
Lysimachia (from Greek lysis, releas- (6in), linear or lanceolate to spathulate, 100cm (39in), with deep pink spires;
ing, and mache, strife: supposed to pos- glaucous grey-green; flowers in narrow ‘Morden Pink’: magenta; ‘Purple
sess soothing qualities). Primulaceae. terminal racemes, to 1cm (1/2in) in Spires’: vigorous, with abundant, rosy-
N America, Eurasia, S Africa. LOOSE- diameter, white with purple-tinted purple flowers; ‘Red Gem’: to 100cm
STRIFE. 150 species, erect or procum- calyces); L.nummularia (CREEPING JENNY, (39in), with long, red spikes; ‘Robert’:
bent herbs, rarely dwarf shrubs (those MONEYWORT; Europe, naturalized to 90cm (36in), of neat habit, with
listed here are perennial herbs), with eastern N America; evergreen, bright pink spikes); L.virgatum (Europe
creeping habit and Asia, naturalized New England;
similar to L.salicaria but leaves glabrous;
‘Dropmore Purple’: flowers purple;
‘Modern Rose’: compact, with rose-red
flowers; ‘Rose Queen’: to 90cm (36in),
with pink flowers from purple buds;
‘The Rocket’: to 75cm (30in), with 485
Lysimachia nummularia vivid rose-pink flowers).
Maackia
M
Macleania (for John Maclean of flowers beige, flushed pink below with
Lima, an English merchant and patron 8–12 stamens; ‘Coral Plume’: flowers
of botany). Ericaceae. Tropical C and pinker; ‘Kelway’s Coral Plume’: flowers
S America. Some 40 species, evergreen deep coral).
shrubs with slender, often pendulous
branches, sometimes scrambling. The Maclura (for William Maclure
leathery leaves are tinged red when (d. 1840), American geologist).
young. Tubular, 5-lobed flowers hang Moraceae. America, Asia, Africa
in clusters or racemes in summer. (mostly warmer regions). OSAGE
Grow in a freely draining, humus-rich, ORANGE, BOW WOOD. 12 species, spiny,
neutral to acid medium, in bright fil- dioecious shrubs, treelets or climbers.
tered light or part shade. Water moder- The small, yellow-green flowers are
Maackia (for Richard Maack ately when in full growth; reduce water followed (where plants of both sexes
(1825–86), Russian naturalist). Legumi- supplies as light levels and tempera- are grown) by large, wrinkled and
nosae. E Asia. 8 species, deciduous tures fall, keeping plants just moist in fleshy fruits. The primary horticultural
shrubs or trees with pinnate leaves and winter, with a minimum temperature of interest of M.pomifera lies in its unusual
pea-like flowers in erect, dense and 10°C/50°F. Provide support. Cut back but inedible fruits, about the size of an
branching racemes in summer. Hardy in winter or after flowering to shape orange. It also has attractive, ridged,
to –15°C/5°F. Grow in a warm, sunny and restrict shoot length as necessary. deep orange-brown bark, clear yellow
position in any fertile well-drained soil. Propagate by seed, by semi-ripe cut- autumn colour, and, given space, devel-
Restrict pruning to young plants or to tings or by simple layering. M.insignis ops an open and rounded head. It is
the removal of small branches; large (S Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala; to valued as a thorny and impenetrable
wounds do not heal quickly. Sow seed 1.8m (6ft); flowers to 3cm (11/4in), hedge, able to withstand hard shearing
in autumn after pre-soaking in hot orange to scarlet). and harsh wind. It fares best in areas
water for 24 hours. Propagate also by with hot, dry summers. Plant in any
M root cuttings. M.amurensis (E Asia; tree

to 20m (66ft), often a shrub in cool cli-
mates; leaves to 20cm (8in), leaflets to
Macleaya (for Alexander Macleay
(1767–1848), colonial secretary for
New South Wales). Papaveraceae. E
well-drained soil, in full sun. It is hardy
to –21°C/–6°F, although young growth
may be cut by frost. When necessary,
8cm (3in), 7–11, ovate; flowers to Asia. 3 species, perennial herbs with prune in winter; the milky sap may
1.2cm (1/2in), white or cream to yellow, creeping, sometimes invasive rhizomes, cause dermatitis. Sow fresh seed in an
then brown; fruit to 5cm (2in), winged). glaucous foliage and yellow sap. The open seed bed in autumn, or stored
leaves are broad and rounded, toothed seed, stratified for two months at
Macfadyena (for James MacFadyen and palmately lobed. Small, feathery 4°C/39°F. Increase also from semi-ripe
(1795–1850), Scottish botanist, author flowers are carried in terminal, plume- cuttings in a closed frame under mist in
of Flora Jamaica (1837)). Bignoni- like inflorescences in summer. Fully summer. M.pomifera (E US; tree to 18m
aceae. Mexico, West Indies to Uruguay. hardy and easily established in most (60ft), deciduous; branchlets green,
4 species, woody climbers. The leaves soils in sun or part shade. They are thorns to 2.5cm (1in)+; leaves 5–15cm
consist of two leaflets with a tendril especially attractive at the rear of (2–6in), ovate, shiny above, tomentose
between them. Yellow, tubular to herbaceous borders, complementing beneath, turning yellow in autumn;
campanulate and flared flowers are soft pinks, blues or mauves with their fruit 8–12cm (3–43/4in) in diameter,
produced in spring and summer. Plant fine, bronze-grey foliage and smoky globose, with a deeply wrinkled, shiny
outdoors in regions that are frost-free flowers. They will, however, become surface, initially green, orange-yellow
or almost so. Elsewhere, a handsome invasive. Remove flowerheads after when ripe, inedible; includes the
plant for the cool greenhouse or con- blooming and cut plants down to thornless ‘Inermis’, ‘Pulverulenta’ with
servatory. Cultivate as for Bignonia. ground level in autumn. Propagate powdery, white leaves, and the hardy
M.unguis-cati (flowers 5–12cm (2–43/4in) by division, in the dormant season, ‘Fan d’Arc’ with large, dark leaves).
long, yellow striped orange in throat). or by transplanting suckers in spring.
M.cordata (PLUME POPPY, TREE macronutrients see nutrients and
Mackaya (for James Townsend CELANDINE; China, Japan; to 2.5m plant nutrition.
Mackay (1775–1862), Scottish-born (8ft); leaves to 20cm (8in) across,
botanist and gardener). Acanthaceae. rounded to cordate, obtusely toothed Macrozamia (from Greek makros,
South Africa. 1 species, M.bella, an and lobed, grey to olive-green above, great, plus Zamia). Zamiaceae.
evergreen, erect shrub to 1.75m (53/4ft), downy white beneath; flowers beige to Australia. 12 species, cycads, large,
with glossy green, elliptic leaves. Borne cream-white, in plumed racemes to 1m ‘palm-like’ evergreens with stout,
throughout the year in terminal, loose (31/4ft), stamens 25–30; ‘Alba’: flowers buried to exposed and column-like
spikes, the flowers are 6cm (21/2in) long, white, ‘Flamingo’: foliage grey-green, trunks and tough, finely pinnate leaves
tubular to campanulate and pale violet flowers buff pink; var. thunbergii: leaves in a terminal rosette. They are dioe-
486 with five, purple-veined and flared distinctly glaucous beneath); M.micro- cious and produce massive cones. If
lobes. Cultivate as for Justicia. carpa (C China; as for M.cordata except pollinated, the female cones develop
Magnolia
large, egg-shaped seeds encased in a induced by unbalanced fertilizer appli- The following species are fully
fleshy, brightly coloured coating. Suit- cation, for example, very high dressings hardy. Given adequate moisture at
able for tubs or landscaping outdoors of potassium; soil compaction, water- the roots, most magnolias enjoy full
in subtropical and tropical regions; logging and water stress aggravate the sun. However, the late spring- and
elsewhere, they are subjects for con- disorder. Symptoms of deficiency are summer-flowering species, such as
tainers and beds in the cool or inter- interveinal chlorosis on older leaves M.wilsonii, M.sieboldii, and M.sieboldii
mediate greenhouse (minimum where the margins may remain green; subsp. sinensis, prefer light dappled
temperature 10°C/50°F), in the home in severe cases, the affected tissue dies. shade or some shade for at least part of
and for interior landscaping. Cultiva- Mature plants are more susceptible. the day. All prefer a sheltered position.
tion requirements are as for Cycas circi- On acid soils, dressings of magnesian M.grandiflora and M.delavayi grow best
nalis, although Macrozamia thrives in full limestone (9–11% Mg) may be applied, on a warm wall in colder regions. Mag-
sunlight and tolerates some drought. otherwise kieserite (16–17% Mg). nolias are tolerant of urban pollution
M.communis (BURRAWONG; New Foliar sprays of magnesium sulphate and make excellent choices for town
South Wales; to 3m (10ft); stem largely (10% Mg) are beneficial, applied every gardens and street plantings.
subterranean; leaves to 2m (61/2ft), 14 days as Epsom salts at 210g to 10 They thrive in a wide variety of soil
pinnae to 130, to 25 x 1cm (10 x 1/2in), litres (71/2oz to 21/4 gallons) of water. types. Provided there is an adequate
rigid, widely spaced, linear, pungent, supply of moisture and drainage is
pale beneath); M.moorei (Queensland, magnesium carbonate the good, most will at least tolerate alkaline
New South Wales; to 9m (30ft); stem chemical constituent of magnesian conditions, given adequate reserves of
columnar, exposed to 7m (23ft) tall; or dolomitic limestone. humus in the soil. The ideal soil is a
leaves to 3m (10ft), many, smooth, neutral to acid loam, with plenty of
semi-erect, pinnae to 50 pairs, linear- magnesium sulphate a magne- organic matter. M.virginiana will grow
lanceolate to 30 x 1cm (12 x 1/2in), sium fertilizer, obtainable in two forms: in damp or waterlogged conditions.
pungent, somewhat glaucous); kieserite (16–17% Mg), which is Pruning is generally a matter of
M.pauli-guilielmi (Queensland; stem relatively insoluble and suitable for soil shaping the plant at planting time by
swollen, ovoid, often subterranean;
leaves to 1m (31/4ft), few, woolly then
smooth, grey-green, spiralling, pinnae
application; and Epsom salts (10%
Mg), which is soluble and more
expensive and therefore used mainly
removing weak and badly placed
growth and tipping back long shoots.
Routine pruning is usually restricted to
M
to 120, erect, narrow-linear to filiform, for liquid and foliar feeding. removing deadwood and watershoots.
to 20 x 0.5cm (8 x 1/4in), rachis flat- Where a specimen outgrows its allotted
tened, very twisted, woolly at base); leaves dark green space, it can be pruned hard back
M.spiralis (New South Wales; stem sub- above, downy immediately after flowering for decidu-
beneath
terranean; leaves to 2m (61/2ft), slightly ous species and in early spring for
twisted, pinnae to 25 x 1cm (10 x 1/2in), evergreens. It is important when
linear-falcate to narrowly lanceolate, removing larger branches to preserve
dark, glossy green, often with a small, the branch/bark ridge, leaving the
orange-pink callus at base). branch collar intact.
The early-flowering species
maggots the common name given and hybrids can be grown from
to the legless larvae of flies (Diptera). softwood cuttings with mist and
Some garden pest maggots have a bottom heat at 20–24°C/68–75°F or,
well-developed head, such as those fruit cone with careful management, from semi-
of fungus gnats. In others, including of seeds ripe cuttings using the warm bench
leatherjackets and gall midge larvae, the Magnolia acuminata and polythene system or a closed case
head is reduced and partly retracted with bottom heat. Light wounding and
into the thorax. Maggots of more Magnolia (for Pierre Magnol treatment with 0.8% IBA are advanta-
advanced flies, such as hoverflies, fruit (1638–1715), Professor of Botany geous. Cuttings will take 6–8 weeks to
flies, leaf miners and vegetable root and Director of Montpellier Botanic root in trays or pots and should be
flies, have vestigial heads. Garden pest Gardens, France). Magnoliaceae. overwintered in situ, leaving potting on
maggots cause damage by burrowing Japan, Himalaya, W Malaysia (to Java), until growth has started in the follow-
into and feeding on plant tissues. eastern N America to Tropical Amer- ing spring. They should be kept barely
ica. Some 125 species, evergreen or moist over winter and cool but frost-
magnesian limestone see lime. deciduous shrubs or trees with large, free. Simple layering in early spring is
solitary flowers in spring and summer. often a good alternative using standard
magnesium a major (macro-) These are star-like to vase-shaped, and procedures, although shrubby species
nutrient; an essential constituent of consist of numerous ovate to strap-like like M.stellata may not produce suitable
chlorophyll and of importance in the segments. The seeds have colourful material and, where specimens are
transport of phosphate. Deficiency can coats and are borne in curiously- large and high-branching, it may be 487
occur on acid sandy soils, and may be shaped cones. awkward to effect. In commercial
Magnolia
M AGNOLIA
M.acuminata EN America deciduous tree to to 24cm (10in), ovate to cup-shaped, erect, segments to 9 x 3cm
CUCUMBER TREE 30m (100ft), crown elliptic or oblong-ovate, apex (31⁄2 x 11⁄4in), 9, grey-green tinged green
conical, later acute, base cuneate, dark to yellow-green, sometimes flushed
candelabriform green above, downy or maroon, oblanceolate to oblong-
glaucescent beneath spathulate
Comments: Spring-summer. ‘Variegata’: leaves stippled bright gold. f. aurea: inner segments golden yellow. var. subcordata: YELLOW CUCUMBER
TREE, flowers faintly scented, lime-green to clear yellow. ‘Elizabeth’ (M.acuminata x M.denudata): flowers precocious, yellow fading to cream.
M.campbellii Himalaya to robust, deciduous to 23cm (9in), elliptic-ovate to precocious, segments to 16, to 14 x 6cm
China tree to 30m (100ft) oblong-lanceolate, acute, base (51⁄2 x 21⁄2in), broad, fleshy, concave,
rounded, unequal, coriaceous, white or crimson to rose-pink, paler
dark sea green above, paler, above, inner whorls erect, outer whorls
sometimes silky beneath often reflexed
Comments: Early spring. Alba Group: flowers white. ‘Maharaja’: Raffillii Group includes ‘Charles Raffill’: flower buds stained claret,
flowers large, white, purple at base. ssp. mollicomata: flowers segments purple-pink beneath, white stained pink at margin above,
produced earlier, usually bright pink beneath, white above. var. and ‘Kew’s Surprise’: flowers darker pink than in ‘Charles Raffill’.
mollicomata ‘Lanarth’: habit fastigiate, flowers opening deep red.
M.delavayi SW China evergreen tree, to to 50 x 20cm (20 x 8in), ovate to 20cm (8in) across, slightly fragrant,
10m (33ft), often cut to oblong, sinuate, base round inner segments 6–7, to 10 x 5cm (4 x 2in)
back by hard winters to cordate, coriaceous, glabrous, in 2 whorls, fleshy, ivory to topaz, cupped
deep sea-green above, grey-
Comments: Late summer. green, glaucescent beneath
M M.denudata
M.heptapeta, M.yulan
E and W China deciduous tree to
15m (50ft), crown
to 15cm (6in), obovate
to ovate, softly
to 15cm (6in) diameter citrus-scented,
precocious, goblet-shaped, erect, segments
YULAN, LILY TREE broadly pyramidal pubescent beneath 9, to 7.5cm (3in), white to ivory,
sometimes stained purple-pink at base
M.fraseri SE US erect deciduous tree to 27 x 18cm (11 x 7in), fragrant, tulip-shaped, expanding to 20cm
EAR-LEAVED UMBRELLA to 16m (53ft) whorled at branch tips, obovate, (8in) diameter; segments 9, to 12 x 5cm
TREE base deeply cordate or (43⁄4 x 2in), white tinted yellow at first,
auriculate, glabrous light green, later ivory, spathulate to obovate
Comments: Spring. sometimes glaucous beneath
M.grandiflora SE US evergreen tree to to 20cm (8in), elliptic to ovate, to 25cm (10in) diameter, fragrant, erect,
LARGE-FLOWERED 30m (100ft) stiffly coriaceous, glossy dark segments 9–12 to 12 x 9cm (43⁄4 x 31⁄2in),
MAGNOLIA, BULL BAY, green above, rust-red creamy white, obovate or spathulate,
SOUTHERN MAGNOLIA pubescent beneath fleshy, cupped
Comments: Summer–autumn. ‘Exmouth’: habit conic; leaves narrow, bushy; leaves short, broad, obtuse, blistered, glabrous beneath.
acuminate, finely pubescent beneath, margins recurved; flowers to ‘Praecox’: early- and long-flowering. ‘Praecox Fastigiata’: early
25cm (10in) diameter. ‘Ferruginea’: erect and compact, leaves rust- and long-flowering, narrow and erect in habit.
brown tomentose beneath, glossy dark green above. ‘Goliath’: habit
M.acuminata M.campbellii subsp. M.delavayi M.denudata

488 mollicomata
Magnolia
M AGNOLIA
M.hypoleuca Japan deciduous to 30m to 40cm (16in), obovate, grey- to 20cm (8in) diameter, fragrant, cup-
(100ft), crown green, in spreading whorls shaped or spreading, segments to 12,
Comments: Summer. fruiting cones pyramidal ivory flushed yellow-pink with age, fleshy,
red, showy. stamens crimson to blood-red
M.kobus Japan deciduous shrub or to 19cm (71⁄2in), oblong- to 10cm (4in) diameter, precocious, erect,
M.praecocissima tree to 30m (100ft), elliptic, pubescent beneath segments usually 6, 7 x 3.5cm (23⁄4 x
spreading, conical 11⁄2in), creamy white, often stained wine-
Comments: Winter–spring. or domed red or pink, spathulate to obovate
M.liliiflora China deciduous shrub to 20cm (8in), elliptic to erect, goblet-shaped, segments 9, inner
M.quinquepeta to 4m (13ft) obovate, acute, sparsely 6 to 7.5cm (21⁄2–3in), obovate-oblong,
MULAN, WOODY ORCHID pubescent, sap-green above, obtuse, concave tip, thick, white often
paler beneath flushed pink to claret
Comments: Spring. ‘Nigra’: flowers claret to amethyst above,
paler below.
M. x loebneri garden origin shrub or small tree, 15cm (6in), narrow-obovate with 12 spathulate segments each to
(M.kobus x M.stellata) habit as for M.stellata 8 x 3cm (3 x 11⁄4in), white, occasionally
but twigs velutinous tinged pink
not silky
Comments: ‘Leonard Messel’: flowers to 13cm (5in) diameter, lilac-pink. ‘Merrill’: flowers larger than in M.stellata, semi-double.
M.macrophylla SE US large deciduous to 95cm (38in), in dense fragrant, to 30cm (12in) diameter,
LARGE-LEAVED
CUCUMBER TREE,
GREAT-LEAVED
shrub or tree to
20m (66ft)
whorls, elliptic, oblanceolate
to oblong-ovate, base
cordate to auriculate, pale
segments 6–9, 20 x 14cm (8 x 51⁄2in),
thick, ivory or cream, inner 3 spotted or
tinged purple toward base, outer segments
M
MACROPHYLLA, green, glabrous above, narrow-spathulate, tinged green
UMBRELLA TREE downy white beneath
Comments: Fruiting cones rose-pink with red seeds.
M.rostrata China, Burma medium-sized rather to 50cm (20in), broadly fleshy, cream to pink
skeletal deciduous tree obovate, prominently veined,
covered at first in tawny
Comments: Summer. Fruiting cone long, pink, showy. velvet-like hair
M.salicifolia Japan tree or shrub to 12m to 12cm (43⁄4in), narrow-oval precocious, inner 6 segments to 9 x 4cm
ANISE MAGNOLIA, (39ft); twigs scented to lanceolate, glabrous, dull (31⁄2 x 11⁄2in), lanceolate to spathulate,
WILLOW-LEAFED of lemon or anise green above, paler beneath, white, occasionally tinged green or
MAGNOLIA sometimes downy flushed pink at base
Comments: ‘Wada’s Memory’ (M.kobus x M.salicifolia?): small tree, habit upright, compact, leaves elliptic, flushed red-brown at first; flowers to
17cm (61⁄2in) diameter, fragrant, white, segments 6, at first borne horizontally, then drooping and fluttering.
M.grandiflora ‘Goliath’ M.hypoleuca M.liliiflora M. x loebneri ‘Leonard Messel’

489
Magnolia
M AGNOLIA
M.sargentiana W China deciduous tree to 25m to 18cm (7in), elliptic to fragrant, precocious, pendent, segments
(80ft) obovate, occasionally oblong 10–14, to 9 x 3.5cm (31⁄2 x 11⁄2in),
or suborbicular, deep glossy spathulate or oblong-oblanceolate,
Comments: Spring. ‘Caerhays Belle’ (M.s. var. robusta x M.sprengeri green above, paler, grey- white to pale purple-pink above,
var. diva): segments 12, broad, large, pale carmine to salmon pink. pubescent beneath purple-pink below
M.sieboldii E Asia deciduous shrub or tree 12cm (43⁄4in), oblong to to 10cm (4in), fragrant, cup- then dish-
to 10m (33ft) ovate-elliptic, deep green, shaped, held horizontally, not nodding
subglabrous above, as in ssp. sinensis, segments to 12, white,
glaucescent, pubescent obovate to spathulate, to 6 x 4.5cm
beneath (21⁄2 x 13⁄4in), stamens crimson
Comments: Spring–summer. ssp. sinensis (syn. M.sinensis): CHINESE glabrous above, glaucescent and, at first, velutinous beneath; flowers to
MAGNOLIA; broadly branching shrub or tree to 6m (20ft); young shoots 13cm (5in) diameter, nodding, segments 2.5–5cm (1–2in) across, white
silky; leaves 7.5–21cm (3–8in), oval to oblong, obovate or suborbicular, obovate, to oblong-spathulate, stamens bright crimson.
M. x soulangeana garden origin deciduous shrub or tree to 16.5cm (61⁄2in), broadly precocious, erect, segments 9, cupped,
(M.denudata x M.liliiflora) to 10m (33ft); habit of elliptic to suborbicular, oblong-obovate, concave at tip, white,
SAUCER MAGNOLIA, M.denudata but more shiny green above, often marked rose-pink to violet-purple beneath
CHINESE MAGNOLIA slender puberulent beneath to 11 x 7cm (41⁄2 x 23⁄4in)
Comments: Spring. The most widely grown magnolia, cultivars ranging in flower colour from white to claret, may be early- or late-flowering.
M.sprengeri China deciduous tree to 20m to 13.5cm (51⁄4in), obovate precocious, fragrant, dish-shaped,
(66ft); young shoots to lanceolate-elliptic, segments 12–14, 12 x 5.5cm (43⁄4 x 21⁄4in),
M yellow-green, glabrous glabrous, above, pale,

glabrous to villous beneath
spathulate to oblong-ovate, white,
occasionally tinged red to pale pink
Comments: Spring. var. diva (rosy red) includes ‘Burncoose’: rose-purple, and ‘Claret Cup’: claret beneath, fading to white above.
M.stellata Japan as for M.kobus but smaller, 13.5cm (51⁄4in), narrow- star-like, segments 12–33, spreading,
M.tomentosa to 7.5m (241⁄2ft); twigs oblong to obovate 6.5 x 1.5cm (21⁄2 x 5⁄8in), snow white,
STAR MAGNOLIA silky-pubescent, bark sometimes faintly flushed pink
muskily scented at first
Comments: Spring–summer. Includes cultivars with semi-double to double flowers in pure white to rose flowering early to late in season.
M.tripetala EN America deciduous tree, to 12m 50 x 26cm+ (20 x 101⁄4in+), creamy-white, erect, vase-shaped, muskily
UMBRELLA TREE, (39ft); crown broadly in whorls at ends of branch, scented, segments 9–12, oblong-
ELKWOOD; UMBRELLA spreading oblanceolate, conspicuously spathulate, fleshy
MAGNOLIA veined, pale pubescent
beneath at first
Comments: Spring–summer. Fruiting cones to 10cm (4in), red-pink; seeds red. ‘Silver Parasol’ (M.tripetala x M.hypoleuca): leaves large, in showy,
umbrella-like whorls, silver beneath; flowers like M.hypoleuca.
M. x soulangeana M.sprengeri M.virginiana M. x wieseneri

490 ‘Lennei Alba’
Mahonia
M AGNOLIA
M. x veitchii garden origin deciduous tree, to 30m 22cm (9in), oblong to precocious, vase-shaped, erect, segments
(M.denudata x (100ft) obovate, dark green veins 7–10, obovate to spathulate, 12.5 x 6cm
M.campbellii) pubescent above, often (5 x 21⁄2in), white tinged violet to pink
tinted purple at first beneath, pale pink above
M.virginiana E US evergreen or semi- 11cm (41⁄2in), narrow-oblong rounded to cup-shaped, 6cm diameter,
SWEET BAY, SWAMP BAY, deciduous shrub or tree, to suborbicular, shiny green white to ivory, highly fragrant, segments
SWAMP LAUREL to 30m+ (100ft) often above, glaucous to silver- 6–15, 5 x 2cm (2 x 3⁄4in), obovate or
multi-stemmed and velvety beneath suborbicular
Comments: Summer–autumn. straggling
M. x wieseneri garden origin tree or shrub to 7m+ (23ft) appearing whorled, obovate, spicily fragrant, cup-shaped, erect,
(M.hypoleuca x M.sieboldii) undulate, veins pubescent segments 9, 6 x 3.5cm (21⁄2 x 11⁄2in),
above, green, glaucous obovate, creamy white, stamens crimson
Comments: Distinguished from M.sieboldii by its larger flowers and beneath with velvety
broader, tougher leaves. midvein
M.wilsonii W China deciduous shrub or tree to 16cm (6in), lanceolate to fragrant, nodding, cup-shaped becoming
to 8m+ (26ft) oblong-ovate, matt green saucer-shaped, segments 9–12, inner
above, velvety beneath segments 6.5 x 4.5cm (21⁄2 x 13⁄4in), white,
spathulate to narrow-lanceolate, incurved,
Comments: Closely related to M.sieboldii. stamens rose-purple
nurseries, it is common practice to

stool stock specimens grown on good
fertile soil to force them to produce
the natural pallor seen on the young
leaves of many Magnolia species. Lime-
induced chlorosis is quickly remedied
woodlands, while the shorter, spread-
ing, American species are plants of
forest edges or dry scrub. Most are tol-
M
long flexible growth from the base; by foliar applications of iron chelates erant of a wide range of sites, given a
stems tongued and pegged in spring (sequestered iron). On alkaline soils, free-draining soil. The larger Asiatics,
will be ready to sever in the following care must be taken to ensure that notably M.japonica, M. Bealei Group,
spring, to be lined out during late mulching materials such as leafmould M.napaulensis, M.lomariifolia and M. x
autumn/early winter. Autumn layers and garden compost are lime-free. A media, are particularly valued for their
of the current season’s wood with the black bacterial leaf spot is probably bold foliage and winter blooming. They
leaves removed are treated in a similar caused by Pseudomonas syringae; it can be are best used as specimen plants in a
fashion, but will take two years to root. controlled by copper-based fungicidal semi-shaded position in a woodland
An alternative for the amateur gardener sprays. Pale irregular spots on the garden or mixed shrubbery. Provide a
– although not for the timid – involves leaves of M.grandiflora are caused by damp, slightly acid to neutral soil with
cutting a single stem hard back in early the fungus Phyllosticta magnoliae but its a high humus content. Prolonged expo-
spring to force new growth suitable for effects are usually cosmetic. In the US, sure to harsh winds and temperatures
layering in the following spring. Mag- magnolias are sometimes attacked by below –15°C/5°F is liable to cause leaf
nolias generally show good regenera- magnolia scale. scorch and flower damage. M.lomariifo-
tion and often produce strong growth lia requires a slightly sheltered site
even from old wood. Mahonia (for Bernard McMahon, although its hybrids, M. x media, are
When available, seed is an excellent American horticulturist, d. 1816). more resilient; M.napaulensis suffers in
method of propagation for the species Berberidaceae. Asia, N and C Amer- gardens where temperatures fall regu-
and will yield strong young plants that ica. OREGON GRAPE, HOLLY GRAPE. 70 larly below –10°C/14°F. M.japonica will
grow away very quickly, although they species of evergreen shrubs and small tolerate –20°C/–4°F. Thin out only
will show a range of variation and may trees closely related to Berberis but leggy, exhausted stems in spring.
take several years after first flowering lacking stem thorns and with tough, Most North American species toler-
to achieve good quality blooms. Seed sharply toothed pinnate or trifoliolate ate a wider range of soils and condi-
should be sown fresh, or vernalized leaves. Small, sometimes fragrant flow- tions than members of the first group.
for spring sowing: store cleaned seed ers are borne in slender racemes, clus- They may sometimes become invasive,
for about 100 days at 2–4°C/36–39°F. ters or congested panicles near or at and should be held in check by the
Dried seed may germinate after a year’s the stem summit from late autumn to removal of unwanted offshoots. Older
dormancy, but frequently fails to do so. spring. The fruits are berry-like and portions of these species may lose
Chlorosis can be caused by excessive plum-red to pruinose purple-black. vigour and become bare, in which case
alkalinity, and by an excess or deficit of The robust, taller-growing Asian it may be necessary to reduce and 491
potash. It should not be confused with species are usually native to damp replant them. M.nervosa is unusual in its
Mahonia
very short or absent stems and sucker- to 20, narrow-lanceolate, spinose, sea- acuminate, subfalcate, dark green;
ing, ground-smothering habit. It favours green to leaden grey above, silvery flowers pale yellow, crowded on erect
a neutral to acid, humus-rich soil in beneath, rachis purple-tinted; flowers spikes to 15cm (6in)); M. x media
full sun or light shade. Glaucous-leaved pale yellow in erect, slender racemes); (M.japonica x M.lomariifolia; tall, vigorous
species from the southern US and M.fremontii (SW US; to 4m (13ft); leaves hybrids with spreading ruffs of rigid
Central America require dry, perfectly to 10cm (4in), leaflets 3–7, to 6cm dark green leaves and long racemes of
drained sites in full sun. They will (21/2in), oblong to lanceolate, sinuately yellow flowers; includes ‘Buckland’,
suffer from wind scorch, winter wet spiny, bright glaucous blue; flowers with an infloresence to 65cm (26in)
and exposure to temperatures below in clusters, pale yellow); M.gracilipes in diameter composed of some 14
–10°C/14°F. Plant in gritty, slightly (China; erect, loosely branching, to racemes, and fragrant, pale yellow
acid soil, preferably against a south- 1.5m (5ft); leaves to 50cm (20in), flowers; ‘Charity’, erect to 5m (16ft),
facing wall. leaflets 5–13, 8–20cm (3–8in), oblong with ovate-lanceolate, acuminate
Propagate by fresh seed; clean off to obovate, apex acute to acuminate, leaflets, with to 3 teeth on upper
the fleshy exterior and surface sow on spiny, sea green above, silver beneath; margin and to 4 on lower, and deep
a sandy propagating mix under glass. flowers maroon and white); M.japonica yellow flowers in erect racemes to
Division of most species is possible (Japan, in cultivation only – possibly 35cm (14in); ‘Faith’, similar to
where offshoots or basal branches have originating in China or Taiwan; to M.lomariiflora, but with broader leaflets
rooted; to this effect, stooling may be 3m (10ft); leaves 30–40cm (12–16in), and paler flowers; ‘Hope’, with dense,
advantageous. Take stem section cut- leaflets 7–19, 5–11cm (2–41/2in), bright pale yellow flowers; ‘Lionel
tings of members of the first group in obliquely ovate-lanceolate to oblong- Fortescue’, with a fragrant, erect inflo-
late winter. The suckering species may lanceolate, apex acuminate, base rescence; ‘Underway’, of branching,
be readily divided in spring. Mallet cut- rounded with 4–6 sinuate, spiny teeth bushy habit, with flowers in autumn;
tings of the warmer-growing American per side, very leathery, dull dark green and ‘Winter Sun’, with horizontal
species, taken in late winter may root to sea green; raceme 10–20cm (4–8in), racemes and topaz-yellow flowers
in a cold frame; alternatively, they may slender, spreading to ascending or pen- opening in autumn and winter);
M be grafted on to stocks of Berberis thun-

bergii. For diseases and pests, see
Berberis.
dulous, flowers sulphur yellow, scented
of lily of the valley; Bealei Group
(W China; erect, scarcely branching
M.napaulensis (Nepal, Sikkim, Assam;
differs from M.acanthifolia in having
shorter leaves with fewer, rather nar-
M.acanthifolia (Himalaya; erect shrub shrub to 2m (61/2ft); leaves to 50cm rower leaflets, usually more closely
to 5m (16ft); leaves to 60cm (24in), (20in); leaflets to 10 x 6cm (4 x 21/2in), toothed and glossy, and faintly scented
leaflets 17–27, 5–10cm (2–4in), oblon- terminal leaflet larger and broader, flowers produced in later winter);
govate to oblong-lanceolate, apex acute 9–15, obliquely and broadly ovate M.nervosa (NW US; dwarf, more or less
to acuminate, base truncate, thinly acuminate, coarsely and sinuately stemless shrub to 25cm (10in), sucker-
leathery, dull to slightly glossy above spiny-toothed (3–4 teeth per side), ing and forming dense, leafy colonies;
with veins impressed, sinuately toothed, rigid, sea green to olive green; flowers leaves to 25cm (10in), resembling a
teeth 3–7 on lower margin, 2–5 on scented, pale yellow in short, crowded, miniature M.japonica in shape, sea
upper margin; raceme to 30cm (12in), more or less erect racemes; a hybrid green turning a rich bronze to maroon
spreading, rather thick and crowded, between this Group and M.napaulensis in cold weather; flowers pale gold in
flowers deep yellow; ‘Maharajah’: has been offered under the name racemes to 8cm (3in) long); M.nevinii
fine form, with deep yellow flowers); M.japonica ‘Trifurca’, an upright shrub (California; erect to 2.25m (71/2ft);
M.aquifolium (OREGON GRAPE; western with bold ruffs of outspread leaves, leaflets to 3cm (11/4in), 3–7, narrow-
N America; shrub to 2m (61/2ft), spar- the leaflets broad and very sharply lanceolate, with to 6 spiny teeth per
ingly branched, suckering freely; and coarsely toothed, the flowers side, grey-blue, glaucous; flowers in
leaflets 5–13, to 8 x 4cm (3 x 11/2in), pale yellow in short, erect, clustered loose, broad racemes); M.pinnata (Cali-
ovate, with to 12 spiny teeth per side, racemes)); M. x lindsayae (M.japonica fornia; distinguished from M.aquifolium
glossy, dark green turning purple-red in x M.siamensis; includes ‘Cantab’, a by its more erect, rigid habit, and more
winter; flowers golden, on dense, erect medium-sized, spreading shrub, with finely serrate leaflets; to 2.5m (8ft);
racemes to 8cm (3in); cultivars include: long, arching leaves, leaflets to 15, leaflets 5–9, to 6cm (21/2in), ovate-
‘Apollo’, low-growing, expansive, to remote, with to 6 spines per side, peti- lanceolate, sinuate with to 13 slender,
60cm (24in), with larger, dull leaves ole tinted red in cold weather, and forward-pointing spines per side, dull
and good winter colour; ‘Atropur- large, fragrant, lemon yellow flowers sea green above, tinted red in winter,
purea’, with red-purple leaves in on spreading or drooping racemes); pruinose beneath; racemes to 6cm
winter; ‘Orange Flame’, low-growing, M.lomariifolia (Burma, W China; stems (21/2in), flowers primrose yellow; plants
to 60cm (24in), with leaves becoming erect to 4m (13ft), seldom branching grown under this name are often M. x
bronze, tinted with orange-red after above base; leaves to 60cm (24in), out- wagneri, particularly the clone ‘Pinna-
first season, dark red in winter; and spread, leaflets to 7 x 1cm (23/4 x 1/2in), cle’); M.repens (western N America;
‘Smaragd’, spreading, with red-bronze 18–41, crowded, overlapping toward suckering, semi-prostrate shrub to 0.5m
492 winter colour and profuse flowers); apex, oblong-ovate to oblong-lanceo- (20in); leaves to 25cm (10in), leaflets
M.confusa (China; small shrub; leaflets late, with to 7 spines per side, sharply usually 5, ovate, dull green above,
malformations
papillose beneath, glaucous at first, M.bifolium (FALSE LILY OF THE medium and full sun. Keep dry from
with 9–18 spiny teeth per side; flowers VALLEY; W Europe to Japan; stem late autumn until early spring. M.poep-
deep yellow, in racemes to 8cm (3in); 5–10cm (2–4in); leaves 3–8cm pigii (S Argentina, S Chile; dwarf
includes the very low-growing ‘Rotun- (11/4–3in), broadly cordate-ovate, thinly- shrub, forming low mounds; stem
difolia’, with larger, broadly ovate, textured, short-stalked with a deep, segments shortly cylindric, 1.2–3cm
entire or serrulate leaves); M.siamensis open sinus); M.canadense (TWO-LEAVED (1/2–11/4in); leaves 4–6mm (1/8–1/4in),
(N Thailand to Burma, China; to 4m SOLOMON’S SEAL; N America; stem central spine 1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in); flowers
(13ft); leaves to 70cm (28in), leaflets 5–10cm (2–4in); leaves 5–10cm (2–4in), 3–4.5cm (11/4–13/4in), yellow).
11–17, obliquely lanceolate to ovate, broadly ovate-cordate, more or less
14–17cm (51/2–61/2in), sinuately toothed, sessile with a narrow sinus). maincrop used to distinguish those
dull green very leathery with veins vegetable crops that do not mature
impressed; raceme 12–25cm (43/4–10in), particularly early or late in the season;
6–10-fascicled, ascending to erect, applied particularly to potatoes
flowers deep yellow, very fragrant); and carrots.
M.trifoliolata (Mexico; erect to 2.25m
(71/2ft); leaflets 3, to 6.8cm (23/4in), unbranched Malcolmia (for William Malcolm,
narrowly lanceolate, rigid, undulate stem known late 18th-century London nurseryman).
with 1–4 lobe-like marginal spines per as “whip” Cruciferae. Mediterranean to
side, grey to blue-green, glaucous; Afghanistan. MALCOLM STOCK. 35
flowers pale yellow in short corymbs); species, annual to perennial herbs with
M. x wagneri (M.pinnata x M.aquifolium branching, often prostrate stems and
cultivars include ‘Aldenhamensis, vigor- entire or pinnately lobed, downy leaves.
ous and erect to 1.5m (5ft), with large, Produced from spring to autumn in
sea green leaves, tinted blue beneath, loose racemes, the flowers consist of
bronze young leaves and yellow flow- four, linear or obovate petals. A hardy
ers; ‘Fireflame’, to 1.25m (4ft), with
7 leaflets, green or glaucous blue
above, grey-green beneath, blood red
annual, grow in well-drained, medium-
to low-fertility neutral to alkaline soils,
in sun or part-day shade. Plants suffer
M
to bronze in winter; ‘Moseri’, erect to in hot, humid summers. Sow seed thinly
80cm (32in), with young leaves tinged in situ, from early spring until autumn.
bronze-red, later dark green, and graft
M.maritima (VIRGINIA STOCK; Mediter-
yellow flowers; ‘Pinnacle’, syn. ‘Pin- union ranean; annual to 35cm (14in); flowers
nata’, erect to 1.5m (5ft), vigorous, with fragrant, petals 12–25mm (1/2–1in), red-
young foliage and winter leaves tinted purple, rarely violet, notched, long-
copper, otherwise bright green; ‘Undu- clawed; Compacta Mixed: compact, to
lata’, erect to 1.5m (5ft), vigorous, with 40cm (16in), with small, fragrant, pink,
very glossy leaves with undulate mar- Maiden apple white and red flowers).
gins, young and winter leaves tinted
red-bronze; and ‘Vicaryi’, broadly erect maiden mainly used to describe a Malephora (from Greek male,
to 1m (31/4ft), with small leaves, some tree or shrub, especially a fruit tree, in armpit, and phorein, to bear).
tinted red in autumn, and yellow its first year after grafting or budding Aizoaceae. South Africa, Namibia.
flowers in small dense racemes). and before any pruning has taken 15 species, erect or creeping shrubby
place. A feathered maiden has lateral perennials with succulent, semi-
Maianthemum (from Greek maios, growths. It is often also used to cylindric leaves and daisy-like flowers,
the month of May, and anthemon, describe newly rooted strawberry golden, yellow or pink and to 5cm
blossom). Liliaceae (Convallariaceae). plants, and sometimes other plants (2in) in diameter. Cultivate as for
Northern temperate regions. 3 species, in their first year after propagation. Lampranthus. M.crocea (stem stout,
low-growing perennial herbs with gnarled; leaves 2.5–4.5cm (1–13/4in),
creeping rhizomes. They produce Maihuenia (from maihuen, a local more or less 3-sided, pruinose; flowers
slender stems bearing two to three, name for the plant). Cactaceae. 3cm (11/4in) in diameter, golden yellow
smooth, heart-shaped leaves and, in Argentina and Chile. 2 species, low, inside, tinted red outside; var. purpure-
late spring, small white flowers in shrubby cacti with clumped, cylindrical ocrocea: flowers brilliant red).
terminal racemes. These are followed stems bearing small, terete leaves at
by red berries. Fully hardy. Plant in their summits and slender spines. male sterility the failure of flowers
humus-rich, slightly acid soils in moist Funnel-shaped, yellow flowers appear to form fertile pollen.
and shaded locations in the wild and in summer. Grow in an unheated
woodland garden where they may soon greenhouse, or outdoors in zones 7 and malformations to a greater or
form large colonies. They suffer in hot, over, with winter protection from rain. lesser extent, all plant species show 493
dry summers. Propagate by division. Provide a gritty, more or less neutral variation from the condition usually
malformations
arrangement (phyllotaxy), or clusters of the appearance of a double bloom and

leaves produced instead of flowers. Plant in others clearly separated. This condi-
parts sometimes develop out of place tion is found particularly in primulas, but
and inflorescences can revert to vegeta- also in rhododendrons and Mimulus.
tive shoots; such malformations may be Freak plants produced artificially by
of hormonal origin or due to changes grafting are often regarded as teratologi-
in temperature or day length at critical cal, but this is not strictly so. Unusual
times in the plant’s growth cycle. colour mutants, lacking chlorophyll, can
One of the most striking abnormali- sometimes be perpetuated by grafting,
ties is FASCIATION, which results from for example, Gymnocalycium in the Cac-
unusual activity in the apical meristem. taceae. Unsuitable matching of stock
Familiar examples occur in Ranunculus, and scion may bring about peculiar
Malformation Delphinium and Forsythia with wide, forms, for example, the selection of a
Graft unions on trees sometimes give rise laterally branching stems giving the vigorous scion for a restricting rootstock
to unsightly growths, which may also be impression of several normal stems in Fraxinus can lead to the scion bulging
described as malformations. fused together (see p.304). Sometimes, above the graft. The reverse condition
an abnormal number of flowers is pro- is commonly seen in Prunus.
accepted as normal. Adaptation to duced on fasciated stems, as may be seen
habitat is held to account for many in lilies. In ‘ring fasciation’, a ring of sub- mallet cutting see cuttings, semi-ripe
such variations. Frequently, however, sidiary flowerheads is produced around a
malformations or monstrosities in normal central flower. This occurs, for Malope (name of Greek origin, used
plants arise from other factors and may instance, in members of the Compositae, by Pliny for a mallow). Malvaceae.
be seen as excessive or arrested growth, such as the daisy, where the abnormality Mediterranean to W Asia. 4 species,
or other abnormal development in is referred to as ‘hen-and-chickens’. annual and perennial herbs with unlobed
form or position of parts. Sometimes lateral buds develop on a or palmately lobed leaves. Produced in
M Imbalance of auxin and other non-

specific hormones accounts for many
instances of malformation. Parasitism
thickened stem, and branches of normal
dimension and appearance grow from it.
Some fasciated forms are cultivated,
summer, the flowers are funnelform and
consist of five, obovate petals. Malope per-
forms best in regions with cooler sum-
by mites or viruses can influence the for example, Salix udensis ‘Sekka’, whose mers and may fail in very hot, humid
production of hormones and stimulate flattened, recurving stems are encour- conditions. Grow in moderately fertile
the formation of galls or witches’ broom aged to form by hard pruning. Another and humus-rich, sandy soils in full sun.
growths. Occasionally, an abundant example is Celosia argentea var. cristata, Deadhead regularly. Propagate from seed
supply of mineral nutrients, particularly the cock’s comb, a tetraploid cultigen sown under glass in early spring, or, later,
nitrogen, can lead to malformation. derived from C.argentea, which can be in situ. M.trifida (W Mediterranean;
Genetic change is also a potential seed-propagated; and there are cristate annual to 1.2m (4ft); flowers 4–6cm
cause of abnormal growth, and minor forms among cacti, forming fan-shaped (11/2–21/2in), purple-red; ‘Alba’: white;
variations brought about in this way or or densely convoluted growths. Many ‘Grandiflora’: large, dark rose; ‘Rosea’:
through environmental influence are fern cultivars have crested ends of rose-red; ‘Vulcan’: large, bright red).
held by some to account for reversion fronds and are given names like
to an ancestral condition. Chromo- ‘Cristata’ or ‘Monstrosa’. Malus (Latin for apple-tree). Rosaceae.
some changes and abnormality can In some plants, leaves may fail to Europe, Asia, US. APPLE, CRAB APPLE.
produce unusual growth forms, for separate properly from stems, or parts Some 35 species, deciduous trees and
example, autote-traploids are fre- of flowers may appear to be stuck shrubs, many with thorny or short, spur-
quently larger than diploids of the together. In double flowers, it is quite like lateral shoots. Produced in corymbs
same species, for example the grape common to find PETALOID STAMENS. in spring and summer, the flowers con-
cultivar ‘Perlette’, Clematis montana Another interesting variation is the sist of five, outspread, rounded to obo-
‘Tetrarose’ and the majority of Narcissus rearrangement of flower parts, proba- vate petals and numerous stamens. They
cultivars. The growing points (apical bly the outcome of a small genetic are followed by pomes, often highly
meristems) of a plant contain immature change and well-documented in Antir- coloured, and ranging from small ‘crabs’
tissue and physical or chemical damage rhinum. This phenomenon is known to large apples. Malus provides ornamen-
can influence their future behaviour. as PELORY or PELORIA and a frequently tal interest throughout the year, espe-
The accidental division of the apex into met example is the foxglove Digitalis cially in spring when in blossom. The
two independent meristems can lead to purpurea ‘Monstrosa’, in which a large, decorative fruit, with a colour range
two shoots developing from one region. open, regular flower tops the spike of from clear yellow through bright reds to
Breakdown in growth coordination can normal 2-lipped, bell-shaped flowers; deep red-purple, often persists well into
take place in the apex, often induced by this is heritable from seed. In the winter. The foliage of some colours well
hormonal imbalance and bringing about abnormality of flowers known as HOSE- in autumn. Taller species, such as M.flori-
494 abnormal multiplication of shoots and IN-HOSE, one perfect corolla develops bunda, M.hupehensis and M.prattii, when
bushy development, or unusual leaf within another, in some cases giving grown as standards, are suitable as lawn
Malus
M ALUS
M. x arnoldiana garden origin shrub to 2m (61⁄2ft), 5–8cm (2–3in), elliptic carmine-red in bud, 1.5cm (5⁄8in), globose,
(M.baccata x resembling floribunda: to ovate, long-tapered, later pink becoming yellow-green
M.floribunda) shoots arching, soon biserrate, ultimately white
glabrous glabrous except for
veins beneath
Comments: ‘Linda’: flowers single, carmine becoming light pink; fruit to 3cm (11⁄4in) diameter, carmine.
M. x atrosanguinea garden origin spreading, with slightly ovate, serrate, lobed at base single, deep carmine 1cm (1⁄2in), globose, red
(M.halliana x M.toringo) pendulous shoots on strong shoots, waxy or yellow flushed red
M.baccata NE Asia tree or shrub to 5m 3–8cm (11⁄4–3in), ovate, 3–3.5cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in) 1cm (1⁄2in), globose,
SIBERIAN CRAB (16ft), often confused long-tapered, serrate, diameter, white yellow and red
with M.robusta; shoots glabrous
slender, glabrous
Comments: ‘Columnaris’: habit narrowly upright to 8m (26ft); fruit large, to 4cm (11⁄2in) diameter; red washed orange. ‘Spring Snow’:
flowers snow white; fruit yellow with red cheek. ‘Gracilis’: habit shrub- habit upright: flowers large, white; fruitless; seedling of ‘Dolgo’. var.
like, slow-growing, branches slender, dense; leaves small, narrow; buds himalaica: leaves wide, elliptic, roughly serrate, glabrous, veins on
pink, flowers white, stellate; fruit small, red. ‘Jackii’: crown broader, lower leaf surfaces downy; flowers 3cm (11⁄4in) diameter, pink in bud;
branches stout; leaves broadly elliptic; flowers 3cm (11⁄4in) diameter, fruit 1–1.5cm (1⁄2–5⁄8in), yellow flushed red. var. mandschurica: leaves
white; fruit lcm (1⁄2in), red, waxy. ‘Lady Northcliffe’: buds light pink, broadly elliptic, margins with few serrations, lower surface downy at
flowers profuse, white; fruit to 1.5cm (5⁄8in) diameter, dark orange. first; flowers to 4cm (11⁄2in) diameter, white, scented: fruit 12mm (1⁄2in),
‘Macrocarpa’: fruit large, to 3cm (11⁄4in), diameter, glossy yellow stained ellipsoid, bright red, ripening early.
red. ‘Orange’: habit large, shrub-like; buds light pink, flowers white;
M.bhutanica W China shrub or small tree to

8m (26ft), soon
3–8cm (11⁄4–3in), ovate and
crenately lobed or simple,
2cm (3⁄4in) diameter,
white
1.5cm (5⁄8in), globose
to pyriform, yellow
M
glabrous veins downy beneath flushed red, persistent
M.coronaria NE United small tree to 7m (23ft) 5–10cm (2–4in), ovate- to 4cm (11⁄2in) 4cm (11⁄2in), depressed-
States wide, spreading, shoots oblong, pointed, serrate, diameter, pink globose, green, base
with numerous short- slightly lobed, becoming slightly ribbed
thorned laterals, glabrous and scarlet-
becoming glabrous orange in fall
Comments: ‘Charlottae’: leaves red stained orange in autumn; flowers double, soft pink, fragrant. ‘Nieuwlandiana’: habit shrub-like, to 3m
(10ft); flowers in large hanging clusters, vivid pink, very fragrant, fruit blue pruinose. var. dasycalyx: leaves paler green beneath; flowers smaller,
pink, highly fragrant; fruit 4cm (11⁄2in), yellow-green.
M.floribunda Japan shrub to 4m (13ft), 4–8cm (11⁄2–3in), long- 2.5–3cm (1–11⁄4in), 0.5cm (1⁄4in), yellow
JAPANESE CRAB or tree to 10m (33ft), tapered, deeply serrate, diameter, deep pink
crown dense, shoot sometimes lightly lobed in bud, opening
tips slightly pendulous, pale pink, white
downy inside
Comments: ‘Peachblow’: habit upright; buds dark pink, flowers white; fruit to lcm (1⁄2in) diameter, red.
M. x arnoldiana M.baccata var. mandschurica M.floribunda M.hupehensis 495

Malus
M ALUS
M.hupehensis India tree or shrub, 5–7m 5–10cm (2–4in), ovate to 4cm (11⁄2in) 1cm (1⁄2in), rounded,
(16–23ft), shoots oblong, long-tapered, diameter, pink yellow-green, flushed
Comments: ‘Rosea’: flowers profuse, spreading, soon deeply incised, slightly fading to white red
cherry blossom pink; fruit yellow, glabrous downy beneath
sometimes tinted red.
M. x magdeburgensis garden shrub or small 6–8cm (21⁄2–3in), elliptic, 4.5cm (13⁄4in) 3cm (11⁄4in), rounded,
(M.pumila x M.spectabilis) origin tree, resembling acuminate, downy beneath diameter, bright red green-yellow flushed red
M.spectabilis; crown in bud, opening
globose deep pink
M.prattii W China erect shrub or small 6–15cm (21⁄2–6in), elliptic- 2cm (3⁄4in) diameter, 1–1.5cm (1⁄2–5⁄8in),
tree to 7m (23ft), oblong, long-tapered, finely white rounded-ovate, red to
shoots downy at first biserrate, veins downy yellow, white-pitted
beneath, turning red and
orange in autumn
M.prunifolia NE Asia small tree to 10m 5–10cm (2–4in), elliptic 3cm (11⁄4in) 2cm (3⁄4in), ovoid-
(33ft), shoots or ovate, sinuate, downy diameter, pink in conical, yellow-green
downy at first beneath bud opening white to red
Comments: ‘Cheal’s Crimson’: habit upright to broad, to 5m (16ft); spreading; flowers white; fruit yellow and red. ‘Hyslop’: habit upright
buds pink, flowers single, white; fruit prolific, to 2.5cm (1in) diameter, to spreading; crown broad; fruit globose, to 4cm (11⁄2in) diameter,
light orange with scarlet cheek. ‘Cheal’s Golden Gem’: flowers single, yellow stippled and blotched light red, edible. ‘Pendula’: branches
white; fruit rounded, gold. ‘Fastigiata’: habit narrow upright, later weeping.
M M. x purpurea
(M. atrosanguinea x
garden origin large shrub or small
tree, bark red-black
8–9cm (3–31⁄2in), ovate,
scalloped, occasionally
3–4cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in)
diameter, purple-
1.5–2.5cm (5⁄8–1in),
rounded, purple-red
M.pumila lobed, brown-red at first, red, soon fading
‘Niedzwetzkyana’) shiny
Comments: ‘Aldenhamensis’: habit shrub-like, low-growing, to 3.5m purple. ‘Jadwiga’: habit pendulous; crown broad; buds maroon, flowers
(111⁄2ft); leaves bronze red; buds deep red, flowers profuse, maroon; pink; fruit conic, to 5cm (2in) diameter, blackcurrant purple.
fruit red tinted brown. ‘Eleyi’: habit shrub-like, slightly spreading; ‘Lemoinei’: habit shrub-like, upright, vigorous; leaves dark purple, later
leaves darker; flowers single, maroon; fruit ovoid, purple. ‘Eleyi bronzed or dark green; flowers single to semi-double, maroon; fruit to
Compacta’: habit compact, shrub-like; branches short; leaves, flowers 1.5cm (5⁄8in) diameter, dark purple.
and fruit purple. ‘Hoser’: buds dark purple; flowers pink; fruit pruinose
M. x robusta garden origin vigorous, conical 8–11cm (3–41⁄2in), elliptic, 3–4cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in) 1–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in), ellipsoid
M.baccata x M.prunifolia shrub or small tree margins scalloped, bright diameter, white, to rounded, yellow or red,
green occasionally pink. long-stalked, sometimes
pruinose
Comments: ‘Alexis’: buds light pink, flowers single, white; fruit to single, white, early, fruit glossy scarlet, persistent. ‘Red Siberian’: fruit
3cm (11⁄4in) diameter, vivid pink-red, pruinose. ‘Beauty’: habit narrowly bright red. ‘Yellow Siberian’: fruit yellow, var. persicifolia: large shrub,
upright; flowers single, white; fruit to 3cm (11⁄4in) diameter, scarlet. branches slender; leaves 5–10cm (2–4in), oval-lanceolate, finely
‘Erecta’: habit narrowly upright when young, later spreading; flowers scalloped; flowers 4cm (11⁄2in) diameter, numerous, pink in bud opening
single to semi-double, white stained light pink; fruit small, to 2cm (3⁄4in) white; fruit 2cm (3⁄4in), abundant, rounded or oblong, red.
diameter, yellow with red cheeks, pruinose. ‘Red Sentinel’: flowers
496 M.prunifolia M. x robusta ‘Red Sentinel’ M.toringo M.toringo subsp. sargentii

Malus
M ALUS
M.spectabilis China large shrub or small 5–8cm (2–3in), elliptic- 4–5cm (11⁄2–2in) 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in),
ASIATIC APPLE tree to 8m (26ft), oblong, short-tapered, diameter, single or rounded, yellow
pyramidal at first, dentate, downy beneath semi-double, dark
later spreading; pink in bud,
shoots becoming opening pale pink
red-brown
Comments: ‘Blanche Amis’: habit shrub-like, upright; buds carmine, flowers semi-double, white inside, carmine outside; fruit globose, small,
yellow. ‘Plena’: flowers profuse, double, pink, soon fading; fruit globose, to 2cm (3⁄4in) diameter, yellow. ‘Riversii’: flowers double, pink, fruit large,
to 3.5cm (11⁄2in) diameter, yellow.
M.sylvestris C Europe tree or shrub to 7m 4–8cm (11⁄2–3in), oval to to 4cm (11⁄2in) 2–4cm (3⁄4–11⁄2in),
EUROPEAN APPLE, (23ft), slightly rounded, scalloped or diameter, pink- rounded, yellow-green
WILD CRAB thorny incised, subglabrous white outside, flushed red
pinker within
Comments: ‘Plena’: flowers double, soft pink, fading to snow white; fruit scarlet, sometimes blotched yellow; often listed as M.spectabilis alba plena.
var. domestica: ORCHARD APPLE; the variety giving rise to edible apples
M.toringo Japan shrub to 4m (13ft), 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), ovate- 2cm (3⁄4in) diameter, small, globose, red
M.sieboldii shoots arched, elliptic, tapered, dentate deep pink in bud, to yellow-brown,
black-brown and 3–5-lobed, downy, red eventually white persistent
or yellow in fall
Comments: ‘Fuji’: habit low, spreading; flowers anemone-centred, flowers pink in bud fading to white; fruit gold, persistent. subsp. sargentii
M
white stained green or purple; fruit small, orange. ‘Seafoam’: somewhat (M.sargentii): shrub to 2m (61⁄2ft), thorny, leaves orange in fall; flowers
pendulous; flowers carmine, fading to white flushed with pink. ‘White along whole length of shoot, buds pale pink, opening white; fruits dark
Angel’: upright, later nodding; flowers in clusters, snow-white; fruit red.
prolific, small, scarlet. ‘Wintergold’: shrub-like, upright to spreading;
M.transitoria NW China closely resembles 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in), broadly to 2cm (3⁄4in) 1.5cm (5⁄8in), red
M.toringoides, ovate, deeply narrow- diameter, white
smaller, crown lobed, downy
narrower; shoots
felted when young
M.trilobata W Asia erect shrub or 5–8cm (2–3in), 3-lobed, 3.5cm (11⁄2in) 2cm (3⁄4in), ellipsoid,
small tree shiny, soon glabrous, diameter, white red
intense red in fall
M.tschonoskii Japan tree to 12m (39ft), 7–12cm (23⁄4–43⁄4in), ovate- 3cm (11⁄4in) 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in),
pyramidal then elliptic, serrate to slightly diameter, white. rounded, yellow-green
spreading; shoots lobed, white-felted at first, flushed red
felted orange-red in fall
M.yunnanensis W China compact, erect tree 6–12cm (21⁄2–43⁄4in), 1.5cm (5⁄8in) 1–1.5cm (1⁄2–5⁄8in), red,
to 10m (33ft), broadly ovate, roughly diameter, usually in pitted
Comments: var. veitchii: leaves slightly shoots felted at first biserrate, occasionally with crowded corymbs
lobed, soon glabrous; flowers to 1.2cm 3–5 pairs of broad lobes, to 5cm (2in), white
(1⁄2in) diameter; fruit to 1.3cm (1⁄2in), red felted beneath, red-orange
with white pits in fall
M.transitoria M.trilobata M.yunnanensis var. veitchii M. x zumi ‘Professor Sprenger’ 497

Malus
M ALUS
M. x zumi Japan small pyramidal 5–9cm (2–31⁄2in), ovate, 3cm (11⁄4in) diameter, 1cm (1⁄2in),
(M.baccata var. mandshurica tree, shoots more or long tapered, scalloped pink in bud, fading to rounded, red
x M.toringo) less downy to lobed, downy beneath white
at first
Comments: var. calocarpa: more spreading; leaves smaller, always entire on fruiting wood, distinctly lobed on strong shoots; flowers smaller,
white; fruit 1–1.3cm (1⁄2in), crowded bunches, scarlet. ‘Golden Hornet’: flowers white; fruit gold. ‘Professor Sprenger’: fruit orange.
specimens, at the woodland edge, or in tropical regions. 30 species, annual or unlobed or palmately lobed, toothed
large borders. Smaller species or those perennial herbs and subshrubs, with leaves. Produced in summer, the flow-
grown as half-standards can be selected rounded to reniform or cordate leaves, ers resemble those of Abutilon, with the
for the smaller garden or border. often toothed or lobed. The flowers are petals often incurved in a bell- or
M.tschonoskii is a small conical tree, broadly funnel- to bowl-shaped with turban-like arrangement. From the
bearing few fruits but with brilliant five, obovate petals and are carried in centre protrudes a long, staminal
autumn colours in orange, purple and loose terminal spikes in summer. The column. In frost-free, warm temperate
scarlet, and is well-suited to planting in following are hardy to –15°C/5°F. regions, grow outdoors in full sun on any
public areas. Grow in any reasonably drained and well-drained soil. In cool temperate
Malus tolerates light, dappled shade, moderately fertile soil, in full sun. zones, grow under glass with a mini-
but autumn colour and fruiting are Staking with twiggy sticks may be mum winter temperature of 10°C/50°F,
better in sun. All are hardy to at least necessary, especially on moist rich soils. in direct sunlight, in a loam-based mix.
–15°C/5°F and most tolerate a range Cut down flowered stems in autumn. Water plentifully when in growth; keep
of fertile soils. Grow in a sunny posi- Sow seed in early spring in the cold just moist during the winter months.
M tion, in moisture-retentive but not

boggy soil. Prune in winter, to remove
dead, diseased, damaged or crossing
frame or under glass at 15°C/59°F;
alternatively, increase also by softwood
cuttings in spring. Malva is prone to
Cut flowered stems hard back in winter
to maintain shape. Propagate by soft-
wood or semi-ripe cuttings or by seed in
wood. On grafted specimens, it may be rust: collect and burn all affected spring. M.arboreus (WAX MALLOW; Mexico
necessary to remove suckers. Standard material in autumn and spring. to Peru and Brazil; to 4m (13ft); leaves
and half-standard trees grown for orna- M.moschata (MUSK MALLOW; Europe, lobed, downy; flowers long-stalked,
mental purposes are often nursery NW Africa, naturalized US; aromatic petals 2.5–5cm (1–2in), rich red; var.
trained, and have an open, wide- perennial erect to 1m (31/4ft); leaves mexicanus: TURK’S CAP, leaves almost
branching crown; for fruiting purposes, shallowly 3-lobed to deeply divided; glabrous, more or less unlobed).
it may be preferable to obtain a feath- petals 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in), white or pink;
ered maiden to form a central leader includes ‘Alba’, to 60cm (24in), with mamillate, mammillate fur-
(spindlebush) tree, with a well-spaced deeply cut leaves and silky white flow- nished with nipple-like prominences.
framework of laterals. ers, and ‘Rosea’, with rose flowers
Propagate species by seed, although tinted purple); M.sylvestris (TALL Mammillaria (from Latin mammilla,
this may not come true. M.hupehensis MALLOW, HIGH MALLOW, CHEESES; little nipple, referring to the tubercles).
produces seed apomictically, and Europe, N Africa, SW Asia, US as Cactaceae. SW US, Mexico, C Amer-
seedlings of this species will come true. garden escape; perennial to 1m (31/4ft); ica, Caribbean region, Colombia,
Sow seed in spring, following three leaves broadly cordate or suborbicular, Venezuela. Some 150 species, low-
months of cold stratification in a damp lobed; petals 1.5–2cm (5/8–3/4in), mauve, growing cacti with globose to squatly
medium at 1°C/34°F. Temperatures paler and hairy at base, notched at cylindrical stems covered in prominent,
above 15–20°C/59–68°F in the sowing apex; includes ‘Alba’, with pure white spiny tubercles. Campanulate to fun-
medium may induce secondary dor- flowers, ‘Brave Heart’, upright, to nelform flowers are borne freely at
mancy. Cultivars are T-budded, or 90cm (36in), with large, pale purple various times of year. The fruit is
whip and tongue grafted on to clonal flowers with a dark eye, ‘Cottenham berry-like, oblong or clavate, and often
rootstocks. Pests and diseases of crab Blue’, to 75cm (30in), with pale mauve- bright red. These small, undemanding
apples are similar to those affecting blue flowers with darker veins, and cacti are popular as houseplants,
orchard apples. See apples. ‘Primley Blue’, low-growing, with soft producing an abundance of small,
violet flowers with darker veins). colourful flowers. Provide a minimum
Malva (from Latin malva, mallow, temperature of 7°C/45°F, full sun and
from the Greek malache, probably Malvaviscus (from Latin malva, low humidity. Plant in a gritty and
derived from Greek malachos, soothing, mallow, and viscum, glue, referring to sandy, loam-based mix. Water moder-
referring to its medicinal properties). the sticky seeds). C and S America. ately in spring and summer. Keep dry
498 Malvaceae. Europe, Asia, Africa; 3 species slender-stemmed, evergreen from mid-autumn until early spring,
widely introduced into temperate and shrubs, sometimes vinelike, with except for light misting on warm days
Mandevilla
during late winter. Increase by seed, radial spines 25–40, 3–12mm (1/8–1/2in),
alternatively by offsets. fine, straight to tortuous, white; flowers
M.bocasana (C Mexico; freely cluster- creamy yellow, or tinged pink, outer
ing; stem more or less globose, almost tepals brown-striped); M.rhodantha (C
hidden by spines; axils naked or with Mexico; usually simple, occasionally
fine hairs or bristles; central spines offsetting or branching; stem to 40 x
1(–5), 5–10mm (1/4–1/2in), 1–2 hooked, 12cm (16 x 43/4in), cylindric; tubercles
red or brown, radial spines 25–50, obtuse-conic to cylindric, axils woolly
8–10(–20)mm (3/8–1/2(–3/4)in), hair-like, at first and with a few bristles; central
white; flowers creamy white, outer spines 4–9, to 18(–25)mm (3/4(–1)in),
tepals with pale pink stripe); M.candida usually recurved, typically red-brown,
(NE Mexico; simple or clustering; radial spines typically 17–24, 4–9mm
stems to 14cm (51/2in) in diameter, (1/8–3/8in), glassy white to pale yellow;
globose to stoutly cylindric; tubercles flowers purple-red); M.schiedeana (clus-
cylindric; areoles with scant wool; axils tering; stem to 10 x 6cm (4 x 21/2in),
with fine white bristles; central spines Mammillaria bocasana var. rubrifolia depressed-globose; tubercles tapering,
8–12, to 1cm (1/2in), white or tipped This form of the snowball cactus has pinker cylindric, terete; axils with long white
pink or brown, radial spines numerous, flowers than the species, forming a more woolly hairs; central spines 0, radial
to 1.5cm (5/8in), white; flowers rose conspicuous ring around the crown. spines very numerous, 2–5mm
pink); M.densispina (C Mexico; usually (1/16–1/4in), adpressed, minutely pubes-
simple; stem to 12 (41/2in) x 6(–10)cm stem to 20 x 12cm (8 x 43/4in); tubercles cent, white, pale yellow towards base,
(21/2(–4)in), globose to short-cylindric; very numerous, triangular-conic, small; golden yellow at base, the tip usually
central spines 5–6, 10–12(–15)mm (1/2 axils with long white bristles; central hair-like; flowers creamy white); M.sem-
(–5/8)in), straight, black-tipped, radial spines 1(–4), up to 4mm (1/8in), white pervivi (east central Mexico; simple at
spines about 25, unequal, 8–10mm tipped brown, radial spines 20–30, first, sometimes later dividing apically
(3/8–1/2in), yellow; flowers pale yellow);
M.elongata (C Mexico; clustering; stem
1–3cm (1/2–11/4in) in diameter, cylindric,
5–15mm (1/4–5/8in), hairlike, white; flow-
ers deep purple-pink); M.magnimamma
(C Mexico; usually clustering and
or offsetting; stem to 10cm (4in) in
diameter, depressed-globose; tubercles
angled-conic, dark blue-green, axils
M
elongate; tubercles short, central spines forming mounds 50cm (20in) or more woolly; central spines usually 2, some-
0–3, to 15mm (5/8in), pale yellow to in diameter; individual heads to times 4, to 4mm (1/8in), brown or black,
brown, radial spines 14–25, 4–9mm 10–12cm (4–43/4in) in diameter; tuber- later grey, radial spines rudimentary,
(1/8–3/8in), yellow; flowers pale yellow or cles pyramidal-conic; axils woolly in on juvenile stem only; flowers nearly
tinged pink); M.geminispina (C Mexico; flowering zone; spines 3–6, usually 1 white or pale pink); M.zeilmanniana
soon clustering and forming mounds; longer and stronger than the others (C Mexico; freely clustering; stem to
individual stem 6–8cm (21/2–3in) in and curved; flowers pale yellow to deep 6 x 4.5cm (21/2 x 13/4in); tubercles sub-
diameter, becoming cylindric; axils purple-pink); M.microhelia (C Mexico; cylindric, central spines 4, the upper
with wool and short bristles; central simple or clustering; stem to 25 (10in) 3 straight, the lowest hooked, slightly
spines 2 or 4, uppermost 15–40mm x 3.5–6cm (11/2–21/2in), cylindric; tuber- longer, all red-brown, radial spines
(5/8–11/2in), white, dark-tipped, radial cles shortly conic; axils soon naked; about 15–18, finely bristly, pubescent,
spines 16–20, 5–7mm (1/8–1/4in), chalky central spines 0–4(–8), to 11mm (1/2in), white; flowers violet-pink or purple,
white; flowers deep pink); M.gracilis dark red-brown, radial spines (30–)50, rarely white).
(east C Mexico; offsetting very freely, 4–6mm (1/8–1/4in); yellow, often slightly
stem to 13 (5in) x 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in), recurved; flowers creamy white to red Mandevilla (for H.J. Mandeville,
cylindric; tubercles short, obtusely or purple); M.plumosa (NE Mexico; British Minister at Buenos Aires, who
conic; central spines 0–2(–5), up to clustering to form mounds to 40cm introduced M.laxa). Apocynaceae.
10–12mm (1/2in), white or dark brown, (16in) or more in diameter; stem to C and S America. Some 120 species,
radial spines 11–17, 3–8mm (1/8–3/8in), 6–7cm (21/2–23/4in) in diameter, globose, woody, evergreen lianes with fun-
bristly, white; flowers pale yellow with hidden by spines; tubercles cylindric; nelform to salverform, 5-lobed flowers
pink or brown midline); M.haageana axils woolly; spines up to 40, 3–7mm at various times of year. Grow in a
(syn. M.elegans; SE Mexico; stem usu- (1/8–1/4in), feathery, white; flowers small, coarse, well-drained but moisture-
ally simple, reaching 15 (6in) x 5–10cm creamy white or tinged brown-pink); retentive medium rich in organic
(2–4in) in larger variants: tubercles M.prolifera (NE Mexico, SW US, Cuba, matter, with shade from the strongest
small, crowded; axils often woolly and Hispaniola; forming dense clumps; summer sun. Provide a minimum tem-
sometimes with bristles; central spines stem to about 9 x 4.5cm (31/2 x 13/4in), perature of 7–10°C/45–50°F. Young
usually 2, sometimes 1 or 4, to 15mm globose, to cylindric-clavate; tubercles plants grow well and flower freely in
(5/8in), brown, radial spines 15–25, terete; axils naked or with fine white well-lit, warm rooms in the home and
3–6mm (1/8–1/4in), white; flowers small, hairs; central spines 5–12, 4–9mm are often offered for sale as houseplants
deep purple-pink); M.hahniana (C (1/8–3/8in), straight, puberulent, white trained on wire hoops. Water plenti- 499
Mexico; simple or clustering; individual to red-brown, sometimes dark-tipped, fully and liquid feed occasionally when
Mandevilla
in growth and flower. Provide support W Balkans; leaves to 30cm (12in), expressed as leaf chlorosis, commenc-
and mist over frequently, especially in somewhat puckered and wavy; flowers ing at the margins with colour left in
warm bright weather or if grown in to 2.5cm (1in), blue to purple, lobes the finest veins, thus giving a distinct
the home. Reduce water as light levels triangular; fruit to 3cm (11/4in) in netted appearance. Although com-
and temperatures drop in autumn; diameter, yellow). mencing in shoot tips, older leaves
keep just moist in winter. Prune in late appear more affected as new leaves
winter/early spring to thin old and Manettia (For X. Manetti (b. 1723), grow out of the symptoms. Character-
crowded growth and cut back remain- keeper of the botanic garden at Flo- istic spotting occurs on potatoes and
ing branches to short spurs. Propagate rence). Rubiaceae. Tropical America. beet; and also on the cotyledons of
by semi-ripe or softwood nodal cuttings. Some 80 species, soft-stemmed or peas and some beans where it causes
M. x amabilis. (M.splendens x ?; woody-based, evergreen twiners with the condition known as marsh spot,
climber to 4m (13ft); flowers 9–12cm brightly coloured, tubular to funnel- found when the seeds are split open.
(31/2–43/4in) in diameter, rose pink, rosy shaped flowers at various times of year. The avoidance of overliming will
crimson at centre, throat yellow); Grow in bright, indirect light, on trellis prevent deficiency and sprays of
M. x amoena (M. x amabilis x M.splendens; or other support, in the greenhouse or manganese sulphate are an effective
a backcross with more abundantly pro- conservatory, with a minimum temper- treatment. Manganese toxicity can
duced, darker flowers to 10cm (4in) in ature of 10°C/50°F. Water plentifully occur on soils of a pH below 5.0.
diameter; includes M. ‘Alice du Pont’ when in growth; reduce watering as
and M. ‘Splendens Hybrid’); M.bolivien- temperatures fall in autumn. Avoid Manglietia (from the Malay name
sis (Bolivia, Ecuador; WHITE DIPLADE- persistent wetting of foliage, especially for one of the species). Magnoliaceae.
NIA; slender climber to 4m (13ft); in bright sunlight or cold weather. Cut Malaysia to S China, E Himalaya.
flowers to 5 x 8cm (2 x 3in), white, back if necessary in spring. Manettia Some 25 species, shrubs or trees,
throat golden yellow); M.laxa (syn. species can also be grown as half-hardy resembling Magnolia, but with leaf peti-
M.suaveolens; CHILEAN JASMINE; annuals, planted outside for summer ole bases appearing swollen, 9 flower
Argentina; climber to 4m (13ft); flowers display, in humus-rich soils with part segments in 2 whorls, occasionally
M highly fragrant, to 5cm (2in) in diame-

ter, white to ivory); M.sanderi (Brazil;
climber to 5cm (2in); flowers rose-pink,
shade. Most plants will degenerate after
a few years, making frequent repropa-
gation desirable: take softwood cuttings
more, and ovules to 6 per carpel (Mag-
nolia has 2 ovules per carpel). Cultivate
as for Michelia. M.insignis (W China,
throat to 4.5cm (13/4in); ‘Rosea’: of new growth in spring or semi-ripe Himalaya, Burma; tree to 12m (39ft);
BRAZILIAN JASMINE, flowers to 8cm cuttings in summer. young shoots grey-downy; leaves to
(3in), salmon pink with throat and tube M.cordifolia (FIRECRACKER VINE; 20cm (8in), oblong to elliptic, glossy
yellow within); M.splendens (SE Brazil; Bolivia to Argentina, Peru; twining above, glaucous beneath, tough; flow-
climber to 6m (20ft); flowers 7.5–10cm herb, to 4m (13ft); leaves heart-shaped, ers to 7.5cm (3in) in diameter, white
(3–4in) in diameter, rose pink; includes smooth; flowers to 5cm (2in), vivid red tinged pink or carmine).
‘Rosacea’, with rose-pink flowers, or dark orange fading to yellow at
flushed and edged deeper rose and lobes, tube distended above); mangos tropical evergreen trees up to
with a tube ringed bright rose at M.luteorubra (syn. M.bicolor, M.inflata; 30m (100ft) tall, of the family Anacar-
throat and yellow within). BRAZILIAN FIRE CRACKER, TWINING diaceae, native from India to S China
FIRE CRACKER, FIRE CRACKER VINE; and the Solomon Islands, and natural-
Mandragora (Classical Greek name Paraguay, Uruguay; perennial, ized in N Australia. Mangifera indica is of
used by Hippocrates). Solanaceae. twining herb or shrub to 4m (13ft); ancient origin in cultivation, producing
Mediterranean to Himalaya. leaves ovate to elliptic, roughly fleshy, resinous edible fruits, coloured
6 species, perennial herbs but minutely hairy; flowers to 5cm green to red depending on the cultivar.
with stout, forked taproots (2in), tube cylindric, bright red, Fruit size varies greatly from 4–25cm
and oblong to lanceolate downy, lobes yellow). (11/2–93/4in) in length, weighing up to
leaves in a basal rosette. The 2kg (41/2lb). Optimal climate range is
short-stalked, solitary flowers are manganese an essential from monsoon tropics to frost free sub-
bell-shaped, 5-lobed and appear minor (micro-) nutrient, tropics; some cultivars are adapted to
in spring. They are followed by required as a constituent of growing in minimum outdoor tempera-
toxic, tomato-like fruit. Hardy in enzymes that are important ture range of 21–25°C/70–77°F, with
climate zone 7. Grow in a warm, in respiration and protein high humidity. In temperate regions,
sheltered position, in deep, synthesis. Symptoms of defi- specimen plants can be grown only in
light, well-drained but mois- ciency occur in plants grown lofty greenhouses maintaining a mini-
ture-retentive, circum-neutral on high lime soils, especially mum temperature of 15°C/59°F.
soil; it will tolerate some shade. those rich in organic con-
Propagate by seed sown ripe or tent; however, symptoms may manure is a term often used to refer
in spring, or by root cuttings in be due to the element being to any substance added to soil as a
500 winter. M.officinarum (MANDRAKE, unavailable rather than absent. source of plant nutrients, although it is
DEVIL’S APPLES; N Italy, Mandrake root Deficiency is commonly most appropriately used as a description
marjoram
to a compost heap, or dried and mixed of purple-brown to dark olive blotches

with soil or sand for top-dressing. on each side of midrib).
Sewage sludge provides organic
matter for the improvement of soil marcescent withered but persisting,
structure but it is of variable nutri- for example, the leaves of young beech
tional content and it is important to plants or those trimmed as hedges in
assure freedom from heavy metal cont- late summer.
amination. It is more suitable for use
on agricultural land than in gardens. marcottage, marcotting see air
Organic manures can be worked into layering.
the soil at autumn or spring digging or
alternatively spread over the surface, marginal plant a plant grown
8–12cm (3–43/4in) deep, during autumn either in shallow water or in moist
or winter, for incorporation by earth- soil around pool edges and banks
worms prior to spring digging; incor- of watercourses.
Organic manuring porate throughout the top 18cm (7in)
Incorporating well-rotted farmyard manure at rates of not less than 5.5kg/m2. Margyricarpus (from Greek mar-
during basic cultivation is a valuable means (10lb/yd2). See compost, green manuring, garon, pearl, and karpos, fruit, referring
of maintaining soil fertility. guano, fish manure, leafmould, liquid feeding. to the white fruit). Rosaceae. S Amer-
ica (Andes). 1 species, M.pinnatus, PEARL
of bulky organic material derived from Maranta (for B. Maranti (fl. 1559), FRUIT, an evergreen, densely branched
animals or plants. Manure provides Venetian botanist). Marantaceae. subshrub to 60cm (24in) with pinnate
nutrients and humus that benefit soil Tropical C and S America. Some 32 leaves to 2cm (3/4in) long divided into
structure. The type most commonly species, evergreen herbaceous perenni- many fine and silky leaflets. Inconspic-
referred to is farmyard manure (FYM), als with short, clumped stems arising uous flowers are followed in summer
which is cow, pig or horse dung mixed
with straw or litter. The nutrient con-
tent varies according to the type of
from a starchy rhizome. The leaves are
long-stalked with obovate to elliptic
blades and exhibit sleep movements –
by fleshy, rounded fruits to 0.7cm (1/4in)
in diameter and white with purple
tints. Grow in well-drained, moisture-
M
animal and its feeding, the proportion standing erect as if in prayer at night. retentive, preferably lime-free soils in
of litter and the duration and method Small flowers are carried in sparsely an open position, but with some shade
of storage. Exposure to the elements branched, bracteate spikes throughout during the hottest part of the day.
rapidly lowers nutrient levels, especially the year. Cultivate as for Calathea. The Hardy to –5°C/23°F – protect from
of nitrogen. The average analysis of following species is one of the most prolonged winter frosts. In the alpine
FYM is 0.5% nitrogen (N), 0.25% widely grown foliage houseplants. house, grow in pans and water freely
phosphate (P) and 0.5% potash (K). M.leuconeura (PRAYER PLANT, TEN COM- when in growth, keeping dry but not
Horse dung is usually the richest MANDMENTS; Brazil; low-growing; arid in winter. Propagate by softwood
and driest, and has the best effect on leaves to 12cm (43/4in), elliptic, lustrous cuttings in early summer, by simple
soil structure. It is also very suitable for dark green, zoned grey or maroon, layering, or from seed sown in autumn.
hot beds and mushroom beds. Pig and veined silver, red or purple above, grey-
cow manure have a close texture and green or maroon beneath; flowers marionberry see hybrid berries.
are better used on light soils than on white stained or spotted violet; var.
heavy ones. Cow manure will dry erythroneura: HERRINGBONE marjoram (Origanum species) a culi-
rapidly and can be crumbled for PLANT, leaves velvety nary herb native of mountainous
use in potting mixtures. black-green with promi- Mediterranean areas and known to
FYM is a possible source of weed nent red veins and a have been cultivated in Ancient
seeds and occasionally plant pests and lime green zone along Egypt. SWEET or KNOTTED MAR-
diseases. It should be composted for six midvein; ‘Massangeana’: JORAM (O.majorana) is grown as
months before use, preferably stacked leaves blue-tinted, dull an annual, and reaches a
on a concrete surface under cover. rusty-brown toward height of 60cm (24in). Sow
Poultry manure has a higher nitro- centre with a jagged under protection in March
gen and phosphate content than farm- silver band along midrib or a little later outdoors,
yard manure at about 2.5% N and and silver lines along lateral planting or thinning to
1% P, which rises on drying. Pigeon veins; var. leuconeura: leaves 20cm (8in) stations. POT
manure has the highest nutrient con- broadly elliptic, dark MARJORAM or OREGANO (O.vul-
tent of all, at about 14% N, 11% P green above with a pale, gare) is hardier and grown as a
and 3% K. Both can be used fresh as comb-like central zone and bushy perennial, up to 90cm
long as care is taken not to exceed the silver feather veins; and var. (36in) high. Raise from seed,
nitrogen requirements of a crop, but kerchoviana: RABBIT’S FOOT, cuttings or division, and trim 501
they are best added in small quantities leaves grey-green with a row Golden marjoram regularly. There are attractive
marjoram
variegated forms of MARJORAM, usually Mary garden a medieval enclosed sepal to 8cm (3in), triangular or linear,
less distinctly flavoured. The leaves can garden with features of religious signif- tail slender, erect or recurved, lateral
be dried satisfactorily, and specimens icance, including flower-spangled turf sepals ovate-triangular, large, fused,
potted to overwinter productively and plants having Christian symbolism, with ridges and short tails); M.ignea
under protection. especially the Madonna lily. (syn. M.militaris; Colombia; inflores-
cence to 40cm (16in), 1-flowered; flow-
marl a calcareous clay soil. Marl is Masdevallia (for José Masdevall (d. ers to 8cm (3in) across; sepals scarlet to
sometimes applied to sandy soils to 1801), Spanish botanist and physician). orange, often tinged crimson, sepaline
improve structure, fertility and water Orchidaceae. Mexico to Brazil and tube to 2cm (3/4in), cylindrical, hooded,
retention. Bolivia. Some 350 species, small ever- curved, dorsal sepal free portion to
green perennial herbs with clumps of 1cm (1/2in), triangular, tail to 4cm
marrow (Cucurbita pepo) VEGETABLE obovate to oblanceolate leaves borne (11/2in), lateral sepals broadly falcate-
MARROW a bush or trailing annual pro- on short stalks. The flowers are solitary ovate, tails short); M.macrura (Colombia,
ducing large, cylindrical, edible fruits; or racemose, thinly fleshy and essen- Ecuador; inflorescence usually equalling
immature marrows of some cultivars tially triangular in outline due to the leaves, 1-flowered; flowers to 25cm
are known as courgettes or zucchini. showy, expanded sepals. These are (10in) across; sepals red to dull brown-
Originating in northern Mexico and ovate to triangular, fused below in a yellow, with maroon warts, sepaline
the southern US, the marrow is now narrow or cup-shaped tube, then tube to 1.5cm (5/8in), cylindrical or flat-
widely distributed in many tropical spreading and terminating in a tail. tened, ribbed, dorsal sepal free portion
and subtropical regions and can be The petals and lip are far smaller and to 15cm (6in), lanceolate to triangular,
cultivated outdoors in temperate virtually hidden within the sepaline tail long, yellow-green, lateral sepals
regions during the summer period. cup. Pot in a mix of fine bark, charcoal to 12.5cm (5in), ovate to oblong, con-
Marrows require a fertile, moisture- and sphagnum in small pots. Position nate for basal 4cm (11/2in), tails long,
retentive soil achieved by incorporating in light shade in a buoyant, humid, strongly decurved); M.mooreana (syn.
well-rotted organic matter. A soil tem- cool environment – growth will deteri- M.elephanticeps; Colombia, Venezuela;
M perature of a least 13°C/55°F is neces-

sary for germination, and plants are
best sown in small pots under protec-
orate where temperatures exceed a day
maximum of 25°C/77°F or a night
range of 5–10°C/41–50°F. Although
inflorescence to 10cm (4in), 1-flowered;
flowers to 9cm (31/2in) across; sepaline
tube broadly cylindrical, sepals long,
tion in the spring; set out 4–5 weeks these plants should never be allowed to tapering, forward-pointing, dorsal sepal
later, after hardening off and when risk dry out, they are susceptible to damping yellow-white streaked purple at base,
of frost has passed. Later direct sow- off, and should therefore be watered triangular, tail yellow, to 5cm (2in), lat-
ings can be made in the open or under carefully. Propagate by division. eral sepals crimson to purple, interior
cloches, placing two or three seeds per M.barleana (Peru; inflorescence to with black-purple papillae, triangular,
site at a depth of 2.5cm (1in); thin later 25cm (10in), 1-flowered; sepaline tube tail yellow toward apex); M.schroederiana
to leave only the strongest seedling. narrow, scarlet, campanulate-cylindric, (Peru; inflorescence to 21cm (8in), 1-
Space 90cm (36in) apart each way for slightly decurved, dorsal sepal to 4cm flowered to 8cm (3in) across; sepaline
bush types and 1.2m (4ft) for trailing (11/2in), red-orange with red lines, tube short-campanulate, white, ribbed,
types. Marrows must be kept well- ovate-triangular to subquadrate, lateral expanding as a flattened oblong plat-
watered, particularly during flowering, sepal connate for two-thirds, bright form formed by fusion of the lateral
and mulching of the soil surface is carmine shaded scarlet, with scarlet sepals, pearly white flushed ruby red in
beneficial. lines, tails to 14mm (1/2in), sometimes upper portions and at dorsal sepal, tails
Separate male and female flowers crossing); M.caudata (Colombia, long, yellow, lateral tails held horizon-
are produced and these are insect- Venezuela, Ecuador; inflorescence tally, dorsal tails erect); M.tovarensis (syn.
pollinated; under cool conditions, 1-flowered, flowers slightly fragrant, M.candida; Venezuela; inflorescence to
hand-pollinate by removing male flow- to 15cm (6in) across, usually smaller; 18cm (7in), 1–4-flowered; flowers to
ers and dabbing pollen into the female sepaline tube short, cup-like, dorsal 3.5cm (11/2in) across, pure white, with
flowers – these can be recognized by sepal lime to buff, spotted and lined tails cream or pale jade; sepaline tube
the immature ovary below the peri- lilac, free portion to 2.5cm (1in), cylindrical, to 6mm (1/4in), dorsal sepal
anth. Regular harvesting extends the obovate, concave, tails to 6.5cm (21/2in), free portion to 4 x 0.6cm (11/2 x 1/4in),
production period and increases total slender, yellow, lateral sepal buff filiform, erect, lateral sepals to 4 x 1cm
yield. Courgettes should be cut when flushed or spotted lilac or rose, free (11/2 x 1/2in), shaped like a lyre, connate
about 10cm (4in) long and marrows portion to 1.5cm (5/8in), ovate, tails for half of length, ribbed, tails short,
when between 15–20cm (6–8in) long. to 5cm (2in), pale green, deflexed); often, crossing); M.veitchiana (Peru;
Marrows developed to their full size M.coccinea (Colombia, Peru; inflores- inflorescence to 45cm (18in), 1-
can be stored for winter use. cence to 40cm (16in), 1-flowered; flow- flowered; flowers to 8cm (3in) across,
Possible problems: aphids, red spider ers waxy, variable in colour, sepals deep sepal interior shining vermilion covered
mite, whiteflies; virus, downy mildew, magenta, crimson, scarlet, pale yellow with many iridescent purple papillae,
502 grey mould, gummosis, powdery mildew. or cream-white, sepaline tube to 2cm sepaline tube to 3cm (11/4in), campanu-
See also courgette, pumpkins, squashes. (3/4in), campanulate to cylindric, dorsal late-cylindrical, dorsal sepal free portion
Matthiola
to 3cm (11/4in), triangular-ovate, tail, to with darker, much-reduced pinnae. humid summers, seed may be sown in
3.5cm (11/2in), lateral sepals larger than Fully hardy and ideal for damp situa- situ in spring. To ensure double flowers,
dorsal sepal, broadly ovate or triangu- tions, Matteuccia spreads by under- seed stock must be from a selected race
lar, acuminate, curving downwards, ground rhizomes to form colonies of and germinated in warmth. On emer-
connate for 3cm (11/4in), tails short, fresh lime ‘shuttlecocks’. The foliage gence of the first pair of leaves, the
often forward-pointing or overlapping); is a delightful feature in the garden in temperature is dropped to at least
M.wageneriana (Venezuela; inflorescence spring but can become rather ragged below 10°C/50°F. The genetic differ-
1-flowered to 5cm (2in), slender; flow- late in a dry season. The fertile fronds ence expressed in cotyledon colour
ers to 6cm (21/2in) light green-yellow persist throughout the following winter. should then be quite distinct: those
or cream, orange-yellow toward base, Plant in moist or wet soils rich in with yellow green or pale coloured
spotted and streaked violet, sepaline decayed vegetable matter, in shade cotyledons will be double-flowered,
tube short, dorsal sepal free portion or dappled sun. M.struthiopteris can be and dark green seedlings may be dis-
broadly ovate-oblong, to 1cm (1/2in), invasive. Propagate by offsets – these carded. With the Trisomic seven-week
concave, tail slender, to 5cm (2in), may surface at some distance from the strains, after pricking out and growing
sharply recurved, lateral sepals similar mother plant. M.struthiopteris (OSTRICH on in the usual way, doubles should
to dorsal sepal, connate for more FERN, SHUTTLECOCK FERN; Europe, become apparent at four-leaf stage,
than half of length). For M.bella, E Asia, eastern N America; usually although the difference is less obvious –
see Dracula bella; for M.chimaera, see deciduous, spreading by buried the sturdier seedlings are likely to be
Dracula chimaera; for M.erythrochaete, see runners; sterile fronds 12–100, soft, double. Stocks of the Stockpot type,
Dracula erythrochaete; for M.vampira, bright green, pinnae 30–70, narrowly a dwarf strain grown for bedding,
see Dracula vampira. lanceolate, pinnatifid). cutting and pot plants, exhibit notched
seed leaves in double-flowered plants.
mat (1) the layer of dead grass and Matthiola (for Pierandrea Mattioli For greenhouse flowers, sow from late
debris accumulating near soil level in (1500–77), Italian physicist and botanist). summer in succession until mid-winter,
turf; (2) a thick cover of coir or other Cruciferae. W Europe, C Asia, South spaced 15–20cm (6–8in) in the green-
fabric used to protect frames against
frost; (3) a coir or chain mat used to
work top-dressings into turf.
Africa. STOCK, GILLYFLOWER. 55 species,
annual or perennial herbs, occasionally
subshrubs, with terminal racemes of
house border or given a final pot size
of 10–15cm (4–6in). Use a porous,
medium-fertility, loam-based propagat-
M
See capillary mat. 4-petalled flowers in summer. These ing mix. Maintain a temperature of
are highly fragrant, especially at night, about 10°C/50°F, and ventilate well.
Matteuccia (for C. Matteucci and are excellent for cutting. Liquid feed weekly, as the roots fill
(1800–1868), Italian physicist). Dry- Grow in sun in a fertile, well-drained, their pots. Sow biennials in summer
opteridaceae (Athyriaceae). Temperate neutral or slightly alkaline soil. Sow in a seedbed or lightly shaded frame;
N America, Europe, E Asia. OSTRICH seeds of annuals in early spring under overwinter in the cold greenhouse or
FERN. 4 species, deciduous perennial glass, at 15°C/59°F. Grow on in well- frost-free frame, and plant out in early
ferns with erect, stout stocks and fast- ventilated conditions at 10°C/50°F; spring. Provide cloche protection if
spreading rhizomes. The sterile fronds water moderately, allowing the plants overwintering outdoors in all but the
are lanceolate to oblong in outline and to become almost dry between water- mildest areas. A bacterial leaf spot, leaf
2–3 x pinnately compound; they stand ings. Harden off and plant out after rot and stem rot, canker, black root rot,
semi-erect in shuttlecock-like rosettes. the last frost; stake tall cultivars. In club root, downy mildew and the cab-
The fertile fronds are erect and smaller zones that do not experience hot bage root fly can affect stocks.
B EDDING STOCKS
Matthiola incana Cinderella Series Matthiola ‘Giant Excelsior’ Matthiola ‘Giant Imperial’ 503
Matthiola
M.incana (BROMPTON STOCK; S and W up trees; similar to a pickaxe, with one an open bark mix, a brief winter rest
Europe; woody-based biennial, 30–80cm side of the head pointed and the other and plentiful water, high humidity and
(12–32in); leaves lanceolate, grey-green, fashioned into a broader chisel-like light shade in spring and summer.
hairy; flowers purple, sometimes pink or blade. In the grubbing axe, one blade is M.cucullata (Mexico; flowers dingy
white; includes ‘Annua’, the fast-growing made in the same plane as the handle dark brown, tepals 25–28mm (1–11/5in),
TEN-WEEK STOCK, grown as an annual); for use as an axe. The grubber or grub- lanceolate, lip 23mm (4/5in) dark purple-
M.longipetala (NIGHT-SCENTED STOCK; bing mattock has a broad blade at right red); M.grandiflora (Ecuador, Colombia,
Greece to SW Asia, S Ukraine; annual, angles to the handle, and the other Peru, Venezuela, Guyana; flowers nod-
8–50cm (3–20in); leaves oblong to linear, blade pointed or chisel-like. ding, milk-white, scented, fleshy, dorsal
simple or pinnatisect, entire or toothed; sepals 35–45mm (11/2–13/4in), ovate to
flowers yellow, green-white or pink). Maurandella (for Catalina Pancratia oblong, lateral sepals slightly longer and
Cultivars. Modern selections of garden Maurandy, 18th-century Spanish wider, petals shorter and narrower;
stocks are available in a wide range of botanist). Scrophulariaceae. SW USA lip to 25mm (1in), ovate); M.lepidota
sizes, from the 20cm (8in) dwarf Stock- and Mexico. 1 species, M.antirrhiniflora (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador; tepals
pots to the Column types up to 1m (syn. Asarina antirrhiniflora) VIOLET TWIN- yellow, marked red at base, lip creamy
(31/4ft) tall, in colours from pastel pinks ING SNAPDRAGON. Herbaceous, half- yellow with maroon marks, sepals to
to mauve-blues and carmines, and hardy perennial climber. Hairless, 60mm (21/2in), lanceolate, petals to
shades of yellow, copper and gold. The slender, multi-branched stems to 2.2m 45mm (13/4in), curved-lanceolate, lip
annuals are the largest group, and (71/4ft). Leaves ovate-triangular, lobed, 20mm (3/4in), fleshy, midlobe covered
include the Ten-week and dwarf, bushy 2.5–10cm (1–4in) long. Flowers singu- with yellow-green farina); M.meleagris
Trisomic seven-week races. Annuals fall lar, tubular, axillary, up to 4.5cm (13/4in) (Mexico, Guatemala, Panama; flowers
into the following groups – (a) Ten-week long with white tubes and usually violet scented of coconut, buff-orange, buff-
Dwarf Large-flowering: compact, free or purple, occasionally pink lobes, simi- olive or flesh-coloured, marked with
flowering, to 30cm (12in), excellent for lar to snapdragon; summer–autumn. dark red, lip dark blood red, sepals
bedding purposes. (b) Ten-week Excelsior In temperate climates, grow under frost 12–30mm (1/2–11/4in), elliptic, petals
M (Column): of upright habit, to 80cm

(32in), producing the single columnar
densely flowered spike valued by
protection or as an annual in the open;
propagate from seed or softwood
cuttings in late spring.
shorter, lip 7–16mm (1/4–5/8in), trilobed,
recurved, midlobe fleshy, tongue-like);
M.picta (Brazil; flowers large, golden
florists; for the greenhouse or outdoors yellow inside, cream-yellow outside,
and excellent for cutting. The Pacific Maurandya (for Catalina Pancratia banded and flecked purple-brown,
seed race is also of this columnar type, Maurandy, 18th-century Spanish lip yellow-white or cream spotted red,
and better suited to outdoor cultivation. botanist). Scrophulariaceae. C USA sepals about 30mm (11/4in), oblong,
(c) Ten-week Giant Imperial: of bushy, and Mexico. 2 species of twining, petals slightly shorter and narrower;
branching habit, to 60cm (24in), with herbaceous, half-hardy perennials. midlobe tongue-shaped); M.sanderiana
long well-shaped spikes; for cutting and M.barclayana (syn. Asarina barclayana): (Peru, Ecuador; flowers large, fleshy,
bedding. (d) Ten-week Giant Perfection: of medium-sized erect climber to 5m tepals white flecked violet-purple, lip
erect and bushy habit, to 70cm (28in), (161/2ft); leaves angular to shallowly dull yellow with red markings, dark
with long spikes of large flowers; for lobed, ovate, 2.5–4.5cm (1–13/4in) long, purple on outer surface, dorsal sepal
bedding and cutting and exhibition. with heart-shaped bases. Flowers 60–75mm (21/2–3in), oblong to lanceo-
(e) Ten-week Mammoth or Beauty: erect, 4–7cm (11/2–23/4in) long, white or late, lateral sepals wider and longer,
bushy and compact, to 45cm (18in), green-tinted white tubes and white, petals somewhat shorter, lip 30mm
producing several spikes of large flow- pink or deep purple lobes. Cultivation (11/4in), ovate, obscurely trilobed,
ers; for bedding, cutting and for green- and propagation as for Maurandella. margin crisped); M.tenuifolia (Mexico to
house cultivation for winter bloom. Honduras and Nicaragua; flowers with
(f) Perpetual-flowering, or All the Year Round: Maxillaria (from Latin maxilla, jaw, a strong coconut scent, deep red mot-
dwarf, vigorous plants, with large spikes referring to the supposed resemblance tled with yellow towards base of tepals,
of pure white flowers, excellent for cut- of the column and lip to the jaws of an lip yellow, marked dark red, sepals
ting, and pot culture. Other major divi- insect). Orchidaceae. Tropical America spreading 20–25mm (3/4–1in), lanceo-
sions are Brompton stocks, erect and from West Indies and Mexico to Brazil, late or ovate, petals shorter, projecting
bushy biennials, to 45cm (18in), used for with 1 species in Florida. Over 600 forwards, lip about 16mm (15/8in),
bedding, and Intermediate or East Loth- species, evergreen, epiphytic perennial obscurely trilobed, midlobe tongue-
ian stocks which, treated as annuals, herbs. Those listed here have pseudo- shaped, fleshy); M.venusta (Colombia;
flower to follow on from the Ten-week bulbs and slender leaves. Produced in flowers nodding, tepals milk-white, lip
stocks, and are also grown as biennials spring and summer, the flowers are soli- yellow with 2 red spots, margins of lat-
flowering in spring and early summer. tary with petals similar to sepals but eral lobes red, sepals to 75mm (3in),
Virginia stock is Malcolmia maritima. usually smaller; the lip is fleshy, concave lanceolate, dorsal sepal concave, lateral
and entire or trilobed. Cool or interme- sepals curved, petals slightly shorter,
504 mattock a short-handled tool for diate-growing (minimum temperature lip fleshy, trilobed, midlobe triangular,
breaking up hard ground and grubbing 10°C/50°F), Maxillaria species require recurved).
Meconopsis
maypoling the practice of supporting Mazus (from Greek mazos, breast, Most mealybugs are natives of tropi-
heavily laden branches of a fruit tree referring to the protuberances in the cal and subtropical regions. In temper-
with strong ties in order to avoid break- corolla throat). Scrophulariaceae. SE ate zones, they are mainly a problem
age of limbs. Ties may be attached to Asia, China, Taiwan, Malay Archipel- on species grown under protection,
the top of a pole which is lashed to the ago, Australasia. Some 30 species, particularly Bougainvillea, Codiaeum,
trunk of the tree or to a central stake. annual or perennial herbs, usually Cycas, Ficus, Gardenia, Hippeastrum, Hoya,
creeping or prostrate, with tubular Passiflora, Plumbago, Saintpaulia, citrus
central cane supporting ties flowers in spring. These are 2-lipped, plants, palms, and cacti and succulents.
the upper lip shorter and hooded, the Because of their hidden feeding sites
lower lip large, 3-lobed and colourfully and waxy covering, mealybugs are dif-
marked in the throat. A charming ficult to control but approved insecti-
dwarf groundcover for sheltered, cides may be applied by immersion,
slightly acid positions in the rock by the use of a drenching spray, or
garden, Mazus is hardy in climate zone by direct application with a fine brush.
8. Protect in winter with evergreen Biological control may be achieved
branches or overwinter stock plants in using a ladybird beetle (Cryptolaemus
frost-free conditions. Increase by divi- montrouzieri) and/or certain parasitic
sion in spring. M.reptans (Himalaya; wasps (Leptomastix dactylopii, Leptomastidea
creeping perennial; leaves to 1cm (1/2in); abnormis and Anagrus pseudococci).
flowers purple-blue, lower lip blotched
Maypoling white, yellow and red-purple; ‘Albus’: meat meal, meat guano an
A stout bamboo cane lashed to the tree’s flowers white). organic fertilizer made by processing
stake is used as an anchor for ties that meat refuse into powdered form.
support the fruit-laden branches of this meadow gardening see alpine Where made only from meat, it is
young apple tree. Soft twine or ribbons of meadow. purely nitrogenous, providing up to
plastic netting can be used as the ties.
Maytenus (from Chilean vernacular

meal (1) a powdered fertilizer pro-
duced by drying and grinding organic
10% nitrogen. The inclusion of ground
bone gives an analysis of around 6%
nitrogen and 20% phosphate, and also
M
name). Celastraceae. Tropical and materials, such as bones or fish; it is adds trace elements. Both products are
subtropical regions. Some 255 species, easy to apply and the nutritional con- relatively slow-acting. Where available
evergreen shrubs or small trees. Pro- tent is quickly available to plants; (2) a they should be sterilized to eliminate
duced in spring, the flowers are incon- natural surface covering of the leaves pathogens, and handled with suitable
spicuous, but the fruits split to reveal of some plants, known as farina. precautions to avoid inhalation and
seeds with colourful arils. M.boaria will other personal contact.
tolerate temperatures to –10°C/14°F, mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococ-
but needs a warm and sheltered site in cidae) sap-feeding insects, up to 5mm Meconopsis (from Greek mekon,
sun or semi-shade. The soil should be (1/4in) long, with soft, flesh-coloured poppy, and opsis, appearance). Papaver-
well-drained, but never dry. Root bodies fringed with fine waxy filaments aceae. Himalaya to W China, W
semi-ripe cuttings under mist and and covered with a powdery white Europe. ASIATIC POPPY, BLUE POPPY. 43
with gentle bottom heat. M.boaria (syn. secretion known as ‘meal’. The male species, annual, biennial or perennial
M.chilensis; MAYTEN; Chile; evergreen mealybugs are winged and resemble herbs, often monocarpic, with hairy to
shrub or tree to 24m (79ft) with a very small flies, but some species bristly leaves in basal rosettes and, in
broad, weeping crown; leaves 2.5–5cm have females only and reproduce by spring and summer, poppy-like flowers
(1–2in), lanceolate to narrowly elliptic, parthenogenesis. Mealybugs congre- on erect, simple or branching stems.
finely serrate; fruit yellow; seeds 2, gate in leaf axils, sheaths and under Hardy and semi-hardy biennials and
aril scarlet). loose bark, covering themselves and perennials which, with one exception
their eggs with a fluffy, white wax, (M.cambrica), are native to the
maze a layout of paths with numer- which is often the first sign of infesta- Himalayas and mountains of China
ous alternatives, dead ends, and confus- tion. Established colonies debilitate and Tibet. Many are monocarpic,
ing turnings. The earliest garden mazes plants and deposit honeydew on the although they may take between two
were two-dimensional, made up of foliage; this acts as a substrate for and four years before flowering. They
paths cut in turf to form a knot unsightly sooty mould growth. are cultivated for their beautiful nod-
garden. The hedge-maze, properly ROOT MEALYBUGS seldom exceed ding poppy-like flowers, although the
a labyrinth, is the later more popular 3mm (1/8in) in length and are plainly basal leaf rosettes of some species are
concept formed with evergreens, such visible in pockets and dry patches in also very handsome. These plants are
as box, holly or yew, designed to con- the root balls of infested plants knocked ideal for the woodland garden, peat
fuse the user, with the hedges usually out of their pots. Poor growth followed terrace and shady herbaceous border.
trained to a height that is impossible by wilting is the most obvious symptom Although tall, many are suitable for the 505
to see over. above the soil. rock garden if planted in moist crevices
Meconopsis
with perfect drainage out of direct sun. 30cm (12in), narrowly oblanceolate to cuttings in summer. M.arborea (MOON
They are hardy in climate zone 7, but elliptic to oblong, serrate, rusty-bristly; TREFOIL; S Europe; grey-downy shrub
need cool, moist summers and rela- petals to 6cm (21/2in), purple or deep 1–2m (31/4–61/2ft); flowers 12–15mm
tively mild winters. Nearly all grow blue); M.horridula (Himalaya to W (1/2–5/8in), yellow; fruit in spiral of
best in part shade, and this is impor- China; short-lived perennial, to 80cm 1–2 turns).
tant to ensure and preserve good (32in); leaves elliptic to narrowly obo-
flower colour. They require shelter vate, to 25 x 3cm (10 x 11/4in), grey- Medinilla (for J. de Medinilla de
from summer heat and strong winds, green with purple or yellow warty and Pineda, Governor of the Marianne
and a moist but not stagnant root run spiny bristles; petals to 4cm (11/2in), Islands in 1820). Melastomataceae.
in soil that is fast-draining. Even the cobalt blue to violet or white); M.inte- Tropical Africa, SE Asia, Pacific. Some
hardiest species will rot if water accu- grifolia (Tibet, Upper Burma, W China; 150 species, evergreen shrubs, usually
mulates around the collar. In very wet short-lived perennial, to 90cm (36in), with bold, leathery leaves and small
areas, protect evergreen species with covered with downy, orange-red hairs; flowers whorled amid large waxy
open cloches or panes of glass. The leaves entire, oblanceolate to obovate bracts in showy panicles. Provide a
exception is M.cambrica, which will or linear, to 37 cm (151/2 in), densely minimum temperature of between
grow in virtually any soil, in any posi- hairy; petals to 3cm (11/4in), yellow 15 and 20°C/59 and 68°F. Grow in
tion. Plant in spring in a humus-rich, or white); M.napaulensis (SATIN POPPY; bright filtered light, ensuring shade
lime-free soil. Deadhead to prolong C Nepal to SW China; perennial, to from the hottest summer sun, in a
flowering and cut down perennial 2.6m (81/2ft); leaves to 50cm (20in), fertile, open and porous medium
species in autumn. Lift and divide pinnately cut, with dirty gold to brown with leafmould and bark. Provide
perennial species every three years to or tawny hairs and bristles; petals to high humidity, syringe frequently,
prevent deterioration. Some, including 4 x 3cm (11/2 x 11/4in), red or pink to water plentifully and feed fortnightly
M.grandis, M. x sheldonii, M.quintuplinervia, purple or blue, rarely white); M.panicu- when in full growth. During the winter
can be divided in spring or autumn. lata (E Nepal to NE Assam; short-lived months, water only to prevent wilting
All species can be seed-propagated. perennial, to 2m (61/2ft); leaves pin- and lower temperatures slightly; this
M Sow ripe seed in late summer in equal

parts peat and sand. Prick out into
boxes and overwinter in a well-ventilated
nately cut, white- to tawny-shaggy and
bristly; petals to 5cm (2in), yellow);
M.quintuplinervia (NE Tibet, China;
will help promote flowering. Propagate
by semi-ripe cuttings in a sandy propa-
gating mix in a humid closed case with
cool greenhouse or frame. Plants may perennial, to 30cm (12in); leaves to bottom heat; pinch out young plants
suffer from downy mildew (Peronospora), 25cm (10in), golden to rusty-bristly, to encourage branching. M.magnifica
which is grave at seedling stage and obovate to narrowly oblanceolate; (Philippines; robust epiphytic shrub
should be treated with appropriate petals to 3cm (11/4in), pale mauve-blue to 3m (10ft); branches stout, tetragonal
fungicide. The perennial species are or light violet, rarely white); M. x shel- to winged, jointed; leaves 20–30cm
thought to be longer-lived if they donii (M.betonicifolia x M.grandis; leaves (8–12in), broadly ovate, deep glossy
develop several crowns before being oblong to lanceolate, bristly, serrate; green; panicle to 50cm (20in), strongly
allowed to flower – for example, petals to 3cm (11/4in), blue; includes pendulous, bracts very large, candy
M.betonicifolia will be monocarpic if ‘Slieve Donard’, to 1m (31/4ft), with pink, paired, concave, flowers to 2.5cm
flowered as a biennial but may flower aquamarine flowers). (1in) in diameter, pink to coral-red).
over several seasons if raised slowly (in
cool conditions) and stopped in the Medicago (from Medike, name given medium a seed or potting compost
first two years to induce offsetting. by Dioscorides to a grass). Legumi- mixture or other material in which
M.betonicifolia (BLUE POPPY; China; nosae. Europe, Mediterranean, Africa, plants may be grown or propagated.
short-lived perennial, 30–200cm Asia. MEDIC, MEDICK. 56 species,
(12–79in); leaves up to 35cm (14in), annual or perennial herbs or small medlar (Mespilus germanica) a fully
stalked, oblong to ovate, serrate, shrubs with trifoliolate leaves and hardy deciduous tree or shrub to 5m
sparsely bristly; flowers to 6, in some- racemes of small, pea-like flowers, usu- (16ft) high, grown for its small flattened
what drooping cymes, petals to 5cm ally in summer. The fruit is a legume, apple-shaped fruits, which have a wide,
(2in), mauve-pink to bright sky blue; but often spiny and spiralling like a open eye and horny calyces. The
var. alba: white); M.cambrica (WELSH snail’s shell. The shrubby M.arborea is MEDLAR is indigenous throughout
POPPY; W Europe; perennial to 60cm hardy to about –10°C/14°F. In regions Europe and probably originated in
(24in); leaves pinnately lobed, to 20cm at the limits of its hardiness, it requires Transcaucasia; although recorded in
(8in), glabrous to hairy; flowers solitary, the protection of a south wall, but is Ancient Greece, Rome and Asia
in axils of upper stem leaves; petals to resistant to salt spray and wind. Plant Minor, it has never been of great horti-
3cm (11/4in), yellow; includes var. auran- in full sun on a fast-draining soil. cultural importance. It is occasionally
tiaca, with orange flowers, ‘Frances Prune out dead or weak growth in found growing wild in southern Eng-
Perry’, with scarlet flowers, and ‘Flore- spring. Sow seed in autumn or spring land, and was introduced by the
pleno’, with semi-double, yellow or (stratification or scarification may French into North America in the
506 orange flowers); M.grandis (Himalaya; improve germination); increase also 17th-century; it is sometimes found
perennial to 120cm (48in); leaves to by division of softwood or semi-ripe as a hedging subject in Florida.
Melia
dappled shade or in exposed but sun- PAPERBARK, PAPERBARK, BROAD-LEAVED

less areas, and are hardy to –15°C/5°F. TEATREE; N Australia, W Australia,
They flower from mid- to late summer, Queensland, also in Malaysia and New
giving a display of lilac or blue flowers Caledonia; tree to 30m (100ft); leaves
on rather untidy running stems which scattered, 8–23cm (3–9in), narrowly
may form dense clumps. Propagate by ovate to elliptic, thinly leathery; inflo-
rooted stolons, or by seed sown in a rescence a many-flowered, open spike,
cold frame in spring. M.urticifolia stamens white); M.nesophila (WESTERN
(Japan, NE China, Korea; hairy; TEA MYRTLE; W Australia; to 7m
15–30cm (6–12in); leaves ovate to cor- (23ft)+; leaves to 2.3cm (4/5in), alter-
date, coarsely toothed; flowers 4–5cm nate, obovate-oblong to oblong-
(11/2–2in), blue-purple, lower lip spotted cuneate; inflorescence in terminal
dark purple). dense heads, stamens lavender or
rose-pink); M.squarrosa (South Australia,
megaspore the larger of the two SE Australia; to 15m (50ft); leaves
types of spore produced by het- 0.5–1.5cm (1/4–5/8in), decussate, ovate,
Medlar
Medlars have limited culinary appeal, but to erosporous plants; they develop into pointed; inflorescence a dense terminal
use the fruits, pick and store when ripe, stalk female gametophytes. spike, stamens white or pale yellow);
upwards, in a cool dark place until the flesh M.viridiflora (New Guinea, New Caledo-
turns soft and yellowish brown. The “bletted” megasporophyll in non-flowering nia, Australia; to 25m (80ft); leaves
fruits can then be made into preserves. plants, a sporophyll bearing megas- 5–22cm (2–9in), scattered, obovate,
pores; in angiosperms, a carpel. elliptic or broadly ovate; inflorescence
The MEDLAR forms a decorative tree a many-flowered spike, stamens white,
with arching branches, large pink and Melaleuca (from Greek melas, black, yellow, green, pink or red; var. rubriflora:
white flowers, and orange-gold tinted and leukos, white, in allusion to the leaves thinner, shorter, stamens red).
foliage in autumn. Its fruits have a
characteristic flavour which only devel-
ops when they are partially decayed
often black trunk and white branches).
Myrtaceae. Mainly Australia; also New
Caledonia, New Guinea and Malaysia.
Melasphaerula (from Greek melas,
black, and sphaerula, a Latinized
M
(bletted) after late autumn harvest and HONEY MYRTLE, BOTTLEBRUSH, PAPER diminutive of a sphere, referring to the
storage with calyces downwards, on BARK. Over 150 species, evergreen corms). Iridaceae. South Africa. 1
slatted trays; they are also used to make trees and shrubs, usually with papery species, M.ramosa, a perennial, cormous
preserves. bark, tough leaves dotted with aromatic herb to 60cm (24in) with lanceolate,
MEDLARS are grown as bushes or oil glands and rounded, 5-petalled grass-like leaves and small, white to
half standards; they are self fertile and flowers with showy stamens. Provide a cream, purple-veined flowers nodding
have a chilling requirement of between minimum temperature of 5°C/41°F, on wiry panicle branches. Cultivate as
100–450 hours below 7°C/45°F. Trees full sun and a dry, buoyant atmosphere. for Ixia.
are usually grafted onto QUINCE A Plant in a fast-draining, nitrogen-poor
rootstocks, or for half standards onto medium. Water moderately throughout Melastoma (from Greek melas, black,
SEEDLING PEAR. Pruning and training is spring and summer, but only sparingly and stoma, mouth; the mouth is stained
similar to that employed for apple. in winter. Increase by seed during black by the berries). Melastomataceae.
Possible problems: brown rot, spring, alternatively by semi-ripe SE Asia. Some 70 species, evergreen
powdery mildew. cuttings in summer. shrubs with broad, distinctly veined
M.armillaris (BRACELET; New South and tough-textured leaves and 5-
medulla parenchymatous tissue Wales, Victoria, South Australia; to petalled flowers in cymes in summer.
found in the centre of stems of many 8m (26ft); leaves 1.4–2.8cm (1/2–11/5in), Cultivate as for Medinilla. M.candidum
dicotyledonous plants. It is also linear or narrowly elliptic to com- (Taiwan and Ryukyu Islands to SE Asia
called pith. pressed or semi-terete; inflorescence and Philippines; 1.2–2.5m (4–8ft),
20–70-flowered, stamens white to hairy; flowers 5–8cm (2–3in) in diame-
medullary consisting of pith; spongy. mauve); M.elliptica (W Australia; to 3m ter, fragrant, pink or white).
(10ft); leaves to 0.6cm (1/4in), opposite,
Meehania (for Thomas Meehan ovate to suborbicular, close, leathery; Melia (Greek name for the ash).
(1826–1901), writer and nurseryman). inflorescence in oblong or cylindrical Meliaceae. Old World tropics, Aus-
Labiatae. Asia, N America. JAPANESE spikes, stamens red); M.hypericifolia tralia. 5 species, deciduous or semi-
DEAD NETTLE. 6 species, creeping (New South Wales; to 6m (20ft); leaves evergreen trees or shrubs with pinnate
stoloniferous perennial herbs with 1–4cm (1/2–11/2in), opposite, elliptic to or 2-pinnate leaves. The flowers appear
toothed leaves and small, tubular and obovate; inflorescence a many-flowered, in spring and summer in loose, axillary
2-lipped flowers whorled in leafy spikes dense axillary spike, stamens crimson- panicles; they consist of five to six,
in spring and summer. Meehania species red); M.leucadendra (RIVER TEATREE, spreading, oblong petals with the sta- 507
form large patches of groundcover in WEEPING TEATREE, BROAD-LEAVED mens united in a tube. Drupaceous
Melia
fruits follow in autumn. Hardy in cli- flowers are borne in erect racemes in the staminal nectaries). Violaceae. New
mate zone 8 or below where summers summer. M.major is a magnificent plant Zealand, Norfolk Island, Fiji, Solomon
are long and hot, M.azederach is a grown for its blue-green, architectural Islands. 4 species, dioecious shrubs or
rapidly growing tree, often used in its foliage in sheltered locations in zones 7 trees with small flowers and showy
native regions for reforestation. It is and over. It is also used as a temporary berries. Hardy to about –5°/23°F given
valued for its dense, rounded crown dot plant in bedding schemes, overwin- wall protection and shelter from cold
and fragrant blooms; the yellow berries tered in a cold greenhouse. Grow in drying winds. Grow outdoors or in a
are toxic. It tolerates a range of well- full sun or light shade in moisture- cool, well-ventilated greenhouse, in a
drained soils and hot, dry conditions, retentive but freely draining soils; fertile moderately fertile, loam-based mix,
self-seeding in profusion where condi- soils give good foliage effects, although with direct sun or bright filtered light.
tions suit. Propagate by seed. M.azeder- flowering is better on poor soils. Mulch Water moderately when in growth,
ach (CHINA-BERRY, PERSIAN LILAC, PRIDE with a thick layer of coir or bracken sparingly in winter. Propagate by seed
OF INDIA, BEAD TREE; N India, China; litter in autumn in areas where frosts sown when ripe or in spring. M.rami-
deciduous tree to 15m (50ft); leaves to are prolonged – the top growth will be florus (WHITEY WOOD; tree, to 10m
80cm (32in), leaflets to 5cm (2in), ovate cut back by frost, but the base will (33ft)+; bark grey-white; leaves to 15cm
to elliptic, serrate; flowers 2cm (3/4in) in resprout in spring. When siting young (6in), toothed; flowers to 4mm (1/8in) in
diameter, lilac, in panicle 10–20cm plants, bury the older, slightly woody diameter, yellow-green; fruit glossy,
(4–8in) long, staminal tube violet; fruit stem portion to protect the rootstock lavender to violet, dark blue or purple).
1–5cm (1/2–2in) in diameter, yellow; and promote offsetting. Propagate by
‘Umbraculiformis’: TEXAN UMBRELLA seed in spring, by greenwood stem tip Meliosma (from Greek meli, honey,
TREE, branches radiating in a spread- cuttings in summer, or by removal of and osme, scent, alluding to the honey-
ing head). rooted suckers in spring. Red spider scented flowers). Sabiaceae. Tropical
mite may be a problem under glass. America, tropical and temperate Asia.
Melianthus (from Greek meli, honey, M.major (HONEY FLOWER; to 2.25m 25 species, deciduous or evergreen
and anthos, flower – the calyces are (71/2ft); stem sea-green and thickly trees or shrubs with pinnate leaves and
M filled with nectar). Melianthaceae.

South Africa; M.major naturalized in
glaucous at first, becoming woody
below; leaves to 50cm (20in), glaucous,
sea green to grey-blue, leaflets 5–13cm
small, starry and fragrant flowers in
large, pyramidal panicles in spring and
summer. Hardy in zone 7. Grow in sun
(2–5in), 9–11, ovate-oblong, coarsely on deep, moisture-retentive, moder-
serrate; raceme to 80cm (32in), flowers ately fertile, circumneutral soils. Propa-
brown-red). gate by seed or layers, alternatively
from softwood cuttings under mist.
Melica (from melike, the Greek name M.pinnata (syn. M.oldhamii; Korea,
for a grass). Gramineae. Temperate China; deciduous, 20–40m (66–130ft);
regions (except Australia). MELIC. 70 leaves 17.5–35cm (63/4–14in), leaflets
species, perennial grasses with clumped 5–13, lowermost 2.5 x 2cm (1 x 3/4in),
culms, linear to lanceolate leaves and orbicular to obovate, terminal leaflet
small but ornamental spikelets hanging 7.5–14cm (3–51/2in), dentate, pubescent
from the delicate branches of slender, above when young; panicle 15–30cm
arching panicles in spring and summer. (6–12in); flowers pure white); M.veitchio-
These are followed by rice-like grains, rum (W China; deciduous to 50m
pearly in most species but jet-like in (165ft); leaves 45–75cm (18–30in),
M.altissima ‘Atropurpurea’. Hardy leaflets 8.5–17.5cm (31/4–63/4in), 7–9,
Melianthus major in zone 6. Grow in sun or shade on ovate or oblong, entire or sparsely
Although M. major must be lifted and a light, moisture-retentive, loamy soil. toothed, midrib pubescent beneath;
protected over winter in frost-prone areas, Most species perform well on calcare- panicle to 45cm (18in); flowers cream-
it grows vigorously once planted out, making ous soils. Propagate by seed or division. white).
a superb foliage plant over a single season. M.altissima (SIBERIAN MELIC; C and E
Europe; to 150cm (60in); leaf blades to Melittis (from Greek melissa or melitta,
India. 6 species, shrubs with robust, 25cm (10in), scabrous; panicle erect, bee: the plant is attractive to bees).
sparsely branched stems, often follow- 1-sided, dense, to 25 x 2.5cm (10 x 1in); Labiatae. BASTARD BALM. Western cen-
ing a semi-herbaceous habit in colder spikelets oblong, to 1cm (1/2in); includes tral and southern Europe to Ukraine.
locations, otherwise evergreen, becom- ‘Alba’, with very pale green spikelets, 1 species, M. melissophyllum, a perennial
ing woody, especially the basal por- and ‘Atropurpurea’, with deep purple- herb to 50cm (20in) with erect, hairy
tions, and scented in all parts. The black spikelets, sweeping downwards stems. The leaves are oval, to 8cm
leaves are pinnately compound with and overlapping). (3in), crenate, hispid and honey-scented
winged petioles, conspicuous stipules when fresh. Tubular and 2-lipped, the
508 and large, jaggedly toothed leaflets. Melicytus (from Greek meli, honey, flowers are white, pink or purple or
Tubular, hooded and richly nectariferous and kytos, a hollow vessel, referring to with a large purple blotch on the lower
melon, sweet
lip. They appear in whorls in early they may have male and hermaphro-
summer. Found in open woodlands, dite flowers on the same plant, as is the
Melittis is useful for the front of the case with most American cultivars.
herbaceous border and for the herb Assisted pollination is recommended
garden. It is fully hardy. Plant in any on a garden scale (see marrow).
moisture-retentive soil with added leaf- The most suitable soil is a well-
mould, preferably in light, woodland drained fertile loam (pH 5.5–7.0), with
shade. Propagate by division in spring. a minimum depth of 40cm (16in).
When dried, Melittis retains its fra- Where grown outdoors, soil prepara-
grance for a long time. tion is started in the autumn before
planting, with organic manure thor-
Melocactus (from Latin melo, melon, oughly incorporated to maintain soil
and Cactus, referring to the shape). structure and improve moisture reten-
Cactaceae. Tropical America. About tion. In some areas, melons are grown
30 species, cacti with globose, strongly on ridges. Before sowing in rows or
ribbed and spiny stems. The flowers ridges, the planting site may be covered
are small, tubular, red to pink and Greenhouse melon with a plastic mulch to raise soil tem-
sunken in a woolly apical cephalium. To hold the weight of melons on vines trained perature.
The fruit is a juicy berry, usually vertically, nets are attached when fruits are Plants are best raised in pots under
clavate and red, pink or white. Grow in tennis ball-sized. protection for transplanting when two
full sun with low humidity and a mini- or three true leaves have formed, after
mum temperature of 10°C/50°F. Plant melon, sweet (Cucumis melo subsp. hardening off and when risk of frost
in a gritty, acid medium. Water very melo) an annual, prostrate herb grown has passed. They may also be direct-
sparingly in winter (i.e. only to avoid for its edible fruits, which are usually sown outdoors, up to 3.7cm (11/2in)
shrivelling). Increase by seed or offsets. consumed fresh. Assumed to have orig- deep. Plants should be spaced 0.6–1.0m
M.bahiensis (E Brazil; stem 9.5–21
(33/4–8in) x 11–21cm (41/2–8in),
depressed-globose to conic; ribs 8–14,
inated in Africa, melons were known to
the Romans, and in the 15th century
were brought from Turkish Armenia to
(24in–31/4ft) apart in rows on the flat, or
1.2–2.0m (4–61/2ft) apart on ridges. The
minimum soil temperature for germi-
M
acute to rounded; central spines 1–4, the papal estate of Cantaluppe near nation is 15°C/59°F and the optimum
1.7–5cm (3/4–2in), radial spines 7–12, Rome, and distributed from there to for seedling growth about 30°C/86°F.
2–6cm (3/4–21/2in); fruit red to crimson); the rest of the Mediterranean area, In cooler climates, young plants grown
M.curvispinus (syn. M.oaxacensis; wide- western Europe, and on to North outdoors may be protected by glass
spread in C and S America, Cuba; America by Columbus on his second cloches, translucent paper or low poly-
stem 6–30 (21/2–12in) x 8–27cm voyage. thene-clad tunnels.
(3–11in), depressed-globose, globose or Melons are a warm-season crop and, Water demand is high when the
ovoid; ribs 10–16, acute; central spines according to cultivar, need 85–125 days plants are growing fast and fruits are
1–5, to 5.2cm (1in), radial spines without frost from sowing to the fruits swelling, but should be reduced just
7–11(–15), 1.6–4.2cm (5/8–11/2in), reaching maturity. In colder climates, before the fruits start to mature; trickle
curved, rarely straight; fruit bright red); with a shorter frost-free period, melons or seep-hose irrigation is the most effi-
M.intortus (syn. M.communis; West Indies; need protection for all or part of the cient system. Fruits that are allowed to
stem to 60(–90) x 30cm (24(–36) x 12in), growing season: they take 3–4 months ripen develop the best flavour and
globose to tapered-cylindric; ribs (9–) to reach maturity, and warm dry con- picking should be carried out at regular
14–27, rounded, thick; central spines ditions are essential for ripening. intervals. In most musk melon culti-
1–3, radial spines 10–14, 2–7cm There are many cultivars, grouped vars, fruit is ready for picking when it
(3/4–23/4in), stout, straight; cephalium according to fruit character. The Can- separates easily from the stem; in can-
growing tall; fruit pink to red); M.matan- talupensis group, the cantaloupes, taloupes, ripeness is indicated by a
zanus (N Cuba; resembling M.violaceus including Charentais types, have ovoid change in rind colour or, in certain
and M.neryi, but with 8–9 ribs and a or round fruits with a ridged rind; they cultivars, by the development of scent
cephalium with dense orange-red bris- include the well-known ‘Ogen’. The and fine circular cracks at the base of
tles); M.neryi (Venezuela to N Brazil; Reticulatus group, the musk melons, the stem. Melons can only be stored
resembling M.violaceus, but with a dark have net markings on the rind, orange for relatively short periods. Musk
blue-green stem and curved, sometimes flesh and are widely grown in the US, melons can be kept for 6–12 days at
longer spines); M.violaceus (E Brazil; in the Mediterranean area and under 3–4°C/37–39°F (relative humidity
stem 5–18m (16–60ft) x 6–17m glass in the north. The Inodorus group, 85–90%), and honeydew melons for
(20–56ft), depressed-globose to subpyra- winter melons, includes honeydew 14–90 days at 10–15°C/50–60°F.
midal; ribs 8–15, acute; central spine melons with a harder rind which facili- In greenhouses, melons may be
0–1, ascending, shorter than radials, tates longer storage. grown in beds or in raised troughs and
radials 5–9(–11), to 1–2.4cm (1/2in–1in), Cultivars either have all male or all boxes (30cm (12in) deep, 46cm (18in) 509
straight; fruit pink or white). female flowers on the same plant or wide) in a loam compost rendered
melon, sweet
highly fertile with well-rotted manure. placed under each fruit to keep it clean grown for culinary use are spearmint
The usual time for sowing is spring. and to aid uniform ripening. (M.spicata) and applemint (M.suaveolens),
Seeds are sown singly in pots or Possible problems: collar rot, grey also M. x villosa. See mint. These and
in soil blocks at a temperature of mould, root rot, virus. all others listed here are fully hardy,
16–18°C/61–64°F; after seedlings except the slightly tender M.requienii, a
have emerged, the temperature is membranous (membraneous), tiny mat-forming plant requiring cool,
reduced to 13–15°C/55–59°F. When membranaceous thin-textured, soft damp shade. Propagate by division in
true leaves appear, melons are trans- and flexible. early spring.
planted into the greenhouse bed, M.aquatica (WATERMINT; Eurasia;
45–60cm (18–24in) apart, along the Menispermum (from Latin menis, a subglabrous to tomentose perennial;
side walls. When about 10–15cm tiny half-moon-like device inscribed at stem 15–90cm (6–36in), often red-
(4–6in) tall, the growing point is the opening of books, and spermum, purple; leaves 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in), ovate
pinched out, stimulating the produc- seed, referring to the shape of the to ovate-lanceolate, serrate; flowers
tion of two shoots to be trained up seed). Menispermaceae. Eastern N lilac in terminal heads comprising 2–3
wires on the side walls. A temperature America, E Asia. MOONSEED. 2 species, verticillasters); M. x gracilis (M.arvensis x
of 16–27°C/61–81°F is maintained, woody-based, dioecious twiners with M.spicata; GINGERMINT, RED-MINT; N
and ventilation provided when the slender stems and rounded, obscurely Europe, including Great Britain,
temperature rises above this. When lobed leaves. Inconspicuous, yellow- widely cultivated; variable perennial,
each shoot has produced five leaves, green flowers are borne in axillary, 30–90cm (12–36in); stems erect, usu-
the growing tip is again removed to stalked racemes or panicles in summer. ally glabrous, often tinged red; leaves
stimulate side shoots, on which the Where plants of both sexes are grown 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in), ovate to lanceolate,
flowers are produced. When three together, the female bears small dark oblong or elliptic, entire or remotely
leaves are produced on each of these berries, toxic and hanging in grape-like serrate, glabrous or sparsely pubescent;
side shoots, the tips are pinched out. bunches. Hardy to –10°C/14°F; plants flowers lilac in distant verticillasters;
Six to eight flowers are selected per will re-sprout from the base in spring if includes ‘Aurea’, to 30cm (12in), with
M plant and hand-pollinated; once set,

four fruits of uniform size are selected
(not more than one per lateral) for
cut down. Grow in partial shade or full
sun in any moist moderately fertile soil.
Provide trellis, fence or tree support.
gold, strongly fragrant leaves, and
‘Variegata’, with leaves flecked gold,
with a fruity scent and ginger flavour);
growing on, and the others removed. Propagate by seed, by the removal of M. x piperita (M.aquatica x M.spicata;
Plants should be kept well-watered, rooted suckers, or by ripewood cuttings PEPPERMINT; Europe; perennial,
and given a weekly liquid feed from the in the cold frame or cool greenhouse 30–90cm (12–36in), usually glabrous,
stage when the fruits are about the size in autumn. M.canadense (YELLOW PAR- often tinged red-purple; leaves 4–9cm
of a walnut. Stop the fruit-bearing lat- ILLA; eastern N America; stem to 6m (11/2–31/2in), ovate to lanceolate, petio-
erals at the first joint beyond the fruit (20ft); leaves 5–20cm (2–8in), ovate to late, serrate, apex acute, usually glabrous
when it begins to swell. As the fruits cordate or rounded, entire or obscurely or thinly hairy; flowers lilac-pink in
grow, support with nets tied to the 5–7-lobed, dark green above, paler congested verticillasters forming a ter-
wires. Leaves and laterals are thinned beneath; fruit pruinose purple-red minal oblong spike; cultivars include
out as necessary. When the fruit has to blue-black). ‘Candymint’, with sweetly fra-
reached full size, humidity levels are grant leaves; ‘Citrata’, LEMON
lowered for ripening, feeding is Mentha (the classical Latin MINT, with lemon-scented leaves;
stopped, and watering is reduced so name, from Greek minthe). Labi- ‘Crispa’, with crinkled leaves;
that the medium is kept just moist atae. Eurasia, Africa. MINT. 25 ‘Lime Mint’, with leaves scented of
enough to avoid rind splitting. species, aromatic herbaceous lime; and ‘Variegata’, with leaves
For early crops grown on hot beds in perennials or, occasionally, deep green mottled cream with a
frames, the growing medium must be annuals with creeping rhi- peppermint flavour); M.pulegium
of sufficient depth to maintain a tem- zomes and small, 2-lipped, (PENNYROYAL; SW and central
perature of about 18°C/64°F. Two tubular or campanulate flow- Europe to Great Britain;
plants should be positioned in the ers in dense whorls. Nearly glabrous to tomentose peren-
centre of each frame, and two shoots all mints are invasive creep- nial, 10–40cm (4–16in); stem
from each led to the corners of the ing plants. They are grown procumbent or upright; leaves
frame. When each shoot has produced for their aromatic foliage and 5–30mm (1/4–11/4in), narrowly
6–8 leaves, the growing tips must be have long been cultivated for whorls of elliptic to oval entire or
cut back to four leaves. The side shoots their culinary, antiseptic and flowers toothed, usually glabrous
thus stimulated are next stopped at aromatic qualities. They will above, pubescent beneath;
three leaves, and the flowers hand- tolerate a wide range of flowers lilac in distant ver-
pollinated, eventually allowing two soils and habitats, thriving ticillasters; ‘Cunningham
fruits to develop per plant for main in hot, well-drained places Mint’: low, with oval, light
510 crops, and one fruit per plant for early where plenty of moisture is green leaves); M.requienii
and late crops. A flat stone may be available to them. Commonly Mentha pulegium (CORSICAN MINT; Corsica, Italy,
Mertensia
Sardinia; glabrous or sparsely hairy Menziesia (for Archibald Menzies meristem undifferentiated plant
procumbent perennial; stems 3–10cm (1754–1842), naval surgeon and tissue found at sites of active cell
(11/4–4in), thread-like, creeping, form- botanist). Ericaceae. US, E Asia. 7 division and from which new cells
ing cushions or mats; leaves 2–7mm species, deciduous shrubs with droop- are produced.
(1/16–1/4in), ovate orbicular, entire or sin- ing, bell- to urn-shaped flowers in
uate; flowers lilac); M.spicata (SPEARMINT; terminal umbels or racemes. Hardy to meristem culture a form of micro-
S and C Europe; perennial, 30–100cm –20°C/–4°F. Grow in dappled shade in propagation using meristematic tissue.
(12–39in); leaves 5–9cm (2–31/2in), moist but free-draining soil that is lime- It is valuable for the production of
lanceolate to ovate, smooth or rugose, free and humus-rich; maintain an virus-free plants.
serrate, glabrous to hairy; flowers lilac, acidic organic mulch and protect from
pink or white in cylindrical spikes; cold dry winds and late frosts. Remove -merous a suffix denoting number
includes ‘Chewing Gum’, with deep fading flowerheads, but prune only to and disposition of parts; often com-
mahogany leaves scented of bubble remove dead-wood after flowering. bined simply with an arabic number,
gum, ‘Crispa’, with strongly curled Menziesia blooms on the previous thus a 3-merous or trimerous flower
leaves, and ‘Kentucky Colonel’, with season’s wood. Propagate from green- has parts arranged in threes.
large, ruffled, richly scented leaves); wood cuttings in summer in a closed
M.suaveolens (APPLEMINT; S and W case with bottom heat, or from seed Merremia (for the German natural-
Europe; perennial, 40–100cm (16–39in); sown in autumn at about 13°C/55°F. ist, Blasius Merrem (d. 1824)). Con-
stem white-tomentose, apple-scented; M.ciliicalyx (Japan; erect shrub, 30cm–1m volvulaceae. Pantropical. 600 species,
leaves 3–4.5cm (11/4–13/4in), rugose, (12in –31/4ft); flowers to 1.7cm (3/4in), perennial, herbaceous or woody
downy, serrate; flowers white or pink in yellow or green-white, purple-tipped, climbers similar to Ipomoea, with showy,
congested verticillasters forming a ter- tubular to urceolate, white downy campanulate or funnel-shaped flowers.
minal spike 4–9cm (11/2–31/2in), often inside, lobes 4 or 5, small; var. multiflora: Cultivation requirements are as for the
interruped and branched; often found flowers many, purple-tinted; van pur- tender, perennial species of Ipomoea,
under the name of M.rotundifolia; ‘Var- purea: flowers purple). although Merremia is tolerant of full sun
iegata’: PINEAPPLE MINT: leaves streaked
white, with a pineapple aroma); M. x
villosa (M.spicata x M.suaveolens; garden
Merendera (from quita meriendas,
Spanish for Colchicum.) Liliaceae
and thrives in rather dry situations.
Maintain a minimum winter tempera-
ture of 7°C/45°F, and water very spar-
M
origin; a variable hybrid; leaves 4–8cm (Colchicaceae). Mediterranean, N ingly at this time. M.tuberosa (WOOD
(11/2–3in), broadly ovate or orbicular, Africa, W Asia, outliers in Middle ROSE, YELLOW MORNING GLORY, SPAN-
softly hairy, serrate; flowers pink). East and NE Africa. Some 10 species, ISH WOODBINE; Mexico to tropical S
perennial, cormous herbs with linear America, introduced in many other
mentum a chin-like extension of the to lanceolate leaves partially developed tropical regions; woody, tuberous
flower, formed by the association of the at flowering. Produced in autumn, the climber to 20m (66ft); leaves to 15cm
bases of the lateral sepals with the foot stalkless flowers are funnelform to (6in), 7-lobed; flowers 5–6cm (2–21/2in),
of the column in many orchids. spreading with six linear to narrowly campanulate, bright yellow).
obovate tepals. Hardy outdoors in zone
Menyanthes (possibly derived from 7, but perhaps more safely grown in Mertensia (for Francis Karl Mertens,
menanthos, ‘moonflower’, a name used the bulb frame or in pans in the alpine (1764–1831), Professor of Botany,
by Theophrastus for a plant growing house where the flowers and dormant Bremen). Boraginaceae. Northern tem-
on lake Orchomenos, or a reference to bulbs can be protected from rain. Grow perate regions. Some 50 species, peren-
the month-long flowering period of in full sun in a gritty soil. Propagate by nial herbs with tubular to campanulate,
this plant). Menyanthaceae. BOG BEAN, seed and offsets. 5-lobed flowers nodding in scorpioid
BUCK BEAN, MARSH TREFOIL. 1 species, M.montana (syn. M.bulbocodium; Iber- cymes in spring. M.echioides is suited to
M.trifoliata, a perennial aquatic or mar- ian Peninsula, central Pyrenees; flowers cool, moisture-retentive places in the
ginal herb, often rooting at water mar- pale magenta to rosy purple, tepals to rock garden; plant in light, neutral to
gins and with rhizomes spreading 26 x 3–11mm (101/4 x 1/8–1/2in), narrowly slightly acid soils with good light but
across the water surface. The leaves are elliptic to narrow oblong-oblanceolate); shade from hot sun. M.maritima and
glabrous and trifoliolate with oblong to M.robusta (C Iran, S Russia, N India; M.simplicissima thrive in sun on nutri-
obovate leaflets. Produced in spring flowers deep pink to pale lilac or white, tionally poor, gravelly or sandy soils
and summer in erect racemes to 20cm fragrant, tepals 18–14 x 2–9mm (3/4–1/2 and are best-suited to maritime gar-
(8in) tall, the flowers are some 2.5cm x 1/16–3/8in), oblong to narrowly elliptic). dens or perfectly drained sites in the
(1in) across, white flushed pink, with dry and silver garden. From moist
five, heavily fringed and bearded mericarp a one-seeded carpel; one woodland, M.pulmonarioides prefers
petals. M.trifoliata is fully hardy. Plant in of a pair split apart at maturity from a deep, moist but well-drained soils rich
submerged pots and baskets in ponds syncarpous or schizocarpous ovary. in organic matter. It is well-suited to
or establish at the margins where the naturalizing in open woodland in
rhizomes can spread freely across the mericlone a clone produced by shade or semi-shade. Its foliage dies 511
water surface. Increase by division. meristem culture. back in summer. All are hardy to at
Mertensia
least –15°C/5°F. Propagate from seed mesocarp the middle layer of a peri- although for some, these flutes, ridges
sown ripe in the cold frame. Increase carp, often fleshy, occasionally fibrous, and pockets lend the tree its unique
also by careful division in early autumn rarely membranaceous or spongy. character.
or spring; M.maritima and allies resent
root disturbance and are more reliably mesophyte a plant that grows in a Metrosideros (from Greek metra,
propagated by seed. habitat where the soil is not continu- middle, and sideros, iron, in reference
M.echioides (Pakistan, Kashmir, Tibet; ously waterlogged and where extreme to the hard wood of the genus). Myr-
stem to 30cm (12in), erect or decum- drought is not regularly experienced. taceae. South Africa, Malaysia, Aus-
bent, pubescent; leaves to 9cm (31/2in), tralasia, Pacific Islands. 50 species,
lanceolate to elliptic; flowers deep blue Mespilus (the Latin name for this aromatic evergreen shrubs, trees or
to blue-purple); M.maritima (OYSTER fruit). Rosaceae. Europe, Asia Minor. woody climbers with tough foliage.
PLANT; Alaska to Massachusetts, MEDLAR. 1 species, M.germanica, a The flowers are showy with five,
Greenland, Eurasia; stem to 100cm deciduous tree or shrub, to 5m (16ft), spreading petals and a central boss of
(39in), decumbent or spreading; leaves usually shorter. The bark is grey-brown long, colourful stamens. In favoured
to 10cm (4in), fleshy, spathulate to and fissured to flaking, the branches maritime climates that are frost-free or
oblong-ovate, glaucous sea green; arching and divaricate. To 12cm (43/4in) almost so, they make beautiful speci-
flowers pink becoming blue; similar long, the oblong to lanceolate leaves mens and may also be used as hedging.
but superior to this species is M.simpli- are dull green above, tomentose Blooming even when young, they are
cissima, syn. M.asiatica, a sprawling herb beneath, with serrate margins. They excellent shrubs for large pots and tubs
with thinly fleshy silver-blue chalky turn yellow, amber and rusty brown in in the cool greenhouse or conservatory
leaves and small blue flowers); M.vir- autumn. To 5cm (2in) wide, the white in cooler temperate zones, and may
ginica (syn. M.pulmonarioides; BLUEBELLS, flowers are usually solitary with 5, be moved outdoors for the summer
VIRGINIA BLUEBELLS, VIRGINIA COWSLIP, rounded petals and numerous stamens. months. Plant in a free-draining but
ROANOKE BELLS; N America; stem to The fruit is turbinate, to 2.5cm (1in), moisture-retentive, medium- to high-
70cm (28in), erect; leaves to 20cm (8in), brown when ripe, and crowned with 5 fertility potting mix with additional
M elliptic to ovate, soft blue-green; flowers

blue, sometimes pink or white; includes
‘Alba’, with white flowers, and ‘Rubra’,
narrow calyx lobes around the tran-
secting ends of the bony seed vessels.
See medlar.
leafmould. Water plentifully when in
growth, less at other times. Under
glass, provide a winter minimum tem-
with pink flowers). perature of 7°C/45°F, protect from the
metamorphosis the change in hottest summer sun and maintain good
Meryta (from an artificial Greek appearance, life style, and/or feeding ventilation with moderate humidity.
word merytos, meaning growing habits that distinguishes the juvenile Prune immediately after flowering to
together – the male flowers in some and adult forms of insects and amphib- restrict size and to remove old weak
species form a knob or head). Arali- ians, such as frogs. It may be radical and overcrowded growths. Propagate
aceae. Pacific Islands (Micronesia (complete metamorphosis) or slight by seed sown in spring, or root semi-
through Vanuatu to New Zealand and (incomplete metamorphosis). ripe cuttings in summer in a heated
SE Polynesia). 250 species, small to case.
medium evergreen trees with large and Metasequoia (from Greek meta, with M.diffusa (SMALL RATA VINE; New
leathery, spirally arranged leaves, or beside (i.e. ‘related to’), and Sequoia). Zealand; slender liane to 6m (20ft)+;
inconspicuous, umbellate flowers in Cupressaceae. W China (E Sichuan, leaves 7–8mm (1/4–3/8in), oblong to
compound inflorescences and small W Hubei). 1 species, M.glyptostroboides, ovate-lanceolate, somewhat downy
drupes. Provide a minimum tempera- DAWN REDWOOD, a deciduous conifer, when young; flowers white to pink with
ture of 10°C/50°F. Plant in beds or fast-growing, to 45m (150ft)+. The bole white to pink stamens); M.excelsa
large tubs in a medium fertility, loam- is to 2m (61/2ft) in diameter, deeply (CHRISTMAS TREE, POHUTUKAWA; New
based mix with additional organic ridged and buttressed at base with fox Zealand; tree to 20m (66ft); leaves
matter. Give strong, filtered to indirect red, furrowed and fibrous bark flaking 5–10cm (2–4in), elliptic to oblong, cori-
light and water moderately. Propagate in long shreds. The crown is conic, aceous, thick, white-tomentose
from seed in autumn, by semi-ripe cut- becoming columnar. Bright green, beneath; flowers crimson with crimson
tings rooted with bottom heat, or by air linear-oblong leaves to 4cm (11/2in) long stamens); M.perforata (FLOWERY RATA
layering. M.sinclairii (PUKA; New Zealand; are borne in two ranks on the feathery VINE; New Zealand; liane to 15m
round-headed tree to 8m (26ft); leaves shoots; they turn yellow, red and finally (50ft)+; leaves 6–12mm (1/4–1/2in),
oblong to obovate, to 50cm (20in); rusty brown in autumn. Fully hardy. broadly ovate to oblong or rounded,
inflorescence to 45cm (18in); flowers Avoid dry sites and frost pockets where glabrous above, pale beneath and more
green-white, in dense umbels; fruit first growth will be scorched. Like Tax- or less bristly; flowers white or pink
black, fleshy, to 13mm (1/2in). odium, it can be planted beside or even with white or pink stamens); M.robusta
in shallow standing water. Warm sum- (NORTHERN RATA; New Zealand; tree to
mesh pot a plastic pot with sides mers are needed for good growth. 25m (80ft)+; leaves 2.5–5cm (1–2in),
512 consisting mainly of large rectangular Pruning basal branches is said to elliptic to ovate-oblong, glabrous, coria-
perforations, used in orchid culture. decrease irregularities in the trunk, ceous; flowers red with red stamens).
micropropagation
mice small, widely distributed mam- branched; leaves 5–10cm (2–4in), Micromeria (from Greek mikros,
mals that damage bulbs and corms, elliptic to oblong, dark green; flowers small, and meris, part, referring to the
especially lilies, crocuses and tulips, and to 3cm (11/4in) in diameter, cupulate, usually very small flowers). Labiatae.
dig up and eat seeds, particularly peas scented of banana, ivory tinged yellow, Mediterranean, Caucasus, SW China.
and beans. The main culprit is the base and margins tinged rose to Some 70 species, perennial, rarely
WOOD- or LONG-TAILED FIELD MOUSE purple). annual, herbs or dwarf shrubs, often
(Apodemus sylvaticus), which measures aromatic and bearing spikes of
up to 100mm (4in) from nose to base Microbiota (from Greek mikros, whorled, 2-lipped, tubular flowers in
of tail, which is about as long again. small, and Biota, a synonym of Platy- summer. Hardy and suitable for rock
Adults are brown with white under- cladus, which is the closest ally of this gardens on open, sunny sites and in
parts and have relatively large ears. conifer). Cupressaceae. SE Siberia. poor, well-drained soils. Propagate by
They live in burrows in hedgerows, 1 species, M.decussata, an evergreen, softwood or semi-ripe heel cuttings in
fields and banks, and, especially in spreading, semi-prostrate coniferous spring and summer. M.juliana (SAVORY;
winter, they may enter greenhouses shrub, 40(–70)cm (16(–28)in) high, and Mediterranean; dwarf, downy shrub, to
and other buildings. Spring traps, to 2m (61/2ft) or more across. The leaves 40cm (16in); leaves to 1.3cm (1/2in),
baited with carrot, apple or chocolate of Microbiota are small, subulate or (ovate to narrowly lanceolate, revolute;
and set during autumn or early winter, scale-like; pale green at first, they flowers to 4mm (1/8in), purple).
help to control mice before damage become bronzed red or purple to dull
occurs. Seedbeds and bulbs may be gold in hard winters; they overlap on micronutrients see nutrients and
protected with 10mm (1/2in)-mesh flat sprays. A valuable prostrate ever- plant nutrition.
netting. Bulbs and corms are more green for rockeries and dwarf conifer
vulnerable when newly planted. Pesti- collections, Microbiota is exceedingly micropropagation the propagation
cide-treated seeds are unpalatable to hardy and site-tolerant. Increase of plants from the culture of very small
mice, but such treatment is subject to by cuttings. portions of tissue grown in vitro (literally
local pesticide approvals. Proprietary ‘in glass’), under aseptic conditions, on
mouse poisons are effective, but special
care must be taken to prevent other
animals gaining access to them.
a specially-formulated gelatinous or
liquid medium.
Micropropagation, sometimes
M
referred to by horticulturists as tissue
Michelia (for P.A. Michel culture, evolved from techniques con-
(1679–1737), Florentine botanist). ceived by research biologists in the
Magnoliaceae. SE Asia, India, Sri early part of the 20th century as a
Lanka. Some 45 species, evergreen or means of studying the functioning and
deciduous shrubs or trees, resembling development of tissues, and ultimately
Magnolia but with axillary flowers. cells, separately from the whole organ-
Michelia species thrive best in frost- ism. The technology was first used
free gardens (although M.doltsopa and horticulturally in the 1920s for the ger-
M.figo have survived outdoors in shel- mination of orchid seeds; the method
tered situations in southern Britain). still forms the basis of seed-raising in
Elsewhere, grow in the cool greenhouse the orchid industry.
or conservatory. Plant in humus-rich, Microclimate The discovery that small pieces of
well-drained, neutral to alkaline soils, This brick wall provides shelter from wind tissue from shoot tips, approaching a
in direct light or partial shade. Water and may store and radiate heat from the sun, meristem in size, are often free of virus
pot-grown specimens plentifully during creating a typical garden microclimate. infection led to the use of meristem
the growing season, but only sparingly culture for the production of virus-free
in winter. Prune only if necessary to microclimate the environmental individual plants, an importants benefit
restrict growth. Propagate from seed conditions of a specific locality or of micropropagation. Development
sown ripe during autumn or spring, garden area, which may work to the work on this process, including the
or by greenwood cuttings in summer, advantage or disadvantage of culti- modification of the medium on which
either under mist or with bottom heat vated plants. Conditions within a par- these plantlets were grown in vitro, prin-
in a closed case. ticular geographical area may be cipally by the addition of plant-growth
M.doltsopa (SW China, E Himalaya, affected by topographical features, such regulators, showed that axillary buds
E Tibet; tree, to 12m (39ft); leaves to as high ground, or in a garden by could be stimulated to give multiple-
18cm (7in), oblong to lanceolate, hedge planting or the construction of shoot plantlets. Such multiple shoots
glossy above, grey-silky beneath; water features, raised beds or a green- could then be divided and transferred
flowers to 5 x 4cm (2 x 11/2in), ovoid house. Wind, rainfall and soil and air to a fresh medium at regular intervals
to globose, fragrant, white); M.figo temperature may thus be different to to achieve the rapid multiplication in
(BANANA SHRUB; China; evergreen the conditions prevailing outside of the plant material that is characteristic of 513
shrub to 4.5m (143/4ft), densely defined area. micropropagation.
micropropagation
Micropropagation is used in horti- requirements of particular groups M.scandens (WILD CLIMBING HEMP-WEED,
culture for the production of a wide of plants. Rapidly-growing cultures CLIMBING HEMP-VINE; tropical Amer-
range of ornamental, fruit and veg- require division and transfer to a ica; herbaceous; leaves to 10cm (4in),
etable crops, and also as a means of fresh medium at regular intervals, the triangular to hastate, entire or toothed,
rescuing rare and endangered species. process being referred to as subcultur- glabrous to hairy; flowerheads strongly
Variations of the technique are used to ing. Typically, many plants require vanilla-scented, white, tinged yellow, or
assist in plant-breeding procedures, and subculturing on a four-week cycle, lilac to purple).
as a means of introducing new culti- but some herbaceous plants may need
vars rapidly. processing as frequently as every two mildew in horticulture and plant
There are a number of routes to in weeks, while for some woody plants pathology, used to describe certain dis-
vitro micropropagation, depending on every ten weeks is adequate. eases in which the pathogen is visible
species. Plantlets are commonly estab- Micropropagation is a specialist on the plant surface. DOWNY MILDEWS
lished from meristems or shoot tips, but technique of immense current and are caused by fungi of the family Per-
leaf or stem tissue, bulb scales or even potential value to the practice of horti- onosporaceae and POWDERY MILDEWS
anthers and pollen are also used. Nat- culture. Successful implementation by those of Erysiphaceae. The SOOTY
ural or artificially-induced callus tissue demands a knowledge of the protocols MOULDS caused by fungi of the families
can be a source of shoot development, developed for specific plants, and care- Capnodiaceae and Meliolaceae are
either directly or following procedures ful attention to the provision and main- sometimes called dark or black mildew.
for the separation of cells. Choosing tenance of aseptic working conditions The term mildew is sometimes encoun-
the most appropriate method of micro- and procedures. tered as a former name for honeydew.
propagation requires a clear objective Besides the challenges posed by See downy mildew, powdery mildew, sooty
and good knowledge of the plant to be cultural practice in vitro and the skill moulds.
propagated. required to wean plantlets into growing
An essential consideration for suc- compost, certain limitations of the Milium (Latin milium, millet).
cess is freedom from contamination by technique should be understood. There Gramineae. Eurasia, N America. 6
M microorganisms, which can arise on or

within the mother plant or from any
part of the working environment. Plant
is a risk, albeit rare, of permanent off-
types occurring as a result of induced
change in genetic make-up. The risk is
species, annual or perennial grasses
with tussocks of short culms, linear,
arching leaves and loose, airy panicles
material used for micropropagation is highest where callus tissue is liberally of small spikelets in spring and summer.
subjected to prescribed steps of steril- produced, and/or with high concentra- Hardy to –20°C/–4°F and below.
ization involving washing and immer- tions of cytokinins or auxins. Transient Plant in fertile, moist but well-drained
sion; the growing medium, glassware variation may occur in micropropa- soil in sun or shade (ideally dappled
and operating instruments are sterilized gated offspring due to a change in sunlight). In hot, humid summers,
most effectively with the aid of an environmental conditions, and as a these grasses may enter summer dor-
autoclave. The sterilization of plant quality-control measure in commercial mancy. Propagate by seed and division;
tissue and all micropropagation opera- situations, a proportion of propagules M.effusum ‘Aureum’ comes true from
tions must be carried out in a sterile need to be grown on to test trueness to seed and will self-sow. Often affected
environment, created by means of a type before release. by mildew. M.effusum (WOOD MILLET;
laminar flow cabinet in which a non- loosely tussock-forming perennial to
turbulent airstream, filtered to remove microspore the smaller of the 30cm (12in); leaf blades to 30 x 1.5cm
contaminants, is created across the two types of spore produced by het- (12 x 5/8in), soft-texured, arching; pani-
working area. erosporous plants; they develop into cle to 30 x 20cm (12 x 8in), basically
The growing medium must supply male gametophytes. pyramidal in outline, loose and airy,
all the plant tissues’ requirements for light green or tinged purple, branches
nutrients and moisture to sustain midrib, midvein the primary vein delicate, whorled, spikelets small;
growth and development in vitro. Varia- of a leaf or leaflet, usually running includes ‘Aureum’ (BOWLES’ GOLDEN
tions in nutrient levels and pH have down its centre as a continuation of GRASS), with pale golden yellow to lime
been developed to suit particular the petiole or petiolule. green leaves and spikelets, and the
groups of plants. In most cases, plant weak-growing ‘Variegatum’, with
tissue culture in vitro requires the incor- Mikania (for J.G. Mikan bright green leaves striped white).
poration of plant growth hormones, (1743–1814), Professor of Botany at
usually cytokinins or auxins for shoot Prague, or his son J.C. Mikan (d. Milla (for Juliani Milla, gardener to
and root growth respectively. Manipu- 1844), plant collector in Brazil). Com- the Spanish court in Madrid, 18th cen-
lating the ingredients and levels of hor- positae. Tropics, especially New World. tury). Liliaceae (Alliaceae). S US, C
monal substances added is a means of About 300 species, evergreen, peren- America. 6 species, cormous perennial
influencing plant development. nial, woody or herbaceous lianes pro- herbs with linear leaves and, in summer,
The control of temperature and ducing clusters of small, button-like tubular, 6-lobed flowers in scapose
514 artificial light level is essential, and flowerheads in late summer and umbels. Cultivate as for Ipheion. M.biflora
must be matched to the prescribed autumn. Cultivate as for Delairea. (to 30cm (12in); flowers campanulate to
Mimosa
funnelform, 1.5–3.5cm (5/8–11/2in), spreading tepals and a larger, simple or callus with yellow spots); M.roezlii (syn.
white sometimes tinted lilac, usually pandurate, oblong to rounded lip. Cul- Miltonia roezlii; Colombia; raceme to
striped or veined green on exterior). tivate as for Odontoglossum. 30cm (12in); sepals to 5 x 2cm (2 x
3
For M.uniflora, see Ipheion uniflorum. M.candida (Brazil; resembles M.clowesii /4in), white, ovate-oblong, acuminate,
except tepals oblong-obtuse, lip shorter petals to 5 x 2.5cm (2 x 1in), white
millepedes (Diplopoda) elongate ani- than other segments, clasping column blotched wine-purple at base, lip to 5 x
mals with many body segments, char- at base); M.clowesii (Brazil; inflorescence 5.5cm (2 x 21/4 in), white, orange-yellow
acterized by having two pairs of legs to 45cm (18in); tepals yellow, heavily at base, widely obcordate); M.vexillaria
on each trunk segment, except for the blotched and barred chestnut-brown, (syn. Miltonia vexillaria; Colombia,
first few segments behind the head and sepals to 4 x 1cm (11/2 x 1/2in), lanceolate, Ecuador; raceme to 30cm (12in); tepals
some at the hind end; there may be as acuminate, undulate, petals to 3.5 x 1cm rose-pink or white flushed rose-pink,
many as 50 segments. Centipedes look (11/2 x 1/2in), lip white at tip, deep purple sepals to 3 x 1.5cm (11/4 x 5/8in), obo-
similar, but have only one pair of legs at base, to 4–2cm (11/2–3/4in), subpan- vate-oblong, recurved above, petals
per body segment. durate, caudate, callus white or yellow); slightly wider, margins white, lip much
Millepedes thrive in moist soil of M.regnellii (Brazil; inflorescence to 40cm larger than sepals, white or pale rose,
high organic content and feed princi- (16in); tepals cream suffused rose to deep rose on disc, suborbicular, cleft,
pally on decaying or soft vegetable lilac or pale amethyst, sepals to 3 x 1cm callus yellow); M.warscewiczii (syn. Milto-
matter. They lay eggs in batches in the (11/4 x 1/2in), oblong-lanceolate, recurved, nia superba; Costa Rica; raceme to
soil and the young may take several petals wider; lip to 3.5 x 3.5cm 30cm (12in); flowers cream-white, each
years to reach maturity. Only a few (11/2 x 11/2in), pale rose streaked segment with a rose-purple blotch at
species are harmful to garden lilac or amethyst, margins base, tepals 3 x 1.5cm (11/4 x 5/8in),
plants. The SPOTTED SNAKE white, rotund to obovate, ovate-elliptic, acute, lip to 3.5 x 3.5cm
MILLEPEDE (Blaniulus guttulatus) obscurely trilobed, callus of sev- (11/2 x 11/2in), widely pandurate, basal
usually causes the most serious eral radiating yellow lines); M.spectabilis lobes 2, small, rounded, midlobe
damage; it is creamy white, (Brazil; inflorescence to 25cm (10in); emarginate, callus yellow).
up to 20mm (3/4in) long, with
orange-red dots along each
side of the body. It attacks
flowers solitary, sepals to 4 x 1.5cm (11/2 x
5
/8in), white, often tinged rose at base,
lanceolate-oblong, petals similar with
mimicry resemblance of a plant to
an insect or object; a feature that serves
M
seedlings and soft growth, such white patch at base, lip rose-violet, to attract pollinators or provide camou-
as strawberry fruits and mush- margins white or pale rose, to flage, for example bee orchids (Ophrys
rooms, as well as enlarging damage 5 x 4.5cm (2 x 13/4in), obovate- species), which attract male bees
to potato tubers and bulbs that has orbicular, callus yellow with because of the flowers’ similarity to
been initiated by other pests such as pink lines). There are many female bees, and pebble plants (Lithops
slugs. The FLAT-BACKED MILLE- cultivars and grexes in Miltonia species), which are not readily distin-
PEDES (Brachydesmus superus and (some strictly assignable to Milto- guished from the rocks and stones
Polydesmus angustatus) may damage Millepede niopsis) with pale green foliage and amongst which they grow.
seedlings and other plants out- flowers in shades of white, pink,
doors; in temperate countries, the red and lilac, among them the classic Mimosa (from Greek mimos, mimic;
TROPICAL GLASSHOUSE MILLEPEDE pansy orchids with broad blooms in the leaves of many species resemble
(Oxidus gracilis), which is up to 40mm deep velvety red. For M.phalaenopsis see animals in their ability to move).
(11/2in) long and varies from white to Miltoniopsis phalaenopsis; for M.roezlii, see Leguminosae. C and S America, S US,
brown, can be injurious to greenhouse Miltoniopsis roezlii; for M.superba, see Asia, tropical and E Africa. Some 400
plants, particularly cucumbers. Good Miltoniopsis warscewiczii; for M.vexillaria, species, usually spiny herbs, shrubs or
hygiene and thorough cultivation help see Miltoniopsis vexillaria. small trees. The leaves are bipinnate
reduce numbers and can provide suffi- with numerous, oblong to linear leaflets
cient control, but for persistent attacks, Miltoniopsis (Miltonia and Greek and a swelling at the base of the stalk.
dust seedlings, bulbs and corms with opsis, resemblance). Orchidaceae. Pansy When touched, or at nightfall, or in
recommended contact insecticide, sub- orchid. Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, times of drought, the leaflets fold
ject to local pesticide approvals. Ecuador, Colombia. 5 species of epi- rapidly together and the leafstalks wilt
phytes or lithophytes closely allied to – a trick with the dual functions of
Miltonia (for Lord Fitzwilliam Miltonia, generally with larger, pansy-like alarming would-be grazers and con-
Milton (1786–1857), landowner and flowers. Cultivate as for Odontoglossum. serving water. The flowerheads are typ-
orchidologist). Orchidaceae. Brazil, one M.phalaenopsis (syn. Miltonia phalaenop- ically Acacia-like, rounded, stalked and
species in Peru. Some 20 species, epi- sis; Colombia; raceme to 20cm (8in); packed with small, ‘fluffy’ flowers.
phytic, evergreen perennial herbs with tepals pure white, sepals to 2 x 1cm Grow in pots or beds, in bright filtered
ovoid to ellipsoid pseudobulbs, strap- (3/4 x 1/2in), elliptic-oblong, acute, petals light with a minimum temperature of
shaped leaves and racemes of showy wider, elliptic, obtuse, lip to 2.5 x 3cm 10°C/50°F. Water plentifully and
flowers at various times of year. The (1 x 11/4in), white blotched and streaked apply liquid feed to established plants 515
flowers consist of ovate to oblong, purple-crimson or pale purple, 4-lobed, weekly when in growth; water very
Mimosa
moderately in winter. Although leggy the open during the summer months. splashed brown; ‘Whitecroft Scarlet’,
plants can be pruned hard prior to Feed established plants fortnightly with with vermilion flowers; and ‘Wisley
repotting in spring, they are best a dilute liquid fertilizer. Sow seed in Red’, to 15cm (6in), with velvety blood
replaced after a year or two. Propagate early spring at 13–15°C/55–59°F red flowers); M.luteus (MONKEY MUSK,
by seed, pre-soaked in hot water and under glass and cover very lightly with YELLOW MONKEY FLOWER; Chile, natu-
sown uncovered in early spring at grit or sieved soil. For winter/spring- ralized elsewhere; glabrous perennial
18–20°C/64–68°F. M.pudica (SENSITIVE flowering annuals in pots, sow in herb; stem 10–30cm (4–12in), decum-
PLANT, TOUCH-ME-NOT, SHAME PLANT, autumn and overwinter under glass. bent to ascending, hollow; flowers
LIVE-AND-DIE, HUMBLE PLANT, ACTION Seed may also be sown in situ after the 2–5cm (3/4–2in), yellow, with deep red
PLANT; S Mexico to C America, West last frosts. Increase by division in spring or purple spots); M.moschatus (MUSK
Indies, Hawaii, Fiji, Australia; prostrate or by softwood cuttings in spring and FLOWER, MUSK PLANT; British Colom-
to semi-erect herb, subshrub or shrub, summer. Propagate shrubby species by bia to Newfoundland, S to W Virginia
0.3–0.8m (12–32in); pinnae (1–)2 pairs, semi-ripe cuttings in late summer, and California; perennial herb, glandu-
to 10cm (4in), leaflets 10–25 pairs, rooted in a closed propagating case. lar-pilose, sometimes aromatic; stem
mid- to grey-green, soft-textured, M.aurantiacus (syn. M.glutinosus; 10–40cm (4–16in), decumbent; flowers
oblong; flowers pale pink to lilac, in BUSH MONKEY FLOWER, ORANGE BUSH 1.8–2.5cm (3/4–1in), pale yellow, throat
heads to 2cm (3/4in) in diameter). MONKEY FLOWER; S Oregon to Califor- tubular, finely brown-spotted and
nia; clammy shrub, 60–120cm (24–48in); streaked with black).
mimosiform, mimosoid possess- flowers 3.5–4.5cm (11/2–13/4in), orange
ing flowerheads resembling those of or deep yellow); M.guttatus (COMMON mineralization see nutrients
the genus Mimosa, in which calyx and LARGE MONKEY FLOWER; Alaska to
corolla are inconspicuous or reduced Mexico; largely glabrous annual or mint (Mentha species) a group of
and the stamens are showy. biennial herb; stem 40–100cm (16–39in), creeping, invasive perennials grown as
erect or decumbent; flowers 2–3cm culinary herbs for their aromatic
Mimulus (diminutive form of the (3/4–11/4in), bright yellow, throat with foliage; there are many types, with vari-
M Latin mimus, a mimic actor, referring to

the resemblance of the markings of the
corolla to a grinning face). Scrophulari-
pair of red to purple-brown-spotted
hairy ridges); M. x hybridus (M.luteus x
M.guttatus; flowers large, colour vari-
ation in flavour. Commonly grown are
SPEARMINT (M.spicata) and APPLEMINT
(M.suaveolens), natives of central, south
aceae. Mostly America, also South able; cultivars include ‘Bee’s Dazzler’, and west Europe, and also BOWLES’
Africa and Asia. MONKEY FLOWER, with brilliant crimson-red flowers; MINT (M.villosa alopecuroides), of garden
MUSK. 150 species, annual or perennial ‘Brilliant’, with deep purple-crimson origin. Propagate in spring from divi-
herbs, or rarely shrubs, with racemes of flowers; Calypso Hybrids, with large, sion of young shoots with roots, or by
showy, tubular flowers in spring and burgundy, scarlet and gold flowers; 5cm (2in) long pieces of root planted
summer. These are 2-lipped, the throat ‘Duplex’, with enlarged, colourful horizontally 5cm (2in) deep and about
open or closed by a raised and hairy calyx; ‘Fireflame’, with bright flame 23cm (9in) apart. Mint beds are best
palate. The soft-stemmed perennial red flowers; ‘Highland Pink’, with rich re-established every three years. For
species are hardy in climate zone 7 and pink flowers; ‘Highland Red’, with shoot and leaf production in winter
thrive in full sun or light shade on deep red flowers; ‘Highland Yellow’, and spring, roots can be lifted in
moist, or saturated, fertile soils; many with yellow flowers; ‘Hose in Hose’, autumn and planted in a large con-
of these will grow in water and are with soft tan flowers, one sitting inside tainer within the greenhouse. Mints
excellent marginals. The shrubby the other; ‘Inschriach Crimson’, dwarf, may need containment with physical
species (e.g. M.aurantiacus) are frost- carpet-forming, with crimson flowers; barriers to control the plants’ invasive
tender and should be grown under ‘Leopard’, with yellow rust-spotted habit. See Mentha.
glass in cold areas or, where winters are flowers; ‘Malibu’, to 25cm (10in), of
mild, in the open garden against a strong growth, with orange flowers; Mirabilis (from Latin ‘mirabilis’,
warm wall in a dry, sunny spot. Where ‘Mandarin’, with abundant, bright wonderful). Nyctaginaceae. UMBRELLA-
winters are severe, the herbaceous orange flowers; ‘Nanus’, of dwarf WORT, MARVEL OF PERU. SW US, S
Mimulus are best treated as annuals for habit, with glossy leaves and bright America. Some 50 species, annual or
summer-bedding display or as flower- orange to gold flowers with a red perennial herbs with large tuberous
ing pot plants for windowsills and cool throat; ‘Old Rose’, to 15cm (6in), with roots. The stems are regularly forked,
greenhouses. Where grown in the open bright red flowers; ‘Queen’s Prize’, and the leaves ovate to elliptic or lance-
garden in hard winter areas, take cut- dwarf, with large flowers in bright olate. Produced in summer in axillary
tings in summer as an insurance policy colours, many spotted and blotched; corymbs, the flowers are tubular with a
or protect plants in the open with ‘Royal Velvet’, to 20cm (8in), with large spreading limb of five lobes. Hardy to
cloches. In late winter prune pot-grown velvety, mahogany red flowers with –5°C/23°F, given a warm, sheltered
specimens; repot them, and start into gold throats speckled mahogany; ‘Röter position in very well-drained soil. Alter-
growth at 13°C/55°F, ventilating freely Kaiser’ (‘Red Emperor’), to 20cm (8in) natively, lift and overwinter tubers in a
516 whenever possible. Water plentifully high, with crimson to scarlet flowers; frost-free place as for Dahlia. Grow in
when growing strongly and plunge in ‘Shep’, with large, yellow flowers full sun or part-day shade. Propagate
mistletoe
from seed sown at 15°C/59°F in and insides of the leaf sheaths may be gundy leaves in autumn, and large,
spring: harden off young plants before white-caked with mealybugs. It attacks copper to silver panicles tinted mauve;
planting out. Increase also by division all parts of the plant. including the ‘Rotsilber’: panicles red-tinted; ‘Sil-
of tubers in spring. M.jalapa (MARVEL roots, so above-ground mechanical or berfeder’: upright, with narrow, silver-
OF PERU, FOUR-O’CLOCK, FALSE JALAP; chemical methods are not sufficient for veined leaves, slender stems and loose,
Peru, garden escape in N America and control. For those not fond of using silver panicles occasionally flushed
S Europe; erect perennial, to 1m pesticides in the garden, the best strat- pink); M.tinctorius (Japan; tufted peren-
(31/4ft); flowers fragrant, opening in the egy is probably to remove and destroy nial to 1m (31/4ft); leaves flat, to 40 x
late afternoon or evening, 3–5 (11/4–2in) any plants that show infestation and to 1.2cm (16in x 1/2in), margins scabrous,
x 1–2.5cm (1/2–1in), purple, crimson, be cautious when purchasing new mostly glabrous, pilose towards base;
apricot, yellow or white, several shades plants. inflorescence erect, with a very short
often present on one plant, often M.sacchariflorus (AMUR SILVER GRASS; axis, racemes to 15cm (6in); ‘Variega-
striped or mottled). Asia, escaped in US; to 3m (10ft); tus’: to 30cm (12in), leaves streaked
leaves to 90 x 3cm (36 x 11/4in), flat, white to cream or pale yellow).
Miscanthus (from Greek mischos, stiff, smooth, margins rough, midrib
stalk, and anthos, flower, referring to pale; inflorescence to 40 x 13cm (16 x mistletoe the plant often cut for
the stalked spikelets). Gramineae. Old 5in), very pale green, tinged red or Christmas decoration is Viscum album,
World tropics, South Africa, E Asia. purple, racemes to 30cm (12in), flimsy, one of about 70 species of parasitic
17 species, deciduous perennial grasses beige, with long silky hairs; ‘Aureus’: to evergreens in the family Viscaceae,
with clumped, reed-like culms clothed 1.5m (5ft), leaves striped gold; ‘Robus- native of temperate zones. Plants are
with slender, arching leaves. Silky- tus’: vigorous, to 2.2m (7ft); ‘Variega- dioecious, of about 1m (31/4ft) spread;
hairy spikelets are borne on the arch- tus’: leaves narrowly striped white); they occur on a range of deciduous
ing branches of terminal panicles in M.sinensis (EULALIA; E Asia; to 4m trees but predominantly on Malus and
summer and autumn. Hardy in climate (13ft); leaves to 120 x 1cm (48 x 1/2in), Populus spp. V.a subsp. abietis occurs on
zone 6 and tolerant of a wide range flat, glabrous to puberulous above, blue conifers, especially Abies spp., and V.a
of sites, these grasses prefer fertile,
moist soils in full sun. Most are dry
and dormant by midwinter, although
green; inflorescence to 40 x 15cm (16 x
6in), obpyramidal, pale grey tinted
brown or mauve, racemes to 20cm
subsp. austriacum on Pinus and Larix spp.
Propagation naturally arises through
seed transference by birds. For inten-
M
the windswept skeletons of the inflores- (8in), with long silky hairs; there are tional cultivation, berries should be
cences remain beautiful, especially many cultivars: (habit) ‘Goliath’: large, gathered in late winter or spring and
when rimed with frost. The flowering to 2m (61/2ft); ‘Gracillimus’: more slen- the sticky seed extracted and rubbed
time ranges from early summer to early der than type, leaves with a white into a bark crevice or beneath a lifted
autumn. Although the flowers of some midrib; ‘Grosse Fontaine’: large foun- flap of bark, on the underside of a
selections open with a reddish cast and tain-like, early-flowering; ‘Strictus’: as
others open silver, all take on a silver- for ‘Zebrinus’, but smaller, very erect, evergreen leaves
white appearance upon drying. They with leaves banded yellow; ‘Yaku Jima’:
are superb for cut or dried arrange- to 85cm (34in), with narrow, arching female
ments. Clumps eventually tend to die leaves; (leaves striped) ‘Goldfeder’: leaves plants bear
out in the centre, and may require edged and striped yellow; ‘Morning fruits
lifting and dividing after 5–7 years. Light’: leaves narrow, arching, neatly
Annual maintenance generally consists edged white, panicles red-bronze;
of cutting back by mid-spring before ‘Sarabande’: leaves with a wide central
new growth begins, or in late autumn silver stripe; ‘Variegatus’: leaves with
if winter interest is not a consideration. white or cream-white stripes: (leaves viscous berries
Species are easily grown from seed. banded) ‘Tiger Tail’: leaves banded
The cultivars should be propagated cream; ‘Zebrinus’: ZEBRA GRASS, leaves
by division. Division is safest done in and culms banded white and yellow; Mistletoe
spring, but may succeed in an autumn ‘Graziella’: leaves narrow, somewhat
followed by a mild winter. The same arching, burgundy and orange, with branch of at least 10cm (4in) diameter
holds true for transplanting times. bronze tints in autumn, panicles large, and at least 1.5m (5ft) from ground
The mealybug, Pilococcus miscanthi, white, nodding; ‘Purpureus’: syn. ‘Pur- level. The host plant chosen should be
now poses a serious threat to Miscanthus purascens’, small, leaves with a pink- at least 20 years old. Numerous seed-
sinensis and possibly to other species. tinted central vein, turning shades of ings are necessary to ensure male and
The eggs hatch and crawlers appear brown and orange-red in autumn, pan- female plants for berry production.
in late spring. This mealybug is big icles oatmeal flushed pink; (flowers) Percentage germination is usually less
and prolific, and can reduce even ‘Flamingo’: panicles tinted flamingo than 50 per cent. Successful parasitiz-
the largest clump of Miscanthus to a pink; ‘Kleine Fontaine’: small, with ing is indicated by a swelling of the
stunted, chlorotic mess that will cease graceful, arching leaves and early flow- seeded site; flowering is unlikely before 517
to flower. By autumn, the lower culms ers; ‘Malepartus’: robust, with bur- the fifth year.
mist propagation
mist propagation a method of related to the red spider mite (Tetrany-

rooting cuttings under protection by chidae). Most species feed on the
means of a fine spray of water applied undersides of leaves near to veins, and
at frequent intervals to prevent the cut- those which are occasionally signifi-
tings from wilting. A mist propagation cantly injurious are mostly in the genus
unit consists of a bench or ground bed Brevipalpus, which includes the SCARLET
layered with a rooting medium, along TEA MITE (B.californicus), the ORCHID
the length of which spray nozzles are MITE (B.oncidii), the CITRUS FLAT MITE
fitted on risers. The misted water appli- (B.lewisi), the privet mite (B.obovatus) and
cation is controlled by an electronic the RED CREVICE TEA MITE (B.phoenicis).
leaf, which simulates the regularity with All infest hosts such as citrus, tea,
which cutting leaves dry out. See elec- coffee, peach, rubber, coconut, apple,
tronic leaf. pear, olive, fig, walnut, grape, date
palm, privet, orchids, buddleias, fuch- Planting out from modules
mist-sprayer, mister a small spe- sias and many other ornamental plants. Raising plants in cell trays is economical in
cialized sprayer used to deliver a fine They feed by sucking the sap and cause seed use. Planting out from well-rooted
mist of water around houseplants to a fine pale mottling of the upper leaf modules ensures minimal check to growth
increase humidity. surface. These mites are more tolerant and encourages rapid establishment.
of acaricides than are red spider mites.
Mitella (diminutive of Latin mitra, The FALSE RED SPIDER MITES sizes (the smallest units of which are
a cap or mitre – thus a small cap or (Brevipalpus species) are closely related known as plugs), and soil blocks.
mitre, alluding to the shape of the to the tetranychids.
fruit). Saxifragaceae. N America, NE See gall mites, red spider mites, Mogul (Mughal, Mughul) gar-
Asia. BISHOP’S-CAP, MITREWORT. 20 tarsonemid mites. dens formal gardens of India created
species perennial, minutely hairy herbs by Persian Mogul invaders in the 16th
M making clumps of long-stalked, ovate-

cordate, lobed and crenate leaves.
Small, green or yellow flowers are car-
Mitraria (from Latin mitra, cap or
mitre, referring to the shape of the
fruit). Gesneriaceae. Chile. 1 species,
and 17th centuries. They are based on
water and fountains, with pavilions,
lawns, flower-beds and shade trees.
ried in narrow, erect spikes in summer. M.coccinea, a climbing or straggling,
An attractive, dainty groundcover for evergreen perennial herb, eventually mole drain see drainage.
moist woodland or pockets in the rock becoming somewhat woody, with
garden. Fully hardy, it prefers a cool, dense, tangled branches. To 2cm (3/4in) moles (Talpa europaea) small subter-
damp, humus-rich soil and shade. long, the leaves are ovate, dentate, lus- ranean mammals, up to 165mm (61/2in)
Increase by division in spring. M.breweri trous dark green, coriaceous and hairy. long, with short tails, dense dark brown
(British Colombia to California and In late spring and summer, solitary fur and forelegs adapted for burrowing.
Idaho; to 10cm (4in); leaves 4–10cm flowers hang from the leaf axils, each Moles construct a system of tunnels
(11/2–4in) broad; flowers green-yellow, to 3cm (11/4in) long, tubular to goblet- that may reach 1m (31/4ft) in depth, and
petals 1–2mm (1/16–1/16in), divided into shaped, downy and scarlet to orange- their activity damages plants indirectly
5–9 segments). red. Cultivate as for Asteranthera. by undermining roots; excavated soil is
thrown up into surface molehills which
mites a group of very small plant mixed border see herbaceous border. can disfigure lawns. Moles are territor-
pests with needle-like mouthparts ial and live for up to 3–4 years, feeding
which they insert into plant tissues in MLO see phytoplasmas. principally on earthworms.
order to suck sap. Most have four pairs Signs of activity in a small garden
of jointed legs (gall mites have only module a small individual container may be the work of an individual since
two pairs), and bodies consisting of a or growing unit for plant raising, moles are solitary animals except in
head and a fused thorax and abdomen. mainly used for direct single or multi- the breeding season. The young are
There are three important groups of seed sowing to each unit, which born usually four to a litter in spring,
mite pests: TETRANYCHIDS or RED removes the need for pricking out and in an underground nest chamber or,
SPIDER MITES; TARSONEMID MITES; offers the possibility of economizing on where there is a high water table, in an
and ERIOPHYID or GALL MITES. seed. Modules are of particular value unusually large molehill. They disperse
Bryobia mites (Acarina: Tetranychi- in reducing the effects of growth check above ground to new territories in
dae) are black with pink legs, and feed at planting time, and also in facilitating early summer.
from the upper leaf surface of plants early establishment under protection to Specially designed mole traps are
such as primulas, ivy and gooseberry. allow for planting out at a favourable available for control, and fumigant
FALSE RED SPIDER MITES (Acarina: or convenient time. Modules take the smokes are effective, subject to local
Tenuipalpidae) are small, bright red, form of small pots made of various pesticide approvals, but the most lethal
518 slow-moving mites, up to 2mm (1/16in) materials: moulded plastic, polystyrene, poisons may only be used by qualified
long, with an oval body; they are peat or fibre cellular trays of various pest-control contractors. Electronic
Monarda
repellent devices have been used with massed clusters of funnel-shaped flow- New Zealand. It is seen particularly
varying degrees of success. Once estab- ers in summer. Fully hardy, Moltkia in brassicas, lettuce, tomatoes and
lished, control is difficult and recolo- prefers neutral to alkaline soils but oth- poinsettia; in cauliflower, it produces
nization of vacant tunnel systems can erwise has garden uses and cultural blind plants with reduced and twisted
occur from adjoining infested sites. requirements similar to those of lamina, or only the midribs persisting,
Lithodora. Propagate also by layering. in a condition known as whiptail
Molinia (for J.I. Molina (1740–1829), M. x intermedia (M.petraea x M.suffruti- (which may occur on soil up to pH 7).
writer on the natural history of Chile). cosa; closely resembles M.suffruticosa Death of growing points and chlorotic
Gramineae. Eurasia. 2 species, peren- except larger and more shrubby with mottling and cupping or rolling of
nial grasses with tufted culms and slen- broader leaves and deep bright blue leaves are symptoms common to
der leaves. Small and shimmering, the flowers, in spreading heads; includes other molybdenum-deficient plants.
florets are loosely borne on the thread- ‘Froebelii’, with azure-blue flowers); Legumes may show signs of nitrogen
like branches of erect, spreading pani- M.petraea (Balkans to C Greece; white- deficiency because the function of
cles in summer. Fully hardy. Grow in bristly, slender shrublet to 40cm (16in); nitrogen-fixing bacteria is dependent
moisture-retentive, lime-free soils in leaves to 5cm (2in), oblanceolate to on the availability of molybdenum.
sun. Propagate by division in early linear, revolute; cymes compact, flow-
autumn and spring. ers to 8mm (3/8in), blue or violet-blue); monadelphous stamens united by
M.caerulea (PURPLE MOOR-GRASS; to M.suffruticosa (N Italy; loosely branched, fusion of their filaments into a single
120cm (48in); leaf blades to 45 x 1cm bristly shrublet to 25cm (10in); leaves group or bundle.
(18 x 1/2in); panicle dense, to 40 x 10cm to 15cm (6in), linear, sometimes
(16 x 4in), purple to olive green; revolute; cymes short, dense, flowers Monarda (for Nicholas Monardes
spikelets to 1cm (1/2in); subsp. arundi- to 17mm (3/4in), blue). (1493–1588), Spanish botanist and
nacea: to 2.5m (8ft), with leaves to physician, author of the first medicinal
12mm (1/2in) across and panicles with Moluccella (from the original collec- flora of North America (1571) trans-
long, spreading branches; subsp. arundi- tion region, the Moluccas). Labiatae. lated 1577 as Joyfull Newes). Labiatae. N
nacea cultivars: ‘Altissima’, to 1m (31/4ft),
with golden-yellow leaves in autumn;
‘Fontane’, with inclining stems, forming
Mediterranean to NW India. 4 species,
glabrous, annual or short-lived peren-
nial herbs with erect, scarcely branch-
America. WILD BERGAMOT, HORSEMINT,
BEE BALM. 16 species, aromatic annual
or perennial herbs, more or less hairy
M
a fountain; ‘Karl Foerster’, tall, with ing stems and wavy-toothed leaves. with clumped, erect stems. Hooded,
leaves to 80cm (32in); ‘Skyracer’, tall, The flowers are borne in summer in tubular and 2-lipped, the flowers are
with leaves to 1m (31/4ft), clear gold in whorls forming a tall, erect spike. They borne in late spring and summer in
autumn; ‘Transparent’, with sparse are remarkable for the calyx which dense clusters or heads or in an inter-
spikelets, giving the whole inflorescence enlarges with age becoming a rupted spike, and subtended by leafy
a light, spacious, transparent quality; green, net-veined and bracts. Fully
‘Windspiel’, with slender, swaying prickly-edged dish or hardy. Plant in full
stems and gold-brown, dense plumes; funnel, far exceeding sun. Propagate by
subsp. caerulea cultivars: ‘Dauerstrahl’: the small, tubular division of estab-
stems tall, yellow-tinted ‘Heidebraut’: and two-lipped lished clumps
stems soft straw yellow, to 1.5m (5ft), corolla. A dis- during the dor-
spikelets yellow-tinted, forming a glis- tinguished mant period. Various
tening cloud; ‘Moorhexe’: narrowly annual for the flower mildew fungi can be
upright, with slender stems, to 50cm border and, later, for paired flower destructive, especially
(20in), and dark flowers in straight, drying. Treat as half- leaves a dense in hot dry summers.
narrow panicles; ‘Moorflamme’: leaves hardy, sowing seed glomerule M.didyma (BEE
colouring well in autumn, inflorescence under glass in early BALM, BERGAMOT, OSWEGO
dark; ‘Overdam’: to 60cm (24in), with spring at 15°C/59°F, or, later, in Monarda TEA; Canada, US; strongly aro-
strong stems and fine leaves; ‘Varie- situ, in sunny well-drained bor- didyma matic perennial herb, 70–120cm
gata’: to 60cm (24in), leaves striped ders. M.laevis (BELLS OF IRELAND; (28–48in); flowers bright crimson,
dark green and cream-white; . W Asia; annual, erect, 30–100cm 3–4.5cm (11/4–13/4in); includes ‘Alba’,
(12–39in); calyx light green, with pale which has white flowers); M.fistulosa
molluscicide a pesticide active or white net markings, campanulate or (Canada, US, Mexico; perennial herb,
against slugs and snails (molluscs), such saucer-shaped, margin more or less 35–120cm (14–48in); flowers lavender,
as metaldehyde and methio-carb. spiny, corolla white to pale lilac). lilac or pink, 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in); differs
from M.didyma in having bluntly 4-
Moltkia (for Count Joachim Gadake molybdenum an essential plant angled stem, usually only 1 flower clus-
Moltke of Denmark, d. 1818). Boragi- micronutrient, required for enzyme ter (not 2 super-imposed) and fewer
naceae. N Italy to N Greece, SW Asia. activity. Deficiency, which is predis- flowers with bracts tinted purple-pink,
Some 6 species, perennial herbs or sub- posed by soil acidity, is rare in the UK, not red, and densely, not sparsely, hairy 519
shrubs usually coarsely hairy and with but more common in Australia and calyx throat). Cultivars selections or
Monarda
hybrids: ‘Adam’, to 1m (31/4ft), with monogeneric a family or grouping humidity are not provided, the leaf
cerise flowers; ‘Beauty of Cobham’, of higher rank containing a single perforations typical of well-grown
tall, with lilac-pink flowers; ‘Blue genus. adult specimens of many species may
Stocking’, tall, with brilliant deep violet fail to develop. Too much or too little
flowers; ‘Burgundy’, with dark purple- monogerm seed seed that contains water will cause leaf yellowing. Plants
red flowers; ‘Cambridge Scarlet’, with single embryos and is produced benefit from frequent sponging of
red flowers; ‘Capricorn’, with purple mechanically or genetically. It is avail- leaves. Propagate Monstera by inter-
flowers; ‘Croftway Pink’, with clear able for beet species, the seed of which nodal cuttings, or from cuttings of
rose-pink flowers; ‘Kardinal’, tall, with otherwise comprises a cluster of growing tips with one leaf attached,
red flowers tinted purple; ‘Loddon embryos, requiring resultant seedlings rooted with bottom heat in a sandy
Crown’, with maroon flowers; to be thinned. propagating mix. Alternatively, increase
‘Mahogany’, tall, with deep wine red by air-layering.
flowers; ‘Morning Red’, with dark monopetalous strictly, with one M.deliciosa (CERIMAN, SWISS-CHEESE
salmon flowers; ‘Pisces’, with strong petal; often loosely used for PLANT; Mexico to Panama; robust
pink flowers with a green calyx; gamopetalous. climber with stout, green stems and
‘Prairie Night’, with rich violet flowers; copious, thick aerial roots; leaves 25–90
‘Salmonea’, with salmon pink flowers, monopodial of a stem or rhizome (10–36in) x 25–75cm (10–30in), orbicu-
and ‘Snow Queen’, low, with creamy in which growth continues indefinitely lar to ovate, base cordate, margins pin-
white flowers. from the apical or terminal bud, and nately lobed in adult foliage, segments
which generally exhibits little or no curved, oblong, usually perforated with
moniliform a regularly constricted secondary branching; cf. sympodial. elliptic to oblong holes; spathe to 30cm
organ, giving the appearance of a (12in), spadix to 25 x 3cm (10 x 11/4in),
string of beads or a knotted rope. monotypic having only one compo- swelling in fruit, becoming cream-
nent, for example a genus with one coloured and tasting of banana and
mono-ammonium phosphate species. pineapple when mature; includes ‘Albo-
M see ammonium phosphate.
monocarpic dying after bearing

Monstera (from Latin monstrum, a
marvel, possibly alluding to curious
variegata’, with large, partly rich deep
green leaves with other sections a con-
trasting creamy-white, and ‘Variegata’,
flowers and fruit only once. shape of leaves). Araceae. Tropical with leaves and stem irregularly varie-
America. SWISS-CHEESE PLANT, gated cream or yellow); M.dubia (C
monochasial cyme as a dichasial WINDOW-LEAF. 22 species, evergreen, America; robust, bushy climber with
cyme, but with the branches missing epiphytic, perennial lianes with freely thick aerial roots; adult leaves to 130 x
from one side. rooting, clambering stems and large, 60cm (54 x 24in), oblong, pinnately
smooth, heart-shaped leaves, often cut, segments 12–20; leaves linear in
monochlamydeous with only one pinnately lobed or perforated. Small juvenile forms and silver-variegated);
perianth whorl. flowers are borne on a dense, club-like M.obliqua (northern S America; slender-
spadix surrounded with a thick-textured stemmed climber; leaves to 20 x 7cm
monocotyledons (monocots) spathe. The fruit is cone-shaped, com- (8 x 23/4in), elliptic to oblong-lanceolate,
one of the two major divisions of posed of tightly packed white berries. entire or perforated with holes covering
the angiosperms, the other being the In temperate zones, Monstera species much of the surface area).
dicotyledons. Monocots are character- are most commonly grown as house-
ized by the single cotyledon in the plants or in warm greenhouses. Under monstrous, monstrosity describ-
seed, usually the absence of cambium such conditions, poles of sphagnum ing plants showing some abnormality
and thus of woody tissue and, in many moss are often used in imitation of nat- of growth or flower, due to genetic
cases, parallel leaf venation. The ural supports, dampened to improve make-up or pest or disease. Monstrous
monocotyledons include Gramineae, atmospheric humidity and to provide a plants are sometimes prized by garden-
Liliaceae, Orchidaceae, Iridaceae, moist medium for the running aerial ers. See malformations.
Bromeliaceae, Palmae. roots. If the necessary draught-free
conditions with filtered light and high montmorillonite a primary type of
monoecious having clay mineral having a high capacity for
separate male and female male cation exchange and water-holding.
or bisexual flowers on flowers
(“catkins”)
the same plant, cf. specimen moongate a circular doorway in a
dioecious. twigs taken wall; Chinese in origin and used in
from the Western gardens from the 18th century.
same plant
inconspicuous
female flowers mor a type of humus found as an
520 Monoecious plant unincorporated surface layer on min-
(Corylus avellana) eral soils, typically as leaf litter on a
moss
forest floor where decomposition and basal, tufted, lanceolate to oblong, multicaulis, suckering shrub, with leaves
incorporation are restricted by acidity; undulate and spiny-toothed, progres- to 35cm (14in) and fruit that is nearly
cf. mull. sively reduced on flowering stems to black when ripe; ‘Nana’, dwarf,
whorled, leafy and spiny bracts. The shrubby, rounded, with regularly lobed
Moraea (for Robert More, 18th-cen- flowers are borne in whorls on an erect leaves; ‘Nigrobacca’, with fruit ripening
tury botanist and natural historian. spike in summer. They are tubular and purple-black; ‘Pendula’, producing a
The name was originally spelt Morea, 5-lobed, with a spreading, somewhat weeping crown if grafted on tall stocks
but changed to Moraea by Linnaeus in 2-lipped limb. Hardy to –17°C/1°F. of the typical mulberry; and ‘Pyrami-
1762, possibly in honour of his father- Grow in any fertile, humus-rich, well- dalis’, with a pyramidal crown); M.nigra
in-law Johan Moraeus, a Swedish drained but moderately moisture-reten- (BLACK MULBERRY; probably originating
physician). Iridaceae. Sub-Saharan tive, sandy or gritty soil in sun. Fresh, in SW Asia, but now widespread
Africa from Ethiopia to South Africa. ripe seed germinates freely in an open, through cultivation; tree to 15m (50ft);
About 120 species, perennial, cormous gritty propagating mix and is best fruit 2–2.5cm (3/4–1in), green ripening
herbs with erect, simple or branched sown in individual pots to avoid through orange, and red to deep
stems bearing terminal clusters of flow- damage to the taproot. Overwinter purple); M.rubra (RED MULBERRY; E US,
ers with six tepals. Species which grow young plants in a well-ventilated cold SE Canada; tree to 15m (50ft), rarely
in winter and flower in spring need frame. Increase also by root cuttings. 20m (66ft); fruit 2.5–3cm (1–11/4in),
protection from frost in cool temperate M.longiflora (WHORLFLOWER; Himalaya; green ripening through orange and red
climates. They are well-suited to culti- to 1.3m (41/4ft); corolla to 2.5cm (1in), to purple; includes ‘Nana’, dwarf, slow-
vation in the cool greenhouse or con- white, flushing shell pink, then bright growing, with smaller, 3–5-lobed
servatory. Species which flower in crimson, particularly the limb). leaves). See mulberry.
summer, are frost-hardy, withstanding
winter temperatures between –5 and morphogenesis changes in shape or mosaic leaf discoloration with
–10°C/23–14°F. All need full sun and form of a plant during development, or numerous discrete lighter and darker
a fertile, sandy and well-drained in response to environmental changes. areas, for example yellow or pale
medium. Provide plentiful moisture
when in growth, but keep dry when
dormant. Increase by seed.
morphology the study of the exter-
nal form and relative position of plant
greens on darker greens, often angular
and tending to be delineated by the
veins. Mosaic is a characteristic virus
M
M.huttonii (to 1m (31/4ft); flowers organs; one of the most important divi- disease symptom; cf. mottle. See virus.
scented, yellow with darker yellow sions of botanical science.
marks, style crests with brown or moss primitive non-flowering, plants
purple blotch; outer tepals to 5cm Morus (from Latin morus, mulberry). belonging to the Bryophyta. Delicate
(2in), inner tepals to 4cm (11/2in), lance- Moraceae. Western N America and in form, they posses stems and leaves,
olate, erect); M.polystachya (to 80cm S Europe east to Japan, south to low- but no true root. Mosses generally
(32in); flowers pale blue or violet, outer land tropics in C Africa. MULBERRY. grow in damp places. Like ferns, they
tepals 3–5cm (11/4–2in) with yellow or About 12 species, deciduous trees exhibit alternation of generations,
orange nectar guides, inner tepals and shrubs. The crown is usually dense except that with mosses the conspicu-
3–4cm (11/4–11/2in), erect or reflexed); and rounded with rugged, gnarled ous generation is the sexual one, which
M.spathulata (to 90cm (36in); flowers branches, the bark brown, rough, and can live independently.
yellow, outer tepals 3.5–5cm (11/2–2in) often burred. Young shoots exude The common peat or bog moss of
with darker yellow nectar guides, inner white latex when cut. The leaves are the genus Sphagnum is of horticultural
tepals erect, 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in)). generally ovate to cordate and toothed, significance: harvested peat is formed
turning yellow in autumn. The inflor- in bogland from its incompletely
moraine in nature, the accumulation esences are green and catkin-like, the decomposed remains, and it is used in
of rocky debris, sand and silt at the females developing as fruits that super- its living form as a medium for sup-
snout or sides of a glacier, produced by ficially resemble a large raspberry but porting epiphytes and for lining hang-
grinding action on the bed rock. Being differ by consisting of closely packed ing baskets and slatted containers. The
freely drained, it supports a specialized but separate drupes. These are green at use of sphagnum moss and sphagnum
flora of rosette- or cushion-forming first, ripening through orange or white peat conflicts with wildlife conservation
plants with long taproots. Moraine to red or deep purple-black by late objectives. Peat and moss alternatives
conditions can be imitated in the summer to mid-autumn of the same are available for most horticultural
garden by the provision of specially year. uses, and moss, such as Highland moss
constructed beds. See rock plant M.alba (WHITE MULBERRY; China; (Pseudoscleropodium purum), is obtainable
gardening. tree to 16m (52ft); fruit 1–2.5cm from sustainably harvested sources.
(1/2–1in), green-white ripening pink to Some species of moss may be culti-
Morina (for Louis Morin (1636–1715), dark red; cultivars include ‘Aurea’, with vated or maintained for ornamental
French botanist). Morinaceae. E Europe yellow leaves and bark; ‘Laciniata’, purposes, but naturally growing plants
to Asia. 4 species, aromatic perennial, with leaves deeply lobed and toothed; are most commonly met in gardens as 521
prickly herbs. The leaves are mostly ‘Macrophylla’, with large leaves; var. undesirable invaders of lawns.
moss house
moss house a rustic building fea- cover infested shoots with dense silk motile hairs, appendages, lobes and
tured in some Victorian gardens, with webbing; these can defoliate shrubs spores capable of movement.
interior walls formed of wooden slats and small trees completely. Some of
into which mosses collected from the smallest moths have larvae that mottle leaf discoloration with small
the wild were pressed. feed as leaf miners within the chlorotic areas of irregular shape
foliage of plants such as apple, without sharply defined edges and in
moss pole a wooden oak, lilac and laburnum. a pattern that is not related to the
pole on to which sphag- The roots and stem vein network. Mottle is a common
num moss is bound, or a bases of many plants are virus disease symptom; cf. mosaic.
cylinder of wire or plastic damaged by soil-dwelling See virus.
netting filled with moss; caterpillars, known as
used to provide support cutworms, which are the mould the visible surface growth of
for climbing plants with larvae of various species of fungal spores and mycelium, which is
aerial roots. noctuid moth. SWIFT MOTH common on organic matter of plant
LARVAE (Hepialus species) also or animal origin with a high moisture
mother plant a plant feed in a similar manner. content. BLUE MOULD is the spores of
from which young plantlets Annual flowers, lettuce, Penicillium species, which cause storage
or propagating material are small herbaceous plants rots of fruit and bulbs. GREY MOULD
obtained; often stock plants and root vegetables describes the fungus Botrytis cinerea,
exclusively reserved for the are most at risk. which causes various forms of die-
purpose and kept free of The larvae of CLEAR- back and rots in many plants, and
pathogens, WING MOTHS are stem rots fruits and vegetables. Rhizopus
especially borers, mainly of woody stolonifer, which can cause fruit rot, is
for the pro- plants such as currant, sometimes called PIN MOULD, while
duction of apple, willow and poplar. LEAF MOULD is a disease of tomatoes
M certified stock.
moths Together
Caterpillars of the
LEOPARD MOTH
attack the branches
caused by the fungus Fulvia fulva.
SOOTY MOULD fungi grow on plant
surfaces that are covered with honey-
with butterflies, and trunks of dew excreted by insects. SLIME MOULDS
moths make apples and are organisms related to fungi which
up the insect other trees, and ingest bacteria, fungus spores and par-
order Lepi- pine trees have cater- ticles of organic matter.
doptera, none pillar pests that bore
of which are pests as into buds killing or dis- mount an artificial hill within a
adult insects: some do torting the leading shoot. garden. Mounts were constructed in
not feed at all, others suck Epipremnum climbing A number of moths have Europe, especially Britain, from the
nectar or similar sweet liquids. moss pole caterpillars that feed on ripen- 14th century to the early 18th, to pro-
They lay eggs on suitable host plants. ing fruits or seeds, including the vide a view-point over high garden
These hatch into caterpillars with three CODLING MOTH, which is a worldwide walls. Mounts could be square or circu-
pairs of jointed legs at the head end pest of apples and pears, the PLUM lar, with stairways or a spiral ramp
and up to five pairs of claspers or MOTH, the PEA MOTH and the ORIEN- leading to a flat viewing terrace, with
prolegs on the abdomen; geometrid TAL FRUIT MOTH, which attacks peach perhaps an arbour, pleasure house, or
larvae, known as loopers or inchworms, and many other fruits. Some moth temple on top.
have only two pairs of prolegs. caterpillars can be very destructive in
Caterpillars pass through several seed stores and granaries. mouse ear see bud stages.
stages before becoming fully fed, and Most moth larvae cause insignificant
often leave the food plant to pupate in amounts of damage and some have mowing see lawns.
the soil before emerging as adults. All been used successfully in the biological
caterpillars have mouthparts adapted control of weeds such as prickly pear mucilage a viscous substance or
for biting and chewing, and most feed and ragwort. Where control measures solution.
on foliage. Some feed exposed, while against caterpillars are required, the
others, for example, many of the tor- young larvae should be targeted with mucilaginous slimy.
trix moths, feed hidden from view by contact insecticides since these are
binding two leaves together. Some more effective than systemic types. mucro an abrupt, sharp, terminal
moths, such as the GYPSY MOTH, Biological control is possible for some spur, spine or tip.
BROWN TAIL MOTH, LACKEY MOTH, pests, such as cabbage caterpillars,
SMALL ERMINE (Yponomeuta species) using a bacterial spray containing mucronate an apex terminating
522 and COTONEASTER WEBBER MOTHS, Bacillus thuringiensis. See clearwing moths, suddenly with an abrupt spur or spine
have larvae that feed gregariously and codling moth, swift moths, tent caterpillars. developed from the midrib.
mulberry
mucronulate diminutive of forming a mass of intricately tangled resembles a large raspberry. There are
mucronate. dark wiry stems. This species is some- biblical references to the mulberry and
times treated as a standard, grown on its spread can be traced from ancient
Mucuna (Brazilian name for these without support in open beds to pro- Greece and Rome across Europe to
plants). Leguminosae. Widespread mote a number of long stems, then Britain and thence to other parts of the
in the tropics and subtropics of both potted in tubs of rich loamy soil with world. Mulberries are grown as either
Hemispheres. Some 100 species, the stems gathered and tied to a standard or half standard trees; they
evergreen, woody climbers and erect central cane. Plants grown in this are slow growing but may eventually
shrubs with trifoliolate leaves and way produce a weeping crown of fine reach 10m (33ft) in height, forming
pea-like flowers in axillary clusters branchlets. Despite its delicate appear- ornamental specimens with attractive
or racemes in spring and summer. ance, M.complexa can match other gnarled bark, and a spreading head.
M.bennettii is a spectacular flame-flow- climbing Polygonaceae in vigour and They may survive for several hundred
ered climber for tropical gardens or has become a troublesome invader in years. Mulberries require a sheltered,
the warm greenhouse. Its cultural warmer regions. Plant in a position sunny situation, and in the UK do best
requirements are as for Strongylodon. sheltered from cold, drying winds in in southern parts. Small trees can be
M.pruriens and M.sempervirens are less climate zones 7 and over. Grow in well- maintained in large tubs.
showy, more intriguing, with racemes drained soil in sun to part shade. Prune The flowers, which are borne on
and clusters respectively of purple- only to restrict to allotted space. Propa- inconspicuous catkins, are unisexual
black or mauve to white flowers. gate by semi-ripe cuttings in summer. and self-fertile; the trees have a high
In climate zones lower than 9, they M.axillaris (Australia, New Zealand; chilling requirement and are therefore
perform best in cool greenhouses and small, prostrate or straggling shrub to late into leaf and flower, thus avoiding
conservatories, but might be attempted 1 x 1m (31/4 x 31/4ft); branches delicate, frost damage.
outdoors in favoured regions. intricate, black; leaves 0.5–1cm
M.bennettii (NEW GUINEA CREEPER; (1/4–1/2in) diam., oblong – pandurate
New Guinea; perennial woody climber to orbicular, dark green above, grey
to 20m (66ft); flowers to 8.5cm (31/4in),
vivid scarlet or flame-coloured, in a
short inflorescence); M.pruriens (syn.
beneath; ‘Nana’: dwarf, leaves pan-
durate); M.complexa (MAIDENHAIR VINE,
WIRE VINE, MATTRESS VINE, NECKLACE
M
M.cochinchinensis; VELVET BEAN; Asia, VINE; New Zealand; fast-growing semi-
naturalized elsewhere; annual or deciduous liane, creeping or climbing
perennial semi-woody, climbing herb to 5m (16ft), stems slender, dark and
to 4m (13ft); racemes to 30cm (12in), wiry, forming dense tangles; leaves
flowers 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in), dark 5–20mm (1/4–3/4in), dark green above,
damson coloured to pale purple or purple to silver beneath, oblong to cir-
white; var. utilis: VELVET BEAN, FLORIDA cular or pandurate, rounded or cordate
BEAN, BENGHAL BEAN, flowers with a at base; includes var. microphylla, a
purple standard flushed green and dense shrub to 60cm (24in), with few, Mulberry (Morus nigra)
wings of a dirty red); M.sempervirens rounded, very small leaves, and var. Avoid planting the black mulberry where its
(China; perennial evergreen climber triloba, with pandurate, 3-lobed leaves). branches will overhang pathways because
to 12m (39ft); raceme short, nodding, falling ripe fruits heavily stain surfaces.
flowers waxy, bruised purple-black, Mukdenia (from the Chinese city,
malodorous). Mukden). Saxifragaceae. N China, Fruits ripen in late summer, chang-
Korea. 2 species, deciduous perennial ing gradually from green to deep crim-
Muehlenbeckia (for H.G. Muehlen- herbs. The long-stalked leaves are son when they acquire a sweetly acidic
beck (1798–1845), Swiss physician and peltate, round to reniform, cordate at flavour; the juice stains strongly and is
student of the flora of Alsace). Polygo- the base, palmately lobed and toothed. persistent. Either pick the fruit from
naceae. S America, New Zealand, In spring, paniculate racemes of the trees or gather when fallen onto
Australia, New Guinea. 15 species of numerous small, white flowers stand grass or a collecting sheet; use immedi-
largely dioecious, evergreen climbing taller than the foliage. Deciduous ately for dessert, preserves or wine
or procumbent subshrubs and shrubs groundcover for woodland fringe and making, or for freezing.
with wiry stems, small leaves, incon- other shaded locations. Cultivate as for Prune young trees in winter to
spicuous white flowers and fruit sur- Mitella. M.rossii (N China, Manchuria, establish a framework and minimally
rounded by the enlarged, fleshy white Korea; to 60cm (24in); leaves bronze- thereafter to maintain shape; where
perianth. Grown for its intricate habit, green; flowers small, white). cut or damaged between spring and
minute foliage and small but sweetly autumn the wounds will bleed profusely
fragrant flowers, M.complexa is suitable mulberry (Morus species) Probably and should be cauterized with a hot
for covering tree stumps and rocky originating in the Caucasus or further iron. Propagation may be by simple
banks, or for scrambling through shrubs. east, the BLACK MULBERRY (Morus nigra) layering in autumn, or by air layering, 523
It also does well in hanging-baskets, is prized for its fruit which superficially but usually by 18cm (7in) long hardwood
mulberry
cuttings taken from two year-old wood, not contain residual hormone weed- with more than two genera involved in
with a heel, in autumn or spring. killer, which might have a harmful their immediate ancestry, for example
Possible problems: canker, powdery effect upon plant growth. Potinara (Brassavola x Cattleya x Laelia x
mildew. Non-organic mulching materials Sophronitis). Multigeneric hybrid names
WHITE MULBERRY (M.alba) is not usu- include pea gravel and stone chippings, are formed either by combining the
ally grown for its fruits, but in China, which are visually acceptable for some generic names of the parents, as for
its leaves have provided food for silk- garden situations, and black polythene example with Sophrolaeliocattleya, or, as
worms for over 5000 years. sheet for weed suppression and mois- in the case above, by creating a com-
ture retention around fruit and veg- memorative personal name using the
etable crops and newly planted trees. suffix -ara.
Clear polythene and spun fibre fleece
aid soil warming and seed germina- multiple fruit a fruit derived from
tion, as well as moisture retention. Film an entire inflorescence, i.e. from the
or sheet covers are often referred to as parts of a number of flowers.
‘floating mulches’, and some plants, for
example, strawberries, may be planted mummified fruit dry and shriv-
through holes in the mulch; all such elled fruit infected by fungi, especially
covers must be firmly buried at the that of apples, grapes, peaches and
edges to avoid removal by wind. Peren- plums. Mummified fruit can often
nial weeds should be cleared from a carry over disease and should be col-
Mulch site before mulches are put down. lected and burnt.
A mulch of clean, dry straw being placed The best time for mulch application
around mature plants of celeriac to ensure is in spring, by which time winter rain municipal waste see town refuse.
quality harvest during a very severe winter. will have fully charged the soil with
water. Organic materials should be muriate of potash see potassium
M mulch a covering placed on the sur-

face of cultivated soil. The benefits of
a mulch include: conserving soil mois-
spread to a depth of at least 10cm (4in).
It is important to remember that, in
times of prolonged drought, sufficient
chloride.
muricate rough-surfaced; furnished

ture by reducing evaporation; insulat- water must be applied to penetrate the with many short, hard, pointed projec-
ing the soil against extreme cold in mulch layer; sheet mulches should have tions.
winter, whilst keeping it relatively cool irrigation lines installed beneath the
in summer; in some instances, encour- covers at the time of laying down. muriculate slightly muricate.
aging early soil warming in spring; In very cold conditions, the temper-
stimulating beneficial soil bacteria; ature immediately above a mulch tends Murraya (for John Andrew Murray
deterring some soil-inhabiting pests; to be lower than over bare soil; where (1740–1791), pupil of Linnaeus and
smothering weeds; keeping some fruits the temperature falls below freezing, Professor of Medicine and Botany at
and vegetables off the soil surface; pro- shoots and flowers, for example, of University of Gottingen). Rutaceae.
viding nutrients; and improving soil strawberries, should be protected with Asia (India and China south to Aus-
structure. additional straw, bracken or a cloche. tralia). 5 species, aromatic evergreen
Mulches usually consist of bulky Hoeing provides some of the insu- trees and shrubs with pinnate leaves
organic materials, such as rotted lating benefits of mulching, but only if and fragrant, orange blossom-like flow-
animal manure, chopped straw, spent it is done to a shallow depth. ers in spring and summer. Grown in
mushroom compost, spent brewery their native regions as border speci-
hops, leafmoulds, chipped bark and mule a sterile hybrid of two plant mens, as screens or as hedging, in cool
garden compost. Lawn mowings can species. temperate climates Murraya species are
be used provided they do not form too handsome specimens for tubs or large
dense a layer, as can chopped bracken. mull a type of humus consisting of a pots in the greenhouse or conservatory.
Unless incorporated into the surface dark-coloured mixture of mineral and Young plants of M.paniculata are also
layer, decaying organic mulches have organic material, found in the surface used as houseplants. Plant in a fertile,
little depleting effect on soil nitrogen. layer of soil, typically on a forest floor moisture-retentive but well-drained
Certain types, such as farmyard where decomposition and incorportion medium in full sun or part shade.
manure and garden compost, may be a of organic matter occurs freely; cf. mor. Water plentifully and feed fortnightly
source of weeds if they have not been when in full growth, moderately at
prepared or stored carefully. Some multifid as bifid, but cleft more than other times. Maintain a winter mini-
spent mushroom compost offered for once, forming many lobes. mum of 10°C/50°F. Prune if neces-
sale may include lime, which will sary in early spring. Propagate by seed
adversely affect pH where ericaceous multifoliate many-leaved. in spring or by semi-ripe cuttings.
524 plants are grown. Assurance should be M.koenigii (CURRY LEAF; Asia; ever-
obtained that straw for mulching does multigeneric describing hybrids green tree, 4.5–6m (143/4–20ft); leaves
Musa
pungently aromatic, leaflets 2.5–4cm home. Careful note should be taken of inflorescence pendulous, bracts bright
(1–11/2in), oblong-lanceolate to ovate, eventual size when buying, although red to purple or yellow; fruit to 20cm
membranous; flowers white to ivory; some ‘dwarf ’ selections of M.acuminata (8in), yellow, pulp white to yellow;
fruit dark blue tinged black); M.panicu- and M.x paradisiaca are now widely includes the BLOOD BANANA, M.suma-
lata (ORANGE JESSAMINE, SATIN-WOOD, offered as houseplants and seldom trana, with leaves blotched wine red
COSMETIC BARK TREE, CHINESE BOX; make the home uninhabitable. With above, stained red beneath – colouring
China and India south to Australia; the exception of M.basjoo, those strong and persistent in ‘Rubra’);
evergreen tree or shrub, 4.5–7.5m described here need a minimum tem- M.basjoo (syn. M.japonica; JAPANESE
(143/4–241/2ft); evergreen; leaves perature of 10°C/50°F, but are largely BANANA; Japan, Ryukyu Islands; to 3m
glabrous and glossy, leaflets 2.5–4cm unfussy as to light and humidity, pro- (10ft), stoloniferous; pseudostem green
(1–11/2in), cuneate-obovate to rhombic; vided they are grown in a moist and to red-tinted; leaves 2 x 0.7m (61/2ft x
flowers white; fruit orange to red). richly fertile medium. Water and feed 28in), oblong-lanceolate, bright green,
generously when in growth. Remove midrib sometimes red-tinted; inflores-
Musa (from Arabic mouz, banana, or the blades of faded leaves and cut out cence horizontal to pendulous, bracts
for Antonius Musa, physician to the flowered growths once they begin to yellow-green or tinged purple-brown;
Emperor Augustus). Musaceae. Old deteriorate. The Japanese M.basjoo is fruit to 6 x 2.5cm (21/2 x 1in), yellow-
World tropics and subtropics, east to virtually hardy in sheltered areas of green with white pulp; ‘Variegata’:
Japan, south to Queensland. BANANA, zone 7 and can certainly be used as a leaves banded or flecked lime green,
PLANTAIN, MANILA HEMP. About 40 dot plant in bedding schemes or as a cream and white); M.coccinea (syn.
species, giant, evergreen perennial patio container plant. Overwinter it in M.uranoscopus; Indochina; pseudostem
herbs with thickened rhizomes and a cold greenhouse with leaves removed to 1m (31/4ft), glossy red-green; leaves to
swollen and suckering rootstocks. The and the rootstock wrapped in scarcely 75 x 30cm (30 x 12in), oval to elliptic,
leaves are large and paddle-shaped damp burlap or plunged in coir or saw- glossy above, somewhat waxy beneath,
with a distinct, sunken midrib. The dust. If grown outdoors year round, midrib green to rose-pink; inflores-
sappy and fibrous petiole bases stand this banana should be sited with pro- cence to 0.75m (30in), erect, bracts
one within the other, forming a trunk- tection from wind which quickly shreds magenta to scarlet; fruit oblong to
like pseudostem. The inflorescence is
a terminal spike, pendulous or erect,
with tubular flowers in clusters sub-
the leaves. Wrap the stem with sacking
in autumn and mulch the base thickly.
Where the stems are killed by frost,
cylindric, to 5 x 2.5cm (2 x 1in), red-
purple to pink-green); M. x paradisiaca
(EDIBLE BANANA, FRENCH PLANTAIN;
M
tended by large and fleshy to waxy, replacement shoots will usually appear M.acuminata x M.balbisiana; Tropics; to
coloured bracts. The fruit is the by early summer. Propagate all species 8m (26ft); leaves to 2.5 x 0.7m (8ft x
banana, most familiarly finger-like and by seed germinated in spring at 28in), oblong, green; infloresence pen-
gently curving, but globose to ellipsoid 20°C/68°F, or by removing suckers dulous, to 1.5m (5ft), bracts purple-red;
in some species. After flowering/fruit- with a portion of root-bearing rhizome fruit usually seedless, often yellow, pulp
ing, the main growth dies, but is soon attached. See also Ensete. white; there may be as many as 300
replaced by offests. M.acuminata (syn. M.cavendishii; cultivars of edible banana worldwide;
Magnificent and fast-growing foliage BANANA, PLANTAIN; SE Asia, N Queens- two ornamental cultivars are ‘Koae’,
and flowering ornamentals for tropical land; pseudostems to 7m (23ft) or with leaves laterally striped white and
and subtropical gardens and, in cooler more, green blotched brown; leaves to pale green on dark green, and ‘Vittata’
climates, for large containers or bor- 3 x 0.7m (10ft x 28in), sometimes dark- with leaves variegated pale green and
ders in the greenhouse, conservatory or flecked above, green or purple beneath;
P ROPAGATING MUSA BASJOO FROM SUCKERS

fungicidal
powder
fibrous roots plant at the
intact same depth
as before
1 Clear away soil to expose the sucker’s

point of origin, and cut it cleanly away
with its portion of root.
2 Fill in the soil around the parent plant.
Dust the cut surface of the sucker’s root
with a fungicide to ward off rots.
3 Pot the sucker in a container just larger
than the root system, water, and grow it
on in a warm, shaded place.
525
Musa
white, the midrib white, edged red). For W Turkey; raceme loose, fertile only profitable process for converting
M.ensete, see Ensete ventricosum; for flowers 8–12mm (3/8–1/2in), fragrant, waste lignocellulose from agriculture
M.superba, see Ensete superbum. oblong-urceolate, blue-violet then and forestry into a useful, edible
yellow, expanding to form brown or product. Mushrooms cultivated on
Muscari (from Greek moschos, musk, yellow corona, sterile flowers tinged a significant scale worldwide are Agari-
alluding to the scent of some species). purple, few or none); M.massayanum cus bisporus and A.bitorquis, SHIITAKE
Liliaceae (Hyacinthaceae). Mediter- (E Turkey; raceme dense, cylindric, MUSHROOM (Lentinus edodes), CHINESE
ranean, SW Asia. GRAPE HYACINTH. 30 fertile flowers to 1cm (1/2in), pink to or STRAW MUSHROOM (Volvariella
species, bulbous perennial herbs with violet at first, later pale green- or volvaceae), WINTER MUSHROOM (Flam-
slender, rather fleshy leaves and erect yellow-blue, lobes dark brown, sterile mulina velutipes), OYSTER MUSHROOM
spikes packed with small, bell- to urn- flowers pink or violet on ascending (Pleurotus species), NAMEKO or VISCID
shaped flowers in spring. Hardy in pedicels, forming a dense tuft); M.mus- MUSHROOM (Pholiota nameko), JEW’S
climate zone 7. Plant in full sun on a carimi (syn. M.moschatum; SW Turkey; EAR (Auricularia species) and SNOW
free-draining soil. Top-dress established flowers muskily scented, fertile flowers MUSHROOM (Tremella fuciformis).
clumps with bonemeal in spring; lift 8–14mm (3/8–1/2in), narrowly urceolate, Agaricus accounts for two thirds of
and divide when overcrowded, incor- purple then pale green to ivory, strongly the world production of cultivated
porating fresh top soil before replant- contracted then expanded to form a fungi; it dominates production in the
ing. Propagate by offsets after flowering brown corona, sterile flowers purple- west and is the only species of signifi-
or by seed sown when ripe. tinged, rarely present); M.neglectum cance cultivated in the British Isles.
M.armeniacum (SE Europe to Cauca- (syn. M.racemosum; COMMON GRAPE Agaricus bisporus is cultivated on sub-
sus; raceme 2.5–7.5cm (1–3in), flowers HYACINTH; Europe, N Africa, SW Asia; strates prepared from cereal straw,
crowded, fertile flowers 3.5–5.5mm raceme dense in flower; fertile flowers preferably wheat. In the first phase of
(1/8–1/4in), obovoid to urceolate, azure, 1.5–3.5mm (1/16–1/8in), ovoid to oblong- preparation, straw or strawy horse
sometimes flushed purple, rarely white, urceolate, strongly constricted, deep manure is wetted and mixed with acti-
lobes paler or white, sterile flowers few, blue-black, lobes white, sterile flowers vators, such as chicken manure or
M smaller and paler; includes white-, pale

blue- and white-rimmed cultivars);
M.aucheri (syn. M.tubergenianum; Turkey;
smaller and paler blue). For M.para-
doxum, see Bellevalia pycnantha.
molassed malt waste; these provide a
source of nitrogen and soluble carbo-
hydrate to promote microbial break-
raceme dense, ovoid or cylindric, fertile muscariform in the shape of a down of the substrate when stacked.
flowers 3–5mm (1/8–1/4in), subspherical broom or brush. Fermentation develops and the stack is
or ovoid, bright azure, rarely white, turned at intervals of 2–4 days over a
lobes paler or white, sterile flowers mushroom compost spent com- period of 7–14 days to maintain aera-
paler); M.azureum (E Turkey; raceme post from commercial mushroom pro- tion and ensure uniformity. In the
1.5–3cm (5/8–11/4in), dense, fertile flow- duction, used as a soil improver, a second phase, the fermenting compost
ers 4–5mm (1/8–1/4in), campanulate, mulch, or an ingredient of potting is transferred to a facility in which it is
bright blue with a darker stripe on media. It is the product of composting pasteurized at 55–60°C/131–140°F
the lobes, sterile flowers smaller and straw with horse manure or nitroge- over a period of 4–8 days in a process
paler; includes white- and pale blue- nous ferilizers, and, depending on the known as ‘peak heating’. At the end of
flowered cultivars); M.botryoides (C and type of casing ingredients used for this period, the compost is cooled at
SE Europe; raceme dense then loose spawning mushrooms, may be alkaline 25°C/77°F and inoculated with a pure
and cylindric, fertile flowers 2.5–5mm in nature; hence, regular applications culture of Agaricus mycelium (spawn)
(1/8–1/4in), subspherical, scented, azure can alter soil pH. Where incorporated, grown on cereal grain. The spawned
or white, lobes white; includes white, it improves soil structure, provides compost is maintained at 25°C/77°F
bright blue and pink cultivars); M.como- some nutrients and can enhance nutri- for 10–14 days during which it is
sum (TASSEL HYACINTH; S and C Europe, ent and water retention. Its physical colonized by the fungal mycelium
N Africa, SW Asia, naturalized Europe; properties are determined by age: for (spawn-running). The upper surface
raceme loose, fertile flowers 5–9mm example, with decomposition, aeration of the colonized compost is then
(1/4–3/8in), oblong-urceolate, brown- decreases and moisture-holding covered with a layer of peat/chalk
olive, lobes yellow-brown, sterile flow- increases. (casing) and the temperature lowered
ers subspherical or obovoid, rarely to 16–18°C/61–64°F. The mycelium
tubular, bright violet on violet, ascend- mushrooms Edible fungi have been continues to colonize the compost and
ing pedicels; includes ‘Plumosum’, syn. collected from the wild since ancient also invades the casing layer. After
‘Monstrosum’, with a sterile, mauve- times but few species are in cultivation 18–21 days, fruit bodies are initiated
blue, densely branched inflorescence); due to the complex microbial processes (pinning) and these develop into the
M.latifolium (S and W Asia; raceme and associations involved in their typical gilled caps. The crop is produced
dense then loose, fertile flowers 5–6mm growth, and to the difficulties involved in flushes at intervals of 7–10 days over
(1/4in), oblong-urceolate, tube strongly in preparing substrates on which they a period of 30–35 days. Production is
526 constricted, deep violet, sterile flowers will establish and fruit. Mushroom cul- then terminated by heating to at least
blue); M.macrocarpum (Aegean Islands, tivation is unique in that it provides the 60°C/140°F with live steam (cooking
Mutisia
out), the spent compost removed and M.erythrophylla (Tropical Africa; erect or altered phenotype with characteristics
the facility cleaned in preparation for climbing, evergreen or deciduous shrub such as leaf variegation and colour
the start of the next cycle. The produc- to 8m (26ft); flowers in dense panicles change or distribution in flowers. A
tion cycle takes 12–14 weeks. or cymes, pink to red and white to mutation may occur by chance or be
Commercial crops may be cultivated yellow, many with an enlarged calyx induced by chemicals, radiation or
in purpose-built sheds, in insulated lobe to 10cm (4in) long, oval and, typi- the activity of viruses. Many mutations
‘tunnels’ covered with plastic film, or cally, scarlet; includes ‘Queen Sirikit’, are perpetuated as desirable forms in
in caves. The substrate may be con- with deep pink to ivory inflorescences). gardens. A plant arising from such a
tained and the crop produced in ridged change is known as a mutant, sport or
beds on the floor, in tiered wooden break.
trays, on metal shelves, in deep troughs
or in open-topped plastic bags. The muticous blunt, unpointed.
processes involved in preparation and
handling of compost, filling of trays Mutisia (for José Celestino Mutis
and shelves, spawning, casing, watering of Cadiz (1732–1808), teacher of
and clearance of the used compost are anatomy and student of South Ameri-
all highly mechanized. can plants). Compositae. S America.
Cultivation requires accurate control About 60 species, evergreen subshrubs
of the environment and particularly of or shrubs, many of them sprawling or
temperature, CO2 level, ventilation rate twining, often with tendril-tipped
and evaporative capacity of the air at leaves. Brightly coloured daisy-like
different stages in the production cycle. flowerheads are produced in late spring
It is therefore difficult for private gar- White mustard (Sinapis alba) and summer. Given the protection of a
deners to prepare composts on which Mustard is either harvested very young for south-facing wall and good drainage,
mushrooms can be successfully grown, salad leaves, or allowed to flower in order to M.oligodon will tolerate temperatures to
but there are mushroom-growing kits
available, consisting of prepared com-
post already spawned, together with a
obtain its seeds.
mustard, white (Sinapis alba) a cru-

about –15°C/5°F and M.decurrens to
about –10°C/14°F. Grow in deep,
well-drained, moderately fertile soils,
M
bag of casing material. The packaging ciferous annual, native of the Mediter- with shade at the roots but where top
may be a plastic bag, a water-resistant ranean region, C Asia, and N Africa. growth will receive full sun; a large
cardboard or rigid plastic box, or a Of horticultural importance as a salad rock or deep organic mulch placed
rigid plastic tub, which doubles as a plant and for green manuring, it is also over the roots will provide the neces-
growing container. The purchaser grown for its seed, which is an ingredi- sary protection and help conserve
simply follows the instructions ent of table mustard and curries, and moisture when in growth. Provide sup-
enclosed. as a fodder crop. Mustard is often port by means of wire or trellis, or
Possible problems: eelworms, sciarid grown with common garden cress (Lep- plant at the foot of a wall shrub in a
flies; virus, bacteria. idium sativum) for harvesting as dense sheltered, sunny position. Under glass,
young seedlings with elongated stems water moderately when in growth,
Mussaenda (from the Sri Lankan about 4–5cm (11/2–2in) high. It should and maintain good ventilation with
name). Rubiaceae. Tropical Old World. be sown indoors two days later than a minimum winter temperature of
Some 100 species, shrubs, subshrubs cress for even development of the two, 7–10°C/45–50°F. Prune to remove
and herbs, often scandent. They bear either on a soilless medium like blotting weak and overcrowded growth after
5-lobed, tubular to funnel-shaped flow- paper or any other moisture-retentive flowering or in spring in cool climates.
ers in axillary or terminal, panicles or substrate. Mustard is milder in flavour Propagate by stem cuttings in summer,
cymes. With some flowers in each than cress and is sometimes substituted by simple layering, or by removal of
inflorescence, a calyx lobe is greatly with rape (Brassica napus subsp. oleifera). rooted suckers; increase also by seed
enlarged as a highly coloured, leaf-like White mustard can also be grown as in spring.
limb. Grow in the hot greenhouse a cut-and-come again salad vegetable, M.decurrens (Chile, Argentina; much-
(ensure a minimum temperature of either sown in seed trays under protec- branched, rhizomatous subshrub to 2m
15–18°C/60–65°F), in direct sunlight, tion or broadcast or in drills out-of- (61/2ft); leaves to 10cm (4in), lanceolate,
in a pH neutral mix of equal parts doors, especially in spring and autumn. with a long tendril at the apex and
loam, coir and leafmould with added Other vegetable crops known as mus- decurrent base, margins entire or
sharp sand. Water plentifully when in tards are SPINACH MUSTARD (Brassica sharp-toothed; flowerheads to 12cm
growth, sparingly in winter. Provide rapa Perviridis Group) and MUSTARD (43/4in) in diameter, brilliant orange);
support for climbing specimens, and CABBAGE (Brassica juncea) see oriental M.oligodon (S Chile, S Argentina;
thin out crowded stems or prune to a greens. straggling shrub or liane to 1m (31/4ft);
framework in spring. Propagate by leaves to 3.5cm (11/2in), oblong to ellip-
semi-ripe cuttings or air layering in mutation a spontaneous or induced tic, apex acute or obtuse and sparsely 527
summer, alternatively by seed in spring. genetic change in a plant leading to an toothed, sometimes terminating in a
Mutisia
tendril, base cordate; flowerheads to perennial or biennial herb to 1m (31/4ft) flowering of annual/biennial species.
7cm (23/4in) in diameter, bright red). tall with long-stalked, thinly fleshy, Myosotis smut shows as off-white spots
reniform to broadly ovate or ovate- on the leaves, and often occurs on
mycelium typically, the vegetative cordate leaves to 30cm (12in) in plants allowed to self-sow.
body of a fungus made up of a mass diameter and glossy above with deeply M.alpestris (Europe, Asia, N America;
of microscopic filamentous branches, impressed veins. In summer, it pro- tufted perennial to 30cm (12in); flowers
known as hyphae. duces broad, stalked heads of large, bright or deep blue, to 9mm (3/8in) in
dark to sky blue forget-me-not flowers. diameter); M.australis (Australia, Tasma-
mycology the study of fungi. Hardy in climate zone 7. In gardens nia, New Zealand; perennial to 30cm
with cool summers and little frost, it is (12in); corolla white or yellow); M.caespi-
mycoplasmas (MLOs) see phytoplas- suitable for the front of borders or the tosa (Europe, Asia, N Africa, N Amer-
mas. rock garden. Where hard frosts occur, ica; perennial to 60cm (24in), sparingly
protect with evergreen branches or dry covered with white hairs; flowers blue
mycorrhiza a symbiotic association bracken litter, otherwise grow in the to 4mm (1/8in) in diameter); M.laxa
between the root cells of a plant and cold greenhouse. Plant in a cool posi- (Europe, N America; annual
fungal mycelium, whereby the absorption in semi-shade, sheltered from to perennial; stem to 50cm (20in),
tion of nutrients is enhanced to the wind, in free-draining, humus-rich decumbent, adpressed-pubescent;
benefit of both organisms. The rela- soils. Propagate from seed sown ripe flowers bright blue with a yellow eye,
tionship is common in plants such as in autumn or by careful division. to 5mm (1/4in) in diameter); M.scorpioides
orchids, trees and heaths. (syn. M.palustris; FORGET-ME-NOT;
Myosotis (from Greek mys, mouse, Europe; perennial; stem to 50cm (20in),
Myoporum (from Greek myo, to and ous, ear, referring to the appear- angled, mostly glabrous; flowers bright
close, and Latin porum, a pore, due to ance of the leaves). Boraginaceae. blue, with white, yellow or pink eye, to
the densely glandular-punctate leaves). Temperate distribution, mainly Europe, 8mm (3/8in) in diameter; includes ‘Sap-
Myoporaceae. Australia and New New Zealand. FORGET-ME-NOT, SCOR- phire’, with bright blue flowers, ‘Sem-
M Zealand to E Asia and Mauritius.

About 30 species, glandular-punctate
evergreen trees and shrubs, often
PION GRASS. Some 50 species, hairy
annual, biennial or perennial herbs.
They bear small, rotate or salverform
perflorens’, of dwarf habit, to 20cm
(8in), and ‘Thuringen’, with sky blue
flowers); M.sylvatica (GARDEN FORGET-
shrubby and heath-like. Small, 5-lobed flowers with five rounded lobes and ME-NOT; N Africa, Europe, W Asia;
and campanulate to hypocrateriform distinct faucal scales (the ‘eye’) at vari- biennial to perennial; stem to 50cm
flowers are borne singly or in clusters ous times of year and usually in paired (20in), hairy; flowers bright blue, purple
in summer and are followed by colour- cymes. M.sylvatica and M.alpestris occur or white-blue, varying to pink, with a
ful drupes. In frost-free, Mediter- in damp woodland and meadow. Their yellow eye to 8mm (3/8in) in diameter;
ranean-type climates, grow Myoporum many cultivars are grown as hardy cultivars include ‘Blue Ball’, small and
species in the rockery or on sunny annuals or biennials (tolerating winter compact, with rich indigo flowers; ‘Blue
banks; they thrive in dry soils and mar- temperatures of at least –15°C/5°F); Bird’, tall, with deep blue flowers;
itime conditions. In colder zones, grow these are available as compact dwarf ‘Carmine King’, erect, with rosy
in a sandy loam-based mix in the cool, cultivars, such as ‘Ultramarine’, with carmine flowers; ‘Compacta’, dense
well-ventilated greenhouse or conserva- deep indigo blue flowers, ‘White Ball’, and low; ‘Royal Blue’, tall, early-flower-
tory. Propagate by simple layers, by compact with white blooms, and the ing, with abundant, indigo flowers;
semi-ripe cuttings or by seed. taller rose-pink flowered ‘Rose’. Tradi- ‘Robusta Grandiflora’, vigorous, with
M.laetum (New Zealand; tree to 10m tionally used in spring bedding and as large flowers; ‘Rosea’, tall, with soft
(33ft); leaves 4–10cm (11/2–4in), lanceo- border edging, they are also suited to pink flowers; and ‘White Ball’, small
late to obovate, somewhat fleshy, cre- window boxes and to pot cultivation and compact, with large, white flowers).
nate to sinuate; flowers to 1cm (1/2in) in the cold greenhouse for winter and
in diameter, campanulate, white early spring blooms. They will self- Myriophyllum (from Greek myrios,
with purple spots; fruit pale to dark seed. M.scorpioides and M.laxa, found many, and phyllon, leaf, referring to the
maroon); M.parvifolium (Australia; low, in wet habitats at water margins and much-divided leaves). Haloragidaceae.
spreading, glabrous shrub to 50cm in marshy ground, are suited to pond Cosmopolitan. MILFOIL. Some 45
(20in); leaves 1–2.5cm (1/2–1in), linear; edge and other damp sites, in mud or species, aquatic or terrestrial herbs
flowers honey-scented, to 1cm (1/2in) very shallow water, especially in wilder (those listed here are perennial aquatics
wide, white). areas of the garden. M.australis occurs with slender, floating to emergent stems
at higher altitudes in exposed, moist clothed with many whorled leaves,
Myosotidium (from Myosotis and and rocky habitats. Grow it in gritty, entire or slightly dentate when emer-
Greek oides, resembling – the flowers moderately fertile and perfectly drain- gent, usually finely pinnatifid when
resemble those of Myosotis). Boragi- ing soils in sun or in light, partial shade submerged). Inconspicuous flower
naceae. New Zealand (Chatham – scree plantings, for example. Propa- spikes are produced in summer. Useful
528 Islands). 1 species, M.hortensia, the gate by seed or division in early spring. oxygenators for freshwater pools and
CHATHAM ISLANDS FORGET-ME-NOT, a Powdery mildew may seriously reduce aquaria, as well as providing fish with
Myrtus
shelter. M.verticillatum will survive in by careful division, or by root cuttings, Myrtus (Greek name for this plant).
ponds where winter temperatures fall in spring or autumn. Myrtaceae. Mediterranean, N Africa.
as low as –15°C/5°F; M.aquaticum and 2 species, aromatic, evergreen shrubs
M.hippuroides will not tolerate tempera- Myrsine (name given by Dioscorides with neat, glossy leaves and, from
tures below freezing. Frost-tender to the myrtle, Myrtus communis). Myrsi- spring to summer, fragrant, solitary
species may be overwintered as rooted naceae. Azores to China and New flowers with four broad and spreading
pieces in a moist medium in a frost-free Zealand. 5 species, evergreen trees and petals and many showy stamens. In
greenhouse. Propagate by stem cuttings shrubs with leathery, aromatic leaves, mild areas of zones 7 and over,
rooted directly into the growing inconspicuous flowers and, where M.communis is grown as specimen and
medium or by division. plants of both sexes are present, small sometimes for hedging. In colder areas,
M.aquaticum (PARROT FEATHER, DIA- drupes. Myrsine species are grown for it tends to be grown as a standard or
MOND MILFOIL; S America, Australia, their often aromatic foliage and attrac- pyramid in containers and moved into
New Zealand, Java; stem to 2m (61/2ft); tive fruits. In warm Mediterranean- the cold greenhouse for the winter
leaves more or less uniform, in whorls type climates, they are sometimes used months. Given shelter from harsh
of 4 or 5, to 4cm (11/2in), pinnatifid, as hedging and as specimens for the winds and good drainage, it will, how-
segments short, bright yellow-green or shrub border. Given good drainage and ever, tolerate mild frosts; the smaller-
blue-green); M.hippuroides (WESTERN shelter from cold drying winds, the aro- leaved cultivars are hardier still. Grow
MILFOIL; SW US; stem to 60cm (24in); matic M.africana may tolerate several in full sun in a moderately fertile, well-
leaves in whorls of 4 or 5, pale green, degrees of short-lived frost and is suit- drained soil. In pots, use a free-drain-
emergent leaves linear to lanceolate, able for the sunny rock garden; in ing, medium-fertility, loam-based mix.
entire to serrate, submerged leaves to cooler zones, young plants are grown Under glass, water moderately when in
2cm (3/4in)); M.verticillatum (MYRIAD as houseplants. Grow in full sun or part growth; keep just moist in winter, and
LEAF; N America, Europe, Asia; stem shade in any fertile, well-drained, cir- at a temperature of around 5°C/41°F.
to 1m (31/4ft); emergent leaves to 1cm cumneutral soil. Propagate by seed or Prune during spring to maintain size
(1/2in), pectinate to pinnatifid, sub- semi-ripe cuttings. M.africana (CAPE and shape, and to remove any dam-
merged leaves to 4 x 4cm (11/2 x 11/2in),
in whorls of 4–6, with 8–16 pairs of
opposite segments).
MYRTLE, AFRICAN BOXWOOD; Azores,
mountains of E and South Africa,
Himalaya, China; shrub 0.5–1.5m
aged growth. Semi-ripe nodal cuttings
will root in a frame or a case with
bottom heat.
M
(20in–5ft), young shoots softly hairy; M.communis (MYRTLE; Mediterranean
myrmecophytes, leaves 0.6–2cm (1/4–3/4in), narrowly obo- and SW Europe, widely cultivated
myrmecophilous plants plants vate to elliptic, apex rounded or trun- since ancient times, native range uncer-
that live in symbiosis with ants, form- cate, sparsely toothed; flowers pale tain; much-branched erect shrub to 5m
ing hollow structures in which the brown, 3–6 per cluster; fruit 6mm (16ft); leaves to 5cm (2in), ovate to
insects nest in exchange for benefits, (1/4in) in diameter, blue-lilac). lanceolate, coriaceous, lustrous green,
such as carbon dioxide enrichment aromatic; flowers white to ivory or
and protection from predators and Myrtillocactus (so-named because pink-white, to 3cm (11/4in) in diameter,
competition by other plants. Examples Vaccinium myrtillus has similar-looking fragrant; fruit to 1cm (1/2in), blue-black
include, Myrmecodia, Lecanopteris, Dis- fruits). Cactaceae. Mexico, Guatemala. or red-black to dark purple-red: ‘Albo-
chidia and Cecropia. 4 closely related species of arborescent carpa’: fruit white; ‘Buxifolia’: leaves
or shrubby cacti with numerous, ascend- neat, box-like; ‘Compacta’: dwarf,
Myrrhis (name used by Dioscorides.) ing, few-ribbed and spiny branches. The dense; ‘Flore Pleno’: flowers double,
Umbelliferae. Europe. 1 species, flowers are small and rotate, the fruit white; ‘Leucocarpa’: fruit white;
M.odorata, SWEET CICELY, an aromatic, small, edible and berry-like. Plant in a ‘Microphylla’: dwarf and densely leafy,
perennial herb to 2m (61/2ft) with bipin- circumneutral compost high in grit, with with very small and narrow leaves;
nate leaves, the segments 1cm (1/2in), a minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F. ‘Microphylla Variegata’: leaves striped
oblong to lanceolate, pinnatifid or Shade in hot weather and maintain low white; ‘Minima’: dwarf, with small
deeply toothed, pale beneath and often humidity; keep dry from mid-autumn leaves; ‘Variegata’: small, leaves with
blotched white. Small, white flowers until early spring, except for light mist- white to cream margins or blotches;
are carried in compound umbels in ing on warmer days during late winter. var. italica: narrowly upright, with 3 x
early summer. In the herb garden, it is M.geometrizans (C and S Mexico; tree 1cm (11/4 x 1/2in), oval to lanceolate
valued for its culinary and medicinal 4–5m (13–16ft), with short trunk; leaves; var. latifolia: leaves 2–3
virtues. It is also well-suited to natural- branches numerous, upcurving, 6–10cm (3/4–11/4in) x 1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in), oval to
izing in woodland walks and for plant- (21/2–4in) in diameter, blue-green, ribs oblong, acuminate; var. romana: leaves
ings in the shrub border. If cut back 5–6, central spine, 1, 1–7cm (1/2–23/4in), 3–4.5 (11/4–13/4in) x 1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in),
periodically in the herbaceous border, dagger-like, almost black, radial spines broadly ovate, strongly acuminate, light
the fresh green foliage makes an 5–9, 2–10mm (1/16–1/2in), red-brown then green, in whorls of 3–4; subsp. tarentina:
admirable foil for other plants. It is grey; flowers to 2 x 2.5cm (3/4 x 1in), compact, rounded habit, with small,
hardy to at least –15°C/5°F and self- creamy white; fruit 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in) in narrow, dark leaves, pink-tinted, cream 529
seeds freely. Propagate from ripe seed, diameter, dark red or purple). flowers, and white fruit).
NAA
N
fell in love with his own reflection in a grass areas, which must be mown only
pool and was turned into a lily by the after leaves of the bulbous species have
gods). Amaryllidaceae. DAFFODIL. S died down; where wild flowers are also
Europe and Mediterranean; also N established in grass, mowing should be
Africa, W Asia, China and Japan. left until late summer to allow seed
About 50 species, bulbous perennial ripening. Many plants, including
herbs with grassy to strap-shaped Cyclamen, Galanthus, hellebores and
leaves. The flowers of Narcissus are ferns, are well-suited to naturalizing in
characteristically yellow or white, woodland areas, and spring-flowering
sometimes fragrant, and solitary or bulbs established around the base of
in an umbel borne on a leafless scape. deep-rooted and lightly-shaded trees
The perianth is tubular at the base, can be attractive.
NAA 2-(1-napthyl) acetic acid; an with 6 segments and a conspicuous
auxin used in synthesized form as an corona in the form of a trumpet or Nautilocalyx (from Greek nautilos,
aid to rooting cuttings, usually blended a smaller ring or cup. For cultivation sailor, and calyx, probably referring to
with IBA in powder form. NAA is see daffodils. (See table opposite.) the boat-shaped floral bracts).
considered to be especially useful in Gesneriaceae. Tropical America.
the rooting of large flowered hybrid nastic movements growth About 38 species, perennial evergreen
rhododendrons. NAA is also used in movements in plants that take place in herbs and subshrubs with fleshy stems,
preparations available for the control of response to an environmental stimulus. elliptic to lanceolate, toothed leaves
suckers or water shoots in raspberries Unlike tropism, the direction of growth and solitary or cymose axillary flowers.
and pome and stone fruits. is not influenced by the location of the These are tubular with a limb of five
stimulus. For example, the opening and lobes. Provide a minimum temperature
Nandina (from Japanese name, closing of some flowers, induced by of 15°C/59°F, with moderate to high
nandin). Berberidaceae. HEAVENLY changes in light or temperature. humidity and light shade. Pot in a
BAMBOO. India to Japan. 1 species, sandy soilless mixture. Keep moist
N.domestica, a semi-deciduous or National Growmore see Growmore. when in growth, but almost dry when
N evergreen shrub to 2m (61/2ft) with erect

and clumped, slender stems. The leaves
are bipinnate to tripinnate, to 90cm
at rest during the cooler, duller times of
year. Increase by stem cuttings in
summer.
(36in) long and held semi-erect or N.bullatus (Peru; to 6m (20ft); leaves
horizontal. They are composed of bullate, purple beneath; flowers downy,
elliptic to rhombic leaflets to 7cm pale yellow); N.lynchii (Colombia; to
(23/4in) long. Smooth and thinly 60cm (24in), erect; leaves flushed dark
leathery, these emerge slightly glaucous purple or red-brown, glossy; flowers
and lime green tinted rose, harden pale yellow, exterior covered with red
to sap-green and turn bright red to hairs, interior flecked purple).
purple in autumn. Small, white flowers
are borne in terminal panicles in navicular, naviculate shaped like
summer and followed by red berries. the keel of a boat.
Hardy in climate zone 6. Plant in a
humus-rich, moist but well-drained Naturalized Narcissus NCCPG The National Council for
soil, in a cool but sunny position, Daffodils are popular subjects for naturalizing the Conservation of Plants and Gar-
sheltered from cold winds. Remove in grass, which should be left unmown until dens. The NCCPG is a registered char-
damaged or exhausted shoots by the leaves of the bulbs have died down. ity in the UK, founded in 1978, which
cutting them right back to the base. is committed to encouraging the prop-
Propagate by single node cuttings, naturalizing the practice of agation and conservation of endan-
taken in mid-summer and rooted in a introducing plants into a setting where gered garden plants in the British Isles
closed case with bottom heat in a they give the appearance of having and to relevant research. The organiza-
sandy mix. Seeds do not germinate established naturally. It may involve tion co-ordinates a network of plant
freely but may succeed if sown plants generally within their native collections maintained in public and
when ripe. habitat or exotic ones. private gardens, and further promotes
Naturalizing bulbs in grass is its objectives through, nationwide
nappe a smooth sheet of water falling effective in gardens, and randomly membership, publications and educa-
over a weir or cascade. planted drifts of daffodils are popular. tional events.
Crocuses, snakeshead fritillary
Narcissus (Greek name derived (Fritillaria meleagris), and Chionodoxa, neck used of the upper part of a
530 from narke, numbness, torpor, from its Scilla, and Leucojum, together with bulb, where the leaves and flower stem
narcotic properties: the youth Narcissus Dactylorhiza orchids, combine well in emerge.
Narcissus
N ARCISSUS
N.assoanus S France, 7–25cm to 20 x 0.2cm (8 x 1⁄16in), 2–3, to 2.2cm (3⁄4in) diam., horizontal or slightly
N.requienii, S & E Spain (23⁄4–10in) cylindric, spreading or prostrate, ascending, yellow, fragrant; perianth tube 1.2–1.8cm
N.juncifolius, N.pallens green, terete, smooth (1⁄2–3⁄4in), straight; segments obovate, 0.7–1 x 0.7cm
RUSH-LEAVED JONQUIL (1⁄4–1⁄2 x 1⁄4in) spreading to incurved, corona cup-
shaped, conical, 0.5 x 1.1–1.7cm (1⁄4 x 1⁄2–3⁄4in),
crenate, deeper yellow than segments
N.asturiensis N Portugal, 7–l4cm 8 x 0.6cm (3 x 1⁄4in), glaucous- solitary, to 3.5cm (11⁄2in) across, usually drooping, soft
N.minimus NW & NC (23⁄4–51⁄2in) green, spreading, channelled yellow; perianth tube to 0.8cm (3⁄8in), green-yellow;
Spain segments to 1.4 x 0.4cm (5⁄8 x 1⁄8in), usually twisted,
deflexed; corona 1.7cm (3⁄4in), widened below,
Comments: ‘Giant’: larger in all parts. constricted at middle, mouth spreading, fimbriate
N.broussonetii Morocco to 40cm 28 x 0.9cm (11 x 3⁄8in), glaucous, 1–8, ascending, white, to 3.5cm (11⁄2in) diam., fra-
(16in) erect grant; perianth tube to 2.8cm (11⁄8in), funnel-shaped,
white; segments 1.6 x 1.2cm (3⁄5–1⁄2in), spreading or
Comments: Autumn. incurved; corona rudimentary
N.bulbocodium W France, 2.5–20cm 10–30cm x 1–5mm (4–12 x solitary, horizontal, pale yellow to deep golden-yellow,
HOOP PETTICOAT Spain, (1–8in) 1
⁄16–1⁄4in), semi-cylindric, erect, often green-tinged, to 4.5cm (13⁄4in) diam.; perianth
DAFFODIL, PETTICOAT Portugal, ascending or prostrate, dark tube 0.6–2.5cm (1⁄4–1in), yellow, often tinged green,
DAFFODIL N Africa green especially below; segments much shorter than corona,
0.6–2cm x 0.5–5mm (1⁄4–3⁄4 x 1⁄64–1⁄4in), often tinged
Comments: var. bulbocodium: plants usually dwarf; flowers golden-yellow. var. green; corona funnel-shaped, 0.9–3.2 x 0.7–3.4cm
conspicuus: plant robust; flowers dark yellow to citron; var. citrinus: a name loosely (3⁄8–11⁄4 x 1⁄4–11⁄4in), yellow, margin of mouth
applied to large-flowered pale yellow plants. spreading or incurved, entire to dentate or crenate
N.cantabricus ascending or spreading, to
N
S Spain, 5–10cm solitary, ascending, to 40mm (11⁄2in) diam., pure- or
N.clusii Morocco, (2–4in) 15cm x 1mm (6 x 1⁄16in), milk-white, fragrant; perianth tube to 2.4 x 1.2cm (1 x
WHITE HOOP Algeria semi-cylindrical, slightly 1
⁄2in), funnel-shaped, white, green below; segments 1.2
PETTICOAT DAFFODIL channelled x 0.5cm (1⁄2 x 1⁄4in), white, virtually outspread; corona
to 1.5 x 4cm (5⁄8 x 11⁄2in) entire or crenate or undulate
N.cyclamineus NW Portugal, to 20cm 12–30cm x 4–6mm (43⁄4–12 x solitary, drooping or pendent, deep yellow; perianth
NW Spain (8in) 1
⁄8–1⁄4in), bright green, spreading, tube 2–3mm (1⁄16–1⁄8in), green; segments sharply
keeled reflexed, corona 2cm (3⁄4in), slightly constricted just
below flared margin, lobed or fimbriate
N.dubius S France, l5–25cm 50cm x 7mm (20 x 1⁄4in) at 2–6, ascending, white; perianth tube 1.6 x 0.2cm
SE Spain (6–10in) flowering, spreading, dark green, (3⁄5 x 1⁄16in), green below; segments 7 x 6mm (1⁄4 x
inner face flat, outer striate 1
⁄4in), spreading; corona 4 x 7mm (1⁄8 x 1⁄4in), cup-
shaped, crenate
N.elegans W & S Italy, 20cm 12–25cm x 3–5mm (43⁄4–10 x 2–7, horizontal, 2.5–3.5cm (1–11⁄2in) diam.,
Sicily, Corsica, (8in)+ 1
⁄8–1⁄4in), erect, glaucous, striate fragrant; perianth tube 1.6 x 0.2cm (3⁄5 x 1⁄16in),
Sardinia, on outer surface green; segments 1.5 x 0.3–0.7cm (5⁄8 x 1⁄8–1⁄4in),
Morocco to white, spreading, becoming twisted with age, corona
Comments: Autumn. Libya 1 x 2cm (1⁄2 x 3⁄4in), green, becoming dull orange
N.bulbocodium N.cantabricus N.cyclamineus N.jonquilla 531

Narcissus
N ARCISSUS
N.jonquilla S & C Spain, to 40cm erect to spreading, to 45 x 0.8cm 1–6, to 3cm (11⁄4in) diam., ascending; perianth tube
JONQUIL S&E (16in) (18 x 3⁄8in), channelled at base, to 3cm (11⁄4in), slightly curved, pale green, segments
Portugal, cylindric towards apex, striate, elliptic, to 1.3cm (1⁄2in), spreading, yellow; corona
naturalized green cup-shaped, 7–10 x 2–4mm (1⁄4–1⁄2 x 1⁄16–1⁄8in), yellow,
elsewhere margin shallowly lobed or somewhat crenate
N.minor Pyrenees, 14–20cm erect, 8–15 x 0.4–1cm (3–6 x solitary, to 3.7cm (11⁄2in) diam., horizontal or
N.nanus, N Spain (51⁄2–8in) 1
⁄8–1⁄2in), sage-green or glaucous, ascending; perianth tube 1–1.8cm (1⁄2–3⁄4in), yellow or
N.provincialis flat or channelled green-yellow; segments ovate-lanceolate, 1.5–2.2cm
(5⁄8–3⁄4in), somewhat twisted, drooping, yellow, often
with deeper median streak; corona 1.7 x 2.5cm (3⁄4 x
1in), plicate, dilated at mouth, margin frilled
N. x obvallaris garden origin to 20cm erect, 30cm (12in) long, glaucous solitary, 4cm (11⁄2in) diam., horizontal; perianth tube
TENBY DAFFODIL (8in) 1cm (1⁄2in), yellow with green stripes; segments to
3cm (11⁄4in), slightly twisted, yellow; corona to 3.5cm
(11⁄2in), margin dilated, 6-lobed, sometimes reflexed
N. x odorus garden to 40cm to 50 x 0.8cm (20 x 3⁄8in), 1–4, ascending, bright yellow, very fragrant,
N.calathinus, origin; (16in) strongly keeled, bright green perianth tube to 2cm (3⁄4in); segments to 2.5 x 1.3cm
N.campernellii: naturalized (1 x 1⁄2in); corona to 1.8 x 2cm (3⁄4 x 3⁄4in), lobed to
(N.jonquilla x S Europe more or less entire
N.pseudonarcissus)
CAMPERNELLE JONQUIL Comments: ‘Rugulosus’: larger than the typical plant. ‘Plenus’: flowers double.
N.papyraceus S Europe to 40cm to 30 x 1.7cm (12 x 3⁄4in), erect, 2–20, 2.5–4cm (1–11⁄2in), diam., ascending, fragrant;
N.tazetta ssp. papyraceus (16in)+ keeled, glaucous perianth tube to 1.5 x 0.3cm (5⁄8 x 1⁄8in), green below,
N PAPER-WHITE
NARCISSUS
white above, segments white, to 1.8cm (3⁄4in), ovate;
corona cup-shaped, 3–6 x 8–11mm (1⁄8–1⁄4 x 3⁄8–1⁄2in),
entire or slightly notched, white
Comments: Winter–spring. ssp. polyanthus: syn. N.polyanthus; flowers 3–12(–20), 2.5–4cm (1–11⁄2in) diam.; corona pale yellow when young,
becoming white.
N.poeticus France to 35–50cm to 45 x 0.6–1cm (18 x 1⁄4–1⁄2in), solitary, 4.5–7cm (13⁄4–23⁄4in) diam., horizontal to
N.ornatus Greece (14–20in) erect, channeled, green or ascending, fragrant; perianth tube cylindric, 2.5 x
POET’S NARCISSUS, somewhat glaucous 0.4cm (1 x 1⁄8in), green; segments suborbicular to
PHEASANT’S-EYE cuneate, to 3 x 2.2cm (11⁄4 x 3⁄4in), spreading white,
NARCISSUS Comments: Late spring. var. recurvus: PHEASANT’S EYE yellow at base; corona flat, to 2.5 x 14mm (1 x 1⁄2in),
NARCISSUS;
perianth segments strongly reflexed, pure white. yellow with red, frilled margin
N.pseudonarcissus W Europe 12–90cm 8–50 x 0.5–1.5cm (3–20 x usually solitary, occasionally 2–4, horizontal to
WILD DAFFODIL, LENT (43⁄4–36in) 1
⁄4–5⁄8in), erect, strap-shaped, dropping, fragrant; perianth tube 1.5–2.5cm (5⁄8–1in);
LILY, TRUMPET usually glaucous segments 1.8–4cm (3⁄4–11⁄2in), spreading, sometimes
NARCISSUS twisted, white to deep yellow; corona 1.5–4.5cm
(5⁄8–13⁄4in), white to deep yellow, subentire to 6-lobed
532 N.minor N. x odorus ‘Rugulosus’ N.poeticus N.pseudonarcissus

Narcissus
N ARCISSUS
N.romieuxii N Africa 10–20cm to 20 x 0.1cm (20 x 1⁄16in), solitary, 2.5–4cm (1–11⁄2in) diam., horizontal or
N.bulbocodium ssp. (4–8in) erect or spreading, dark ascending, yellow; perianth tube to 2.5cm (1in),
romieuxii green, weakly striate green at base, yellow above; segments to 1.3 x 0.4cm
(1⁄2 x 1⁄8in), spreading; corona 1.5 x 3cm (5⁄8 x 11⁄4in),
Comments: ssp. albidus: flowers white. margin 6-lobed and crenate, spreading to flattened
N.rupicola Spain, 14–23cm 18 x 0.3cm (7 x 1⁄8in), erect, solitary, to 3cm (11⁄4in) diam., ascending; perianth
N.juncifolius ssp. Portugal (51⁄2–9in) 2-keeled, glaucous tube 2.2cm (3⁄4in), green or green-yellow; segments to
rupicola 1.5 x 1.1cm (5⁄8 x 1⁄2in), spreading, yellow; corona 3–5
x 6–18mm (1⁄8–1⁄4 x 1⁄4–3⁄4in), conic or reflexed, deeply
Comments: ssp. watieri : syn. N.watieri: flowers white. 6-lobed to crenate or subentire, yellow
N.serotinus Mediterranean 13–30cm 10–20 x 0.1–0.5cm (4–8 x solitary or occasionally 2–3, to 3.4cm (11⁄4in) diam.,
(5–12in) 1
⁄16–1⁄4in), erect or spreading, ascending, fragrant; perianth tube to 2cm (3⁄4in),
dark green, sometimes with dark green; segments oblong-lanceolate, to 1.6 x
longitudinal white stripes 0.7cm (3⁄5 x 1⁄4in), spreading or recurved, twisted,
white; corona minute, to 1.5 x 4mm (5⁄8 x 1⁄8in), 6-
Comments: Autumn. lobed, dark yellow to orange
N.tazetta S Portugal, 20–45cm 20–50 x 0.5–2.5cm (8–20 x 1–15, 4cm (11⁄2in) diam., horizontal, fragrant;
BUNCH-FLOWERED Mediterranean, (8–18in) 1
⁄4–1in), erect twisted, keeled, perianth tube cylindric, 2cm (3⁄4in), pale green;
NARCISSUS, east to Iran, glaucous segments broad-ovate, 0.8–2.2cm (3⁄8–3⁄4in),
POLYANTHUS probably patent, incurving, white; corona cup-shaped,
NARCISSUS introduced 0.5 x 1cm (1⁄4 x 1⁄2in), bright to deep yellow
further east,
where fully Comments: ssp. aureus: syn. N.aureus, N.cupularis: perianth segments deep yellow to golden yellow;
naturalized in corona deep yellow to orange. ssp. corcyrensis: syn. N.corcyrensis: flowers 1–2; perianth segments
Kashmir, China narrow, sometimes reflexed, pale yellow; corona yellow. ssp. italicus: syn. N.italicus: perianth segments
and Japan cream or very pale yellow; corona deeper yellow. ‘Canaliculatus’: syn. N.canaliculatus of gardens; to
20cm (8in); leaves narrow, erect, glaucous, striate; flowers small; segments white, corona ochre yellow;
sometimes shy-flowering.
N
N.triandrus Spain & 20–30cm l5–30 x 1.5–5mm (5⁄8–11⁄4 x 1–6, pendulous, white to bright yellow; perianth tube
ANGEL’S TEARS Portugal, (8–12in) 5
⁄8–1⁄4in), keeled or striate, flat or 1.5cm (5⁄8in), green below, yellow above; segments
NW France channelled, erect or decumbent, sharply reflexed, lanceolate to linear-oblong, 1–3cm
sometimes curled at tip, green, or (1⁄2–11⁄4in), often with deeper median streak; corona
slightly glaucous cup-shaped, 0.5–1.5 x 0.7–2.5cm (1⁄4–5⁄8 x 1⁄4–1in),
entire, somewhat undulate
Comments: var. concolor: flowers deep yellow: the name is loosely applied in horticulture to any yellow-flowered example of this species.
N.willkommii S Portugal, to 18cm to 37 x 0.3cm (141⁄2 –1⁄8in), erect, usually solitary, 3cm (11⁄4in) diam., horizontal;
N.jonquilloides SW Spain (7in) flattened at base, rounded above, perianth tube to 1.6cm (3⁄5in), green-yellow, segments
glaucous dark green broad-elliptic, 0.6–1.3 x 0.7cm (1⁄4–1⁄2 x 1⁄4in),
spreading or reflexed and curving inwards, slightly
imbricate, yellow; corona cup-shaped, 0.6 x 1cm
(1⁄4 x 1⁄2in), deeply 6-lobed, yellow
N.romieuxii N.rupicola N.tazetta N.triandrus 533

neck rot
neck rot generally, decay at the neck nectar sweet, liquid secretion with white to yellow tepals, flushed
of a bulb; more specifically, an onion attractive to pollinators. pale pink and green above, edged
disease caused by the fungus Botrytis white, and flushed green below).
allii. The term also refers to a disease nectarberry see hybrid berries.
known as gladiolus scab and neck rot, lines converge needle a linear stiff leaf; as found
caused by the bacterium on nectaries in conifers.
Pseudomonas gladioli.
Neck rot of Narcissus is usually needle blight term used to describe
caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. some foliage diseases of conifers, in
narcissi, better known as the agent of which the leaves are infected and die
basal rot, but other fungi, including but do not fall. Didymascella thujina is a
Botrytis and Trichoderma species, may be serious form of needle blight affecting
involved. Infection of the dying flower young Thuja plicata in North America
stalk spreads down into the bulbs and and Europe.
may lead to extensive rotting in store.
It is usually necessary to cut across the needle cast the premature shedding
neck of the bulb in order to see of conifer leaves, which may be due to
symptoms of the disease. diseases such as Hypodermella laricis on
ONION NECK ROT, Botrytis allii, is larch, Lophodermella sulcigena, SWEDISH
very common in stored onions. A rot PINE CAST, on pines, Lophodermium
spreads from brown sunken lesions Nectary guides setisiosum on Scots pine, Meria laricis
around the neck, and a fluffy growth of Many garden flowers have petal patterning on European larch, and Rhabdocline
grey mycelium and small black fruiting that guides alighting insects towards the pseudotsugae on Douglas fir. Symptoms
bodies may develop on the bulb. The centre of a bloom as the source of nectar. show as yellow spotting of needles
disease is seed-borne and invades the in the spring, followed by brown
cotyledons and leaf bases, although nectary a gland, often in the form of discolouration before falling. In the
there may be no obvious symptoms a protuberance or depression, which most severe attacks, only current year
N during the growing season. Crop

rotation should be practised, crop
residues removed, and onions
secretes and sometimes absorbs nectar.
nectarine see peaches.

foliage remains to produce a very thin
canopy. Control by fungicide sprays
should be combined with collecting
properly ripened and dried before and burning of fallen needles to reduce
being stored. Nectaroscordum (from Greek disease carry-over.
GLADIOLUS SCAB and NECK ROT nektar, nectar, and skorodon, garlic,
affects crocuses, freesias and other referring to the large nectaries on Neillia (for Patrick Neill (1776–1851),
members of the Iridaceace, as well the ovaries of these relations of the Scottish naturalist, secretary of the
as gladioli. Circular or elongated onion). Liliaceae (Alliaceae). S Europe, Caledonian Horticultural Society).
dark brown spots appear on the leaves, W Asia, Iran. 3 species, bulbous Rosaceae. E Himalaya to China and W
especially at the base where they may perennials closely resembling Allium. Malaysia. Some 10 species, subshrubs
coalesce and cause the leaves to turn The leaves are linear to narrowly or, more often, arching shrubs with
brown and dry up. Pale yellow spots strap-shaped. The bell-shaped flowers flexuous branches and alternate leaves.
develop on the corms and in severe nod in scapose umbels in spring and These are usually 3-lobed and
attacks lead to large cavities. There is summer. The flowerstalks stand erect irregularly serrate. Produced in spring
a copious exudation of gum containing after flowering, and remain attractive. and early summer in spreading to
bacteria from the corm lesions; this Hardy to at least –13°C/9°F. Grow nodding racemes, the flowers are
may dry up, leaving a lacquer-like in any light, well-drained soil that is cylindric to campanulate with five
surface. Affected corms should be neither excessively dry nor waterlogged, rounded lobes. Hardy to –20°C/–4°F.
destroyed and the contaminated site in sun or part shade. Propagate by seed In areas where low temperatures are
kept free of Iridaceae for as long as in early spring, or by offset bulbils. In prolonged, protect the roots with a
possible. favourable conditions, these bulbs will deep mulch. Grow in moist, well-
naturalize themselves. N.siculum (syn. aerated soil, in sun to part-shade.
necrosis the death of plant cells, Allium siculum; SICILIAN HONEY GARLIC; Prune after flowering, cutting out old
particularly when the affected tissues France, Italy; flowers 10–30, bell- stems at ground level. Propagate by
become dark in colour. Necrosis a shaped, pendulous; tepals to 1.5cm semi-ripe cuttings in a closed case with
common symptom of fungus infection. (5/8in), cream, flushed flesh-pink to bottom heat, by softwood cuttings in
A necrotic reaction to tissue infection caramel brown, stained dark red early summer, by removal of suckers
is one in which areas of plant tissue within, green toward base; includes in autumn, or by seed.
usually on leaves, die – for example, in subsp. bulgaricum, syn. N.bulgaricum, N.sinensis (C China; to 3m (10ft);
534 the NECROTIC RINGSPOT of Prunus N.dioscoridis, from East Romania, branchlets glabrous; leaves to 8cm
species. See pedicel necrosis. Bulgaria, Turkey, and the Crimea, (3in), oval to oblong, incised-serrate
Nemesia
and lobed, light green; flowers white lower two-thirds of wooden or glazed in small, compact clusters, the flowers
to pink in nodding racemes to 6cm tubs, and fill the remaining space with consist of a green, orange or red- or
(21/2in)); N.thibetica (W China; to 2m water. As frost kills foliage, remove tubs purple-tinged calyx, enclosing a
(61/2ft); branchlets finely downy; leaves to shelter (a cold greenhouse or garden tubular, 5-lobed corolla. Cultivate as
to 8cm (3in), ovate, finely downy shed) and keep just moist. Move for Aeschynanthus, although Nematanthus
beneath; flowers pink to white in containers outside, feed and replenish species are generally bushier.
8–15cm (3–6in) racemes). water in late spring. Propagate by N.gregarius (syn. Hypocyrta nummularia;
division of the rhizomes. Chip seed N.radicans; CLOG PLANT; eastern S
Nelumbo (name used in Sri Lanka before sowing in small pots of rich America; climbing or pendent, to 80cm
for N.nucifera). Nelumbonaceae. Eastern loamy medium in early spring; set in (32in); leaves glabrous; flowers to
N America, warm Asia to Australia. an aquarium or warm greenhouse, 2.5cm (1in), pouched, bright orange
LOTUS. 2 species, perennial aquatic covered with water, and maintain a with a purple-brown stripe leading to
herbs, evergreen in warm climates, temperature of 25–30°C/77–86°F. each lobe; ‘Variegatus’: leaves green
with spreading, cylindrical, spongy Pot on and gradually acclimatize to with yellow centre); N.strigilosus (eastern
rhizomes. The leaves are large and greater depths of water, setting out in S America; climbing to 1.5m (5ft);
usually emergent, the circular, glaucous late spring/early summer after the last leaves hairy beneath; flowers to 2cm
blades peltately attached and held aloft frost. Seed-grown plants will flower in (3/4in), tube orange, limb yellow).
on tall stalks. Solitary and long-stalked, their third year.
the showy flowers are chalice-like and nematicide a pesticide active against
composed of numerous oblong-ovate nematodes.
petals and many golden stamens.
The ovaries are sunken in pits in the nematodes see eelworms.
flat upper surface of a top-shaped
receptacle. These persist long after the Nemesia (name used by Dioscorides).
flowers and are handsome in dried Scrophulariaceae. South Africa. About
flower arrangements. 65 species annual or perennial herbs or
The sacred lotus is usually treated as subshrubs with shortly tubular, 2-lipped
a tender aquatic below zone 9. Some
of its cultivars, especially those of Far
Eastern provenance, prove perfectly
flowers in terminal racemes during
summer. Commonly used as frost-
tender annuals for summer bedding,
N
hardy, however, in outdoor pools in mixed borders and pot-plant display in
places as far north as New York City. Nelumbo ‘Sharon’ cool greenhouses. Plant out after last
Deep-water cultivation, where the leaf The showy, waterlily-like flowers of lotuses frosts in a sunny position. After the first
stalks will reach their potential height bear a distinctive “pepperpot” seed vessel, flush of flowers, trim back to promote
of 2.5m (8ft), is generally practicable which persists as an attractive feature. a second display. Water well in dry
only in warm subtropical climates or weather. Sow seed in autumn or spring
in the tropical house pool. In cooler N.lutea (WATER CHINQUAPIN, at 15°C/59°F; harden off before
regions (climate zones 7–9), shallow AMERICAN LOTUS, YANQUAPIN; eastern planting out into the open garden.
water heats up more quickly, providing N America; leaves to 2m (61/2ft) above N.barbata (glabrous annual herb to
the warmth necessary for good growth water surface, leaf blades 50cm 50cm (20in); flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in),
and flowering. Grow in tubs, baskets (20in) across; flowers 10–25cm blue, upper lip pale blue within, with
or beds in heavy loam, enriched with (4–10in) across, pale yellow; includes white margin and purple lines, white
well-rotted farmyard manure or ‘Flavescens’, with leaves splashed red without, with short obtuse lobes, lower
compost; set rootstocks horizontally at in centre and small flowers); N.nucifera lip longer than upper, entire or nearly
about 2.5cm (1in) deep and gradually (SACRED LOTUS; Asia from Iran to so, deep blue, lower part white striped
increase the depth of water from 5 to Japan, south to Australia; leaves to 2m purple); N.strumosa (more or less
40cm (2 to 16in) as growth proceeds. (61/2ft) above water surface, leaf blades glandular-hairy annual herb, 15–60cm
Remove any fading foliage during the to 80cm (32in) across; flowers 10–30cm (6–24in), erect; flowers yellow or purple
growing season. In outdoor temperate (4–12in) across, fragrant, single or to white, often veined purple without,
cultivation, gradually reduce the water double, palest pink to rose, salmon or throat yellow with darker markings,
level and mulch deeply, with leafmould cerise, or white to creamy yellow; lower lip 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in) broad,
or compost, as temperatures begin to numerous cultivars are grown). notched at apex, bearded within);
fall in late summer and autumn, or lift, N.versicolor (more or less glabrous
wash and store the rhizomes in moist Nematanthus (from Greek nema, annual herb, to 50cm (20in); flowers to
sand in a cool frost-free place for the thread, and anthos, flower). Gesneriaceae. 1.2cm (1/2in), blue, mauve, yellow or
winter. S America. Some 30 species, climbing white, lips often different colours, lower
The lotus will also grow in tubs and or trailing subshrubs. The leaves lip broad, obtuse, shortly bilobed,
half barrels on terraces: establish are usually small and thinly fleshy. palate broad; includes f. compacta, more 535
rhizomes on a loamy rich mix in the Produced at various times of the year compact, with profuse, white, rose,
Nemesia
violet and blue flowers). Cultivars and except for light mistings on warm days
hybrids. Mostly derived from N.strumosa in late winter. Increase by offsets.
and N.versicolor, these are the nemesias N.conoidea (E and NE Mexico, SW
popular for summer bedding. They Texas; stem simple or clustering, 5–24
include: ‘Blue Gem’, of bushy habit, (2–9in) x 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in), globose to
to 20cm (8in), with a cloud of sky-blue ovoid or shortly cylindric, grey to
flowers; Carnival Hybrids, compact slightly yellow-green; flowers 2–3cm
and bushy, to 30cm (12in), and very (3/4–11/4in), magenta).
floriferous; ‘Funfair’, to 25cm (10in),
with flowers in brilliant colours; Neomarica (from Greek neon, new,
‘Grandiflora’, with large flowers; plus Marica). Iridaceae. Tropical
‘Mello Red and White’, with raspberry America, W Africa. 15 species,
red and white flowers; ‘Mello White’, rhizomatous, herbaceous perennials
with white flowers; ‘Nana Compacta’, with tough, sword-shaped leaves in a
of dwarf habit; ‘Suttonii’, to 50cm Nemophila maculata basal fan. The short-lived, Iris-like
(20in), with irregularly shaded flowers, Bold blotches of violet at the petal tips give flowers are carried in clusters atop tall
each with a broad lip in front and this pretty, trailing annual the common name stems. Provide a minimum temperature
pouch at base and ranging from of “Five spot”. of 10°C/50°F. Grow in bright filtered
carmine, through yellow and pink to light or full sun, in a well-drained,
white; and ‘Tapestry’, to 25cm (10in), in diameter, petals white, each with a fertile, loam-based mix with additional
of upright habit, with flowers richly deep violet blotch near or at the apex, organic matter and sharp sand. Water
coloured. sometimes faintly veined or tinted moderately when in growth; keep
mauve-blue); N.menziesii (syn. N.insignis; almost dry in autumn and winter.
Nemopanthus (from Greek nema, BABY-BLUE-EYES; California; to 12cm Propagate by division or by seed.
thread, pous, foot, and anthos, a flower, (43/4in), hirsute, spreading-procumbent; N.caerulea (Brazil; to 60cm (24in);
referring to the very slender pedicels.) flowers to 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, flowers 8–10cm (3–4in) in diameter,
Aquifoliaceae. Eastern N America. petals white to sky-blue, often with a outer perianth segments blue to lilac,
N MOUNTAIN HOLLY. 1 species, N.mucronatus,

a deciduous, stoloniferous shrub to
3.5m (111/2ft), differing from Ilex in the
white or yellow-stained centre, or
spotted or stained darker blue or
purple-black; cultivars include ‘Alba’,
inner segments deep blue, the claws
and blade bases of all segments yellow-
white banded brown and orange-
much reduced calyx and free petals. with white flowers with a black centre; yellow).
The leaves are oblong to ovate, to ‘Crambeoides’, with pale blue flowers
6cm (21/2in) long, entire or slightly veined purple, unspotted; ‘Coelestis’, Neoporteria (for Carlos Porter,
serrate. Small, green-yellow flowers with white flowers edged sky-blue; Chilean entomologist). Cactaceae.
are followed by spherical, red fruit. ‘Grandiflora’, with pale blue flowers Chile, S Peru and W Argentina. Some
Cultivate as for the smaller Ilex species. with a white centre; ‘Insignis’, with 25 species, mostly rather small cacti
pure blue flowers; ‘Marginata’, with with globose to short-cylindric, ribbed
Nemophila (from Greek nemos, blue flowers edged white; ‘Occulata’, and tuberculate stems and felted,
grove, and philos, loving, in reference with pale blue flowers with a purple- depressed areoles. Funnelform or
to the habitat of some species). black centre; ‘Penny Black’, with deep campanulate flowers arise at the apex
Hydrophyllaceae. Western N America. purple-black petals edged bright white; in summer. Cultivate as for Neolloydia.
11 species of annual glabrous, downy ‘Purpurea Rosea’, with purple-pink N.chilensis (Chile; stem globose to
or hispidulous herbs with spreading, flowers; var. atromaria, with white short-columnar, woolly at apex; ribs
brittle and slightly succulent stems and flowers spotted black-purple; and var. 20–21, spines glassy white; flowers pink
pinnately lobed leaves. Produced in discoidalis, with bronze-purple flowers or pale yellow); N.napina (Chile; stem to
summer, the flowers are campanulate, edged white). 10 x 5cm (4 x 2in), globose to ovoid,
cylindrical or rotate with 5 rounded grey-green or tinged red, ribs about 14,
petals. Fast-growing annuals, used for Neolloydia (for Professor F.E. Lloyd spines almost black; flowers pale yellow
border edgings, window boxes and (1868–1947), American botanist). or tinged pink); N.nidus (Chile; stem to
other containers and suitable for north- Cactaceae. E and NE Mexico and 30 (12in) x 5–9cm (2–31/2in), globose
facing sites with good light. They are SW Texas. 14 species, low-growing to short-cylindric, ribs 16–18, spines
sometimes grown in pots in the cool or dwarf cacti with depressed-globose weak and tortuous, interlaced, brown,
greenhouse or conservatory. Grow in to shortly cylindric, tuberculate and yellow or almost white; flowers pink);
moisture-retentive soils in sun or part spiny stems. The flowers are small and N.subgibbosa (Chile; stem to 1m x 10cm
shade with shelter from wind. Sow in shortly funnelform. Plant in a gritty (31/4ft x 4in), globose to short-cylindric
situ in spring or autumn. compost with a pH of 6–7.5. Provide at first, green to grey-green, ribs
N.maculata (FIVE SPOT; C California; a minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F, 16–20, spines yellow, brown or nearly
536 to 30cm (12in), glabrous to hairy, erect full sun and low humidity; keep dry black at first or amber-yellow; flowers
to spreading; flowers to 4.5cm (13/4in) from mid-autumn until early spring, pink, paler towards the throat); N.villosa
Nepeta
(Chile; stem to 15 x 8cm (6 x 3in), short- Nepenthes (name used by Homer,

cylindric, grey-green, becoming tinged meaning grief-assuaging, applied
purple-black, ribs 13–15, spines bristly, because of supposed medicinal Sumatra, Borneo; pitchers
dark and hair-like, pale brown or off- properties). Nepenthaceae. dimorphic – lower to 11cm
white; flowers pink with white throat). Madagascar, Seychelles, (41/2in), ovoid, pale green with
tropical Asia to Australia rim dark red spots, or sometimes
Neoregelia (for E.A. von Regel (N Queensland). PITCHER secretes heavily blotched red, lip
nectar to
(1815–92), German botanist and PLANT, TROPICAL PITCHER
attract broad, descending into pitcher,
director of the Imperial Botanic PLANT. 70 species, climbing prey green, lid flat, obovate, wings
Gardens, St Petersburg, 1875–92). or scrambling, evergreen broad, fimbriate; upper
Bromeliaceae. S America. 71 species, perennial shrubs. They are pitchers to 12.5cm (5in),
mostly terrestrial, evergreen perennial carnivorous with each tough, funnel-shaped); N.mirabilis
herbs with strap-shaped leaves in a oblanceolate leaf terminating (MONKEY CUP; Malaysia,
dense, funnel-shaped or tubular rosette. in a tendril which in turn Sumatra, Borneo, S China,
Small flowers are borne in a low, dense supports a pitcher-like trap. SE Asia to New Guinea
head of tightly packed bracts, usually These pitchers are cylindric and Queensland; pitchers
held deep with the rosette. Cultivate to rounded, usually green cylindric or slightly inflated
as for Aechmea. with red spots or tints. The at base, to 18cm (7in), pale
N.carolinae (BLUSHING BROMELIAD; mouth of the pitcher has green with red spots, or
Brazil; leaves 40–60cm (16–24in), a thickened, ribbed and wholly red, lip broad,
innermost with scarlet bases when in often colourful rim, and flattened, striped red, lid
flower, sparsely scaly beneath, closely a fixed lid, standing erect orbicular to ovate, wings
toothed; inflorescence bracts bright or projecting over pitcher- present in lower pitchers,
red, papery, flowers lavender-blue; f. mouth. Along the front of the Nepenthes toothed); N.rafflesiana (Malaysia,
tricolor: leaves with yellow, white and pitcher run two wings or ridges, (pitcher plant) Sumatra, Borneo; pitchers
green stripes); N.concentrica (Brazil; usually toothed or fringed. Small, dimorphic – lower to 12.5cm
leaves to 40cm (16in), mid-green dull flowers are carried in dense spikes (5in), ventricose, rounded at base,
often with obscure, darker spots,
spiny teeth black, inner leaves flushing
purple-pink at base when in flower;
at various times of year. Provide a
minimum winter temperature of
18°C/64°F. The compost must be
green, heavily spotted red, lip broad,
crimson, ribbed, narrowing upwards
to form elongate process to lid, spiny
N
inflorescence bracts yellow-white well-drained; two parts bark, two parts above, lid oblong-orbicular, wings to
flushed violet or purple, flowers white perlite and one part moss peat is a 2.5cm (1in) broad, teeth incurved;
or blue); N.fosteriana (Brazil; leaves to standard compost. Ample moisture and upper pitchers to 23cm (9in), funnel-
30cm (12in), copper-red with a few high humidity are required but free shaped); N.rajah (KING MONKEY CUP;
green spots, pale grey-scaly, apex drainage is essential; lattice or basket Borneo; pitchers dimorphic – lower to
dark red, margins laxly toothed; pots are recommended for this reason. 35 x 15cm (14 x 6in), rounded, green
inflorescence compound, red, Dilute liquid fertilizer is beneficial, lightly spotted red, or entirely red to
flowers red); N.marmorata (MARBLE applied to the roots or as a foliar feed. purple externally, spotted red and
PLANT; Brazil; leaves to 60cm (24in), Old plants benefit from heavy pruning purple-black within, lip broad, outer
laxly toothed, sheaths purple spotted in spring. Increase by air layering. margin projecting, undulate, ribbed,
pale green, blades darkly mottled N.alata (Philippines, Malaysia, crimson with darker bands, lid large,
or spotted, particularly at base, Borneo, Sumatra; pitchers weakly wings narrow, toothed; upper pitchers
apex sometimes with a bright red dimorphic – lower 6.5–13cm (31/2–5in), funnel-shaped).
spot; flowers white tinged pink); cylindric above, constricted at centre,
N.princeps (S Brazil; leaves 20–50cm inflated at base, light green with red Nepeta (named used by Pliny,
(8–20in), laxly toothed, bases large, flecks, or heavily suffused red, lip green probably after Nepi in Italy). Labiatae.
green, densely scaly, blades green, or occasionally red, lid elliptic with Eurasia, N Africa, Tropical Africa.
grey-scaly beneath, the innermost glandular crest at base; wings About 250 species usually perennial,
flushed bright red in flower; flowers prominent, fimbriate; upper pitchers aromatic herbs with toothed leaves
white tipped dark blue); N.spectabilis elongate); N.ampullaria (Malaysia, and small, tubular and 2-lipped flowers
(PAINTED FINGERNAIL, FINGERNAIL Borneo, Sumatra to New Guinea; whorled in spikes in summer. The
PLANT; Brazil; leaves 40–50cm pitchers to 5cm (2in), rounded, squat, following species are fully hardy. Grow
(16–20in), grey-scaly and banded produced low on plant, green spotted them in well-drained, light soils in sun.
white beneath, outer leaves green and blotched deep red, or entirely Propagate by division in spring or
with a bright red apical spot, inner green or deep red, lip with narrow autumn, or by stem tip or softwood
sometimes wholly red, often edged rim, lid to 3.5cm (11/2in), narrow, wings cuttings in spring or summer. Sow
purple, subentire or denticulate; broad, widely spreading, strongly seed in situ in autumn.
inflorescence bracts red or purple, toothed); N. x hookeriana (N.rafflesiana x N.cataria (CATNIP, CATMINT; Europe, 537
flowers violet-blue). N.ampullaria; natural hybrid, Malaysia, where it is widely naturalized, SW and
Nepeta
C Asia; to 1m (31/4ft), erect; leaves particularly those with thickly

3.5–8cm (11/2–3in), ovate, cordate at layered or lacy foliage (e.g.
base, serrate, grey-tomentose beneath; ‘Childsii’ and ‘Smithii’), resent
inflorescence spike-like, flowers white very moist conditions and are more
spotted blue-violet; includes the lemon- susceptible to a range of pests and
scented ‘Citriodora’); N. x faassenii diseases. Provide a minimum
(synonyms N.mussinii of gardens, temperature of 7°C/45°F. Grow in a
N.racemosa of gardens; N.racemosa x coarse, fast-draining, soilless mix with
N.nepetella; to 60cm (24in); leaves to sand and bark. Give bright filtered
3cm (11/4in), oblong to ovate, truncate light and a moist but buoyant
at base, crenate, silver-grey; flowers atmosphere, ventilating whenever
pale lavender with darker spots; ‘Six possible. Syringe in hot weather. Water
Hills Giant’: tall, vigorous with sparingly in winter. Propagate by
lavender-blue flowers in large sprays; division in late winter or spring, and by
‘Snowflake’, low and spreading, with young plantlets formed on the stolons. Nerine sarniensis
leaves tinted grey and flowers snow N.cordifolia (ERECT SWORD FERN, In frost prone climates the Guernsey lily may
white; ‘Superba’, spreading, with leaves LADDER FERN; pantropical; frond blades be grown outdoors by a south-facing wall, or
tinted grey and abundant, dark blue to 60 x 5cm (24 x 2in), erect, arching or more reliably under glass as a pot plant.
flowers); N.govaniana (W Himalaya; pendent, lanceolate to linear, acute or
erect; leaves large, ovate to oblong or acuminate, sterile pinnae to 20 x 9mm and long, declinate stamens. In cool
elliptic, rounded at base, crenate; (3/4 x 3/8in), fertile pinnae 30 x 5mm temperate zones, most species are
raceme elongated, lax, flowers yellow); (11/4 x 1/4in), to 70 pairs, short-stalked, cultivated in the cool greenhouse, since
N.grandiflora (Caucasus, eastern Central oblong to linear, apex toothed, base they do not tolerate temperatures
Europe; erect to 40–80cm (16–32in); unequal and cordate to obtuse, entire below freezing. N.masonorum, a dainty
leaves to 10cm (4in), ovate, cordate at or dentate; ‘Duffii’: syn. N.duffii, DUFF’S species for warm sheltered pockets in
base, crenulate, glabrous; spikes SWORD FERN, rachis usually forked, the rock garden in areas with mild
elongate, interrupted, flowers blue); pinnae orbicular, crowded, attached in winters, is well-suited to cultivation
N N.nepetella (SW Europe to S Italy; stem

to 80cm (32in); leaves to 4cm (11/2in),
oblong to lanceolate, truncate at base,
more than one plane; ‘Plumosa’:
pinnae lobed); N.exaltata (BOSTON FERN;
pantropical; frond blades linear, 50–250
in the alpine house in cooler zones.
N.bowdenii will grow where winter
temperatures drop to –15°C/5°F,
crenate to dentate, pubescent to lanate, x 6–15cm (20–100 x 21/2–6in), pinnae although it needs protection from
green to glaucous; inflorescence usually numerous, 2–8 x 0.7–1.3cm (3/4–3in x winter wet: in regions at the limits of
1
branched, calyx often tinged pink or /4–1/2in), apex acute or subacute, base its hardiness, grow at the base of a
blue, corolla pink or white; includes subcordate with auricle overlapping south-facing wall in perfectly drained
subsp. amethystina, from North Africa rachis, bluntly serrulate to crenate; soil, with a dry mulch of bracken litter
and the Iberian Peninsula, with blue- ‘Bostoniensis’: syn. N.bostoniensis, fronds or leafmould. In northern Britain, large
violet flowers); N.nervosa (Kashmir; to erect to pendent; this is the ‘original’ and well established clumps are most
60cm (24in); leaves to 10cm (4in), Boston Fern, which has produced, commonly seen at the base of south-
linear to lanceolate, entire or somewhat among others, the following sports – facing house walls, in the rain shadow
dentate, strongly veined; raceme dense, ‘Childsii’, fronds approximate and of the eaves. N.sarniensis may be treated
cylindric, flowers blue or yellow). over-lapping, to 4-pinnate, deltoid; similarly, but is rather more susceptible
‘Elegantissima’, fronds 2-pinnate; to cold and wet.
Nephrolepis (from Greek nephros, ‘Fluffy Ruffles’, fronds dense, to N.bowdenii (leaves strap-shaped; scape
kidney, and lepis, scale, alluding to 3-pinnate, deltoid; ‘Smithii’, fronds to 45cm (18in), tepals to 7cm (23/4in),
the common form of the indusia). finely 3-pinnate, lace-like). wavy, candy pink to deep rose or
Oleandraceae. Pantropical. LADDER white); N.filifolia (leaves very slender;
FERN, SWORD FERN, BOSTON FERN. Nerine (from Greek Nereis, the name scape to 30cm (12in), tepals to 2.5cm
Some 30 species, epiphytic or of a sea nymph, an allusion to the (1in), crisped, white, rose, magenta or
terrestrial ferns with spreading probably apocryphal tale that these crimson); N.flexuosa (leaves narrowly
rhizomes and prolific, wiry stolons. bulbs were washed ashore on Guernsey strap-shaped; scape to 1m (31/4ft),
The fronds are pinnate with linear to following a shipwreck). Amaryllidaceae. flexuous, tepals to 3cm (11/4in), crisped,
oblong blades and numerous leaflets. South Africa, Lesotho, Botswana, pale pink or white); N.masonorum (leaves
N.exaltata and N.cordifolia are remarkably Swaziland. 30 species, bulbous thread-like; scape to 30cm (12in), tepals
tolerant house plants. The many perennials with strap-shaped or thread- to 1.5cm (5/8in), wavy, pale to deep
N.exaltata cultivars have arisen from the like leaves appearing with or soon after rose with a darker pink midstripe);
original ‘Boston Fern’ (N.exaltata the flowers. Numerous flowers are N.sarniensis (GUERNSEY LILY; leaves
‘Bostoniensis’), a 19th-century produced generally in autumn in strap-shaped; scape to 45cm (18in),
538 mutation with markedly drooping scapose umbels. These consist of six, tepals to 3.5cm (11/2in), slightly crisped,
fronds. Many of these cultivars, slender and spreading, wavy segments pink, pale rose, crimson, scarlet,
Nicotiana
mauve-pink, orange-red or white); the unrelated Soleirolia, whose fruits are treated as half-hardy annuals, although
N.undulata (leaves very narrow; scape to quite insignificant). some species are perennial. In sheltered
45cm (18in), tepals to 2cm (3/4in), pale gardens, N.alata and N.sylvestris may
candy pink or rose, strongly crisped). nervose, nerved furnished with ribs survive temperatures down to about
or veins. –5°C/23°F, shooting in spring from
Nerium (name used by Dioscorides). dormant buds on their thick rootstocks.
Apocynaceae. Mediterranean to W nessberry see hybrid berries. N.glauca is almost as hardy. Plant out in
China, widely naturalized. OLEANDER, late spring in rich, moisture-retentive,
ROSE BAY. 1 species, N.oleander; glabrous netted reticulate, net-veined. but well-drained soil. Deadhead
evergreen shrub to 2.6m (81/2ft), tall bedding plants to prolong flowering.
with spreading to erect branches and neuter, neutral sterile, asexual; used Surface sow the fine seed in spring at
tough, dark green, lanceolate leaves to of flowers, lacking both pistils and 18°C/64°F, planting out in late spring
20cm (8in) long. Produced in summer stamens. or early summer. Harden off before
in broad, terminal cymes, the flowers planting out. Prone to viruses.
are white to rose, salmon, deep pink, NFT Nutrient Film Technique; see N.alata (syn. N.affinis; JASMINE
cerise, peach or yellow, often fragrant hydroponics. TOBACCO, FLOWERING TOBACCO; S
and funnelform with a spreading, 5- Brazil to NE Argentina; viscid, sparsely
lobed limb to 5cm (2in) across. All Nicandra (for Nikander of branched perennial, to 1.5m (5ft);
parts are extremely toxic. In cool Colophon, (c. 150 AD), Greek botanist flowers green-white, interior white,
climates, Nerium is commonly grown in and medical writer). Solanaceae. Peru. tube to 10cm (4in), pubescent, limb
tubs in the greenhouse or conservatory, 1 species, N.physaloides, SHOO-FLY, APPLE to 2.5cm (1in) diameter); N.glauca (TREE
to be moved outdoors for the summer OF PERU, a glabrous annual herb, to TOBACCO, MUSTARD TREE; S Bolivia
months. However, given a sheltered 130cm (54in) tall. The flowers are to to N Argentina, naturalized in United
sunny position, it may tolerate 3.5 x 4cm (11/2 x 11/2in), bell-shaped with States; glaucous sunshrub or shrub
temperatures to –10°C/14°F for short a white throat and 5-lobed, with a lilac- to 6m (20ft)+; flowers cream yellow-
periods. Grow in full sun. Keep almost purple to blue and white limb. A sturdy, green, tube to 4.5cm (13/4in), limb to
dry in winter. Prune established freely-branching annual, grown for its 0.4cm (1/8in) in diameter, lobes short,
specimens in late winter to shape and
restrict size. Propagate cultivars by semi-
ripe cuttings of terminal shoots, or by
bell-shaped flowers produced freely
throughout late summer and autumn,
although opening fully for only a few
throat slightly inflated); N.langsdorffii
(Brazil; erect, branched, viscid-
pubescent annual to 1.5m (5ft)+;
N
stem sections in summer after flowering. hours around midday. The attractive flowers lime green, tube to 2.5cm (1in),
fruits are enclosed in purple calyces viscid limb small, pleated); N. x sanderae
Nertera (from Greek nerteros, lowly, and resemble those of Physalis. It may (N.alata x N.forgentiana; shrubby, viscid-
alluding to the habit). Rubiaceae. S self-sow freely in the garden. Sow in pubescent annuals to 60cm (24in)+;
China and SE Asia to Australia, New situ after the last frosts on to any rich, flower tube green-yellow at base, limb
Zealand, Polynesia, Antarctic and well-drained soil in full sun. to 4cm (11/2in)+ in diameter, red,
Hawaii to C and S America, Tristan da occasionally white or green to rose
Cunha. Some 15 species, diminutive, niche a recess in a garden wall, often or purple; includes ‘Breakthrough’,
prostrate or creeping herbs with very at the end of a vista, in which a statue, early-flowering, dwarf, compact, with
small leaves, solitary and inconspicuous urn or stone vase is placed. fragrant flowers in a range of colours;
flowers and bright, bead-like berries. ‘Crimson King’, with deep crimson
Grow in sandy/gritty, moisture- nicking removing a small crescent flowers; ‘Daylight Sensation’, with day-
retentive and freely draining soils, with of bark, or slitting the bark on a shoot blooming flowers in shades of lavender,
shelter from cold winds in a semi- below a dormant bud, as a means of purple, white and rose; ‘Dwarf White
shaded situation. Maintain a minimum inhibiting its growth; cf. notching. Bedder’, of low habit and bushy, with
temperature of 5°C/41°F. Propagate pure white, fragrant flowers; ‘Fragrant
by careful division, tip cuttings or by Nicotiana (for Jean Nicot (1530– Cloud’, with large, pure white flowers,
seed in spring in a sandy propagating 1600), French consul in Portugal, fragrant at night; ‘Grandiflora’, with
mix in the shaded cool greenhouse who introduced Nicotiana to France). large flowers, with a large, widely
or frame. N.granadensis (BEAD PLANT, Solanaceae. Tropical America, dilated throat; ‘Lime Green’, with
CORAL MOSS, ENGLISH BABYTEARS; Australia, Namibia. TOBACCO. 67 flowers bright sulphur yellow tinged
S America, Taiwan and SE Asia, species, mostly clammy, annual or lime green; ‘Nana’, dwarf; Nikki
Australia and Tasmania, New Zealand; perennial herbs and shrubs. Produced Hybrids, bushy and hardy, with flowers
forming dense mats and mossy patches in summer in terminal panicles, the in a range of colours including white,
to 40cm (16in) wide or more; leaves flowers are tubular to funnel-shaped shades of pink, red and yellow;
to 0.8cm (3/8in), usually far smaller, with a 5-lobed limb. Their fragrance ‘Rubella’, with rose-red flowers;
rounded, bright green; fruit 0.5cm becomes especially intense at evening. Sensation Hybrids, with flowers in a
(1/4in) wide, globose or ovoid, orange to In cool-temperate areas Nicotiana range of colours including pink, red 539
scarlet or dark red; easily confused with species and cultivars are generally and white, fragrant; ‘Sutton’s Scarlet’,
Nicotiana
with a dark red corolla; and ‘White’, –12°C/10°F. In colder areas, they are subshrub to 1m (31/4ft). The leaves
with heavily scented, white flowers); used as bedding annuals or pot plants are to 9cm (31/2in) long, spathulate,
N.tabacum (TOBACCO; COMMON for summer colour, flowering in the crenately toothed, dark and lustrous.
TOBACCO; NE Argentina, Bolivia; first year from seed. Plant out in a Produced in late summer, the long-
annual or biennial, viscid-pubescent, sunny position after the last frosts. Clip stalked, daisy-like flowerheads are to
to 120cm (48in), stem sometimes back N.linariifolia lightly after flowering. 8cm (3in) in diameter, with white ray
becoming woody at base; flowers Propagate from seed, division or by florets and yellow disc florets. Grow
green-white to rose, tube inflated, to heeled cuttings in summer. Harden off in full sun in very well-drained and
5.5cm (21/4in), limb to 1.5cm (5/8in) new plants in a cold frame before moderately fertile soil. In places where
in diameter; var. macrophylla: leaves planting out. winter temperatures fall much below
large, flowers rose to carmine red; N.linariifolia (Argentina; erect, white- –10°C/14°F, protect roots with a
‘Variegata’: leaves to 30cm (12in), hairy herb to 30cm (12in)+; flowers deep mulch of leafmould or bracken
variegated cream with green, flowers blue tinged violet, tube slender, yellow); litter, and foliage with a covering of
white tinged pink). N.repens (WHITECUP; Andes, warm evergreen branches. Plants cut back to
temperate S America; procumbent the ground in winter may regenerate
Nidularium (from Latin nidulus, a herb; flowers white, tinged yellow or from the roots. Propagate by seed
little nest, referring to the inflorescence rose-pink at base, tube slender; ‘Violet or division.
bracts). Bromeliaceae. E Brazil. 23 Queen’: flowers rich purple-blue).
species, evergreen perennial, terrestrial nitrate see nitrogen.
or epiphytic herbs. The leaves are Nigella (from diminutive of Latin
usually strap-shaped, finely toothed niger, black, referring to the seed). nitrate of potash see potassium
and arranged in a flat rosette with a Ranunculaceae. Eurasia. FENNEL nitrate.
central reservoir. Small flowers are FLOWER, WILD FENNEL, LOVE-IN-A-MIST,
carried in a compound inflorescence DEVIL-IN-A-BUSH. Some 14 annual nitrate of soda see sodium nitrate.
surrounded by showy bracts. Cultivate herbs, with erect, usually unbranched
as for Aechmea but avoid direct sunlight stems. The leaves are finely pinnately nitrification see nitrogen.
and mist frequently in warm weather. cut with slender segments. Produced
N N.fulgens (leaves to 40cm (16in), pale

green with darker mottling, pointed,
slightly scaly beneath, laxly toothed;
in spring and summer, the flowers are
solitary and consist of five petal-like
sepals and many smaller petals. In
Nitro chalk see ammonium nitrate.
nitrogen (N) a major (macro-)

inflorescence crowded, domed, on a some species, the flowers are subtended nutrient, essential to, and highly
very short scape, bracts cerise, coarsely by a ruff of conspicuously veined influential on, the rate of plant growth.
toothed, sepals red, petals white, tipped leaves, each terminating in hair-like As a constituent of protein, and thus
dark blue, with white margins); divisions. The fruit is a large capsule, all protoplasm, it is needed in great
N.innocentii (leaves 20–60cm (8–24in), ultimately inflated with persistent horn- quantity by most plants. It is mainly
purple- to blood-red beneath or like styles. Hardy annuals, valued for absorbed in the form of nitrate or
throughout, shiny, toothed; scape short; their fine foliage, flowers and seed ammonium ions.
inflorescence bracts red tipped green, capsules, which are used in dried- Nitrogen can be stored long-term in
large, toothed, sepals white or pink, flower arrangements. Sow in situ in soils as organic matter. Such organic
petals white with green bases; var. autumn or spring in full sun. Established nitrogen becomes available to plants
lineatum: leaves pale green with fine plants will withstand dry, infertile through its mineralization to inorganic
white lines, inflorescence bracts green conditions. Propagate by seed – self- ions as a result of the activity of soil-
with brick red tips; var. striatum: leaves sowing is common. N.damascena inhabiting micro-organisms in the
green striped white, inflorescence (LOVE-IN-A-MIST; S Europe, N S Africa; process of nitrification. Organic
bracts carmine); N.procerum (Brazil; to 5–50cm (2–20in); flowers white, nitrogen is reduced to ammonia, nitrite
leaves 0.4–1m (16in–31/4ft), broadly rose-pink, pale blue or purple-blue, and then nitrate. This process depends
acuminate, tough, finely toothed, pale 3.5–4.5cm (11/2–13/4in) in diameter, upon the presence of water, oxygen,
waxy green tinted cooper; inflorescence subtended by a finely divided, collar- other nutrients, temperature and pH.
bracts tinted red to strong red, flowers like involucre; includes numerous Organic matter relatively high in
vermilion tipped blue). cultivars and seed races ranging from carbon can be slow to break down,
tall to dwarf and single, semi-double and may in fact take up free nitrogen
Nierembergia (for John Eusebius and double, in shades of deep blue, from the soil during the process of
Nieremberg (1595–1658), Spanish sky blue, violet, lavender, lilac, mauve, mineralization. These considerations
naturalist). Solanaceae. S America. purple-red, rose, and white). make it necessary to add nitrogen
CUPFLOWER. Some 23 species, annual compounds to compost heaps
or perennial herbs or subshrubs. Nipponanthemum (from incorporating woody waste.
Produced in summer, the flowers are Nippon and Greek anthemon, flower). Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and blue-
540 cupped to tubular with a spreading Compositae. Japan. 1 species, green algae short-cut mineralization by
limb of five lobes. Hardy to N.nipponicum, a perennial herb or obtaining nitrogen directly from the air.
notching
Some of these organisms live in the Nolanaceae. Chile to Peru, Galapagos Nomocharis (from Greek nomos,
soil; others, such as Rhizobium bacteria, Islands. 18 species, glandular annual or meadow, and charis, loveliness, referring
form nodules on roots of leguminous perennial herbs or subshrubs. The to the plant’s habitat and beauty).
plants. Actinomyces, a bacteria-like flowers are bell- to funnel-shaped with Liliaceae (Liliaceae). W China, SE
organism, has a similar symbiotic five lobes. Annuals, easily grown Tibet, Burma, N India. 7 species,
relationship with alders and Elaeagnus. outdoors in any moderately fertile soil bulbous perennial herbs, resembling
Nitrogen deficiency can occur on in sun, or as pot plants in the cool small lilies (Lilium), with flat to bowl-
soils that are low in organic matter, greenhouse. Sow seed in situ in spring. shaped, white to pink or pale yellow
very dry, or of low temperature; where N.humifusa (syn. N.prostrata; Peru; to flowers, often spotted purple or
impeded drainage or other factors 15cm (6in), often decumbent; flowers maroon. Usually carried in summer in
create anaerobic conditions; when to 1.7cm (3/4in), lilac with throat white, loose terminal racemes, the flowers
leaching occurs following winter rain streaked violet or purple; ‘Shooting consist of six ovate to elliptic segments,
or excessive irrigation; and where large Star’: trailing, with lilac to lavender their margins entire to toothed or
quantities of organic matter, relatively flowers, streaked dark purple); fringed. Hardy in climate zone 7. They
high in carbon, are added to the soil. It N.paradoxa (Chile, Peru; to 25cm (10in), require acid, cool and shady conditions
also occurs as a result of exhaustion of usually decumbent; flowers to 3.5cm and are well-suited to the peat terrace
growing media in pots, or where plants (11/2in), bright dark blue, throat yellow and woodland garden. Grow in
are too closely spaced. Symptoms are or white; ‘Blue Bird’: deep sky-blue dappled light or semi-shade in well-
feeble growth, pale or yellow-green flowers with white throats; ‘Cliff drained, moist peaty or leafy soils.
foliage, often developing red or purple Hanger’: trailing with cornflower blue Propagate by seed.
tints, and premature defoliation. flowers with pale yellow throats; subsp. N.pardanthina (China; to 90cm (36in);
Besides bulky manures, organic atriplicifolia: leaves spathulate to linear, flowers 5–9cm (2–31/2in) diameter,
sources of nitrogen include dried flowers blue, violet or white flowers, nodding to erect, flattened, outer
blood, hoof and horn, shoddy and with yellow or white tubes). segments white to pink blotched purple,
urea. Inorganic sources include dark maroon at base, inner segments
ammonium nitrate, ammonium Nolina (for P.C. Nolin, 18th-century more densely blotched, with fringed
phosphate and ammonium sulphate, French agriculturalist). Agavaceae. S tips); N.saluenensis (China, Burma; to
as well as calcium nitrate, potassium
nitrate and sodium nitrate.
US, Mexico to Guatemala. Some 24
species, evergreen shrubs and trees.
The stem is usually sparsely branched
85cm (34in); flowers 6–9cm (21/2–31/2in)
diameter, horizontal or drooping,
saucer-shaped, outer segments rose-
N
nitrogen fixation see nitrogen. and grossly swollen at the base. Tough, pink with a dark maroon patch and
linear leaves are arranged in terminal spots at base, inner segments entire).
noble rot see grey mould. tufts and rosettes. Small, creamy white
flowers are borne in great abundance nonvascular without vascular tissue,
nocturnal of flowers, opening in large panicles. Nolina is for outdoor for example algae, lichens, fungi.
or fragrant only during cultivation only in frost-free desert
the evening and night. and semi-desert regions. Elsewhere, Nopalxochia (from the ancient
they are usually grown as part of a Mexican name, meaning cactus with
node the point on an axis greenhouse succulent collection or scarlet flowers). Cactaceae. S Mexico.
where one or more leaves, as a feature of interior landscapes. 3–4 species, epiphytic cacti with
shoots, whorls, branches Grow in a well- flattened, wavy-edged stems and
or flowers are drained, gritty funnel-shaped flowers. Provide a winter
attached. medium; provide minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F,
a minimum high humidity and shade from direct
nodose possessing temperature of sun. Plant in an acid compost rich in
many closely packed 10°C/50°F. Water sand, leafmould and coarse bark.
nodes; knobbly. internodal plentifully during Water freely in summer, very sparingly
stem
summer and in winter. Increase by stem cuttings.
nodule a small sparingly in N.ackermannii (S Mexico; stem to
rounded growth on winter. Propagate 20–70 (8–28in) x 5–7cm (2–23/4in);
a root or other plant leaves and buds during spring by flowers 12–14cm (43/4–51/2in), orange-
part. Nodules commonly originate at nodes seed or offsets. red); N.phyllanthoides (S Mexico; stem to
occur on roots and are N.hookeri (syn. 40 x 0.6cm (16 x 1/4in); flowers 8–10cm
particularly associated with Calibanus hookeri; EC (3–4in) pink).
nitrogen-fixing bacteria and Mexico; caudex
certain eelworm infestations. massive, turnip-like, notching removing a small crescent
mostly subterranean, of bark on a shoot above a dormant
Nolana (from Latin nola, a little lacking aerial branches; leaves bud to stimulate it into growth; 541
bell, alluding to shape of corolla). Node clumped, glaucous, grassy). cf. nicking.
Nothofagus
Nothofagus (from Greek nothos, leaves 1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in), orbicular to greenhouse in spring, or by semi-ripe
false, and Fagus, to which it is related). broadly ovoid, margin double-crenate, cuttings in summer, rooted in a closed
Fagaceae. Temperate southern silvery grey on young trees, glossy dark case with bottom heat.
S America, New Zealand, E Australia, green on older trees, coriaceous, N.carmichaeliae (shrub to 5m (16ft);
and tropical high altitude New glabrous except for hair-filled vein axils branchlets rush-like, grooved, olive;
Caledonia and New Guinea. at base of blade); N.obliqua (ROBLE racemes to 5cm (2in), sericeous, flowers
SOUTHERN BEECH. About 40 species, BEECH; Chile, W Argentina; deciduous light purple to pink); N.glabrescens
evergreen and deciduous trees and tree to 40m (130ft); leaves 3–8cm (round-headed tree to 9m (30ft);
shrubs resembling beech trees (Fagus). (11/4–3in), ovoid to oblong, mid-green branches slightly grooved, grey-green
The leaves are oblong to ovate with above, paler beneath, glabrous, margin to olive; racemes to 5cm (2in),
wavy to tooothed margins and distinct double-toothed, veins 7–12 pairs, glabrescent, flowers magenta with
veins. The nuts are surrounded by a impressed above, each ending in a standard paler and stained dark
thick, splitting involucre, often covered large lobe-like tooth, itself 1–3-toothed purple-red).
with sticky protuberances. These trees each side).
favour cool, wet summers in maritime novirame a flowering or fruiting
temperate climates. N.antarctica is hardy Notholirion (from Greek nothos, false, shoot arising from a primocane.
in zones 7 and over. All other species and leirion, lily; these plants have been
are killed or injured at –20°C/–4°F placed in Lilium and Fritillaria but are NPK the combined chemical symbols
and some at –10°C/14°F. They are now considered separate from both). for the three major plant nutrients,
not suitable for frost-prone, inland Liliaceae (Liliaceae). Afghanistan to nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium;
areas and should only be planted on W China. 4 species, bulbous perennials commonly used to describe the make
sites with good air drainage. Regions with linear to lanceolate leaves produced up of a basic balanced fertilizer.
with hot, humid summers should also during autumn and winter. Lily-like,
be avoided. Plant in full sun on moist trumpet-shaped flowers are carried in nuclear stock plants propagated
but well-drained soils with a pH of racemes in summer; they consist of six, vegetatively from a single parent. The
5–7. Increase by seed. spreading segments with recurved tips. term is primarily used of plants grown
N.alpina (syn. N.procera; RAULI BEECH; Leafing early in the season, Notholirion is from a mother plant that has been
N Chilean Andes; deciduous tree to 40m

(130ft); leaves 4–15cm (11/2–6in), ovoid
to lanceolate, matt green and thinly
prone to frost damage; for this reason,
in cool temperate zones, it is commonly
cultivated in large containers in the
tested for trueness to type and freedom
from viruses, other diseases, and pests,
thus providing a basis for the
pubescent, margin slightly scalloped, cool greenhouse. Use a loam-based production of certified stock.
finely crenate-serrate, veins 15–22 mix with silver sand and leafmould;
pairs, impressed above, veins ending grow in bright, filtered light and water nucleus the membrane-bound body
in a slight sinus with 4 to 5 unequal plentifully when in full growth. Reduce containing the genetic material of
intervening teeth); N.antarctica (NIRE; water when dormant. Increase by seed plant and animal cells.
Tierra del Fuego to Chile; deciduous or bulbils. N.campanulatum (N Burma,
tree or shrub to 17m (56ft); leaves W China; to 80cm (32in); flowers to Nuphar (from nufar, Arabic name
1.5–4cm (5/8–11/2in), oblong, finely but 20, pendulous, to 5cm (2in), crimson for Nymphaea). Nymphaeaceae.
irregularly toothed, with 4 pairs of to maroon tipped green). Temperature regions of northern
veins, glossy rich green above, paler Hemisphere, COW LILY, SPATTERDOCK,
beneath, often sweetly aromatic, Notospartium (from Greek notos, YELLOW POND LILY, WATER COLLARD.
glabrous except for a few hairs on southern, and spartion, broom). Some 25 species, perennial, aquatic
veins; ‘Benmore’: syn. ‘Prostrata’, a Leguminosae. New Zealand (South herbs with floating to emerging large,
low-spreading form with interlacing Island). PINK BROOM, SOUTHERN ovate to orbicular leaves. Held above
branches in a dense mound); N.betuloides BROOM. 3 species, shrubs and trees. the water surface, the flowers are
(COIGUE DE MAGELLANES, GUINDO Adult plants are mostly leafless with solitary and consist of a shallow cup
BEECH; Chile, W Argentina; evergreen a mop of slender, flattened, weeping, of broad sepals and numerous smaller
tree to 25m (80ft), or shrub in exposed branchlets. In spring and summer, pea- petals. These surround numerous
sites; leaves 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in), ovate, like flowers are carried in pendulous stamens and a large ovary. The fruit
crenate, glossy dark green, slightly lateral racemes. Hardy to about is large, green and flask-shaped. Fully
sticky, finely freckled with white glands –10°C/14°F and suitable for a warm, hardy; grow in deep water and full sun
beneath, veins often pink); N.dombeyi sheltered border or for the base of a or light shade. Plant in containers or
(COIGUE; Chile, Argentina; evergreen sunny wall. Grow in a well-drained but on the bed itself in still or slow-moving
tree to 50m (165ft); leaves 2–4cm moisture-retentive, humus-rich soil. water. For propagation see Nymphaea.
(3/4–11/2in), ovoid to lanceolate, irregular- Provide support for older plants and N.advenum (Europe and C US,
serrate, glossy dark green above, matt protect young plants from prolonged Mexico, West Indies; leaves to 33cm
and pale beneath, minutely freckled winter frost with bracken litter or (13in); flowers to 4cm (11/2in) in
542 black); N.menziesii (SILVER BEECH; New evergreen branches. Propagate from diameter, yellow tinged red); N.lutea
Zealand; evergreen tree to 30m (100ft); seed sown in the cold frame or (YELLOW WATER LILY, BRANDY BOTTLE;
nutrients
E US, West Indies, N Africa, Eurasia; salinity from excessive concentrations; nitrogen ions, in particular. INPUTS
leaves to 40cm (16in); flowers to 6cm this problem is most likely to occur FROM THE ATMOSPHERE Many nutrients
(21/2in) in diameter, bright yellow). when soluble NPK fertilizers are used. fall to earth dissolved in rain and this
Some micronutrients, notably zinc, low input is of importance in some
nursery, nursery garden a site copper and boron, can prove directly ecosystems; inputs are greater in
devoted to the propagation and raising toxic at very much lower levels than areas of high atmospheric pollution.
of young plants. those producing salinity effects. Nitrogen-fixation in plants can greatly
Excess nitrogen may lead to a delay increase soil fertility by converting
nursery bed an area reserved for in flowering and fruiting, enhanced nitrogen from air within the soil
the rearing of young plants, where vegetative growth, a reduced root-shoot structure into organic form. Nutrient
they can remain until large enough ratio, decreased winter-hardiness, and ions in solution are prone to leaching
to be transferred to more permanent greater pest and disease susceptibility. and the most important mechanisms
positions. It is sometimes also called a With some sensitive species, it is of temporary storage are: CATION
reserve border. possible to see visual signs of damage EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC) Positively
at what would normally be regarded as charged ions (cations) are held by
nut (1) an indehiscent, one-celled and relatively low levels of a given nutrient. electrostatic charge on the surface of
one-seeded, hard, ligneous or osseous For example, many Australasian plants clay particles and organic matter. These
fruit, for example, the acorn of Quercus; are adapted to soils that are extremely stored nutrients are in equilibrium with
(2) more loosely applied to a drupe deficient in phosphorus, and these those held in the soil solution so that,
with a thin exocarp and a large nutlet. suffer toxicity when planted in more within broad limits, as the concentration
normal substrates. in solution falls, more stored ions
nutant nodding; usually applied to Some trace elements are are released. CHEMICAL COMPLEXES
a whole inflorescence or stem. capable of improving the BETWEEN THE IONS Nutrient ions
growth of particular plants, can combine with other nutrients or
nutlet a small nut the most commonly other soil minerals to form relatively
or a small stone of “nutant” or encountered of which is insoluble salts. These can in turn break
a drupaceous fruit. nodding sodium. This can usefully be down to release ions if the equilibrium
It is similar to an
achene, but with a
flowers
harder and thicker pericarp.

applied to plants from the
beet and cabbage families, which
have developed from seaside
with the soil solution changes. The
relative solubility of different mineral
elements changes dramatically with soil
N
habitats. However, sodium can be pH, so that attention to lime status in a
nutrient film damaging to soil structure and soil is very important.
technique (NFT) should not normally be applied Any problem that interferes with or
see hydroponics. as a fertilizer without good reason. slows the normal movement of water
Nutrients in soils Very few through the soil, such as drought or
nutrients nutrients soils are actually deficient in total compaction, can severely limit the
are mineral ions used by amounts of plant nutrients; availability of nutrients to a plant.
plants to form the proteins, deficiency symptoms more Water shortage can also limit nutrient
fats and other compounds commonly arise due to a shortfall uptake by restricting root growth.
needed for growth. Essential in the manner or rate in which Nutrient losses The most
plant nutrients are divided into nutrients are made available. obvious means by which nutrients
the macronutrients (needed in Ornithogalum Nutrients are taken up by plants are lost from soil is by uptake into
relatively large amounts of 10s nutans as mineral ions dissolved in soil vegetation; they can be locked up in
or 100s of kg/ha), which are water, and for prolonged growth and the biomass of large long-lived plants,
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), vigour, there must be a constant supply. especially trees, and it can be centuries
potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), They originate in the following ways: before they enter the soil again. When
calcium (Ca) and sulphur (S), and WEATHERING OF SOIL MINERALS plants are harvested, grazed or mown,
the micronutrients or trace elements Mineral-rich rocks are broken down by the nutrients removed can represent a
(needed in relatively small amounts of the action of frost, water and organic loss from the system unless replaced by
g/ha), which are iron (Fe), manganese acids and are the ultimate source of rotted matter.
(Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), boron most soil-borne nutrients, although Nutrients can be lost from a growing
(Bo), molybdenum (Mb) and chlorine nitrogen is an important exception. medium by leaching, the process of
(Cl). Other trace elements may be BREAKDOWN OF ORGANIC MATTER drainage water removing dissolved
needed, but in such small amounts that Organic matter from dead plant and mineral salts and clay particles. Leaching
it is effectively impossible to prove the animal remains is gradually broken is a natural process intensified by heavy
requirement. down by soil organisms to release rainfall or excessive irrigation and the
Nutrients are not always beneficial constituent mineral nutrients in a effects are only serious if the mineral
and problems can arise if levels are too process known as mineralization; this ions move out of the root zone. 543
high. There can be harmful effects of is the source of a regular supply of Leaching into lower soil levels can
nutrients
actually be beneficial if it allows plants nitrogen to a soil already deficient in more unusual the soil type to be tested,
to continue nutrient uptake when phosphorus can increase the severity the less certainty there is with regard
there is surface drought. It is also of the deficiency. Similarly, high to the accuracy of the tests. Levels of
advantageous in reducing soil salt potassium levels aggravate magnesium nitrogen are particularly difficult to
concentrations which may arise from deficiency. Other nutrient antagonisms interpret, as the amount available in
the continual use of supplementary include N/K; K/Mg; Mg/K; P/K; the soil after a cold wet winter indicates
fertilizers. Some elements are more P/Zn; Na/Ca; K/Ca; Mg/Ca; nothing about the likely levels in
mobile than others, for example, Ca/Mn; Cu/Fe; Zn/Fe; Co/Fe and summer. In addition, most soil-testing
nitrogen ions are prone to leaching, Ni/Fe. kits will only give readings for nitrogen
whereas phosphorus moves extremely The opposite phenomenon is seen as nitrate ions. For vegetables grown at
slowly in soil. Leaching is worse on when the addition of one nutrient a high pH this will be adequate, but it
coarse-textured soils where the improves the uptake or efficiency of use will be of no value for plants growing
drainage rate is high and CEC is low. of another. These are called synergisms on acid ground where ammonium is
Leaching rates can therefore be and include N/Mg and K/Fe. important. Foliar analysis and sap
reduced by increasing CEC or by Identifying nutrient testing can be more reliable techniques,
reducing the rate of water movement deficiencies In the majority of but these are impracticable for most
down the profile by improving cases, and particularly at low levels gardeners.
structure and water retention; adding of deficiency, visual clues can vary Assessment of the nutrient status
clay or organic matter helps to meet according to the availability of other of soil on a new site is desirable, and
both these objectives. Vegetation nutrients and the type of plant; determining levels of phosphorus,
restricts leaching by recovering and confusion may also result due to potassium and magnesium, as well as
recycling ions and by reducing water problems such as virus infection, pH, may be worthwhile. When fertility
drainage, whereas leaving land fallow physical root damage, waterlogging is established, combining moderate
can cause depletion of readily available and herbicide damage which can cause levels of regular feeding, with an eye for
nutrients. Reduced leaching is one of similar symptoms. possible deficiency symptoms, usually
the benefits obtained by using green Deciding which nutrient is causing means that repeated complicated tests
manures on unused land. On sandy a deficiency problem can be difficult; of garden soil are unnecessary.
N soils, soluble fertilizers, such as

ammonium nitrate, can be lost in just
a few days of wet weather, making
it is important to note whether the
symptoms are affecting old or young
leaves and leaf margins or leaf veins.
The natural response of many
gardeners faced with a nutrient
deficiency is to add fertilizer. However,
this an ineffective and uneconomic A pictorial reference book is invaluable. if the real problem is linked to poor
fertilizer. Slow-release fertilizers are The major problem with using visual nutrient availability rather than low
often much better value on sands, even symptoms to identify a deficiency is levels, fertilizing may be of limited or
though they appear to be more costly. that growth and yield can be affected no benefit and alternative feeding
In general, thoughtful and timely long before there are obvious signs. strategies may be needed. For example,
application of manures and fertilizers Annual dressings of fertilizers provide iron is present in huge amounts in soil,
helps to reduce waste and the risk of some insurance but can be expensive yet deficiencies can result from a high
ground water pollution. and may contribute to a build up of pH. This can be corrected by foliar
Fire causes nutrient loss; when soil salts harmful to plant growth, and feeding, using special sequestrene
vegetation is burnt, certain elements, to pollution. compounds that remain soluble at
such as nitrogen and sulphur, form If more precision is required, an high pH, or by adding bulky organic
gases that escape into the atmosphere, assessment of the current nutrient manures, which slightly acidify the soil
although potassium remains in the ashes. status of the soil can be made by soil and also produce their own natural
Soil nitrogen can be lost to the analysis, achieved by laboratory tests, sequestrenes.
atmosphere by denitrification, which by the use of portable electrodes or The nutrient status of crops can
occurs following bacterial action in with soil-testing kits. Most soil analysis also be modified by various cultural
waterlogged soils. A similar loss can relies on chemical extractants, which practices: mulching or irrigating will
occur by ammonia volatilization, remove nutrients at levels that are reduce drought and improve nutrient
when fertilizers or manures rich in roughly equivalent to the amounts movement; mulches or cloches increase
ammonium compounds are applied to taken up by plant roots. Although a soil temperature and bacterial activity
well-aerated soils which have a high broad indication of fertility can be early in the year; cultivation aerates the
pH or have recently been limed. obtained, there are drawbacks relating soil and increases the rate of organic
Nutrient antagonisms Not to the interpretation of results. A soil matter breakdown, and also influences
only are the absolute levels of a given is only deficient when the plant in the rooting depth and extent of the
nutrient important, but also the relative question cannot obtain enough plants. Marling a sandy soil or adding
proportions of two or more elements nutrients: both the demands and the organic matter can improve structure,
can affect plant growth and yield and root systems of a mature tree will be water retention and CEC.
544 influence the availability of other very different from those of a small The choice of fruit rootstock affects
minerals. For example, adding extra vegetable seedling. In addition, the the extent of rooting and hence the
Nymphaea
likelihood of nutrient deficiencies, including half barrels in the patio or viviparous tropical types by the
while the presence of grass in an courtyard garden. The majority of N. removal of young plantlets borne in
orchard can influence nutrient Laydekeri Hybrids are grown at a the leaf blade sinus.
availability. Above all, modifying the depth of 30–40cm (12–16in), and the Waterlily beetle can be a destructive
soil pH is one of the most effective N. Marliacea Hybrids at 90cm (36in), pest – adults overwinter among pond-
means of altering nutrient availability although the tiny ‘Mary Patricia’ side vegetation, laying eggs on upper
in gardens. requires only 15–30cm (6–12in), and leaf surfaces in late spring. The
It is not always desirable for soils to the more robust ‘Carnea’ and ‘Rosea’ emerging larvae feed on foliage, eating
have high nutrient levels. In nature, very need up to 1.2m (4ft) of water above holes in the leaves and flowers. The
fertile soils are dominated by a few the crown. Deep-water species, at water lily aphid attacks many soft-
aggressively competitive plants. The depths of 2–2.5m (61/2–8ft) for larger- leaved aquatics during the summer,
decline of wildflowers in countryside scale plantings, include N.alba cultivars distorting foliage and flower stems and
areas can often be directly attributed and hybrids such as ‘Gladstoniana’, discolouring flowers. Eggs overwinter
to the increased use of fertilizers, with semi-double, starry white flowers. on Prunus, especially plum and
particularly in species-rich grassland The tropical species and hybrids are blackthorn, but also on flowering
where the more attractive plants have fine plants for large pools in the heated cherries; large-scale landscape
been replaced by vigorous grasses. greenhouse (minimum temperature plantings with these trees at the
15°C/59°F). waterside will almost certainly make
nyctinasty the night-time folding up Plant all in baskets or on the pond it difficult to maintain a healthy
of leaflets, as occurs, for example, in floor in a loamy medium in water with population of Nymphaea species.
some Oxalis species. a pH of 6.0–7.0. Position in full sun Waterlily leaf spot shows as dark
away from disturbance by waterfalls, rotting patches on leaves that
nymph the immature stage of those fountains or pumps. Feed when eventually disintegrate. Remove and
more primitive insects that undergo necessary with a slow-release fertilizer destroy affected parts. With crown rot,
incomplete metamorphosis; the offspring placed in the baskets or in the vicinity the crown suffers a putrid rot and
resemble the parents except that they of root systems. At planting time, rapidly collapses.
are smaller, sexually immature and remove adult leaves and damaged roots N.alba (EUROPEAN WATER LILY;
develop wings gradually. Nymphs are
usually found in similar places to adults,
and consume the same type of food.
and treat cut surfaces with charcoal.
Plant the rhizomes or tubers vertically
with the fibrous roots spread out
Eurasia, N Africa; leaves to 30cm
(12in) in diameter, entire, dark green
above, red-green to yellow beneath;
N
Familiar plant pests with nymphal stages beneath. The crown must be just at flowers to 20cm (8in), diameter, white,
include springtails, earwigs, grasshoppers the surface of the medium. Top dress opening diurnally, floating, faintly
and crickets; others include leafhoppers, with a layer of pea gravel. Lower fragrant, stamens yellow to orange);
aphids, scale insects, mealybugs, white- the container into the water slowly; N.caerulea (BLUE LOTUS; N and tropical
flies and capsid bugs. gradually increase the plant’s depth Africa; leaves to 40cm (16in) in
to the appropriate level as growth diameter, entire or undulate, green
Nymphaea (from Greek nymphe, a progresses. In larger expanses of water, above, spotted purple beneath; flowers
water-nymph, referring to the habitat). plant roots in a packet of soil wrapped to 15cm (6in) in diameter, pale blue,
Nymphaeaceae. Cosmopolitan in hessian, place carefully in emergent, opening diurnally,
distribution. WATER LILY. Some 50 water and allow to sink. stamens yellow); N.capensis (CAPE
species, aquatic, perennial herbs with Temperate species are BLUE WATER LILY; S and E
stout rhizomes or tubers and long- generally cold hardy Africa, Madagascar; leaves
stalked floating leaves, their blades where temperatures fall to to 40cm (16in) in diameter,
usually rounded and with a deep –15°C/5°F and below, but dentate to undulate, green,
basal sinus. The flowers are solitary, there must be sufficient depth spotted purple beneath when
floating or emergent and fragrant, of water above the crown young; flowers to 20cm (8in) in
with many oblong petals in a bowl-like (about 22–30cm (9–12in)) diameter, bright blue, opening
arrangement around a boss of stamens. to protect it from freezing. Waterlily diurnally, sweetly fragrant,
Species from cooler regions are Alternatively, tubers can be beetle emergent, stamens golden;
suitable for permanent positions in lifted and stored in cool conditions if cultivars and varieties include
the pools and lakes of temperate kept moist and protected from vermin. ‘Eastoniensis’, with serrate leaves and
gardens, one of the most important When plants become overcrowded, steel blue flowers; var. zanzibariensis,
factors for success being the selection flowers are smaller and fewer and with smaller leaves, tinged purple
of appropriate species and cultivars foliage stands clear of the water. It may beneath, and deeper blue flowers to
for the given depth of water. Depth be necessary to remove overcrowded 30cm (12in) in diameter; ‘Azurea’, with
requirements range from 15 to 30cm foliage in summer by pulling away the light blue flowers; ‘Jupiter’, with large,
(6 to 12in) for N.tetragona and its older, outer leaves. Propagate by scented, dark violet blue flowers; and
hybrids, making them suitable for division or by removal of pieces of ‘Rosea’, with leaves tinted red beneath 545
even the smallest stretches of water, rhizome with a sprouting eye. Increase and pale pink flowers flushed red);
Nymphaea
N. x daubenyana. (N.caerulea x N.micrantha; N.mexicana and others; hardy, robust Nymphoides (resembling Nymphaea).
leaves viviparous; flowers 5–18cm garden hybrids with large flowers held Menyanthaceae. Cosmopolitan.
(2–7in) in diameter, emergent, azure above the water; cultivars include FLOATING HEART. 20 species, aquatic
blue, opening diurnally); N.flavovirens ‘Albida’, with fragrant, white flowers, perennial herbs with creeping rhizomes
(Mexico, S America; leaves to 45cm exterior tinted pink below, with yellow and elongate stems. The leaves are
(18in) in diameter, subentire to deeply stamens; ‘Carnea’, with fragrant, flesh- floating, long-stalked and rounded to
sinuate, sometimes red beneath; flowers pink to deep rose flowers; heart-shaped. The flowers are borne
to 20cm (8in) in diameter, white, ‘Chromatella’, with leaves mottled on slender stalks, the flowering nodes
strongly fragrant, opening diurnally, purple-bronze, and chrome yellow, sometimes with clusters of short spur
emergent, stamens deep yellow; semi-double flowers; and ‘Rosea, with roots, and the corolla rounded with five
cultivars include ‘Astraea’, with star- leaves flushed purple at first, and rosy entire or fringed lobes. A hardy,
shaped, blue flowers shading to white red flowers); N.odorata (FRAGRANT floating aquatic for smaller ponds or
at centre, and yellow stamens; ‘Mrs C. WATER LILY, POND LILY; E US; leaves containers. Cultivate as for hardy
W. Ward’, with rosy red flowers and to 25cm (10in) in diameter, entire, dull Nymphaea in full sun. Propagate by
golden yellow stamens tipped pink; dark green above, usually purple and division in spring or by separation of
‘Purpurea’, with vivid purple flowers rough beneath; flowers to 15cm (6in) young plantlets in autumn. Damaged,
and gold stamens; ‘Stella Gurney’, also in diameter, white, usually floating, or killed, by formalin, when this is
known as ‘Pink Star’, with large, pale sweetly fragrant, opening diurnally, used against algae. N.peltata (YELLOW
pink flowers; and ‘William Stone’, stamens gold; cultivars include ‘Eugene FLOATING HEART, WATER FRINGE;
with large, dark blue flowers, violet at de Land’, with scented, pale orange- Europe, Asia, naturalized US; freely
centre, and stamens gold tipped blue); pink flowers held above water; stoloniferous; leaves 5–10cm (2–4in) in
N.gigantea (AUSTRALIAN WATER LILY; ‘Exquisita’, with small, star-shaped, diameter, mottled; flowers to 2.5cm
tropical Australia, New Guinea; leaves rose flowers; ‘Helen Fowler’, with large (1in) in diameter, golden yellow,
to 60cm (24in) in diameter, undulate, deep pink, very fragrant flowers held fringed).
dentate, tinged pink to purple beneath; above water; ‘Roswitha’ with rich rose-
flowers to 30cm (12in) in diameter, sky red flowers; ‘Sulphurea Grandiflora’, Nyssa (for Nyssa, a water nymph:
blue to blue-purple, opening diurnally, N.odorata x N.mexicana, with dark green, N.aquatica grows in swamps). Nyssaceae.
N emergent, stamens bright yellow);

N. x helvola; syn. N. ‘Pygmy Yellow’;
N.tetragona x N.mexicana; leaves to 6cm
marbled leaves and very large, stellate
flowers of a bright rich yellow;
‘William B. Shaw’, with large, flat,
TUPELO. Eastern N America, E Asia.
5 species, deciduous trees having
inconspicuous green flowers and leaves
(21/2in), red blotched brown; flowers to creamy pink flowers, with an internal colouring beautifully in autumn. The
5cm (2in) in diameter, canary-yellow, zone of dark red; var. rosea, with deep following are fully hardy and perform
stamens orange); N. Laydekeri Hybrids pink, strongly scented flowers to 10cm best in full sun or light shade on moist
(syn. N. x laydekeri; hybrids involving (4in) in diameter; and ‘Prolifera’, with or wet, acid to neutral soils. N.sylvatica
N.alba var. rubra, N.tetragona and others; abundant flowers); N.tetragona (syn. is tolerant of pollution, maritime
hardy garden hybrids lacking the N.pygmaea; PYGMY WATER LILY; NE conditions and shade. Try to avoid
vigour of the Marliacea Hybrids; Europe, N Asia to Japan, N America; root disturbance. Sow seed, following
usually with brown-mottled or -tinted leaves to 10cm (4in), entire, blotched stratification at 5°C/41°F for three
leaves and flowers 6–8cm (21/2–3in) in brown when young above, dull red months; alternatively, increase by layers
diameter; cultivars include ‘Fulgens’, beneath; flowers to 5cm (2in) in or semi-ripe cuttings during late
with leaves mottled brown, and diameter, white, sometimes faintly lined summer.
crimson-magenta flowers to 9cm purple, floating, slightly fragrant, N.sinensis (CHINESE TUPELO; C China;
(31/2in) in diameter, with red stamens; anthers golden yellow; cultivars include similar to N.sylvatica but 10–15m
‘Liliacea’, with fragrant, lilac-pink ‘Alba’, with small, oval leaves, purple (33–50ft) and more spreading; leaves
flowers, with orange-red stamens; and beneath, and white flowers to 2.5cm to 20cm (8in), oblong to lanceolate,
‘Purpurata’, with green leaves and (1in) in diameter; ‘Hyperion’, with dark sparsely hairy and tinged red when
crimson flowers, with orange-red amaranth flowers; ‘Johann Pring’, with young; autumn colour usually finer
stamens). N.lotus (EGYPTIAN WATER LILY, rich pink flowers – inner ring of than that of N.sylvatica); N.sylvatica
LOTUS, WHITE LILY; Egypt to tropical stamens light orange, outer ring dark (BLACK GUM, PEPPERIDGE, SOUR GUM;
and SE Africa; leaves to 50cm (20in) in pink – to 5cm (2in) in diameter; eastern N America; broadly columnar
diameter, undulate to serrate, dark ‘Rubis’, with deep red flowers, lacking to conical, 20–30m (66–100ft); leaves
green above, green or brown and white dots on outer petals; f. rubra, with to 15cm (6in), ovate to elliptic or
usually hairy beneath; flowers to 25cm leaves tinted purple, red beneath, and obovate, downy on the veins beneath,
(10in) in diameter, white, sometimes dark red flowers, with orange stamens). flame-coloured in autumn; fruit ovoid,
tinged pink, opening diurnally or 1cm (1/2in), blue-black; var. biflora:
nocturnally, slightly fragrant, nymphaeum a grotto or building SWAMP TUPELO, SE US, to 15m (50ft),
emergent); N. Marliacea Hybrids (syn. usually containing statuary and with base of trunk swollen when
546 N. x marliacea; MARLIAC HYBRIDS, waterworks, a feature of Roman growing in water, and more leathery,
involving N.alba, N.odorata var. rosea, and Italian Renaissance gardens. oblanceolate leaves).
Odontoglossum
O
Ocimum (plant name used by (minimum temperature 10°C/50°F),
Theophrastus). Labiatae. Old World although a few are tolerant of warmer
tropics. 35 species of aromatic annual conditions and may thrive in the
and perennial herbs, subshrubs and home; see Odontoglossum for general
shrubs with small, two-lipped flowers requirements.
whorled in spikes. O.basilicum is one of
the most important culinary herbs; the x Odontocidium Orchidaceae.
leaves are used in salads, casseroles, Garden hybrids between Odontoglossum
sauces and liqueurs. Although more and Oncidium. The flowers arise on
or less perennial, basil is best-treated simple or branched racemes and are
as a tender annual in cool temperate very varied – rounded in shape, or
climates and sown under glass in a with long, narrow sepals and petals,
ob- a prefix, meaning inverted; thus, soilless compost in spring; pot on the lip large or small depending on
oblanceolate means lanceolate, but under glass in a similar medium the ancestry; many colours are
with the broadest part furthest from and plant after the last frosts. represented, often marked
the base. In hotter climates, it is in contrasting tones.
possible to obtain two Most of these hybrids
obelisk a pointed, tapering shaft or more crops per year – are ‘cool’ growers
of masonry, usually square in section, sow in situ. O.basilicum (minimum temperature
often used in landscape gardens as an (COMMON BASIL, SWEET 10°C/50°F), although a few
eye-catcher. BASIL; tropical Asia, are tolerant of warmer
now widespread conditions; see Odontoglossum
obligate essential; unable to exist through cultivation; for general requirements.
without; for example, true parasites annual or short-lived
are said to be obligate. perennial, 20–60cm sweet basil Odontoglossum
(8–24in); leaves leaves (from Greek odous,
oblique (1) of a base, with sides 1.5–5cm (5/8–2in), odontos, tooth, and
of unequal angles and dimensions; narrowly ovate to glossa, tongue, referring
(2) of direction, extending laterally, elliptic, entire to serrate; to the tooth-like processes
the margin upwards and the apex
pointed horizontally.
cultivars include ‘Citriodorum’,
with lemon-scented leaves;
‘Crispum’, with leaves curled around
of the lip). Orchidaceae.
S America. Some 60 species,
evergreen perennial herbs, for the
O
obtuse apex or base terminating the edges; var. purpurascens, BUSH most part epiphytes or lithophytes
gradually in a blunt or rounded end. BASIL, GREEK BASIL, 15–30cm Ocimum with pseudobulbs and strap-shaped
(6–12in), bushy with very small basilicum leaves. The flowers are carried in
Ochna (from Greek ochne, name used leaves, includes ‘Purple Ruffles’, erect to arching racemes or
by Homer for the wild pear, the leaves with purple leaves, curled around panicles and vary greatly in size, shape
of which are said to resemble those of the edges, and ‘Dark Opal’, with and colour. The sepals are more or less
some species in this genus). Ochnaceae. red-purple, clove-scented leaves). equal and spreading, the petals similar
Old World tropics. BIRD’S EYE BUSH. to the sepals but often shorter. The lip
86 species, deciduous or evergreen ocrea, ochrea a tubular or inflated is either simple or 3-lobed, its basal
trees and shrubs with leathery, glossy sheath formed by a pair of coherent portion often claw-like, the lateral lobes
and toothed leaves. Produced in spring stipules, as in Polygonaceae. spreading or erect, the midlobe entire
and summer, the flowers give rise to or cleft, and the disc crested, bumpy
fruits with enlarged and fleshy calyces x Odontioda Orchidaceae. Garden or with keels. These plants are cool-
and glossy drupes attached to a hybrids between Odontoglossum and growing (minimum temperature
swollen, lobed receptacle. Grow Ochna Cochlioda. Plants consist of a group of 10°C/50°F in winter) and demand a
in full sun; water plentifully and feed compressed pseudobulbs with two or buoyant, freely ventilated and humid
fortnightly when in full growth; more strap-like leaves. The flowers atmosphere in light shade. Their roots
maintain a minimum temperature arise at various times of year in simple are slender: a fine bark mix is best,
of 10°C/50°F during winter. Prune or branched racemes. Most have a containing rockwool or sphagnum.
in early spring if necessary to shape rounded shape and wide sepals and Water and syringe freely when in
or confine to bounds. Propagate petals, the lip large or small depending growth, and impose drier, cooler
by seed, alternatively by semi-ripe on the ancestry. They come in many conditions when at rest. Never syringe
cuttings. O.serrulata (MICKEY-MOUSE colours, often conspicuously marked in cold weather. Propagate by division.
PLANT, BIRD’S EYE BUSH; South Africa; in a variety of contrasting tones; the O.cirrhosum (Ecuador, Colombia,
to 2.25m (71/4ft); flowers solitary or bright red of so many of the crosses Peru; raceme or panicle to 60cm (24in),
clustered, calyx lobes bright red in is inherited from the Cochlioda parent. arching; flowers to 8cm (3in) across, 547
fruit; drupes glossy, black). Most of these hybrids are ‘cool’ growers tepals slender, wavy, with narrow,
Odontoglossum
curved tips, white, more or less rose-purple near apex). For O.bictoniense, stems 20–40cm (8–16in), procumbent
blotched red-brown, lip with a narrow, O.cervantesii, O.cordatum, O.rossii and to erect; leaf segments 1–3cm
pointed midlobe, white stained yellow O.stellatum see under Lemboglossum; (1/2–11/4in), ovate to narrowly obovate,
in throat and marked red-brown); for O.grande see Rossioglossum. toothed, sometimes lobed; ‘Flamingo’:
O.crispum (Colombia; raceme to 50cm leaves splashed and zoned pink,
(20in), arching; flowers to 9cm (31/2in) oedema the formation of small cream and white).
across, tepals broad, spreading, toothed blister-like swellings on leaves or stems,
and lacy, pure white, sometimes tinted which may become brown and corky. Oenothera (name used by
pale rose or with a few red spots, lip The result of increased intracellular Theophrastus for another plant).
short, broad, white stained yellow at water, oedema occurs where intake Onagraceae. N and S America, many
base with a few red spots); O.cristatum exceeds the rate of transpiration. It naturalized elsewhere, usually on
(Colombia, Ecuador, Peru; raceme to is favoured by a humid atmosphere disturbed ground. EVENING PRIMROSE,
50cm (20in), arching; flowers to 8cm and heavy watering. Tomatoes and SUNDROPS, SUNCUPS. 124 species,
(3in) across, tepals ovate, tapering pelargoniums especially are prone annual, biennial or perennial herbs.
narrowly, creamy yellow to olive with to oedema. Also known as edema Produced in spring and summer, the
chestnut blotches, lip finely pointed, or dropsy. flowers are usually short-lived but
olive blotched chestnut with a white showy, either solitary in leaf axils or
throat); O.harryanum (Columbia, Peru; Oemleria (for Augustus Gottleib gathered into corymbose, racemose or
raceme erect to 1m (31/4ft), sometimes Oemler, 19th-century German-born spicate inflorescences. Bowl- to funnel-
branched; flowers to 10cm (4in) across, pharmacist and naturalist working in shaped, they consist of four silky,
tepals broadly oblong, wavy, yellow Savannah, Georgia, US). Rosaceae. obovate petals and open at dawn or
to olive overlaid with chestnut to Western N America. OSO BERRY, dusk. The following species are hardy
chocolate brown, lip large, heart- OREGON PLUM. 1 species, O.cerasiformis in climate zone 6 and fare best in full
shaped, white heavily veined with red); (syn. Osmaronia cerasiformis), a deciduous, sun on well-drained, low- to medium-
O.lindleyanum (Colombia, Venezuela, slender-stemmed shrub to 5m (16ft). fertility soils. Their longevity varies,
Ecuador; raceme or panicle to 30cm The leaves are to 10cm (4in) long, influenced by climate and soil type:
(12in); flowers to 6cm (21/2in) across, oblong to oblanceolate, glossy dark certain perennial species are better
tepals narrowly oblanceolate, golden green above, grey and downy beneath. treated as annuals or biennials when
blotched and barred chestnut brown, Small, white, fragrant flowers are gardening on heavy soils or in cold
O lip narrow, forward-pointing, white

with a spear-shaped midlobe that
progresses from yellow at the tip
carried in nodding racemes in early
spring and are followed by small, sloe-
black fruits. Hardy to –20°C/–4°F.
areas. The tall-growing species are
prolific seeders useful for naturalizing
in wild areas (gravelly banks and
through burnt orange to fuchsia pink Grow in well-drained but moisture- near-pure sand included). Low-growing
at the base); O.luteopurpureum (Colombia; retentive neutral to acid soils in shade. species make good front-of-border or
raceme to 1m (31/4ft); flowers to 10cm Prune after flowering to thin out old scree plants. Sow seed from spring to
(4in) across, tepals ovate to lanceolate, shoots and to relieve overcrowding. early summer. Propagate perennials by
pointed, wavy, creamy yellow heavily Old plants may be rejuvenated by division, or by softwood cuttings taken
blotched and overlaid with glossy cutting hard back. Propagate in spring before flowering.
maroon, lip axe-shaped, finely fringed, by rooted suckers. O.biennis (COMMON EVENING
white blotched maroon at base); PRIMROSE, GERMAN RAMPION; eastern
O.pendulum (syn. Cuitlauzina pendula, Oenanthe (from Greek oinanthe, N America, naturalized Europe and
O.citrosmum; Mexico; raceme to 50cm inflorescence of the grapevine). elsewhere; erect, annual or biennal,
(20in), pendulous; flowers to 7cm Umbelliferae. Western N America. 10–150cm (4–60in); inflorescence
(23/4in) across, lemon-scented, tepals 30 species of glabrous perennial herbs, spicate; petals 1.8–2.5cm (3/4–1in),
broadly obovate, pure white sometimes many of them highly toxic. The stems yellow, ageing gold); O.deltoides (DESERT
flushed pale rose or lilac, lip broadly are procumbent to ascending and often EVENING PRIMROSE; California; annual,
hatchet-shaped, mauve-pink, yellow rooting. The leaves are pinnately 5–25cm (2–10in), branching from base;
at base); O.pulchellum (syn. Osmoglossum compound or decompound with flowers solitary, white, ageing pink,
pulchellum; LILY OF THE VALLEY ORCHID; toothed leaflets. Small, white flowers 4–8cm (11/2–3in) diameter); O.fruticosa
Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador; are borne in tight compound umbels. (SUNDROPS; eastern N America;
raceme to 50cm (20in), erect to arching; Hardy in climate zone 6, O.javanica biennial or perennial, 30–80cm
flowers to 3cm (11/4in) across, sweetly ‘Flamingo’ is a brightly variegated (12–32in), hairy, tinged red; petals
scented, tepals obovate, cupped, groundcover plant ideal for wet 1.5–2.5cm (5/8–1in), toothed, deep
sparkling white tinted rose, lip white); situations or use in containers and yellow; cultivars include ‘Fireworks’,
O.wallisii (Colombia, Venezuela, Peru; bedding. It will also thrive in shallow with leaves tinged purple and yellow
raceme or panicle to 50cm (20in), water. Propagate by stem tip cuttings, flowers; ‘Golden Moonlight’, to 80cm
arching; flowers to 5cm (2in) across, division or by simple layering. O.javanica (32in) high, with large, bright yellow
548 tepals narrowly oblanceolate, golden (syn. O.japonica; India to Japan, Ryukyu flowers; ‘Highlight’, with yellow
blotched red-brown, lip white spotted Islands, Taiwan, Malaysia, N Australia; flowers; ‘Illumination’, with leaves,
Olearia
tinged bronze, and large, deep yellow oilstone a fine-grained sharpening off-white flowers in summer, and ovoid
flowers; ‘Silvery Moon’, to 80cm (32in) stone lubricated with oil, used for or globose drupes. Although badly
high, with large, pale yellow flowers; sharpening knives and secateurs. damaged by temperatures lower than
‘Yellow River’, with stem brick red and –10°C/14°F, O.europaea will grow in
bright canary yellow flowers; ‘Youngii’, zone 8, if given the shelter of a wall
to 50cm (20in), with large, bright and full sunlight. However, good
yellow flowers; subsp. glauca, syn. fruiting can be expected only in warm-
O.tetragona: leaves broader, tinted red temperate regions with moist winters
when young, includes ‘Sonnenwende’, and hot, dry summers. Plant in a deep
to 60cm (24in), with leaves red in fertile soil, with perfect drainage. The
autumn, and red-orange flower buds); weighting or arching of branches will
O.macrocarpa (syn. O.missouriensis; OZARK encourage fruiting. Pruning may
SUNDROPS; south central US; perennial, stimulate the overproduction of
rather short-stemmed, branched from non-fruiting water shoots. Container-
base, decumbent to erect, pubescent; grown plants thrive in cool, well-lit
flowers yellow, up to 10cm (4in) in greenhouses and conservatories and
diameter; includes ‘Greencourt may be moved outdoors in summer.
Lemon’, which has lemon yellow Propagate by seed sown in gentle heat
flowers); O.perennis (syn. O.pumila; in spring, by semi-ripe cuttings in
SUNDROPS; eastern N America; Okra summer. O.europaea (COMMON OLIVE,
perennial, 10–50cm (4–20in); stem The edible seed pods are ready to harvest EDIBLE OLIVE; to 7m (23ft); leaves to
slender, simple or few-branched; about seven days after setting, when around 8cm (3in), elliptic to lanceolate, grey-
flowers in a loose spike, petals 6–8cm (21⁄2–3in) long. green above, silver-scurfy beneath;
0.6–0.8cm (1/4–3/8in), yellow); O.rosea fruit ripening red to purple-black, to
(Texas to Peru, naturalized S Europe; okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) LADY’S 5cm (2in); widespread throughout the
erect, strigulose, perennial or annual, FINGER A tender annual, up to 2m Mediterranean region, var. europaea is
15–60cm (6–24in); inflorescence (61/2ft) in height, grown for its edible the fruit- and oil-yielding cultigen; it
spicate, petals 0.4–1cm (1/8–1/2in), pods used when immature as a cooked includes numerous cultivars; the fruit
pink to red-violet); O.speciosa (WHITE vegetable, or matured, dried and finely may range in size from 1 to 5cm
EVENING PRIMROSE; SW US to
Mexico; rhizomatous perennial, erect,
30–60cm (12–24in), strigose; petals
ground for use as a flavouring. The
pods are 10–25cm (4–10in) long,
angled, beaked and bristly and there
(1/2 to 2in), in shape from near-
spherical, to egg- to spindle-shaped,
in colour from purple-red to blue-black
O
2–2.5cm (3/4–1in), white ageing rose, are green, red or yellow skinned or yellow-green, in quality from firm
sometimes pink when young; ‘Rosea’: cultivars. In warm temperate and sub- and waxy to smooth and yielding,
to 30cm (12in), with pale pink flowers tropical climates OKRA can be grown and from sour to sweet).
opening during the day; ‘Siskiyou’: outdoors. An ideal temperature range
habit neat, bushy, flowers rose-pink for good growth is 20–30°C/68°–86°F, oleaginous oily, though of a
with white centres veined pink, the so that greenhouse protection may be fleshy nature.
very centre and anthers golden). required. Seed should be pre-soaked
and germinated at a minimum Olearia (for Johann Gottfried
officinal strictly meaning ‘of temperature of 16°C/61°F. In suitable Olschlager (1635–1711), German
apothecaries’ shops’. Pertaining to climates, seed can be sown in situ horticulturist – the family name was
commercial value, especially as sold outdoors in rows 60–70cm (24–28in) Latinized Olearius). Compositae.
in shops; applied to plants with real apart at 20–30cm (8–12in) stations. Australasia. DAISY BUSH. About 130
or presumed medicinal properties, Under protection grow in pots, growing species, herbs, evergreen shrubs or
hence the specific epithet officinalis. bags or border soil allowing at least small trees with leathery leaves and
40cm (16in) between plants. Plants daisy-like flowerheads in spring and
offset, offshoot a young plant that require staking and the growing points summer. Most are not reliably hardy
is produced naturally by vegetative should be pinched out at 60cm (24in) where temperatures fall much below
means. An offset or offshoot is joined height. The maintenance of high –5°C/23°F, unless given warm wall
to its parent plant, but is easily humidity is beneficial. Harvest from protection. They are valuable in mild
detached from it. The term is 8–12 weeks after sowing, cutting maritime gardens, showing good
commonly applied to bulbs, corms the pods off with a knife. resistance to salt-laden winds and
and many rosette-forming plants, maintaining a dense and compact
including sempervivums; it is also Olea (from Greek elaia, the olive). habit when grown in full sun and an
used of fibrous-rooted plants that Oleaceae. Temperate and tropical exposed position. Several species of
produce a number of loosely joined Old World. OLIVE. Some 20 species of particularly dense habit are suitable
groups of shoots, such as perennial long-lived evergreen trees and shrubs for hedging, including O.macrodonta, 549
asters. See daffodils. with leathery leaves, small, white or O.avicenniifolia and O. x haastii (the two
Olearia
last also tolerate urban pollution). (2–4in), ovate to oblong, acute to narrowly obovate, glabrous above,
With O.nummularifolia, O.virgata, O.mollis acuminate, dark glossy green above, white-tomentose beneath; flowerheads
and O.ilicifolia, these three are among silver-tomentose beneath, musk-scented yellow to white; var. lineata: leaves
the hardiest, tolerating temperatures when crushed, undulate, acutely narrow, strongly revolute).
to –15°C/5°F; O. x scilloniensis and dentate-serrate; flowerheads white
O. ‘Talbot de Malahide’ are almost as with red-tinted centres); O. x mollis Olsynium (from Greek meaning
hardy, to about –10°C/14°F. Grow in (O.ilicifolia x O.lacunosa; New Zealand; ‘hardly united’, referring to the
any well-drained soil in full sun. Olearia shrub to 3m (10ft); leaves to 10cm (4in), stamens). Iridaceae. Americas. About
responds particularly well to hard lanceolate, spinulose, rounded at base, 12 species, perennial herbs with fibrous
pruning, breaking freely from older veins sunken above, very prominent roots and basal fans or tufts of linear to
wood. Propagate by semi-ripe cuttings beneath, densely white- to pale yellow- lanceolate leaves. Produced in summer
in summer or by heeled ripewood tomentose beneath, revolute; white in terminal clusters, the flowers are
cuttings of lateral shoots in the cold flowerheads; ‘Zennorensis’: shrub to bell-shaped and consist of six tepals.
frame in early autumn. Softer-leaved 2m (61/2ft), with narrow, acute, sharply Graceful perennials for cool, semi-
types, such as O.phlogopappa, can be dentate leaves, 10 (4in) x 1–1.5cm shaded positions in acid pockets on
increased by softwood cuttings. (1/2–5/8in), dark olive green above, white- the rock garden or the peat bed.
O.avicenniifolia (New Zealand; shrub tomentose beneath); O.nummulariifolia They will survive frosts to –20°C/–4°F
or small tree to 7m (23ft); leaves (New Zealand; shrub to 3m (10ft); and become dormant in late spring,
5–10cm (2–4in), ovate to lanceolate, leaves 0.5–1cm (1/4–1/2in), dense, ovate but nonetheless require permanent
tapered at base and apex, entire, grey- to suborbicular, glabrous above white- moisture. Increase by seed or division.
white, glabrous above, white- or pale to buff- or yellow-tomentose beneath, O.douglasii (syn. O.grandiflorum,
yellow-tomentose beneath; flowerheads revolute; flowerheads fragrant, pale Sisyrinchium douglasii, Sisyrinchium
white); O.chathamica (New Zealand; yellow or cream); O.phlogopappa grandiflorum; GRASS WIDOW,
shrub, to 2m (61/2ft); leaves 3–8cm (Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales; PURPLE-EYED GRASS; western
(11/4–3in), oblanceolate to elliptic, aromatic shrub to 3m (10ft); leaves N America; 15–30cm (6–12in) high;
acute, tapered at base, regularly and 1.5–5cm (5/8–2in), oblong or narrowly flowers pendent, wine-red, purple-pink
obtusely dentate, glabrous above, obovate, sinuous or shallowly toothed, or white).
midrib raised beneath; flowerheads dark dull green above, white- or grey-
white or tinged purple, with dark purple tomentose beneath; flowerheads white, Omphalodes (from Greek omphalos,
O centres); O. x haastii (O.avicenniifolia x

O.moschata; New Zealand; shrub, 1–3m
(31/4–10ft); leaves 1–2.5cm (1/2–1in),
occasionally pink, mauve or blue, with
centres yellow). O. x scilloniensis (O.lirata x
O.phlogopappa; shrub to 3m (10ft); leaves
navel, and oides, like, the nutlets
resemble a navel). Boraginaceae.
Europe, N Africa, Asia, Mexico.
crowded, oval or ovate, entire, dark to 11cm (41/2in), elliptic to oblong, NAVELWORT, NAVELSEED. Some 28
glossy green, glabrous above, white- obtuse, deep green and reticulate species, annual, biennial or perennial
tomentose beneath; flowerheads white above, pale green, tomentose beneath, herbs, with long-stalked, oblong to
with centres yellow); O. ‘Henry Travers’ sinuate; flowerheads white with yellow ovate leaves. Produced in spring and
(O.chathamica x O.semidentata; medium- centres; ‘Master Michael’: leaves tinted summer in cymose sprays, the small,
sized shrub; leaves lanceolate, grey- grey, flowers blue); O.semidentata bowl-shaped flowers have five, rounded
green, silvery beneath; flowerheads (Chatham Island, New Zealand; lobes and, usually, a paler eye. O.luciliae
large, lilac, deep mauve centres); rounded shrub to 3.5m (111/2ft); requires a sunny position with its roots
O.hookeri (Tasmania; shrub to 1m (31/4ft); leaves 3.5–7cm (11/2–23/4in), linear in light, moist, sharply drained soil,
leaves 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in), narrow, to lanceolate, serrate above, rugose, with additional limestone. Hardy to
grooved above, revolute; flowerheads glabrous above, white-tomentose about –5°C/23°F, it dislikes winter wet
indigo, centres yellow); O.ilicifolia (New beneath; flowerheads pale purple and may be more safely grown in the
Zealand; tree or shrub to 5m (16ft), with darker violet-purple centres; for alpine house. The annual O.linifolia,
with musky fragrance; leaves 5–10cm O.semidentata of gardens, see O. ‘Henry with white blooms which last well when
(2–4in), linear to oblong or lanceolate, Travers’); O.solandri (New Zealand; cut, is sown in situ in spring, in sun and
acute to acuminate, coriaceous to shrub or small tree to 4m (13ft); leaves well-drained soil. O.verna is hardy in
glabrous above, white- to yellow- to 1.5cm (5/8in), midrib sunken, linear climate zone 6 and suitable for cool
tomentose beneath, undulate, serrate- to spathulate or narrowly obovate, positions in the rock garden or for
dentate; flowerheads fragrant, white); subcoriaceous, glabrous above, white- naturalizing in light, open woodland.
O.lacunosa (New Zealand; shrub to to yellow-tomentose beneath; Increase by division in early spring.
5m (16ft); leaves 7–16cm (23/4–6in), flowerheads yellow; includes ‘Aurea’, O.cappadocica (Asia Minor; perennial
linear to oblong, acute to acuminate, with leaves strongly tinged gold); to 28cm (11in), erect or ascending;
coriaceous, rugose, midrib yellow O. ‘Talbot de Malahide’ (syn. O.albida; flowers bright blue with a white eye, to
above, minutely sinuate-dentate; very similar to O.avicenniifolia except 5mm (1/4in) in diameter; ‘Bright Eyes’:
flowerheads white); O.macrodonta (NEW leaves blunter and more rounded); flowers white edged bright blue;
550 ZEALAND HOLLY; New Zealand; shrub O.virgata (New Zealand; shrub to 5m ‘Cherry Ingram’: to 25cm (10in),
or tree to 6m (20ft); leaves 5–10cm (15ft); leaves 0.5–2cm (1/4–3/4in), with deep blue flowers); O.linifolia (SW
Oncidium
Europe; annual to 40cm (16in), erect; medium-grade, bark-based mix. Larger small, oblanceolate, wavy, golden
flowers up to 12mm (1/2in) in diameter, species, with reduced pseudobulbs and yellow spotted or barred red-brown
white or blue); O.luciliae (Greece, Asia massive, leathery, ‘mule’s ear’ leaves, at base, lip far larger, kidney-shaped,
Minor; perennial to 25cm (10in), should be mounted on bark or planted deep gold spotted red-brown at base);
tufted, glabrous; flowers up to 8mm in baskets and afforded maximum O.hastatum (Mexico; plant medium-
(3/8in) in diameter, rose becoming blue); light and humidity throughout the sized, pseudobulbous; panicle to
O.verna (CREEPING FORGET-ME-NOT; year. They need less water than the 1.5m (5ft); flowers to 2.5cm (1in)
Europe; perennial to 20cm (8in), first group but favour a warmer and across, tepals lanceolate to ovate,
stoloniferous; flowers up to 12mm steamier situation. Increase by division yellow to olive blotched brown, lip
(1/2in) in diameter, blue; ‘Alba’: or seed. narrowly arrow-shaped, lateral lobes
flowers white). O.bifolium (Uruguay, Argentina, white, midlobe yellow to flame red with
Brazil; plants small to medium-sized, a crimson callus); O.jonesianum (Brazil,
Omphalogramma (from Greek pseudobulbous; raceme to 40cm (16in), Paraguay, Uruguay; plants small to
omphalos, navel, and gramma, line). flowers to 3cm (11/4in) across, tepals medium-sized; pseudobulbs very small
Primulaceae. Himalaya, W China. 15 small, yellow marked brown, lip far or absent; leaves clumped, pendulous,
species, perennial, usually rhizomatous, larger with a broad, kidney-shaped fleshy, narrowly cylindrical and
herbs. The solitary flowers are bell- to midlobe, rich golden yellow with red pointed; raceme to 50cm (20in),
funnel-shaped with six to eight lobes callus); O.cavendishianum (Mexico, flowers to 7.5cm (3in) across, tepals
and are produced atop glandular-hairy Honduras, Guatemala; pseudobulbs obovate, wavy, yellow to olive blotched
scapes in spring. O.vinciflorum is hardy in very small or absent; leaves solitary, red-brown, lip fan-shaped, white
climate zone 7 and suited to the shady very large, tough and fleshy; panicles with a red-spotted, yellow base);
rock garden, with gritty, moist, lime- to 1.5m (5ft), flowers to 4cm (11/2in) O.ornithorhynchum (C America; plant
free soil. Otherwise, cultivate in the across, tepals rounded, yellow to olive small to medium-sized, pseudobulbous;
alpine house or cold frame, in pans spotted chocolate or red-brown, lip panicle to 50cm (20in), arching to
of a gritty alpine mix with added larger, 3-parted with a notched, fan- pendulous, crowded; flowers to 2cm
leafmould. Propagate from seed or by shaped midlobe, rich yellow with red (3/4in) across, lacy, pale lilac-pink to rich
division in spring. O.vinciflorum (China; dots on callus); O.crispum (Brazil; plants rose with a yellow callus); O.pulchellum
flowers or scapes to 20cm (8in), deep medium-sized, pseudobulbous; panicle (syn. Tolumnia pulchella; Jamaica,
indigo-blue or purple, 3–5cm (11/4–2in) to 1m (31/4ft), erect to arching; flowers Guianas, Cuba, Hispaniola; plants
in diameter).
Oncidium (from Greek onkos, a lump

to 8cm (3in) across, tepals obovate, the
petals far larger and wavy, yellow to
buff, heavily veined and overlaid with
dwarf to small, pseudobulbs absent;
leaves tough, narrow, folded and
keeled, in a fan-like growth; panicle
O
or tumour, referring to the fleshy, chocolate brown, lip with two small to 50cm (20in), flowers to 2.5cm (1in)
protuberant calli on the lips of many lateral lobes and a large, wavy, fan- across, tepals small, white tinted rose
species). Orchidaceae. Tropical and shaped midlobe, yellow to tan mottled to rich magenta, lip large, broadly
subtropical America. Some 450 species, or veined brown especially near fan-shaped, white tinted rose to deep
evergreen perennial herbs, for the most margin); O.flexuosum (Brazil, Argentina, magenta, yellow at base); O.pusillum
part epiphytes or lithophytes. They Paraguay, Uruguay; plants small to (syn. Psygmorchis pusilla; C and S
vary greatly in habit and size, from medium-sized, pseudobulbous; panicle America, W Indies; plant dwarf, short-
dwarf species to ‘giants’, many with wiry, to 1m (31/4ft), flowers to 2.5cm lived, pseudobulbs absent; leaves folded
pseudobulbs, some lacking these but (1in) across, tepals small, recurved, and keeled, in a fan-like tuft; flowers
with tough, overlapping leaves or yellow barred red-brown, lip far larger, to 3cm (11/4in) diam., borne singly in
merely one or two very large and broadly fan-shaped, bright gold, succession on short, wiry stalks, tepals
fleshy leaves. Produced in racemes or sometimes spotted red-brown, callus very small, yellow blotched red-brown,
panicles, the flowers are generally small marked red-brown); O.fuscatum lip large, frilly, golden yellow with a
and often in bright shades of yellow (syn. Miltonia warscewiczii; Miltonioides red-spotted, white callus); O.sphacelatum
barred or mottled with brown. The warscewiczii; Peru, Colombia, Costa (Mexico to El Salvador; medium-sized
tepals are oblong to obovate, the lip Rica; plants are medium-sized and to large plants, pseudobulbous; panicle
larger and entire to 3-lobed with a pseudobulbous; panicle to 50cm (20in), to 1.5m (5ft), flowers to 2.5cm (1in)
warty or crested callus. A large genus flowers to 5cm (2in) across, tepals across, tepals ovate to lanceolate,
of cool and intermediate-growing oblong to oblanceolate, wavy, brown pointed, yellow barred and blotched
orchids. The smaller species and edged yellow-white, lip large, oblong to chestnut brown, lip large with rounded
those with distinct pseudobulbs need shield-shaped, purple to crimson with lateral lobes and a broadly kidney-
dappled sunlight and a humid, buoyant a deep white margin and a shiny red- shaped midlobe, golden blotched
atmosphere in the cool house (winter brown central patch); O.globuliferum orange-yellow at base with an orange-
minimum 10°C/50°F). In the growing (Colombia, Venezuela, Costa Rica, spotted, white callus); O.superbiens
season, water and feed freely; at other Panama; plants small to medium-sized, (Colombia, Venezuela, Peru; plant
times, water only to prevent the plants pseudobulbous; raceme to 3cm (11/4in), medium-sized to large, pseudobulbous; 551
from shrivelling. Pot in a fine- to flowers to 3cm (11/4in) across, tepals panicle to 2m (61/2ft), slender and
Oncidium
snaking, flowers to 7cm (23/4in) across, onions can be harvested throughout seedlings to be 15–20cm (6–8in) high
tepals broadly obovate, long-clawed, most of the year. Most onion cultivars before the onset of winter.
sepals chocolate brown tipped yellow, are brown- or yellow-skinned, with Onions raised from sets have the
petals yellow or white barred chocolate, some red-skinned; they may be advantages of being less prone to
lip small, purple-brown and trowel- globe-shaped or flat. disease and onion fly attack; they yield
shaped); O.tigrinum (Mexico; plants Bulb onions can be propagated reasonably in poorer soil conditions,
medium-sized to large, pseudobulbous; either from seed or vegetatively, using and mature earlier than seeded crops.
raceme or panicle to 1m (31/4ft), erect, small bulblets referred to as sets. Cultivars are available for both spring
flowers to 6cm (21/2in) across, tepals Maincrop onions should be sown in a and autumn planting and should be
lanceolate to ovate, wavy, yellow barred well-prepared seedbed from February planted firmly, 5cm (2in) apart, with
dark brown, lip far larger with a broad, to April. Germination is poor in cold the tips at soil level, in rows spaced
kidney-shaped midlobe, bright yellow); wet soils and cloches should be used to 25cm (10in) apart. The risk of bolting
O.varicosum (Brazil; plants medium- warm the soil for early sowings in cold is reduced with small-sized sets, and
sized, pseudobulbous; panicle to 1.5m areas. Seed, preferably treated with with heat-treated ones which should
(5ft), loose, arching, flowers to 5cm a fungicidal dressing, should be sown not be planted before late March.
(2in) across, tepals small, olive to yellow thinly in 2cm (3/4in)-deep drills in rows For salad use, thinnings of maincrop
barred chestnut brown, lip far larger, 30cm (12in) apart, with seedlings onions can be used; for a continuous
fan-shaped, golden yellow with a thinned to 4cm (11/2in) spacings for salad supply, sow specific cultivars,
red-spotted callus). medium-sized bulbs, or up to 10cm usually referred to as spring onions
(4in) spacings for large bulbs. Crops (or scallions in the US), from spring
onion (Allium cepa) a biennial grown that mature in early summer can be to mid-summer at intervals of two to
as an annual for its edible bulb which, obtained by raising transplants under three weeks. Over-wintered sowings
usually, has a strong pungent flavour; protection for early planting in spring, of extrahardy cultivars can be
the leaves and immature bulbs are also or by sowing suitable cultivars outside harvested in spring.
edible. The onion probably originated in autumn. Weed control is important and
in the regions of Iran and western Transplants are best raised in multi- during dry spells watering may be
Pakistan and its use can be traced seeded cell modules or blocks of up to necessary, but not as the crop reaches
back to 3200 BC, when it was an six seedlings; sow at 10–16°C/50–61°F maturity. Onions are ready to harvest
important food crop for the Egyptians. in January and, after hardening off, when the leaves start to die back and
O Hot dry summers are ideal for

bulb maturation but there are many
cultivars suited to a range of growing
plant out 25–30cm (10–12in) apart
each way. For outdoor autumn sowings,
specially selected cultivars should be
fall over; after drying in the sun or in
a cool dark shed, they may be tied in
ropes and hung up or stored in net
conditions, including cool-season chosen. The sowing date is critical and bags or shallow trays.
production in tropical regions. For depends on local climatic conditions. If Pickling onions are bulb onion
high yield, cool weather is desirable sown too early, plants may develop to cultivars which tolerate poorer, drier
during the early stages of growth. a size where they are vernalized by low soils than bulb or spring onions. Sow
The crop is tolerant of frost, but winter temperature and will bolt in in March 6mm (1/4in) apart, because
prolonged exposure to temperatures spring; if sown too late, they may be competition ensures small size, in
below 10°C/50°F will cause plants to too small to survive the winter. Sow rows 30cm (12in) apart. Harvest
bolt. Optimum seedling growth occurs seeds 2.5cm (1in) apart in rows spaced in late summer.
in the range 20–25°C/68–77°F and 30cm (12in) apart, at times based on SHALLOTS (Allium cepa. Aggregatum
declines rapidly at temperatures above local recommendations and aiming for Group) have a distinct flavour, and
27°C/81°F. Bulb formation takes place are available in yellow- or red-skinned
in response to long-day conditions and, forms. Raise from sets, about 2cm
in temperate climates, most cultivars (3/4in) in diameter; plant December to
bulb up during early summer for late March to tip level, 15cm (6in) apart,
summer harvest. Some cultivars will in rows 20cm (8in) apart. Bulb clusters
produce bulbs over a long-day range are harvested in late summer.
from 12 to more than 16 hours, which WELSH ONION, PERENNIAL GREEN
makes it possible to manipulate crop ONION, or CIBOULE (Allium fistulosum),
supply. Bulbing is also advanced by is a hardy clump-forming type used as
raised temperatures and nitrogen a salad onion; it grows to 60cm (24in)
deficiency. Bulb dormancy may be tall. Sow in spring or August in rows
prolonged by storing at 1°C/34°F, 30cm (12in) apart, thinning to 23cm
with low relative humidity. (9in) apart. Lift and replant clumps
With choice of cultivars and by Onions drying every 2–3 years. JAPANESE BUNCHING
storage, onions can be continuously For high quality skin finish, ripen lifted onions ONIONS (Allium fistulosum) are a much
552 available from summer until the in a warm place with air flowing from beneath. shorter improved form, also available
following spring. Immature salad Roots and outer skins are then readily removed. as a single-stemmed type; they are best
Oophytum
sown as annuals or biennials in rows Onoclea (from Greek onos, vessel, and onopordon, from onos, ass, and pordos,
30cm (12in) apart, and thinned to kleio, to close, referring to the closely flatulence, referring to its effect on
7.5cm (3in) spacings. rolled fertile fronds). Athyriaceae. the digestive system of these animals
The EVERLASTING ONION, a cultivar Eastern N America, E Asia. 1 species, when eaten). Compositae. Europe,
of A.cepa, is similar in habit to the O.sensibilis, the SENSITIVE FERN or BEAD Mediterranean, W Asia. About 40
Welsh onion but with thinner, flatter FERN, a deciduous perennial fern with species, biennial herbs, usually with
leaves and a mild flavour. It should extensively creeping rhizomes. The spiny-winged stems and pinnately
be propagated periodically by division. fronds are 30–100cm (12–39in) long, lobed and toothed leaves. Erect,
more or less erect and pinnately branching stems bear large, thistle
divided with pinnae in 8–12 pairs, each flowerheads in summer. Hardy in
pinna to 8cm (3in) wide, deeply lobed climate zone 6. Grow in any fertile,
to sinuate or entire. The fronds emerge well-drained or heavy, preferably
a soft coppery pink and become bright slightly alkaline soil, in full sun or light
lime green. The rachis is broadly shade. Unless deadheaded, Onopordum
winged. Hardy in climate zone 5, will self-seed. Propagate by seed in
Onoclea is most usually cultivated in bog autumn or spring, sown in situ or in the
and woodland gardens on damp leafy cold frame. O.acanthium (GIANT THISTLE;
soils, or at the margins of ponds and SCOTS THISTLE; W Europe to C Asia;
lakes, where the spreading rhizomes may stately, giant biennial to 3m (10ft),
actually grow outwards covering the covered in grey-white felt; flowerheads
water’s edge with a dense undulating large, scurfy and spiny with white or
Egyptian or tree onion blanket. Plant in part or full shade on purple florets).
These unusual onions produce aerial bulblets permanently damp, acid to neutral
in place of flowers that if left in place, soils rich in organic matter. Propagate Onosma (from Greek onos, ass, and
eventually fall to the ground and root. by division in early spring. osme, smell: the plant is said to be liked
by asses). Boraginaceae. Mediterranean
The EGYPTIAN or TREE ONION (Allium Ononis (the name for this plant to E Asia. Some 150 species, bristly-
cepa Proliferum Group) produces clusters used by Theophrastus). Leguminosae. hairy biennial and perennial herbs,
of very small aerial bulbs, borne on tall Canary Islands, Mediterranean, often woody-based. The tubular to
stems in place of flowers. They are hardy
and can be used all year round. Plant
25cm (10in) apart in spring or autumn;
N Africa, Iran. RESTHARROW. Some
75 species, annual or perennial herbs
or dwarf shrubs. Ononis leaves are
funnel-shaped flowers are carried in
terminal cymes in summer. Hardy
in climate zone 7. Plant on the rock
O
the plants are often self-perpetuating as generally trifoliolate, and glandular- garden, gravel garden or dry borders
the bulb-laden stems fall over. hairy. Pea-like flowers are produced in full sun on a light, fast-draining
Possible problems: eelworm, onion in panicles, spikes or racemes during soil. Increase by softwood cuttings
fly; downy mildew, neck rot, white rot. summer. The following species are in summer, or by seed in autumn.
hardy to –15°C/5°F. Grow in well- O.alborosea (SW Asia; perennial to
onion fly (Delia antiqua) a small grey drained, neutral to alkaline soils in 25cm (10in); leaves grey-green, white-
fly similar in appearance to a housefly, full sun, giving O.fruticosa a sheltered bristly; flowers nodding, white to pink-
with white legless maggots up to 8mm position. Propagate by scarified seed purple, becoming purple or violet-
(3/8in) long, which attack the roots of sown during spring or when ripe in blue); O.stellulata (Balkans; perennial to
seedling onions, shallots and leeks. Early autumn. Take special care not to 25cm (10in), shortly hairy and bristly;
signs of attack are a yellowing and damage the developing taproot flowers light yellow).
wilting of the outer leaves; symptoms when pricking out. Alternatively, take
are worse in hot weather on dry soils. softwood cuttings during early summer Oophytum (from Greek oon, egg,
There are two generations and damage and root in a closed case with bottom and phyton, plant, referring to the egg-
usually occurs from June to August; heat. O.fruticosa (C and E Spain, central shaped plant bodies). Aizoaceae. Africa
second-generation maggots may tunnel Pyrenees, SE France; dwarf shrub to (Cape Province). 2 species, highly
inside the bulbs as well as eating roots. 1m (31/4ft); pink flowers); O.natrix succulent perennials they resemble
Spring-sown seedlings and sets can (S and W Europe, N Spain; dwarf Conophytum, forming dense mats of
be protected by treating the soil with a shrub, erect, many-branched, to 60cm closely packed, spherical to ovoid
recommended insecticide at sowing or (24in); flowers yellow, often veined bodies. The flowers are daisy-like.
planting time, subject to local pesticide violet or red); O.rotundifolia (SE Spain to Cultivate as for Conophytum.
approvals. Plants overwintered from a E Austria and C Italy; perennial dwarf O.nanum (bodies 2 x 0.7cm (3/4 x 1/4in),
late-summer sowing require a second shrub, to 50cm (20in), erect; flowers minutely papillose; flowers white with
treatment in May/June. Growing plants pink or white). reddened tips); O.oviforme (bodies to 2 x
under horticultural fleece is another 1cm (3/4 x 1/2in), olive green, often flame-
means of protection. Heavily infested Onopordum (also spelt Onopordon, coloured, glossy-papillose; flowers 553
plants should be removed and burnt. Latinized form of a Greek name, white below, purple-pink above).
open-centre
open-centre a form of fruit tree in 1

/4in); flowering stem to 60cm (24in), undisturbed grass. O.fusca and
which the main branches are trained to flowers tinted lilac or white in a dense O.insectifera tolerate some shade,
form a cup or goblet shape, leaving the 7.5–15cm (3–6in) raceme; fruits violet- growing well in woodland clearings
centre clear. See delayed open centre. blue; ‘Aureovariegatus’: leaves striped and fringes and especially among
yellow; ‘Crow’s white’: leaves variegated pines. The remaining species prefer
open pollination pollination by white; ‘Vittatus’: leaves pale green alpine house conditions, or culture in
natural means; as opposed to closely striped and edged creamy white; raised beds where they can be covered
controlled crossing undertaken by a ‘White Dragon’: leaves boldly striped in winter. Grow in full or dappled
plant breeder. white, with almost no green); O.japonicus sun in a loamy medium-rich in sand
(Japan; roots tuberous; leaves to 40 x and fine leafmould. Adding limestone
operculum the lid or cap of a 0.3cm (16 x 1/8in), rather rigid, dark chippings to the mix will benefit most
capsule with circumscissile dehiscence. green, somewhat curved; flowering species. Keep moist when in growth
stem 5–10cm (2–4in), flowers white and flower. After flowering, allow the
ophiobolus patch (Gaeumannomyces to light lilac in a loose short raceme; plants to dry out. Repot the tubers in
graminis) a disease of lawn grasses, very fruit blue, 0.5cm (1/4in) in diameter; autumn and recommence watering.
prevalent in the north-west US, but ‘Compactus’: miniature and dense, Increase by division when repotting,
uncommon in the UK. It especially to 5cm (2in); ‘Minor’: compact, and by seed.
affects creeping bent grass, Agrostis to 8cm (3in), with curling, black- O.apifera (BEE ORCHID; W & C
stolonifera; rings of yellow or orange green leaves; ‘Silver Dragon’: Europe; 10–50cm (4–20in);
grass occur up to 1m (31/4ft) in leaves variegated white); flowers to 2.5cm (1in)
diameter, with weeds and resistant O.planiscapus (Japan; roots across, sepals pink to pale
grasses sometimes creating a green thickened; leaves to 35 lilac, lip broad, rounded,
centre. Dark brown hyphae can be (14in) x 0.3–0.5cm velvety chestnut brown
found on infected roots. Wet conditions (1/8–1/4in), arching forward, with 2 yellow-white spots
and surface alkalinity favour the dark green; flowers white at tip, speculum red-brown
disease, and management of these or lilac, in 6.5cm (21/2in) Ophrys bombylifera with a double, horse-shoe-
conditions provides more effective racemes; fruit dull blue; shaped, yellow-white border);
control than fungicide application. ‘Nigrescens’: to 15cm (6in), O.ciliata (MIRROR OPHRYS;
with curving, purple-black syn. O.speculum, O.vernixia;
O Ophiopogon (from Greek ophis,

serpent, and pogon, beard). Liliaceae
(Convallariaceae). Asia. 4 species,
leaves, lined silver-green at
base when young, flowers
tinted pink to lilac,
Mediterranean, N Africa;
10–50cm (4–20in); flowers
to 2.5cm (1in) across, sepals
evergreen, perennial herbs, with fruit black). green tinted pink and
clumped, narrowly strap-shaped, grassy striped purple-brown, lip
leaves. Small and bell-shaped, the Ophrys (from Greek ophrys, distinctly 3-lobed, olive green
flowers are borne in congested spikes meaning ‘eyebrow’ and fringed with dense red-brown
in spring and summer. The berry-like probably alluding to the hairy Ophrys speculum hairs, speculum covering
fruits are usually dark violet blue and lip of some species). Orchidaceae. midlobe, glossy blue thinly edged
persist late into autumn. Excellent Europe, N Africa, W Asia. 30 species, yellow); O.fusca (Mediterranean, SW
plants for edging, groundcover and perennial herbs with paired, spherical Romania; 10–40cm (4–16in); flowers
containers. O.planiscapus ‘Nigrescens’ tubers. Leaves are ovate to narrowly to 2.5cm (1in) across, sepals green, lip
is a remarkable plant, striking dramatic lanceolate, and produced in winter in obovate, shallowly 3-lobed, dark velvety
contrasts with its purple-black foliage low rosettes, giving rise in spring and brown with a narrow, yellow-green
and ink black fruit. All are hardy in summer to slender, erect racemes. margin and a 2-lobed, purple-blue
climate zone 6, although foliage may The flowers are remarkably insect-like, speculum); O.holoserica (syn. O.arachnites,
be damaged in hard winters. Grow in with three ovate to elliptic sepals and O.fuciflora; LATE SPIDER ORCHID W, C &
sun, where soils remain moist during narrow, antenna-like petals. The lip S Europe, Mediterranean, Russia;
the growing season, or in partial shade, resembles the insect body, entire 10–50cm (4–20in); flowers to 3cm
in any moderately fertile, well-drained and rounded to slender and 3-lobed, (11/4in) across; sepals broad, white to
soil. Propagate by ripe seed sown fresh variously covered in felt- or bristle-like pale rose or magenta, lip broad,
in a sandy propagating mix in the cold hairs. In many species, the base or square, with a forward-pointing, green
frame, or by division. centre of the lip is marked with a tip, velvety red-brown to maroon or
O.intermedius (China; leaves to 60 x sparkling to glossy, iridescent patch – yellow, speculum H- to W-shaped,
0.5cm (24 x 1/4in), dark green; flowers the speculum. The following species mauve to blue bordered white);
white to lilac, numerous, in a loose are hardy in climate zone 6, although O.insectifera (FLY ORCHID; Europe,
raceme; ‘Argenteomarginatus’: leaves the southernmost species suffer in including Scandinavia; 10–50cm
edged white); O.jaburan (Japan; close to prolonged frosts and all dislike cold, (4–20in); flowers to 2cm (3/4in) across,
554 O.japonicus, but more robust; roots not wet winter conditions. The familiar sepals green, lip tongue-shaped with
tuberous; leaves to 60 x 0.5cm (24 x and durable O.apifera will naturalize in 2 shorter, distinct lateral lobes, dark,
orangery
velvety brown, speculum dark blue to ringed with dark and pale fur. In parts with cylindric, unjointed trunk and
violet); O.lutea (YELLOW BEE ORCHID; of the US opossums may invade branches; stem segments flat and
Mediterranean; 8–30cm (3–12in); gardens and feed upon a wide range somewhat leaf-like, obovate to oblong
flowers to 3cm (11/4in) across, sepals of fruits, vegetables and buds. They or lanceolate, to 15 x 6cm (6 x 21/2in),
pale green, lip rounded, broad, 3- are nocturnal, climbing animals, 4–6mm (1/8–1/4in) thick; leaves small,
lobed, bright yellow with a central, and shooting or trapping are the subulate, spines to 15mm (5/8in); flowers
velvety brown patch and a 2-lobed, only effective controls. pale yellow); O.cholla (Baja California;
rich blue speculum); O.scolopax small tree, to 5m (16ft); stem segments
(WOODCOCK ORCHID; S Europe; opposite used of two organs at cylindric, 5–30 (2–12in) x 2–3cm
10–40cm (4–16in); flowers to the same level, or at the same or (3/4–11/4in), tuberculate, glochids
2.5cm (1in) across, sepals green to parallel nodes, on opposite sides numerous, yellow, spines 3–25mm
white or dusky pink, lip with of the axis. (1/8–1in), yellow then grey; flowers
2 narrow, projecting, hairy purple-pink); O.ficus-indica (INDIAN FIG,
lateral lobes, midlobe Opuntia (a pre- BARBARY FIG, PRICKLY PEAR; Mexico,
rounded with a green, Linnaean name for widely naturalized; large shrub or
forward-pointing tip, some kind of spiny small tree to 5m (16ft) with a trunk
dark velvety brown, speculum plant associated with the ancient sometimes 1m (31/4ft) in diameter; stem
H- or X-shaped, bordered Greek town of Opus, or the segments obovate to oblong 20–60
white); O.tenthredinifera (SAWFLY Ophrys surrounding region, known as (8–24in) x 10–40cm (4–16in), spines to
ORCHID; Mediterranean; 10–45cm scolopax Eastern or Opuntian Locris, 2.5cm (1in), white or off-white; flowers
(4–18in); flowers to 3cm (11/4in) between Thermopylae and yellow; fruit 5–10 (2–4in) x 4–7cm
across, sepals broad, pale rose to Thebes). Cactaceae. Throughout (11/2–23/4in) yellow, orange, red or
magenta, lip broad, rounded to square, America, from S Canada to Patagonia. purple in different cultivars); O.humifusa
hairy, green to yellow with a large, PRICKLY PEAR, TUNA. Over 200 species, (east and central US; shrub, forming
brown central patch, a small blue, stoutly succulent trees and shrubs, clumps or mats 10–30cm (4–12in) x 2m
W-shaped speculum and a tuft of some low and clumped or spreading. (61/2ft) or more, stem segments elliptic
brown hairs at the tip). The stem segments are cylindric, club- to obovate to orbicular, 5–12.5cm
shaped, subglobose, or more or less (2–5in) x 4–10cm (11/2–4in), often
Oplismenus (from Greek hoplismenos, flattened. Where present, the leaves are tinged purple, leaves subulate 4–7mm
‘armed’, referring to the plant’s awned
spikelets). Gramineae. Tropics and
subtropics. Some 6 species, trailing
terete or subulate, usually small and
short-lived. Most species have spines
cushioned by tufted glochids. The
(1/8–1/4in), spines absent or to 2.5cm
(1in); flowers yellow, often with red
centre); O.microdasys (C and N Mexico;
O
annual or perennial grasses, with flowers are broadly funnel- to bowl- shrub, forming thickets 40–60cm
slender, rooting stems and lanceolate, shaped with numerous silky tepals and (16–24in); stem segments oblong,
finely tapering leaves. These tender many stamens. The fruit resembles a obovate or suborbicular, 6–15cm
grasses are grown in temperate areas in more or less prickly pear and is edible (21/2–6in), green, velvety, glochids
hanging baskets and as low edging in in some species. yellow, or white, spines absent or very
the warm greenhouse or conservatory. A few species from the central and short; flowers yellow, outer segments
Grow in bright indirect light or filtered eastern United States are frost-hardy, often tinged red); O.robusta (central
light. Water plentifully when in growth. and some from lowland tropical areas Mexico; shrub to 2m (61/2ft) or more;
Maintain a minimum temperature of require warm temperatures, but the stem segments orbicular or nearly so,
15°C/59°F. Propagate by division great majority can be grown in a cool massive, to 40cm (16in) or more, waxy
of rooted stems. greenhouse (minimum temperature pale blue, spines to 5cm (2in), white,
O.burmannii (tropics; annual glabrous 7°C/45°F). Plant in a gritty, sandy, pale brown or yellow below; flowers
to pubescent, to 60cm (24in); leaves to loam-based medium with a pH of yellow); O.tunicata (Mexico, SW US,
6cm (21/2in); includes ‘Albidus’, with 6–7.5. Provide full sun and low and naturalized in some parts of
white leaves with a pale green median humidity. Keep dry from mid-autumn S America; shrub, to 60cm (24in),
stripe); O.hirtellus (tropical America, until early spring, except for light densely branched; spines to 5cm (2in),
Africa, Polynesia; evergreen perennial, misting on warm days in late winter. yellow or off-white; flowers yellow);
to 90cm (36in)+; leaves to 5cm (2in), Avoid contact with these plants – the O.verschaffeltii (Bolivia, N Argentina; low
somewhat hairy; ‘Variegatus’: syn. numerous, minutely barbed glochids shrub, forming clumps; stem segments
‘Vittatus’, leaves striped white, are easily detached from the plant but usually elongate in cultivars, 6–20cm
sometimes tinted pink). difficult to see and remove from the (21/2–8in), with low tubercles, leaves
skin, where they will cause irritation. terete, to 3cm (11/4in), persistent, spines
opossum (Procyon lotor) a species of When repotting, hold the plants with 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in) and bristle-like or
small marsupial animals. The adults a collar of folded newspaper. Increase absent; flowers orange to deep red).
are 60–110cm (24–42in) long, with a by rooting stem segments.
distinctive black ‘mask’ across the eyes O.brasiliensis (eastern S America; orangery originally, a sheltered 555
region of the face and a long tail tree-like, to 6–9m (20–30ft) or more, south-facing area within a garden set
orangery
aside for the cultivation of orange

trees. During the 16th century, such
areas were enclosed by structures for
winter protection, and by the 17th
century the term was used more to
describe the elaborate structures than
the garden area. The orangery was
the forerunner of the greenhouse
and conservatory.
Orbea (from Latin orbis, a disc,

referring to the thickened annulus in
the flowers). Asclepiadaceae. S & E
Africa. 20 species, succulents very
similar to Stapelia, whose cultural
requirements they share. O.variegata
(syn. Stapelia variegata; TOAD CACTUS, Epiphytic orchid (Gomesa planifolia) Terrestrial orchid (Ophrys fusca subsp. iricolor)
STARFISH CACTUS; Cape Province;
stems to 20cm (8in), sprawling to erect, A wide range of orchids can be grown particularly Phalaenopsis and the Laelia
leafless, with toothed ridges; flowers under these conditions, including alliance, and such overgrown plants are
5–9cm (2–31/2in) across, star-shaped, Cattleya species and their hybrids, best left undisturbed for many seasons.
flat, fleshy, wrinkled, malodorous, pale Laelia, Brassavola, Oncidium, Brassia, Some orchids resent disturbance and
yellow to sulphur, blotched, spotted, some Coelogyne species, and many take a long time to re-establish after
lined and ringed maroon to Paphiopedilum, Dendrobium and repotting. For some of the larger
dark brown). Bulbophyllum species. orchids in the Vanda alliance, including
‘Cool-growing’ orchids originate Angraecum species, repotting is rarely
orbicular perfectly circular, or at mid-range or high altitudes in the necessary where plants are well-
nearly so. tropics. They require a minimum managed. Large plants of most genera
greenhouse night temperature of will eventually need rejuvenating, but
O orchard a garden or field area

mainly devoted to fruit trees.
10°C/50°F during winter, slightly
higher in summer. The ‘cool-growing’
group includes many kinds within
plants grown in rock wool require
repotting much less frequently.
The growing medium should be
orchard house see fruit house. Cymbidium, Paphiopedilum, Coelogyne, well aerated, moisture-retentive, a
Masdevallia, Odontoglossum, Lycaste, Laelia, source of nutrients, and, since it is
orchids a large group of highly Oncidium, and Maxillaria, and many replaced only after long intervals, must
developed flowering plants belonging epiphytes from eastern Africa. decompose slowly. Suitable growing
to the family Orchidaceae. Orchids are Most orchids are grown in containers composts are made from natural
not difficult to cultivate if the correct that are either placed on greenhouse materials, such as conifer bark, coarse
environmental conditions are provided. staging or suspended from the walls grit, fibrous peat, or chopped dried
The growing requirements of orchids on a special framework. Clay or plastic sphagnum mixed with inert materials
are usually designated as ‘warm’, pots are mostly used, but wire or like perlite, perlag, charcoal and
‘intermediate’, ‘cool’, or ‘hardy’, wooden slatted baskets are suitable for sometimes polystyrene fragments.
depending on the natural habitat some kinds with pendulous growth or These may have bone-meal, dried
of the plant in question. inflorescences. Many epiphytes also blood or hoof and horn-meal base
‘Warm-growing’ orchids comprise grow well mounted on slabs of cork- dressing added, or, alternatively,
those species (and their hybrids) that oak bark or firmly attached to chunks have liquid fertilizer applied on
occur in tropical regions at sea level of tree-fern fibre. At first, they need a regular basis.
or low altitude. These plants require to be tied to the surface, with coarse A mix containing large particles
a minimum greenhouse temperature nylon thread, plastic tape or copper will have large air spaces and need
of 20°C/68°F at night throughout wire, but new roots will soon grow watering more frequently than a close
the year. Included in this group are and attach the plants to the mount. mix. There are two successful basic
Phalaenopsis, Vanda, Catasetum, the larger Composts and potting Orchids compost formulae. One is for terrestrial
Angraecum species, some Paphiopedilum need repotting when the growing orchids and comprises 3 parts fibrous
and larger Dendrobium species. compost is exhausted, or as they begin peat: 2 parts coarse perlite: 2 parts
‘Intermediate-growing’ orchids to grow over the edge of the pot, or coarse grit: 1 part horticultural grade
come from mid-range altitudes. They where vigorous root growth causes charcoal; the other is for epiphytic
require a minimum greenhouse night the whole plant to rise out of the pot. orchids and comprises 3 parts washed,
556 temperature of 14°C/57°F during However, the presence of adventitious medium grade bark chips: 1 part
winter, slightly higher during summer. roots is quite normal in many genera, coarse perlag: 1 part horticultural
orchid
grade charcoal: 1 part fibrous peat or and try to imitate it in greenhouse The nature of these essential resting
dried leaves or chopped sphagnum. management. Rainwater is the best periods must be understood so that
Rock wool mixed with perlite provides choice, preferably stored in a covered appropriate cultural treatment can be
a substrate very similar to mossy tree tank within the greenhouse. given, especially as regards restricted
branches in tropical forests. A carefully Once established and with new watering. For example, in the Indian
controlled system of watering and root growth visible, a regular watering Dendrobium species, dormancy may last
feeding is necessary with this medium, regime should be followed, with plants only a few weeks, while in many high
so it is inadvisable to use both rock being heavily and thoroughly watered altitude Mexican orchids, it continues
wool and other composts in a mixed on each occasion. The need for water over several winter months, during
collection. Pine bark requires soaking can be assessed by checking the weight which period the plants often flower.
and all other ingredients, including of the pots; as a general rule, this Flowering and staking Most
perlite and rock wool, should be made should be done once or twice a week. orchids flower once a year; however,
moist before use. Daily watering will be necessary in Phalaenopsis hybrids flower twice a year,
Choose a pot size to allow space summer, whereas in winter once every and some hybrids, such as Odontoglossum
for at least one year’s growth – many two to four weeks may be sufficient. species, will flower at ten-month
orchids do best in smaller pots. In order Avoid moisture lodging in leaf axils intervals. Many genera produce
to ensure adequate drainage, fill one- or the apex of new shoots overnight, long inflorescences bearing numerous
third of the container with polystyrene since this can encourage water-borne flowers, but most plants of Lycaste and
fragments, vertically packed pot crocks, disease. Misting early in the day and Paphiopedilum species and hybrids bear
or large stones (these are particularly repeatedly during periods of sunshine flowers singly.
useful in plastic pots, because they helps ensure high humidity and lowers For attractive presentation, nearly all
provide stability). leaf temperature; however do not wet inflorescences need training; this is best
When potting, the base of the leaves or flowers in strong sunshine. done by placing a cane or wire support
pseudobulbs, or other part from which Feeding It is beneficial to feed adjacent to each flower spike soon after
roots will emerge, should be just below orchid plants regularly during their it appears and tying the spike in when
the level of the pot rim and plants active growth season, and this is it reaches about 10–15cm (4–6in)
may need staking until they become essential where they are potted in rock in height.
established. After potting, the compost wool, coarse bark or perlite only. Dilute Propagation Orchids can be
should be thoroughly watered for two liquid fertilizer is most convenient; increased by division of mature plants,
or three days; newly potted plants are
then kept dry for two or three weeks,
during which period they must be
proprietary products are suitable but
should be diluted to a quarter or half
the strength recommended for other
by activating dormant buds on
‘backbulbs’, by taking inflorescence
or stem cuttings, and by sowing seed.
O
kept in a humid place and misted pot plants. DIVISIONS AND ‘BACKBULBS’ Large
over frequently. Resting Many terrestrial orchids plants can be divided easily into two or
Watering Orchids variously adapt have pseudobulbs or tubers by which more portions, and many may readily
to a weekly or daily watering or means the plants survive a long fall apart when removed from their
misting regime; they need to dry out dormant season that may be too hot pots. Other plants have pseudobulbs
periodically, some growing best with or too cold for active growth. Similarly, joined to each other by a tough
a long moist season followed by a dry many epiphytic orchids are structurally rhizome, which needs to be cut with
period of several months. New growers adapted with pseudobulbs or succulent a sterilized knife or secateurs. For most
need to study a plant’s natural habitat rigid leaves to withstand drought. orchids, two or three growths should be
P ROPAGATING ORCHIDS FROM BACKBULBS
most of
dormant pull backbulb
pseudobulbs backbulb to above surface
are the detach it
“backbulbs” 8cm (3in)
pot
pseudobulbs
level with
compost
1 An orchid with a healthy

number of backbulbs may be
divided in two in spring. Use a
2 Carefully detach the
backbulbs from the divided
sections. Discard any that are old
3 Pot the healthy backbulbs in
orchid compost. Place in a
cool, shaded position and keep
4 Trim off dead roots from the
two sections of the parent
plant, and repot in pots just 557
knife to cut through thick roots. and shrivelled. moist for 2–3 months. larger than the rootball.
orchids
retained in each division; Cattleya glassware and media; a large polythene USE OF COLCHICINE The poisonous
and its allies need at least one leafy bag can be used to provide isolation for alkaloid colchicine can be used to
pseudobulb on the back growth, the sowing operation, which should be change the chromosome constituents
with a prominent dormant bud at its carried out as speedily as possible. in cells of orchid protocorms. The
base. For Lycaste and members of the Conical flasks or sterile bottles concentration and duration of the
Odontoglossum alliance, two or three containing the newly sown seeds are chemical application to plantlets must
pseudobulbs are usually separated kept under controlled conditions while be carefully and accurately monitored
as a clump. Cymbidium species are the the embryo grows out to form a or monstrosities may arise. There has
easiest to propagate from old leafless been success with many of the free-
pseudobulbs, which, after removal of flowering Cymbidium hybrids, and some
loose sheaths and drying of the cut of the Paphiopedilum protocorms. The
base, can be immersed up to one third resultant adult plant will usually have
their height in sharp sand, and kept larger leaves and flowers of superior
moist and cool. Within two or three shape and there may be improvements
months, a new shoot will appear above in fertility. However, plants reach
the surface; after a similar period, the flowering size more slowly and
shoot will bear its own roots. New may have fewer flowers.
plants propagated by this means Registration and
should reach flowering size in two nomenclature of orchids The
or three years. Orchid seedlings developing in a flask Royal Horticultural Society is the
CUTTINGS Pseudobulbs, stems and International Registration Authority
inflorescence stalks of some orchids rounded protocorm, covered in for Orchid Hybrids, and publishes bi-
provide suitable cutting material. Each rhizoids, and then a small plantlet. In monthly lists of new registrations in its
section must contain one or more some instances, the containers need to journal The Orchid Review. Collated lists
dormant buds; when detached from be kept in the dark for the first few of registrations for a given period of
the rest of the plant and laid on a bed months, but epiphytic orchids develop years are published occasionally under
of damp moss or inserted in a pan of green protocorms almost immediately the title Sander’s List of Orchid Hybrids.
moist grit, the buds will produce new and are kept under artificial light for The complete International Register
plantlets after a few months in humid 12–16 hours per day. After a few now lists over 100,000 hybrids.
O conditions. Suitable for this method

are the cane-like stems of Epidendrum
and Dendrobium, and the inflorescence
months, transfer the plantlets to freshly
prepared medium in a new container
(a process that should again be carried
Orchid hybrids are named at two or
three levels, for example in the hybrid
Cattleya Bow Bells ‘White Wings’, the
stalks of Phalaenopsis, Phaius and out under sterile conditions). Six to name of the genus is Cattleya, the name
Calanthe. On many pseudobulbs, twelve months after sowing, the orchid of the grex is Cattleya Bow Bells and
such as those of Pleione, dormant buds plantlets will be large enough to be the name of the cultivar is Cattleya
may spontaneously develop plantlets, removed from the flask, carefully Bow Bells ‘White Wings’.
sometimes known as ‘keikis’. washed, and then potted up in a fine The term grex is unique to orchids
SEEDS Orchid seeds are minute and compost mix. Extra warmth and and is the equivalent to the cultivar-
the food reserves in the embryo are humidity should be provided for the group of the International Code of
inadequate for the early development first few weeks. Species and hybrids Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants –
of new plants without some form of can grow to flowering size in 18–20 1995. It denotes a group of individual
supplement. In nature, most orchid months, but four to six years is average plants derived from an artificial hybrid,
seeds develop a symbiotic partnership for most orchids. and the grex name is applied to all
with a soil- or bark-inhabiting fungus: MERISTEM PROPAGATION Techniques progeny directly raised from the same
on invading the seed, the fungus is for the culture and multiplication of two named parent taxa, whenever that
digested and nutrients obtained from the apical meristem of a young shoot, cross is made.
it. This process can be simulated most and the various forms of tissue culture, A cultivar in orchids is a clone –
successfully in a specialised laboratory are valuable for rapid multiplication. a genetically similar assemblage of
by sowing sterilized seeds with a fungus The processes involved are similar to individuals derived originally from
culture on to agar, with the addition of those used for propagation from seed, a single seedling following vegetative
porridge oats to sustain the fungus. An but because the starting material is propagation. A grex epithet should
alternative method is to use a medium already mature, the protocorms always be used in conjunction with
containing all that the germinating develop into new, flowering-size plants a generic name, and both a generic
seed requires in terms of nutrients and far more quickly. Once again, sterilized name and grex epithet should
thus dispense with the intermediary equipment and plant material essential, accompany the epithet of any cultivar.
fungus. All these techniques must be and a warm growth chamber is also Hardy species A number of
carried out in sterile conditions, which necessary. After eventual transfer to orchids from the mountains of sub-
558 the amateur can achieve by using a an orchid compost, the propagules tropical regions and temperate areas
domestic pressure cooker to prepare grow away rapidly. are amenable to cultivation. They may
organic gardening
require frost-free conditions or a of species can be grown successfully and Commelinaceae. Until the present
completely dry period when dormant, with patience and understanding. century, botanists used ordo to denote
and are most easily accommodated in Possible problems: aphids, cock- the rank of family and cohors for the
a cold frame or unheated greenhouse. roaches, red spider mites, scale insects, modern order.
Common examples are the species vine weevil; leaf spot virus.
and hybrids of Pleione, which grow organic gardening a system of
best in shallow pans of fast-draining Orchis (from Greek orchis, testicle, cultivation that makes minimal use
but moisture-retentive compost; keep referring to the shape of the tubers). of manufactured chemical substances,
under warm, humid conditions in Orchidaceae. Temperate N Hemisphere. placing emphasis on the use of
summer, dried off in the autumn, and 35 species, herbaceous perennials with manures and fertilizers of plant and
very cool during the winter. European spherical tubers and lanceolate leaves. animal origin to establish and maintain
orchids, such as Orchis, Ophrys and Produced in spring and summer in soil fertility; control of pests, diseases
Dactylorhiza, can also be grown easily erect spikes, the flowers are spurred and weeds is also pursued chiefly by
in pots in an alpine house, as can some with a hood of ovate tepals and a non-chemical methods, such as crop
species of Cypripedium, and Bletilla. showy, entire to 3-lobed lip. O.mascula rotation, hygiene, ground mulching,
Some terrestrial orchid genera are and O.purpurea are hardy in zone 6; hand-picking and trapping, cultivar
deciduous, coming into growth in O.papilionacea in zones 8–9. All may resistance, and the use of natural
spring and flowering during late spring be grown in the alpine house, the last predators and parasites. Recycling of
or mid-summer. They may be grown especially. Grow in a circumneutral, organic residues through composting
outdoors in the garden and include loamy mix rich in sand and leafmould. and green manuring are other
some species of the lady’s slipper O.mascula will grow in light shade and important features of the system.
genus, Cypripedium, Dactylorhiza is suited to the woodland garden; the Non-cultivation or organic-surface
and Orchis. remainder prefer full or dappled sun. cultivation, also known as the no-dig
Wild orchid plants are specially Keep moist when in growth and system, entails placing organic residues
protected in most countries and should flower; rather dry when at rest (usually on the soil surface, from where they are
not be collected without permission. high summer to autumn). Increase by drawn into the top profile by the action
CITES controls the import and export division before growth recommences, of earthworms and microorganisms.
of orchid species. When purchasing or by seed. These approaches stem from a
terrestrial orchids, it is important to O.mascula (EARLY PURPLE ORCHID; broader philosophy that advocates
be sure that stocks have originated
as nursery-propagated plants.
Orchids for the windowsill
Europe; 10–50cm (4–20in); leaves
usually spotted maroon; raceme dense,
narrow; flowers to 2cm (3/4in) across,
a holistic approach to gardening and
recognizes the interdependence of life
forms. Considerations of conserving
O
Many of the tropical orchids which tepals curved upwards, rosy mauve to wildlife and natural resources, and the
in the past have been cosseted in purple-red, lip fan-shaped, shallowly 3- avoidance of pollution, are therefore
greenhouses, will do equally well on lobed, white edged and spotted pink to central to the concept of organic
a windowsill if a few basic rules are purple-red); O.papilionacea (BUTTERFLY gardening.
observed. Of these, the most important ORCHID; Mediterranean; 15–40cm The principles of organic
are ensuring that there is enough light (6–16in); raceme fairly loose, somewhat agriculture were promoted by Rudolf
for the plants, without too much heat, pyramidal; flowers to 3cm (11/4in) Steiner in the 1920s. The Rodale
and that there is adequate humidity across, tepals forward-pointing, Organization was founded in the US in
in the immediate surroundings. hooded, purple-red with darker veins, the early 1940s, and in 1954 Lawrence
During the winter months, a south- lip broad, fan-shaped, rose- to purple- Hills established the Henry Doubleday
facing windowsill or a table placed red with darker spots and lines); Research Association (HDRA) in the
within a bay window is an ideal O.purpurea (LADY ORCHID; Europe, UK. The HDRA is the world’s largest
situation; in summer, an east-facing Mediterranean; 30–80cm (12–32in); specialist organic-gardening
windowsill which receives morning raceme dense, somewhat conical; organization for amateurs.
sunshine is suitable. A deep windowsill flowers to 2.5cm (1in) across, tepals The pursuit of organic gardening
is ideal, fitted with a polypropylene forward-pointing, hooded, purple- requires understanding of garden
tray containing about 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in) brown, lip white spotted purple-red, ecology, dedication, and at least the
of a clean, moisture-retentive material; deeply 3-lobed, the lateral lobes same level of input as less stringent
this should be kept moist (but not narrow and outspread, resembling regimes. The incidence of pests,
waterlogged) in order to maintain a arms, the midlobe itself deeply cleft diseases and other disorders is less
humid atmosphere around the pots. into two parts, ‘legs’). likely where plants’ requirements for
Orchids with ‘intermediate’ or ‘warm’ steady growth are met; this applies to
temperature requirements do best in order, ordo the principal category of the choice of site, soil preparation and
centrally heated homes. Many taxa intermediate in rank between class maintenance, nutrition and watering.
Phalaenopsis and Paphiopedilum species and family, for example Commelinales, In the garden situation, considerations
and hybrids give pleasure with their the order containing the families of maximum yield and perfect quality 559
long-lasting flowers, and a wide variety Rapateaceae, Xyridaceae, Mayacaceae are usually less important than in
organic gardening
commercial growing, and the principles outdoors, or in late summer where they smooth; flowers purple; ‘Hopley’s’: to
of organic gardening are both are to be overwintered under cover; 75cm (30in), with large pink flowers and
attainable and commendable. space seedlings 5–30cm (2–12in) bracts); O.majorana (SWEET MARJORAM,
See biodynamic gardening. apart depending on required stage of KNOTTED MARJORAM; originally
maturity. Cut-and-come-again supplies Mediterranean and Turkey, now
organochlorines, can be obtained from successional widespread escape in Europe; annual,
organophosphates see insecticides. spring/early summer sowings outdoors. biennial or perennial herb to 60cm
MIZUNA GREENS (Brassica rapa var. (24in), stem glabrous or tomentose;
nipposinica) produces highly decorative leaves to 2cm (3/4in), ovate, grey, downy;
rosette heads of much-divided, glossy flowers white to mauve or pink; bracts
green leaves. Young leaves are suitable grey-green); O.onites (POT MARJORAM;
for salad use, the older ones as a Mediterranean; mound-forming
cooked vegetable. Grow as komatsuna. shrublet to 60cm (24in); leaves to 2cm
MUSTARD GREENS (Brassica juncea) (3/4in), ovate, rounded to cordate at
are a robust, hardy group of brassicas base, bright green, aromatic; flowers
producing coarse leaves, some cultivars mauve or white; ‘Aureum’: leaves gold);
being coloured purple and most spice- O.rotundifolium (Armenia, Georgia,
flavoured. Grow as Komatsuna, spacing Turkey; subshrub to 30cm (12in),
on average 30cm (12in) apart. Possible spreading by rhizomes; leaves to
problems: aphids, cabbage caterpillars, 2.5cm (1in), rounded or cordate,
cabbage root fly, whiteflies; clubroot. stem-clasping, blue-grey; inflorescence
nodding, hop-like, bracts pale green
Mizuna greens Origanum (from Greek oros, tinged purple-pink, flowers white or
These oriental greens may be sown late mountain, and ganos, joy). Labiatae. pale pink); O.vulgare (WILD MARJORAM,
for a winter supply of young salad leaves, Mediterranean to E Asia. MARJORAM, OREGANO, POT MARJORAM; Europe;
cropping best if given some protection. OREGANO. Some 20 species, subshrubs rhizomatous, woody, branched
or perennial herbs, often pubescent, perennial herb to 90cm (36in), strongly
oriental greens a collective name generally aromatic. Small, 2-lipped aromatic; leaves to 4cm (11/2in), round
for a number of fast-growing brassicas, flowers appear in summer, whorled to ovate, entire or slightly toothed;
O cultivated for eating cooked or raw.

CHINESE CABBAGE, CHINESE LEAVES
(Brassica rapa Pekinensis Group),
amid conspicuous, overlapping bracts
in terminal spikes. Plant in full sun on
lean, fast-draining soils. O.rotundifolium
bracts purple or green, flowers purple;
var. album: to 25cm (10in), bushy, with
light green leaves and white flowers;
CHINESE WHITE CABBAGE, PAK-CHOI favours lime-free soil; other species ‘Aureum’: to 30cm (12in), spreading,
(Brassica rapa Chinensis Group) and prefer slightly alkaline conditions. with small, gold leaves and lavender
CHINESE BROCCOLI, CHINESE KALE Trim back after flowering. Mulch in flowers; ‘Compactum’: to 15cm (6in),
(Brassica oleracea Alboglabra Group) cold winter areas in zones 7 and under. compact and cushion-forming, with
may also be considered under this Harvest for freezing or drying just small, round, dark green leaves; ‘Gold
heading (see broccoli; cabbage). before flower buds open. Propagate Tip’: leaves tipped yellow; ‘Nanum’:
LOOSE HEADED CHINESE CABBAGE from seed sown under glass in early dwarf, to 20cm (8in), with purple
(Brassica rapa Pekinensis Group) is a spring, or later in the open ground. flowers; ‘Roseum’: flowers pink;
faster-growing type of Chinese cabbage Alternatively, take softwood cuttings ‘Thumble’s Variety’: to 35cm (14in),
that produces open heads of light in early summer; pot on individually, with large, pale yellow leaves, later
green leaves which may be serrated or overwintering in frost-free conditions turning yellow-green, and soft
wavy, some cultivars having very loose for planting out the following spring. white flowers).
tops with pale centres. It is grown in Winter supplies for the kitchen may
the same way as Chinese cabbage for be taken as cuttings in summer and Ornithogalum (name used by
harvesting as mature heads, or from overwintered at a minimum of Dioscorides, from Greek ornis, bird, and
spring sowings as a cut-and-come- 10°C/50°F. gala, milk). Liliaceae (Hyacinthaceae).
again crop, first harvested five weeks O.amanum (Mediterranean, Turkey; South Africa, Mediterranean. Some 80
after sowing. stem to 20cm (8in), hirsute to scabrous; species, bulbous perennial herbs with
KOMATSUNA or SPINACH MUSTARD leaves to 1.9cm (3/4in), cordate; flowers linear to lanceolate or obovate leaves,
(Brassica rapa Perviridis Group) is closely pink, bracts purple); O.dictamnus sometimes with a silver-white median
related to turnip, producing large (DITTANY OF CRETE, HOP MAJORAM; stripe above. The flowers are 6-parted
leaves on vigorous plants. The various Crete; dwarf shrub to 30cm (12in); and starry, each with a prominent
forms are tolerant of drought and leaves 1.3–2.5cm (1/2–1in), woolly-white, ovary; they are produced in spring and
a wide temperature range; they will ovate to round; flowers amid hop-like, summer in long-stalked, pyramidal to
overwinter outdoors but yield better rose-purple bracts); O.laevigatum (Turkey, subcylindric racemes or corymbs. The
560 quality where protected. Sow in mid- Cyprus; stem to 70cm (28in), glabrous; hardiest species, such as O.umbellatum,
summer for autumn/winter harvest leaves 3cm (11/4in), ovate to elliptic, withstand temperatures to between
Oryza
–15°C/5°F and –20°C/–4°F; pyramidal, flowers 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in) many-ribbed stems bearing elongate
O.montanum and O.nutans are almost as across, white to ivory, stained green areoles and pectinate spines. Shortly
tolerant, surviving temperatures at the at centre; a long-lasting cut flower, it funnel- or bell-shaped, the flowers
warmer end of this range. O.narbonense includes cultivars with snow white, open in spring and summer. Grow
and O.oligophyllum are hardy in places topaz and golden flowers); O.umbellatum in a cool greenhouse (minimum
where temperatures seldom fall below (STAR OF BETHLEHEM; Europe, N temperature 2–7°C/36–45°F) in a
–10°C/14°F. O.arabicum suits warm Africa, Middle East; scape 10–30cm gritty, acid to neutral, free-draining
sunny borders, or, where temperatures (4–12in), raceme broadly pyramidal medium. Position in full sun with low
fall much below freezing, containers of to rounded, flowers 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in) humidity. Keep dry from mid-autumn
medium-fertility, loam-based mix in the across, shiny white striped green until early spring, except for light
cold greenhouse. The South African on exterior). misting on warm days in late winter.
species are generally frost-tender and Increase by seed or offsets. O.peruviana
are planted temporarily in summer Orontium (from orontion, the Greek (to 40 x 20cm (16 x 8in); spines to 2cm
borders of cool temperate gardens or name for an aquatic growing in the (3/4in); flowers to 3cm (11/4in), pale to
grown in pots in the cool greenhouse. Syrian river Orontes). Araceae. E US. deep rosy red usually with a
They include a number of species that GOLDEN CLUB. 1 species, O.aquaticum, yellow centre).
provide long-lived cut flowers, notably an aquatic, perennial herb with thick
O.thyrsoides. Grow in moderately fertile, rhizomes rooting into the muddy bed, Orthrosanthus (from Greek orthros,
well-drained soil in sun. Propagate by pond margins or (in cultivation) a morning, and anthos, flower; the flower
seed sown when ripe in the cold frame. water lily basket. Floating or emergent, opens early in the morning). Iridaceae.
Increase also by offsets when dormant. the leaves are to 25cm (10in), oblong to Tropical America, Australia. 7 species,
O.arabicum (Mediterranean; scape narrowly elliptic with glaucous silvering rhizomatous, evergreen perennial herbs
30–80cm (12–32in), raceme cylindric above and often purple-tinted beneath. with basal clumps and fans of narrow,
to rounded or conical, flowers fragrant, Breaking the water’s surface in spring rigid or grassy leaves. The Iris-like
3–5cm (11/4–2in) across, white or cream and summer, the inflorescence consists flowers are short-lived but produced in
with a black or purple-black ovary; of a white-stalked spadix to 18cm (7in) succession in a slender-stalked panicle
free-flowering, large-flowered forms long; this is bright yellow and resembles in summer. Grow in the border or
are sometimes called O.corymbosum); a slender, upcurved club. Hardy to in pots in the cool greenhouse
O.dubium (S Africa; scape to 30cm about –15°C/5°F. Plant rhizomes in or conservatory (minimum temperature
(12in), raceme broadly and loosely
pyramidal, flowers 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in)
across, orange, red, yellow or white,
fertile, loamy soil and submerge in still
water in full sun. Propagate by division
in spring.
7°C/45°F). Plant in a humus-rich and
well-drained soil in sun. Water carefully
and moderately when in growth; keep
O
often stained brown at centre); almost dry at other times. Propagate
O.montanum (Europe, W Asia; scape Orostachys (from Greek oros, by careful division of established plants
10–60cm (4–24in), raceme broadly mountain, and stachys, spike). or by seed, which germinates readily,
cylindric, flowers drooping, 2–5cm Crassulaceae. N Asia to Europe. 10 although seedlings develop slowly.
(3/4–2in) across, pearly translucent species, biennial succulent herbs with O.chimboracensis (Mexico to Peru;
white striped green); O.narbonense fleshy, spine-tipped leaves in a dense, flowers lavender-blue, to 4cm (11/2in)
(Mediterranean, Caucasus, Near East; rounded rosette. Small, starry flowers in diameter); O.violaceus (China; flowers
scape to 90cm (36in), raceme loose, are carried in a dense terminal raceme violet, to 6cm (21/2in) in diameter).
many-flowered, flowers to 5cm (2in) in the summer of the second year.
across, milky white striped green); Grow in a free-draining, gritty medium Oryza (from Greek oryza, for the rice
O.nutans (Europe, W Asia, naturalized in full sun, with good ventilation and a plant and its grain). Gramineae. Tropi-
E US; scape to 60cm (24in), raceme minimum temperature of 8°C/47°F. cal Asia, Africa. RICE. 19 species of
cylindric, one-sided, flowers nodding, Keep near-dry in cool weather. Plants annual or perennial, rhizomatous
3–5cm (11/4–2in) across, translucent usually die after flowering but set seed grasses. Stems flimsy to robust; leaves
white striped green); O.oligophyllum (syn. freely and are easily raised by linear, flat. The staple food of up to 50
O.balansae; Balkans, Turkey Georgia; this means. per cent of the world’s population; cul-
scape to 15cm (6in), raceme broadly O.chanetii (China; similar to O.fimbriata tivars developed to suit a wide range of
pyramidal to rounded, flowers 2–3cm except leaves linear with a small, hard climates and soils, mainly for tropical
(3/4–11/4in) across, white to ivory edged spine; flowers white to pink); O.fimbriata and subtropical conditions and wet-
pure white, exterior striped yellow-green); (Tibet, Mongolia, Japan, China; to lands. Some selections have ornamen-
O.saundersiae (GIANT CHINCHERINCHEE; 15cm (6in); leaves 2.5cm (1in), oblong, tal value. Propagate from seed. O.sativa
S Africa; scape 30–100cm (12–39in), tip bears a long spine; flowers are (SE Asia. An annual to 180cm (70in);
raceme pyramidal, flowers to 3cm (11/4in) tinged red). stems stout, upright, arching. Leaves
across, white to cream, ovary dark green elongate up to 150 x 2.5cm (60 x 1in).
or black); O.thyrsoides (CHINCHERINCHEE, Oroya (after Oroya, Peru). Cactaceae. Inflorescence a panicle to 45cm (18in),
WONDER FLOWER; S Africa; scape to Peru. 2 species, low-growing cacti with spikelets to 1cm (1/2in). In temperate 561
50cm (20in), inflorescence broadly squatly globose to shortly cylindric, climates, O.sativa can be grown as a
Oryza
frost-tender annual planted around flowers white; fruit blue-black; ‘Baki

pond margins; otherwise cultivated Kasapligil’: slow-growing, hardy, with
primarily as an educational/interest narrow leaves); O.delavayi (W China;
feature in full sun under glass, in con- stocky shrub to 2m (61/2ft); leaves to 3cm
tainers suited to flooding and drainage (11/4in), ovate, finely toothed; flowers
of water and maintained within an white, sweetly fragrant); O. x fortunei
optimum temperature range 20–30°C (O.fragrans x O.heterophyllus; expansive
(68–86°F). Sow thinly in early spring shrub, to 3m (10ft); leaves to 10cm (4in),
in loam-based medium; cover with oval, acuminate, teeth large, triangular,
2cm (3/4in) coarse sand and submerge or leaves entire; flowers white, fragrant);
in 2.5cm (1in) deep water. Matures O.fragrans (FRAGRANT OLIVE, SWEET
in 90–260 days. TEA; Himalaya, Japan, China; shrub or
small tree to 12m (39ft); leaves to 10cm
Osmanthus (from Greek osme, (4in), oblong to lanceolate, entire or
fragrance, and anthos, flower). finely toothed; flowers white, highly
Oleaceae. N America, Asia, Pacific. fragrant; f. aurantiacus: flowers orange); Osmunda regalis
DEVILWOOD, SWEET OLIVE, CHINESE O.heterophyllus (syn. O.ilicifolius; HOLLY The conspicuous “flower” of the royal fern
HOLLY. 30 species, evergreen shrubs OLIVE, CHINESE HOLLY, FALSE HOLLY; is in fact a dense panicle of fertile pinnae
or small trees with dark green, smooth Japan, Taiwan; erect dense shrub, to bearing clusters of spherical sporangia.
and leathery leaves, the margins 5m (16ft); leaves to 6cm (21/2in), elliptic
entire to sharply toothed. Clustered to oblong, entire or with large lobe-like runes and Christian apologist; or from
in the leaf axils or, rarely, in terminal teeth – both forms found together on the Latin os, mouth, and mundare, to
panicles, the flowers are small, highly same branch; flowers white, fragrant; clean). Osmundaceae. Asia, Americas.
fragrant and bell-shaped to tubular fruit purple-blue; ‘Goshiki’: leaves FLOWERING FERN. About 12 species,
with four lobes. The fruit is an oval, prickly, cream- and bronze-variegated, large terrestrial ferns with profuse,
blue-black to purple drupe. All species young growth rose-pink; ‘Latifolius matted and fibrous roots and more
here will grow in sun or light shade on Variegatus’: leaves large, variegated or less erect, bipinnate or bipinnatifid
a range of fertile, well-drained soils, cream: ‘Myrtifolius’: leaves ovate, entire; fronds in large clumps or crowns. The
preferably neutral to acid, although ‘Purpureus’: new growth purple-red); spores are produced on specialized,
O some lime is tolerated and O. x

burkwoodii, O.delavayi and O.yunnanensis
thrive in chalky conditions. O.decorus
O.serrulatus (W China; shrub, to 3m
(10ft); leaves resembling those of
O.yunnanensis, but broader with finer,
narrow pinnules, either separately on
entirely fertile fronds or in the middle
or at the ends of more regular (i.e.
and O.heterophyllus are very hardy. The forward-pointing teeth or sometimes ‘sterile’ – type) fronds. The following
remaining species will grow in climate entire, flowers white); O.yunnanensis species are hardy in climate zone
zone 7, but need a site sheltered from (syn. O.forrestii; W China; similar to 5 and will grow in full sun (O.regalis)
freezing winds. In regions of prolonged O.serrulatus but leaves with longer, or dappled to deep shade (O.cinnamonea,
winter frost, O.fragrans will need the more spiny teeth; tall shrub to 5m O.claytoniana). They need a cool, acid
protection of a cool, airy greenhouse in (16ft); leaves to 20cm (8in), ovate to mix rich in leafmould. They must
winter (minimum 4°C/39°F). Remove lanceolate, tip finely tapering, spotted never be dry; indeed O.regalis will grow
straggly or winter-damaged growth. black beneath with to 30 sharp teeth at the water’s edge and make islands
Propagate in late summer by semi- on either side, or entire; flowers waxy, of its own dense root growth in shallow
ripened cuttings in a propagating off-white to light yellow, very fragrant; pools and streams. Propagate by spores
case with bottom heat or root ripe fruit dark purple, pruinose). or by division in spring.
growths in autumn in a cold frame. O.cinnamonea (CINNAMON FERN,
Alternatively, increase by layering in osmosis the movement of water FIDDLEHEADS, BUCKHORN; N and S
autumn or spring, or by seed sown across a semi-permeable membrane America, West Indies, E Asia; whole
in a cold frame on ripening. from an area of low concentration of plant densely rusty-hairy at first; sterile
O.armatus (W China; shrub, 2–4; solutes (dissolved substances) to an area fronds 60–90cm (24–36in), pinnate,
leaves 7–14cm (23/4–51/2in), oblong to of greater concentration; of important pinnae 8–10 (3–4in) x 2–2.5cm
ovate, strongly toothed, spiny, sometimes relevance to the flow of water in (3/4–1in), ligulate to lanceolate, cut
entire; flowers off-white; fruit deep plants, especially water intake from almost to rachis; fertile fronds distinct,
violet); O. x burkwoodii (syn. x Osmarea the soil and other growing media much smaller, becoming cinnamon
burkwoodii; O.delavayi x O.decorus; compact by root hairs. brown, pinnae lanceolate); O.claytoniana
shrub to 2m (61/2ft); leaves 2–4cm (INTERRUPTED FERN; America,
(3/4–11/2in), ovate to elliptic, serrate; Osmunda (opinions vary as to Himalaya, China; foliage pink-downy
flowers white, fragrant); O.decorus the name derivation – possibly for at first; fronds 30–60cm (12–24in),
(Caucasus, Lazistan; broad shrub, to the Nordic god Thor, also called pinnate to pinnatifid, sterile pinnae
562 3m (10ft); leaves to 12cm (43/4in), entire, Osmunder; or for Osmundus (Asmund), 10–15 (4–6in) x 2.5cm (1in), lanceolate,
oblong apex acuminate, yellow beneath; an 11th-century Scandinavian writer of cut almost to rachis, fertile pinnae
Othonna
borne at centre of regular fronds, far cold winds, the following may survive terminal racemes, the bell-shaped
smaller with dense cylindric pinnules); where temperatures fall to between –5 flowers are to 5cm (2in) long with
O.regalis (ROYAL FERN, FLOWERING FERN; and –10°C/23 and 14°F. Alternatively, broadly ovate lobes, lilac suffused with
cosmopolitan; rhizome becoming erect take cuttings during the summer and white or opal blue with darker mauve
and mound-like, to 1m (31/4ft) tall, overwinter young plants under glass veins. Hardy to at least –15°C/5°F. It
massive, with tough fibrous roots; fronds prior to planting out the following dies back completely in mid-summer
60–180cm (24–70in), bipinnate, sterile spring. and then requires a dry rest until late
pinnae 15–30cm (6–12in), pinnules O.barberiae (spreading, rhizomatous autumn. Grow in a warm, sunny and
2.5–5 (1–2in) x 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), oblong, perennial to 50cm (20in), glandular- sheltered position on deep, fertile,
blunt, minutely serrate, fertile pinnae pubescent; ray florets magenta above, freely draining but moisture-retentive
cylindric, forming large rusty panicle at usually light orange-brown beneath, soil. Mulch in winter with leafmould
frond apex; ‘Crispa’: pinnules crisped; disc florets deep purple or yellow; or dry bracken. Propagate by seed or
Cristata Group: pinnules finely crested; ‘Compactum’: to 10cm (4in), with deep root cuttings. It resents disturbance.
‘Purpurascens’: growth purple when pink flowerheads with a dark purple
young rachis, purple throughout reverse); O.ecklonis (robust subshrub Ostrya (from ostrys, the Greek name for
season). to 1m (31/4ft); ray florets white above, these trees). Betulaceae (Carpinaceae).
indigo often with white margin Europe, Asia, America. Some 9 species,
osmunda fibre dried and coarsely beneath, disc florets bright blue; deciduous trees with leaves alternating
chopped roots of the royal fern, ‘Deep Pink Form’: to 30cm (12in), with in 2 rows, their veins parallel and the
Osmunda regalis, formerly an ingredient numerous, narrow, dark pink florets; margins dentate or serrate. The male
of potting media for orchids. In the ‘Giant Mixed’; to 35cm (14in), with inflorescence resembles that of
interests of conserving the royal fern, flowers in cream, orange and salmon Carpinus, but develops during autumn.
it is now no longer recommended for pastels; ‘Starshine’: to 75cm (30in), The female catkins are made up of
this use, and there are satisfactory with snow-white flowers with blue eyes; leafy bracts and take on a hop-like
alternatives. See orchids. ‘Weetwood’: to 25cm (10in), with white appearance. Cultivate as for Carpinus.
flowers, olive green below); O.jucundum O.carpinifolia (HOP HORNBEAM; S
Osteomeles (from Greek osteon, (perennial herb, to 50cm (20in); ray Europe, Asia Minor; to 20m (66ft);
bone, and melon, apple, referring to the florets red on both surfaces, disc florets young shoots downy; leaves ovate,
fruit). Rosaceae. China to Hawaii and black-purple at apex). Cultivars: shorter rounded at base, acute at apex, to
New Zealand. 2 species, evergreen
shrubs or trees with small, finely
pinnate leaves and white, 5-petalled
cultivars (to 25cm (10in)) include the
white- and pink-backed ‘Cannington
Roy’ and the pink ‘Hopleys’ and
10 x 5cm (4 x 2in), lustrous dark green,
hairy between veins above, paler
beneath with sparse hairs on veins,
O
flowers in small, terminal corymbs in ‘Langtrees’; taller cultivars (to 60cm veins in 15–20 pairs, margins double-
late spring and early summer. These (24in)) include the white-flowered, dentate); O.virginiana (EASTERN HOP
are followed by small, red to blue-black variegated-leaved ‘Silver Sparkler’, the HORNBEAM, IRONWOOD; eastern N
pomes. Hardy to –10°C/14°F, but best pink ‘Pink Whirls’ and ‘Bodegas Pink’ America; to 20m (66ft); young shoots
given the shelter of a south-facing wall. with variegated leaves, and ‘Buttermilk’ glandular-hairy; leaves ovate to
Grow in sun on a well-drained soil. with pale yellow flowers. ‘Whirligig’ lanceolate, rounded to cordate at base,
Propagate by semi-ripe cuttings, or by has grey-green foliage, powder-blue apex long-acuminate, 7–12 (23/4–43/4in)
layering. Sow stratified seed in spring. to chalky grey ray florets, strongly x 3–5cm (11/4–2in), dark green, hairy on
O.schwerinae (SW China; to 3m (10ft); contracted with margins inrolled above midrib and between veins above, pale,
branchlets slender, pendulous; leaves to mid-point, then expanded again at tip, pubescent beneath, veins in
7cm (23/4in), grey-downy, leaflets elliptic and dark blue-grey disc florets. The 11–15 pairs).
to obovate-oblong, to 1.2cm (1/2in), Cannington Hybrids include pink,
cuspidate; flowers white; var. microphylla: white- and purple-flowered forms Otatea (from the Aztec name for
leaves smaller and finer, less woolly). 15–30cm (6–12in) tall. Seed races, such these bamboos). Gramineae. Mexico
as the 25cm (10in) Dwarf Salmon and to Nicaragua. 2 species; see bamboos.
Osteospermum (from Greek the 45cm (18in) Tetra Pole Star, are
osteon, bone, and Latin spermum, seed). also offered. Othonna (from Greek othone, linen,
Compositae. Africa (those listed below in reference to the soft leaves – a
are from South Africa). About 70 Ostrowskia (for Michael name used by Dioscorides and Pliny
species of shrubs, subshrubs or annual Nicolayevich von Ostrowsky, minister for the same or similar plants).
to perennial herbs with entire, toothed, of Imperial Domains and Russian Compositae. Mostly South Africa.
pinnatifid or pinnatisect leaves and patron of botany during the late 19th About 150 species, perennial herbs
large, daisy-like flowerheads. Brilliantly century). Campanulaceae. Turkestan. 1 or small shrubs, usually glabrous and
coloured perennials are grown in species, O.magnifica, GIANT BELLFLOWER, glaucous. The leaves are entire to
containers and as half-hardy summer a perennial herb erect to 1.8m (6ft), variously dissected, lobed or toothed,
bedding. Given a warm, sunny position with whorled, grey-green, ovate leaves membranous, leathery or fleshy. Daisy- 563
with perfect drainage and shelter from to 15cm (6in). Produced in summer in like flowerheads appear in summer.
Othonna
The following species is hardy in zone ovoid egg-shaped, ovate but protection from draughts and full sun,
7, given a sheltered position in full sun. 3-dimensional. moderate to high humidity and a
Plant on a lean and gritty soil and minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F.
protect from winter wet. Propagate Oxalis (from Greek oxys, acid, sharp, Propagate Oxalis by ripe seed, by
by softwood cuttings in early summer. sour, referring to the sour taste of division, or by offsets. Soft-stemmed
O.cheirifolia (syn. Othonnopsis cheirifolia; leaves). Oxalidaceae. Cosmopolitan species may be increased by cuttings
Algeria, Tunisia; spreading evergreen but with centres of diversity in South in sand, in a shaded closed case with
subshrub or shrub, to 40cm (16in); Africa and S America. SORREL, gentle bottom heat.
leaves to 8cm (3in), paddle-shaped, SHAMROCK. 800 species, annual or Oxalis spp. can become troublesome
glaucous blue-grey, thinly succulent; perennial herbs and shrubs. They weeds in gardens as a result of their
flowerheads yellow). range greatly in habit, from succulent rapid spread by bulbils or by seed.
subshrubs to gaunt, truly woody O.debilis (syn O.corymbosa) bears
Ourisia (for General Ouris (d. 1773), shrubs, and from annual herbs to red/purple flowers with darker veins
governor of the Falkland Islands). bulbous and tuberous perennials. The and a white throat; it also produces
Scrophulariaceae. Andes, Antarctic, leaves are typically palmately lobed. numerous tiny bulbils. Control by
S America, New Zealand, Tasmania. The flowers are bowl- to forking out during the active growing
Some 25 species, low, usually dwarf funnel-shaped or salverform, season requires careful,
perennial herbs or subshrubs. with five, obovate petals. leaves fold laborious attention; a
Produced in late spring and early Relatively few of the in at night permanent, frequently
summer, the flowers are salverform to desirable species are reliably replenished, very deep
funnel-shaped with a spreading and frost-hardy; those that are mulch will reduce
slightly zygomorphic limb of five broad include O.adenophylla and spread in borders;
lobes. Hardy in climate zone 7. Grow O.enneaphylla (particularly glyphosate and
in raised beds or rock gardens on acid valued for their neatly glyphosate trime-
soils that are cool and moist but pleated glaucous foliage, sium herbicide sprays
contain plenty of sand and grit. Shelter suited to the sunny raised bed are effective but non-
from scorching sun and drying winds. and large trough or to well- selective. O.carniculata
Propagate from fresh seed, or by drained, humus-rich, sandy niches bears yellow flowers and
division in spring. on the rock garden), O.depressa spreads by seed; contin-
O O.caespitosa (New Zealand; creeping

stems; leaves 0.4–0.8cm (1/8–3/8in); flowers
white with a yellow throat, to 16mm
(for the well-drained interstices of
paving or partially shaded bases of
walls and rockwork), and O.acetosella
ual, thorough hoeing in
borders can prevent seeding;
where established in lawns,
(1/2in) in diameter); O.macrocarpa (New (for naturalizing in the wild and improving soil fertility and
Zealand; stems erect, 10–60cm (4–24in); woodland garden in moisture- regular mowing and raking
leaves to 1.5cm (5/8in); flowers 15–25mm retentive, humus-rich soils with will reduce infestation; herbi-
(5/8–1in) in diameter, white sometimes shade or dappled sunlight). cide treatment with selective
with yellow throat); Cultivars include These can tolerate substances is effective in lawns,
‘Loch Ewe’ (O.coccinea x O.macrophylla), temperatures as and glyphosate and glyphosate
to 20cm (8in), slowly spreading in tight low as –15°C/5°F, Oxalis trimesium can be used in
rosettes, with shell pink flowers, and and will thrive in deppei borders, as for O.debilis.
‘Snowflake’ (O.macrocarpa x O.caespitosa), temperate climates where summers O.acetosella (WOOD SORREL,
to 10cm (4in), with dark, glossy leaves are relatively cool, or where they can CUCKOO BREAD; N Temperate
and white flowers. be given shade from the hottest sun Regions; rhizomatous, creeping, to
in summer. Other species will tolerate 8cm (3in); leaves to 3cm (11/4in) across,
outbreeder a plant that reproduces short-lived frosts, especially in a pale green; flowers white veined pink;
predominantly by cross-pollination. sheltered rock garden or where their var. subpurpurascens: flowers rose
roots are protected by paving veined purple; f. rosea: flowers rich
ovate egg-shaped in outline; rounded or gravel; these include O.bowiei, pink); O.adenophylla (Chile, Argentina;
at both ends but broadest below the O.hirta, O.laciniata, O.latifolia, O.lobata, bulbous, to 8cm (3in); leaves to 3cm
middle, and 1.5–2 times as long O.purpurata and O.tetraphylla; otherwise, (11/4in) across, leaflets grey-green,
as broad. these may be easily grown in the alpine folded; flowers lilac-pink, throat white
house in well-crocked pans or pots in veined pink, maroon at base); O.bowiei
ovicide a pesticide used to kill the a gritty, leafy alpine mix. The excellent (syn. O.purpurata var. bowiei; S Africa;
eggs of pests, for example tar oils purple-leaved house plant O.triangularis bulbous, to 30cm (12in); leaves to 10cm
formerly applied to dormant fruit is proving hardy outdoors in sheltered (4in) across, purple beneath; flowers
trees against aphid and sucker eggs. regions of climate zone 7, if thickly bright rose-red to pink); O.chrysantha
mulched in winter. Tropical shrubby (Brazil; mat-forming perennial to 5cm
564 oviparity the laying of fertilized species, such as O.hedysaroides, need a (2in) tall; leaves to 1.5cm (5/8in) across,
eggs by insects; cf. viviparity. fertile, moist and soil-free medium, green, downy; flowers golden yellow
Ozothamnus
with red markings in throat); O.depressa a fine canopy in older specimens. species, evergreen shrubs and woody
(syn. O.inops; S Africa; bulbous; to The leaves are 8–20cm (3–8in) long, perennial herbs with small and often
10cm (4in) tall; leaves to 2cm (3/4in) oval, elliptic or oblong to lanceolate, heath-like leaves. The neat, button-like
across, grey-green, sometimes with lustrous, and pale to deep green, flowerheads are produced in dense,
dark markings; flowers bright pink colouring vivid red in autumn. White domed clusters during summer.
to rich, rosy mauve or white, throat and urn-shaped, the small flowers are The following species will tolerate
yellow); O.dispar (Guyana; gaunt shrub produced during summer on finely temperatures to –10°C/14°F, and
to 1.5m (5ft); leaves to 15cm (6in) branched panicles to 25cm (10in) long; probably lower, given good drainage
across; flowers golden yellow, sweetly the panicle branches persist in autumn and shelter from cold drying winds.
scented); O.enneaphylla (SCURVY GRASS; and impart a pale, rather ghostly They thrive in warm, sunny situations
Falkland Is, Patagonia; tufted and appearance to the whole tree. Hardy in on a sharply drained but moist and
rhizomatous with bulbils; to 5cm (2in) climate zone 5, especially if planted in slightly acid soil. Cut back leggy
tall; leaves to 2cm (3/4in) across, leaflets a sheltered position with the protection specimens in spring before growth
grey-green, folded, narrow, somewhat of surrounding trees. Grow on moist commences. Propagate by semi-ripe
fleshy; flowers white to deep rose or but well-drained, acid soils, in light cuttings in summer.
red, scented; crossed with O.laciniata dappled shade or full sun. Propagate O.coralloides (syn. Helichrysum coralloides;
producing O. ‘Ione Hecker’ with from seed sown in autumn or spring, or New Zealand; shrub to 50cm (20in),
narrower, wavy leaflets and purple-blue by softwood cuttings in summer – treat branches spreading, densely tomentose;
flowers pale at the edges, dark in the these with rooting hormone and root leaves closely adpressed, to 5mm (1/4in),
throat); O.hedysaroides (C America; erect, in a closed case with bottom heat. scale-like, thick and leathery, silver-
bushy subshrub to 1m (31/4ft) tall; leaves hairy on inner surface, smooth dark
to 5cm (2in) across; flowers yellow; oxygenator a plant grown green on outer surface); O.ledifolius
‘Rubra’: stems and foliage strongly submerged in a pool or aquarium and (syn. Helichrysum ledifolium KEROSENE
flushed maroon); O.hirta (S Africa; producing oxygen for the benefit of WEED; Tasmania; strongly aromatic,
bulbous with erect or trailing stems fish and other plants and life forms, inflammable shrub to 1m (31/4ft),
to 30cm (12in); leaves to 3cm (11/4in) for example Canadian pondweed, young shoots downy, older leaves
across, leaflets narrow; flowers purple- Elodea canadensis. and branches viscid, producing yellow
red with a yellow throat); O.laciniata gum; leaves to 15mm (5/8in), oblong
(Patagonia; rhizomatous with chains to linear, obtuse, spreading, leathery,
of tiny bulbils; 5–10cm (2–4in) tall;
leaves 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in) across, leaflets
grey-green, folded, with purple, wavy
strongly revolute, glabrous, above,
downy beneath, red-tinted at first);
O.rosmarinifolius (syn. Helichrysum
O
margins; flowers fragrant, steel blue, rosmarinifolium; New South Wales,
lilac, violet or crimson with darker Victoria, Tasmania; shrub to 3m
veins); O.lobata (Chile; rootstock bulbous; (10ft), branches erect, woolly at first;
to 10cm (4in) tall; leaves to 1cm (1/2in) leaves crowded, to 4cm (11/2in), linear,
across, bright green, smooth, sometimes mucronate, woolly beneath, revolute;
marked with purple; flowers bright ‘Silver Jubilee’: leaves very silvery);
golden yellow); O.tetraphylla (syn. O.deppei; O.scutellifolius (Tasmania; shrub to
Mexico; LUCKY CLOVER, GOOD LUCK 2m (61/2ft), tomentose; leaves minute,
PLANT; bulbous; 10–30cm (4–12in) tall; Oxygenator in garden pond scale-like, ovate, reflexed, revolute,
leaves 4–12cm (11/2–43/4in) across, mid Submerged or semi-submerged oxygenating glabrous to tomentose above, tomentose
green usually with maroon bands or plants are essential to keep pond water clear beneath); O.secundiflorus (CASCADE
stains; flowers red to pink or lilac with a and able to support life. EVERLASTING; New South Wales,
white-edged, yellow throat); O.triangularis Victoria; shrub to 2m (61/2ft), branches
(Brazil; rootstock swollen; to 15cm (6in) oyster shell the protective shell white-woolly; leaves to 12mm (1/2in),
tall; leaves to 10cm (4in) across, dark of sea molluscs; formerly widely used oblong to linear, sparsely downy above,
purple to beetroot red sometimes with in crushed or ground form as an densely woolly beneath); O.selago (syn.
darker or paler markings; flowers white ingredient of potting media, especially Helichrysum selago; New Zealand; shrub
tinted purple-pink). bulb fibre, and valued for its high to 40cm (16in) with woolly, arching
calcium content (50%) and water- to pendulous branches; leaves minute,
Oxydendrum (from Greek oxys, holding property. However, it is not closely overlapping, leathery, woolly
sharp, and dendron, tree, referring to the commonly available and has been above, dark green beneath); O.thyrsoideus
sour taste of the foliage). Ericaceae. E replaced by materials such as perlite, (SNOW IN SUMMER; New South Wales,
US. 1 species, O.arboreum, SORREL TREE vermiculite and rock wool. Victoria, Tasmania; shrub to 3m (10ft),
or SOURWOOD, a deciduous shrub to 9m young shoots glutinous; leaves to 5cm
(30ft) or tree to 20m (66ft), slender and Ozothamnus (from Greek ozos, (2in), narrowly linear, adpressed, dark
sometimes multistemmed, with rusty- branch, and thamnos, shrub). green, resinous above, paler beneath 565
red to grey bark and branches forming Compositae. Australasia. About 50 with fine down).
Pachycereus
P
(11/4–2in), thickly obovoid, purple- toothed, deep green leaves, ‘Silver
glaucous, with dense white bloom; Edge’, with leaves light green, narrowly
flowers pale green-white). edged silver-white, and ‘Variegata’,
slow-growing, with leaves
Pachypodium (from Greek pachys, variegated white).
thick, and pous, foot, referring to the
swollen stem bases). Apocynaceae. Pachystachys (from Greek pachys,
South Africa, Madagascar. 17 species, thick, and stachys, spike). Acanthaceae.
deciduous or semi-evergreen shrubs or Tropical America. 12 species, ever-
small trees with greatly swollen stems, green, perennial herbs and shrubs with
(usually) spiny branches, tough leaves showy, tubular and two-lipped flowers
Pachycereus (from Greek pachys, and funnel-shaped flowers similar to in terminal spikes clothed with colour-
thick, and Cereus). Cactaceae. Mexico. 9 those of Adenium. Cultivate as ful bracts. Cultivate as for Eranthemum.
species, tree-like or shrubby cacti, often for Adenium. P.coccinea (CARDINAL’S GUARD; West
massive with stout, erect stems and P.lamerei (S Madagascar; tree to 6m Indies, northern S America; shrub to
shortly tubular, funnelform or campan- (20ft) with a tapered or cigar-shaped 2m (61/2ft); inflorescence to 15cm (6in),
ulate flowers. Grow in a neutral, gritty trunk covered in low spiralled tuber- 4-sided, flowers scarlet); P.lutea (Peru;
medium. Provide a minimum tempera- cles, grossly swollen below and forking shrub to 1m (31/4ft); inflorescence to
ture of 10–15°C/50–59°F and shade at its summit; flowers 3–6cm 10cm (4in), 4-sided, bracts golden
in hot weather. Maintain low humidity. (11/4–21/2in), white); P.succulentum to amber, flowers white).
Keep dry from mid-autumn until early (C and S Cape to Orange Free State;
spring, except for light misting on low, spiny and twiggy shrublet arising Paeonia (from Greek paionia, possibly
warm days in late winter. Increase from a turnip-like caudex; flowers derived from Paion, the physician of
by stem cuttings. 1–4cm (1/2–11/2in), red, pink or parti- the gods, who used the plant medici-
P.pecten-aboriginum (W Mexico; resem- coloured to white). nally.) Paeoniaceae. Europe, temperate
bles P.pringlei, but not glaucous when Asia, NW America, China. PEONY.
young and with fewer ribs (10–11) Pachysandra (from Greek pachys, Some 33 species, perennial herbs or
and spines (8–12 per areole), and less thick, and aner, man, stamen). Buxac- shrubs (‘tree peonies’) with ternately
woolly flowers); P.pringlei (NW Mexico; eae. E Asia, US. 4 species, evergreen compound leaves and large cup- to
massive tree to 15m (50ft), trunk short, or semi-evergreen, procumbent sub- bowl-shaped flowers in spring and
branches erect, 25–50cm (10–20in) in shrubs or perennial herbs, with fleshy, summer. These long-lived perennials
diameter, blue-green; ribs 11–17; rhizome-like stems and erect branches are divided into two distinct groups:
P spines 20 or more per areole, 1–3cm
(1/2–11/4in), stout; flowers 6–8cm
with leathery leaves clustered at the
branch tips. Small, white flowers are
herbs, which include the many garden
forms and hybrids derived from
(21/2–3in), densely woolly, white). carried in short spikes in spring and P.lactiflora, the Chinese peony;
summer. P.terminalis is widely used and the shrubby tree peonies.
pachycaul thick-stemmed; sometimes as an evergreen groundcover, thriving Herbaceous peonies are hardy to
applied to tree-like herbs or shrubs beneath trees and shrubs. It responds below –10°C/14°F to –20°C/–4°F,
with thickly swollen stems or trunk well to a close shearing over after flow- especially if mulched with evergreen
stems (e.g. Adenium), and to simple- ering. P.procumbens is less rampant. Both branches or bracken. Established plants
stemmed trees (e.g. Carica species). are fully hardy. They do not thrive in are best left undisturbed. Fork in gener-
dry soils or if exposed to strong sun ous amounts of well-rotted manure or
Pachyphytum (from Greek, pachys, or winds. They are ideally suited to garden compost, with bone-meal or
thick, and phyton, plant). Crassulaceae. dappled shade. Increase by division super-phosphate, when planting. They
Mexico. 12 species, succulent perennial in spring or by leafy shoot cuttings are lime-tolerant and may be grown
herbs or subshrubs. The fleshy leaves taken in late summer. in any moist, fertile soil, with good
are alternate or crowded in rosettes P.procumbens (SE US; semi-evergreen drainage and a soil depth of not less
and may be flattened to almost circular perennial herb, carpet-forming and than 30cm (12in). Plant in sun or part-
in cross-section; they are usually glau- with erect stems 5–30cm (2–12in); shade, avoiding early morning sun on
cous and tinged purple or pink-red. leaves 5–10cm (2–4in), grey-green with flowers in areas with late frosts. Mulch
Campanulate to cup-shaped, 5-petalled brown-green, mottling, ovate to round, annually in spring with well-rotted
flowers are carried in erect to nodding coarsely toothed above); P.terminalis manure or garden compost.
racemes in spring and summer. Culti- (Japan, north central China; evergreen The tree peonies enjoy similar soil
vate as for Echeveria. subshrub, carpet-forming and with conditions with greater emphasis on
P.compactum (Mexico; leaves erect stems 5–20cm (2–8in); leaves good drainage, and a slight preference
1.8–3.0cm (3/4–11/4in), fusiform, acute, 5–10cm (2–4in), oblong to rhombic for lime. Because they start into growth
glaucous, sometimes tinged red-purple; or obovate, apex toothed, dark green, earlier in spring than herbaceous
566 flowers orange-red with darker tips); glossy; includes ‘Green Carpet’, erect, peonies they are slightly more tender,
P.oviferum (Mexico; leaves 3–5cm low and compact, with small, finely needing a sheltered position. At winter
Paeonia
temperatures below –10°C/14°F, by good hygiene, good drainage, and ‘Chromatella’: flowers double, sulphur
protect when young with a covering good air circulation. yellow; ‘La Lorraine’: flowers double,
of bracken; if cut back by frost, plants P.cambessedesii (Balearic Islands; herb cream-yellow; ‘L’Espérance’: flowers
may still shoot from the base. No prun- to 45cm (18in), tinged red; leaves grey- 15–20cm (6–8in) diameter, petals pale
ing is necessary, except to remove dead green, tinted purple; flowers to 10cm yellow, basal blotch crimson; ‘Souvenir
wood in spring. Rejuvenation is possi- (4in) diameter rose to pale magenta); de Maxime Cornu’: flowers double,
ble by cutting back to ground level P.delavayi (China; tree peony to 1.6m yellow to peach, tinged brown, orange
in autumn. (51/2ft) leaves deeply and gracefully dis- and red); P.mascula (S Europe, Asia
Divide herbaceous peonies in early sected; flowers to 9cm (31/2in) diameter, Minor; herb, 25–60cm (10–24in) flow-
autumn, each division consisting of with very dark red to maroon golden ers to 13cm (5in) diameter, red, pink or
three stout shoots 10–15cm (4–6in) anthers; var. angustiloba f. angustiloba white; subsp. arietina: leaves grey-green,
long, with 3–5 eyes. All peonies can be (syn. P.potaninii): China, Tibet; TREE hairy beneath, flowers pink to red;
raised from seed but named cultivars PEONY; as for P.delavayi except stolonif- ‘Mother of Pearl’: flowers pale pink;
and hybrids do not come true. Sow erous, leaf segments narrower, flowers ‘Northern Glory’: leaves grey-green,
firm ripe seeds in autumn in a loam- to 6.5m (21ft) diameter, nodding, flowers single, deep magenta-carmine;
based propagating medium in pots in maroon to dark velvety red; var. ‘Purple Emperor’: flowers single,
a shaded cold frame, transplanting the ludlowii: TIBETAN PEONY, to 2.5m (8ft), rose-purple; ‘Rose Gem’: flowers single,
seedlings to nursery bed 45cm (18in) flowers to 12.5cm (5in) diameter pro- bright blood-red; subsp. mascula: leaves
apart when they are large enough to duced earlier; var. lutea: Tibet, China; smooth beneath flowers to 12cm (43/4in)
handle in the following spring. Germi- as for P.delavayi except flowers to 7.5cm diameter, purple-red); P.mlokosewitschii
nation is slow if dormancy is allowed (3in) diameter, yellow); P.emodi (India; (Caucasus; herb to 1m (31/4ft); leaves
to develop; with fresh seed, the root herb to 75cm (30in) flowers to 12cm broad, dark to silvery or blue-green
appears about six weeks after sowing, (43/4in) diameter, white); P.lactiflora above, glaucous beneath; flowers to
and the shoot the following spring. (Tibet, China, Siberia; herb to 60cm 12cm (43/4in) diameter, cupped, yellow);
They will reach flowering size in (24in); flowers to 10cm (4in) diameter, P.officinalis (Europe; herb to 60cm (24in)
4–5 years, or slightly longer for fragrant, white; hybrids of P.lactiflora flowers to 13cm (5in) diameter, red;
tree peonies. (Chinese Peonies) vary in flower colour ‘Alba Plena’: flowers double, white;
Propagation of tree peonies is from white to pink, deep red, crimson ‘China Rose’: flowers single, salmon
usually by grafting in summer using or maroon, and are single, double or pink, anthers orange-yellow; ‘Crimson
P.lactiflora or P.officinalis as rootstock. A semi-double in form); P. x lemoinei Globe’: flowers single, garnet-red,
wedge-shaped scion, 4cm (11/2in) long, (P.delavayi var. lutea x P.suffruticosa; tree petaloid stamens crimson and gold;
bearing a single leaf with a vegetative peony to 2m (61/2ft); flowers yellow ‘Mutabilis Plena’: flowers deep pink
bud, is pushed into a slit in the root-
stock, which should be 10cm (4in) long
or combinations of yellow and pink;
includes ‘Alice Harding’: flowers
fading to blush pink; ‘Roseaplena’:
flowers double, darker pink; ‘Rosea
P
and 1.2cm (1/2in) in diameter. Plant in double, lemon yellow; ‘Argosy’: flowers Superba’: flowers large double, pink;
equal parts peat/sand, with the union single, to 18cm (7in) diameter, petals ‘Rubra Plena’: flowers double, crim-
covered, in a closed shaded frame, and primrose yellow, basal blotch carmine; son); P.peregrina (S Europe; herb to
leave to callus over. Admit air gradually
to harden off. They should be ready to
pot on by autumn; plunge the pots in
a cold frame over winter, and spray
against botrytis. As the pots fill with
roots the following spring, plant out
deeply in a frame to encourage scion
rooting. Layering and 15–20cm (6–8in)
hardwood cuttings in autumn are
possible but success rates are low.
The major disease of peonies is
peony grey mould blight (sometimes
called peony wilt). Soft brown areas
develop at leaf bases causing them to
wilt. This is followed by a dark brown
rot in both stem and leaf bases, and
grey mould can subsequently be seen
on stems at ground level. Young buds
may blacken and wither, and grey
mould develops on all damaged tissue. Paeonia mascula (left) and P.delavayi var. ludlowii (right)
B.cineria causes similar symptoms later Despite their space demands and brief flowering season, the attractiveness of peonies makes them 567
in the season. Both are best prevented deserving garden plants, whether the herbaceous types (left) or the shrubby tree peonies (right).
Paeonia
50cm (20in); flowers to 12cm (43/4in) to describe a closely clipped hedge, belonging to the family Palmae. They
diameter, cup-shaped, deep red; ‘Otto grown as edging on narrow pathways have special potential as garden and
Froebel’ flowers vermilion, produced or to conceal walls. landscape features, and where dwarf
early); P.rockii (syn. ‘Joseph Rock’: flow- species are used in their distinctive
ers semi-double, spreading, petals very Paliurus (name for the genus used by juvenile state, can be equally valuable
pale flesh pink to silvery-white blotched Dioscorides.) Rhamnaceae. S Europe as indoor container-grown specimens.
maroon at base); P.suffruticosa (China, to E Asia. 8 species, spiny, deciduous For outdoor cultivation, most palms
Tibet, Bhutan; MOUTAN PEONY; tree or evergreen trees or shrubs with small need tropical or subtropical tempera-
peony to 2m (61/2ft); leaves tinted yellow flowers in axillary clusters in tures, besides which local climatic
purple-bronze at first; flowers to 15cm summer, followed by dry, woody and conditions and soils may affect their
(6in) diameter, pink to white, each petal winged fruits. Hardy to –15°C/5°F success rate. Palms suitable for outdoor
with a deep purple, red-bordered basal and suited to planting at the base of a planting in temperate areas are limited;
patch and finely scalloped margins; warm, south- or southwest-facing wall those that thrive in favoured areas
‘Banksii’: flowers double, carmine; or for dry borders, especially on limy include the CHUSAN PALMS, Trachycarpus
‘Godaishu’: flowers semi-double, large, soils. If the top growth is cut down by fortunei, and T.wagnerianus, Chamaerops
clear white; ‘Koka-mon’: flowers large, frost, it will resprout from the base so humilis, Butia capitata, and Jubaea
red-brown striped white; ‘Reine long as the roots are protected from chilensis. Where varying degrees of pro-
Elizabeth’: flowers fully double, large, damage. Grow in full sun in any well- tection can be provided during winter,
salmon-pink tinged red, margins ruffled; drained fertile soil. Prune in winter to species of borderline hardiness can be
‘Renkaku’: flowers double, dense, white, remove old and overcrowded growth. grown, including the COTTON PALM,
ruffled, anthers long, deep yellow; Cut overgrown specimens hard back Washingtonia filifera, the New Zealand
‘Superb’: flowers cherry red; P.tenuifolia to the base. Propagate by softwood FEATHER DUSTER PALM, Rhopalostylis
(S E Europe to Caucasus; herb to 60cm cuttings in summer or by seed sown in sapida, and the CANARY DATE PALM,
(24in); leaves finely divided; flowers cup- a frame or under glass after a winter Phoenix canariensis. Several species are
shaped, to 8cm (3in) diameter, deep red; scarification. Alternatively, increase by extremely cold-resistant but require
‘Early Bird’: flowers single, deep red; root cuttings or simple layering. summer heat to grow well. They
‘Plena’: flowers double, longer-lasting; P.spina-christi (CHRIST’S THORN; Spain include the DWARF PALMETTO, Sabal
‘Rosea’: flowers pale pink); P.veitchii to C Asia and N China; deciduous, minor, and the BLUE HESPER PALM,
(China: herb to 50cm (20in); flowers 3–7m (10–23ft), twigs flexuous, hairy, Brahea armata.
nodding to 9cm (31/2in) diameter, pale thorns paired; leaves 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in), Care should be exercised in the
to deep magenta; ‘Alba’: flowers cream- entire to crenate-serrate, hairy on veins choice of species. A large number are
white); P.wittmanniana (Caucasus; herb beneath; fruit 1.8–3cm (3/4–11/4in) in extremely fast-growing and can rapidly
P to 120cm (48in); flowers to 12.5cm (5in)
diameter, pale yellow).
diameter, woody, 3-lobed, subglobose,
wings undulate).
dominate the landscape. Many are best
grown as individual specimens, whereas
others look good in groups of a single
paired usually applied to flowers or palmate of leaves, with three or species. Palms require virtually no main-
leaflets in opposite pairs; bi-, tri-, and more free lobes or similar segments tenance and the predictability of their
multijugate describe compound leaves originating in a palm-like manner mature size and shape is an advantage
with two, three or many such pairs from the same basal point; of venation, in garden design. Most palms succeed
or leaflets. with three or more veins on a range of soil types.
arising from the point of The majority of palms
pak-choi see cabbage. attachment of the petiole. grown in pots under cover
benefit from high air
palate the lower lip of a corolla, palmatifid palmately humidity. In the green-
apparently closing its throat. cleft rather than lobed. house, this can be
provided by damping
palea specifically the upper and palmatisect down; in conservato-
generally slimmer of the two glumes palmately cut into ries and the home, it
old leaf bases
enclosing the floret in most segments almost to surround can be achieved by means of an
Gramineae; more generally, a small, the base of the leaf. the stem electric humidifier or by frequent
dry bract or scale. misting. Grouping plants together
palmette a trained form and standing pots on a tray of
paleaceous bearing small, chaffy of fruit tree; similar to an pebbles, kept permanently moist,
bracts or scales (paleae); more espalier, with the tiers is helpful. A kitchen or bathroom
generally, chaffy in texture. staggered and inclined upwards. is often a good place for palms
because of the usually high
palisade a fence made up of spaced palms a group of monocoty- humidity level.
568 upright planks or railings fixed to hori- ledonous plants, mostly of Bright indirect light bene-
zontal members. It is sometimes used tree and shrubby form, Palm (Phoenix roebelenii) fits most species. Many
Pancratium
palms, including Caryota, Phoenix the seedling at any stage and pots
roebelinii, Chamaedorea, Howea and Rhapis, must be kept watered. Pot on as soon
grow as seedlings on the jungle floor as roots fill the old pot, and feed
and thus tolerate low light levels. Sun- regularly with a pot plant fertilizer.
light filtered through net curtains and a In general, palms transplant success-
north-facing window position are ideal, fully if moved when in active growth,
but direct sunlight through glass must generally in spring and early summer.
be avoided. Dry air and insufficient Ideally, the tree should be prepared
levels of light in the greenhouse, con- some months before being moved by
servatory or home, cause most palms to trenching two or three spade-widths
grow slowly; this can be an advantage, from its base to a depth of four or
as long as the plant remains healthy, five spits, cutting through any roots
for a palm can then remain in the encountered. The trench is then filled
same container for a number of years. in for at least three months, during
Conservatories are ideal locations. which time new roots will grow
Palms are most easily propagated from the base of the trunk.
from seed, although some such as Hard pan in soil
Chamaerops, Rhapis, Caryota, Ptychosperma, Pamianthe (for Major Albert Pam This deep, straight-sided hole reveals a com-
and Chamaedorea species, can be (d. 1955), English horticulturist, and pacted layer, or pan, in the soil profile, likely
increased by division or from suckers. Greek anthe, flower). Amaryllidaceae. S to impede drainage.
The more tropical the plant’s origin, America. 2 or 3 species, bulbous herbs
the more essential it is that seed is with linear leaves and scapose umbels deep cultivation; (2) a plant container
fresh. Palms from temperate or arid of large, fragrant flowers in spring. the diameter of which measures much
zones have a considerably longer seed- These consist of a long cylindrical more than its depth; it is useful for seed
viability period, for example, Washingto- tube, six lobes and six stamens, their sowing, for growing plants with spread-
nia, Trachycarpus, Chamaerops and Phoenix. filaments short, incurved and fused at ing or surface roots or for small bulbs.
Seed should be planted to its own the base into a campanulate corona See pots and potting.
depth in any moist proprietary potting with six short lobes. Maintain a winter
medium that both retains moisture and minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F. Pancratium (name in Dioscorides
is free-draining. Plant in pots or trays Plant in a fibrous, loam-based medium for a bulbous plant). Amaryllidaceae.
in a seed propagator or sealed plastic in late summer/early autumn with the Canary Islands, Mediterranean to trop-
bag to retain humidity. Large quantities neck of the bulb at soil level, and water ical Asia, W Africa to Namibia. About
of seed can be mixed with moistened
medium and placed directly in a clear
sparingly until growth commences.
Grow in bright indirect light and water
16 species, bulbous perennial herbs
with 2-ranked, linear to lorate leaves.
P
plastic bag and removed individually moderately when in growth. Propagate The large, white flowers are borne in
on germination. No light is required. by offsets. Seeds take 12–15 months summer in scapose umbels. The peri-
Large seeds such as the COCONUT, to mature on the plant, but germinate anth is more or less funnelform with
Cocos, are half-buried in a seed-raising rapidly if sown when ripe in a warm six spreading, linear-lanceolate lobes;
medium in individual pots. and humid closed case. P.peruviana the bases of the anther filaments are
Temperate-area palms will (Peru; scape to 60cm (24in); flowers united in a conspicuous corona. They
germinate well without additional fragrant, perianth tube to 13cm (5in), are suitable for the cool greenhouse or
heat but tropical species require green, lobes to 13cm (5in), white or conservatory, or for outdoor cultivation
30–35°C/86–95°F. Fresh seed may flushed cream, the inner ones to 3cm in full sun at the base of a south-facing
sprout within a week or two, but most (11/4in) wide, oblanceolate with a cen- wall. P.illyricum is hardy to –5°C/23°F.
species take two or three months to tral green stripe; corona to 8cm (3in), P.maritimum is almost as hardy although
germinate, and some take up to two lobes bifid or mucronate). the foliage is susceptible to frost, and
years. During this time, the planting in cool temperate gardens, the hot dry
medium should not be allowed to dry pan (1) a compacted layer within a soil conditions necessary for bulb ripening
out, and the temperature must be profile that is impermeable to water are seldom achieved. Propagate by
maintained. Germination-hastening and air and thus impedes drainage and offsets or ripe seed.
practices include filing or cracking the also root growth. It may arise naturally P.illyricum (Corsica, Sardinia; scape
hard seed coat, soaking in warm or in soils of high iron content where the to 40cm (16in); flowers fragrant; peri-
hot water for long periods and element accumulates at depth, or it anth white, sometimes ivory or cream
soaking in acid. may result from mechanical cultivation at base of segments and on corona,
‘Sprouts’ should be potted up or treading of medium or heavy tex- tube 8cm (3in), lobes 5cm (2in),
individually as soon as the first leaf tured soil, especially when wet. The linear-oblong to narrowly elliptic;
appears and placed in a warm and presence of a pan can be determined corona much longer than perianth,
bright location out of direct sunlight. by digging a narrow pit into the profile, teeth paired, long and narrow, alternat- 569
The seed should not be removed from and the layer can be broken up by ing with stamens); P.maritimum (SEA
Pancratium
DAFFODIL, SEA LILY; Mediterranean, or funnelform with five, rounded lobes. to 30 x 1.4cm (12 x 1/2in) hairy; panicles
SW Europe; flowers highly fragrant; Both P.pandorana and P.jasminoides with- open, to 45cm (18in)+, green to
perianth tube to 7.5cm (3in), very stand light frost and are drought- purple; branches very fine, spreading,
slender; corona two-thirds length of tolerant. Cultivate as for Bignonia. resembling a cloud); P.virgatum (SWITCH
perianth, with short triangular teeth P.jasminoides (BOWER OF BEAUTY, GRASS; C America to S Canada; peren-
alternating with stamens). BOWER PLANT; NE Australia; to 5m nial, narrowly upright, to 180cm (70in);
(16ft); flowers 4–5cm (11/2–2in), white, culms clumped, flimsy to robust,
Pandanus (from pandang, the streaked or stained deep, rich pink purple to glaucous green; leaves linear,
Malayan name for these plants). Pan- within; ‘Alba’: flowers pure white; flat, erect, to 60cm x 1.4cm (24in x
1
danaceae. SE Asia, especially Malaysia, ‘Lady Di’: flowers white, with a cream /2in), usually glabrous, green, some-
Australia. SCREW PINE. 600 species, throat; ‘Rosea’: flowers pink, with a times glaucous blue, becoming vivid
evergreen trees and shrubs with darker throat; ‘Rosea Superba’: large, yellow, bronze or burgundy in autumn;
sparsely branching, stout stems bearing pink, with a darker, spotted purple panicle open, to 50 x 25cm (20 x 10in),
numerous stilt roots. Sword-shaped throat); P.pandorana (WONGA-WONGA with many fine branches and spikelets
with saw-toothed margins, the leaves VINE; Australia, New Guinea, Pacific resembling a cloud or swarm lasting
are inserted in three, twisted ranks, Islands; evergreen to 6m (20ft); flowers well into winter; branches spreading,
forming spirally arranged, terminal fragrant, to 4cm (11/2in), creamy yellow, feathery, stiff to drooping; ‘Cloud
rosettes. The fruit is an oblong to glo- streaked and splashed red or purple; Nine’: to 2m (61/2ft), with blue-green
bose syncarp of woody drupes, often ‘Rosea’: pale pink). leaves; ‘Hänse Herms’: RED SWITCH
pendulous and sometimes edible. Juve- GRASS, to 1.25m (4ft), weeping, with
niles of P.veitchii and P.sanderi are hand- pandurate fiddle-shaped; plum to rich burgundy leaves in
some foliage plants for the home or rounded at both ends. autumn and flowers suffused red;
Panicle
conservatory. Grow in sun or light ‘Heavy Metal’: stiffly erect with
shade in a sandy loam-based medium panicle an indetermi- pale metallic blue leaves, turning
with additional leafmould and some nate branched inflores- yellow in autumn; ‘Rot-
charcoal; maintain a minimum cence; the branches braun’: to 80cm (32in), with
temperature of 13°C/55°F and a generally racemose light brown leaves, flushed
humid, buoyant atmosphere. Water or corymbose. red at tips, with rich autumn
plentifully and feed fortnightly with colour; ‘Rubrum’: to 1m
dilute liquid feed when in growth, paniculate (31/4ft), with leaves
allowing the medium to dry slightly resembling, or flushed red, turn-
between waterings; reduce water in the form of ing bright red in
P during winter to keep almost dry.
Avoid wetting the foliage in cool
a panicle. autumn, and rich brown seed-
heads in clouds; ‘Squaw’: leaves
weather – an accumulation of water Panicum (from a tinted red in autumn; ‘Stric-
in the leaf axils will cause rot. As pot- Latin name for millet). Buddleja tum’: TALL SWITCH GRASS,
grown specimens mature, they tend to Gramineae. Pantropi- ‘Lochinch’ narrowly upright, to 1.2m
heave themselves out of the pots. Prop- cal to temperate N America. (4ft); ‘Warrior’: tall, strong-growing,
agate by offsets, suckers, by cuttings PANIC GRASS. Some 470 species, annual with leaves tinted red-brown in
of lateral shoots in summer or by seed, or perennial grasses with thread-like to autumn).
pre-soaked for 24 hours before sowing. lanceolate leaves and flowers in pani-
P.sanderi (origin uncertain, possibly cles and racemes in spring and pannose felt-like in texture; being
from Timor; leaves 75 x 5cm (30 x 2in), summer. The annual P.capillare is grown densely covered in woolly hairs.
striped yellow or golden and green, for its large, intricately branched flow-
margins minutely spiny; ‘Roehrsianus’: erheads which are used for drying. Papaver (from Latin pappa, food or
leaves deep golden-yellow, later striped P.virgatum, a hardy perennial, is noted milk, an allusion to the milky latex).
pale yellow); P.veitchii (origin uncertain, for its generosity of bloom and the Papaveraceae. Europe, Asia, South
possibly from Polynesia; leaves summer blue foliage colours of some Africa, W Australia, western N Amer-
50–100cm (20–39in) x 75cm (30in), cultivars, and the russet autumn tones. ica. POPPY. 50 species, annual or peren-
slightly drooping, margins spiny, dark Grow in any moderately fertile well- nial herbs with white or yellow latex.
green bordered with pure or silvery- drained soil in sun. Propagate P.capillare The leaves are generally oblong to
white; ‘Compactus’: dwarf form). by seed sown in early spring under lanceolate, pinnately lobed, incised
glass and set out after danger of frost is and toothed. Produced in spring and
Pandorea (for the Greek goddess passed; increase P.virgatum by division. summer on slender stalks, the short-
Pandora). Bignoniaceae. Australia, P.capillare (OLD WITCH GRASS, WITCH lived flowers consist of four silky,
Papuasia, E Malaysia, New Caledonia. GRASS; S Canada, US; annual, to obovate to rounded petals around
6 species, lianes with pinnate leaves. 90cm (36in); culms clumped, upright numerous stamens. These in turn sur-
570 Produced in clusters between winter to spreading, slender to robust; leaves round a top-shaped ovary capped with
and summer, the flowers are cylindrical undulate, linear to narrow-lanceolate, a sculpted, downy stigmatic disc.
papayas
in boxes of sandy medium in a cold and compact to tall, the flowers some-
frame. Keep moist, not wet, and pro- times double, in a range of colours
tect from frost. Transfer to a nursery from white, pink and orange to deep
bed in spring for a season before plant- red and purple, sometimes bicoloured,
ing out. Propagation from seed is possi- some with petals fringed or ruffled;
ble, but cultivars do not come true. among the finest are ‘Cedric Morris’
P.alpinum (Alps, Carpathians, Pyre- with grey hairy leaves and shell-pink
nees; perennial to 25cm (10in); leaves petals with a large violet-black basal
5–20cm (2–8in), 2–3-pinnate, lobes spot, ‘Glowing Embers’, to 110cm
6–8, linear to ovate-lanceolate, acute, (42in), robust, erect, with bright
occasionally pinnatisect, glaucous grey- orange-red flowers, 10cm (4in) in
green to green, glabrous to sparsely diameter, with ruffled petals, ‘Harvest
bristly, toothed; flowers solitary on Moon’, to 1m (31/4ft), with semi-double,
Poppy seedheads scapes to 25cm (10in); petals white, deep orange flowers, and ‘Perry’s
Papaver species (here P.somniferum) form yellow or orange, to 2.5cm (1in); a White’, to 80cm (32in), with grey-white
attractive seedheads which are also popular variable species – P.burseri, P.kerneri, flowers with a purple-black centre);
for dried flower arrangements. P.pyrenaicum and P.rhaeticum are closely P.rhoeas (CORN POPPY, FIELD POPPY,
related); P.atlanticum (Morocco; peren- FLANDERS POPPY; temperate Old
Poppies are easily grown in the mixed nial to 45cm (18in); leaves to 15cm World; bristly annual to 90cm (36in);
border, herbaceous border and in rock (6in), oblong to lanceolate, jagged- stem erect, branching; leaves pinnate
gardens. The annuals will usually self- toothed or pinnatisect, pilose; scapes or pinnatisect, segments lanceolate, to
seed freely unless deadheaded. Sow to 45cm (18in), simple or forked; petals 15cm (6in); flowers solitary, to 7.5cm
annuals in situ, in spring or late summer to 2.5cm (1in), buff to orange to red); (3in) across, brilliant red sometimes
on any well-drained soil in a sunny P.burseri (C Europe; perennial to 25cm with a black basal spot; includes the
position. Thin to 25–30cm (10–12in) (10in); leaves to 20cm (8in), 2–3-pin- Shirley Poppies, with medium-sized
apart and keep weed-free. Give late- nate, glaucous, segments 6–8, linear flowers, single or double, in a wide
sown plants cloche protection in winter. to lanceolate, acute; scapes to 25cm range of colours except yellow, and
The biennial P.triniifolium is a superb (10in), setose; flowers solitary, petals to ‘Valerie Finnis’, with grey mauve, pink
foliage plant for silver and dry gardens. 2cm (3/4in), usually white); P.commutatum and white flowers); P.somniferum (OPIUM
P.nudicaule, a short-lived perennial, can (Caucasus, Asia Minor; annual to POPPY; SE Europe, W Asia; annual to
also be treated as an annual, but best 40cm (16in); stem erect, branching, 120cm (48in), glaucous, grey-green;
results are obtained by growing it as a sparsely hairy; leaves to 15cm (6in), leaves to 12.5cm (5in), obovate-oblong,
biennial. The blooms, 10–12cm
(4–43/4in) across on wiry stems, make
pinnatifid, downy, segments to 3cm
(11/4in), oblong to ovate, dentate to
deeply and jaggedly incised and
toothed; flowers to 10cm (4in) across,
P
good cut flowers, lasting for up to a entire; scapes long, hairy, petals to pale white, pink, light mauve, purple
week if cut in bud and the stem tips 3cm (11/4in), red with black basal spot; or marked, frequently double, with
scalded in boiling water before arrang- includes ‘Lady Bird’, with scarlet flow- erose petals, occasionally with a dark
ing. Sow thinly in late spring/early ers splashed with black); P.nudicaule (ICE- basal blotch; includes the Peony-flow-
summer in a cold frame or outdoors. LANDIC POPPY, ARCTIC POPPY; subarctic ered Hybrids, with double flowers);
Transplant when large enough to regions; perennial; leaves 3–30cm P.triniifolium (Asia Minor; biennial to
handle, 15cm (6in) apart in rows 30cm (11/4–12in), pinnatifid to pinnatisect, 40cm (16in); leaves silver-grey, bristly,
(12in) apart, in a sunny well-drained somewhat glaucous, hairy, segments finely divided and cut; flowers to 4cm
bed. Transfer to the final site in full sun 3–4, oblong, incised; flowers to 7.5cm (11/2in) across, pale orange-red).
and fertile soil, in autumn or the fol- (3in) in diameter, solitary on scapes to
lowing spring. P.alpinum and its allies 60cm (24in), white with yellow basal papayas (Carica papaya) Caricaceae.
are short-lived perennials for the rock patch, yellow, orange, peach or pale S America. PAWPAW. A tender tree to
garden, stone walls and raised beds. red, ruffled; many cultivars and seed 10m (33ft) in the wild; extensively
They need a gritty soil and full sun. races are available, with large, long- grown in tropical and frost-free sub-
The oriental poppies, P.orientale, are stalked flowers in a wide range of tropical regions for the medicinal
among the loveliest hardy herbaceous pastel shades, bright yellows and warm and industrial uses of its unripe fruit;
perennials, although their flowering oranges); P.orientale (ORIENTAL POPPY; also for flavorous, vitamin-rich qualities
period is brief, and the leaves die back SW Asia; robust perennial to 90cm when ripe. Fruits to 45cm (18in),
and leave gaps in the border. The seed (36in); leaves to 25cm (10in), bristly, elongate-globose, hanging on stout
pods are attractive when dried. Plant pinnate to pinnatisect at apex, seg- stalks. Leaves to 70cm (271/2in) diam.,
on any deep well-drained soil, in full ments lanceolate or oblong; flowers deeply palmatifid. Flowers usually
sun. Propagate by division in early solitary, to 10cm (4in) in diameter, unisexual. For satisfactory growth
autumn or spring, or by root cuttings red, orange or pale pink usually with requires temperatures within the range
in late summer/early autumn. Place a purple to black basal blotch; includes 24–26°C/75–79°F with high humidity. 571
pieces of thick roots, crown end up, many cultivars, ranging from dwarf In temperate zones, under protection
papayas
with a minimum winter temperature daytime increase of at least 5°C/9°F. maroon; dorsal sepal to 3.5 x 4cm (11/2
of 15°C/59°F, makes an unusual Some of the most popular species, x 11/2in); petals to 6 x 4.5cm (21/2 x
foliage plant with palm-like clusters; however, hail from cooler locations 13/4in); lip narrowly ovoid, to 4 x 2cm
fruit production is possible, but plants and will tolerate a night-minimum of (11/2 x 3/4in), margins strongly incurved);
should be replaced after 4 years. Prop- 7°C/45°F. These include P.hirsutissimum, P.callosum (Thailand, Cambodia, Laos;
agate by seed at 24–30°C/75–86°F. P.insigne, P.fairrieanum, P.spicerianum, and leaves tessellated pale and dark green
P.venustum. With the exception of above; flowers 1; sepals white flushed
papery bark a disorder occurring P.venustum, it can generally be assumed purple in lower half, veined purple and
most frequently on trees of apple and that mottled-leaved species require green, dorsal sepal broadly ovate, to
ornamental Malus, where the bark warmer conditions, as do species and 5.5 x 6cm (21/8 x 21/2in), ciliate, recurved;
peels in loose, papery and translucent grexes with plain leaves and multiple- petals curved downwards, to 6.5 x 2cm
sheets. In severe attacks, the affected flowered inflorescences. Water (21/2 x 3/4in), white to yellow-green,
area may be girdled, causing branch or throughout the year, aiming to drench apical third purple, maroon-spotted on
trunk dieback. Papery bark commonly the medium once it begins to dry out. upper margin and sometimes basal
results from waterlogging, but is also a Plants should not be allowed to dry out half; lip to 4.5 x 2.5cm (13/4 x 1in),
sign of infection with silver leaf (Chon- completely, but waterlogged conditions incurved lateral lobes warty, green,
drostereum purpureum) or apple canker are disastrous. Although overhead mist- flushed maroon); P.delenatii (Vietnam;
(Nectria galligena). Where poor growing ing is beneficial in optimum conditions, leaves mottled dark and pale green
conditions persist, papery bark may never allow water to stand on foliage or above, spotted purple beneath; flowers
recur, ultimately severely reducing fruit to settle for long periods in the centre 1(–2), pale pink with red and yellow
yield or even proving fatal. Badly dam- of growths. Compost may be com- markings on staminode, hairy; dorsal
aged or dead shoots should be cut back posed of a variety of mixtures using sepal ovate, to 3.5 x 2.5cm (11/2 x 1in);
to healthy wood. Papery bark also conifer-bark, perlag, perlite and char- petals broadly elliptic, rounded at apex,
occurs as a non-pathogenic ornamental coal with possible additions of sphag- 4.3 x 5cm (12/3 x 2in); lip ellipsoid to
feature on many trees, for example num moss and/or coir. P.bellatulum subglobose, 4 x 3cm (11/2 x 11/4in), mar-
Acer griseum, Betula utilis, Prunus serrula. benefits from the addition of broken gins incurved, minutely hairy); P.fair-
chalk to the crocks. Feed fortnightly rieanum (Sikkim, Bhutan, NE India;
Paphiopedilum (from Greek when the plants are growing. Propagate leaves very faintly mottled above;
Paphos, an Aegean island with a temple by division. flowers 1, sepals white, veined green
to Aphrodite, and pedilon, slipper, In addition to the species described and purple, with a purple suffusion on
describing the saccate lip formed by below, there are many grexes and dorsal sepal, petals similar; dorsal sepal
the third petal of each flower). Orchi- cultivars of Paphiopedilum. These vary elliptic, to 8 x 7cm (3 x 23/4in), ciliate,
P daceae. SE Asia, India, Indonesia,
SW China, New Guinea, Philippines,
widely in size, shape and colour. Some
bear single flowers of great size and
apical margins recurved, lateral mar-
gins undulate; petals curved down-
Solomon Islands. VENUS’ SLIPPER. substance and almost perfectly circular wards with rising tips, 5 x 1.5cm (2
About 60 species, largely terrestrial, in outline. Others are smaller and finer, x 5/8in), margins ciliate, undulate; lip
evergreen orchids. They lack stems and closer to the species, with slender, deep, outcurved at rim, 4 x 2.5cm
pseudobulbs. Borne in loose basal fans, sometimes twisted petals, carried one (11/2 x 1in), olive to yellow-green, veined
the leaves are leathery, more or less to many per spike. In colour, they darker); P.haynaldianum (Philippines;
strap-shaped and plain green or mot- range from white to cream, yellow, flowers 3–4; dorsal sepal obovate to
tled with light or dark markings. The ochre, green, rose, ruby red, garnet, elliptic, apex hooded, to 6 x 2.5cm (21/2
flowers are terminal, waxy, and carried plum purple, violet, maroon and deep, x 1in), basal margin recurved, creamy
one to several on a slender stalk; the glossy chestnut. These colours may be white, sides flushed purple, centre
dorsal sepal is large and erect, the lat- combined–for example, a white dorsal green or yellow with basal half spotted
eral sepals fused to form a shield-like sepal with a maroon lip and ochre maroon; petals arching, spathulate,
synsepalum behind the lip and the petals. All parts may be spotted, mot- half-twisted, to 8 x 1.4cm (3 x 1/2in), cili-
petals are horizontal or pendent. tled, striped or veined, sometimes with ate, green or yellow, basal half spotted
The lip is strongly saccate, forming hairy margins or hairy warts. One of maroon, purple above; lip to 4.5 x
a slipper-like pouch. the most popular grexes is P. Maudiae 2.3cm (13/4 x 1in), ochre-green, veined
Compact orchids, with handsome, with attractively mottled leaves and darker, purple-hairy within); P.hirsutissi-
evergreen foliage and intriguing, long- lime green flowers with a white, mum (NE India; leaves spotted purple
lived flowers, usually from winter to green-striped dorsal sepal. In the clone beneath; flowers 1, sepals pale yellow
spring. They are easy to grow in the P. Maudiae ‘Coloratum’, the flowers are to pale green with glossy dark brown
greenhouse and conservatory or in the large and wine red with a white-striped suffusion almost to margins, petals pale
home, in a growing case or stood on dorsal sepal and green-brown lip. yellow, lower half spotted purple-
a tray of moist gravel. All need shade P.bellatulum (W Burma, Thailand; brown, apical half flushed rose-purple;
and a buoyant, humid atmosphere. leaves dark green mottled pale green dorsal sepal ovate to elliptic, 4.5 x 4cm
572 Most need a night-minimum tempera- above, spotted purple beneath, flowers (13/4 x 11/2in), undulate, ciliate; petals
ture of 15–18°C/59–64°F with a 1, white or cream, heavily spotted horizontal to deflexed, spathulate,
Parahebe
7 x 2.2cm (23/4 x 7/8in), half-twisted 1; dorsal sepal curving forward, obo- traced to India, China, Japan and into
toward apex, strongly undulate, hairy, vate to transversely elliptic, to 4.2 x Italy and other parts of Europe.
ciliate; lip 4.5 x 2cm (13/4 x 3/4in)); 5cm (15/8 x 2in), sides recurved, hairy,
P.insigne (NE India, E Nepal; flowers 1; white with central maroon stripe and Paradisea (for Count Giovanni Para-
dorsal sepal obovate to elliptic, 6.4 x green-tinged base; petals falcate, linear- disi of Modena (1760–1826)). Liliaceae
4cm (21/2 x 11/2in), apical margins oblong, to 3.9 x 1.3cm (11/2 x 1/2in), (Asphodelaceae). S Europe. 2 species,
incurved, pale green, inner surface yellow-green with central brown-purple fleshy-rooted, perennial herbs with
with raised maroon spots, margin vein, flecking on other veins; lip to grassy leaves and, in spring and
white; petals slightly oblong to spathu- 5 x 3cm (2 x 11/4in), glossy, pale green, summer, 6-parted, funnel-form to
late, 6.3 x 1.8cm (21/2 x 3/4in), yellow- flushed brown with darker veins); campanulate flowers in slender, lax
brown veined red-brown; lip 5 x 3cm P.sukhakulii (NE Thailand; leaves tessel- racemes. Cultivate as for Anthericum.
(2 x 11/4in), yellow, marked purple- lated dark and yellow-green above; P.liliastrum (ST BRUNO’S LILY, PARADISE
brown); P.niveum (N Malaysia and flowers 1; sepals white veined green, LILY; S Europe; to 60cm (24in); leaves
S Thailand; leaves mottled very dark spotted purple at base, outer surface 3–5cm (11/4–2in); flowers white tipped
and pale green above, dotted purple downy, dorsal sepal concave, to 4 x 3cm green, in a secund raceme; ‘Major’:
beneath; flowers 1–2, white, often (11/2 x 11/4in), ciliate; petals to 6.2 x 2cm robust, with larger flowers).
dotted purple near base of segments (21/2 x 3/4in), green heavily spotted
and front of lip, hairy; dorsal sepal maroon, margins ciliate; lip saccate, Parahebe (from Greek para, beside,
very broadly ovate, to 3 x 5cm (11/4 x 5 x 2.3cm (2 x 1in), green, veined and i.e., close to, and Hebe). Scrophulari-
2in); petals elliptic, rounded, to 4 x 3cm flushed maroon, lateral lobes warty); aceae. New Zealand, New Guinea,
(11/2 x 11/4in), ciliate; lip ovoid to ellip- P.venustum (NE India, E Nepal, Sikkim, Australia. Some 30 species, prostrate
soid, to 3 x 1.7cm (11/4 x 2/3in), margins Bhutan; leaves tessellated dark green or decumbent subshrubs, rarely herbs,
incurved); P.primulinum (Sumatra; flow- and grey green above, densely spotted similar to Hebe but with a less shrubby
ers many, opening in succession, pale purple beneath; flowers 1, sepals white habit and with flowers in short axillary
yellow with yellow-green sepals; dorsal veined green, petals white veined with racemes. Hardy in zone 7. Grow on a
sepal ovate, to 2.6 x 2.6cm (1 x 1in), cil- green, warted maroon-black, flushed gritty, free-draining soil in a sunny,
iate, hairy beneath; petals linear, finely purple in apical half; dorsal sepal sheltered position. Increase by semi-
tapering, spreading tip; twisted, to ovate, to 4 x 3cm (11/2 x 11/4in), outer ripe cuttings, layering, and (P.perfoliata)
3.2 x 0.8cm (11/4 x 3/8in); lip to 3.5 x 2cm surface hirsute; petals oblanceolate, by division. Cut away flowered stems
(11/2 x 3/4in), bulbous toward apex); recurved, ciliate, to 5.5 x 1.5cm (21/8 x of P.perfoliata when the new growth
5
P.rothschildianum (Borneo; flowers 2–4; /8in); lip to 4 x 3cm (11/2 x 11/4in), yellow emerges in spring.
dorsal sepal ovate, to 6.6 x 4.1cm (25/8 x tinged purple and veined green, lateral P.catarractae (New Zealand; subshrub
15/8in), ivory-white or yellow veined
maroon; petals to 12 x 1.5cm (43/4 x
lobes verrucose). to 30cm (12in), decumbent to ascend-
ing; leaves to 4cm (11/2in), ovate to
P
5
/8in), narrowly tapering to a rounded papilionaceous describes the lanceolate, dark above, paler beneath,
apex, yellow or ivory-white marked pea-type corolla characteristic of glabrous, acute, serrate; flowers white,
maroon; lip to 6 x 2cm (21/2 x 3/4in), papilionoid legumes. veined pink or purple; includes ‘Alba’,
golden, heavily suffused purple); P.spice- with white flowers, ‘Delight’, to 15cm
rianum (NE India, NW Burma; flowers papilla a nipple-like projection from (6in), bushy, with blue flowers, ‘Miss
an epidermal cell, often swollen and Willmott’, with rose-lilac flowers veined
covered with wax. mauve, ‘Porlock’, to 25cm (10in), with
blue and white flowers, and ‘Rosea’, to
papillate, papillose covered with 20cm (8in), with pink flowers; var. dif-
papillae. fusa: to 20cm (8in), with small, toothed
leaves and tiny, pink-flushed flowers);
pappus a whorl or tuft of delicate P.lyallii (New Zealand; subshrub to
bristles or scales in the place of the 20cm (8in), stems slender, prostrate to
calyx, found in some flowers of decumbent; leaves to 1cm (1/2in), subor-
Compositae. bicular to narrowly obovate, coria-
ceous, obtuse to rounded, crenate to
papyraceous papery. serrate; flowers, white to pink; ‘Rosea’:
flowers pink); P.perfoliata (syn. Veronica
paradise garden a description perfoliata; DIGGER’S SPEEDWELL; Aus-
of ancient gardens of the Near and tralia; woody-based herb, stems
Middle East. Paradaisos in Greek meant 20–100cm (8–39in), clumped, arching;
Paphiopedilum callosum a park for a king, and was derived from leaves to 5cm (2in), ovate, amplexicaul
The saccate lower lip formed by the basal the old Persian pairidaeza, an enclosure, to connate-perfoliate, blue-green, glau-
petal is the “slipper” after which these and the Hebrew pardes, an enclosed cous and thinly succulent; flowers blue 573
orchids are named. garden or park. Its influence can be to violet).
Paraquilegia
Paraquilegia (from Greek para, near, to at least –15°C/5°F. Plant in a mois- and ground limestone. Water plenti-
and Aquilegia, to which it is closely ture-retentive, humus soil enriched fully. Propagate from seed in late
related). Ranunculaceae. C Asia to with leafmould. Propagate by division autumn or by division in spring.
Himalaya. 4 species, low, tufted peren- or by seed sown ripe in autumn. P.palustris (northern temperate regions;
nial herbs with ferny foliage and, in P.polyphylla (syn. Daiswa polyphylla; to 15cm (6in); leaves ovate to 3cm
spring, solitary, cup-shaped flowers Himalaya, Burma, Thailand, China, (11/4in), slender-stalked; flowers white,
on delicate stalks. Hardy and with a Tibet, Taiwan; to 1m (31/4ft); leaves six netted green to buff, 2.5cm (1in) in
preference for dry winters and cool to twelve, oblong to oblanceolate, diameter).
climates. Grow in full sun on a well- tapering finely; sepals to 10cm (4in),
drained alkaline soil. It is perhaps best narrowly lanceolate to linear, green, Parochetus (from Greek para, near,
cultivated in the alpine house, or in spreading, petals to 10cm (4in), and ochetos, brook, referring to the
troughs in a gritty alpine mix. Sow thread-like, semi-erect, yellow). moist habitat). Leguminosae. Moun-
fresh seed in autumn. P.anemonoides tains of tropical Africa, Asia to Java.
(syn. P.grandiflora; Himalaya; glabrous, parted, partite divided almost to 2 species, tolerant of temperatures to
to 18cm (7in); leaves finely divided, the base into a determinate number –5°C/23°F and well-suited to the rock
glaucous; flowers 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in) of segments; a more general term for garden. In cool temperature zones,
across, white to lilac). pinnate and palmate. however, they are more commonly and
safely grown in the cold greenhouse or
parasite an organism dependent for Parkinsonia (for John Parkinson alpine house, in pots and hanging bas-
the whole or part of its nutrition on (1567–1650), apothecary of London, kets. Grow in a moist but gritty, well-
another living organism. An obligate court botanist and author of the great drained medium, and give a sheltered
parasite is wholly dependent on horticultural work Paradisi in Sole position in full sun outdoors; protect
its host. Paradisus Terrestris (1629)) Leguminosae. with a cloche in winter. Propagate by
America, S and NE Africa. 12 or more seed or rooted runners. P.communis
parenchyma plant tissue comprising species, shrubs or trees, usually armed, (SHAMROCK PEA, BLUE OXALIS; prostrate
large thin-walled cells, relatively with green bark, finely pinnate or bip- clover-like herb with slender, rooting
unspecialized. innate leaves and fragrant, 5-petalled stems, trifoliolate leaves and deep blue,
flowers in short racemes. Grow in pea-like flowers in summer).
paring box a device for ensuring perfectly drained soils in full sun.
that grass turves (sods) are of matching Provide a minimum temperature of Parodia (for Dr Domingo Parodi
thickness, consisting of a shallow 13°C/55°F. Water moderately when (1823–90), pharmacist and student
wooden tray of the same dimensions in full growth, very sparingly at other of the flora of Paraguay). Cactaceae.
P and depth as that required of the
turves. It has three sides, and the
times. Under glass, maintain a dry,
buoyant environment and avoid damp
Southern S America. 35–50 species,
low-growing cacti, mostly with small,
turves are laid grass side down into winter conditions. Propagate from seed globose to shortly cylindric, ribbed or
the box and pared to even depth in spring. P.aculeata (JERUSALEM THORN; tuberculate stems and brightly coloured,
with a sharp-bladed tool. tropical America; shrub or tree, decid- funnel-shaped flowers. Grow in a cool
uous or evergreen, to 10m (33ft), frost-free greenhouse (minimum temper-
paripinnate where a pinnately armed; branchlets weeping, yellow- ature 7°C/45°F) in a neutral to acid
compound leaf is not terminated green to dark green, smooth; leaflets gritty medium. Provide full sun and
by a single leaflet pinna or tendril. to 0.5cm (1/4in), ovate to oblong; flowers low air-humidity; keep dry from mid-
fragrant, to 2cm (3/4in) in diameter, autumn until early spring, except for
Paris (from Latin par, paris, equal, on dotted orange). light misting on warm days in late
account of the numerical regularity of winter. Increase by seed or offsets.
its leaves and flowers and their overall Parnassia (a shortened form of the P.chrysacanthion (N Argentina; stem
similarity). Liliaceae (Trilliaceae). ancient name Gramen Parnassi, grass globose, to 12 x 10cm (43/4 x 4in), apex
Europe to E Asia. 4 species, deciduous of Mount Parnassus). Saxifragaceae. woolly and tufted with erect spines,
herbaceous perennials with swollen Northern temperate regions. GRASS OF tubercles spiralled, spines 30–40, to
creeping rhizomes. The stem is erect PARNASSUS, BOG STAR. 15 species, small 3cm (11/4in), golden-yellow or paler;
with ovate to lanceolate leaves in a perennial, glabrous, usually evergreen flowers yellow); P.microsperma (N
whorl at its summit. Produced in spring herbs with slender-stalked leaves in Argentina; stem globose, sometimes
and summer, the flowers are solitary basal rosettes and solitary, scapose, elongate, 5–20cm (2–8in) x 5–10cm
and terminal, consisting of four to six 5-petalled flowers in spring and early (2–4in), tubercles spiralled, spines
green sepals somewhat like the leaves, summer. Fully hardy. Plant in the rock 1–5cm (1/2–2in), red, brown and white;
and four to six linear, yellow-green or bog garden in damp but porous, flowers yellow or red); P.nivosa
sepals, often marked with purple-red. alkaline soil and leave undisturbed. (N Argentina; stem globose to elongate,
The fruit is a fleshy capsule. Suited to When grown in the alpine house, plant to 15 x 8cm (6 x 3in), tubercles spi-
574 the woodland or wild garden, or for in pans of high-fertility loam-based ralled, spines to 2cm (3/4in), white
shaded parts of the rock garden; hardy medium with added grit and leafmould or dark; flowers fiery red).
parterre
Paronychia (from Greek para, beside, 18 months), by softwood cuttings under parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) a biennial
and onyx, nail, from the ancient use of mist in summer or by layering. grown as an annual winter root veg-
the plant as a remedy for whitlows). etable, valued for its hardiness and
Caryophyllaceae. Tropical and warmer Parrotiopsis (from Parrotia and distinctive flavour. It is a native of
temperate regions, common in the Greek opsis, appearance). Hamameli- Siberia and Europe, including Britain,
Mediterranean area. WHITLOW-WORT daceae. Himalaya. 1 species, P.jacqe- and has been cultivated at least since
About 40 species, low-growing annuals montiana, a deciduous, erect tree, to 6m Roman times. Root length varies from
or perennials, usually with very small (20ft). The leaves are ovate to orbicular, 13–20cm (5–8in) and cultivars are
leaves with silvery stipules and small 5–9cm (2–31/2in) long, short-toothed, available of squat, rounded form with
flowers in dense heads surrounded by and usually turn yellow in autumn. tapering roots, others with long narrow
conspicuous silvery bracts. Hardy to Produced in spring and summer, the roots, and some with broad-shouldered
–10°C/14°F. Grow in a warm open inflorescences are made up of densely wedged-shaped roots.
position in full sun, in sharply drained, packed heads of yellow stamens, sub- Parsnips grow best on a deep,
sandy or gritty soils. Propagate by divi- tended by white, petal-like bracts. well-cultivated soil free of stones.
sion in spring or from cuttings rooted Cultivate as for Parrotia. Seed rapidly loses viability so fresh seed
in a closed case with bottom heat. must be used; germination is slow and
P.argentea (S Europe, N Africa, parsley (Petroselinum crispum) a erratic under cold conditions. Although
SW Asia; much-branched mat-forming biennial herb, native of south- the crop benefits from a long growing
perennial; leaves ovate to lanceolate; ern Europe and naturalized season, most success is achieved by
inflorescence dense, partially covered in many temperate coun- April–May sowing as growing
by silvery, bracts); P.capilata (Mediter- tries; it is grown as an conditions improve. Sow in
ranean; like P.argentea but with leaves annual for garnishing situ, 15–20mm (5/8–3/4in)
linear to lanceolate and flowers in and seasoning. deep in rows 30cm
distinct, very silvery heads); P.kapela Parsley is gener- (12in) apart for large
(Mediterranean; like P.argentea but ally hardy but roots. Place 3–4
with flowers in distinct, very quality deterio- seeds at 15cm (6in)
silvery heads). rates without winter stations, later thinning to
protection. There are two one plant: closer spacings
parrot a class of tulip with frilled and main forms, curled-leaved will produce smaller roots.
twisted petals, usually accompanied with thin roots, and French Canker-resistant cultivars are
by splashes or streaks of contrasting or flat-leaved with thicker available. On poor soils, good-
colour. roots; the latter is usually edible root quality roots may be grown from
Parrotia (for F.W. Parrot (1792–

better flavoured and often
easier to grow. Parsley struggles on soils
seed sown directly into
planting holes, about 90cm
P
1841), German naturalist, traveller and that are light, acid or poorly drained. (36in) deep and 15cm (6in)
professor of medicine, who climbed For a summer crop sow in situ in across, made with a crow-
Mount Ararat in 1829). Hamameli- spring, 15mm (5/8in) deep, in rows bar; the planting hole is
daceae. N Iran. IRONWOOD, IRONTREE. 20cm (8in) apart, thinning plants to Hamburg filled with a fertile loam-based
1 species, P.persica, a deciduous, slow- 15cm (6in) apart; alternatively, raise parsley mix. This technique is also used
growing, shrub or tree, to 10m (33ft). in modules under protection. For an for exhibition specimens.
The bark is smooth and grey, ulti- autumn and over-wintered crop, sow in Parsnips are relatively slow-growing
mately flaking to leave paler patches. mid-summer. Germination is slow and and suitable for intercropping with
In wild colonies, the habit is erect with may take 5–6 weeks, with up to four faster-growing species such as radish or
ascending branches. Clones in cultiva- months for plants to reach reasonable small lettuce. Roots can be lifted from
tion tend to be lower-growing with a size. Seedlings may be potted up and late summer onwards but exposure to
broad, loose crown of spreading to grown on in large containers for conve- frost enhances flavour. They may be
arching branches. To 10cm (4in) long, nient location indoors or outside. The stored under cool conditions in boxes
the leaves are ovate to obovate, deep crop needs to be kept well supplied of sand. Possible problems: carrot fly,
green above, paler beneath. In autumn, with water. Plants can be cut to ground celery fly; canker.
they colour richly, turning from wine level for harvest once or twice during
red to flame and amber. Clusters of the year and protected with cloches parterre a level garden area of any
small, red flowers are produced before to prolong quality. size or shape containing ornamental
the leaves. This tree is fully hardy and Hamburg or turnip-rooted parsley flowerbeds. Parterres were highly
should be grown in sun or part-shade (P.crispum var. tuberosum) is a dual-pur- developed in 16th-century France and
in deep, fertile, well-drained loamy pose form, producing smooth parsnip- Italy as separate garden areas set apart
soils. Acid soils are preferable, although like roots and usable leaves that are from the main garden by stone
it shows good tolerance of alkaline hardier than other types. Cultivate balustrades or hedges. The name
and chalky soils. Propagate by seed in as for parsnip. Possible problems: superseded ‘knot’ in the 17th century, 575
autumn (germination may take up to carrot fly. being of similar meaning. In the parterre
parterre
de broderie, the main pattern is laid out P.henryana (China; to 5m (16ft); leaves Spanish missionaries in South Amer-
in masses of low-growing flowers palmately 5-parted; leaflets 4–12cm ica, in reference to a fancied represen-
edged with sand or soil, in the style of (11/2–43/4in), obovate to oblanceolate or tation in the flowers of the story of the
carpet bedding. A water parterre is a narrowly ovate, acute at apex, tapered Crucifixion; the corona represented the
shallow formal pool in which a knot- to base, coarsely dentate except near crown of thorns, the five anthers the
like pattern is laid out in stonework. base, dark velvety red- or brown-green five wounds, the three styles, the three
with pink and silvery variegations nails, the five sepals and five petals the
parthenocarpy the development of along main veins, especially at first, apostles (less Peter and Judas), and the
fruit without fertilization of its ovules, becoming dark green then red in hand-like leaves and flagellate tendrils
as occurs in greenhouse cucumbers autumn); P.quinquefolia (VIRGINIA the hands and scourges of Christ’s
and the cultivated banana. CREEPER, WOODBINE; US to Mexico; persecutors). Passifloraceae. Tropical
to 30m (100ft); leaves usually 5- Americas, Asia, Australia, Polynesia.
Parthenocissus (from Greek parted; leaflets 2.5–10cm (1–4in), PASSION FLOWER. Some 500 species,
parthenos, virgin, and kissos, ivy, a play elliptic to obovate, acutely serrate those here evergreen, woody climbers
on ‘virginia creeper’). Vitaceae. N particularly toward acuminate apex, with tightly spiralling tendrils. The
America, E Asia, Himalaya. VIRGINIA cuneate at base, bright to dull green, flowers are usually solitary, with five
CREEPER. 10 species, generally decidu- rich crimson in autumn); P.thom- fleshy or membranous sepals and five
ous woody vines attaching themselves sonii (syn. Cayratia thomsonii; W petals (these sometimes absent). The
by branched, twining tendrils usually and C China; to 8m (26ft); filaments are arranged in several series,
with adhesive disks. The leaves are leaves 5-parted; leaflets forming a showy corona between petals
palmately lobed or parted. Small, 2.5–10cm (1–4in), rather thick- and stamens. Five stamens are inserted
yellow-green flowers in cymose pan- textured, glossy, ovate to obo- on a gynophore and the stigma is
icles give rise to dark blue or black vate, acute at apex, tapered to capitate with three styles. Sometimes
berries. Attractive and vigorous, base, shallowly serrate above; edible, the fruit is usually a juicy,
self-clinging climbers invaluable bright purple-red when young, indehiscent, many-seeded berry.
for growing through sturdy trees, dark shining green tinged purple P.caerulea is hardy in zone 6 and
over pergolas, walls and fences when mature, ageing deep will thrive in any moderately fertile,
and for covering buildings. maroon); P.tricuspidata (syn. well-drained and adequately moisture-
Cold-tolerance varies: Ampelopsis tricuspidata; JAPANESE retentive soil, in sun or part shade. Pro-
–25°C/–13°F for P.quinquefolia CREEPER, BOSTON IVY, vide the support of wire or trellis. In
and at least –15°C/5°F for P.tri- VIRGINIA CREEPER; China, less favoured areas, site with shelter
cuspidata and its cultivars; P.hen- Japan; to 20m (66ft); leaves from cold, drying winds and mulch the
P ryana withstands cold to between
–5 and –10°C/23–14°F. Parthenocissus
quinquefolia
very variable, often so on
the same plant, 6–20cm
base, also protecting top growth with
burlap or fleece if necessary. The
Plant in a moisture-retentive (21/2–8in), broadly ovate and remaining species need protected culti-
but well-drained fertile soil in variably 3-lobed with acuminate, servation in cool temperate zones. P.edulis,
shade or sun. Give initial support until rate lobes or trifoliolate with stalked P.antioquiensis, P. x exoniensis, P.manicata
plants produce adhesive pads. Prune obovate leaflets, dull to glossy mid- and P.mollissima need minimum temper-
annually, in autumn or early winter green, turning crimson, scarlet or atures of 10°C/50°F. Most of the
where it is necessary to limit growth – purple in fall; ‘Atropurpurea’: leaves remaining species require a minimum
for example, to keep it away from roof large, green, tinged blue, purple-red in temperature of 15°C/59°F.
eaves. For pergola-trained specimens, spring and autumn; ‘Lowii’: MINIATURE Grow all tender species in a freely
cut the current season’s growth back to JAPANESE IVY, smaller and more slen- draining, fibrous, loam-based mix with
one or two viable buds from the main der, with small leaves, 2–3cm additional leafmould and sharp sand.
framework, thus creating a spur system, (3/4–11/4in), 3–7-lobed, bright green Protect from fierce sun in summer.
from which the following season’s tinged purple when young, colouring Water plentifully when in growth,
growth can cascade. brilliant red in autumn; ‘Veitchii’: sparingly at other times. Prune to
Propagate by seed. Remove pulp JAPANESE IVY, leaves small, simple or 3- prevent overcrowding by removing
and sow fresh outdoors or in the cold foliate, and leaflets with 1–3 large teeth the weakest shoots in spring, and again,
frame, or stratify for six weeks, at or on each side, purple when young). if necessary, after flowering; pinch out
just below 5°C/41°F, and sow under unwanted growth regularly during the
glass in spring. Alternatively, increase parthenogenesis the development growing season; spur back to an estab-
by 10–12cm (4–43/4in) basal hardwood of an embryo from an egg cell without lished framework in spring. Propagate
cuttings of the current season’s growth, fertilization, as occurs with dandelion by heel or nodal cuttings rooted in a
taken immediately after leaf fall; treat (Taraxacum officinale) and certain aphids. sandy propagating medium in a closed
with rooting hormone and root in case, or by seed. Some frost-tender
individual pots with a bottom heat of Passiflora (from Latin passio, passion, species show greater tolerance of
576 18–20°C/64–68°F. Increase also by and flos, flower, hence ‘passion flower’. low soil temperatures when grafted
simple layering. The name was given by the early on to P.caerulea.
Passiflora
PASSIFLORA
P.alata NE Peru, E Brazil to 15cm (6in), ovate to oblong, to 12cm (43⁄4in) diam., fragrant; sepals pale crimson;
membranous, glabrous petals brilliant carmine; filaments banded purple
Comments: Spring–summer. Fruit edible. Z10. red and white
P.antioquiensis Colombia to 15cm (6in), ovate to lanceolate, to 12.5cm (5in) diam.; sepals rose-red or magenta;
P.van-volxemii or trilobed, serrate, hairy beneath petals often of a deeper shade than sepals;
BANANA PASSION FRUIT Comments: Summer. Z9. filaments violet
P. x belotii garden origin trilobed to 16cm (6in) diam., pink to purple, white outside;
(P.alata x P.caerulea) sepals white inside; filaments blue-violet tipped white
P.caerulea Brazil, Argentina to 10cm (4in), palmately to 10cm (4in) diam., faintly fragrant; sepals white or
PASSION FLOWER; 5–9-lobed, glabrous pink-white inside; petals of a slightly clearer colour
BLUE PASSION FLOWER than sepals; filaments banded blue at apex, white at
centre, purple at base
Comments: Summer-autumn. ‘Constance Elliott’: flowers ivory white. ‘Grandiflora’:
flowers to 15cm (6in) diam. P. ‘Amethyst’ (P.caerulea x P.kermesina) flowers lavender/mauve. Z7.
P.capsularis Nicaragua to C Brazil to 7cm (23⁄4in), bilobed, to 6cm (21⁄2in) diam.; sepals green-white; petals ivory;
to Paraguay, lobes downward-pointing, filaments yellow-white
Comments: Summer. Greater Antilles lanceolate, 3-veined
Z10.
P.coccinea Guianas, S Venezuela, to 14cm (51⁄2in), oblong, serrate to 12.5cm (5in) diam.; sepals scarlet; petals vivid
P.fulgens Peru, Bolivia, Brazil. or crenate scarlet, filaments pale pink to white at base, deep
RED PASSION FLOWER; purple toward apex
RED GRANADILLA Comments: Z10.
P.coriacea Mexico to N Peru and to 25cm (10in) across, usually to 3.5cm (11⁄2in) diam.; sepals yellow-green; petals
BAT-LEAF PASSION N Bolivia, Guyana. lobed, broadly divergent, the absent; filaments ivory
FLOWER
Comments: Z10.
whole leaf resembling a bat with
outspread wings, coriaceous P
P.edulis Brazil to 10cm (4in), trilobed, to 7.5cm (3in) diam.; sepals white; petals paler;
GRANADILLA; dentate, shiny filaments white banded purple or indigo, strongly
PURPLE GRANADILLA; Comments: Summer. Z10. wavy towards tips
PASSION FRUIT
P. x exoniensis garden origin to 10cm (4in), downy, trilobed to 12.5cm (5in) diam., pendulous, cylindric, exterior
(P.antioquiensis x brick red, interior rosy pink; petals bright pink with a
P.mollissima) Comments: Z10. violet tint in the throat; filaments white
P.foetida South America, Puerto hastate, 3–5-lobed, thin-textured, to 5cm (2in) diam., surrounded by showy, deeply and
RUNNING POP; LOVE- Rico, Jamaica, hairy finely fringed bracts; sepals white to ivory streaked
IN-A-MIST; WILD Lesser Antilles green; petals, ivory-lilac; filaments white banded violet
WATER LEMON Comments: Summer–autumn. Z10.
P.antioquiensis P.caerulea P. ‘Amethyst’ P.coccinea 577

Passiflora
PASSIFLORA
P.insignis Bolivia, Peru. to 25cm (10in), ovate to lanceolate, pendulous to 9cm (31⁄2in), tubular, sepals violet-
Tacsonia insignis finely-toothed, coriaceous, shiny crimson; petals rose-purple; filaments white,
above, woolly beneath mottled blue
Comments: Summer–autumn. Z10.
P.kermesina E Brazil to 8cm (3in), trilobed, lobes oblong to to 8cm (3in) diam.; sepals scarlet; petals similar
ovate, deep green above, somewhat to sepals, filaments violet-purple
Comments: Z10. glaucous and purple-tinted beneath
P. x kewensis garden origin Comments: Z8. 9cm (31⁄2in) diam., carmine, suffused blue
(P.caerulea x P.kermesina)
P.manicata Colombia to Peru to 10cm (4in), trilobed, lobes ovate, vivid scarlet, tubular to bell-shaped, to 5cm (2in),
Tacsonia manicata serrate, downy beneath long, green-white inside; filaments blue and white
RED PASSION-FLOWER Comments: Z9.
P.mixta Tacsonia mixta C Venezuela, to 10cm (4in), trilobed, lobes pendulous, to 11cm (41⁄2in), tubular, sepals pink
Colombia, Ecuador, ovate-oblong to orange-red; petals same colour on sepals;
Comments: Z10. Peru, Bolivia filaments deep lavender or purple
P.mollissima W Venezuela, Colombia, to 10cm (4in), trilobed, lobes ovate, pendulous, to 8cm (3in), tubular, sepals
Tacsonia mollissima SE Peru, W Bolivia downy olive-green, soft pink; petals obtuse, same
CURUBA; BANANA colour as sepals
PASSION FRUIT Comments: Z9.
P.organensis E Brazil to 10cm (4in), bilobed, shaped like a to 3cm (11⁄4in) diam., cream to dull purple
P.maculifolia fishtail, dark green tinted purple to
chocolate brown with regions of silver,
Comments: Z10 cream, pink or lime green variegation
P.quadrangularis Tropical America to 20cm (8in), ovate-lanceolate to 12cm (43⁄4in) diam.; sepals pearly grey-green
P.macrocarpa tinted flesh pink; petals fleshy, pale mauve-pink;
P GRANADILLA;
GIANT GRANADILLA Comments: Fruit edible. ‘Variegata’: leaves blotched yellow. Z10.
filaments white, banded blue and red-purple,
twisted
P.racemosa Brazil to 10cm (4in), ovate and simple, to 12cm (43⁄4in) diam., scarlet-red or white, in
P.princeps or trilobed, coriaceous pendulous racemes; filaments white banded
RED PASSION FLOWER Comments: Z10. dark purple
P.rubra Colombia, Venezuela, 8cm (3in), bilobed, membranous, downy to 5cm (2in) diam., ivory; filaments red-purple
Peru, Bolivia, E Brazil, or lavender
W Indies Comments: Autumn. Z10.
P.vitifolia C and S America to 15cm (6in), trilobed, toothed, shiny to 9cm (31⁄2in) diam., scarlet, bright red or
above, hairy beneath vermilion; filaments red to bright yellow
Comments: Spring–summer. Z10.
578 P.manicata P.quadrangularis P.racemosa

Paxistima
patching out the use of a small especially a sitting area, which may be and pinch out any sideshoots. Propa-
clump of seedlings for planting better termed a terrace. gate from seed sown at 15–20°C/
unthinned direct into a garden border. 59–68°F in spring, or when ripe; seed
In the case of some plants which pro- patio squares squares of wood used requires light for germination. Increase
duce very delicate seedlings, such as for paving. also from root cuttings in winter, or by
bedding lobelia, the technique may semi-ripe, heeled cuttings in summer,
be used at pricking-out stage instead Patrinia (from E.L.M. Patrin in the cold frame. Overwinter under
of handling individual seedlings. (1742–1814), French traveller in glass in the first year.
Siberia). Valerianaceae. Temperate P.fortunei (China, Japan; to 20m
patellate, patelliform orbicular Asia. Some 15 species, small, clump- (66ft); leaves 14–21cm (51/2–8in) x
and thick, having a convex lower sur- forming herbaceous perennials with 7–12cm (23/4–43/4in), ovate to cordate,
face and a concave upper surface. pinnately cut or lobed leaves. Produced glabrous and shining above, densely
in spring or summer in corymbose hairy beneath; flowers 8–10cm (3–4in),
patent spreading. panicles, the small flowers consist cream flushed with lilac); P.tomentosa
of five spreading lobes. Hardy and (syn. P.imperialis; C and W China; to
Patersonia (for William Paterson suited to the herbaceous border, rock 20m (66ft); leaves 20–100cm (8–39in) x
(1755–1810), lieutenant-governor of garden and woodland garden. Culti- 12–60cm (43/4–24in), broadly ovate,
New South Wales 1800–1810, an early vate as for Valeriana. P.triloba (Japan; hairy above, densely so beneath; flow-
botanical collector in Australia). Iri- to 60cm (24in); leaves to 5cm (2in), ers 5–6cm (2–21/2in), violet with yellow
daceae. Australia, Borneo, New 3–5-pinnately lobed, toothed; flowers stripes inside; ‘Coreana’: leaves tinted
Guinea. About 20 species, perennial, golden-yellow, fragrant). yellow, woolly beneath, flowers violet,
rhizomatous herbs with a fan of linear with throats speckled yellow inside;
leaves and short-lived flowers com- patte d’oie used to describe a set ‘Lilacina’: flowers pale lilac).
posed of three, broad and spreading of paths or vistas radiating from a
outer tepals and three small, erect central point. paver a clay or concrete paving block,
inner tepals. Grow in frost-free condi- used especially for patios and terraces.
tions in a light, fertile and well-drained Paulownia (for Anna Paulowna,
medium in full sun, watering plentifully daughter of Paul I, Tsar of Russia pavilion a substantial garden build-
when in growth. Propagate by division (1795–1865)). Scrophulariaceae. E ing, more ostentatious than a garden
or by seed in autumn. P.umbrosa Asia. About 17 species, deciduous trees house, usually architect-designed and
(W Australia; to 50cm (20in); flowers with stout shoots, large leaves and, in often highly decorated inside and out.
blue; ‘Xanthina’: flowers yellow). spring and summer, terminal panicles
pathogen a microorganism that is

of showy, foxglove-like flowers. The
pollution-tolerant P.tomentosa is grown as
paving various solid materials used
for making paths, terraces, and patios,
P
harmful to its host and causes disease. a street and park tree in cities of conti- mainly of real or composition stone,
Most are parasitic but some are pri- nental Europe and has become widely but including concrete slabs, bricks,
marily saprophytic and only become naturalized in the eastern states of the tiles and sets.
pathogenic if the host is injured US, often as a roadside weed. P.tomen-
or stressed. tosa and its cultivar ‘Lilacina’ are also Pavonia (for Jose Antonio Pavon (d.
grown in the mixed border, for their 1840), Spanish botanist and traveller).
pathotype a subdivision of a species juvenile foliage – when young plants Malvaceae. Tropics and subtropics.
of pathogen based on common patho- are grown as stooled specimens, their About 150 species, herbs, subshrubs
genicity characteristics, especially downy heart-shaped leaves assume and shrubs with Abutilon-like flowers.
host range. enormous proportions. Cultivate as for tender, shrubby
In temperate maritime climates, like Hibiscus. P. x gledhillii (P.makoyana x P.mul-
pathovar (abbrev. pv.) a strain or Britain’s, flowering may be poor and tiflora; shrub to 2m (61/2ft); epicalyx
pathotype of a bacterial species that sporadic – the result of inadequate bright red, corolla to 3cm (11/4in),
infects only plants in a certain genus wood ripening and late frost. Once tubular, dark purple, anthers exserted,
or species. established, these trees are hardy to filaments bright red, pollen chalky
between –15 and –20°C/5 to –4°F. lilac-blue; ‘Kermesina’: dwarf, with
patio originally, the inner courtyard of Although frost-tender when young, carmine flowers; ‘Rosea’: flowers rose).
a house which was built in a square to they will usually resprout from the base
form an enclosed open space. Derived if given a protective mulch at the roots Paxistima (from Greek pachys, thick,
from Arab architecture, patios are in winter. and stigma, stigma). Celastraceae. N
characteristic of Spanish gardens and Grow in any deep, moderately fer- America. 2 species, dwarf, evergreen,
are usually associated with pools, foun- tile, moisture-retentive but well-drained glabrous shrubs with 4-angled, corky
tains, and plants in beds and contain- soil, in full sun with shelter from strong and warted branches and leathery
ers. The term is now generally used to winds. For foliage effects, stool young leaves and, in summer, very small, 4- 579
describe a paved area close to a house, plants back to the woody base in spring petalled flowers. Fully hardy, evergreen
Paxistima
groundcover for exposed situations Napier’ generally perform well. the soil is moist. A liquid feed high in
in the rock garden. Propagate by semi- Most peaches and nectarines are potash can also be given after flower-
ripe cuttings, taken in late summer self-fertile, but satisfactory pollination ing, at three week intervals, to induce
and given a little bottom heat. P.canbyi is encouraged by providing sheltered quality and disease resistance.
(CLIFF GREEN, MOUNTAIN LOVER; conditions, and since flowering is very Irrigation in summer is likely to be
N America; stem to 40cm (16in), early, hand-pollination is advisable to essential for wall-trained trees: apply
decumbent, rooting; leaves to 2cm supplement insect activity. Using a soft approximately 5 litres (1 gallon) around
(3/4in), linear to oblong, obtuse, revolute, camel-hair brush or cotton wool, the each tree every 10–14 days. Following
entire or finely serrate; flowers green, centres of open flowers are gently successful pollination and fertilization,
to 2.5mm (1/8in); ‘Compacta’: hardy, brushed, in the middle of each day, to the number of fruitlets usually needs
dwarf, with dark green leaves later transfer pollen from anthers to stigma. to be limited by thinning when approx-
turning bronze). Plant on to well-drained sites only, imately hazelnut size, reducing them to
by mid-winter to ensure good establish- one per cluster and 8–12cm (3–43/4in)
peaches and nectarines the ment before growth begins. Trees apart. Once at walnut size, thin again
peach (Prunus persica) originated in planted in the open ground should be if necessary to about 22cm (9in) apart.
China and is known to have been culti- supported with a stake for the first two Peaches and nectarines in gardens
vated by at least 2000BC; the nectarine seasons, and mulched. In Britain, two should be picked when the flesh gives
is a smooth-skinned form of the peach, tree forms predominate, the bush for under gentle thumb pressure near the
common in parts of Turkestan. open-ground cultivation and the fan stalk end.
With the demise of large estate gar- for wall-training. Plant bushes 5–7m The use of fruit nets as bird protec-
dens and consequent loss of their bene- (16–23ft) apart, and fans 3.5–6m tion is advisable against bullfinches
ficial wall sites, peaches and nectarines (111/2–20ft) apart, allowing greater dis- damaging overwintering buds, and fruit
are now little grown in British gardens. tances for trees on peach seedlings and damage by other birds. Frost protection
A limiting factor is the widespread inci- Brompton rootstocks. Shaping to of blossom on wall-trained trees can be
dence of peach leaf curl disease which achieve the desired form should be provided by fixing hessian netting as a
severely debilitates trees. undertaken in the spring after planting. temporary cover.
By contrast, they are widely grown With each form, it is important to Where climatic conditions are not
both domestically and commercially establish a distinct branch system in conducive to regular cropping in the
in wanner climates, notably southern order to produce annually a succession open, cultivation under glass is a prac-
Europe, parts of the US, Australia, of young shoots for fruiting the follow- tical although laborious alternative. A
New Zealand, South Africa and China. ing year; unlike apples and pears, border of good deep soil is essential.
The peach flowers early and requires peach and nectarine shoots carry fruit A wall-trained fan tree is the best form
P warm spring weather, but any tendency
towards a tropical climate will not
only once, after which they remain
bare and unproductive.
to develop, hence a lean-to greenhouse
is ideal. Heating is an advantage, and
provide adequate winter chilling. Pruning is done while the tree is in horizontal support wires fixed 7–8cm
Successful seedlings are often raised active growth, not during winter when (23/4–3in) away from the wall will be
by amateurs, but when propagated for the risk of disease infection is greater. needed. Pruning and training are as
growing elsewhere, they are seldom With bushes, prune a proportion of for fan-trained trees.
successful. Established named cultivars older shoots to young shoots, keeping The greenhouse must be continu-
are propagated by budding on to either the centre of the tree open and remov- ously ventilated once the crop has been
seedling peach or selected clonal plum ing branches that are too low, crowded cleared to allow adequate chilling.
rootstocks known to be compatible or crossing. From late winter maintain a tempera-
with the peach and nectarine; the With fans, select two new shoots ture of 8–10°C/46–50°F, raising this
former produce quite large trees. arising from existing growths, one from to approximately 20°C/68°F after ten
Of the plum rootstocks ‘Brompton’ the base and one half-way up; remove days, with a night minimum of
(vigorous) and ‘St. Julien A’ any others near the base, together with 4–8°C/39–46°F. Careful attention to
(semi-vigorous) are widely used. any growing awkwardly, and shorten watering is essential, and on bright
A wide range of cultivars is available the remainder to one leaf. Tie the new days the trees must be syringed with
and since they have different chilling shoots in where possible. After the fruit tepid water mid-morning and early
requirements, local advice should be has been gathered, either cut the fruit- afternoon. Light top dressings of well-
sought on which are best-suited for bearing lateral back to the replacement rotted manure or a compound fertilizer
individual localities. Peaches may be shoot(s) or, in younger trees, tie in all should be given in late winter, followed
classified as: (a) white-fleshed and new shoots to fill existing space. by liquid feeds high in potash every
predominantly free-stoned; (b) yellow- Regular applications of a compound 10–14 days during summer. Peach leaf
fleshed, of firm texture and free- fertilizer, higher in nitrogen and potash curl will not be a problem under glass,
stoned; (c) yellow-fleshed and than phosphate, should be given at but mildew, aphids and red spider mite
cling-stoned. In Britain, the peaches about 75g/m2 (1/4oz/sq. ft) in late will require preventive measures.
580 ‘Peregrine’ and ‘Rochester’ and the winter, followed by a good mulch of Where there is no suitable green-
nectarines ‘Early Rivers’ and ‘Lord well-rotted manure or compost when house or garden space, cultivation in
pears
large containers is a possibility and at the latest just before the buds begin
trees can be moved to frost-free posi- to swell. Infection can be reduced on
tions during the vulnerable periods of wall-trained fruit by protecting the
flowering, early fruitlet production and plants from rain in spring with tempo-
ripening. A miniature bush-type tree rary plastic shelters. Leaf curl due to
should be developed, firmly planted in severe aphid infestation can be con-
a soil-based potting mix, watered regu- fused with this fungal disease and close
larly and fed every 10–14 days. Repot- inspection is necessary. See leaf blister.
ting in autumn is necessary, replacing
some of the compost and removing pea gravel small regular-shaped
any coarse roots in favour of fibrous gravel, used especially by alpine
ones. The trees should be kept in the gardeners for surface-mulching pots
open through autumn and winter to and sinks.
allow adequate chilling, with the root-
ball protected against freezing. pea guard a narrow length of small-
Possible problems: aphids, red spider mesh wire netting formed into an Pear ‘Conference’
mite, scale insects; bacterial canker inverted U-shape over wire supports to A reliably cropping cultivar, regularly produc-
(see bacterial diseases), brown rot, peach protect rows of seeds or seedlings from ing high yields of well-flavoured fruits. Can
leaf curl, silver leaf; gumming. attack by birds. produce some crop without cross pollination.
peach leaf curl (Taphrina deformans) peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) Legumi- frost and high summer temperature is
a fungus that affects almonds, nec- nosae. S America. GROUNDNUT, essential for consistent quality cropping.
tarines, peaches and, rarely, apricots, MONKEY NUT. Tender annual, erect The European pear has developed
becoming apparent as young leaves or straggling herb to 60cm (24in) high, mainly from Pyrus communis, which is
emerge in spring. The leaves become 30cm (12in) spread. A staple food crop indigenous to Europe and much of
puckered, curled, twisted and some- in many tropical and subtropical zones; northern Asia, particularly the Cauca-
times chlorotic, and as they mature, the it is rich in oil, protein, minerals and sus and Turkestan. It is among the most
thickened parts change from yellow to vitamins. Leaves 4-foliate, leaflets long-lived of fruit trees.
red. A white bloom of fungus spores 1–7cm (3/8–23/4in) x 1–3cm (3/8–11/8in) The shape of pears varies greatly
can sometimes be seen on the surface long, obovate or elliptic. Flowers with cultivar, and the classification
of swollen areas, and severely attacked yellow, veined red. Fruit develops below usually adopted (from Bunyard’s Hand-
leaves eventually fall off. The fungus ground after shoot-like structures, pro- book of Fruits – Apples and Pears, 1920)
survives on shoots or in buds, and
spores infect young leaves as the buds
duced by fertilized flowers at flower
drop, penetrate soil level. For optimum
includes six groups: (1) Flat and round
(e.g. ‘Passe Crassanne’); (2) Bergamotte
P
open. Cold and wet spring weather growth peanuts require an average (flat, rounded/conical, e.g. ‘Winter
favours the disease. Affected leaves temperature within the range Nelis’; (3) Conical (e.g. ‘Beurré Hardy’);
should be removed and burnt as soon 20–30ºC/68–86ºF. Can be grown in (4) Pyriform, or waisted (e.g. ‘Doyenné
as seen, and a copper-based fungicide cool temperate zones for educational du Comice’, which is widely grown and
spray can be applied during the winter, purposes under glass, at minimum tem- accepted as the finest flavoured pear);
perature of 10–13ºC/50–55ºF, in full (5) Oval (e.g. ‘Emile d’Heyst’);
sun with good ventilation. Sow seeds in (6) Calabash, longer than pyriform
situ in spring into soil at temperature (e.g. ‘Conference’, the most successfully
15ºC/59ºF minimum. grown pear in Britain).
Pears flower comparatively early
peanut shells the fruit husks of the and freedom from frost and summer
peanut (Arachis hypogaea), used as a soil- warmth are essential for consistent
and potting-medium conditioner. Phys- cropping. Adequate shelter is necessary
ical properties vary with particle size, for cross-pollination, as is protection
the coarser grade improving drainage from cold winds, which can blacken
and aeration, the finer ones improving leaves and fruitlets.
water-holding. Structural stability is The pear usually succeeds on most
reasonable, although decomposition soil types but calcareous sites may
continues during use. Nitrogen induce deficiencies of iron and man-
depletion, salinity, and pathogens ganese; it is intolerant of drought,
are potential problems. so mulching and irrigation must be
Controlling peach leaf curl considered.
An open-sided screen, clad with clear plastic pears (Pyrus species) hardy deciduous Most cultivars of European pear are
film from mid-winter to spring, protects buds trees grown for their distinctive and not self-fertile and provision of suitable 581
from spore-bearing rain. variably shaped fruits. Freedom from pollinator cultivars is imperative.
pears
‘Conference’ is not self-fertile, as often from the spur; later cultivars must be
erroneously stated, although it some- allowed to mature fully.
times does produce parthenocarpic Domestically, pears should be stored
fruits under adverse conditions. Most in cool, dark, slightly moist conditions,
cultivars are diploid, a few triploid or such as cellars or outhouses; the fruits
tetraploid, and flowering times vary are best not wrapped but laid out in
so that it is essential to obtain detailed single layers in trays. Alternatively they
advice on pollination on purchase. may be kept in a refrigerator, main-
Propagation is by budding or graft- tained above freezing level. They
ing on to rootstocks of quince. ‘Quince should be conditioned in normal room
A’ (‘Angers Quince’) is moderately temperature (at 18°C/64°F) for 2–3
vigorous and the most widely used; days before consumption, to ensure Young peas
‘Quince C’ is more dwarfing and full flavour and good eating texture. Pea plants will make use of twiggy supports
having virus-free strains is useful for In Britain, the possibility of bullfinch from an early stage. Prunings from coppiced
inducing early fruitfulness in vigorous damage to overwintering buds should shrubs such as Cornus are often ideal.
cultivars such as ‘Doyenné du Comice’. be noted. Netting the trees is the only
A major disadvantage of quince root- certain protection: without it, severe some cultivars in which the immature
stock is that it is not compatible with damage can render a tree worthless. pod may be eaten. It is believed to
some cultivars of pear, such as ASIAN PEARS (ORIENTAL, CHINESE, have originated in central or southeast
‘Williams Bon Chrétien’, ‘Jargonelle’, JAPANESE, NASHI) are derived from Asia, but is no longer found in the
‘Marie Louise’ and ‘Packham’s P.pyrifolia and P.ussuriensis. Until recently wild. Mature pea seeds were known
Triumph’, and double working they were generally restricted to their as a food crop in Europe during the
is necessary. regions of origin in China and Japan, 15th century, and the cultivation of
Quince rootstock is insufficiently where they have been known and used green peas is now widespread in tem-
vigorous for the hot dry conditions since ancient times, but cultivation has perate regions and highland areas
often encountered in the fruit-growing expanded worldwide. The chilling of the tropics.
areas of Australia, South Africa and requirement is less than that for Euro- Garden peas are either round or
the US, although it is used to produce pean pears, and so the potential for wrinkle-seeded, the former being
small trees for gardens. extended cultivation is considerable. hardiest and the latter sweeter. Most
Plant in late autumn or early In Britain the climate is not usually cultivars have green pods but there are
winter while the soil is still compara- conducive to success, the fruit in poor some with purple pods. Petit Pois peas
tively warm. Staking, mulching and seasons remaining small, and even in produce a very small well-flavoured
P irrigation are important. Tree forms
for garden trees are similar to those
more favoured regions the flavour is
less rich and the texture crisper than
seed; Mangetout or Sugar type pro-
duce edible pods, some cultivars being
used for apple. that of European cultivars. dual purpose. Plant height varies from
Established cropping pear trees Cultivation requirements are similar 45cm (18in) to 1.5m (5ft) and supports
develop more intricate spur systems to those of European pears. Rootstocks are essential or desirable. Cultivars are
than do apples. Pruning is done include Asian pear seedlings, P.betulifolia classified as earlies, second earlies and
between leaf-fall and late winter, the and P.calleryana; in Japan, P.pyrifolia main crop and the earlier-maturing
degree depending on the fruit bud to seedlings are favoured. Growth can be type are the most suitable for
growth ratio, with less pruning being vigorous but trees tend to commence small gardens.
required for vigorous trees than for fruiting quite early. Fruit is borne on Most pea cultivars succeed in a cool,
those of more moderate or weak habit. two-year and older wood, with some humid climate with a temperature
Some laterals can be shortened to three on one-year laterals. Asian pears are range of 13–18°C/55–64°F. A mini-
or four buds to encourage spur forma- partially self-fertile and flowering mum soil temperature of 10°C/50°F
tion, and a few of the most vigorous occurs at the same time as with is required for germination.
removed completely if overcrowded. European pears, which are suitable In mild areas, first sowings can be
Spur systems on older trees require as pollinators. Heavy fruit set requires made in October or November, with
shortening or selective removal. Branch judicious thinning. The trees can be protection from cold and mice. Other-
shortening (dehorning) may be neces- decorative, with attractive white wise, sow earlies from late February
sary when individual branches become blossom, glossy green foliage and onwards, preferably protecting with
too long, but in general tip-pruning striking red autumn colouring. cloches, and follow with successional
should not be necessary. Where heavy Possible problems: birds, aphids, sowings at four week intervals until
crops develop, some fruit thinning capsid bug, gall midge, winter moth; mid-summer. Sow 2.5cm (1in) deep,
is essential to enhance fruit size. brown rot, fireblight, canker, powdery 5cm (2in) apart, either in single rows
The harvesting of pears requires mildew, scab. or 23cm (9in)-wide flat-bottomed drills.
careful monitoring, particularly for Leave a distance between lines of
582 earlier cultivars, which may be picked peas (Pisum sativum) an annual, mostly approximately the ultimate height
while still green yet parting readily grown for its edible seeds, but including of the cultivar.
Pelargonium
Emerging plants need to be pro- content. Acidity varies with peat types in winter. Increase by stem cuttings
tected from birds and weed competi- and sources and the pH range is in spring. P.tithymaloides (West Indies;
tion, and peas should be rotated usually between 3.5 and 5. evergreen or deciduous shrub, to 3m
around the vegetable garden to deter The harvesting of peat initially (10ft); leaves to 6cm (21/2in), ovate to
a build up of soil-borne disease. The despoils the landscape, and also elliptic, keeled beneath; cyathia red
roots produce nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium destroys or threatens wildlife habitat. above, yellow-green at base; subsp.
nodules, so that high nitrogen feeding Its use for the improvement of soil smallii: JACOB’S LADDER, DEVIL’S BACK-
should be avoided. Harvest regularly structure and as a surface mulch is BONE, RIBBON CACTUS stems flexuous;
for prime quality and high yield. unnecessary in view of the wide range ‘Variegatus’: leaves variegated white
Possible problems: aphids, birds, of alternative, mainly bulky organic and red).
weevils, pea moth (see moths), thrips. materials, many of which contribute
more benefits. Incorporating peat for peg plant a young plant pulled from
peat incompletely decomposed plant the purpose of acidifying soil is not a seedbed to transplant into its growing
remains, predominantly sedges, reed advisable in view of the large quanti- position. It is especially used of bras-
and moss arising in certain wetland ties actually required to effect a sica plants, the ‘peg’ alluding to the
areas, often in vast drifts. In its forma- change. For gardeners who wish to planting dibber.
tion, natural decay processes are avoid the use of peat in growing
arrested by acid waterlogging and the media, alternatives are available, with Pelargonium (from Greek pelargos,
exclusion of oxygen; the remains of coconut fibre, leafmould and reduced stork: the fruit resembles the head and
succeeding bog plants accumulate and wood products the most promising. beak of a stork). Geraniaceae. Mostly
are compacted to form peat. It is a from S Africa with a few from tropical
slow process and the average growth pectinate pinnately divided; the Africa, Australia and Middle East;
rate of peat layers in British bogs is segments being many, slender and those here are S African. About 250
estimated at no more than 1mm (1/16in) long, and close together, like the teeth species, subshrubs, herbaceous perenni-
per annum. Wetland peat habitat, of a comb. als and annuals, sometimes with
especially raised bogs, is rich in bird, tuberous roots. Most are aromatic,
insect and plant life, including butter- ped an aggregate of soil particles; the glandular and hairy, many have some-
flies, moths, dragonflies and dam- basic unit of soil structure. A more what succulent or swollen stems and
selflies, the bog asphodel and general term than crumb. leaves. The flowers are borne in stalked
insectivorous plants. Occasionally, peat- umbels. They consist of 5 petals,
land holds important information of pedate palmate except for the the 2 upper petals usually larger
archaeological interest. basal/lowest lobes on each side, which than the lower 3.
The first extensive use of peat in
horticulture stemmed from its disposal
are themselves lobed. Pelargonium includes many of the
garden plants commonly known as
P
as a waste product from cattle bedding, pedicel the stalk of an individual ‘Geraniums’. Those described here
where it formed part of a useful bulky flower or fruit. are perennials, although some of the
organic soil additive. The significant hybrids and cultivars are treated as
development of peat as an ingredient pedicel necrosis a condition, par- half-hardy ‘annuals’. They usually suc-
of standardized seed and potting com- ticularly of roses or peonies, in which cumb to wet cold and prolonged frost
posts dates back to development work the pedicel just behind the flower bud and are therefore tender in most cool
at the John Innes Institute in the 1930s. shrivels and collapses. It is also known temperate zones. Many have a long
The introduction of soilless compost as bud disease or topple, and is usually flowering season and are ideal for
in the 1960s led to the development of the result of poor growth or sunscorch. greenhouse or house decoration, for
peat-based products, backed by inten- summer bedding schemes, tubs,
sive research and marketing to make Pedilanthus (from Greek pedilon, a window boxes and hanging baskets.
multi-purpose peat compost widely sandal or shoe, and anthos, flower, refer- The garden hybrids may be roughly
available. ring to the appearance of the flowers). divided into the following groups –
Peat offers the advantages of good Euphorbiaceae. Southern N America Angel, Zonal and Regal Pelargoniums,
air- and water-holding properties, gen- to tropical America. SLIPPER SPURGE, valued for their flowers and foliage,
eral freedom from plant pathogens RED BIRD CACTUS, JEW BUSH. 14 Ivy-Leaved Pelargoniums, derived from
and low nutrient content. It is slow to species, succulent shrubs close to P.peltatum and valued for their trailing
decompose, odourless, light in weight Euphorbia but with zygomorphic involu- habit, foliage and flowers, and the
and valued for its light brown colour. cres composed of bracts resembling diverse Scented-Leaved Pelargoniums,
Its properties are however variable, bird’s heads. Provide a minimum tem- with a range of foliage colour and
depending on origin, age and process- perature of 10°C/50°F. Grow in dap- form, variously scented of apple,
ing; Sphagnum peat has excellent pled sun or bright, indirect light in a balsam, lemon, mint and spice. Under
water-holding properties; sedge peat dry, airy environment. Plant in a gritty, glass or in the home, they should
is more fully decomposed with less fast-draining medium. Water regularly be grown in a free-draining, gritty 583
air-filled porosity and higher nitrogen in spring and summer, very sparingly medium, in a brightly lit, dry and
Pelargonium
P ELARGONIUM
Name Habit Leaves Flowers
P.abrotanifolium erect and bushy, to 50cm to 1.5cm (5⁄8in), aromatic, grey-green, to 1.5cm (5⁄8in) diam., white or pink, upper 2
SOUTHERNWOOD (20in), becoming woody finely divided petals narrow, marked maroon
GERANIUM
Comments: Scented-leaved and species category.
Angel pelargoniums
Similar to Regal pelargoniums, but seldom exceeding 30cm (12in) and always with single flowers. Fine examples of this group include ‘Catford
Belle’ with rose-red flowers with darker markings, and ‘Mrs G.H. Smith’, with off-white flowers marked pink.
P.capitatum to 1m (31⁄4ft), woody-based, 2–8cm (3⁄4–3in), 3–5-lobed, rose- to 2cm (3⁄4in) diam., mauve-pink, upper 2
ROSE-SCENTED decumbent or weakly erect, scented, velvety with crinkled margins petals marked with darker veins
GERANIUM aromatic, softly hairy
P.carnosum erect, to 30cm (12in) with a to 15cm (6in), succulent, grey-green, to 1cm (1⁄2in) diam., white to pale yellow-
stout, succulent stem, gouty pinnately lobed green, upper 2 petals marked red
below, tapering above and
covered in persistent leaf bases
P.crispum erect, freely branched, aromatic to 1.5cm (5⁄8in), lemon-scented, to 2cm (3⁄4in) diam., pink, upper petals
LEMON GERANIUM subshrub to 70cm (28in) rounded to reniform with crisped to marked deep pink
obscurely lobed margins, coarsely hairy
Comments: Scented-leaved and species category. ‘Variegatum’ has leaves edged with cream.
P. Fragrans Group erect, much-branched usually small, cordate-ovate with three to 1.5cm (5⁄8in) diam., white, upper petals
subshrubs to 40cm (16in) lobes and blunt teeth, grey-green, with red lines
velvety, with a spicy scent
Comments: Scented-leaved and species category. Includes ‘Old Spice’, compact, with grey-green, crinkled leaves, and ‘Fragrans Variegatum’
with leaves edged creamy yellow.
P P.graveolens
ROSE GERANIUM,
erect, downy subshrub to
150cm (60in)
to 4cm (11⁄2in), triangular, finely pinnately
lobed, grey-green, rose-scented
to 1.5cm (5⁄8in) diam., palest pink, upper
petals veined purple
SWEET-SCENTED
GERANIUM Comments: Scented-leaved and species category.
P.peltatum trailing or climbing with 3–7cm (11⁄4–23⁄4in) diam., thinly to 4cm (11⁄2in) diam., pale purple to pink, 2
IVY GERANIUM, slender stems fleshy, rounded in outline with 5 upper petals with darker veins
HANGING GERANIUM triangular lobes
Comments: This species is the parent of many excellent plants for hanging baskets, suspended pots, etc. Cultivars within the Ivy-leaved Group
range from small- to large-leaved, with single to double flowers in shades of white, peach, salmon, orange-red, red, magenta and mauve. Some,
such as ‘Crocodile’, have attractively variegated leaves.
584 P. ‘Tip Top Duet’ (Angel) P.carnosum P.crispum ‘Variegatum’ P.graveolens

Pelargonium
P ELARGONIUM
Name Habit Leaves Flowers
P.quercifolium erect, balsam-scented, clammy triangular, deeply pinnately or to 1.5cm (5⁄8in) diam., purple-pink, the
OAK-LEAVED subshrub to 1.5m (5ft) palmately divided, the lobes upper petals marked darker pink
GERANIUM, ALMOND themselves divided and toothed,
GERANIUM, VILLAGE coarsely hairy
OAK GERANIUM
Comments: Scented-leaved and species category. ‘Royal Oak’: shrubby, leaves with rounded lobes, with purple-brown blotch.
Regal pelargoniums
Often grouped as P. x domesticum. A group of complex ancestry. To diam.), carried in dense, straight-stalked umbels. Single or double, they
50cm (20in) tall, the stems are usually thick and branching, giving a consist of rounded and ruffled to lacy petals in a wide range of colours
bushy habit well-furnished with foliage. The leaves are to 10cm (4in) from white to rose, red, peach, salmon, orange, magenta, mauve and
diam., rounded to reniform, wavy and sharply toothed to obscurely maroon-black and combinations thereof.
3-lobed and hairy. The flowers are large and showy (to 10cm (4in)
Scented-leaved pelargoniums
A varied group of hybrids and selections drawn largely from the to narrowly palmately lobed, mid- to grey-green and variegated white,
scented-leaved species described here and sharing qualities of one or yellow or marked chocolate brown. The flowers are generally small and
the other. The foliage may be scented of roses, peppermint, lemon, white to pale pink, salmon or magenta.
balsam or apple. The leaves may be small or large, rounded and ruffled
P.tomentosum low-growing and spreading to to 6cm (21⁄2in), base cordate, with large, paired, cream to pale pink, upper
50cm (20in) 3–5, rounded lobes, velvety, petals marked purple
peppermint-scented
P.triste low-growing deciduous herb to to 15cm (6in), ferny and very finely scented, petals narrow, cream to brown-
20cm (8in) with a swollen, divided, softly downy purple overlaid with violet to maroon
woody caudex and rootstock markings
Unique pelargoniums
Garden hybrids, these are sprawling to erect, woody-based plants with in colour from white to pale pink, magenta, bright red and
aromatic leaves, usually grey-green and palmately to pinnately lobed combinations thereof.
and toothed. The flowers are 2–5cm (3⁄4–2in) diam, and range
Zonal pelargoniums
P
Garden hybrids often grouped as P. x hortorum. These are the most composed, usually, of clawed obovate petals in shades of white, rose,
popular members of the genus, widely grown for perennial display pink, crimson, coral, peach, salmon, orange, flame and scarlet. Many
under glass or outdoors in favoured regions, and otherwise used for cultivars have been named and further subcategories have emerged,
summer bedding. The plants are generally tall with succulent, jointed namely Cactus-flowered (petals furled or quilled); Irenes (fast-growing and
stems, these eventually become leggy and woody. The leaves are to vigorous with large flowerheads used for cutting); Stellar (small plants
10cm (4in) diam., rounded to reniform and wavy to shallowly toothed; with star-shaped, zoned leaves and flowers with cut and narrow
they may be plain green, variegated with white, cream, pink, purple- petals); Miniature (no taller than 13cm (5in), very free-flowering);
red and brown, or with a dark chocolate, horseshoe-like marking Rosebud (flowers double with many small petals resembling a
(zoned). The flowers are freely produced in dense, long-stalked half-opened rosebud).
umbels. They are 2–4cm (3⁄4–11⁄2in) across, single or double, and
P.quercifolium ‘Royal Oak’ P. ‘Sefton’ (Regal) P. ‘Voodoo’ (Unique) P. ‘Freckles’ (Zonal) 585
Pelargonium
well-ventilated position. Water carefully Pellaea (from Greek pellos, dusky, bonsai, and often a means of creating
at all times to avoid water-logging and referring to the dark stipes). Pteri- mixed miniature landscapes. In pen-
keep nearly dry during periods of low daceae (Adiantaceae). Tropical and jing, form is usually achieved by stricter
temperatures and low light intensity. warm temperate regions. 80 species, pruning-based training than in bonsai.
Tuberous and succulent species like evergreen ferns with dark-stalked, pin-
P.triste and P.carnosum lose their foliage nate to variously compound fronds. Pennisetum (from Latin penna,
and should be kept dry while dormant. Cultivate as for tender Adiantum species. feather, and seta, bristle, referring to
These species should be grown perma- P.atropurpurea (PURPLE ROCK BRAKE; the plume-like bristles of some species).
nently under glass and associate well North America; fronds 10–25cm Gramineae. Tropics, subtropics and
with cacti and other succulents. (4–10in) x 4–10cm (11/2–4in), tufted, nar- warm temperate regions. Some 80
Feed container-grown plants regu- rowly ovate-triangular to lanceolate, bip- species, rhizomatous or stoloniferous,
larly when in growth. Pinch out the innate, pinnules to 1.5cm (5/8in), ovate annual or perennial grasses with
tips of young plants to encourage to elliptic-lanceolate, auriculate at base, clumped, slender culms, narrow leaves
branching and prune shrubby, vigorous attenuate at tip, often glaucous rusty-red and, in summer and autumn, showy,
types like the scented-leaved pelargon- when young); P.rotundifolia (BUTTON foxtail- or bottle brush-like flowerheads
iums to avoid legginess. Many of the FERN; New Zealand, Australia; fronds with feathery to bristly spikelets. The
more robust hybrids benefit from 15–30cm (6–12in), narrowly oblong following are valued for their foliage
severe pruning in autumn; it also pinnate, pinnae 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), dark and graceful flowerheads produced
encourages growth suitable for use glossy green, narrowly oblong to subor- from mid-summer to autumn. Some
as cuttings. Overwinter species and bicular, apiculate, minutely crenate). of the cultivars are among the most
hybrids in frost-free conditions. Plants colourful and elegant of all ornamental
used outdoors in summer need a sunny pelleted (pelletized) seed seed grasses. They are not reliably hardy,
position and well-drained soil. Because coated with an inert material, often but may be treated as half-hardy
their siting is not permanent, they may incorporating a pesticide, to make it annuals or overwintered in a cool
thrive for a season in conditions that spherical and facilitate accurate and greenhouse. They are excellent candi-
would not suit them in the long term – more economical mechanical or dates for mixed container plantings
for example, ivy-leaved pelargoniums hand sowing. for patios. Grow in full sun in a fertile,
in hanging baskets filled with a dense, gritty medium. Keep moist when in
soilless medium. Zonal pelargoniums peloria, peloric see malformations. growth, rather drier in winter. Increase
may be overwintered as cuttings taken by division in spring, or by stem cut-
in mid- to late summer. Alternatively, tings in a closed case or under mist
old plants may be dug up and stored in summer.
P dry in a cool, frost-free place. Cut
back, removing any dead growth, and
P.alopecuroides (CHINESE PENNISETUM,
SWAMP FOX-TAIL GRASS, FOUNTAIN
repot in late winter when the plants GRASS; E Asia to W Australia; peren-
show signs of regrowth. Regal pelargo- nial to 1.5m (5ft); leaves to 60 x 1.2cm
niums need a temperature slightly (24 x 1/2in), glabrous, scabrous; inflores-
above 5°C/41°F in winter to continue cence cylindric to narrow-oblong, to 20
growing and produce flowers for x 5cm (8 x 2in), yellow-green to dark
spring. Cuttings intended for bedding purple; ‘Burgundy Giant’: to 1.2m (4ft),
out should be hardened off before Peltate leaves with broad leaves, bronze tinted claret;
planting out after the last frosts. In Darmera peltata, the large leaves are ‘Hameln’: dwarf, to 50cm (20in), with
Deadheading will encourage a attached centrally to their stalks; its golden leaves in autumn and white
succession of blooms. common name is umbrella plant. flowers tinted green; ‘Moudry’: low,
Increase by cuttings or (species) by with wide, dark green, shiny leaves
seed. Small tubers and offsets of tuber- peltate a leaf whose stalk is attached and dark purple to black flowerheads;
ous-rooted species may be detached inside its margin rather than at the ‘Woodside’: robust, with a dark purple
and potted on. Whitefly is a serious edge, usually at the centre beneath. inflorescence, early-flowering; var. pur-
pest under glass. The leaves of some purascens: dark purple spikelet bristles;
species, especially the succulent types, pendent hanging downwards, more var. viridescens: pale green spikelet bris-
may be scorched by insecticides. Grey markedly than arching or nodding. tles); P.setaceum (FOUNTAIN GRASS; tropi-
mould will attack both cuttings and cal Africa, SW Asia, Arabia; perennial
mature foliage. Cuttings may be killed pendulous dependent. to 90cm (36in); leaves to 30 x 0.3cm
by blackleg, a fungal disease that (12 x 1/8in), rigid, very scabrous; inflo-
attacks the base of soft fleshy stems, penicillate brush-shaped, or like a rescence erect to inclined, plumed, to
blackening and rotting the tissue. tuft of hairs. 30 x 30cm (12 x 12in), tinged pink to
It is encouraged by waterlogging purple; ‘Purpureum’: purple leaves
586 and excess organic matter in the soil. penjing the Chinese art of container and a deep crimson inflorescence;
(See table, previous page.) cultivation, analogous to Japanese ‘Rubrum’: tall, with maroon leaves
Penstemon
tinted bronze and deep burgundy ‘Carneus’: pale pink; subsp. coc- 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in), lanceolate,
plumes); P.villosum (FEATHERTOP; NE cineus: bright scarlet; ‘Roseus’: revolute, rather thick; flowers
tropical Africa; perennial, to 60cm pink); P.campanulatus (Mexico 4cm (11/2in), red with a yellow
(24in); leaves to 15cm x 0.6cm (6 x and Guatemala; 30–60cm throat); P.newberryi (MOUNTAIN
1
/4in); inflorescence cylindric to (12–24in); leaves linear- PRIDE; California and adja-
subglobose, compact, plumed, lanceolate, serrate, to 7cm cent Nevada; forming mats
to 11 x 5cm (41/2 x 2in), tinged (23/4in); flowers 2.5cm (1in)+, 15–30cm (6–12in) tall,
tawny brown to purple). rosy purple or violet, glan- woody below; leaves
dular-pubescent); P.confertus 1.5–4cm (5/8–11/2in), ellip-
penninerved, penniveined, (YELLOW PENSTEMON; tic to ovate, minutely
penniribbed with closely arranged British Colombia to serrate, coriaceous; flowers
veins extending from the midrib in a Alberta, Montana and 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in), rosy red);
feather-like manner. Oregon; stem slender, P.pinifolius (New Mexico to
2–5cm (3/4–2in); leaves Arizona and Mexico; stems
Penstemon (from Greek pente, five, 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in), lance- to 40cm (16in), numerous,
and stemon, stamen, referring to the olate to oblanceolate, woody below; leaves fili-
prominent, sterile fifth stamen). thin; flowers 8–12mm form, to 1cm (1/2in); flowers
3 1
Scrophulariaceae. Western N America, ( /8– /2in), pale sulphur-yellow, 2.5–3cm (1–11/4in), scarlet; ‘Mersea
1 species in Kamchatka and N Japan. palate brown-hirsute; ‘Violaceus’: Yellow’: bright yellow); P.procerus
About 250 species, subshrubs or peren- violet); P.davidsonii (Washington (SMALL-FLOWERED PENSTEMON;
nial herbs, with terminal racemes or to California; forming creep- Penstemon northwestern N America; stem
‘Andenken an
panicles of tubular, two-lipped flowers. ing mats; flowering stems to Friedrich Hahn’
10–40cm (4–16in), slender;
Although hardy in climate zone 7, the 10cm (4in); leaves 0.5–1.5cm leaves 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in) lanceo-
taller species and cultivars may be cut (1/4–5/8in), elliptic to orbicular, minutely late to oblanceolate or oblong, deep
to the ground or killed by hard frosts. serrate; flowers 1.8–3.5cm (3/4–13/8in), green, thin; flowers blue-purple); P.rupi-
For this reason, they should be thickly violet purple; ‘Broken Top Mountain’: cola (ROCK PENSTEMON; Washington to
mulched in autumn and a few rooted low, spreading, rich purple; ‘Microphyl- California; mat-forming, woody below,
cuttings overwintered in frost-free con- lus’: very compact, with small leaves to 10cm (4in); leaves 0.8–2cm (3/8–3/4in),
ditions as an insurance policy. They are and lavender flowers); P.fructicosus elliptic to orbicular, minutely serrate-
otherwise colourful and undemanding (SHRUBBY PENSTEMON; Washington dentate, very glaucous, thick, glabrous
perennials for the sunny herbaceous to Oregon, east to Montana and or canescent; flowers 3cm (11/4in), deep
and mixed border, thriving in all well- Wyoming; shrubby, to 40cm (16in); rose; ‘Albus’: white; ‘Diamond Lake’:
drained, fertile soils. Low-growing
small shrubs or mat-formers, such as
leaves 1–5cm (1/2–2in), lanceolate to
elliptic, entire or thinly coriaceous;
large, rich pink; ‘Pink Dragon’: light
salmon-pink; ‘Roseus’: pink); P.serrulatus
P
P.davidsonii, P.menziesii, P.newberryi, P.pini- flowers lavender-blue to pale purple; (CASCADE PENSTEMON; S Alaska to
folius and P.rupicola, may be grown in ‘Albus’: white; ‘Major’: flowers large); Oregon; subshrub, 30–70cm (12–28in);
full sun in rock gardens, alpine sinks, P.hartwegii (Mexico; stem 90–120cm leaves 2–9cm (3/4–31/2in), broadly
among paving stones or as front of (36–48in); leaves to 10cm (4in), lanceo- lanceolate to spathulate, subentire to
border plants. They soon deteriorate late to ovate-lanceolate; flowers 5cm serrate or shallowly laciniate; flowers
in wet, cold conditions. Shear low, (2in), deep scarlet, minutely viscid- 1.5–2.5cm (5/8–1in), deep blue to dark
shrubby species back after flowering pubescent); P.heterophyllus (FOOTHILL purple; ‘Albus’: white). Cultivars: ‘Alice
to maintain vigour, and cut back taller PENSTEMON; California; subshrub or Hindley’: mauve and white; ‘Amethyst’:
plants almost to ground level in spring shrub, 30–50cm (12–20in); leaves amethyst-blue; ‘Andenken an Friedrich
after the last severe frosts. Propagate 2–8cm (3/4–3in), linear to lanceolate Hahn’: deep wine red; ‘Apple Blossom’:
by semi-ripe cuttings of non-flowering green or leaden-grey; flowers small white, tipped pink; ‘Burgundy’:
side shoots in late summer, rooted in a 2.5–3.5cm (1–11/2in), rosy violet below, deep wine-purple; ‘Edithae’: shrubby,
sandy, free-draining medium in a lobes blue or opalescent lilac; ‘Blue prostrate, deep lilac; ‘Evelyn’: neat,
closed frame and overwintered in their Gem’: dwarf; ‘Heavenly Blue’: blue to with narrow leaves and slim rose-pink
first year in frost-free conditions. mauve); P.hirsutus (eastern N America; flowers with pale striped throats;
Increase also from softwood cuttings stem erect, 40–80cm (16–32in), ‘Firebird’: clear red; ‘Hidcote Pink’:
in early summer. Herbaceous species minutely glandular-pubescent; leaves rose pink, throat white with dark
forming basal tufts of foliage may be 5–12cm (2–43/4in), lanceolate to oblong, pink streaks; ‘Hidcote White’: white;
divided in spring. subentire to dentate; flowers 2.5cm ‘Hopley’s Variegated’: variegated form
P.barbatus (New Mexico to Utah, (1in), dull purple with white lobes; of ‘Alice Hindley’; ‘Maurice Gibb’: rich
Arizona and N Mexico; to 1m (31/4ft); ‘Caeruleus’: blue-tinted; ‘Purpureus’: cerise with a white throat; ‘Mother
leaves lanceolate to ovate, to linear; clear purple; ‘Pygmaeus’: to 15cm (6in) of Pearl’: white flushed purple; ‘Old
flowers 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in), red tinged high, violet; ‘Roseus’: pink); P.isophyllus Candy Pink’: vibrant pink; ‘Osprey’:
pink to carmine, lower lobes yellow- (Mexico; stem 70cm (28in), decumbent pink, throat cream; ‘Pink Endurance’: 587
hirsute at base; ‘Albus’: white; then erect, simple, stout, purple; leaves candy-pink, with honey lines at throat;
Penstemon
‘Prairie Fire’: orange-red; ‘Shoenholz- thoroughly and allowing the medium acute apex; ‘Greengold’: leaves spat-
eri’: deep red; ‘Six Hills’: prostrate with to dry partially between waterings; in tered green and yellow; ‘Variegata’:
fleshy grey-green leaves, lilac; ‘Sour winter, keep just moist. Propagate by leaves variegated lime green); P.mar-
Grapes’: tinted purple; ‘Weald Beacon’: division, leaf or stem cuttings, or morata (S Brazil; to 30cm (12in), stem
tinted blue. by seed. erect; leaves 10cm (4in), ovate, obtuse
P.argyreia (syn. P.sandersii; WATER- to acute at apex, deeply cordate to
pentamerous with parts in groups MELON BEGONIA, WATERMELON PEPPER; auriculate at base with overlapping
of five, or multiples of five; often northern S America to Brazil; stem to lobes, green above with silver-grey or
written 5-merous. 20cm (8in), erect, dark red; leaves to white patterns between veins, coria-
7cm (23/4in), broadly ovate, concave, ceous; ‘Silver Heart’: leaves dappled
pentaploid a polyploid with five acute at apex, rounded at base, peltate, silver between veins); P.metallica (Peru;
sets of chromosomes. silver-grey above with dark green to 15cm (6in), erect; leaves 2.5cm (1in),
stripes along main veins); P.caperata elliptic, acute at apex, broadly tapered
Pentas (from Greek pente, five, (EMERALD-RIPPLE PEPPER, GREEN-RIPPLE to rounded at base, green tinged brown
referring to the characteristic number PEPPER, LITTLE-FANTASY PEPPER; with silvery-green band above, tinged
of floral parts). Rubiaceae. Tropical Brazil; stem erect to 20cm (8in); leaves red beneath, succulent); P.obtusifolia
Arabia and Africa, Madagascar. Some 3.2cm (21/4in), cordate, broadly acute to (BABY RUBBER PLANT, AMERICAN
30 or 40 species, perennial or, rarely, rounded at apex, rounded or auriculate RUBBER PLANT, PEPPER-FACE; Mexico to
biennial herbs or shrubs with ovate at base, often peltate, dark glossy green, northern S America and West Indies;
to lanceolate leaves. Produced at veins impressed, in rippling folds; ‘Tri- stoloniferous, stem rooting, ascending,
various times of year in crowded, color’: leaves with a wide cream edge, to 15cm (6in); leaves 10cm (4in), elliptic
much-branched cymes or flat-topped marked pink at base; ‘Variegata’: edged to obovate, rounded to emarginate at
corymbs, the flowers are small, tubular cream); P.clusiifolia (West Indies, perhaps apex, cuneate at base; ‘Alba’: cream
to cylindric, with a spreading limb of Venezuela; erect to 25cm (10in); leaves new growth and stem and petioles
five, ovate to oblong lobes. Grow in sun 7.5cm (3in), obovate to elliptic, broadly dotted red; ‘Minima’: dwarf, dense,
or light shade. Minimum temperature acute to rounded at apex, tapered to with shiny leaves; ‘Variegata’: leaves
10°C/50°F. Plant in a sandy, fertile often clasping base, green or tinged more pointed, variegated pale green
mix. Water and feed freely in spring purple, margin flushed maroon; and marked cream towards margin);
and summer. Keep moist in winter. ‘Variegata’: leaves light green, varie- P.rotundifolia (C and S America, West
Increase by soft stem-tip cuttings taken gated cream towards edge, with a red Indies; to 25cm (10in), creeping; leaves
in late spring and inserted in a heated margin); P.fraseri (FLOWERING PEPPER; orbicular to broadly elliptic, rounded
case. P.lanceolata (syn. P.carnea; STAR- Colombia and Ecuador; to 40cm or cordate at base, 1.5cm (5/8in), green,
P CLUSTER, EGYPTIAN STAR-CLUSTER;
Yemen to E Africa; herb or subshrub,
(16in), erect; leaves 3.5cm (11/2in),
broadly ovate to suborbicular, acute at
paler beneath, sparsely hairy, fleshy;
var. pilosior: more densely hairy, leaves
to 2m (61/2ft), erect or prostrate; flowers apex, cordate at base, tinged purple on with pale green reticulate pattern
pink or magenta to lilac or, occasion- veins, pale green beneath with bright above); P.rubella (West Indies; erect to
ally, white to 4cm (11/2in) in dense, red to pink veins and pink spots; flow- 15cm (6in); leaves in whorls to 1cm
domed clusters). ers bright white, fragrant, mignonette- (1/2in), elliptic, broadly acute to rounded
like, in spikes to 4cm (11/2in)); P.glabella at apex, broadly tapered to rounded at
Peperomia (from Greek peperi, (C and S America, West Indies; to base, light to dark green above, flushed
pepper, and homoios, resembling, refer- 20cm (8in), erect or sprawling; leaves pink, convex and sparsely hairy
ring to its resemblance to the closely 3.8cm (11/2in), broadly elliptic to obo- beneath); P.scandens (origin unknown;
allied genus Piper). Piperaceae. Pantrop- vate, rounded to obtusely acute at stem 60cm (24in)+, scandent, stout;
ical. RADIATOR PLANT. About 1000 apex, broadly tapered to rounded at leaves to 7.5cm (3in), ovate to suborbic-
species, small, generally evergreen, base, green, often black-spotted, fleshy; ular, long-acuminate at apex, truncate
succulent herbs (those listed here are ‘Variegata’: leaves edged or variegated to subcordate at base).
perennial). They are grown for their off-white); P.griseo-argentea (IVY-LEAF
handsome, fleshy leaves, and, less com- PEPPER, SILVER-LEAF PEPPER, PLATINUM pepo a multicarpellate fruit with
monly, for their narrow spikes of very PEPPER; Brazil; to 20cm (8in), erect; fleshy pulp and a hard exocarp derived
small flowers. Suitable for the home, leaves 3.8cm (11/2in), cordate, broadly from the receptacle.
warm greenhouse or conservatory acute to rounded at apex, auriculate
(minimum temperature 15°C/59°F). or rounded at base, often peltate, grey- pepper dust a repellent to cats and
Grow in pots or hanging baskets in a green above, paler beneath, coriaceous, dogs, sprinkled on and around plants
porous but moisture-retentive medium veins deeply impressed above; ‘Nigra’: and beds.
rich in fibrous organic matter. Provide leaves corrugated, metallic black);
a moderately humid but buoyant P.magnoliifolia (Panama, northern S peppers annual or short-lived peren-
atmosphere, with shade or bright indi- America and West Indies; differs from nials, natives of tropical America,
588 rect light. When in growth liquid-feed P.obtusifolia in its more upright habit grown for their edible, often highly
fortnightly and water by drenching and leaves more contracted to rather decorative fruits; they include the
Pericallis
SWEET PEPPER (Capsicum annuum shrivel on the plant and can be kept for pathway and linked by cross pieces to
Grossum Group), the CHILLI PEPPER long periods. See Capsicum. Possible form a covered walk.
(Capsicum annuum Longum Group) and problems: aphids, red spider mite;
the HOT PEPPER (Capsicum frutescens). grey mould; blossom end rot. perianth the collective term for the
Cultivars of sweet pepper may be floral envelopes, the corolla and calyx;
red, yellow, orange or purple, ripening perch see rod especially when the two are not clearly
from green in warm conditions; they differentiated.
come in a range of shapes, round, perennial a plant that persists for
tapering or irregularly oblong or more than two seasons. The term is Pericallis (from Greek peri, around,
bell-shaped and measuring 3–15cm most usually applied to herbaceous and kallos, beauty). Compositae.
(11/4–6in) long and 3–7cm ornamentals, but, strictly, is applicable Canary Islands. About 14 species,
(11/4–23/4in) in diameter. also to trees and woody shrubs. perennial herbs, subshrubs or shrubs
Chilli peppers have narrow, pointed with daisy-like flowerheads. The
fruits, ripening to bright red, with a hot Pereskia (for Nicholas Claude Fabry florists’ cineraria, P. x hybrida, is the
flavour which increases in intensity de Peiresc (1580–1637), councillor at most frequently seen in cultivation,
with maturity. Sweet and chilli pepper Aix and patron of science). Cactaceae. flowering within about six months from
plants grow up to 75cm (30in) tall. S Mexico, C America, north and west seed, and valued for the exceptional
Hot peppers are branch- S America, Brazil. 16 species, profusion of bloom which sometimes
ing perennials, grown as spiny trees, shrubs and covers the plant so densely as to
annuals, which may woody climbers. They are true obscure the foliage. In warmer climates
reach 1.5m (5ft) in height cacti, but lack obviously succu- with frost-free winters and warm dry
and bear small red, lent stems; moreover, they bear springs, P. x hybrida is sometimes used
orange or yellow ‘leaf-like’ leaves that are scarcely as bedding but is more usually grown
fruits that are succulent. The flowers are rotate, as a winter-flowering house or cool
highly pungent; showy and borne in panicles and conservatory plant and discarded after
they need a long corymbs. They are followed by blooming. Available in a wide range of
growing season. berry- to pear-like fruit. Pro- cultivars and seed races, from compact
For best results, vide a minimum temperature Grandiflora and Multiflora types to the
peppers require a mini- of 10°C/50°F. Plant in a more graceful, branching ‘Stellata’
mum temperature of mildly acidic to neutral, forms, which carry the blooms clear
20°C/68°F with 70–75% gritty medium; shade in hot of the mound of foliage.
humidity, so greenhouse weather and maintain low Surface sow seed in early to late
protection is desirable.
Fruit set is adversely affected
Chilli pepper
‘Anaheim’
humidity. Water freely in
summer; keep dry from mid-
summer in a sandy, soilless propagating
medium and germinate in light shade
P
at 30°C/86°F and above. autumn until early spring, at 13°C/55°F. Prick out individually
Sow under protection at 20°C/68°F except for light misting on warm days into small pots containing a low-
in mid-March for indoor cropping, one in late winter. P.aculeata (tropical Amer- fertility loam-based mix, and pot on
month later for outdoor cropping, ica; woody climber to 10m (33ft); leaves successionally into a medium-fertility
either in trays for pricking out or direct lanceolate to elliptic or ovate, to 11cm potting mix. Ensure excellent drainage
into small pots or cell modules. Plant (41/2in), spines stipular or at areoles on and water freely but carefully; plants
when 10cm (4in) high, 38–45cm older growth only; flowers 2.5–5cm collapse rapidly if overwatered. Liquid
(15–18in) apart, for sweet and chilli (1–2in) in diameter, scented, white feed fortnightly when roots have filled
peppers, 60cm (24in) apart for hot pep- or nearly so; ‘Godseffiana’: leaves the pots. Shade in summer, maintain-
pers. Plants normally branch naturally, variegated yellow to peach-coloured ing cool, humid and well-ventilated
but the terminal shoot may be pinched and purple-tinted beneath). conditions at temperatures of no more
out to ensure a bushy habit. Most culti- than 15°C/59°F. Overwinter at
vars do not require staking, except perfect a bisexual flower or an organ 7–10°C/45–50°F, increasing tempera-
those that are over 75cm (30in) tall. with all its constituent members. tures to about 16°C/61°F if necessary,
Mulch the plants, water sparingly but to hasten flowering once buds have
regularly, and apply liquid feed every perfoliate of a sessile leaf with basal formed. The two species listed here
14 days; keep damped down where lobes united and surrounding the stem, need gritty soils in full sun with low
under protection. which then passes through the blade. humidity and a minimum temperature
Peppers can be picked when still of 5°C/41°F. Increase by seed or stem
green, and are ready when glossy and pergola a tall structure upon which cuttings in summer or autumn.
smooth. They may be left on the plant climbing and rambling plants are P.cruenta (Tenerife; white-woolly
to turn colour, and generally are grown. It normally consists of vertical perennial herb to 1m (31/4ft); leaves
sweeter once ripened. Sweet peppers brick or timber pillars supporting hori- ovate to triangular-cordate, 5–15cm
last well on the plant, and also freeze zontal beams. Double pergolas are (2–6in) wide, toothed, pink to purple- 589
well. Chilli peppers may be left to often constructed one to each side of a tomentose beneath; flowerheads
Pericallis
2.4–4cm (1–11/2in) in diameter, ray flo- led purple; ‘Atropurpurea’: leaves deep or from heeled cuttings of lateral
rets pink to maroon or purple, disc flo- red-purple; var. crispa: leaves laciniate- shoots in summer.
rets dark purple); P. x hybrida (FLORIST’S dentate, dark bronze or purple with P.abrotanoides (Afghanistan, W
CINERARIA; a variable complex of crisped, fringed margins; f. rosea: Himalaya; to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 7cm
hybrids between P.lanata and P.cruenta leaves crenate, variegated red-pink). (23/4in), oval to oblong, bipinnatisect,
and possibly other species – perennial grey-green; panicle to 40cm (16in),
herbs, often grown as annuals, forming perlite, perlag heat-expanded flowers 4–6 per whorl, calyx violet,
compact cushions or openly branched granules of volcanic alluminosilicate corolla pink); P.atriplicifolia (Afghanistan,
plants to 1m (31/4ft); leaves ovate to sub- mineral, used as a potting-compost Pakistan; to 150cm (60in); leaves to
orbicular, often light green; flowerheads ingredient or separately as a medium 6cm (21/2in), lanceolate to cuneate,
to 5cm (2in) in diameter, florets white for rooting cuttings or for hydroculture. grey-green crenate or coarsely toothed;
to pink, red, maroon, deep purple, It has a stable structure and high panicle narrow, flowers soft blue; ‘Blue
violet, lilac and blue, ray florets some- porosity, with negligible nutrient con- Mist’, earlier flowering with light blue
times bicoloured, with white base and tent and cation-exchange capacity, flowers, and ‘Blue Spire’, deeply cut
coloured apex; numerous cultivars and and is a useful additive for improving leaves, lavender-blue flowers in a larger
seed races are available with flowers in drainage and aeration. The coarser panicle); P. ‘Hybrida’ (P.abrotanoides x
a wide range of bright colours); P.lanata formulation is known as perlag. P.atriplicifolia; leaves to 5cm (2in), ovate,
(S Tenerife; white-hairy subshrub to 1m pinnatisect to bipinnatisect, grey-green;
(31/4ft), ascending to procumbent; leaves permaculture derived from the inflorescence a long panicle of
to 15cm (6in), broadly ovate-cordate to words permanent and culture; describ- lavender-blue flowers).
suborbicular, toothed or pinnatifid; ing a philosophy and the practice of a
flowerheads 3–5cm (11/4–2in) in diame- holistic approach to cultivation. In the perpetual used of plants that
ter, violet-scented, ray florets mauve, context of horticulture, permaculture flower more or less continually over
disc florets purple). involves working with the natural ele- a long period, especially greenhouse
ments, with minimal labour input and carnations.
pericarp the wall of a ripened ovary high regard to conserving or enhancing
or fruit, sometimes differentiated into the natural qualities of land and land- Persea (name used by Theophrastus
exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp. scape. The tenets of permaculture for an Egyptian tree). Tropical and
extend beyond horticultural practices. subtropical America, Macaronesia, SE
periderm an outer layer of protec- Asia. Lauraceae. 150 species, evergreen
tive tissue on stems and roots which permanent wilting point the trees or shrubs with large, entire leaves
may consist of cork, cork cambium level of soil moisture content at which and small, yellow-green flowers massed
P and phelloderm. transpiration ceases and plants remain
wilted even in a humid environment.
in panicles. The fruit is a berry or
drupe, ellipsoid to pyriform, with a
perigone the perianth, especially leathery skin, richly oily flesh and a
when undifferentiated; or anything Perovskia (for the 19th-century single, large nut. In cool temperate
surrounding a reproductive structure. Turkestani statesman, B.A. Perovskii). zones, P.americana is occasionally grown
Labiatae. Asia Minor, Iran, C Asia, for interest, although plants are prone
perigynous of flowers in which the Himalaya. 7 species, deciduous, peren- to leaf spotting, take up to seven years
perianth and stamens are apparently nial, aromatic shrubs or subshrubs with to flower, and, if grown from seed, are
basally united and borne on the mar- deeply toothed or laciniate, likely to produce fruit of
gins of a cup-shaped rim, itself borne grey-green leaves inferior quality. Grow
on the receptacle of a superior ovary. and, in summer and in a well-drained,
autumn, panicles of medium-fertility,
Perilla (derivation of name obscure). many small, tubular loam-based mix.
Labiatae. India to Japan. Some 6 flowers. All species Syringe daily in summer
species, fast-growing, half hardy annu- are tolerant of dry chalk and water moderately
als, grown for their ornamental and soils, suited to maritime when in growth, less in
often aromatic foliage. Grow in rich, situations and hardy to seedling splits winter. Maintain a minimum temper-
well-drained but moisture-retentive –15°C/5°F, although avocado stone ature of 10°C/50°F. To germinate,
soils in full sun. Propagate from seed stems above ground plant the seed with the pointed
sown under glass in early spring, to may be killed by frost. end about 1cm (1/2in) above
plant out in early summer. Pinch out The best foliage effects are the surface of the potting
young plants to encourage bushiness. obtained on new growth and mix. Keep moist and shaded
P.frutescens (Himalaya to E Asia, natural- plants should be cut back at 15–20°C/59–68°F. Move
ized Ukraine; to 1m (31/4ft), erect, almost to the base in spring. into full light following germi-
pubescent; leaves 4.5–12cm (13/4–43/4in), Grow in perfectly drained soils, nation, which may take up to
590 broadly ovate, acuminate, corrugated, in full sun. Propagate by soft- six months. Propagate also by
deeply serrate, green sometimes speck- wood cuttings in late spring, Persea from seed greenwood cuttings in a closed
pest
case with bottom heat. P.americana species, such as P.affinis and P.vaccinii- rooting stems to 30cm
(AVOCADO PEAR, AGUACATE, ALLIGATOR folia, make good groundcover for the (12in), glandular-hairy;
PEAR, PALTA; C America; to 20m (66ft); front of herbaceous borders leaves to 2.5cm (1in) ovate
leaves 10–25cm (4–10in), ovate to and areas of the rock garden to elliptic, green with a purple-
elliptic, subcoriaceous to papery, dull where their spread will not bronze V-shaped marking; flow-
dark-green above, paler beneath; fruit threaten less robust alpines. ers pink in small, dense, rounded
2–12cm (3/4–43/4in), oblong-ovoid to These last two are valuable heads); P.milletii (Himalaya
pyriform, skin leathery, glossy dark for their late flowers, to SW China; stem to 50cm
green, pale-punctate, to dark purple- which dry to rich (20in); leaves to 30cm
green and tuberculate, flesh lime green chestnut shades and (12in); linear-lanceolate
to yellow, firm, smooth and oily; seed persist into winter, to oblong, petiole winged,
ovoid, 4cm (11/2in); numerous cultivars creating a fine con- upper leaves clasping;
are grown commercially). trast with the rusty flowers crimson in broad
tints of the fading cylindrical to rounded
Persicaria (from Latin persica, peach, foliage. The attractively heads); P.vacciniifolia
a reference to the shape of the leaves). marked foliage of the (Himalaya; trailing
Polygonaceae. Temperate Northern creeping P.capitata also pro- perennial; stem woody,
Hemisphere. KNOTWEED, SMARTWEED. vides good low cover. It may need much-branched, to
Some 150 species, annual or perennial protection in zones experiencing 30cm (12in); leaves
herbs or rarely shrubs, some aquatic. winter temperatures below 1–2.5cm (1/4–1in), ovate or
Stems appear jointed, often arising about –5ºC/23ºF, or can be Persicaria elliptic, glaucous beneath,
from rhizomes or stolons. The flowers, treated as a half-hardy annual. milletii petiole short; flowers in loose,
produced in spring and summer, are Most species are hardy to erect spikes, pink); P.virginiana
small, mostly with five petaloid seg- between –15 and –20ºC/5 to (syn. Tovara virginiana; Japan, Himalaya,
ments; borne in usually spike-like –4ºF. Propagate perennials by NE US; perennial to 120cm (47in),
terminal or axillary inflorescences. division or increase by seed sown glabrous to roughly hairy; leaves
The small achenes have three angles in a cold frame in spring. 8–15cm (31/8–6in) ovate to elliptic,
or wings and are enclosed by the P.affinis (syn. Bistorta affinis; acuminate to rounded, glabrous to
persistent perianth. Himalaya; low, mat-forming perennial roughly pubescent; flowers in slender
Persicaria is a diverse genus with to 25cm (10in); leaves 3–10cm spikes, green-white or tinged pink and
species suited to the border, rock or (11/8–4in), mostly basal, elliptic to dark red bracts; ‘Painter’s Palette’:
wild garden. Although most have oblanceolate, dark green, red-bronze to leaves splashed and mottled with dark
invasive potential, this can often be
used to advantage in larger landscape
brown in autumn; flowers in dense,
erect spikes, 5–7cm (2–23/4in), pale
green, lime, grey, cream, pale yellow,
salmon pink and maroon-black;
P
plantings. pink to crimson or deep salmon red, ‘Variegatum’: leaves variegated
In cool, moist semi-shade, P.campanu- often becoming darker with age); ivory and primrose yellow).
lata is a beautiful and robust perennial, P.amplexicaulis (syn. Bistorta amplexicaulis;
bearing small, elegant, bell-shaped Himalaya; perennial to 1m (31/4ft), root- persistent neither falling off
blooms over long periods in summer. stock woody; leaves 8–25cm (31/8–10in), nor withering.
In the herbaceous border the vigorous ovate to lanceolate, acuminate, cordate
clump-forming P.bistorta is valued for at base, downy beneath, long-stalked or perule a bud scale.
its large, weed-smothering foliage and stem-clasping; flowers in loose spikes to
dense spikes of soft pink blooms; P.mil- 8cm (31/8in), rose-red to purple or pest in its widest sense, any organism
letii is similar, but more compact. These white); P.bistorta (BISTORT, SNAKEWEED, that causes harm or damage to
border species flower for longer periods EASTER LEDGES; Europe, N and W humans, their animals, plants or pos-
on moist soils. P.amplexicaulis is a stout, Asia; perennial to 60cm (24in), root- sessions, even if only by annoyance.
clump-forming perennial extending its stock stout; leaves 10–20cm (4–8in), Invariably, the term is used more nar-
period of interest from the first flush of ovate to oblong, obtuse, truncate at rowly for animal organisms, as opposed
bloom in mid-summer often through base, wavy, long-stalked or sessile; flow- to pathogens that cause disease, or
until first frosts. P.microcephala ‘Red ers in dense, cylindrical spikes, rose, weeds. Generally, a pest is considered
Dragon’ is a striking plant for an open pale pink or white); P.campanulata to be of economic importance when it
site while P.virginiana (Variegata Group) (LESSER KNOTWEED; Himalaya; creep- causes a reduction in yield of 5–10%;
‘Painter’s Palette’ is an equally remark- ing perennial to 1m (31/4ft); leaves for gardeners, the relative importance
able foliage plant for cool, moist and 3.5–12cm (13/8–43/4in), lanceolate to of a particular pest is determined by
semi-shaded places. The latter cultivar elliptic, white to pink-brown, hairy circumstances. Methods of pest control
associates especially with hardy ferns, beneath; flowers in loosely branched, can be broadly divided into those that
hostas, the smaller bamboos and nodding panicles, pink to dark rose-red are non-chemical and essentially pre-
grasses such as Hakonechloa macra or white, fragrant); P.capitata (Himalaya; ventive, and those that are chemical 591
‘Alboaurea’. Lower, mat-forming perennial to 7.5cm (3in) with creeping and mostly curative. Non-chemical
pest
methods include cultural, mechanical, tubs or barrels, although best effects undershrub, to 12m (39ft); leaves to
physical, legislative and biological are obtained en masse. Propagate by 21cm (8in), oblong to elliptic, subcoria-
control. division or seed. ceous, scurfy to bumpy and bristly,
P.fragrans (WINTER HELIOTROPE; deep green; inflorescence to 36cm
pesticides substances that kill animal C Mediterranean; to 30cm (12in); (14in), calyx lilac, lobes to 1.8cm
organisms such as insects, eelworms, leaves reniform to cordate, lobed, (3/4in), corolla to 0.8cm (3/8in), indigo
mites, slugs and snails, and rodents; but glabrous above, pubescent beneath, to amethyst).
also used more generally to include toothed; flowerheads white-pink,
chemicals for the control of plant dis- vanilla-scented); P.japonicus (Korea, Petrocosmea (from Greek petros,
eases and weeds. They can be naturally China, Japan, naturalized Europe; rock, and kosmos, decoration, referring
occurring materials, a purified concen- to 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 80cm (32in) in to the natural habitat). Gesneriaceae.
trate of such materials, or manufac- diameter, reniform to cordate, more or Asia. Some 29 species, perennial, rhi-
tured substances not found in nature. less lobed, glabrous above, pubescent zomatous herbs with hairy leaves in
The term covers acaricides, algicides, beneath, toothed; flowerheads pale basal rosettes. Produced in summer,
bactricides, fungicides, herbicides, mauve to almost white; var. giganteus: the flowers are solitary or clustered on
insecticides, molluscicides and nemati- syn. P.giganteus, leaves 0.9–1.5m (3–5ft) scapose inflorescences, and resemble
cides. Pesticides are prepared in differ- across on petioles to 2m (61/2ft); those of Saintpaulia. Near hardy in cli-
ent ways to ensure efficiency, such as ‘Nishiki-buki’: leaves spotted mate zone 8 and elsewhere suit-
sprays, aerosols, dusts, smokes, seed milky yellow to cream). able for the alpine house. Grow
dressing, fogging, injection, and in light shade in a fibrous,
weed wiping, cf. biological controls, petiolate, petioled gritty, acid mix. Keep moist
cultural controls. furnished with a petiole. and cool in summer; protect
from damp and draughts from
petal one of the modified leaves of petiole the leaf stalk. autumn til spring. Increase by
the corolla, generally brightly coloured seed or by leaf cuttings in late
petiolule
and often providing a place on which petiolule the (leaflet spring. P.kerrii (Thailand;
pollinators may alight. stalk of a leaflet. stalk) leaves to 10cm (4in), ovate to
oblong; flowers white, lobes
petal fall also known as blossom fall. Petrea (for Lord blotched yellow at base).
See bud stages. Robert James Petrie petiole
(1714–1743) of (leaf stalk) Petrorhagia (from Greek
petaloid, petalody used of flower Thorndon, Essex, petros, rock, and rhagas, fissure
P parts that take the form of petals in
colour, shape or texture, such as the
owner of one of the best
private collections of exotics in
Compound
leaf
referring to the habitat).
Caryophyllaceae. Eurasia, espe-
calyces or stamens of double flowers. Europe, supervised by Phillip Miller). cially in the E Mediterranean. 25–30
Verbenaceae. Tropical America and species, summer-flowering annual or
Petasites (from Greek petasos, a Mexico; P.volubilis naturalized in India. perennial herbs, resembling Gypsophila.
broad-brimmed hat, referring to the 30 species, evergreen lianes, shrubs, or Suitable for rock gardens, dry walls,
shape of the leaves). Compositae. small trees with elongate racemes in raised beds and for border edging.
Northern temperate regions. BUTTER- summer. The flowers consist of a Hardy to –15°C/5°F. Grow in sun in a
BUR, SWEET COLTSFOOT. Some 15 showy campanulate calyx with five well-drained, sandy soil. Propagate by
species, hardy, rhizomatous, perennial linear-oblong lobes and a hypocrateri- seed sown in late winter, or by soft
herbs with broad, stalked, basal leaves form corolla, darker than the calyx, stem cuttings of non-flowering shoots
and button-like flowerheads in a dense with five rounded lobes. Under glass, in early summer. P.saxifraga (S and C
panicle, produced usually before the grow in direct sun or bright filtered Europe; mat-forming perennial to
leaves. Although invasive, some Petasites light with medium to high humidity 40cm (16in); leaves linear; inflorescence
are not without value in the garden. and a winter minimum temperature of loose delicate, petals 5–10mm (1/4–1/2in),
P.fragrans (not reliably hardy where tem- 10°C/50°F. Mist frequently in warm pale pink with deeper veins, limb
peratures fall below –15°C/5°F) has sunny weather. Plant in large tubs, indented; includes cultivars with
strongly vanilla-scented flowers carried open beds or under and through double and single, pure white, pale
in mid-winter, with or just before the staging in a freely draining, lime-free rose and deep pink flowers).
leaves. Good groundcover for wilder medium enriched with leafmould.
areas of the garden, it tolerates drier Propagate by layering (both simple and Petroselinum (from Greek petros,
conditions than other species. In moist air) or semi-hardened nodal cuttings a rock, and selinon, parsley or celery).
and shady areas of the wild or wood- inserted in sand with bottom heat and Umbelliferae. Europe. 3 species, bien-
land garden the hardy P.japonicus makes misted regularly. P.volubilis (BLUEBIRD nial herbs with aromatic, ternately
stately and impressive colonies, espe- VINE, PURPLE WREATH, SAND PAPER compound leaves and small, white
592 cially at the waterside. Both species VINE; C America and Lesser Antilles, or green-yellow flowers in compound
may be confined by planting in sunken introduced elsewhere; woody vine to umbels. P.crispum is PARSLEY (q.v.).
Phaedranassa
Petunia (from the Brazilian Petum, a seedlings in seed mixtures to retain the concentration. For horticultural pur-
name applied to the closely related balance of colour. Harden off in the poses, of special relevance to soils. pH
tobacco plant, Nicotiana). Solanaceae. cold frame for planting out after the 7.0 represents the neutral condition; pH
Tropical S America. Some 35 species, last frosts. Increase also from softwood values below this indicate acidity, and
downy annual or perennial herbs, sub- cuttings in late summer or early those above it, alkalinity. Soil pH may
shrubs or shrubs with salverform to autumn, or in spring from stock plants, be measured by simple colorimetric
funnelform flowers. Colourful, half- cut back and top-dressed in late winter methods or with a pH meter. See soil.
hardy annuals used for bedding in and then forced under gentle heat.
borders, tubs and window boxes or cul- Cuttings were the most common Phacelia (from Greek phakelos, a clus-
tivated in pots under glass for winter method of increasing cultivars until ter, referring to the arrangement of the
and early spring flowering. The dwarf reliable seed races became available, flowers). Hydrophyllaceae. Western N
types make particularly good edging and are still useful for the double- America, E US, S America. SCORPION
plants, while the trailing cultivars are flowered and ruffle-edge sorts which WEED. 150 species, annual, biennial
suitable for hanging baskets and as do not always come true from seed. and perennial, downy to glandular-
summer groundcover in borders; a Affected by a range of viruses that pubescent herbs, with pinnatifid, pin-
single plant may cover up to 1m2 (11 cause leaf mosaic, mottling and failure natisect or entire leaves and 5-lobed,
sq. ft) of soil. Grandiflora Hybrids gen- to flower, including those viruses shortly tubular flowers in terminal
erally have fewer and larger flowers common to many of the Solanaceae, cymes or racemes in summer. The fol-
than the Multiflora types, but are less such as cucumber mosaic, tobacco lowing thrive in poor sandy soils, and,
weather-resistant, spotting badly after mosaic and potato viruses X and Y. if overwintered in pots in the cool
rain: F1 hybrids of both types show P. x hybrida (PETUNIA; a complex greenhouse at 5–7°C/41–45°F, are
increased vigour and uniformity. group of hybrids, thought to be P.axil- also useful for early spring flowers.
All species tolerate poor soils and laris x P.integrifolia – they are basically Sow seed under glass in early spring or
maritime exposure. They require bushy plants, grown as annuals and in situ in late spring on any moderately
plenty of sunshine and settled, dry covered with short, clammy hairs; the fertile well-drained soil in sun.
summer weather to make a good leaves are ovate to elliptic and the P.campanularia (CALIFORNIA BLUEBELL;
display, although recent developments showy flowers funnel-shaped with a S California; glandular-hispid annual,
such as the ‘Resisto’ and ‘Plum Crazy’ broad, spreading limb; among the most 15–40cm (6–16in); flowers to 2.5cm
mixtures show greatly improved perfor- popular half-hardy bedding plants, (1in), broadly campanulate-funnelform,
mance in windy, rainy conditions. petunias range in habit from the erect dark blue spotted white at the base of
Propagate from seed pressed lightly and robust to the small, low-growing or each lobe, sometimes wholly white);
on to the surface of a finely sieved seed cascading; in flower size, from dwarf P.tanacetifolia (FIDDLE-NECK; California
mix: sow from late summer to autumn
for winter- to early spring-flowering pot
(to 5cm (2in) in diameter) to giant (to
15cm (6in) in diameter); in form, from
to Mexico; hispidulous annual,
15–120cm (6–48in); flowers to 1.5cm
P
plants, and from late winter to early single to semi-double, double and heav- (5/8in), deeply campanulate, blue to
spring for summer bedding. Germinate ily crisped and ruffled; in flower colour, lilac or mauve).
at 15–20°C/59–68°F and keep evenly from white to cream, blush, pale pink
moist, watering from below when nec- to deep rose, magenta, deep crimson, Phaedranassa (from Greek phaidros,
essary. Prick out both large and small dark red, plum, deep purple, mauve, bright, and anassa, lady, referring to the
lilac and blue, and many cultivars are beauty of the flowers). Amaryllidaceae.
bicoloured, with a contrasting throat or S America. QUEEN LILY. 6 species,
dark veins; two of the most successful bulbous, herbaceous perennials with
new races are the Million Bells Series, stalked, narrow to broadly oblong
miniatures with a low, bushy habit, neat leaves. Produced in spring and summer
foliage and flowers to 3cm (11/4in) across in scapose umbels, the flowers are
in shades of purple, magenta, and the drooping, narrow and funnel-shaped or
Surfinia Series, with a cascading habit nearly cylindric, with five lobes spread-
and masses of flowers to 6cm (21/2in) ing from the apex. Plant in autumn,
diam., in various colours). with the bulb neck at soil level, in a
mix of equal parts loam, leafmould,
pF a logarithmic scale used as a and sharp sand; keep cool and just
common basis of expressing water moist until growth begins, then water
content in soil. The range varies from moderately and grow in full light at a
about pF 2 for a wet, well-drained soil minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F.
to pF 7 for an over-dry soil. Dry off as foliage dies down in late
Petunia Resisto Series summer or autumn, and keep cool and
Some modern strains of petunia combine pH a scale describing the degree of dry over winter until growth resumes in
resistance to weather damage with qualities of acidity of a substance; the negative early spring. Propagate by offsets and 593
continual flowering and brilliant colour range. index of the logarithm of hydrogen ion seed. P.carnioli (S America; to 60cm
Phaedranassa
(24in); flowers 6–10, to 5cm (2in), branched, to 30cm (12in); flowers to

glaucous crimson, tipped green 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, tepals rose or
with yellow fringe). white suffused rose, lip deep pink to
purple, midlobe ovate, concave, apex
Phaius (from Greek phaios, grey, fleshy, callus yellow, spotted red, lateral
referring to the flowers which darken lobes marked yellow); P.gigantea
with age or damage). Orchidaceae. (Borneo, Sabah; leaves glossy mid-
Indomalaya, S China, Tropical green; inflorescence to 40cm (16in),
Australia. Some 50 species, large ever- flowers scented, cream to dull yellow,
green perennial herbs, with or without tepals blotched and lined maroon to
pseudobulbs. The leaves are large, dark purple, lip fleshy, white, striped,
elliptic to lanceolate and plicately or lined magenta, midlobe ovate);
ribbed. Carried in spring and summer Phalaenopsis cornu-cervi P.hieroglyphica (Philippines; leaves dark
on an axillary, erect raceme, the flow- This delicate, star-shaped phalaenopsis green; inflorescence pendent or arched;
ers consist of spreading, oblong to requires specialist care and will often only tepals white lined red-purple, apex
oblanceolate tepals and a funnelform succeed when grown in a closed case. tinted green, lip to 2cm (3/4in), midlobe
lip. Grow in shaded, humid conditions truncate, apex jagged); P.lueddemanniana
with a minimum temperature of (especially P.cornu-cervi and P.violacea) (Philippines; leaves dull olive green;
15°C/59°F. Plant in a fast-draining and for warm, shaded and humid inflorescence erect or pendent, to 30cm
mix of bark, leafmould, charcoal, positions in the home. They are valued (12in), branched or simple, flexuous,
garden compost and a little dried for their beautiful moth-like flowers becoming horizontal; flowers to 6cm
FYM. Water throughout the year, matched, in some species, by superbly (21/2in) in diameter, tepals white, later-
allowing a slight drying between marked foliage (P.schilleriana and P.stuar- ally or horizontally striped brown-
waterings and avoiding wetting of tiana). Many grexes are now offered. purple, lip to 2.5cm (1in), carmine,
foliage. Re-pot every third year and Grow in pots, baskets or on rafts. The base yellow, midlobe oblong to ovate,
increase by division. medium should consist of coarse bark, apical callus white, downy); P.parishii
P.flavus (syn. P.maculatus; India, perlag and charcoal. Aerial roots are (Himalaya, Vietnam; leaves dark green;
Malaysia, Java; leaves spotted pale common and should be encouraged by inflorescence erect or arching, to 15cm
yellow, 40–48cm (16–19in); flowers frequent mistings (periodically, with a (6in); tepals white, lip with midlobe
6–8cm (21/2–3in) in diameter, yellow, dilute feed); never mist at temperatures purple, triangular, lateral lobes white
rarely white, lip streaked red-brown); below 18°C/64°F, since rots will be or yellow, spotted brown or purple);
P.tankervilleae (syn. P.grandifolius, encouraged by an accumulation of P.sanderiana (Philippines; leaves dark
P P.wallichii; Himalaya to Australia; leaves
30–100cm (12–39in), unspotted; flow-
moisture in the growth axis. A humid,
buoyant atmosphere is essential, as is
green above, marked silver-grey
beneath; inflorescence to 80cm (32in),
ers 10–12.5cm (4–5in) in diameter, shade. Drench pots throughout the axis purple, branched or simple, flow-
tepals white, green or rose beneath, year whenever the medium begins to ers to 7.5cm (3in) in diameter, colour
rusty red, yellow-brown, or white dry out. Propagate by meristem culture and marking variable, tepals pink,
above, lip interior pink to burgundy, or by plantlets sometimes produced on dappled white, or wholly white, lip with
base yellow, exterior white, midlobe old inflorescences. The genus is also midlobe triangular, white or yellow,
red-orange or white and pink). easily raised from seed. striped purple or brown, apex with 2
P.amabilis (syn. P.grandiflora; East filiform projections, callus horseshoe-
Phalaenopsis (from Greek phalaina, Indies, Australia; leaves glossy green; shaped, yellow or white, spotted red,
moth, and opsis, appearance). Orchi- inflorescence to 1m (31/4ft); flowers to brown, or purple, lateral lobes white
daceae. Asia, Australasia. MOTH 10cm (4in) in diameter, fragrant, tepals spotted pink); P.schilleriana (Philippines;
ORCHID. About 50 species, evergreen, white, often pink below, lip white, base leaves dark green, mottled silver-grey
perennial herbs. They are more or less red, margins yellow, midlobe cruci- above, purple beneath; inflorescence
stemless with a few, large and leathery, form, side projections triangular, with 2 branching, pendent; flowers to 8cm
obovate to elliptic leaves in two loose yellow-tipped appendages, callus yellow (3in) in diameter, fragrant, white to
ranks with, at their bases, numerous dotted red); P.cornu-cervi (SE Asia; leaves pink, mauve and rose-purple, tepals
aerial roots. The flowers are borne in olive green; inflorescence to 40cm edged white, lateral sepals spotted
erect to arching racemes; the sepals are (16in), stalk compressed; flowers waxy carmine-purple at base, lip midlobe
spreading, elliptic to broadly spathulate yellow to yellow-green, sepals marked white to magenta, anchor-shaped, lat-
and usually smaller than petals; the lip red-brown, blotches stripes and spots eral lobes yellow at base, dotted red-
is 3-lobed, the lateral lobes erect, the cinnamon, lip fleshy, white, midlobe brown); P.stuartiana (Philippines; leaves
midlobe fleshy with an anchor- or anchor-shaped, lateral lobes red-brown green blotched grey above, purple
arrow-shaped tip ending in horn-like or striped cinnamon); P.equestris (Philip- beneath; inflorescence branched, pen-
projections or filaments. pines, Taiwan; leaves dark green above, dent, to 60cm (24in); flowers to 6cm
594 Epiphytes for the intermediate or often flushed rose-purple beneath; (21/2in) in diameter, fragrant, petals
warm greenhouse, for growing cases inflorescence arched, simple or white, sepals white to yellow-green,
pheromone
dotted red-brown at base, lip anchor- species, annual or perennial, usually 10m (33ft), closely resembling Ravenala
shaped, white stained green to yellow climbing herbs with trifoliolate leaves, and Strelitzia nicolai except stems less
spotted brown to orange); P.violacea pea-like flowers and – usually – edible prominent, leaf blades to 2m (61/2ft),
(Sumatra, Borneo, Malaysia; leaves pods and seeds; see beans. P.coccineus is dark glossy green, midrib often tinted
glossy light green; inflorescence ascend- the SCARLET RUNNER BEAN; P.lunatus the coral-red, more elliptic to ovate than
ing or arched, thick, jointed, to 12.5cm LIMA BEAN; P.vulgaris the KIDNEY BEAN, oblong to lanceolate. The inflorescence
(5in), usually shorter; flowers few, to HARICOT, COMMON BEAN, FRENCH is terminal with white flowers amid
4.5cm (13/4in) in diameter, often fra- BEAN or DWARF STRING, FLAGEOLET, carinate, deflexed bracts. Cultivate as
grant, tepals amethyst fading to white SNAP BEAN. for Heliconia.
or lime green at apex, lip midlobe
oblong, apiculate, violet tipped with phellem see cork. phenomenal berry see hybrid
white down, central crest yellow, berries.
lateral lobes yellow; column white Phellodendron (from Greek phellos,
or amethyst). cork, and dendron, tree, referring to the phenotype the external appearance
corky bark of some species). Rutaceae. of an organism, which may vary
Phalaris (Classical Greek name for a Temperate and subtropical E Asia. 10 according to its environment; for exam-
kind of grass). Gramineae. Temperate species, aromatic, deciduous trees, their ple, the foliage type of water crowsfoot
regions. Some 15 species, annual or bark often thick and corky. They are (Ranunculus aquatilis) where growing in
perennial grasses with slender culms, grown for their handsome, pinnate different depths and speeds of water;
narrow leaves and silky, spike-like to foliage and autumn colour. Small, cf. genotype.
ovoid panicles in summer. Hardy to yellow-green flowers are carried in
between –15 and –20°C/5 to –4°F. terminal panicles in early summer, and pheromone a chemical produced
Grow in sun or light shade. Tolerant of give rise to pea-sized, black fruits. They by an insect to induce a specific
most soils and sites from pond margins perform best in zones where summers behavioural response, such as mating,
to dry borders. Sometimes invasive; are long and hot. The pungently aro- in other insects of the same species.
they can be confined where necessary matic foliage gives fine, clear yellow Pheromones are often useful in
by planting in a sunken, bottomless half autumn tints, and, on female trees, biological control or integrated
barrel. Propagate by division. P.arundi- the black fruits often persist well into pest management systems.
nacea (REED CANARY GRASS, RIBBON winter. Grow in deep, fertile, moisture- The principal types of pheromones
GRASS; Eurasia, N America, S Africa; retentive but well-drained soils in an are aggregation, sex, dispersal or
reed-like, fast-spreading rhizomatous open position in full sun. Although spacing, alarm and trail pheromones.
perennial, to 1.5m (5ft); leaves to 35 x hardy to at least –20°C/–4°F, the Aggregation pheromones stimulate
1.8cm (14in x 3/4in), glabrous; inflores-
cence narrow, to 17cm (61/2in); ‘Dwarf ’s
young growth is sometimes damaged
by late spring frosts. Propagate by seed
individuals to aggregate for shelter,
oviposition, colonization, feeding, or
P
Garters’: as var. picta ‘Picta’ but dwarf, in autumn, or by softwood or heeled as a prelude to swarming or dispersal;
to 30cm (12in); var. picta includes semi-ripe cuttings in summer rooted they are widespread among insects
‘Picta’: GARDENER’S GARTERS, invasive, in a closed case with bottom heat. Alter- such as cockroaches, bees, wasps and
leaves striped white, usually predomi- natively, take root cuttings in late winter. many beetles. Sex pheromones can be
nantly on one side of leaf; ‘Luteopicta’: P.amurense (N China, Manchuria; produced by either sex but they are
small, with leaves striped golden-yellow; to 15m (50ft); bark pale grey, corky;
‘Feesey’: small, less invasive, with light leaflets 5–10cm (2–4in), broadly ovate
green leaves, boldly striped white, and a to lanceolate, dark glossy green above,
pink-tinted inflorescence; ‘Streamlined’: glaucous beneath, turning yellow in
leaves mainly green, edged white; autumn); P.chinense (C China; to 10m
‘Tricolor’: leaves white-striped with (33ft), bark thin, dark grey-brown;
a strong pink flush). leaflets 7–14cm (23/4–51/2in), oblong to
lanceolate, yellow-green above, light
phanerogam a spermatophyte; a green and tomentose beneath).
plant reproducing by means of seeds
not spores; cf. cryptogam. phelloderm a layer of parenchyma-
tous tissue found on the inside of the
phanerophyte a plant whose latent cork cambium.
buds are located more than 50cm
(20in) above the soil surface. phellogen see cork cambium.
Phaseolus (Latin diminutive of Phenakospermum (Greek phenax, Pheromone trap

Greek phaselos, name used by a cheat or impostor, and sperma, seed). The sticky inner surface of traps are impreg-
Dioscorides for a kind of bean). Legu- Strelitziaceae. Brazil, Guyana. 1 nated with synthetic pheromone, which lures 595
minosae. New World. BEAN. Over 20 species, P.guianense, a giant herb to the males of tortricid moths, an apple pest.
pheromone
most commonly produced by ‘calling’ (13/4–31/2in), ovate, mostly glabrous, very fragrant, and with petals some-
females to attract males; these attrac- irregularly and shallowly toothed, apex times waved, dentate or cut); P.micro-
tants or lures are typically found in but- acuminate; flowers 5–9 in short termi- phyllus (SW US; erect shrub to 1m
terflies and moths. Dispersal or spacing nal racemes, creamy white, strongly (31/4ft); new growth adpressed-
1
pheromones are used by insects to pre- fragrant, 2.5–3cm (1–1 /4in) across; cul- pubescent, bark chestnut-brown, shiny,
vent over exploitation of a food source; tivars include ‘Aureus’, compact, with soon flaking; leaves 1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in),
for example, the apple fruit fly applies golden yellow to lime green leaves; oval-elliptic or lanceolate, entire and
the pheromone to the surface of apples ‘Dianthiflorus’, dwarf, with double ciliate, glabrate above, softly shaggy-
and other host fruits after depositing flowers and narrow petals; ‘Maculi- hairy beneath; flowering shoots
eggs in order to deter other females formis’, with 3cm (11/4in) flowers, with 1.5–4cm (5/8–11/2in) long, with 1 or
from ovipositing. Alarm pheromones petals red at base; ‘Salicifolius’, with rarely 2 pure white, very fragrant,
are characteristic of social insects such narrower leaves and tips of petals bear- cross-shaped, flowers about 3cm (11/4in)
as wasps, bees and ants and are used ing a few hairs – may be of hybrid wide); P. x polyanthus (P.insignis x
to alert the colony to the presence of origin; ‘Variegatus’, with leaves edged P.lemoinei?; erect shrub, bark dark
intruders; aphids secrete alarm phero- white); P. x cymosus (erect shrub to 2.5m brown, peeling; new growth sparsely
mones when they are being attacked (8ft); bark brown, not peeling; leaves shaggy; leaves 3.5 x 5cm (11/2 x 2in),
by predators. Trail pheromones occur ovate, sparsely toothed, hairy beneath; ovate, apex acuminate, entire or with
commonly in social insects, particularly flowers white to cream, sometimes a few sharp teeth, sparsely bristly
ants and termites; on locating a source tinted rose, 4–10cm (11/2–4in) in diame- beneath; flowers 3–5 in cymes or
of food, a worker ant lays down a ter, cupped to spreading, fragrant in corymbs cross-shaped, about 3cm
pheromone trail back to the nest. cymes of 1–5; some stamens petal-like; (11/4in) across; cultivars include
Once identified chemically, most cultivars include ‘Nuée Blanche’, with ‘Favourite’, to 2m (61/2ft), with large,
pheromones can be prepared syntheti- single to semi-double, creamy, fragrant, cross-shaped, cupped flowers, serrate
cally and the resulting compounds have profuse flowers; ‘Perle Blanche’, of petals and yellow stamens; and ‘Pavil-
a potential use in insect control for compact habit, with single to semi- lon Blanc’, a low bush, with arching
monitoring populations, mass trapping double, fragrant flowers; ‘Voie Lactée’, branches and creamy-white, fragrant
or mating disruption. Simple card- vigorous, with large leaves and flowers, flowers). P. x purpureomaculatus (P. x
board traps are available for pests to 5cm (2in), freely produced and with lemoinei x P.coulteri; shrub to 1.5m (5ft),
including codling moth and other reflexed petals); P.delavayi (SW China; bark black-brown, peeling in second
tortricids on apple, pea moth on peas, shrub to 4m (13ft); bark grey-brown, year; new growth hairy; leaves 1–3.5cm
gypsy moth, fruit flies in citrus and grey or chestnut-brown, not peeling; (1/2–11/2in), broadly ovate, tip acute,
peach orchards and Japanese beetle. By current growth glaucous; leaves ovate- more or less entire, with a few scattered
P gathering information on populations,
spraying can be more effectively timed
lanceolate or ovate-oblong, acuminate,
2–8cm (3/4–3in), serrate or entire,
hairs beneath; flowers solitary or in
threes or fives, fragrant, disc-shaped,
and the total amount of insecticide sparsely bristly above, shaggy-hairy 2.5–3cm (1–11/4in) across, white, purple
required reduced. beneath; flowers in raceme of 5–9, at centre; cultivars include ‘Galathée’,
2.5–3.5cm (1–11/2in) across, disc- with arching branches and solitary
Philadelphus (probably for Ptolemy shaped, pure white, fragrant; calyx flowers, with a pink centre and ‘Nuage
Philadelphus (ruled 285–246 BC), purple-tinted; includes ‘Nymans Vari- Rose’, with wide-opening flowers, with
patron of the arts and sciences). ety’, with plum-coloured calyx); P. x a pink centre; P. x virginalis (stiffly
Hydrangeaceae (Philadelphaceae). lemoinei. (P.coronarius x P.microphyllus; low upright to 2.5m (8ft); bark grey, peeling
C and N America, Caucasus, E Asia. compact shrub, bark peeling; leaves when old; new growth hairy; leaves
MOCK ORANGE. 60 species, deciduous 1.5–2.5cm (5/8–1in), ovate, glabrous 4–7cm (11/2–23/4in), ovate, apex shortly
shrubs with peeling bark, ovate to above, sparsely bristly below, acuminate, becoming glabrous above,
lanceolate leaves and, in spring and apex acuminate, toothed; shaggy beneath; flowers in
summer, rounded, 4-petalled flowers flowers usually in threes, raceme, usually double,
with many stamens, usually fragrant fragrant, cross- pure white, very fragrant,
and pale, in racemes, panicles, cymes, shaped, about 3cm 4–5cm (11/2–2in)
1
or solitary. They are easily grown in (1 /4in) across, wide; cultivars
any moderately fertile soil, including petals notched; include ‘Fleur de
thin, chalky soils. Most will tolerate cultivars range Neige’, to 1m
winter temperatures of at least from arching to (31/4ft), with 4cm
–15°C/5°F. They flower best in full upright in habit, (11/2in), semi-double
sun. Cut back old shoots after flower- with 2.5–1.5cm flowers and yellow
ing. Increase by softwood cuttings. (1–5/8in) leaves, mot- stamens; ‘Fraicheur’,
P.coronarius (S Europe, Caucasus; tled and variegated to with large, very double,
shrub to 3m (10ft), bark dark brown, smooth dark green, and Philadelphus
creamy, profuse flowers;
596 slowly peeling; current growth downy 2.5–6cm (1–21/2in) flowers, coronarius ‘Glacier’, with creamy, very
becoming glabrous; leaves 4.5–9cm white to creamy, fragrant to ‘Aurea’ double, late flowers and
Philodendron
‘Schneestrum’, fast-growing, with pure aceae (Philesiaceae). Chile. 1 species,

white double flowers). Cultivars and P.magellanica, a branching, erect shrubby
hybrids: ‘Beauclerk’ to 2m (61/2ft), with evergreen, 30–100cm (12–39in), with a
pineapple-scented flowers to 8cm (3in), dense, rather box-like habit. The leaves
with a purple centre and broad petals; are 1.5–3.5cm (5/8–11/2in) long, oblong
‘Bicolore’, dwarf, with 3cm (11/4in) to lanceolate, leathery and deep glossy
leaves and creamy flowers with a green. Produced in summer and early
purple centre; ‘Boule d’Argent’, of autumn, the pendent flowers are nar-
compact habit, with 4cm (11/2in), semi- rowly campanulate with six tepals –
double flowers in cymes of 5–7, these are 6cm (21/2in) long and pink to
scarcely fragrant; ‘Buckley’s Quill’ purple-red, sometimes faintly flecked
(Frosty Morn’ x ‘Bouquet Blanc’), also orange-pink. Cultivate as for Lapageria.
known as ‘Faxonii’, of arching habit, Propagate by removal of suckers or by
and with cross-shaped flowers; ‘Burfor- greenwood or semi-ripe cuttings in
diensis’, to 3m (10ft), with 7cm (23/4in) summer in a closed shaded case.
flowers in raceme of 5–9, and conspic- Philodendron
uous, yellow stamens; ‘Etoile Rose’, Phillyrea (Greek name for the Some species of this large genus are self-
with flowers carmine at centre fading genus). Oleaceae. Mediterranean to supporting, but this climber specimen typi-
at apex, scarcely fragrant; ‘Frosty Asia Minor. MOCK PRIVET. 4 species, cally clasps and entwines tree trunks.
Morn’, frost-tolerant, and with 3cm evergreen shrubs, with glossy green,
(11/4in), double flowers; ‘Mont Blanc’, glabrous leaves and small, fragrant, mum of 15°C/59°F. Site in part-shade
to 1m (31/4ft), with cross-shaped, pure green-white flowers, resembling those or in filtered light, ensuring protection
white flowers of a strong fragrance; of Osmanthus. These are followed by from bright summer sun; provide good
‘Mrs E. L. Robinson’, with large, fra- fleshy, ovoid, blue-black fruits. Culti- air circulation, but avoid draughts. Mist
grant flowers; ‘Patricia’ (resembles vate as for Osmanthus. frequently when in growth and water
P.lewisii), with leathery, dark green P.angustifolia (Mediterranean; shrub moderately, reducing as temperatures
leaves and very fragrant flowers in to 3m (10ft); leaves linear to lanceolate, fall in winter. When plants are in full
raceme of 3–7; ‘Slavinii’, rounded bush usually entire; ‘Rosmarinifolia’: leaves growth and roots have filled the pots,
to 3m (10ft), with 6.5–9.5cm (21/2–33/4in) narrower, smaller, grey-green, some- feed regularly with a 10:10:5 NPK
leaves and 6cm (21/3in), cross-shaped, what glaucous); P.latifolia (Mediter- liquid fertilizer. Train climbers on moss
abundant flowers; ‘Splendor’ (possibly ranean; shrub or small tree to 9m poles, wire cylinders filled with the pot-
P.inodorus var. grandiflorus x P.lewisii var. (30ft); leaves ovate to lanceolate, den- ting medium, or canes. Smaller species
gordonianus), of full, rounded habit, with
single, wide-opening, slightly fragrant
tate or entire; ‘Buxifolia’: leaves small,
obovate; ‘Spinosa’: leaves spiny-
will also trail, making good ground-
cover and cascade plants for baskets
P
flowers with rounded petals; ‘Steno- dentate, ovate). and planters. The larger species may
petalus’ (possibly a form of P.pubescens), be pruned, or their stem tips repropa-
with campanulate flowers; ‘Thelma’ Philodendron (from Greek phileo, to gated, to create bushier, more or less
(origin unknown, possibly P.purpuras- love, and dendron, tree, alluding to the free-standing specimens. Propagate by
cens), of low, graceful habit, with 2.5cm climbing or epiphytic habit). Araceae. air layering, or by stem tip or leaf bud
(1in) leaves and 1.5cm (5/8in), campanu- Tropical America. 350+ species, epi- cuttings rooted in individual small pots
late flowers; and ‘Virginal’, with double phytic or terrestrial evergreen peren- in a closed case with a bottom heat of
flowers in loose heads. nials, some climbing with long, slender, 20–25°C/68–77°F.
rooting stems, some with leaves in a P.bipennifolium (syn. P.panduraeforme of
x Philageria (Philesia x Lapageria) dense basal rosette, or along or crown- gardens; HORSEHEAD PHILODENDRON,
Liliaceae (Philesiaceae). One garden ing a stout, unbranched stem. The FIDDLE-LEAVED PHILODENDRON; SE
hybrid, x P.veitchii (P.magellanica x L.rosea), leaves are often large, entire or lobed to Brazil; stems climbing, tall, internodes
a scrambling shrub, similar in habit to pinnatifid to pedate, oblong or ovate, long; leaves to 45 x 15cm (18 x 6in),
Lapageria but more shrubby and less cordate to sagittate, coriaceous and reflexed, 5-lobed, glossy dark green,
vigorously climbing. The flowers are usually dark, glossy green. They differ terminal lobe long, to 25 x 10cm (10 x
drooping and consist of three outer in size and shape in the juvenile and 4in), obovate, lateral lobes angular,
tepals to 4cm (11/2in) long, fleshy, dull adult states. The inflorescence is obtuse, basal lobes broadly oblong-
red deep or magenta with a glaucous Monstera-like and gives rise to white, triangular); P.cordatum (HEART-LEAF
bloom, and three inner tepals to 6cm orange or red berries. PHILODENDRON; SE Brazil; stems tall,
(21/2in) long, bright rose and more Grow in an open, fertile, moisture- climbing, internodes short; leaves 45 x
faintly bloomed. Cultivate as for retentive mix of loam, coir or bark, 25cm (18 x 10in), reflexed, ovate-
Lapageria. Propagate by simple layering. leafmould and coarse sand. Maintain a triangular, base sagittate, basal lobes
day temperature of 20–27°C/68–81°F, round to angular, margins undulate);
Philesia (from Greek phileo, to love, falling to 15–20°C/59–68°F at night P.domesticum (syn. P.hastatum of gardens; 597
from the beauty of the flower). Lili- when in growth, with a winter mini- SPADE-LEAF PHILODENDRON; origin
Philodendron
unknown; stems climbing; leaves to leaves to 50cm (20in) across, erect, Phlomis (from Greek phlo-
60 x 30cm (24 x 12in), reflexed, elon- ovate-orbicular, pinnatifid, lateral mos, mullein, alluding to the
gate-triangular, sagittate, undulate, segments 1.5cm (5/8in) across, to woolly stems and leaves of
glossy bright green, basal lobes 13 per side, narrow, acuminate, some species). Labiatae.
rounded-oblong to triangular; ‘Variega- basal lobes bifid); P.radiatum (syn. Mediterranean to C Asia
tum’: leaves splashed yellow, cream P.dubium of gardens; DUBIA and China. About 100
and green); P.erubescens (RED-LEAF PHILODENDRON; C America; species, downy, felted or
PHILODENDRON, BLUSHING PHILODEN- climbing; leaves to 90 x 70cm woolly herbs or evergreen
DRON; Colombia; stems tall, climbing, (36 x 28in), reflexed, ovate in shrubs with tubular, 2-lipped and
purple or red-purple when young, with outline, cordate-sagittate, hooded flowers in summer; these
deep pink to pink-brown bracts; leaves deeply pinnatifid, terminal lobe arise from conspicuous and persis-
to 40cm (16in), reflexed, ovate-triangu- with 8 pairs oblong or further tent calyces bunched in axillary
lar, base shortly sagittate to cordate, 3-parted segments, basal lobes whorls. The herbaceous species
somewhat coriaceous, glossy dark 5-parted); P.sagittifolium (syn. are hardy to –15°C/5°F. With a
green above, coppery-purple beneath; P.sagittatum of gardens; sheltered position and good
‘Burgundy’: leaves to 30cm (12in), SE Mexico; stems climb- drainage, The shrubby species will
flushed red with burgundy veins, with a ing; leaves to 60 x 30cm tolerate temperatures almost as low.
cordate to hastate base and claret (24 x 12in), long triangular-oblong, Grow in full sun in well-drained
stems; ‘Golden Erubescens’: climber, sagittate, subcoriaceous, glossy bright soils, with shelter from cold winds.
with thin, round stems and gold leaves, green, basal lobes to 12.5cm (5in), The large-leaved P.russeliana toler-
tinted pink beneath and when young; triangular, obtuse); P.scandens Phlomis ates light shade. Cut back
‘Imperial Red’: leaves dark purple to (syn. P.cordatum of gardens; fruticosa shrubby species after
red; and ‘Red Emerald’, vigorous, with HEART-LEAF PHILODENDRON; flowering. Herbaceous perennials
claret stems and long-cordate leaves to Mexico and West Indies to SE Brazil; may be cut down in autumn, although
40cm (16in), dark green with red ribs stems slender, climbing, becoming the dead flowering stems are some-
beneath, shiny, and with long, rich red pendent; leaves 8(–30)cm (3(–12)in) x times left for winter interest. Propagate
petioles); P.imbe (syn. P.sellowianum; SE 6–23cm (21/2–9in), reflexed, ovate- shrubby species by softwood cuttings in
Brazil; stem climbing, red-purple; cordate, acuminate, glossy green above, summer, or by semi-ripe cuttings in a
leaves 33 x 18cm (13 x 7in), reflexed, green or red-purple beneath; f. micans: sandy propagating mix in the cold
ovate-oblong, cordate to sagittate, leaves bronze above, red to red-brown frame in autumn; increase also by
glossy above, basal lobes rounded; beneath, and basal lobes larger and simple layering. Divide herbaceous
‘Goldiana’: leaves long-ovate, rich slightly overlapping; subsp. oxycardium: species in autumn or spring. Sow
P green with gold speckles, red beneath,
yellow when young, and with short
juvenile leaves glossy brown when
immature, green when mature;
seed in spring at 15–18°C/59–64°F.
P.cashmeriana (Kashmir, West
petioles; ‘Variegatum’: leaves irregu- ‘Variegatum’: leaves dark green Himalaya; to 90cm (36in); stem densely
larly blotched green, dark green and marbled off-white and green-grey). woolly; leaves 13–23cm (5–9in), ovate-
cream; ‘Weber’s Selfheading’: climber, lanceolate, obtuse, broadly rounded at
with thick, very shiny, oblanceolate Phlebodium (diminutive of Greek base, downy, white beneath; flowers
leaves, with a light green midrib, ribs phlebion, vein). Polypodiaceae. Tropical pale lilac); P.chrysophylla (Lebanon; low
red beneath, and petioles red spotted America. Some 10 species, epiphytic evergreen subshrub; leaves to 6cm
yellow-green); P.melanochrysum (syn. ferns with thick and fleshy, creeping (21/2in), broadly elliptic to oblong-ovate,
P.andreanum; BLACK-GOLD PHILODEN- rhizomes and pinnately divided fronds truncate to cordate at base, yellow-
DRON; Colombia; climbing; leaves 100 bearing circular sori. Provide a mini- pubescent, golden and downy when
x 30cm (39 x 12in), reflexed to pendent, mum temperature of 7°C/45°F and young; flowers golden yellow); P.fruticosa
oblong-lanceolate or narrow-ovate, bright, indirect light. Plant in an open, (JERUSALEM SAGE; Mediterranean west
sagittate, acuminate, velvety black- soilless medium with added coarse to Sardinia; spreading subshrub or
green above, veins pale green, copper- bark. Keep moist and humid in warm shrub to 130cm (51in), tawny-hairy to
coloured when young); P.pedatum (syn. weather, rather dry in cooler condi- felty; leaves 3–9cm (11/4–31/2in), ovate to
P.laciniatum, P.laciniosum; S Venezuela, tions. Propagate by division of rhi- lanceolate, truncate or cuneate at base,
Surinam to SE Brazil; stems tall, climb- zomes or by spores – these are freely dull sage green, rugose above, woolly
ing; leaves reflexed, ovate in outline, produced and often sow themselves. beneath, entire or crenulate; flowers
irregularly pinnatifid, terminal lobe 45 P.aureum (GOLDEN POLYPODY, RABBIT’S golden yellow); P.italica (Balearic
x 30cm (18 x 12in), median segments FOOT FERN, HARE’S FOOT FERN; tropi- Islands, not native to Italy; subshrub to
elliptic, obovate or rhombic, lateral cal America; rhizome thick, hard and 50cm (20in); leaves to 10cm (4in),
segments to 5 per side, oblong, obtuse, creeping; fronds 30–100cm (12–39in), oblong to bluntly scutate or lanceolate,
basal lobes 27 x 17cm (11 x 61/2in), deeply pinnatifid, segments linear to obtuse, white- to golden-felted,
widely spreading; ‘Purple Green’: oblong or strap-shaped, sea green to shallow-crenate; flowers pink or pale
598 leaves flushed red-purple); P.pinnatilobum glaucous blue-green, sori golden lilac); P.longifolia (Anatolia, Syria,
(syn. P. ‘Fernleaf ’; Brazil; climbing; yellow). Lebanon, Cyprus; hairy shrub to
Phlox
130cm (51in); leaves 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in), balanced fertilizer and mulch with well- P.adsurgens (US (Oregon, N Califor-
lanceolate to oblong or ovate, cordate rotted organic matter in spring. Staking nia); slender perennial; stem prostrate
or subcordate at base, crenulate or is usually necessary only in exposed sit- to ascending, to 30cm (12in); leaves
crenate-serrate, green tomentose above, uations; deadhead to prevent self-sown 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), rounded to narrowly
grey to yellow-tomentose beneath; seedlings which are usually of inferior ovate, glabrous; inflorescence lax, few-
flowers yellow); P.russeliana (W Syria; to quality. Divide in early spring. Alterna- flowered, hairy; flowers to 2.5cm (1in)
1m (31/4ft); leaves 6–20cm (21/2–8in), tively, take stem cuttings in spring from in diameter, pink or purple; includes
broadly ovate, obtuse, crenate, cordate forced rootstocks; increase also by root cultivars with lavender to deep pink
at base, grey-green, thinly stellate- cuttings in late winter. flowers some with grey-green leaves
tomentose above, hoary beneath, long- Most of the lower-growing types are and a dense, creeping habit); P.amoena
stalked; flowers golden yellow). suited to the rock garden and peat ter- (SE US; perennial, decumbent to erect,
race, forming mats of foliage which to 60cm (24in); leaves to 5cm (2in),
Phlox (from Greek phlox, the name become dense carpets of often brilliant oblong to lanceolate, pilose; flowers
used for Lychnis by Theophrastus). Pole- colour when in flower; the more vigor- magenta, red-purple, pink or white,
moniaceae. N America. PHLOX. 67 ous species such as P.subulata and the crowded in a terminal cluster sub-
species, herbaceous to shrubby, ever- slightly less rampant P. douglasii make tended by leafy bracts); P.bifida (SAND
green or deciduous annuals or perenni- good groundcover in the rock garden PHLOX, tufted perennial to 20cm (8in);
als. They vary widely in habit, from or at path edges, and are especially leaves to 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in), distant,
tufted and cushion-forming to tall and useful for softening hard lines at the linear to narrowly elliptic, ciliate,
clumped. The leaves may be needle- border front. The smaller cushion- pilose; flowers sweet-scented,
like or ovate to lanceolate. The flowers forming species such as P.caespitosa are 0.9–1.4cm (3/8–1/3in), lavender to white,
are produced in late spring and suitable in scale for sink and trough lobes cleft; includes cultivars with
summer in terminal corymbs or pani- plantings. Grow in fertile, well-drained fragrant white to pale lavender flowers
cles (sometimes solitary in smaller soils enriched with leafmould; and a low, compact, mat-forming
species); they consist of a slender, short P.stolonifera, P.adsurgens and P. x procumbens habit); P.divaricata (WILD SWEET
tube and a spreading limb of five, obo- are calcifuge. Most species grow in full WILLIAM, BLUE PHLOX; SE US; peren-
vate lobes. sun or in light shade in drier soils; nial to 45cm (18in), spreading; leaves to
Grown for their tall, stately habit P.divaricata prefers some shade. Clip 5cm (2in), oblong to ovate or narrowly
and generous masses of flowers, the over after flowering to remove dead lanceolate; inflorescence a compound
taller herbaceous types, such as P.panic- flowerheads. In the alpine house, grow cyme, flowers 1.2–1.8cm (1/2–3/4in), to
ulata and P.maculata, have long been in pans in a mix of equal parts loam, 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, lavender to
mainstays of the herbaceous and leafmould and sharp sand. Propagate pale violet or white, tube sometimes
mixed border in summer, valued for
their often intensely fragrant blooms in
trailing species by removal of rooted
sections in spring or early autumn,
darker inside, lobes cleft to erose;
includes cultivars with white and clear
P
a wide range of colours from pure cushion types by cuttings of non- blue flowers); P.douglasii (NW US;
white through shades of pink to crim- flowering shoots in spring. Increase also perennial to 20cm (8in) tall, usually
son and purple. They are also suitable by seed. The annual species such as less, loosely tufted, glandular-hairy;
for less formal situations, in the light P.drummondii and its cultivars are useful leaves 1–1.2cm (1/2in), stiff, subulate
dappled shade of the woodland edge. as seasonal fillers in the border or for to linear, pointed; inflorescence
Grow in full sun or part shade in deep, bedding. Sow under glass in spring and 2.5–7.5cm (1–3in), 1–3-flowered; flow-
moisture-retentive fertile soils that are harden off before planting out after the ers strongly fragrant, white, lavender or
rich in organic matter. Top-dress with a last frost. pink, 1–1.3cm (1/2in), lobes about
T YPES OF P HLOX
Border (P.paniculata ‘Eva Cullum’) Alpine (P.douglasii ‘Crackerjack’) Annual (P.drummondii ‘Sternenzauber’) 599
Phlox
7.5mm (1/3in), obovate, includes numer- P.stolonifera (CREEPING PHLOX; E US; buildings, and for interior landcsaping.
ous cultivars with flowers in shades of creeping perennial, forming 15–25cm Propagate from seed, after soaking for
white, pink, crimson, magenta, mauve (6–10in) tall mats; leaves to 4.5cm 24 hours, with a bottom heat of
and lavender, some with a darker ‘eye’ (13/4in), obovate and long-stalked to 20–27°C/68–81°.
or tint); P.drummondii (ANNUAL PHLOX, oblong, sessile; inflorescence lax, about P.canariensis (CANARY ISLAND DATE,
DRUMMOND PHLOX; US (E Texas); 6-flowered, glandular-hairy, flowers to CANARY DATE PALM; Canary Islands;
annual, 10–50cm (4–20in) tall, hairy, 2.5cm (1in), violet to lavender or trunk to 15 x 0.9m (50ft x 36in), solitary
sometimes glandular; leaves narrowly purple to lilac; includes cultivars with with oblong scars, these wider than
oblanceolate to ovate; flowers grouped flowers in shades of white, rose, mauve, long; leaves to 6m (20ft), rachis some-
in clusters 1–2.2cm (1/2–7/8in), purple, violet and blue, some with yellow times twisted, pinnae crowded, regu-
violet, pink, lavender, red or white, ‘eyes’); P.subulata (MOSS PHLOX, MOUN- larly spaced; fruit 2cm (3/4in),
rarely pale yellow, often paler inside TAIN PHLOX, MOSS PINK; E US; downy oblong-ellipsoid, yellow tinged red);
tube with markings around throat; cul- perennial, forming dense mats or cush- P.dactylifera (DATE, DATE PALM; cultigen,
tivars and seed races include tall to ions to 50cm (20in) downy; leaves probably originating in W Asia and N
dwarf plants with flowers in shades of 0.5–2cm (1/4–3/4in), rigid, needle-like to Africa; trunk to 30m (100ft), slender,
white, pink, red and purple and combi- subulate; inflorescence a few-flowered, suckering, scars as long as wide, or
nations thereof, some with cut and terminal, bracteate cyme; flowers to longer; leaves to 3m (10ft), rachis rigid,
fringed margins); P.hoodii (northwest N 1.5cm (5/8in), white, pink or lavender; pinnae 30 x 2cm (12 x 3/4in), to 80 on
America; dwarf, tufted, mat-forming includes cultivars with white, rose, each side, regularly spaced or clustered,
perennial to 6cm (21/2in) high; leaves to carmine and violet flowers, many with rigid; fruit 4–7cm (11/2–23/4in), oblong-
1cm (1/2in), subulate, tomentose; flowers a darker ‘eye’, some fragrant). ellipsoid, yellow to brown, edible); P.roe-
solitary, white to pink, magenta or belinii (MINIATURE DATE PALM, PYGMY
palest violet); P.maculata (WILD SWEET Phoenix (Greek word for the date DATE PALM, ROEBELIN PALM; Laos; stem
WILLIAM, MEADOW PHLOX; US; rhi- palm). Palmae. Africa, Asia. DATE to 2m (61/2ft), slender at base, expand-
zomatous perennial, 35–70cm PALM. Some 17 species, large, ever- ing toward crown, often leaning, roots
(14–28in) tall, glabrous to minutely green palms with solitary or clustered forming a basal mass; leaves to 1.2m
hairy; stem often red-spotted; leaves trunks clothed with persistent leaf (4ft), pinnae to 25 x 1cm (10 x 1/2in),
6.5–13cm (21/2–5in), linear to ovate; bases or scars. The leaves are pinnate grey-green, regularly spaced, drooping,
inflorescence a many-flowered panicle, with tough-textured, narrow leaflets, silver-scurfy; fruit to 1cm (1/2in), ellip-
flowers often sweetly scented, the lowermost reduced to spines. Erect soid, black).
1.8–2.5cm (3/4–1in), pink, purple or to arching, the inflorescences bear
white, sometimes with a dark purple cream-yellow or pale orange flowers. Phormium (from Greek phormion, a
P ring in throat; includes cultivars with
white to pink or lilac flowers, often fra-
These are followed by oblong-ellipsoid
to ovoid, 1-seeded fruits, their skin
woven mat – referring to the use made
of the fibre). Agavaceae. New Zealand.
grant and with a dark ring or blotch in waxy and shiny, the mesocarp fleshy or FLAX LILY. 2 species, large or giant
the throat); P.paniculata (PERENNIAL pasty and often sweetly edible. evergreen, perennial herbs with basal
PHLOX; SUMMER PHLOX, AUTUMN P.dactylifera and P.canariensis withstand clumps of tough-textured, keeled,
PHLOX, FALL PHLOX; US; erect peren- full sun and dry atmospheres, and are sword-shaped leaves. Carried in
nial 60–100cm (24–39in) tall, sub- tolerant of a wide range of soil types. summer, in tall, dark-stalked and tiered
glabrous to puberulent; leaves In frost-free zones, they are excellent panicles, the flowers are tubular and
1.2–12cm (1/2–43/4in) ovate or lanceolate trees for specimen and avenue planti- consist of six tepals, their tips curved
to elliptic, toothed, ciliate; inflorescence ngs. In colder areas, younger examples upwards and the stamens protruding.
a terminal, compound cyme, many- can be used for dot planting in bedding Hardy in climate zones 7 and over,
flowered, flowers 2–2.8cm (3/4–11/8in), schemes and for containers on terraces; especially if given a deep winter mulch
blue, lavender, pink or white; many cul- overwinter in cool greenhouse condi- of bracken litter or leafmould. The
tivars ranging in habit from medium to tions and move outdoors after the last typical plants and larger cultivars are
tall with flowers in large, cylindrical to frosts. In mild locations in climate unsurpassed in their dramatic ever-
pyramidal heads and ranging in colour zones 7 and 8, young plants may sur- green foliage and the scale of their
from white to pink, purple or red, often vive outside all year, especially if the inflorescences. They do particularly
with darker throats; some, for example base is lagged with thick sacking. P.roe- well by the sea. Smaller cultivars like
‘Harlequin’, have variegated leaves); belinii requires a minimum temperature ‘Bronze Baby’ contrast strikingly with
P. x procumbens (P.stolonifera x P.subulata; of 13°C/55°F, bright light and a well- silver-grey foliage (Artemisia and Stachys,
decumbent clump-forming perennial, drained, fibrous, loam-based medium. for example), provide a rich and exotic
15–25cm (6–10in) tall; leaves to 2.5cm Water and feed plentifully in warm foil for the glowing, late summer tones
(1in), oblanceolate to elliptic; inflores- weather; keep rather dry at other of bronze-leaved Ligularia and the
cence a lax, flat panicle, flowers bright times. This is a graceful palm ideally smaller Kniphofia cultivars, and sit well
purple; includes selections with a dense suited to cultivation in the home when with such copper and bronze sedges as
600 habit, dark green to variegated leaves young. Older plants are a popular Uncinia and the New Zealand Carex.
and pale rose to lilac-pink flowers); choice for large containers in public Grow in full sun in any moderately fer-
photoperiodism
some is held in organic matter from leaves blotched cream, dark green and
which it is slowly mineralised. It is lime, flushed or streaked pink at first;
stored in most soils and forms insoluble var. undulata ‘Fructo Lutea’: fruit bright
compounds under extreme acidity or yellow). P. x fraseri (P.glauca x P.serratifolia;
alkalinity; availability is related to root- vigorous evergreen shrub; leaves
ing capacity, young seedlings being 7–9cm (23/4–31/2in), elliptic to ovate,
more prone to shortage than mature small-toothed, coppery red at first,
plants. Symbiotic mycorrhiza often aid becoming shiny dark green; ‘Red
phosphorus uptake on deficient soils. Robin’: leaves deep glowing red at first,
Due to its immobility, rarely more becoming dark shiny green); P.glabra
than 20–30% of added phosphorus is (JAPANESE PHOTINIA; Japan; evergreen
taken up from fertilizer application so shrub, 3–6m (10–20ft); leaves 5–8cm
Phormium cookianum ‘Dazzler’ that acute soil deficiency is rare on cul- (2–3in), elliptic to narrowly obovate,
One of a number of cultivars that, being tivated ground; long-established graz- red at first, becoming dark shining
relatively short and contained, are more ing land receiving minimal fertilizer green; ‘Parfait’: leaves pink at first,
suitable for smaller gardens. dressing is often low in phosphorus. becoming green edged white; ‘Rosea-
Symptoms of deficiency are reduced marginata’: leaves variegated green,
tile, moisture-retentive but well drained growth rate, especially shortly after white, grey and pink); P. ‘Redstart’
soil. Propagate by division or by seed. crop emergence during a cold spell; in (P.davidiana var. undulata ‘Fructo Lutea’ x
P.cookianum (MOUNTAIN FLAX; leaves some instances, there is a tendency to P. x fraseri ‘Robusta’; large shrub or
to 150 x 6cm (60 x 21/2in), flexible, dark dull, blue/green leaves, often purple small tree; leaves to 11cm (41/2in),
olive green, base red-tinted; inflores- and with marginal scorch in older ones. bright red at first, becoming dark
cence to 2m (61/2ft), often inclined, Phosphorus fertilizers include rock green, finely toothed above); P.serratifolia
flowers 2.5–4cm (1–11/2in), green tinged phosphate (26% P2O5), triple super- (China, Taiwan; evergreen shrub to
orange or yellow; cultivars range in phosphate (44% P2O5), bone-meal tree, 5–12m (16–39ft); leaves to 10cm
height from dwarf (30cm (12in)) to (20% P2O5), fish, blood and bone (8% (4in), ovate to obovate, saw-toothed,
large (1.5m (5ft)) with narrow to broad P2O5) and compound Growmore (7% becoming leathery, copper red becom-
leaves, some solid plum-purple or P2O5). Forms of ammonium phosphate ing glossy dark green); P.villosa (Japan,
bronze, others striped or flushed white, are very high in phosphorus and are Korea, China; deciduous shrub or
cream, yellow, lime, orange, copper, used in concentrated fertilizer and small tree to 5m (16ft); leaves 3–8cm
rose-pink and maroon). P.tenax (NEW liquid feed. (11/4–3in), obovate to lanceolate dark
ZEALAND FLAX, NEW ZEALAND HEMP; ovate, apex long-tapered, leathery,
leaves to 3m (10ft) x 5–12cm (2–43/4in),
stiff, olive green, margin red or orange,
Photinia (from Greek photeinos, shin-
ing, referring to the leaves). Rosaceae.
teeth glandular-tipped).
P
base pale; inflorescence to 5m (16ft), E and SE Asia north to Himalaya, W photoperiodic lighting see supple-
usually erect, flowers to 6cm (21/2in), US. CHRISTMAS BERRY. To 60 species, mentary light.
dull red; many cultivars including deciduous and evergreen trees and
dwarf to tall plants (35–120cm shrubs with small, white to cream, 5- photoperiodism the influence of
(14–48in)) with narrow to broad leaves petalled flowers massed in terminal day length on plant growth, frequently
tinted, striped or solidly stained purple- corymbs or short panicles in late spring concerning aspects of reproduction,
bronze, wine red, red, pink, copper, and summer. These are followed by especially flowering. By reason of this
orange, gold, yellow, cream, white small, orange-red pomes. Hardy to phenomenon, life cycles may be
and lime). –15°C/5°F. Grow in well-drained, fer- manipulated, and beneficial effects are
tile soils in sun or light shade. Protect extended to certain insect pollinators.
phosphate a salt of phosphoric acid; evergreens from cold winds that may Photoperiodic responses in plants are
a form in which phosphorus is applied scorch foliage. Deciduous species tend often related to the avoidance of sea-
as a nutrient. See phosphorus. to be calcifuge; evergreens are tolerant sonal stress factors, such as drought
of calcareous soils. P.davidiana will grow and cold, and are associated with leaf
phosphorus (abbreviation P) a in a range of soils including heavy clay, growth, dormancy, storage-organ
major (macro-) nutrient, important in and will tolerate a degree of drought. formation and leaf fall.
plant enzyme reactions, and a con- Propagate deciduous species from seed Scientific knowledge of the detailed
stituent of cell nuclei; it is essential for sown in autumn, cultivars and ever- mechanism of photoperiodism is
cell division and the development of green species by semi-ripe basal cut- incomplete; most of what is known
meristem tissue, and is commonly asso- tings rooted with bottom heat in a concerning the effects of day length on
ciated with healthy root growth. Plant closed case. flowering. In general, plants growing
requirements vary, legumes, for exam- P.davidiana (W China; evergreen far from the equator respond to longer
ple, having a high demand. shrub to 5m (16ft); leaves to 10cm (4in), day lengths than those growing close to
Phosphorus naturally originates lanceolate to oblanceolate, entire, it. Response relative to latitude can 601
from the weathering of rocks, and tough, smooth dark green; ‘Palette’: occur within a species, sometimes quite
photoperiodism
precisely, as with soybean varieties conditions under glass, they can be Paphiopedilum, and Selenipedium. Culti-
grown in the United States which only prevented from flowering until required vate as for warm-growing Paphiopedilum.
achieve optimum performance within by using artificial lights to extend day P.besseae (Colombia, NE Peru; flowers
an approximately 50-mile range of lengths or, more efficiently, to provide to 6cm (21/2in) in diameter; dorsal sepal
latitude. one or several brief night breaks. ovate-lanceolate, petals oblong-elliptic,
True day-neutral plants where flow- When flowering is required, the night larger, all bright scarlet; lip strongly
ering is unaffected by day length are breaks are suspended and a few long pouched, fiery red to golden yellow
probably rare; cucumber (Cucumis nights allow flowering to be induced. or peach); P.caudatum (Mexico to Peru,
sativa) and haricot (Phaseolus vulgaris) are In the long days (short nights) of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador; flowers
two examples. Short-day plants (SDPs) summer, flowering can be induced by to 125cm (50in) across; dorsal sepal
flower in response to days shorter than artificially lengthening the nights with white to yellow-green with dark green
a certain critical length. Cocklebur blackouts in the greenhouse. veins, to 15 x 3cm (6 x 11/4in), lanceo-
(Xanthium strumarium) is an example of late, acute, arched over lip, strongly
an SDP, which will flower after just one photosynthesis a complex chemical undulate to spiralled, petals purple-
short day. Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) is a process, promoting the production in brown to green-brown, to 60 x 1cm
long day-plant (LDP), responding to green plants of organic substances, (24 x 1/2in), linear-lanceolate, pendulous,
a single inductive long day. More such as sugars and starches, from water spiralling, lip yellow near base, apex
common are species requiring several and atmospheric carbon dioxide. It is tinted pink or maroon, veined green,
cycles of the appropriate photoperiod the source of energy for plant activity. to 7 x 2cm (23/4 x 3/4in), lateral lobes
for floral induction. The process involves the activation by strongly incurved, spotted green);
Among SDPs is Kalanchoe sunlight of the green pigment chloro- P.grande (P.longifolium x P.caudatum; flowers
blossfeldiana, which has a precise phyll. Photosynthesis, (carbon assimila- green-brown with very long petals);
requirement, and the sunflower tion) takes place principally in the leaves, P.lindenii (Colombia, Peru, Ecuador;
(Helianthus annuus), which will eventually into which carbon dioxide diffuses resembles P.caudatum except lip not
flower in days longer than the critical through stomata, and free oxygen is dis- pouched, similar to petals, wider at
length. An example of a precise LDP charged as a product of the reaction. base); P.lindleyanum (Venezuela, Guyana;
is hibiscus (e.g. Hibiscus syriacus), while leaf surface has sepals pale green or yellow-green,
spring wheat (Triticum aestivum) is an gas-permeable sunshine veined red-brown, downy below, dorsal
LDP not totally dependent on a critical pores (stomata) sepal to 3.5 x 2cm (11/2 x 3/4in), elliptic,
day length. There are sub-variations, carbon-based obtuse, concave, petals yellow-green
for example, several species respond nutrients in at base, white-green toward apex,
solution
to various combinations of day lengths, margins and veins flushed purple
P for instance, long days followed by
short days promote flowering in
toward apex, to 5.5 x 1cm (21/8 x 1/2in),
linear-oblong, apex rounded, undulate;
Kalanchoe laxiflora, while short days lip pale yellow-green with yellow-
followed by long days are required brown venation, to 3 x 1.5cm (11/4 x
5
by white clover (Trifolium repens). water drawn oxygen /8in), lateral lobes spotted light purple);
The great majority of plants must up from soil P.longifolium (Costa Rica, Panama,
carbon dioxide
reach a certain stage of development Colombia, Ecuador; dorsal sepal pale
to respond to day length; for exam- Photosynthesis yellow-green, veined dark green or
ple, henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) must be rose, edged white, to 6 x 2cm (21/2 x
10–30 days old before it can respond to phototropism directional growth of 3
/4in), lanceolate, acute, erect or curved
long days, and many trees will not a plant in response to light. See tropism. forward, sometimes undulate, petals
flower until they are tens of years old. pale yellow-green, margins rose-purple,
For all the response types, it is the Phragmipedium (from Greek to 12 x 1cm (43/4 x 1/2in), spreading,
length of night or darkness, rather than phragma, partition, and pedilon, slipper, linear to lanceolate, twisted, lip yellow-
day length, which is the critical factor referring to the trilocular ovary and the green, to 6 x 1.5cm (21/2 x 5/8in), margins
and it appears that the plant pigment slipper-shaped lip). Orchidaceae. C spotted pale rose to magenta); P.schlimii
phytochrome inhibits flowering in and S America. LADY-SLIPPER. Some (Colombia; tepals white flushed rose-
SDPs, while promoting it in LDPs. 20 species, evergreen perennial herbs pink, dorsal sepal to 2 x 1cm (3/4 x 1/2in),
This phenomenon makes possible the with narrowly strap-shaped leaves in ovate-oblong, obtuse, concave, petals
artificial manipulation of flowering a basal fan. The flowers are borne slightly longer, spreading, spotted pink
time in practical horticulture, the best- several to a stem in spring and summer. at base, elliptic, lip rose-pink, lateral
known example of which in Britain is They resemble those of Paphiopedilum lobes incurved, streaked white and
the supply of all-year-round chrysan- but have a more inflated lip, with the rose-carmine); P. x sedenii (P.longifolium x
themums. Chrysanthemums are SDPs, petals often narrower and drooping – P.schlimii; sepals ivory white, flushed
which are naturally induced to flower in some species, greatly attenuated pale rose, exterior rose-pink, petals
602 by the shortening days of late summer. and spiralling. The genus was formerly white, margins tinged rose-pink, twisted,
However, when grown in controlled included variously in Cypripedium, lip rose-pink, lobes white spotted rose).
Phyllodoce
Phragmites (from Greek phragma, rate leaves and, in summer, nar- cuttings. P.trichomanoides (TANEKAHA;
fence or screen, referring to the screen- rowly tubular flowers hung in New Zealand; tree to 20m (66ft);
ing effect of many plants growing terminal panicles. Hardy to phylloclades, ovate to 30cm
together along streams). Gramineae. –5°C/23°F, they are usually (12in), dark green above, glau-
Cosmopolitan. REED. 4 species, rhi- treated as herbaceous perennials cous beneath, tough pinnately
zomatous perennial grasses; culms in areas where temperatures fall lobed with segments roughly
clumped, reedy; leaves linear, flat; much below freezing in winter. In rhombic and shallowly crenate).
inflorescence a large, terminal, plumed warm-areas or if given the protec-
panicle produced in summer and early tion of a south-facing wall, P.capen- flattened phyllode an
autumn. Occurring in marsh, fen and sis will thrive in its naturally stem is a expanded petiole,
riverside habitats in temperate and shrubby form and may be trained phyllode taking on the
tropical zones, P.australis is an elegant as a wall shrub and tied into trellis function of a leaf
perennial, valued for the soft and supports. Plant in a sunny site with blade, as in Acacia.
showy flowering panicles – these retain a moderately fertile, light soil.
their beautiful metallic sheen even on Where the ground freezes, provide Phyllodoce (for a sea nymph of
drying – and for the golden russet a heavy winter mulch. Cut out dead Greek mythology, one of Cyrene’s
autumn colours. The species is invasive wood in spring. Sow seed in spring attendants, mentioned by Virgil).
and hardy to –20°/–4°F and below. It at 15–18°C/59–64°F and overwin- Ericaceae. Arctic and Alpine regions
thrives in deep, moisture-retentive soils, ter young stock in frost-free condi- of northern Hemisphere. 8 species,
but is generally suitable only for the tions. Alternatively, take semi-ripe dwarf, evergreen shrubs with small,
larger landscape, unless confined in cuttings in late summer. linear, revolute and leathery
containers, or used as a marginal or P.aequalis (to 1m (31/4ft); flowers leaves. Produced in late spring
Acacia
submerged aquatic. Propagate by dusky pink, throat orange, lobes glaucoptera and early summer, the flowers
division. P.australis (syn. P.communis; crimson; ‘Yellow Trumpet’: flow- are pitcher- or bell-shaped and
COMMON REED, CARRIZO; cosmopoli- ers pale creamy yellow); P.capensis (CAPE nod in racemes or clusters. Suitable for
tan; culms robust, to 3.5m (111/2ft); FUCHSIA; to 3m (10ft), somewhat the peat terrace and for cool, damp,
leaves to 60 x 5cm+ (24 x 2in+), arch- sprawling; flowers pale orange to deep peaty niches in the rock garden. Hardy
ing, mid- to grey-green; inflorescence red; ‘Coccineus’: flowers rich orange to –15°C/5°F. Grow in moist but well-
erect to nodding, silky grey tinged with orange-red lobes); P. x rectus drained, peaty, acid soils, in partial shade
pearly pink-brown to purple, then (P.aequalis x P.capensis; varied group of or in bright indirect light. Protect in
brown, to 45cm (18in); ‘Rubra’: inflo- hybrids from 50–150cm (20–60in) tall, areas that experience prolonged frosts.
rescence crimson-tinted; ‘Striatopictus’: erect to loosely scrambling with flowers Trim over after blooming. Propagate by
leaves bright green striped pale yellow;
‘Variegatus’: leaves striped bright
ranging from pale cream, to lime
green, pale pink, coral-red, dusky pink,
semi-ripe heel cuttings or softwood tip
cuttings in late summer. Increase also
P
yellow, fading to white). salmon, scarlet and orange). by seed in spring, or by layering.
P.aleutica (Japan; dwarf, decumbent
Phuopsis (from its resemblance to phyllary one of the bracts that or scandent; flowers to 8mm (3/8in),
Valeriana phu). Rubiaceae. Caucasus. 1 subtends a flower or inflorescence, pale yellow-green, pitcher-shaped,
species, P.stylosa, a slender mat-forming composing an involucre. downy, with pink anthers; subsp. glan-
perennial herb to 30cm (12in), with duliflora: Alaska; YELLOW MOUNTAIN
whorls of narrow-lanceolate, slender- phylloclade a stem or branch, HEATHER; flowers fragrant, yellow to
pointed and spiny-ciliate leaves. Pro- flattened and functioning as a leaf. olive with purple anthers); P.caerulea
duced in summer, the clustered flowers (syn. P.taxifolia; Asia, Europe and US;
are scented, small and pink, with a Phyllocladus (from Greek phyllon, 10–35cm (4–14in), erect or scandent;
tubular corolla and five oblong to leaf, and klados, young branch or shoot, flowers 7–12mm (1/4–1/2in), lilac to
ovate, obtuse lobes. Suitable for referring to the leaf-like shoots). Phyllo- purple-pink, pitcher-shaped); P.empetri-
groundcover in the rock garden, and cladaceae. Malaysia, Indonesia, New formis (PINK MOUNTAIN HEATHER;
on banks. Hardy to –20°C/–4°F. Grow Guinea, Tasmania, New Zealand. British Colombia to California; low,
in moist, gritty but well-drained soils in CELERY PINE. 5 species, evergreen, diffuse, mat-forming shrub, 10–38cm
full sun, or light shade. Propagate by coniferous trees or shrubs with modi- (4–15in); flowers 5–9mm (1/4–3/8in),
removal of rooted stems, by semi-ripe fied leaf-like shoots (phylloclades), bell-shaped, rose-pink); P. x intermedia.
cuttings or from seed sown in autumn. which are leathery, incised and often (P.empetriformis x P.aleutica subsp. glan-
deeply or shallowly toothed. Plant in a duliflora; western N America; dense,
Phygelius (from Greek, phyge, flight – free-draining, acid to neutral medium bushy subshrub, 15–23cm (6–9in);
so-named because it long evaded the with additional sand and grit. Grow in flowers mauve to purple-red or yellow-
researches of botanists). Scrophulari- full sun in a cool, moist environment. pink, ovate-campanulate to pitcher-
aceae. South Africa. 2 species, ever- This tree withstands mild frosts. It shaped; ‘Drummondii’: flat habit,
green or semi-evergreen shrubs and needs a cool, humid environment in dark purple flowers; ‘Fred Stoker’: 603
subshrubs with ovate to lanceolate, ser- full sun. Propagate by seed or semi-ripe flowers light purple); P.nipponica
Phyllodoce
(North Japan; small, branched, sub- calyx). Solanaceae. Cosmopolitan, physiology the study of the
erect shrub, 7–23cm (23/4–9in); flowers especially Americas. GROUND CHERRY, functions of living organisms.
rose to white, bell-shaped; var. amabilis: HUSK TOMATO. Some 80 species,
calyx lobes red, corolla red- or annual or perennial herbs. Produced in Physocarpus (from Greek physa,
pink-tipped). summer, the flowers are solitary, white bladder, and karpos, fruit, referring to
tinged violet or yellow, campanulate to the inflated follicles). N America, NE
Phyllostachys (from Greek phyllon, rotate and 5-lobed. After pollination, Asia. NINEBARK. 10 species, deciduous
leaf, and stachys, spike, for the ‘leafy’ the calyx develops into a colourful, shrubs with exfoliating bark and
inflorescence). Gramineae. China, inflated and ribbed bladder or lantern, palmately lobed leaves. Produced in
India, Burma. Some 80 species of enclosing the berry-like fruit. The early summer in terminal corymbs, the
medium and large bamboos; hardy P.alkekengi is used for decoration flowers are small, white to light pink
see bamboos. and provides a vivid orange display in with five, rounded petals. Hardy to
the autumn garden; it is also used for –25°C/–13°F. Grow in moist, moder-
phyllotaxy the arrangement of plant drying, with the stems cut when the ately fertile, acid soils in full sun. Prune
organs on an axis. Commonly used of calyces begin to colour and air-dried. after flowering, thinning out old and
leaves on a stem. P.peruviana yields the dessert fruit, Cape overcrowded shoots by cutting back to
gooseberry; it is not reliably hardy ground level. Propagate by removal of
phylloxerids (Hemiptera: Phyllox- beyond areas that are frost-free or suckers, by seed, or from softwood cut-
eridae) a small family of sap-sucking almost so, but in temperate zones can tings in a closed case with bottom heat.
insects, related to aphids, which are be grown for fruit in a cool greenhouse. P.opulifolius (NINEBARK; central and east
important pests of grapes, oak and Both species are easily cultivated on N America; to 3m (10ft); bark brown,
pecans. any well-drained soil, in sun or light shredded; leaves to 7.5cm (3in), oval to
The VINE LOUSE or GRAPE PHYLLOX- shade. Propagate by division or seed. rounded, cordate at base glabrous,
ERID (Daktulosphaira vitifolii) is a North P.alkekengi (CHINESE LANTERN, double-toothed, usually 3-lobed; flow-
American species, introduced into WINTER CHERRY, BLADDER CHERRY; ers often pale pink, or white tinged
Europe about 1863. Infested vines C and S Europe, W Asia to Japan; with rose, in many-flowered corymbs;
develop galls on the roots and leaves perennial to 60cm (24in), thinly glan- ‘Dart’s Gold’: bright gold leaves, flow-
followed by rapid collapse and death. dular-pubescent; calyx to 2cm (3/4in), ers white washed pink; ‘Luteus’: leaves
American vines have both foliar and becoming inflated, lantern-like to 5cm golden at first, later olive green or
root-feeding forms but in Europe the (2in), orange; fruit to 17mm (2/3in), tinted bronze).
life cycle is restricted to subterranean red to scarlet, inedible; var. franchetii
forms. In the 19th-century, serious ‘Variegata’: leaves deeply bordered Physostegia (from Greek physa, a
P epidemics were eventually overcome
by grafting European grape vines on
cream and yellow-green); P.peruviana
(CAPE GOOSEBERRY, PURPLE GROUND
bladder, and stege, a covering). Labiatae.
N America. OBEDIENT PLANT, FALSE
to resistant rootstocks from North CHERRY; tropical S America; perennial DRAGON HEAD. 12 species, erect peren-
America. to 1m (31/4ft); calyx becoming ovoid, nial herbs. They flower in summer and
The OAK PHYLLOXERIDS (Phylloxera pubescent to 4cm (11/2in), ultimately early autumn, producing spikes of
glabra and other species.) infest the withered and thinly papery; fruit tubular and hooded, 2-lipped flowers.
underside of oak leaves in summer, edible, globose, yellow to purple, If pushed to one side on the spike, a
causing yellow and brown spots to to 2cm (3/4in) in diameter). flower will remain there, hence the pop-
develop; severe infestations cause ular name ‘obedient plant’. Fully hardy.
extensive browning of foliage followed physic garden usually, an alterna- Plant on rich fertile loamy soil with
by premature leaf-fall. Older trees are tive name for a botanic garden; strictly, abundant water. Propagate by division
seldom harmed but young trees may a garden primarily concerned with the when dormant. Sow seed in autumn in
become seriously weakened and can be collection, cultivation and study of a cold frame. P.virginiana (central and
protected by contact or systemic insec- medicinal plants, such as were estab- south US and NE Mexico; erect to
ticides recommended for aphid control. lished in Europe as adjuncts to 180cm (70in), often shorter; flowers
Pecans are cultivated in the southern faculties of medicine in the red-violet, lavender or white, usually
states of the US for their nuts. They 16th and 17th centuries. spotted and streaked purple;
are subject to infestation by the PECAN includes short and tall cultivars,
PHYLLOXERA (P.devastatrix), which causes physiological some with variegated leaves
extensive galling of leaves, shoots and disorder a condi- and flowers ranging in colour
nuts; the PECAN LEAF PHYLLOXERA tion harmful to from white to pale rose, deep
(P.notabilis) is less serious on mature growth, flowering or pink, lilac, lavender or claret).
trees but can be damaging to young fruiting, not caused
nursery trees. by pest or disease Phyteuma (name used by
attack, often associ- Dioscorides for an aphro-
604 Physalis (from Greek physa, bladder ated with defects in Physiological disorder disiac plant, meaning simply
or bellows, referring to the inflated growing conditions. (drought causing fruit split) ‘the plant’). Campanulaceae.
phytoplasmas
sun or light shade. Propagate by seed logically similar to the Mycoplasmat-

sown in autumn or spring or by divi- aceae (animal pathogens and sapro-
sion. P.americana (POKE, POKEWEED, phytes) which are related to the
SCOKE, GARGET, PIGEON BERRY; N and Spiroplasmataceae (which cause CITRUS
C America; herbaceous perennial, to STUBBORN DISEASE, etc), but phytoplas-
4m (13ft); stem purple-red, dichoto- mas are not now thought to be closely
mously branching; leaves to 30cm related to these families. The true taxo-
(12in), becoming purple-pink to yellow nomic position of phytoplasmas is not
in autumn; fruit glossy, green becoming yet settled.
red then purple-black in erect persis- ASTER YELLOWS is a well-known dis-
tent spikes). ease in North America, Europe and
Japan, formerly thought to be caused
phytophthora a genus of parasitic by a virus, but in 1967 shown to be an
fungi allied to the downy mildews. example of a group of similar plant
Of wide importance is POTATO BLIGHT diseases caused by phytoplasmas.
Physostegia virginiana ‘Variegata’ (Phytophthora infestans) which spreads These cannot be grown in artificial
The obedient plant is so-called because its rapidly in warm wet seasons. First signs culture and their identification depends
flowers will remain in a new position if they are brown dead patches on the leaf tips on symptoms, microscopic examination
are moved on the stalk. or edges which enlarge to cause wither- and transmission and inoculation stud-
ing; haulm becomes affected with ies. Infection is transmitted by the feed-
Europe, Asia. HORNED RAMPION. Some brownish black patches and all growth ing of leafhoppers (e.g. Macrosteles)
40 species, summer-flowering perennial may collapse and rot. Tubers become migrating from herbaceous perennials;
herbs. The flowers are produced in infected by washed-down spores and such ornamentals particularly affected
compact terminal spikes or heads, usu- develop rot before lifting and in store. include the composites Calendula, Callis-
ally subtended by bracts. They consist Weather conditions conducive to infec- tephus, Chrysanthemum, Gaillardia, Gerbera
of five, linear lobes, the whole head tion are two consecutive 24-hour and Tagetes. Others are Anemone, Del-
appearing spiky. Fully hardy. Plant in periods during which the minimum phinium, Gypsophila, Phlox and Primula.
sun on fast-draining, gritty neutral or temperature is 10°C/50°F and for no ASTER YELLOWS is more common in
slightly alkaline soils in the rock less than 11 hours the relative humidity warmer climates such as southern and
garden. Propagate by division in spring is at least 89%. Avoid by choosing eastern Europe, where insect vectors
or after flowering, or by seed in resistant cultivars including ‘Cara’, are numerous; and it causes yellowing,
autumn. P.scheuchzeri (Alps; to 40cm ‘Estima’, ‘Maris Peer’ and ‘Wilja’ or dwarfing, proliferation of shoots and
(16in); inflorescence spherical, bracts
linear, leafy, flowers dark blue).
control with fungicide sprays of protec-
tant copper-based products and man-
malformation and greening of flowers,
which can be lethal on some hosts
P
cozeb. Other Phytophthora diseases whilst others recover. In North Amer-
phytochrome a plant pigment include RED CORE DISEASE of straw- ica the disease is considered to be
involved in the developmental berry (P.fragariae), which is soil inhabit- caused by a different strain of phyto-
responses of plants to light. It exists in ing and persistent, causing loss of root plasma to those occurring in Europe.
two interchangeable forms depending function; CROWN ROT of apple and Vegetable diseases caused by ASTER
upon the ratio of red to far-red light. strawberry (P.cactorum); STEM AND FRUIT YELLOWS phytoplasma are LETTUCE
See photoperiodism. ROT of red pepper (P.capsici); ROOT ROT PHYLLODY, ONION PROLIFERATION YEL-
of many woody plants (P.cinnamomi); LOWS of beet, carrot, celery, courgette
Phytolacca (from Greek phyton, plant, DOWNY MILDEW of Lima bean (P.phase- and spinach, and VIRESCENCE (GREEN-
and French lac, lake, a red pigment, oli) and LILAC BLIGHT and APPLE FRUIT ING) of brassicas. MAIZE BUSHY STUNT
from the crimson juice of the berries.) ROT (P.syringae). The majority of phy- and STRAWBERRY WITCHES’ BROOM
Phytolaccaceae. Temperate and warm tophthoras are dispersed by water and occur in north and north west America
regions. POKEWEED. 35 species, peren- are therefore important as soil-borne but are not known in Europe.
nial herbs, shrubs and trees. In diseases, P.infestans and P.phaseoli are HYDRANGEA VIRESCENCE (GREEN
summer, they bear small, apetalous dispersed by air-borne spores, thereby FLOWER) is an important disease in
flowers in erect or drooping spike-like causing rapidly spreading epidemics. Europe, and Lonicera, Jasminum and Vac-
racemes. These are followed by wine- See root rot. cinium species are affected by WITCHES’
red to purple-black, berries. Fully BROOM. ‘GREEN PETAL’ of strawberries
hardy and suitable for the open wood- phytoplasmas (formerly known as and trifolium clover is a linked
land garden, for massed plantings and MYCOPLASMAS, MYCOPLASMA-LIKE condition caused by a phytoplasma.
as a specimen in the shrub and mixed ORGANISMS, MLOs) are microorganisms Other diseases thought to be caused
border. Its tinted, forked stems and that lack a true cell wall. Allied to by phytoplasma include APPLE PROLIF-
garnet spikes of toxic fruits are espe- bacteria, they attack plants to cause ERATION, APPLE RUBBERY WOOD,
cially striking in late summer. Grow in YELLOWS and other diseases transmit- APRICOT CHLOROTIC LEAF ROLL, 605
moisture-retentive, fertile soils in full ted by leafhoppers. They are morpho- BLACKCURRANT REVERSION, LITTLE
phytoplasmas
CHERRY, CHERRY MOLIÉRE DISEASE, important pests of spruce are common

ELM PHLOEM NECROSIS, GRAPEVINE to Europe and North America. These
FLAVESCENCE DORÉE (transmitted by include the green spruce aphid, which
the N American leafhopper, Scaphoideus can cause complete defoliation of sev-
litoralis), PALM LETHAL YELLOWING, eral species. This is the most serious
PEACH YELLOWS, PEACH ROSETTE, pest of spruce in gardens, particularly
PEAR DECLINE, and RUBUS STUNT. in warmer areas and following mild
winters. Spruce gall adelgids induce
phytotoxicity the poisonous effects 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in) pineapple-shaped
of a substance on plants, as may occur galls to develop. The European spruce
from adverse reaction to a pesticide. sawfly and the spruce budworm are
Stage and state of growth and environ- destructive pests of opening buds and
mental conditions, especially bright young shoots in North America.
sunlight, may predispose plants to P.abies (NORWAY SPRUCE; N and C
phytotoxicity. America; to 55m (180ft); bark red-
brown to grey or purple, flaking in thin Picea glauca ‘Coerulea’
Picea (from Latin pix, pitch, obtained plates; crown conical, columnar with A densely conical cultivar of white spruce,
from the resin of P.abies). Pinaceae. age, branches level or drooping and with dull blue-green leaves tinged silver-blue.
Northern Hemisphere except Africa. upcurved, branchlets pendulous; leaves A suitable choice for smaller gardens.
SPRUCE. Some 35 species, resinous 1–2.5cm (1/2–1in), dark green, obtuse;
evergreen, coniferous trees. The crown cones cylindric, green or purplish, deep green above, 2 white stomatal
is conical in outline, often domed or ripening brown, 8–18cm (3–7in) x bands beneath, somewhat curved;
columnar in older specimens. The 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in), to x 5–6cm (2–21/2in) cones 8–14cm (3–51/2in) x 2–2.5cm
branches are borne in more or less open; scales rhombic. Upright, conical (3/4–1in), opening to 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in)
horizontal whorls. Needle-like leaves selections include the slender, to 20m across, cylindric, purple then red-
are carried in spirals, usually pressed (66ft)-tall ‘Cupressina’ and ‘Viminalis’, brown, resinous; scales large, obovate,
forward on the branchlets. The cones and the broadly conical ‘Pyramidata’; apex rounded); P. engelmannii (ENGLE-
are ovoid to cylindric with large, usu- sparse forms include the irregularly MANN SPRUCE; western N America; to
ally thin scales obscuring the very short branched ‘Virgata’ (SNAKE-BRANCH 45m (150ft); bark thin, buff, splitting
bracts, green to purple, ripening pale SPRUCE) and ‘Cranstonii’; weeping into small plates, resinous; crown conic
to dark brown, becoming pendulous forms include the very pendulous ‘Froh- to narrowly acute; branches in dense
after pollination. Most species are burg’ and ‘Inversa’ and the semi- whorls, upward-pointing, branchlets
P hardy to –30°C/–22°F or lower. Culti-
vate as for Abies, except that spruces are
prostrate ‘Lorely’; notable low-growers
(to 5m (16ft)) include the narrow-conic
pendulous; leaves straight or curved,
blue-green or glaucous, soft, flexible
more tolerant of exposure and less tol- ‘Concinna’, the broad-conic ‘Conica’ 1.5–3cm (5/8–11/4in), forward-pointing;
erant of shade; they should therefore and the profusely coning ‘Acrocona’; cones 3–5cm (11/4–2in) x 1cm (1/2in);
be planted in the open. They are also dwarf selections include the very slow- ovoid to cylindric, tapering, green to
more tolerant of poor, peaty soils. As growing ‘Clanbrassiliana’ (3m (10ft) in light brown; scales very thin, obtuse;
with other conifers, propagation is 180 years), the irregular ‘Pachyphylla’ ‘Argentea’, with grey leaves, tinged
better from seed than grafts; in Picea and ‘Pygmaea’, and the more regular silver; ‘Fendleri’, with pendulous
breweriana this is especially important, ‘Elegans’ and ‘Humilis’; globose dwarfs branches and leaves to 3cm (11/4in);
grafted plants never making good trees. include the stoutly branched ‘Nana ‘Glauca’, upright, with vivid blue
Seed should be wild-collected or from Compacta’ and ‘Pyramidalis Gracilis’ leaves; ‘Microphylla’, dwarf, bushy,
extensive single-species plantings. Prop- and the finer ‘Gregoryana’ and ‘Hys- compact; ‘Snake’, of highly irregular
agate dwarf cultivars by cuttings; if trix’; flat-topped dwarfs include the upright habit, tinged blue; f. glauca, with
grafted on normal root-stocks, they slow-growing ‘Little Gem’ (2cm (3/4in) intense glaucous blue leaves); P.glauca
grow too vigorously. per annum) and the mat-forming (WHITE SPRUCE; Canada, far NE US;
Several rust fungi, mostly species ‘Repens’; cultivars noted for needle to 25m (80ft); bark light grey becoming
of Chrysomyxa, affect spruce, especially colour include the yellow to gold darker with white cracks; crown conic;
P.abies, but none is a serious problem. ‘Aurea’ and ‘Aurescens’, the steel-blue branches level or descending, with
Those occurring in Britain are ‘Coerulea’ and the dwarf, gold-varie- upward-growing tips; branchlets dense;
Chrysomyxa abietis and C.ledi var. rhodo- gated ‘Callensis’ and ‘Helen Cordes’); leaves stiff, dull blue-green, 10–18mm
dendri, both of which cause yellow P.breweriana (BREWER’S SPRUCE; N Cali- (1/2–3/4in), imbricate to spreading; cones
bands on the needles. C.abietis is only fornia and S Oregon; to 35m (115ft), 3–5cm (11/4–2in) x 1cm (1/2in), ovoid
known to infect spruce, on which it slow-growing; bark grey or purple-grey, to cylindric, tapering, green to light
produces the teliospore stage, whereas becoming scaly; crown ovoid-conic; brown; scales very thin obtuse; ‘Aure-
C.ledi var. rhododendri produces uredio- branches horizontal, upward-pointing, ospicata’, with yellow young shoots,
606 and teliospores on rhododendron and branchlets pendulous; leaves flattened, later green; ‘Coerulea’, to 2m (61/2ft),
aeciospores on spruce. The most obtuse, 2.5–3.5cm (1–11/2in), glossy densely pyramidal, leaves tinged silver-
pick, pickaxe
blue; ‘Hendersonii’, similar to scales obovate, obtuse); P.omorika (SER- bloomed violet, ripening light brown;
‘Coerulea’, with young shoots lateral, BIAN SPRUCE; Balkans; to 35m (115ft); scales thick-based with thin tips, flexi-
later pendulous; ‘Pendula’, weeping, bark orange-brown to purple-brown, ble, emarginate, finely toothed and
upright leader, with very pendulous red becoming cracked and flaking in fine undulate; blue-leaved upright cultivars
branches and leaves tinged blue; var. plates; crown conic to narrowly spire- include the short-needled ‘Microphylla’,
albertiana, from Canadian Rocky Moun- like; branches downswept to upcurved; ‘Endtz’, ‘Oldenburg’, the very blue
tains, to 45m (150ft), with pubescent branchlets dense, more or less pendu- ‘Koster’ and ‘Moerheimii’ and the
shoots, leaves to 2.5cm (1in), and ovoid lous; leaves 10–20mm (1/2–3/4in), flat- compact ‘Fat Albert’; notable blue-
cones to 4cm (11/2in); ‘Conica’, to 4m tened, keeled, dark to blue-green, with tinted dwarfs include the globose
(13ft), dense, conical, with permanently 2 silver-grey bands beneath; cones ‘Globosa’ and ‘Pumila’ and the
juvenile, very slender, curved leaves, 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in) x 2cm (3/4in), slow-growing ‘Montgomery’. ‘Glauca
11–15cm (41/2–5/8in) x 0.5mm (1/4in); fusiform, purple, ripening red-brown, Procumbens’ is almost recumbent and
‘Gnome’, slow-growing mutation of scales closely adpressed, broadly obtuse, ‘Glauca Pendula’ an irregular, graceful
‘Conica’ (to 5cm (2in) per annum); finely toothed; ‘Expansa’, vigorous weeping form; yellow and green selec-
‘Laurin’, small, dense, mutation of procumbent dwarf, with branch ends tions include the sulphur ‘Aurea’ and
‘Conica’); P.likiangensis (LIJIANG SPRUCE; slightly ascending; ‘Gnom’, broadly the dark green ‘Viridis’; forma glauca is
SW China, SE Tibet, E Assam; to 50m conical dwarf, slow-growing to 3cm the group name for all plants with glau-
(165ft); bark grey, smooth to scaly or (11/4in) per annum; ‘Nana’, globose to cous, blue-grey leaves); P.sitchensis (SITKA
shallow-fissured; crown open, broadly broadly conic-pyramidal dwarf; ‘Pen- SPRUCE; N America (Pacific coast); to
conic; branches level to ascending; dula’, slender and upright, with pendu- 90m (300ft); bark red-grey, exfoliating
leaves 8–15mm (3/8–5/8in), sharp, dark lous branches); P.orientalis (ORIENTAL in coarse scales; crown broad, conic,
green to blue-green, flattened, keeled, SPRUCE, CAUCASIAN SPRUCE, Caucasus, branches straight, branchlets moder-
2 blue-white stomatal lines beneath, NE Turkey; to 50m (165ft); bark ately pendulous; leaves 15–25mm
2 faint bands above, forward-growing, smooth, pink-grey, becoming cracked; (5/8–1in), dark green, with 2 blue-white
loosely imbricate; cones oval-cylindric, forming small raised plates; crown stomatal bands beneath, sharply
7–13cm (23/4–5in) x 3cm (11/4in), red conic, dense, to ovoid-columnar; pointed, flattened, slightly keeled; cones
to purple; scales thin, obovate, finely branches slightly ascending; leaves 3–10cm (11/4–4in) x 1.5cm (5/8in) when
toothed); P.mariana (MOUNTAIN SPRUCE; 0.5–0.8cm (1/4–3/8in), slightly flattened, closed, to 3.5cm (11/2in) broad, cylin-
northern N America; to 20m (66ft)+; blunt, bevelled, dark green, adpressed dric-oblong, pale green, ripening beige;
bark red-brown to grey-brown, exfoliat- to stamen above; cones 5cm (2in) x scales very thin oblong to rhombic,
ing in thin flakes; crown conic; 9–1.5cm (31/2–5/8in), purple, ripening, undulate, serrate; ‘Compacta’, broadly
branches downswept; leaves densely brown, cylindric-conic to fusiform; conic, dense dwarf to 2m (61/2ft), with
arranged, 0.5–1.5cm (1/4–5/8in), blue-
green above, off-white stomatal stripes
scales obovate, obtuse, entire, to 15mm
(5/8in) wide; ‘Atrovirens’, with very dark
spreading branches and young shoots
tinted yellow; ‘Microphylla’, dwarf, very
P
beneath, stiff, obtuse; cones 2–4cm green leaves; ‘Aurea’, with gold young slow-growing, to 25cm (10in) after 10
(3/4–11/2in) x 1.5cm (5/8in), fusiform, leaves, later dark green, with gold tint; years, upright and narrowly conic;
mauve, becoming grey-brown, persist- ‘Aurea Compacta’, broadly pyramidal ‘Nana’, slow-growing dwarf, of open
ing; scales woody, rounded, margins and compact semi-dwarf, with gold habit, with leaves tinted blue); P.smithi-
finely toothed; ‘Argenteovariegata’, with upper leaves and green lower leaves; ana (MORINDA SPRUCE, HIMALAYAN
some leaves almost completely white; ‘Compacta’, broadly conical dwarf; SPRUCE; W Himalaya; to 55m (180ft);
‘Aurea’, with leaves tinged gold; ‘Beiss- ‘Gracilis’, very dense dwarf, oval in bark dull grey-purple, grooved, slitting
neri’, dwarf, slow-growing to 5m (16ft), growth, to 6m (20ft), slow-growing into round scales; crown conic, colum-
similar to ‘Doumettii’ but with broader (to 7cm (23/4in) per annum); ‘Nana’, nar with age; branches horizontal,
leaves tinged blue; ‘Doumettii’, dwarf globose dwarf to 1m (31/4ft), very slow- shoots pendulous; leaves loosely radial,
to 6m (20ft), globose-conic when young, growing (to 2.5cm (1in) per annum); 3–5cm (11/4–2in), dark green, apex
becoming irregular, with a dense crown ‘Nutans’, spreading, weeping and irreg- acuminate; cones 10–16cm (4–6in),
and bright blue-green leaves; ‘Fasti- ular in growth, with very dark green cylindric, curved, tapered, shiny pale
giata’, conical dwarf, with slender, leaves; ‘Pendula’, compact and slow- green, ripening brown, resinous; scales
ascending branches; ‘Nana’, very dwarf growing, with nodding twigs); P.pungens semi-circular, woody, entire, to 2.5cm
and globose to 50cm (20in), slow- (BLUE SPRUCE, COLORADO SPRUCE; US (1in) wide).
growing to 3cm (11/4in) per annum, (S Rocky Mountains); to 40m (130ft)
more than one clone in cultivation; or more; bark purple-grey, deeply pick, pickaxe a short-handled tool
‘Pendula’, upright leader with weeping grooved, forming thick scales; crown with a thick, centrally-fixed head fash-
branches); P.morrisonicola (TAIWAN dense, conic to columnar-conic; lower ioned as a narrow, curving blade with
SPRUCE; Taiwan; to 40m (130ft); shoots branches downswept; leaves 2–2.5cm two working points. It is used from a
sparse, pendulous; leaves 10–20mm (3/4–1in), radial, assurgent, grey-green to stooping position to break up soil, rock
(1/2–3/4in), slender, sharply acuminate, bright pale blue, thickly glaucous, stiff, or concrete. A pick has two pointed
glossy dark green; cones 5–8cm (2–3in) pungent; cones 6–12cm (21/2–43/4in) x heads, a pickaxe, one pointed and one 607
x 1.5–2cm (5/8–3/4in), oblong-cylindric; 2.5–3cm (1–11/4in), oblong-cylindric, chisel-shaped head.
picotte
picotte describing flowers where the shrub or small tree, 2.5–5m (8–16ft); Pilea (from Greek pilos, cap, referring
petals have a thin band of contrasting bark grey to grey-brown; leaves to the shape of the larger sepal, which
colour at their edges. It is used, for 2.5–10cm (1–4in), elliptic or obovate, in some species covers the achene).
example, of carnations and sweetpeas. finely serrate, sharp-tipped or blunt, Urticaceae. Tropics (except Australia).
coriaceous, lustrous, sparsely glandular- Some 600 species, annual or perennial
picturesque a late 18th-century style hirsute; panicles or racemes erect to herbs grown for their ornamental
of British Landscape gardening, fos- drooping to 15cm (6in), flowers some- foliage. The flowers are very small and
tered by the Reverend William Gilpin times pink-tinged, urceolate to cylin- inconspicuous. Attractive pot plants for
and the landscapers Richard Payne dric, hairy; var. forrestii: syn. P.forrestii, the home or warm conservatory (mini-
Knight and Uvedale Price. It sought to to 3m (10ft), with scarlet new growth, mum temperature 10°C/50°F). The
bring subtleties of texture, colour, and leaves elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, trailing species are suitable for small
light and shade into designs, such as finely serrate, 6–10cm (21/2–4in)-long, hanging baskets and as groundcover in
might be achieved by a painter. flowers fragrant, in a drooping termi- the greenhouse. Some of the smaller
nal panicle; ‘Wakehurst’: species are especially suited to the close
Pieris (named for the Pierides, to 5.4m (18ft), hardy, conditions of the terrarium and bottle
(Muses)). Ericaceae. E vigorous, with oblong- garden. Grow in bright indirect light or
Asia, Himalaya, E US, elliptic to oblanceolate, part shade in an open, porous and
W Indies. Some 7 bright red leaves, freely draining soilless medium, rich in
species, evergreen fading to pink before organic matter, or in a medium-fertility
trees or shrubs. The turning deep green, loam-based mix with additional sharp
new growth is often tinged with serrate margins sand. Keep evenly moist (not wet), and
red, coral or bronze- and flowers in large humid when in full growth, and liquid
pink. The leaves are clusters); P.japonica feed every two or three weeks. Reduce
ovate-elliptic to lance- (LILY OF THE VALLEY water in winter. Do not allow plants to
olate and leathery. BUSH; Japan, Taiwan, dry out. Site them away from draughts.
Produced in spring E China; shrub or Re-pot annually in spring; plants often
in erect or drooping, small tree, 2.7–4m degenerate in their third or fourth year
terminal or axillary (9–13ft), bark grey and should then be replaced. Propa-
racemes or panicles, the flow- Pieris to brown; leaves 2.5–10cm gate by stem cuttings in spring.
‘Forest Flame’
ers are small, white, pitcher- (1–4in), obovate to lanceolate, P.cadierei (Vietnam; spreading to erect
shaped, 5-lobed and often scented. serrate, coriaceous, sharp-tipped to perennial herb or subshrub to 50cm
Hardy to –15°C/5°F. Grow in mois- blunt, emerging pink to red or bronze, (20in); branchlets green tinted pink;
P ture-retentive, well-drained soils that
are lime-free and humus-rich, in dap-
hardening dark and lustrous green;
racemes or panicles to 12cm (43/4in),
leaves to 8.5cm (31/3in), obovate to
oblong-oblanceolate, dentate, silver on
pled shade or in sun. Give a position erect to drooping, axillary, flowers a dark green ground or wholly metal-
with protection to the north and east, sometimes tinged pink; plants formerly lic; ‘Minima’: dwarf, with small, ellip-
sheltered from strong winds and frost; known as P.taiwanensis usually have tic, deep olive green leaves with raised
the young foliage is particularly vulner- bronze-red young growth, tougher, patches of silver); P.involucrata (FRIEND-
able to frost, although damaged speci- matt green leaves with sparser teeth SHIP PLANT; C and S South America;
mens will usually regenerate giving a and a spreading to erect panicle – they trailing to erect herb; leaves to 6cm
second, less spectacular display of include ‘Crispa’, a small, slow-growing (21/2in), ovate to obovate, marked
coloured foliage. Flower buds formed shrub with curled or wavy leaves; ‘Bert bronze, silver or red; ‘Coral’: stem
in autumn may drop prematurely due Chandler’, with pale pink young leaves, tinged red; leaves long, ovate, glossy,
to frost or insufficient soil moisture. turning glossy yellow-white then dark crenate, copper above, tinged purple
Propagate by semi-ripe or softwood green; ‘Compacta’, compact, dense, to beneath; ‘Liebmannii’: leaves tinged
basal cuttings in summer; treat with 1.8m (6ft), with small leaves; ‘Christ- silver; ‘Moon Valley’: leaves ovate,
0.8% IBA and root in a closed case mas Cheer’, early-flowering, with white quilted, crenate, tinged bronze, with
with bottom heat. and deep rose flowers; ‘Firecrest’, with a broad silver band along middle and
P.floribunda (FETTER BUSH; SE US; bright red young growth; ‘Flamingo’, edges dotted silver; ‘Norfolk’: small,
shrub to about 2m (61/2ft); bark grey with bronze-red young growth and dense; leaves broad, oval, bronze to
to grey-brown; leaves 3–8cm (11/4–3in), deep pink flowers; ‘Forest Flame’, com- black-green, with raised silver bands;
elliptic to ovate, serrate and ciliate, pact, with oblanceolate finely serrate ‘Silver Tree’: with white, hairy stalks,
sharp-tipped, dull green above, sparsely leaves, and red young growth changing ovate, quilted, crenate leaves, tinged
glandular-hirsute; panicles 5–10cm to pink, ivory, then pale green; ‘Snow- bronze, with a broad silver band along
(2–4in); includes the later-flowering drift’, with bronze-red young growth middle and sides dotted silver); P.micro-
‘Elongata’, with flowers in a long ter- and abundant flowers on a long, phylla (ARTILLERY PLANT, GUNPOWDER
minal panicle, and the early-flowering, upright panicle; and ‘Variegata’, with PLANT, PISTOL PLANT; Mexico to Brazil;
608 compact ‘Spring Snow’); P.formosa (SW small leaves variegated cream to silver, annual or short-lived perennial to
China, Vietnam, Himalaya, Nepal; flushed pink at first, and white flowers). 30cm (12in); stems slender, translucent,
Pinguicula
densely branched; leaves very small, cephalus (syn. P.palmeri; E Mexico, C elliptic to oblong; spathe to 7cm
crowded, mossy, obovate to orbicular, America; eventually a tree to 6m (20ft); (23/4in), green, tube 1.5–2cm (5/8–3/4in),
pale green; ‘Variegata’: with leaves stem 5–10cm (2–4in) in diameter, limb curved at apex, spadix appendix
blotched white and pink); P.repens ribbed, clothed with white hairs, spines to 10cm (4in), erect, purple below).
(BLACK-LEAF PANAMICA; creeping herb pale brown or yellow at first; flowers
to 30cm (12in); leaves to 3.5cm (11/2in), 6–8cm (21/2–3in), outer tepals purple- pine needles leaves of pine trees.
obovate to suborbicular, obtuse or brown, inner tepals pale pink). These decay slowly and are suitable
rounded, glabrous or pilose, crenate, as a ground mulch where acid soil
dark; ‘Black Magic: mat-forming, with pilosulous slightly pilose. conditions are desirable, or for
small, round, wavy, green leaves shaded making a leafmould for use in acidic
dark bronze). Pimelea (from Greek pimele, fat, refer- potting compost.
ring to the oily seeds). Thymelaeaceae.
Pileostegia (from Greek pilos, felt, Australasia (New Zealand, Australia, pinery a low greenhouse, heated
and stege, roof, referring to the form of Timor, Lord Howe Island). RICE by a hot bed and often built as a pit.
the corolla). Hydrangeaceae. E Asia. 4 FLOWER. 80 species, compact evergreen Pineries were used throughout the
species, climbing or prostrate evergreen shrubs or herbs, often with decussate 18th and 19th centuries for the
shrubs, related to Hydrangea and Schizo- leaves. The flowers are tubular with growing of pineapples, and
phragma, but distinguished in having four spreading lobes and silky-hairy; sometimes strawberries.
flowers all alike in terminal, corymbose they are borne in terminal heads, to
panicles. These are produced in 5cm (2in) across and surrounded by pinetum an arboretum devoted
summer and autumn and are small and coloured bracts. Hardy to 5°C/41°F. to conifers.
pale with numerous showy stamens. Grow in a neutral to slightly acid soil
A useful, hardy climber for a north- with perfect drainage. Water moder- Pinguicula (from Latin pinguis, fat,
or east-facing wall, although it flowers ately when in growth, and allow to from the greasy appearance of leaves).
more profusely in sun. Propagate by become rather dry when temperatures Lentibulariaceae. BUTTERWORT Europe,
nodal stem and tip cuttings taken from drop. Good direct light and ventilation Circumboreal, Americas to Antarctic.
young growth as the foliage expands; are essential in winter. Flowers are 46 species, evergreen or deciduous,
treat with rooting hormone and root in borne on the tips of shoots made in the carnivorous perennial herbs. Borne
a closed case with bottom heat. previous season; deadhead and prune in a low, flat rosette, the leaves act
Increase also by seed and layering. after flowering. Propagate by heeled, as living flypaper, secreting sticky
Otherwise, cultivate as for Decumaria. semi-ripe cuttings in summer, or by mucilage and digestive enzymes. Soli-
P.viburnoides (India; 6–10m (20–33ft); softwood cuttings in spring, in a closed tary, 2-lipped and spurred, the slender-
stem self-clinging; leaves 5–18cm
(2–7in), narrowly oblong to ovate-
case. P.ferruginea (W Australia; erect
shrub to 2m (61/2ft); leaves to 12mm
stalked flowers are produced in spring
and summer. All species require an
P
lanceolate, coriaceous, glossy dark (1/2in), ovate or oblong, shiny green acid mix of peat, sand and chopped
green; panicle to 15cm (6in), crowded, above, often hairy beneath, revolute; sphagnum moss, a humid atmosphere
flowers, white, stamens conspicuous). flowers rose-pink, in heads to 4cm and full sun. When in growth, keep
(11/2in) across). them permanently wet by standing the
pillar an upright form of trained containers in rainwater; when dor-
fruit tree. pin-eyed see heterostyly. mant, keep damp and cool (frost-
tender species may grow continuously).
pilose covered with diffuse, soft, pinching the removal of the growing Apart from the European species, all
slender hairs. tip of a plant with the finger and listed here require a minimum temper-
thumb, to prevent growth extension ature of 10°C/50°F. The European
Pilosocereus (from Latin pilosus, from that point and to encourage the species are essentially hardy in climate
hairy, and Cereus). Cactaceae. US formation of side shoots. See break, zone 7 and prefer cold winter condi-
(Florida), Mexico, Caribbean region, stopping. tions which they survive in the form of
and tropical S America (especially E tight resting buds. With care, they may
Brazil). About 45 species, shrubs and Pinellia (for Giovanni Vincenzo be established outdoors in wet, acid
trees with succulent, ribbed stems often Pinelli (1535–1601), of the Botanic pockets of the rock garden or beside
covered in long, woolly hairs. Opening Garden, Naples). Araceae. China, bog-garden pools. Increase by division
at dusk, the flowers are tubular to cam- Japan. 6 species of low, cormous, of resting buds in early spring, division
panulate with numerous stamens. Pro- perennial herbs. The leaves are simple of leaf rosettes in late spring, or by
vide a minimum temperature of to compound. Produced in summer, surface-sown seed or leaf cuttings.
10°C/50°F. Plant in an acid compost the flowers are minute and packed on P.alpina (Arctic, mountains of
containing more than 50% grit. Grow a slender spadix enclosed by a narrow, Europe; leaves 2.5–4cm (1–11/2in), ellip-
in full sun and maintain low humidity. hooded spathe. Cultivate as for tic to lanceolate-oblong, yellow-green;
In winter, water only to avoid shrivel- Arisaema. P.ternata (Japan, Korea, China; flowers white with yellow spots on 609
ling. Increase by stem cuttings. P.leuco- leaflets 3–12cm (11/4–43/4in), ovate- palate); P.filifolia (Cuba; leaves 8–15cm
Pinguicula
(3–6in), erect, linear to filiform; flowers a ring of contrasting colour besides a substrates. Increase by seed sown in
white, pink, blue, purple or pale lilac); central eye; and FANCIES, with streaks autumn or spring, by grafting in late
P.grandiflora (W Europe; leaves 3–4cm or stripes of contrasting colour. summer, winter or early spring, and
(11/4–11/2in), oblong to ovate, yellow- Plant in early spring spaced 30cm by layering.
green; flowers purple to pink or white, (12in) apart; they should survive for at Many different rust fungi can affect
white at throat); P.longifolia (mountains least three years. Propagate by cuttings, pines and several are widespread. The
of S Europe; leaves 6–13cm (21/2–5in), taken at flowering time and comprising white pine blister rust, Cronartium
lowermost elliptic, others linear- four pairs of leaves trimmed just below ribicola, causes a devastating disease
lanceolate, somewhat undulate; flowers a joint; insert into a peat/sand or of the American white pines, especially
lilac to pale blue, spotted white at base peat/perlite mix and maintain at Pinus strobus. Other less serious rusts
of lower lip); P.moranensis (Mexico; 15°C/59°F. Annual and biennial pinks include the pine twisting rust, Melamp-
leaves 6–11cm (21/2–41/2in), round to (D.chinensis and D. x heddeweggii) are sora populnea, which mainly affects Pinus
broadly and bluntly ovate; flowers seed-raised for bedding. sylvestris; the pine resin-top rust,
crimson to magenta or pink, throat Endocronartium pini also on P.sylvestris,
white with darker markings at base of pinna (plural pinnae) the primary may girdle and kill the branches. A
lobes); P.vulgaris (NW and C Europe; division of a pinnately compound leaf. needle rust is caused by Coleosporium tus-
leaves 2–4.5cm (3/4–13/4in), oblong to silaginis, and needle cast by the fungus
ovate, yellow-green; flowers violet, pinnate a feather-like arrangement of Lophodermium spp., the latter is worst in
throat white). leaflets in two rows along the axis. cool, damp areas on species adapted to
Bipinnate refers to a leaf whose leaflets drier conditions. Pines can also be
pink bud see bud stages. are themselves pinnately divided. affected by armillaria root rot and phy-
tophthora root rot. In Britain the most
pinks the term garden pink describes pinnatifid pinnately cleft nearly to serious disease of plantation conifers,
a group of Dianthus descended from the the midrib in broad divisions, but with- including pines, is fomes root and butt
COTTAGE PINK (Dianthus plumarius), out separating into distinct leaflets or rot Heterobasidion annosum, although this
which has been cultivated in Europe pinnae. and many of the other diseases to
for more than 500 years. Garden pinks which the trees are susceptible are
are typically represented by the cultivar pinnatisect deeply and pinnately cut unlikely to be a problem on isolated
‘Mrs Sinkins’, which blooms for about to, or near to, the midrib; the divisions, garden trees. Important pests include
two weeks in early summer and must narrower than when pinnatifid, and the pine shoot moth, pine adelgids,
be allowed to grow naturally without not truly distinct segments. several species of sawflies including the
stopping. Modern pinks are mainly of fox-coloured or European pine sawfly
P the D. x allwoodii type, derived from
crossing garden pinks with perpetual
pinnule the ultimate division of a
(generally pinnate) compound leaf.
and the conifer spinning mite.
P.aristata (ROCKY MOUNTAINS
flowering carnations. These should be BRISTLECONE PINE; W US; to 18m
pinched to induce a bushy habit and Pinus (Classical Latin name for this (60ft); crown with ascending, whorled,
flushes of blooms. They are classified tree). Pinaceae. PINE. Cosmopolitan. dense branches; bark dark grey, becom-
as SELFS, with one colour; BICOLOURS, About 110 species, evergreen conifer- ing fissured, rust-brown; needles 5,
with a central eye of contrasting ous trees and shrubs. The bark is fur- 2.5–4cm (1–11/2in) x 1mm (1/16in),
colour; LACED or SCOTTISH PINKS, with rowed or scaly, usually thick and grooved, with flecks of white resin,
resinous. Needle-like leaves are borne bright green, blue-white on inner sur-
in bundles. The male cones are cylin- face in first year of growth, darker
dric, catkin-like and produced in spi- later, densely arranged; cones dark
rally arranged clusters. The female purple, maturing cylindric-ovoid,
cones are solitary or whorled, ovoid or brown, 5–10cm (2–4in)); P.armandii
cylindric to subglobose and composed (CHINESE WHITE PINE; C & W China; to
of spirally arranged, woody scales. 40m (130ft); branches horizontal,
Pines are excellent trees for parks spreading widely; bark thin, grey to
and gardens. The diversity of species green-grey, smooth, becoming cracked;
and cultivars means that at least one needles 5, 10–18cm (4–7in), bright
pine can be found for most situations, glossy green, inner face white-green to
from extreme cold and drought to glaucous blue, thin, flexible, spreading
coastal sites, temperate woodlands, or pendulous, often kinked near the
stony banks and rock gardens. The base, dentate; cones cylindric to
needs and suitability of each species oblong-conic, in groups of 1–3,
Garden pink (Dianthus ‘Mrs Sinkins’) are described below. Most listed here 8–20cm (3–8in) x 4–11cm (11/2–41/2in),
This old-fashioned pink, with its shaggy are fully hardy and show a preference erect, pendulous in the second year,
610 petals and powerful scent, is popular in for full sun and well-drained soils, scales yellow-brown); P.banksiana (JACK
cottage-garden style plantings. including poor sandy and gravelly PINE; N America; to 23m (75ft); crown
Pinus
regular, ovoid-conic; bark scaly, fis- needles 2, densely arranged, twisted, reflexed); P.jeffreyi (JEFFREY’S PINE; W US;
sured, orange-grey to red-brown; yellow to dark green, 4–5cm (11/2–2in) x to 55m (180ft); crown dome-shaped,
shoots flexible; needles 2, twisted, 1.5mm (1/16in); cones ovoid, 3–7cm conic; bark black-brown, splitting in
spreading, 2–5cm (3/4–2in) x 1.5mm (11/4–23/4in), yellow-brown; ‘Compacta’: large plates; branches stout, spreading;
(1/16in), light green to yellow-green, upright, dense; needles dark green; needles 3, 14–27cm (51/2–11in) x 2mm
obscurely serrate; cones 3–6.5cm ‘Frisian Gold’: needles tinted gold; (1/16in), matt grey-green, finely serrate;
(11/4–21/2) x 2cm (3/4in), ovoid-conic, ‘Pendula’: weeping; subspecies latifolia: cones ovoid-conical, 10–24cm (4–10in)
often in pairs, yellow-buff fading to LODGEPOLE PINE; to 30m (100ft); bark x 6–8cm (21/2–3in); buff to brown);
grey; ‘Annae’: needles tinted yellow; thick, ridged, needles 8cm (3in), more P.longaeva (ANCIENT PINE; NW US; to
‘Compacta’: dense and fast-growing spreading, brighter green); 20m (66ft); crown conic, becom-
dwarf; ‘Tucker’s Dwarf ’: denser than P. coulteri (BIG-CONE PINE; ing rough, twisted; bark
‘Compacta’; ‘Uncle Fogy’: prostrate, Mexico, California; to chocolate brown, in
fast-growing); P.bungeana (LACEBARK 30m (100ft); crown plates, branches
PINE; C & N China; to 25m (80ft), broad conic, becom- erect to pendu-
often multi-stemmed, slow growing; ing ovoid; branches lous; needles 5,
bark white to grey-green, smooth, exfo- erect to spreading; 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in) x
liating to reveal cream or pale yellow; bark brown to black 1mm (1/16in), green
needles 3, 5–9cm (2–31/2in) x 2mm with scaly ridges; with white lines on
(1/16in), hard, shiny, sharply acuminate, needles 3, 20–32cm inner faces; cones
dark yellow-green on outer face, pale (8in–121/2in) x 2mm ovoid to cylindric,
grey-green on inner face, smelling of (1/16in), grey or blue- red-brown, 5–11cm
turpentine when crushed; cones bluntly green, stiff, finely serrate; (2–41/2in); differs from
ovoid, 4–6.5cm (11/2–21/2) x 3–5cm cones yellow-brown, ovoid- P.aristata in lacking resin
(11/4–2in)); P.cembra (SWISS PINE, AROLLA conic, 20–40cm (8–16in) x drops on the foliage);
PINE; C Europe; to 25m (80ft); crown 15cm (6in), woody); P. densi- P.montezumae (MONTEZUMA
dense, narrowly columnar to ovoid, flora (JAPANESE RED PINE; Japan, Pinus PINE, ROUGH-BARKED MEXI-
often branched from ground; bark Korea; to 35m (115ft); crown coulteri CAN PINE; Mexico, Guatemala;
smooth, grey-green, becoming brown conic at first, later wide-spreading, to 35m (115ft); crown columnar to
suffused grey, furrowed; branches irregular, rounded when mature; bark conic, becoming rounded; bark rust-
densely twiggy; needles stiff, 5, 6–11cm rust-brown, scaly, fissured and grey at brown, rough, fissured; needles 5,
(21/2–41/2in), dark green, inner surface base; needles 2, 7–10cm (23/4–4in), slen- rarely 4–6, erect or pendent, 15–30cm
blue-white, serrulate; cones resinous, der, bright green; cones buff to pale (6–12in) x 2mm (1/16in), green; cones
obtuse-ovate, 4–7.5cm (11/2–3in) x 4cm
(11/2in), purple when young; seeds
1 1
brown, ovoid, 4–6cm (1 /2–2 /2in); ‘Alice
Verkade’: habit dwarf, tightly globose;
12–25cm (43/4–10in), broadly cylindric-
conical to ovoid-conical, yellow to rust-
P
edible; ‘Aurea’: needles yellow; ‘Com- ‘Aurea’: needles with gold tint or spots; brown); P.mugo (MOUNTAIN PINE, DWARF
pacta Glauca’: compact; needles tinted ‘Globosa’: slow-growing, hardy and MOUNTAIN PINE; C Europe, Balkans;
blue; ‘Jermyns’: compact, conic, very hemispherical to 1m (31/4ft); ‘Umbrac- shrub to 6m (20ft); crown conic;
slow-growing; ‘Monophylla’: slow- ulifera’: very slow-growing umbrella branches erect or decumbent; bark
growing, irregular dwarf; ‘Nana’: form, needles bright green); P. halepensis grey-brown, scaly; needles 2, often
tightly pyramidal dwarf; needles tinted (ALEPPO PINE; Mediterranean; to 20m bowed, twisted, 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in) x
blue; ‘Pendula’: pendulous; ‘Pygmaea’: (66ft); crown conic to umbrella-shaped, 2–3mm (1/16–1/8in), dark green; cones
dwarf; ‘Variegata’: needles stippled becoming globose, stem often bowed or 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in) x 3cm (11/4in), ovoid
yellow, sometimes entirely yellow); twisted; bark silver-grey, becoming red- to conic, grey-brown; ‘Aurea’: semi-
P.cembroides (PINYON PINE, MEXICAN NUT brown, fissured; needles 2, spreading, dwarf to 1m (31/4ft); needles gold in
1
PINE; Mexico, US; to 15m (50ft); crown 6–10cm (2 /2–4in), stiff, very slender); winter; ‘Compacta’: dense and globose
domed; bark thick, deeply rectangu- P.heldreichii (syn. P.leucodermis; BOSNIAN with ascending shoots; ‘Hesse’: cushion-
larly fissured, black-brown, branches PINE; Balkans, SE Italy, Greece; tree to forming dwarf, needles slightly twisted;
outspread; needles 2–3, clustered at 25m (80ft); crown ovoid conic; bark ash ‘Humpy’: very compact, rounded,
shoot tips, 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in), entire, grey, splitting into furrows, exposing slow-growing dwarf; ‘Mops’: broadly
olive green; cones globose, 3–4cm yellow-grey patches; needles 2, 6–9cm upright dwarf to 1.5m (5ft), slow-grow-
(11/4–11/2in), bright green when young, (21/2–31/2in) x 2mm (1/16in), spiny-tipped, ing, dense; ‘Ophir’: flattened-globose to
turning orange- or buff-brown; seeds stiff, curved forward, glossy dark green, 60cm (24in), yellow in winter; ‘Pros-
edible; ‘Blandsfortiana’: very slow- dentate; cones ovoid, yellow-brown; trata’: prostrate; ‘Slavinii’: mat-forming
growing dwarf); P.contorta (SHORE PINE; ‘Aureopicta’: needles tipped yellow; with ascending branch tips, needles
Coastal NW US; to 25m (80ft), ‘Compact Gem’: compact and slow- dense, tinted blue; ‘Variegata’: needles
shrubby on poor sites; crown domed, growing dwarf); P. x holfordiana (P.veitchii stippled yellow; ‘Winter Gold’: wide
columnar or ovoid; young trees conical, x P.wallichiana; to 30m (100ft); differs and low, needles twisted, tinted gold in
bushy at base; bark red to yellow- from P.wallichiana in its downy young winter); P.muricata (BISHOP PINE; Califor- 611
brown, fissured into small squares; shoots and wider cones with scales not nia; to 40m (130ft); crown broadly
Pinus
conic, rounded when mature; bark red- deeply fissured; branches level to pen- EASTERN WHITE PINE; SE Canada, E
brown, deeply splitting; branches dulous; needles 2, to 2.5mm (1/8in) US; to 50m (165ft); crown broadly
spreading; needles 2–3, 12–15cm wide, yellow- or grey-green, stiff, shiny, conic; bark grey-green to brown, fis-
(43/4–6in) x 2mm (1/16in), twisted, green; finely dentate; cones 8–18cm (3–7in) x sured; branches horizontal; needles 5,
cones glossy, 4–9cm (11/2–31/2in) x 4–11cm (11/2–41/2in), ovoid-conic, red- blue-green, 7–13cm (23/4–5in), obtuse,
3–7cm (11/4–23/4in), ovoid, scales with a brown and shiny); P.pinea (STONE PINE; serrate; cones pink-brown, pendulous,
thick, recurved thorn); P.nigra (BLACK Mediterranean; to 25m (80ft); crown narrowly cylindric, 8–16cm (3–6in) x
PINE; AUSTRIAN PINE; SE Europe; to domed, umbrella-shaped; bark scaly, 2cm (3/4in); numerous cultivars – dwarfs
40m (130ft)+; crown ovoid-conic, orange, red- to yellow-brown, with deep include the blue-tinted ‘Billaw’, ‘Blue
becoming flat-topped or rounded, very furrows; branches horizontal, upswept; Shag’ and ‘Pumila’ and the Nana
dense; bark grey to dark grey-brown, needles 2, 12–18cm (43/4–7in) x 2mm Group (‘Nana’, ‘Pygmaea’, ‘Radiata’,
deeply fissured; needles 2, dark green, (1/16in), twisted, blue-grey to glossy ‘Umbraculifera’) with light green nee-
stiff, 8–14cm (3–51/2in) x 2mm (1/16in), green; cones ovoid to subglobose, dles, some dwarfs (e.g. ‘Sea Urchin’)
straight or bowed, finely toothed; cones 8–15cm (3–6in) x 6–10cm (21/2–4in);. developed from witches’ brooms;
5–8cm (2–3in) x 2–5cm (3/4–2in), ‘Fragilis’: widely cultivated for edible upright pyramidal cultivars include the
yellow-grey to buff, glossy; ‘Aurea’: nee- seed in South Europe); P.ponderosa (PON- tortuous ‘Fastigiata’ and the gold-
dles gold at first; ‘Geant de Suisse’: DEROSA PINE, WESTERN YELLOW PINE; needled ‘Hillside Winter Gold’; ‘Pen-
columnar-fastigiate; needles very long, W US, SW Canada; to 50m (165ft); dula’: weeping; ‘Alba’: new growth
to 18cm (7in); ‘Globosa’: semi-dwarf, bark thick, yellow-brown, deeply fis- pure white); P.sylvestris (SCOTS PINE;
slow-growing, rounded; ‘Horni- sured; branches stout, whorled, spread- Siberia to East Asia, Europe; to 30m
brookiana’: compact, globose, mounding; needles 3, spreading straight or (100ft), rarely 40m (130ft); crown ovoid
forming dwarf; ‘Variegata’: needles gently curved, 11–22cm (41/2–9in) x to conic, becoming rounded and often
stippled gold; subsp. laricio ‘Wurstle’: 1.5–2mm (1/16in), dull green; cones limited to upper trunk as a loosely
compactly globose; needles long, vivid green or purple at first, later brown, tiered, flat canopy; bark thin, red-
green; witches’ broom; subsp. maritima: 6–10cm (21/2–4in) x 4–8cm (11/2–3in)); brown, exfoliating to show rust-brown
CORSICAN PINE; to 55m (180ft) in wild, P.pumila (DWARF SIBERIAN PINE; NE beneath, thick and fissured at base;
45m (150ft) in cultivation, needles Asia; prostrate shrub, to 3m (10ft), or needles 2, 4–10cm (11/2–4in) x 2mm
12–18cm (43/4–7in), slender, grey- small tree to 6m (20ft); needles 5, (1/16in), twisted, blue to pale grey-green,
green); P.parviflora (JAPANESE WHITE 4–8cm (11/2–3in) x 1mm (1/16in), twisted, finely serrate; cones ovoid to conic,
PINE; Japan; to 20m (66ft); crown densely arranged, glossy, green on 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in) x 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in),
ovoid-conic, compact, usually spread- outer face with blue-white lines on buff to grey-brown; many cultivars –
ing; bark grey-black, smooth, exfoliat- interior face, finely toothed or entire; dwarfs include the blue-tinted conic
P ing in small plates; needles 5, 3–6cm
(11/4–21/2in), curved, twisted, stiff, finely
cones clustered, ovoid, 3–6cm
(11/4–21/2in) x 3cm (11/4in), violet-black
‘Glauca Nana’, and ‘Compressa’, and
the vivid blue ‘Doone Valley’; ‘Globosa
toothed, glossy dark green with blue- when young, red to yellow-brown when Viridis’ and the yellow-needled
white lines on inner surfaces; cones mature; ‘Dwarf Blue’: dwarf, irregular, ‘Moseri’ are pyramidal dwarf forms;
ovoid to cylindric, to 10 x 3cm (4 x ascending, needles twisted, tinted blue; prostrate, creeping dwarfs include the
11/4in), leathery-woody, wrinkled, rust- ‘Globe’: very dense globose form, nee- blue-tinted ‘Hillside Creeper’ and the
brown; ‘Adcock’s Dwarf ’: diminutive dles tinted silver; ‘Nana’: dense and very dark green ‘Repens’ and ‘Sax-
and slow-growing, to 75cm (30in), globose semi-dwarf); P.radiata (syn. atilis’; ‘Lodge Hill’ and ‘Oppdal’ are
forms a congested, grey-green bun; P.insignis; MONTEREY PINE; US (Califor- irregular dwarfs derived from witches’
‘Blue Giant’: vigorous, to 15m (50ft), nia); to 45m (150ft); crown ovoid-conic, brooms, ‘Gold Coin’ and ‘Gold Medal’
ascending, needles tinted blue; ‘Glauca becoming rounded, dense; young bark are richly gold in winter; notable culti-
Nana’: semi-dwarf, to 1m (31/4ft), nee- purple-grey, becoming grey to dark vars of normal growth include the
dles short, strongly tinted blue); P.peuce brown, deeply fissured; needles 3, pyramidal ‘Fastigiata’ and the vivid
(MACEDONIAN PINE; BALKAN PINE; 10–16cm (4–6in) x 1mm (1/16in), bright blue of ‘Mt. Vernon Blue’; weeping
South Balkans, Greece, Albania; to green; cones 6–16cm (21/2–6in) x forms include ‘Mitsch Weeping’ and
35m (115ft); crown ovoid-conic; bole 4–11cm (11/2–41/2in), glossy yellow- ‘Pendula’. Tinted cultivars include the
often branched from base; bark brown, becoming grey); P.rigida (PITCH silver ‘Argentea Compacta’ and ‘Alba’,
smooth, grey, thick, deeply ridged; nee- PINE, NORTHERN PITCH PINE; NE US, the gold-tinted ‘Aurea’, ‘Beissneriana’
dles 5, 7–10cm (23/4–4in) x 1mm (1/16in), SE Canada tree to 25m (80ft); crown and ‘Nisbet’s Gem’, the soft white
pendulous, blue-green, finely serrate; irregular, rounded, open, bark dark ‘Nivea’ and the stippled white ‘Varie-
cones resinous, pendulous, 7–15cm grey or red-brown, deeply furrowed, gata’); P.thunbergii (JAPANESE BLACK PINE;
(23/4–6in) x 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in), cylindric, branches level; needles 3, yellow-green Japan, South Korea to 30m (100ft);
pale brown); P. pinaster (MARITIME PINE; to pale green, stout, twisted, becoming crown open, with few, long, level or sin-
Atlantic Europe to Greece, Mediter- dark grey-green, 7–14cm (23/4–51/2in) x uous branches; bark black-grey, fur-
ranean; to 35m (115ft); crown ovoid- 2–2.5mm (1/16–1/8in); cones ovoid-conic, rowed; needles 2, 7–14cm (23/4–51/2in) x
612 conic, becoming broad rounded or 4–7cm (11/2–23/4in) x 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in), 2mm (1/16in), densely arranged, spread-
irregular, bark thick, rust-brown, pale brown); P. strobus (WEYMOUTH PINE, ing, twisted, dark green; cones 3–7cm
Pistia
(11/4–23/4in) x 3cm (11/4in), ovoid-conic, at apex, cordate to auriculate at base, spring and summer in axillary clusters,
pink to buff; ‘Majestic Beauty’: dense glossy deep green, bright maroon the flowers are inconspicuous but give
and compact, resistant to salt and smog beneath with white margin and veins, rise to small, single-seeded drupes.
damage; ‘Pygmaea’: compact dwarf to quilted); P.ornatum (CELEBES PEPPER; These contain an edible nut in some
1.5m (5ft), needles long, rich green); Sulawesi; shrub, spreading, creeping species. P.terebinthus is hardy in climate
P.virginiana (SCRUB PINE, VIRGINIA PINE; or weakly climbing, to 5m (16ft); leaves zone 8. P.lentiscus needs wall protection
E US; tree to 15m (50ft) or shrub, 9.5cm (33/4in), broadly cordate to sub- in cool regions. Plant in a sunny posi-
trunk to 50cm (20in) diameter; bark orbicular, peltate, rounded or acute tion, in well-drained deep but light soil.
thin, furrowed; branches irregular, and attenuate at apex, rounded to Both are drought-tolerant. Sow seed
spreading, often twisted; needles 2, cordate at base, finely mottled dark in late winter early spring in a loam-
4–7cm (11/2–23/4in), yellow-green to green, pink and silver above, flushed based seed propagating medium at
dark green, twisted, stiff, sharp, finely maroon beneath). 25°C/77°F.
serrated; cones oblong to conic, 3–7cm P.lentiscus (MASTIC, LENTISCO, CHIOS
(11/4–23/4in), yellow-buff to rust-brown); piping a method of taking cuttings of MASTIC; Mediterranean except NE
P.wallichiana (syn. P.excelsa, P.griffithii; pinks, done in early summer by pulling Africa; tree or shrub to 4m (13ft), ever-
HIMALAYAN PINE, BLUE PINE, BHUTAN a young vegetative shoot out at a node. green; leaves coriaceous, leaflets 4–6,
PINE; Himalaya; to 50m (165ft); crown rarely more, 1.5–5cm (5/8–2in), ovate,
conic, or irregular; bark grey-brown, Piptanthus (from Greek piptein, oblong-lanceolate or elliptic; fruit red
becoming fissured; upper branches to fall, and anthos, flower; the calyx, becoming black); P.terebinthus (CYPRUS
whorled, ascending; needles 5, hanging corolla and stamens fall off together, TURPENTINE, TEREBINTE, TEREBINTHO;
downwards, flexible, grey-green to leaving the young pod without a calyx Iberia to Turkey, Morocco to Egypt;
waxy blue, to 20cm (8in) x 1mm (1/16in); at base). Leguminosae. Himalaya. 2 tree or shrub, 2–6m (61/2–20ft), decidu-
cones becoming pendulous, cylindric, species, evergreen or semi-deciduous ous; leaves glossy, aromatic, 10–20cm
14–28cm (51/2–11in) x 4–10cm shrubs or small trees, usually with (4–8in), leaflets 6–12, 3–5cm (11/4–2in),
(11/2–4in), green, ripening buff or green stems. The leaves are trifoliolate, ovate-lanceolate, to oblong; fruit
yellow-brown; ‘Umbraculifera’: low- with narrow leaflets, silky at first, purple, wrinkled).
growing, mushroom-headed dwarf). later dark, shining green. Pea-like,
single lily-of- bright yellow flowers are carried Pistia (from Greek pistos, water, refer-
pip (1) a single the-valley stem in loose or congested, racemes in ring to the habitat). Araceae. Pantropi-
growth or stem spring and summer. Hardy to cal, now a widespread weed of rivers
of lily-of-the- –15°C/5°F. Where and lakes, first recorded on the Nile,
valley (Convallaria frosts are prolonged, possibly having originated from Lake
majalis); (2) a florist’s
term for a single flower in a
these shrubs become
deciduous and may
Victoria. WATER LETTUCE; SHELL
FLOWER. 1 species, P.stratiotes, an ever-
P
cluster or truss, especially used suffer some damage to their green, floating aquatic, forming dense,
of auriculas and other primulas; rather tender hollow branches freely offsetting rosettes. The roots are
(3) a popular name for the seeds – given adequate protection at fine, feathery and hang in spreading
of apples, pears, citrus fruits. the roots, they will, re-sprout from bunches from their undersides. To 20 x
the base. Grow in full sun in any 7cm (8 x 23/4in), the leaves are broadly
Piper (classical Latin name.) Piper- moderately fertile, well-drained soil. wedge-shaped with a rounded, truncate
aceae. Pantropical. PEPPER. More Prune after flowering to remove old or retuse apex. They are blue-green
than 1000 species, erect, evergreen and overcrowded growth at ground and fluted above, pearly and promi-
shrubs, climbers and small trees, level. Sow seed under glass when nently ribbed beneath, filled with
rarely more herb-like, often with a ripe or in early spring. spongy tissue toward the base and cov-
Pip
pungent odour. They produce very P.nepalensis (Himalaya; leaflets ered with fine, water-repellent hairs.
small flowers in cylindric spikes, fol- subglabrous to puberulent beneath; The inflorescence is typical of the
lowed by brightly coloured berries flowers bright yellow, standard occa- Araceae but very small, nestling in the
harvested in some species for pepper. sionally with purple-brown or grey leaf axils. Grow as a free-floating
Those here are grown for their foliage markings); P.tomentosus (SW China; aquatic in heated aquaria or green-
and general habit. Suitable for the leaflets thickly silky-tomentose espe- house pools (minimum temperature
warm greenhouse or conservatory. cially beneath; flowers lemon-yellow). 10°C/50°F) in full sun or bright, indi-
Grow in humid, shady conditions in rect light in soft water. These plants
a fertile, moist medium. Propagate by Pistacia (from the Greek name for may be grown outdoors in summer
seed, or by semi-ripe cuttings in sand the nut, pistake). Anacardiaceae. on garden ponds. In autumn, bring a
in a closed case. Mediterranean, C Asia to Japan, few clean and healthy rosettes under
P.magnificum (LACQUERED PEPPER; Malaysia, Mexico, S US. PISTACHIO. cover and overwinter them in bright,
Peru; shrub, erect, to 1m (31/4ft); leaves About 9 species, deciduous or ever- frost-free conditions on a pan of wet
15cm (6in), ovate to broadly elliptic or green, dioecious trees and shrubs, usu- coir and sand. Propagate by removal 613
suborbicular, rounded or broadly acute ally with pinnate leaves. Produced in of plantlets.
pistil
pistil one of the female repro- often amid colourful bracts. undulate, pale green; inflorescence axil-
ductive organs of a flower, Cultivate as for Billbergia. P.andreana lary, 1- to few-flowered, flowers small,
together making up the (Colombia; leaves to 35cm (14in), dark maroon to purple-black, fragrant;
gynostemium, and usu- scaly beneath; flowers orange, ‘Garnetii’, with 4–6cm (11/2–21/2in),
ally composed of yellow near apex); P.heterophylla (Mexico ovate-elliptic, grey-green leaves with a
ovary, style and to Peru; leaves to 70cm (28in), flowers white wavy margin sometimes with pink
stigma. A pink-red). spots; ‘Golden King’, with 3–5cm
simple pistil (11/4–2in), ovate to broadly ovate, pale
consists of one pitchfork see fork. golden-green leaves; ‘Purpureum’, with
carpel, a com- leaves green at first, dark purple-bronze
pound pistil of Pittosporum (from Greek pitta, when mature, very wavy; ‘Tom
two or more. Pistil pitch, and sporos, seed, referring to the Thumb’, small, compact, with 3–6cm
stamens sticky, resinous coating found on the (11/4–21/2in), oblong-elliptic, dark purple-
pistillate a uni- simple pistil seeds). Pittosporaceae. Australasia and bronze leaves with very wavy margins;
sexual, female flower comprises ovary South Africa to S and E Asia and ‘Variegatum’, leaves green with a cream
at base of the
bearing a pistil or pistils style, and stigma Hawaii. About 200 species, evergreen margin). P.tobira (TOBIRA, MOCK
but no functional at the tip trees and shrubs, with thinly leathery ORANGE, JAPANESE PITTOSPORUM;
stamens. to fleshy leaves and small, often sweetly China, Japan; shrub or small tree to 5m
scented flowers produced singly or in (16ft); leaves 3–10cm (11/4–4in), obovate,
pistillode a sterile, vestigial pistil corymbs, umbels or clusters from late apex rounded, base cuneate, leathery,
remaining in a staminate flower. spring to early autumn. P.tenuifolium and dark green and glossy, revolute; inflores-
P.tobira are among the hardiest species, cence terminal, umbellate, 5–7.5cm
pitch resinous exudate. tolerating temperatures as low as (2–3in) in diameter, flowers orange-
–10°C/14°F, and lower with wall shel- blossom-scented, 2.5cm (1in) in diame-
pitcher a tubular or cup-like vessel, ter: P.crassifolium and P.undulatum are ter, cream-white to lemon-yellow);
usually a modified leaf. In several car- hardy to about –5°C/23°F. Grow in P.undulatum (VICTORIAN BOX, ORANGE
nivorous genera, these are trapping well-drained soils in full sun. All species BERRY PITTOSPORUM, CHEESEWOOD; E
adaptations. need shelter from cold, drying winds Australia; tree, 9–14m (30–46ft); leaves
and will benefit from the protection of 8–15cm (3–6in), acuminate, laurel-like,
Pisum (the classical Latin name). a deep dry mulch of bracken litter at shiny dark green above, pale beneath,
Leguminosae. Mediterranean, W Asia. the root. Under glass, water moder- margins wavy; flowers 1.2–1.8cm
PEA. 5 species, annual herbs, often ately, maintain good ventilation and (1/2–3/4in) in diameter, fragrant, cream-
P climbing by means of tendrils. The
flowers are typically papilionaceous –
provide a winter minimum tempera-
ture at about 5°C/41°F. They regener-
white in clustered umbels; ‘Variegatum’:
leaves with white margins).
‘pea-like’; the fruit a legume containing ate freely from old wood and, if
subglobose seeds. See peas. P.sativum is necessary, can be cut quite hard back Pityrogramma (from Greek pityron,
the GARDEN PEA; its variety macrocarpon, in spring to remove frost-damaged chaff or bran, and gramma, line, refer-
is the EDIBLE-PODDED PEA, MANGE growth. Propagate by seed sown in ring to the scaly linear sori). Pteri-
TOUT, SUGAR PEA, or SNOW PEA. autumn or spring. Increase also by daceae (Adiantaceae). Americas and
semi-ripe basal cuttings, rooted in a Africa. About 40 species, evergreen or
pit a type of frame or greenhouse closed case with bottom heat at deciduous ferns. The rhizomes are
constructed with the floor sunk below 15–18°C/59–64°F in summer, or by short-creeping and scaly, giving rise to
ground level so that the frame light or basal ripewood cuttings in late autumn loose clumps or tufts of fronds. These
roof is at or just above soil level, thus in the cold frame. have wiry, dark and glossy stipes and
providing wind protection and conserv- P.crassifolium (CARO, KARO, EVER- 2–3 times pinnately compound blades
ing heat. Pits are a feature of walled GREEN PITTOSPORUM; New Zealand; whose undersides are often covered in
gardens in particular, and traditionally shrub or small tree to 5(–10)m metallic farina. Grow in light shade in
were maintained on large estates. (16(–33)ft), crown columnar, young a humid, buoyant atmosphere with a
twigs tomentose; leaves 5–7cm minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F.
Pitcairnia (for Dr William Pitcairn (2–23/4in), oblong to elliptic or obovate, Pot tightly in a soilless mix rich in
(1711–1791), London doctor). Bromeli- leathery, dark green above, white- or coarse bark and grit. Water and syringe
aceae. C and S America. 260 species, buff-tomentose beneath when young, freely in summer; keep just moist in
evergreen, terrestrial perennial herbs, margins thickened; flowers dark crim- winter. Increase by division or spores.
occasionally lithophytic or epiphytic. son to purple, in terminal clusters; P.calomelanos (SILVER FERN; tropical
Borne usually in loose basal clumps, ‘Variegatum’: leaves variegated white); America, now pantropical; stipes
the leaves are tough-textured but pli- P.tenuifolium (TAWHIWHI, KOHUHU; New 20–55cm (8–22in), dark purple, fairna-
able, oblong-lanceolate to linear and Zealand; tree to 10m (33ft), trunk slen- ceous when young; frond blade to 60 x
614 slender-stalked. Showy, tubular flowers der; leaves 2.5–10cm (1–4in), elliptic, 30cm (24 x 12in), ovate, bipinnate or
are carried in racemes or panicles, obovate or oblong, glabrous, flat or tripinnatifid at base, undersurface cov-
planting and transplanting
ered in silver-white farina); P.chrysophylla CART-TRACK-PLANT; Eurasia, natural- whose roots fully explore the container
(GOLDEN FERN; West Indies and S ized worldwide; perennial herb, spar- compost without being pot-bound.
America, widely naturalized as a sub- ingly pubescent; leaves 5–20cm (2–8in), The year-round availability of
tropical weed; stipes to twice length of rosulate, spreading, broadly obovate, containerized plants invites planting
blade, dark brown, tinged black; frond stalked, with prominent veins, tough, during unfavourable conditions, such
blade 20–60cm (8–24in), ovate to puckered; ‘Atropurpurea’: leaves purple as summer heat and drought, and
ovate-triangular, bipinnate or more tinged bronze to purple; ‘Rosularis’: thought should be given as to the
compound, undersurface covered in ROSE PLANTAIN, monstrous in form, wisdom of attempting to establish pur-
golden farina). with a stout scape and apical coma of chases during such periods unless the
green leaves to 9cm (31/2in) in diameter, utmost after-care can be provided.
Plantago (the Latin name for these replacing flowers; ‘Rubrifolia’: large Field-grown plants are available for
plants). Plantaginaceae. Cosmopolitan. leaves, flushed wine red; ‘Variegata’: planting during periods of lowest
PLANTAIN. 200+ species, annual, bien- leaves variegated cream and green); growth activity but, as with those avail-
nial or perennial herbs and shrublets P.nivalis (S Spain; perennial herb; leaves able in containers, this must not be
with basal rosettes of broadly spathu- rosulate, linear to narrowly lanceolate, attempted when the ground is frozen
late leaves, or, in caulescent species, covered in silky white hairs). or water-logged. Some plants, such as
stems covered in finer, narrower leaves. hollies and daphnes, are difficult to
Inconspicuous, grain-like flowers are plant breeder’s rights (abbrev. handle successfully as bare-root speci-
carried in taper-like, stalked spikes. PBR) the protection afforded plant mens and these, together with species
Although better known to most gar- breeders by the formal official registra- that produce fibrous root systems, such
deners for the common and persistent tion and cataloguing of new cultigens. as rhododendrons, are suitably pre-
lawn weeds it numbers, Plantago It prevents unauthorized propagation pared by careful lifting and ball-
includes some attractive alpine species of the new plant and enables the wrapping as an alternative to con-
whose slender leaves are covered in fine breeder to collect royalties. The tainerizing. Where a large number of
silvery down. These are hardy in cli- requirement is covered by plant variety plants is required, for example, for
mate zone 7 and are suitable for the protection laws. hedging, field-grown bare-rootstock is
rock garden, crevices, scree or warm, usually cheapest.
gritty soils in full sun. The more robust planting and transplanting both Mid- and late autumn is generally
and familiar P.major is fully hardy and terms describe the moving of plants the best time to plant or transplant
its cultivars are sometimes grown in the from one growing position to another. since the soil is relatively warm and
herbaceous border, in any moderately Planting usually means the setting out usually sufficiently moist to encourage
fertile soil in sun. Propagate by seed of newly propagated trees, shrubs, early rooting. Winter or spring planting
or division.
P.arborescens (Canary Islands; dwarf
herbaceous plants, bulbs and corms,
and certain vegetables into a place
may subject young plants to strong
winds, frost damage and water-logging,
P
shrub to 60cm (24in); stem woody, where they will establish to maturity. and allows for only minimal growth
much-branched; leaves 2–4cm Transplanting more often refers to the before a drought period in early
(3/4–11/2in), crowded, linear to filiform, moving of established plants from one summer. In very exposed locations,
dark green, hairy); P.major (COMMON place to another, or the moving of spring planting may nevertheless be the
PLANTAIN, WHITE-MAN’S FOOT, nursery specimens, either in open best course to avoid winter damage,
ground or in containers, during the with special precautions taken to aid
course of production for sale. establishment. Most evergreens are best
Most nursery stock is established in spring-planted. The majority of herba-
containers for sale, thus extending the ceous species can be planted in the
planting season over that of more autumn, but those susceptible to cold
expensive bare root or root-balled or wet should be held over until spring.
plants. The system is particularly Bearded irises should be planted mid-
useful for genera that resent root dis- to late summer and many woodland
turbance, for example Magnolia, Cytisus, plants, such as primulas, set out imme-
Elaeagnus and Cistus. Plants purchased diately after flowering.
in containers should be carefully Where bare root plants are received
inspected to ensure that their root during periods unsuitable for planting,
systems have not become woody and they should be heeled-in, if possible, or
constricted; it is also important to stored in a cool shed with care taken to
ascertain that they have not been too ensure that the roots do not dry out.
recently potted and may therefore Leaving any packing intact is helpful.
Plantago major ‘Rubrifolia’ suffer severe check on transplanting. Where moderately large trees or
Cultivars of the common plantain bred for Rapid establishment after planting will shrubs require transplanting in a
larger leaves in red and purple hues make be best achieved with plants that are garden, preparations should be made 615
attractive foliage plants for the border. robust and evidently well-fed and six to twelve months in advance by
planting and transplanting
considering the erection of a tempo- ual plants or specific groups of plants

rary shelter screen to aid establishment. over general gardening.
Where rabbits are a threat, tree guards
should be fitted. All planting and transplant window a glazed structure
planting operations should include pro- built within a room, usually in front
vision of a ground mulch to eliminate of a window or else with a source
weed competition and conserve soil of artificial light, as a virtual indoor
moisture. This can either be a layer of greenhouse. It is most often of
organic material, kept clear of the narrow construction and must have
immediate base of the plant, or a thick facilities for ventilation and access, as
black polythene sheet. provided by sliding panels. Akin to a
Wardian case.
Planting depth planting board usually, a device for
Most containerized plants should be planted accurately positioning a tree, consisting plash see pleach.
with the top of their rootball level with the of a narrow piece of wood, up to 1m
surrounding soil. A cane is a useful guide. (31/4ft) long, with one V-notch at the Platanus (classical name from the
centre point and one at each end. The Greek platys, broad, in allusion to the
taking out a trench around half the central notch is placed against a cane broad, flat leaves). Platanaceae. Mostly
root system and refilling it to encour- marking the required plant position, N America; one in each of SE Europe
age the production of additional and canes then inserted into the to SW Asia, and Indochina.
fibrous roots. When the tree or shrub ground within each of the two end SYCAMORE, BUTTONWOOD, PLANE,
is finally undercut, the ground must notches. The board and central cane PLANE TREE. 7 species, deciduous trees
be moist and a thick polythene sheet are then removed while the planting with thin bark, flaking in plates to
used to cover the root ball during hole is prepared. The planting board is reveal patches of paler new bark, large,
transportation. later repositioned within the two end palmately lobed leaves and bristly,
Plants being planted out from under canes in order to locate the original brown-green flowers in stalked and
protection must be thoroughly hard- planting point, and to assist in restoring pendulous, spherical heads. Planes are
ened off, especially in the case of frost- soil level. large, fast-growing and long-lived trees,
tender bedding and vegetable subjects. The term is also sometimes used to with decorative bark and a remarkable
Planting sites should be well- refer to a wooden plank put down to tolerance of air pollution and com-
prepared to ensure good texture and reduce soil compaction during planting pacted soil. P. x hispanica is a much-
fertility; this can be done by incorpo- operations. planted street tree. One parent,
P rating well-rotted organic matter
throughout the cultivation depth well planting house, plant house a
P.orientalis, is a finer tree, with a more
rugged crown and deeply cut leaves,
in advance of planting. A light dressing greenhouse fitted with benches for the but is slower-growing, while the other
of general compound fertilizer applied cultivation of pot plants. parent, P.occidentalis, is large and fast-
just before planting is worthwhile, and growing but susceptible to disease.
removal of perennial weeds at planting plantlet a small plant with leaves, Hardy to zone 6. The natural habitat
stage is most important. and often roots, produced upon certain of all planes is on river gravels and silt
Ensure that stock is well-watered plants as a means of increase. Some with ready access to water, but, given
before planting, and that the planting plantlets detach naturally (e.g. access to ground water, they tolerate
hole is larger than the specimen it is to bryophyllums), others need to be drought well, making large trees in dry
receive. Always remove plants from brought into contact with the soil southern Europe and California. The
containers, gently teasing out com- (e.g. Tolmiea). short, fine, stiff hairs, shed from the
pacted roots. Bare root plants should leaves in spring, and the fruit in
have soil settled around the roots; this plant lice a term often applied to autumn have been implicated in
can be achieved by continually shaking aphids and related sap-sucking insects, bronchial problems; effects are likely to
the specimen up and down as planting such as adelgids and phylloxerids. be worse in dry climates. Propagate by
proceeds. Small plants are firmed by seed, cuttings or layers; pre-treat moist-
hand, trees and shrubs with the foot, plant physiology the study of the ened seed of the species at 2°C/36°F
and in all cases the plant should be life processes or functions of plants. It for two months and sow in early spring
planted to the same depth as at its pre- is one of the most important divisions in a cold frame for frost protection.
vious site. A thorough watering-in of botanical science. Seed of P. x hispanica is often infertile.
should be provided. Heeled hardwood cuttings taken in
For most garden situations, firm plantsman formerly, a nurseryman autumn at leaf fall are easily rooted in
staking of trees is desirable, although or florist; the term is now used to a cold frame. Plane anthracnose causes
there is evidence that unstaked trees describe an expert gardener who is pri- sporadic dieback of shoots, occasion-
616 develop stronger root systems on marily a plant connoisseur, often one ally spreading to make large cankers on
exposed sites. For all plants, it is worth with a preference for growing individ- branches. It is aggravated in cool,
Platycodon
damp summers and on those species deeply incised and lobes entire or ferns will tolerate the dry atmosphere
less adapted to such conditions – P.occi- themselves lobed). of the home if they are frequently
dentalis is the most likely to be attacked syringed, plunged and watered. Keep
by it in Britain, while P.orientalis is virtu- Platycarya (from Greek platys, broad, moist in warm weather, rather dry in
ally immune. P. x hispanica varies in sus- and karya, nut, alluding to the winged winter. Propagate clump-formers by
ceptibility between clones. fruit). Juglandaceae. C and S China. 1 division, larger, non-clumping species
P. x hispanica (LONDON PLANE; P.occi- species, P.strobilacea, a deciduous tree or (e.g. P.grande) by spores. Scraped from
dentalis x P.orientalis; to 50m (165ft); bark shrub to 12m (39ft). The leaves are the undersides of the drooping fertile
peeling off in flakes, cream weathering pinnate and 15–30cm (6–12in) long; fronds and sown thinly on a sterile sub-
to grey; leaves usually truncate to shal- the leaflets are ovate to lanceolate, strate, spores will soon develop pro-
lowly cordate at the base, 3- or 5- finely tapered, biserrate and 4–10cm thalli; these may enter a rest period of
lobed, 12–25cm (43/4–10in) wide, lobes (11/2–4in) long. The male inflorescence up to one year before moving to the
triangular, sinuately toothed to entire; is a slender, erect catkin, 5–8cm (2–3in) next generation.
fruit usually in groups of 2; ‘Augustine long; the female inflorescence is a P.bifurcatum (COMMON STAGHORN
Henry’, with pendulous lower branches cone-like catkin, ovoid to oblong, and FERN, ELKHORN FERN; SE Asia,
and 25–35cm (10–14in) wide, 5-lobed, about 3cm (11/4in) long. A small to Polynesia, subtropical Australia; clump-
slightly blue-green leaves, tomentose medium-sized tree, which prefers warm forming; sterile fronds to 60 x 45cm (24
beneath at first; ‘Cantabrigiensis’, with dry continental climates where temper- x 18in), rounded, entire, wavy, or shal-
smaller, more deely lobed leaves, more atures do not drop below about lowly lobed, papery; fertile fronds to
delicate in all respects; ‘Hispanica’, –12°C/10°F in winter. Propagate from 90cm (36in), pendent, base cuneate, 2
with leaves to 30cm (12in) wide, nor- ripe or stratified seed, by layering or by or 3 (occasionally to 5) x forked, leath-
mally 5-lobed, with lobes toothed, splice/veneer grafting on to Carya ery, segments strap-shaped, obtuse,
veins tomentose beneath, and fruit stock. stellate-pubescent); P.grande (STAGHORN
grouped 1–2; ‘Kelseyana’, with yellow- FERN; Malaysia, Australia, Philippines;
variegated leaves; ‘Mirkovec’, with Platycerium (from Greek platys, solitary; sterile fronds to 110 x 180cm
leaves becoming red-tinged in summer, broad, and keras, a horn, referring to (42 x 70in), suborbicular to reniform,
purple-red in autumn; ‘Pyramidalis’, of the fronds). Polypodiaceae. Tropical upper margin to 5 times deeply and
upright, conical habit, with rougher Asia and Australasia. STAGHORN FERN, irregularly dichotomously lobed, lower
bark and leaves mostly 3-lobed, with ELKHORN FERN, ANTELOPE EARS. Per- margin entire, papery, bronze to green,
lobes slightly toothed – close to P.occi- haps 18 species, epiphytic or litho- strongly veined; fertile fronds to 180cm
dentalis; ‘Sutternii’, with leaves white- phytic, evergreen ferns. The fronds are (70in), pendent, cuneate below, 2 x
blotched and speckled over the entire of two types: (1) sterile – mantle-like, forked, leathery, dividing into strap-
surface; and ‘Tremonia’, of quite
narrow, conical habit, very fast-
stalkless, conspicuously veined and var-
iously lobed on the upper margin,
shaped segments each to 30cm (12in));
P.hillii (NORTHERN ELKHORN FERN; Aus-
P
growing); P.occidentalis (AMERICAN these fronds are produced in succes- tralia (Queensland), New Guinea;
SYCAMORE, BUTTONWOOD, AMERICAN sion, overlapping each other, clasping clump-forming sterile fronds to 40 x
PLANE; SE US; to 50m (165ft); bark the substrate and (the older ones) 24cm (16 x 10in), adpressed, rounded
exfoliating in small plates; leaves gener- decaying to create a pocket of moist, and shallowly lobed at upper margin;
ally 3-lobed, 10–18cm (4–7in) wide, fertile humus; (2) fertile – pendulous, fertile fronds to 70cm (28in)+, erect or
coarsely sinuate, occasionally entire, stalked, forked and lobed like a elk’s or suberect, broadly cuneate to spathulate
base obtuse to cuneate, tomentose stag’s horn, with the spores carried in in lower part, irregularly forked or
beneath at first; fruit usually solitary, large, brown velvety patches on the palmately lobed above, dark green, seg-
occasionally in pairs; P. x acerifolia was undersides. ments narrowly elliptic to obovate);
often grown and sold under this name; These are large, epiphytic ferns suit- P.superbum (STAGHORN FERN; Australia;
includes var. glabrata, with smaller, able for the home, greenhouse or con- solitary; sterile fronds to 160 x 150cm
tougher, more deeply lobed leaves, with servatory (minimum temperature (63 x 60in), spreading, cuneate, apex
lobes long acuminate and often entire); 10°C/50°F). All will grow in pots in a truncate, to 4 times forked or lobed,
P.orientalis (ORIENTAL PLANE; SE Europe soilless medium rich in coarse bark. grey to green; fertile fronds to 2m
to Asia Minor; to 30m (100ft); bark They will also thrive mounted on wood (61/2ft), spreading to pendent, cuneate
exfoliating in large plates; leaves deeply or bark slabs and stout branches, and below, to 5 times forked, segments to
5–7-lobed, occasionally 3-lobed on tied in place until their spreading ster- 30cm (12in) ribbon-like, often twisted).
younger shoots, 10–20cm (4–8in) wide, ile fronds have clasped the surface.
lobes longer than wide, base cuneate or Encase the roots in an envelope of Platycodon (from Greek platys,
truncated; fruit in groups of 3–4 or compost and sphagnum moss prior to broad, and kodon, bell, alluding to the
more, occasionally in pairs; includes mounting. P.bifurcatum and other clump- form of the flower). Campanulaceae.
var. insularis, CYPRIAN PLANE, from forming species can be grown in bas- China, Manchuria, Japan. BALLOON
Crete, with 5, deep leaf lobes, further kets and will colonize their outer FLOWER, CHINESE BELLFLOWER. 1
lobed with ascending teeth, and long surfaces. Grow in dappled sun or light species, P.grandiflorus, a perennial herb 617
acuminate, and ‘Cuneata’, with leaves shade. High humidity is ideal, but these with clumped, branching stems erect to
Platycodon
70cm (28in). The leaves are elliptic- including water and architectural fea- slightly succulent, ovate to subrotund,
lanceolate, dentate and blue-green. tures as well as trees. strigose above, tomentose beneath,
Produced in summer singly or in few- glandular-dotted, obtuse to rounded,
flowered corymbs, the terminal flowers pleasure garden in 18th- and 19th- crenate to dentate; flowers white or
are to 4cm (11/2in) across and sky blue, century England, a public garden used, mauve, to purple, often dotted with red
azure, white or opal-pink. In bud, the chiefly at night, for commercial con- glands; a fragrant-leaved variegated
flower is inflated like a grey to slate certs, firework displays, banquets, and form is grown as a trailing plant under
blue balloon; on opening, it is broadly other entertainments. the name ‘Variegated Mintleaf ’ or,
campanulate, with five spreading, incorrectly, as P.coleoides ‘Variegata’);
ovate-acuminate lobes. Suitable for the Plectranthus (from Greek plektron, P.oertendahlii (South Africa; freely
herbaceous border and rock garden spur, and anthos, flower: the corolla branching, semi-succulent, perennial
and hardy to between –15 and often has a basal spur). Labiatae. herb; stem decumbent, to 1m (31/4ft),
–20°C/5 to –4°F; mulch with bracken Africa, Asia, Australia. 350 species, rooting, glandular-tomentose; leaves
or leafmould where low temperatures annual or perennial herbs, subshrubs 3–4cm (11/4–11/2in), semi-succulent,
are prolonged. It tolerates a range of or shrubs. They are usually aromatic ovate to suborbicular, sparingly villous,
soils but fares best in deep, well- and minutely clammy-hairy. Small, purple beneath, crenate, ciliate; flowers
drained, loamy soil in sun or light, dap- tubular and 2-lipped, the flowers are white or suffused with mauve; ‘Variega-
pled shade. Propagate by seed sown in whorled or clustered in spikes. Provide tus’: leaves to 4cm (11/2in), green-
spring by basal cuttings with a piece of a minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F bronze, variegated silver and off-white,
root attached; also by careful division. and bright light. The trailing species particularly at edges).
and cultivars are easily grown in large
Platystemon (from Greek platys, hanging baskets, or planted as ground- Pleioblastus (from Greek pleios,
broad, and stemon, stamen, referring to cover under glass. Large plants can be many, and blastos, buds, alluding to the
the expanded filaments). Papaveraceae. pruned hard after flowering. Propagate branches which are borne several per
N America (California). CREAMCUPS, by cuttings of new growth taken at any node). Gramineae. China, Japan. Some
CALIFORNIAN POPPY. 1 species, P.califor- time of the year, by removal of rooted 20 species of dwarf to medium-sized
nicus, an annual herb to 30cm (12in) branches of the trailing species, or bamboos with short or far-running rhi-
tall with erect or decumbent, loose, from seed sown under glass in spring. zomes. See bamboos.
spreading branches. To 7.5cm (3in) P.amboinicus (SOUP MINT, MEXICAN
long, the leaves are linear to oblong- MINT, INDIAN MINT, COUNTRY BORAGE, Pleione (for Pleione, mother of the
lanceolate, entire, stem-clasping, grey- FRENCH THYME, SPANISH THYME; trop- Pleiades). Orchidaceae. India to
green and densely pubescent. Produced ics to South Africa; decumbent, many- Taiwan, Thailand. INDIAN CROCUS.
P in summer, the flowers are terminal,
solitary and to 2.5cm (1in) in diameter,
stemmed, aromatic, perennial herb to
1.5m (5ft); leaves 4.5cm (13/4in), ovate,
Some 16 species, deciduous, epiphytic
or terrestrial perennial herbs. They
with six, ovate to rounded, cream to pubescent glandular-toothed, rounded, consist of one or two pseudobulbs only,
yellow petals and numerous yellow sta- crenulate; flowers lilac, mauve or these near-spherical to box- or flask-
mens. Suitable for edging borders or white; a form with white-edged leaves shaped and topped with one or two pli-
for sowing in drifts in the rock garden. is in cultivation); P.argentatus (Australia; cately veined and oblong-lanceolate
Cultivate as for annual Papaver. spreading, more or less hairy shrub to leaves. Solitary and disproportionately
1m (31/4ft); leaves 5–11cm (2–41/2in), large, the flowers appear in spring. The
pleach a term derived from plash or canescent, ovate, crenate, glandular; tepals are usually oblong to oblanceo-
plait to describe hedge-making by flowers pale blue-white; ‘Green Silver’ late. The lip is broadly funnel-shaped
laying, or, sometimes, the training of is a widely cultivated clone); P.forsteri and often fringed and crested.
woody plants against a wall. The term (New Caledonia, Fiji, East Australia These small and beautiful orchids
is now used more specifically to Island; decumbent, aromatic, perennial will thrive in the alpine house and cold
describe the formation of a narrow herb, stems straggling, to 1m (31/4ft); greenhouse. P.formosana has been grown
screen or hedge by training new flexi- leaves 1.5–3.5cm (5/8–11/2in), ovate to successfully outdoors in zone 7 in pock-
ble branches along wires and pruning broad-ovate, pubescent, glandular ets of perfectly drained peaty soil in
out surplus growth annually. In many beneath, crenate or serrate; flowers the rockery, with minimal winter pro-
cases, the pleaching is restricted to the pale to mid-blue or mauve; includes tection. Re-pot annually at the end of
upper parts of trees, especially lime, ‘Marginatus’, syn. ‘Variegatus’, with a cool dry rest in a fairly dense bark-
hornbeam, or yew, so that a dense leaves variegated cream and small, based medium rich in leafmould. Com-
green hedge is produced some distance white flowers; a gold-variegated form is mence watering to promote root and
from ground level supported on pillar- widely cultivated under the name bud development. After flowering, keep
like trunks. P.coleoides); P.madagascariensis (South moist and well-fed in bright, airy con-
Africa, Mozambique and Madagascar; ditions to ensure full leaf and pseudob-
pleasance an enclosed park of the procumbent or decumbent semi- ulb formation. As the leaves wither,
618 Middle Ages, intended for sport, recre- succulent herb, stem to 1m (31/4ft), reduce water and temperatures.
ation, and aesthetic pleasure, often rooting; leaves 1.5–4.5cm (5/8–13/4in), Increase by division and by plantlets.
Plumeria
(the latter may develop at the apex of granite, the leaves are usually carried in branching, spicate racemes; the
the pseudobulb, especially where plants in an opposite or decussate arrange- corolla tube is long and slender with a
have been grown in overwarm, moist ment, one to two pairs per shoot. They limb of five, spreading lobes. Grow
conditions). are very thick, flat above, the apex P.auriculata in a well-drained, high-
P.bulbocodioides (syn. P.pogonioides; obtuse to acute, the bases united and fertility, loam-based mix in direct sun-
China; flowers pink to rose-purple or grey-green or dark green with translu- light, with a winter minimum of
magenta, lip marked dark purple); P.for- cent dots. Yellow to orange and often 7°C/45°F; ventilate freely when condi-
mosana (syn. P.pricei; E China, Taiwan; scented of coconut, the daisy-like flow- tions allow at temperatures above
flowers white, lilac or magenta, lip ers open in bright sun. Cultivate as for 10°C/50°F. Water plentifully and
white, typically stained or marked Conophytum. liquid-feed fortnightly when in full
yellow); P.forrestii (China, N Burma; P.bolusii (MIMICRY PLANT, LIVING growth. Keep just moist in winter. Tie
flowers pale golden yellow or white, lip ROCK; leaves, 4–7cm (11/2–23/4in) long, to supports as growth proceeds. Prune
spotted brown or crimson); P.hookeriana 3–3.5cm (11/4–11/2in) thick, upper hard in late winter, either to the base
(C Nepal to S China; sepals and petals surface broader than long, lower sur- or by cutting lateral growth hard back
lilac-pink to rose, sometimes dotted faces rounded, apex thickened and to a more permanent framework of
pale violet, rarely white, lip white, drawn over upper surface, red or branches. Grow P.indica in bright fil-
dotted yellow-brown or purple, lamel- brown-green with numerous dots; flow- tered light or in sun, with some shade
lae and disc yellow); P.humilis (Burma, ers golden yellow); P.nelii (SPLITROCK, in summer, maintaining moderate to
NE India; flowers white, lip spotted CLEFTSTONE, MIMICRY PLANT; close to high humidity, with a minimum tem-
and streaked bronze or blood red, cen- P.bolusii in size; leaves 2–4, rounded perature of 15°C/59°F. For flowers in
tral zone pale yellow); P. x lagenaria below, drawn over upper surface so summer, cut back to within 10–15cm
(P.maculata x P.praecox; SW China; petals that leaf is hemispherical, dark grey- (4–6in) of the base in spring; given
and sepals pink to rose-purple, lip green, densely dotted; flowers salmon some heat, unpruned specimens will
white, central patch yellow, margins pink to yellow to orange); P.simulans bloom in late winter. Propagate P.auricu-
blotched purple). P.limprichtii (SW (leaves 6–8cm (21/2–3in), usually paired, lata by semi-ripe cuttings of non-
China, N Burma; flowers rose-pink to ovate-triangular, tip thickened beneath, flowering lateral growth with a heel.
magenta, lip paler, spotted ochre or not drawn over upper surface, red-, Propagate P.indica by basal cuttings and
crimson, lamellae white); P.praecox yellow-, or brown-green, spotted, root cuttings, and also by seed in
(Indochina, Burma; flowers white to undulating and tuberculate; flowers spring.
rose-purple, lamellae yellow); P.yunna- yellow, sometimes orange, fragrant). P.auriculata (syn. P.capensis; CAPE LEAD-
nensis (N Burma, China; flowers pale WORT; South Africa; shrub, stems long-
lavender to rose-pink, rarely white; lip plicate folded lengthwise; pleated, as arching, somewhat scandent; spikes
flecked red or purple). In addition to
the species and natural hybrid
a closed fan, a term usually applied to
leaves for example those of Veratrum.
short, flowers to 4cm (11/2in), pale blue);
P.indica (syn. P.rosea; SE Asia; herb or
P
described above, numerous grexes and subshrub, semi-scandent or erect;
clones of Pleione are grown. Among the ploidy the number of chromosome spikes 10–30cm (4–12in), flowers to
finest are: P. Shantung (flowers deep sets of a nucleus, cell, or organism. 2.5cm (1in), deep rosy pink to pale
yellow or white flushed with pink; the red or purple).
best-known and most vigorous clone is plug (1) a seedling
the large-flowered, apricot ‘Muriel raised in a single unit of Plumeria (for Charles
Harberd’; ‘Desert Sands’ has creamy- a cellular seed tray. Also often Plumier (1646–1706),
yellow tepals blushing pink and a red- called modules, plugs are a French traveller and
spotted, golden lip; ‘Fieldfare’ has large means of planting or pot- writer on the flora of
pale yellow flowers); P. Stromboli (flow- ting up with minimal root tropical America).
ers mostly dark red-pink; ‘Fireball’ is disturbance; (2) a small piece Apocynaceae. Tropical Ameri-
one of the most intensely coloured of of turf used for vegetative cas. FRANGIPANGI, TEMPLE TREE,
all Pleione clones); P. Versailles (flowers propagation of lawns; (3) of NOSEGAY, WEST INDIAN JASMINE,
very pale mauve-pink to deep rose- fruits, such as the raspberry, PAGODA TREE. 8 species, decidu-
pink; the clone ‘Bucklebury’ is particu- where the flesh can be detached, ous shrubs and small trees with a
larly fine and very floriferous). leaving the plug around which it sparse, candelabra-like crown of
is formed. cylindrical, swollen, grey-green
Pleiospilos (from Greek pleios, full, Plug plant
branches and plentiful milky
and spilos, dot, referring to the leaf sur- Plumbago (from Latin sap. The leaves are oblong or
face, which is often covered in dots). plumbum, lead; the plant was thought to lanceolate-elliptic. Borne usually on
Aizoaceae. South Africa. LIVING GRAN- be a cure for lead poisoning). Plumbag- bare branches in terminal thyrses, the
ITE, LIVING ROCK, STONE MIMICRY inaceae. Warm and tropical regions. flowers are fragrant, salverform or fun-
PLANT. 4 species, highly succulent, LEADWORT. 15 species, shrubs and nelform, with five, spreading, ovate-
stemless, clump-forming perennials. perennial or annual herbs. The flowers elliptic lobes. Grow in full sun in a dry 619
Solid and similar in texture to lumps of are produced at various times of year atmosphere with a minimum tempera-
Plumeria
ture of 10°C/50°F. Plant in a fertile, from P.institia; see damson; CHERRY crop with their own pollen. Cultivars in
loam-based medium with additional PLUMS, which are very early flowering, classes A and B require at least one
grit and sand. Water and feed gener- red- and yellow-fruited selections from other suitable cultivar close by as a
ously in spring and summer. Keep dry P.cerasifera; of more indifferent cooking pollen source for cross-pollination;
in winter when blooms may be pro- quality, some are grown in Britain for these requirements should be consid-
duced on bare branches. The soft, foliage effect (e.g. P.cerasifera ‘Pissardii’) ered at the time of purchasing planting
thick stems will bleed profusely if and as rootstocks (e.g. ‘Myrobalan B’); stock. The presence of bees and other
broken. Propagate by stem tip cuttings SALICINE PLUMS, which produce round, pollinating insects is paramount and
before leaves emerge in spring. Allow large fruits of red, yellow and purple, sheltered growing conditions are there-
the cut surface to dry for several days are selections from P.salicina, the Japan- fore desirable.
before inserting in a moist but well- ese plum, and are widely grown in Fruit-thinning to 10–15cm (4–6in)
drained medium. Japan, southern Europe, South Africa apart is essential when a good set has
P.alba (WEST INDIAN JASMINE; Puerto and California. occurred, but should be delayed until
Rico, Lesser Antilles; to 6m (20ft) Other minor groups are identifiable, stoning has taken place.
tall; leaves to 30cm (12in), lanceolate; including the Mirabelle plums of The introduction of less vigorous
flowers to 6cm (21/2in) in diameter, France, which are selections of P.institia rootstocks, producing smaller trees, has
yellow with white centre); P.rubra (see bullace) and gage-type plums such greatly increased the possibility of suc-
(FRANGIPANGI, TEMPLE TREE, PAGODA as ‘Imperial Gage’ (syn. ‘Denniston’s cessful cultivation in gardens. Of free
TREE; Mexico to Panama; to 7m (23ft); Superb’). standing forms the pyramid is the best
leaves to 40cm (16in), obovate; flowers In North America, the native species choice on account of space economy,
typically rose-pink with a yellow throat, P.americana, P.angustifolia, P.munsoniana, ease of management and lesser likeli-
but highly variable in colour, to 10cm P.nigra and P.subcordata have given rise to hood of branch breakage. The bush
(4in) in diameter; includes forms and a number of disease-resistant cultivars form is, however, suitable but standards
cultivars with flowers in shades and suited to both cold and hot conditions. and half standards produce trees
mixtures of white, yellow, gold, copper, Plums are widely grown in gardens unreasonably large for the average-
peach, salmon, rose, cerise and deep and the cultivar ‘Victoria’ is generally sized garden. Fan training is a very suc-
red, often with a yellow or white successful; a sunny but sheltered site cessful form for plums, as it allows for
throat). and reasonable freedom from spring full temperature benefit where grown
frosts will encourage good pollination against a wall or fence. Training in the
plumose feather-like; with long, fine and improve fruiting potential. In cordon form is less suitable because of
hairs, which themselves have fine sec- Britain, the southern and particularly a lack of sufficiently dwarfing root-
ondary hairs. the drier southeast counties offer suit- stock. In the US, large vase-shaped
P plumule the axis (stem) of an embryo
able climates for the widest range of
cultivars, and wall culture is advisable
bushes are favoured, and sometimes
also centre-leader trees.
or seedling. for consistently good results with the Since growth commences early,
best gages and gage types. For all planting is best done in late autumn or
plums the fruits of selected Prunus plums, high lime soils should be no later than late winter; trees should
species. The plum grown in Britain avoided, and for longevity of trees, be staked and tied. Planting distances
and Europe is classified as P. x domestica, continuously good husbandry is neces- in gardens should be approximately
and is considered to have arisen from sary on sandy soils. 3.5m (111/2ft) for bushes, 3m (10ft) for
hybridization between P.cerasifera and Propagation is by budding or graft- pyramids and 2.75m (9ft) for spindles.
P.spinosa in southwest Asia/southeast ing predominantly on to moderately Fan trees require a wall or fence height
Europe. The Romans introduced dif- vigorous ‘St Julien A’ and moderately of at least 1.75m (51/2ft) and a span of
ferent types of plum into Britain, from dwarfing ‘Pixy’ rootstocks; the older 3m (10ft) minimum, with at least 3m
which seedlings arose in the wild incor- vigorous rootstocks ‘Myrobalan B’ and (10ft) between trees.
porating the indigenous P.institia and ‘Brompton’ are occasionally used. In Pruning of established trees should
P.spinosa. Until the 16th century, the the US, seedling ‘Myrobalan’ is the always be done during the summer
fruit was eaten dried and preserved. normal rootstock, or ‘Brompton’ or ‘St when there is less risk of infection from
The main groups of plums belong Julien’ where incompatibility occurs; silver leaf; early summer is the ideal
to P.domestica, with wide variations in the European plums are suited espe- time, while fruitlets are still small.
shape, size and colour, within which cially to New York State and east coast Wounds over 2.5cm (1in) in diameter
several types are distinguishable, regions, while the Japanese types are should be sealed immediately with a
including greengage types, with green, preferred on the west coast. suitable paint, the potential benefit out-
round fruits of sweet flavour; transpar- Fertility in European plums falls into weighing the observation that painted
ent gage types, where the stone is visi- three distinct categories. Class A: culti- wounds heal more slowly. Steady pro-
ble; and prune types, which are vars entirely failing to set with their duction of young growth is essential for
purple-skinned, usually have a high own pollen; class B: cultivars setting a fruit quality, and on bush trees and
620 sugar content and are suitable for poor crop (2–5%) with their own spindles, pruning consists of removing
drying; DAMSONS, which are selections pollen; class C: cultivars setting a full any low, crowded, crossing or damaged
Podocarpus
pneumatophore a porous apo- Podocarpus (from Greek pous, foot,

geotropic root, usually taking the func- and karpos, fruit, referring to the fleshy
tion of a respiratory organ. It is found receptacle at the base of the seed).
in plants of wet places, e.g. mangroves. Podocarpaceae. Mexico, C and S
America, central and South Africa,
Poa (Greek name for pasture grass). Asia (Himalaya to Japan), Australasia.
Gramineae. Cool temperate regions. PODOCARP, YELLOW-WOOD. About 100
MEADOWGRASS, BLUE GRASS. 500 species, evergreen, coniferous shrubs
species of mostly perennial, sometimes and trees. They vary widely in habit
dioecious hardy grasses; variable habit, from dwarf and densely bushy to tall
stems slender to robust; leaves narrow, and erect to weeping. The foliage
folded to flat, or bristled. Inflorescence ranges in size and shape from small to
paniculate. P.annua (ANNUAL MEADOW- large, from needle-like to broadly
Fan-training a plum GRASS. Europe, US. Annual or bien- rhombic or lanceolate-falcate, and in
Careful spacing and tying-in of the shoots nial; stems to 30cm (12in), smooth, colour from dull yellow-olive to deep,
will maximize the amount of ripening sun- creeping or erect; leaves to 3.5mm glaucous sea green. In the female,
shine that will fall on the fruits. (1/8in) diam., linear, flat, smooth. Inflo- cones develop fleshy, bead-like arils.
rescence a panicle to 7cm (23/4in), pyra- The following species are hardy in cli-
growths or branches, keeping the midal, loose; spikelets to 5.5mm (1/4in) mate zone 7, but suffer in exposed sites
number of cuts to a minimum. On with 3–7 flowers. Common as a weed and hard winters. For this reason, they
pyramids, summer pruning consists of plant in gardens, especially in turf); tend to be grown as young, shrubby
cutting all laterals and leaders, other P.alpina (ALPINE MEADOWGRASS; C Asia; plants in sheltered rock gardens. P.alpi-
than the central one, to 20cm (8in), tufted perennial, stems to 50cm (20in), nus and P.nivalis are especially suited to
and all sublaterals to 15cm (6in), once glabrous, smooth; leaves to 5 x 0.3cm (2 such positions. However, in mild,
the shoots are well-ripened. An estab- x 1/8in), linear, thick, flattened; panicles humid, maritime climates, some, like
lished fan should be lightly pruned to 7cm (23/4in), ovoid, dense; spikelets P.salignus, will attain considerable
between bud break and flowering in to 1cm (3/8in) with 3–7 flowers. In var. stature. Plant on moist, acid to neutral,
the spring to remove unhealthy, badly- vivipera spikelets are replaced with gritty soils in full sun. Propagation is
placed or congested growth. Early numerous live plantlets. Grown in rock generally similar to that for Taxus, by
summer training and pruning entails gardens or at the front of a border). seed or cuttings; seed may need to be
tying in suitable laterals to the support Grow Poa spp. in moderately fertile stratified for up to a year. Cuttings
wires in order to develop and maintain soil in sun or part-shade. Remove flow- should include an erect lead shoot if
good shape. Surplus side shoots should
be pinched or cut to 6 leaves, and these
ered stems to prevent seeding. Propa-
gate from seed in spring or autumn.
good shape is wanted; side shoots pro-
duce prostrate plants.
P
pruned shoots require further shorten- P.alpinus (TASMANIAN PODOCARP; SE
ing to 3 leaves in late summer. pod a general term for any dry, dehis- Australia (northern southwest Victoria,
Watering and mulching are advanta- cent fruit. Tasmania; shrub to 3m (10ft), branches
geous. Gather fruit when firmly ripe level or upswept; leaves linear-oblong,
preferably picking a tree over two or Podalyria (named for Podalyrius, 6–12mm (1/4–1/2in), dark buff green
three times for dessert samples rather son of Aesculapius, celebrated in above, tinged blue beneath, obtuse to
than clearing a whole crop. Broken Greek mythology as a skilful physician). apiculate, midrib keeled; receptacle
branches should be pruned off as soon Leguminosae. South Africa. 25 species, vivid red); P.latifolius (YELLOWWOOD;
as noticed, and wounds painted. downy shrubs with simple leaves and Africa (S Sudan to S Natal); tree to 30m
Possible problems: aphids, birds, fragrant, pea-like flowers. Grow in a (100ft), or shrubby, bark dark grey,
plum moth (see moth), red spider mite, medium-fertility loam-based mix with smooth, exfoliating in long strips; leaves
winter moth; bacterial canker (see additional leafmould. Water moder- linear-elliptic, 4–10cm (11/2–4in) on
bacterial diseases), brown rot, silver leaf; ately, giving a dilute liquid feed fort- mature trees, longer on young trees,
gumming. nightly when in growth. Maintain a straight or falcate, rigid, dark glossy
winter minimum temperature of green to green tinged blue above,
plunge to sink potted plants, usually 7°C/45°F, with good ventilation. midrib distinct beneath; receptacle red
up to their rims, into a bed of sand, Propagate from seed, or by cuttings of tinged purple); P.macrophyllus (BIGLEAF
gravel or soil, known as a plunge bed, short lateral shoots with a heel, in a PODOCARP, KUSAMAKI; S China, Japan;
in order to protect them from extremes sandy propagating mix in a closed case tree to 15m (50ft), or shrub to 2m
of temperature, to reduce water loss with bottom heat. P.calyptrata (to 3m (61/2ft); leaves broadly linear-lanceolate,
and to maintain stability in wind. (10ft); leaves to 5cm (2in), elliptic or 8–10cm (3–4in) on mature trees, longer
obovate, grey-green, thinly pubescent; on young trees, green tinged yellow
plur-, pluri- a prefix denoting flowers to 3cm (11/4in), petals light pink beneath, midrib, distinct, bluntly acute;
‘many’, as plurilocular, meaning to lavender-purple, purple at base, receptacle red; ‘Angustifolius’: leaves 621
many-celled. keel white). narrower; ‘Argenteus’: leaves bordered
Podocarpus
white); P.nivalis (ALPINE TOTARA; S New leaves 30cm (12in) across, lobes 5–9, poisonous plants many plants con-
Zealand; resembles P.alpinus, but leaves cleft, finely hairy beneath; flowers nod- tain chemicals that are poisonous to
elliptic, wider; shrub, erect to prostrate ding, fragrant, white to rose; fruit humans and animals. In some plants,
or procumbent, to 2 x 3m (61/2 x 10ft) green-yellow, rarely red); P.pleianthum every part is poisonous; in others,
wide; leaves 6–18mm (1/4–3/4in), obtuse, (syn. Dysosma pleiantha; C and SE poison may be concentrated primarily
rigid, margins thickened; receptacle red; China; differs from P.versipelle in having in one type of organ – for example,
‘Bronze’: leaves tinged yellow-bronze, glossy mid-green leaves to 60cm (24in) rhizome or rootstocks (as in Convallaria
especially when young; ‘County Park in diameter, shallowly and bluntly and Iris), fruit (as in Daphne), or foliage
Fire’: foliage creamy yellow to gold lobed, and appallingly malodorous, (as in Ruta). In some cases, the poiso-
flushed bronze-red to pink); P.salignus dark amber flowers); P.versipelle (China, nous parts of a plant can be rendered
(WILLOWLEAF PODOCARP, WILLOW Tibet; leaves 40cm (16in) across, irreg- innocuous by cooking; with cassava or
PODOCARP; S Chile; tree, to 20m (66ft), ularly deeply divided, 5–8-lobed, finely manioc (Manihot esculenta), this is
or shrub in cold areas, bark fibrous; toothed; flowers nodding, dull orange- achieved by combining cooking with
branches arching, foliage somewhat bronze to deep crimson, malodorous). crushing of the starchy roots to expel
weeping; adult leaves narrow-lanceolate, the prussic acid within them.
more or less falcate, 8–12cm (3–43/4in), Podranea (an anagram of Pandorea, a The lethal uses of some plant poi-
shiny above, paler beneath, juvenile genus in which these vines were once sons are well-known, for example, the
leaves straighter, 5–10cm (2–4in); recep- included). Bignoniaceae. South Africa. curare and wourate arrow poisons
tacle dark red to violet); P.totara (TOTARA; 2 species, evergreen climbing shrubs from Strychnos toxicaria in South Amer-
New Zealand; tree, to 30m (100ft); bark with pinnate leaves and clusters of ica, and S.nux-vomica as the source of
dark brown, to silver-grey, thick, exfoli- funnel- to bell-shaped flowers in strychnine. Hemlock Conium maculatum
ating in strips; leaves 15–25cm (6–10in), summer. Cultivate as for Bignonia. P.rica- and angel’s trumpet Brugmansia arborea
linear-lanceolate, straight to falcate, soliana (PINK TRUMPET VINE, PORT ST are recorded as intentionally adminis-
sharply spined, coriaceous, stiff, green JOHN CLIMBER, RICASOL PODRANEA; tered poisons. However, some poisons,
tinged yellow-grey and ridged above, flowers to 6cm (21/2in) long, pale pink like the morphine of Papaver somniferum,
with raised midrib beneath; receptacle striped red, fragrant). and equally curare, have become useful
fleshy, orange-red to bright red; ‘Aureus’: drugs and anaesthetics.
leaves yellow-green). pod-spot any of several fungal dis- A great many garden plants are poi-
eases that cause spots on the pods of sonous, but incidents of serious effects
Podophyllum (from Greek pous, peas and beans, and may also affect are rare. It is important that possible
foot and phyllon, leaf – the leaves were leaves, stems and flowers. Aschochyta risks are understood, but the subject
thought to resemble a duck’s foot in and Mycosphaerella are commonly should be seen in perspective to avoid
P outline). Berberidaceae. Eastern N
America to E Asia and Himalaya.
responsible, and damage may be severe
in wet seasons. Infection of pods
unnecessary alarm and the spoiling of
enjoyment of gardens and gardening.
Around 5 species, perennial herbs with invariably leads to infection of seed, Young children are most at risk from
tuber-like rhizomes. The leaves are which may be disfigured, and this gives plant poisoning because they frequently
large, peltate and palmately lobed, rise to diseased seedlings. Badly put things into their mouths and
standing over or beneath the terminal infected haulm should be burnt and colourful flowers or berries may be
flowers like a parasol or ruff. Produced the growing site rested. especially attractive to them. A sensible
singly or a few together in spring and rule is that if a plant is not a recog-
early summer, the flowers are cup- or Pogonatherum (Greek, meaning nized food it must not be eaten, and
bud-like with six to nine petals. They bearded with bristles). Gramineae. Tropi- children must be taught this. Mush-
give rise to large, fleshy, ovoid berries. cal Asia. 3 species, low-growing, rooms and ‘toadstools’ should never be
These are hardy plants for the wood- clump-forming to spreading, bamboo- eaten unless definitely identified as
land or wild garden, or for moist and like grasses with many very slender harmless.
shaded borders. Grow in deep, humus- culms. A delightful miniature Adults are most at risk of poisoning
rich, damp soil, in filtered light or ‘bamboo’, Pogonatherum forms a mop of from physical contact with plants and
shade. Propagate by division, from cut- culms, dense with narrow, bright green sap during weeding and pruning. This
tings of the rhizome, or from fresh, leaves. It favours moist soils rich in type of poisoning usually produces a
ripe seed. garden compost, leafmould or com- skin reaction known as contact der-
P.hexandrum (syn. P.emodi; W China, posted bark, shade, a minimum tem- matitis, ranging from mild irritation to
Himalaya; leaves to 25cm (10in) across, perature of 10°C/50°F and frequent chronic blistering. The responsible
3–5-lobed, toothed, often flushed red- misting. Plants will regenerate readily if mechanisms can be divided into five
bronze at first – marbled red-bronze or cut hard back. Propagate by division. groups: (a) mechanical irritants, such as
brown in cultivar Majus; flowers soli- P.paniceum (BAMBOO GRASS; India, cactus spines; (b) stings, such as those
tary, erect, appearing before leaves China, Malaysia; culms 15–40cm produced by stinging nettles (Urtica
mature, white to rose-pink; fruit red); (6–16in), simple or branched, tufted, dioica), where a toxin is mechanically
622 P.peltatum (MAY APPLE, WILD MANDRAKE; slender, leafy; leaves to 2cm (3/4in), injected; (c) phototoxins, which are
eastern N America south to Texas; linear-lanceolate, bright fresh green). chemicals activated by sunlight, pro-
Polianthes
duced, for example, by rue (Ruta grave- environment. At the same time, gar- pher Polemon, or perhaps from
olens), and giant hogweed (Heracleum deners have a duty to take reasonable polemos, war). Polemoniaceae. Temper-
mantegazzianum), the sap of which can steps to avoid exposure to risk. ate to Arctic regions, northern Hemi-
give rise to skin blisters and cause per- The following is a selective list of sphere, southern S America. JACOB’S
manent scarring; (d) allergens inducing poisonous species often found in gar- LADDER, SKY PILOT. 25 species, annuals
immediate or delayed sensitization, for dens. The letters in parentheses indi- or perennial herbs, often muskily
example, chrysanthemum (Dendranthema cate the types of potential risk. For scented. The leaves are usually pinnate.
x grandiflorum) Primula obconica, ivy external effects: (S) skin irritant; (E) eye Borne in spring and summer in axillary
(Hedera helix) and poison ivy (Toxicoden- irritant. For internal effects: (P) poiso- or terminal cymes, the flowers are
dron radicans). Hayfever falls into the nous when ingested i.e. known to pre- narrowly funnelform to rotate-
allergen-produced group of symptoms sent any level of hazard from mild campanulate and 5-petalled. Hardy in
and is the result of allergy to wind- illness to, occasionally, severe poisoning. climate zone 6, the following species
borne pollen; (e) direct irritants, as a Aconitum (P/S); Aesculus (P); Agrostemma are suitable for the herbaceous and
result of which any person is likely to githago (P); Alstroemeria (S); Aquilegia (P); mixed border and the wild garden.
have a reaction if the concentration of Arum (P/S/E); Altropa (P/S); Brugmansia Plant in sun or part shade in moist,
toxin is sufficient, for example, irrita- (P); Caladium (P); Calla (P/S/E); Cathar- well-drained and fertile soil. Deadhead
tion from the sap of Daphne, Euphorbia anthus roseus (P); Colchicum (P); Convallaria to prevent self-seeding. Propagate
and Ranunculus species. majalis (P); x Cupressocyparis leylandii (S); species by seed in autumn, cultivars by
Contact with potentially dermatitic Daphne (P/S); Datura (P/S); Delphinium division in spring.
plants can be avoided by wearing pro- (inc. Consolida) (P); Dendranthema (S); P.brandegei (W US; erect perennial
tective clothing. Where poisoning by Dictamnus (S); Dieffenbachia (P/S/E); 10–30cm (4–12in), densely glandular-
swallowing is suspected or evident, Digitalis (P); Echium (S); Euonymus (P); pubescent and muskily aromatic; flow-
medical advice must be obtained, Euphorbia (P/S/E) – poinsettia does not ers bright yellow to pale gold or white,
taking samples of the plants where present a serious hazard; Ficus carica funnelform with a very narrow tube);
known. (S/E); Fremontodendron (S/E); Gaultheria P.caeruleum (JACOB’S LADDER, GREEK
Young pets are notoriously adven- (P); Gloriosa superba (P); Hedera (P/S); VALERIAN, CHARITY; N America, N
turous and should be kept away from Helleborus (P/S); Heracleum mantegazz- Europe, N Asia; perennial 30–90cm
potentially hazardous plants. Poisoning ianum (severe skin irritant in bright (12–36in) tall, glandular-pubescent
of livestock is often more serious due to sunlight); Hippeastrum (P); Hyacinthus (S); above; flowers rotate to campanulate,
the large quantities ingested and the Hyoscyamus (P); Ipomoea (P); Iris (P/S); blue, rarely white); P.carneum (W US;
longer time spent in digestion. Juniperus sabina (P); Kalmia (P); + erect perennial, 10–40cm (4–16in);
Thoughtless disposal of prunings into Laburnocytisus ‘Adamii’ (P); Laburnum (P); flowers pink or yellow, sometimes dark
fields accessible to livestock is an
important cause of sporadic poisoning.
Lantana (P/S); Ligustrum (P); Lobelia
(P/S/E); Lupinus (P); Monstera deliciosa
purple to lavender, rarely pink, white
or blue); P.foliosissimum (LEAFY JACOB’S
P
Particularly hazardous are hedge trim- (P/S/E); Narcissus (P/S); Nerium oleander LADDER; erect perennial, 40–120cm
mings from plants such as box (Buxus (P); Ornithogalum (P/S); Phytolacca (P/S); (16–48in), sparsely villous, glandular
sempervirens), laburnum (Laburnum anagy- Polygonatum (P); Primula obconica (S); above; flowers campanulate, blue-
roides), cherry laurel (Prunus laurocerasus), Prunus laurocerasus (P); Rhamnus (inc. violet, cream, white, or – var. flavum –
privet (Ligustrum species), Rhododendron Frangula) (P/S); Rhus verniciflua, R.radi- yellow and tawny-red outside); P.
species and yew (Taxus baccata). Dried cans, R.succedanea (P/S, severe); Ricinus pulcherrimum (NW America; perennial,
remains of many poisonous plants communis (P); Ruta (severe skin irritant in 0.5–3m (20in–10ft), erect; flowers
can have the same or a greater level bright sunlight); Schefflera (S); Solan- campanulate, blue to violet or white,
of toxicity. leaves are toxic dra (P); Solanum (most species) (P); tube yellow inside). Cultivars. Hybrids
In the UK, and can irritate Spartium junceum (P); Symphoricarpos and cultivars range in height from
there exists a volun- skin and eyes (P); Taxus (P); Thuja (P/S); 20–100cm (8–39in), in flower colour
tary Code of Rec- Tulipa (S); Veratrum (P); from white to pale rose, rich pink, lilac,
ommended Retail Wisteria (P). All of these mauve and pale blue to azure; there
Practice relating plants are safe to are also some striking white and yellow
to the labelling grow provided leaf variegations.
of potentially they are treated
harmful plants, with respect. polesaw a saw blade attached to a
which is They are ornamental long pole, used to cut branches of tall
intended to help plants not food plants. trees.
gardeners purchase plants
wisely. Individuals must always pole see rod. Polianthes (from Greek polios,
exercise proper responsibility bright, and anthos, flower). Agavaceae.
for their own safety and Polemonium (name used Mexico. 13 species, evergreen peren-
that of children and ani- by Dioscorides, possibly for nial herbs with thick, bulb-like bases, 623
mals within the garden Dieffenbachia seguine the early Athenian philoso- short rhizomes and thickened roots.
Polianthes
Tough and thinly fleshy, the leaves are pollen the microspores, spores or thrips (Thysanoptera) pollinate flowers
lanceolate or linear. Borne in terminal, grains producing male gametes and but any benefit may be offset by injury
bracteate, spike-like racemes, the borne by an anther in a flowering to the blooms. Butterflies and moths
flowers are cylindrical to narrowly plant. (Lepidoptera) are important pollinators
funnel-shaped with six segments. of flowers with long tubular corollas.
Frost-tender, tuberous perennials, pollen beetles (Meligethes
Polianthes usually flowers in species) (Coleoptera: Nitiduli- pollination the transfer of pollen
mid-summer, but, with dae) small, shiny, black or grains from an anther to a stigma, a
successional plantings green-bronze beetles, process that precedes fertilization and
and given protection up to 3mm (1/8in) long, the production of seed. It may involve
and a minimum temper- with clubbed anten- either self-pollination, if pollen is trans-
ature of 15°C/59°F, may nae; both adults and ferred within the same flower, or cross-
be forced to bloom larvae feed on pollen. pollination where the transfer is
throughout the year; The larvae of common between different flowers on the same
P.tuberosa has long been species, such as Meligethes plant or to flowers on another plant of
valued for its spikes of very aeneus and M.viridescens, feed the same species. Many flowers have
strongly scented, waxen- Pollen beetles in the flower buds of brassi- processes and structures developed to
white flowers. In cool temperate cas and related plants, such as mustard ensure cross-pollination, such as nectar
climates, Polianthes is grown in the and oil seed rape, causing a reduction production to attract insects, mecha-
warm, sheltered flower border, to be in the seed crop. From spring onwards, nisms to ensure pollen distribution (as
lifted and dried off in autumn and adults invade the flowers of a wide in Viola and Salvia), and profuse pollen
overwintered in sand in frost free- variety of garden plants, including production for wind distribution (as in
conditions. Otherwise, grow in bright roses, sweet peas, marrows, runner many grasses). There are adaptations
direct sunlight in the greenhouse or beans and daffodils. Although the adult to ensure self-pollination, such as the
conservatory. Plant in a mix of fibrous beetles cause no direct damage, prob- maturing of anthers and stigmas at the
loam with sand, well-rotted manure lems arise when infested cut flowers are same time. Intervention by gardeners
and leafmould or equivalent; give brought indoors, and infested blooms can effect improved pollination, for
bottom heat of about 15–18°C/ are down-marked on the show bench. example, dusting between open flowers
59–64°F, keeping the potting mix just Cut flowers for the house should be of peach with a brush or rabbit’s tail.
moist until the leaves appear. Water tapped gently to dislodge as many bee- Such action can also be a means of
plentifully when in full growth, and tles as possible, and then placed for a making controlled crosses in plant
feed fortnightly with liquid fertilizer. few hours during the day in a shed or breeding.
P Dry off after the leaves fade in winter.
Propagate by seed or offsets in spring.
outhouse where most of the remaining
beetles will fly to windows or open pollinator (1) an agent or means of
P.geminiflora (to 70cm (28in); flowers doors. Blooms intended for exhibition pollen transfer, for example insects,
to 2.5cm (1in), bright orange-red, can be enclosed in fine netting before birds, bats, or wind; (2) used in fruit
nodding in a lax raceme); P.tuberosa opening to exclude beetles. growing to describe a cultivar planted
(TUBEROSE; only known as a cultigen, to ensure fruit set on another cultivar
having been cultivated in pre- pollenizer, pollonizer a plant that that is self-sterile or partially so.
Columbian Mexico; to 1.2m (4ft); provides pollen.
flowers very fragrant, in a lax spike to pollinium a regular mass of more or
1m (31/4ft), pure waxy white, 3–6cm pollinating insects the most less coherent pollen grains.
(11/4–21/2in); ‘Excelsior Double Pearl’, important insect pollinators are found
an improved form of ‘The Pearl’; in the order Hymenoptera, which polycarbonate see greenhouse.
‘Single Mexican’, with single flowers includes sawflies, wasps, bees, ants and,
with up to 5 spikes, long-lasting; ‘The particularly, the cosmopolitan honey Polygala (name used by Dioscorides,
Pearl’, with double, highly fragrant bee (Apis mellifera) and bumble bees from Greek polys, much, and gala, milk;
flowers; var. gracilis, of more slender (Bombus species); some solitary bees, these plants were believed to promote
habit, with narrower leaves, a perianth such as leaf-cutting bees (Megachile the secretion of milk). Polygalaceae.
with a long slender tube and linear species) and mason bees (Osmia Widespread. MILKWORT, SENECA,
segments). species), are also useful. Among the SNAKEROOT. 500 species, annual or
Diptera, blowflies and hoverflies play a perennial herbs and shrubs or, rarely,
pollard to cut back annually all significant role. Blowflies are easily trees. The pea-like flowers consist of
branches of a tree to the main trunk, reared in captivity and have been used two inner, petal-like sepals (wings) and
usually up to a height of about 2m in plant breeding programmes under three to five petals, the lowermost petal
(61/2ft). It is practised to contain tree greenhouse protection for crops, such (keel) often crested. The hardy P.calcarea
spread, as with planes (Platanus), or to as brassicas, onions and carrots. Some and P.chamaebuxus are suitable for the
624 produce a decorative mophead effect, beetles (Coleoptera), for example, rock garden. Some alpine species, such
as with willows (Salix). pollen beetles, and various species of as P.vayredae, do not thrive in mild
Polygonum
damp winters and may be more suc- species, rhizomatous, perennial herbs stem 20–100cm (8–39in), erect; leaves
cessfully grown in the alpine house. with erect to arching stems clothed 6.5–15cm (21/2–6in), opposite or
Tender species, such as P.myrtifolia, need with alternate, opposite, or whorled, whorled, linear-lanceolate to narrowly
the protection of the cool greenhouse ovate to linear leaves. The flowers are ovate; flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in), droop-
in cool temperate zones. Grow in part tubular with six, erect to spreading seg- ing, 1–3 per axil, green-white).
shade or in sun in moisture-retentive ments, and usually nod or hang from
but well-drained soil. Under glass, the leaf axils. The berries are blue- Polygonum (from Greek polys, many,
grow in bright filtered light, providing black or red. The following species are and gony, joint; the stems have conspic-
shade from the hottest summer sun hardy and tolerant of a range of con- uously swollen nodes). Polygonaceae.
and good ventilation. Water plentifully ditions, excepting heat and drought. Northern temperate regions with 1
and feed fortnightly with dilute liquid However, they are best grown in fertile, species also found in southern South
feed when in full growth. Keep just humus-rich, moist but well-drained America. KNOTWEED, SMARTWEED.
moist in winter with a minimum tem- soil in cool, semi-shade or shade. Leave Some 20 species, annual or perennial
perature of 5°C/41°F. Cut leggy speci- undisturbed once planted and allow herbs, some becoming shrubby. The
mens hard back in late winter. large clumps to establish for best stems appear jointed. Produced in
Propagate by seed in spring or by soft- effects. P.hookeri is suited to damp summer in axillary, rarely terminal,
wood or semi-ripe cuttings in a sandy pockets in the rock garden and to cymes, the flowers are small, funnel- or
propagating mix in a closed case with alpine sinks and troughs. Propagate bell-shaped and usually consist of five
gentle bottom heat. by division or by seed in autumn. segments. The achenes are small and
P.calcarea (W Europe; perennial herb, Larvae of the saw fly will strip foliage three-angled, enclosed by persistent
erect to 20cm (8in), rosette leaves in summer. perianth or partly protruding.
spathulate to obovate, stem leaves P.biflorum (syn. P.canaliculatum, P.com- Many species formerly found in
smaller, linear-lanceolate; flowers usu- mutatum; E US, south central Canada; Polygonum are now included in Persicaria
ally blue or white); P.chamaebuxus (C stem 40cm–2m (16in–61/2ft), erect or and of the remaining species few are
Europe to Italy; evergreen, low- arched; leaves 4–18cm (11/2–7in), alter- suitable for use as garden plants and
growing shrub, 5–15cm (2–6in); leaves nate, narrow-lanceolate to broadly most have the potential to become
1.5–3cm (5/8–11/4in), elliptic to obovate, elliptic, glaucous beneath; flowers weedy. Amongst those sometimes
leathery, somewhat glossy; flowers with drooping, 1–2.3cm (1/2–1in), green- grown as ornamentals the most appeal-
wings cream-white to pink, rosy purple white); P.hookeri (E Himalaya, China; ing is P.scoparium, an attractive curiosity
or yellow, keel yellow); P.myrtifolia stem 5–10cm (2–4in), more or less with weak, horsetail-like stems, incor-
(South Africa; erect, much-branched erect; leaves crowded, alternate, rectly grown for many years as P.equi-
shrub, 1–2.5m (31/4–8ft); leaves 1.5–2cm (5/8–3/4in), linear to narrow- setiforme, under which name it may still
2.5–5cm (1–2in), elliptic-oblong or
obovate; flowers green-white veined
elliptic; flowers solitary, erect, to 2cm
(3/4in), purple or lilac-pink); P. x hybridum
be offered. A native of Corsica and
Sardinia it requires a sheltered spot in
P
purple, or wholly rich purple); P.vayredae (P.multiflorum x P.odoratum, intermediate zones experiencing winter tempera-
(E Pyrenees; perennial to 5cm (2in); between parents; tures below about –5ºC/23ºF but will
leaves 2–2.5cm (3/4–1in), linear- common in cultiva- often shoot from the base if cut back
lanceolate; flowers pink-purple with tion, includes by frost.
a yellow-tinged keel). ‘Flore Pleno’, P.forrestii (China, Kashmir,
with double Myanmar; creeping peren-
polygamodioecious (1) a plant flowers, and nial to 20cm (8in); leaves
that is functionally dioecious but con- ‘Striatum’ with creamy suborbicular or reni-
tains some perfect flowers in its inflo- white striped leaves); P.multi- form, cordate at base,
rescence; (2) a species that has perfect florum (Europe, Asia; stem to blade to 4cm (11/2in)
and imperfect flowers on separate 90cm (36in), arched; leaves 5–15cm on long petiole.
individuals. (2–6in), alternate, elliptic-oblong to Flowers
ovate; flowers 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), droop- small and
polygamous describing a plant that ing, white tipped green); P.odoratum white to yellow-
has male (staminate), female (pistillate) (syn. P.officinale; Europe, Asia; stem ish, borne in
and hermaphrodite flowers, on the to 85cm (34in), arched; leaves Polygonatum summer on terminal,
same or separate plants of the same 10–12cm (4–43/4in) lanceolate to multiflorum corymbose cymes);
species, for example ash (Fraxinus ovate, alternate, ascending; flowers P.scoparium (syn. P.equi-
excelsior). 2–4 per axil, drooping, fragrant 1–2cm setiforme misapplied; Corsica and Sar-
(1/2–3/4in), white tipped green; includes dinia; branching perennial to 1m (31/4ft)
Polygonatum (from Greek polys, ‘Gilt Edge’, with leaves edged yellow; or so, rootstock becoming woody;
many, and gony joint, referring to the var. plurifolium ‘Variegatum’, with red leaves falling quickly leaving wiry,
many-jointed rhizome; name used by stems when young and leaves narrowly green stems, naked but for small, red-
Dioscorides). Liliaceae (Convallari- edged creamy white); P.verticillatum dish ochreae at the nodes. The flowers 625
aceae). N US, Europe, Asia. Some 30 (Europe, temperate Asia, Afghanistan; are small and white – often pink in
Polygonum
wild plants – but highly fragrant, car- linear to oblong, margin entire to P.scutellaria (possible cultigen originating
ried in lax spikes in the summer). notched or undulate and cartilaginous); in E Malaysia or the West Pacific, now
P.virginianum (ROCK POLYPODY, AMERI- widespread in warmer regions; shrub
polymorphic occurring in more CAN WALL FERN; N America, E Asia; or small tree to 6m (20ft); leaves to
than two distinct forms; possessing fronds to 25 x 7cm (10 x 23/4in), arching 30cm (12in), leaflets 1–3(–5), broadly
variety in some morphological feature. or pendent, lanceolate or deltoid to elliptic or orbicular, often shield-like, to
oblong, leathery to thin-textured, seg- 28cm (11in) wide, apex rounded, the
polyploid a plant with more than the ments to 4 x 1cm (11/2 x 1/2in), to 25 base obtuse to cordate, entire or
normal two sets of chromosomes as the pairs, alternate to subopposite, lanceo- minutely spiny-toothed, sometimes
genetic components of its cells. It arises late to linear or oblong, entire to lobed; includes cultivars with finely
from a multiplying of the chromo- notched and undulate; includes ‘Bipin- toothed or cut and variegated leaves).
somes complement at the time of fertil- natifidum’, with regularly and deeply
ization. See triploid, tetraploid. lacerated pinnae, plumose); P.vulgare Polystichum (from Greek polys,
(COMMON POLYPODY, ADDER’S FERN, many, and stix, a row, referring to the
Polypodium (from Greek polys, WALL FERN, GOLDEN MAIDENHAIR; N regular rows of sori seen on many
much, and pous, foot). Polypodiaceae. America, Europe, Africa, E Asia; species). Dryopteridaceae. Cosmopoli-
Mainly temperate northern Hemi- fronds to 30 x 15cm (12 x 6in), ascend- tan. HOLLY FERN. More than 175
sphere. POLYPODY. Some 75 species, ing to erect, lanceolate to ovate or species, small to medium-sized terres-
epiphytic, lithophytic or terrestrial oblong or linear, glabrous, thin- trial ferns, evergreen to semi-deciduous,
ferns, evergreen or semi-deciduous textured to subcoriaceous, segments to with shaggy-scaly rhizomes and
with creeping, scaly rhizomes. The 6cm x 7mm (21/2in x 1/4in), close, spread- 1–3-pinnate fronds. Most species are
fronds are entire to pinnate or pinnati- ing, horizontal to ascending, oblong to hardy to –30°C/–22°F or lower, but
fid. Hardy in climate zone 7 and easily linear, obtuse, entire to dentate; includes where harsh winters are common, it
established in the fern border, mixed cultivars with plumose, crested, forked, may be wise to mulch their bases
border, or (P.vulgare) on dry stone walls. lacerated and pinnately cut fronds). thickly and to cover the crown with
Although they favour moist, lightly dried leaves or bracken. Polystichum will
shaded conditions, they will tolerate Polyscias (from Greek polys, many, tolerate part sun for up to six hours a
drought and direct sunlight. Propagate and skias, shadow, i.e. sunshade or day in moist soil. In full shade, it will
by division or spores. canopy, referring to the sometimes tolerate quite dry conditions once the
P.cambricum (WELSH POLYPODY; large and many-branched, spreading fronds are developed. Preferred pH is
Europe; differs from P.vulgare in its inflorescences). Araliaceae. Old World 6.5 to 7.5; in very acid soils, some
broader, softer fronds; 13–50cm Tropics. About 100 species, evergreen species, such as P.setiferum, gradually
P (5–20in) x 7–10cm (23/4–4in), pinnatifid,
deltoid or oblong, base truncate, seg-
shrubs or trees. Clustered toward the
branch ends, the leaves are simple to
lose vigour. Propagate by spores or
division in spring. Increase also by
ments to 9mm (3/8in) wide; includes trifoliolate or pinnate. Small, pale flow- bulbil-like plantlets, where produced.
numerous cultivars with finely dis- ers are borne in umbels or heads in P.acrostichoides (CHRISTMAS FERN; N
sected, plumose, forked, lacerate and compound inflorescences. Cultivation America; fronds 20–50cm (8–20in) x
crested fronds); P.glycyrrhiza (LICORICE as for Schefflera. P.filicifolia (FERN-LEAF 5–12cm (2–43/4in), linear-lanceolate,
FERN; Alaska to California; fronds to 35 ARALIA; probable cultigen originating pinnae alternate, 20–35 each side,
x 1.5cm (14 x 5/8in), pinnate to pinnati- in E Malaysia or the West Pacific, now linear-oblong, acutely auriculate at
fid, lanceolate to elliptic or oblong, widespread in warmer regions; large base, minutely spinose-dentate, dark
caudate or attenuate, thin-textured, erect shrub; leaves 9–17-foliolate, green, with hair-like scales beneath);
segments to 6 x 1cm (21/2 x 1/2in), alter- leaflets narrowly elliptic to linear- P.aculeatum (Europe; fronds 30–90cm
nate, falcate, linear, base dilated, lanceolate, stalked, deeply cut or pin- (12–36in) x 5–22cm (2–9in), lanceolate,
notched; includes crested and lacerated natifid, to 10cm (4in), bright green, rigid, pinnae to 50 per side, pinnate or
and narrow, elongated cultivars); P.poly- midribs tinted purple, shallowly pinnatifid, pinnules small, serrate,
podioides (RESURRECTION FERN; Ameri- toothed; white-variegated cultivars are decurrent); P.lonchitis (NORTHERN HOLLY
cas, South Africa; fronds to 15 x 6cm (6 grown); P.guilfoylei (GERANIUM ARALIA; FERN; Europe; fronds 20–60cm
x 21/2in), deltoid or oblong, apex attenu- probable cultigen originating in E (8–24in) x 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in), linear-
ate to acute, margins rolling inwards Malaysia or the West Pacific, now lanceolate, rigid, coriaceous, pinnae
during dry weather, somewhat leathery, widespread in warmer regions; erect 25–40 each side, lanceolate, slightly
segments to 25cm x 5mm (10in x 1/4in), shrub or treelet to 6m (20ft), little- curved, auriculate on upper side at
distant, spreading, linear or oblong, branched; leaves to 60cm (24in), base, serrate, dark green above, scaly
apex obtuse, base dilated, entire or leaflets 5–9, stalked, rotund to broadly beneath, very shortly stalked); P.pro-
notched, scaly); P.scouleri (COAST POLY- ovate or oblong-elliptic, to 15cm (6in), liferum (MOTHER SHIELD FERN; Aus-
PODY, LEATHERY POLYPODY; N Amer- irregularly spiny-toothed often tralia; rhizome trunk-like with age;
ica; fronds to 40 x 15cm (16 x 6in), obscurely lobed, margins white or fronds to 100 x 30cm (39 x 12in), bipin-
626 ovate to deltoid, thick-textured and cream; includes cultivars with crisped, nate to tripinnate, dark green, with
rigid, segments to 14 pairs, spreading, finely cut and variegated leaves); proliferous buds near apex, pinnules
Populus
spiny-serrate); P.setiferum (SOFT-SHIELD pomona a treatise on fruits. by division in spring. P.cordata (PICKEREL
FERN; S, W and C Europe; fronds WEED, WAMPEE; eastern N America to
30–120cm (39–48in) x 10–25cm pompon applied especially to types of Caribbean; aquatic perennial,
(4–10in), lanceolate, soft, pinnae to dahlia and chrysanthemum with small 40–100cm (16–39in); leaves to 18cm
11–2.5cm (41/2–1in), to 40 per side, pin- globular flowers composed of tight- (7in), emergent, erect, ovate to lanceo-
nules serrate, stipitate; rachis bearing packed florets. See chrysanthemum, dahlia. late with a cordate to sagittate base and
bulbils; includes many cultivars with long stalks; flowers to 2cm (3/4in) across,
crested, finely dissected, narrowed and Poncirus (Latinized form of French blue, lilac or white, crowded in cylin-
pointed, proliferous and densely con- poncire, a type of citrus). Rutaceae. C dric spikes to 18cm (7in)).
gested feathery fronds); P.tsussimense (NE and N China. 1 species, P.trifoliata, TRI-
Asia; fronds 25–40cm (10–16in) x FOLIATE ORANGE, BITTER ORANGE, a Populus (classical Latin vernacular
10–20cm (4–8in), broadly lanceolate to fast-growing, small, deciduous tree with name for the genus). Salicaceae.
oblong-ovate, acuminate, pinnules many, interlacing, green twiggy Europe, Asia, N Africa, N America.
7–15mm (1/4–5/8in), ovate to oblong- branches armed with formidable POPLAR, COTTONWOOD, ASPEN. Some
ovate, mucronate, spinose-dentate, thorns. The leaves are trifoliolate, the 35 species, deciduous, dioecious trees
glabrous and glaucous above). terminal leaflet 3–6cm (11/4–21/2in) x with ovate to lanceolate or triangular
1.5–2.5cm (5/8–1in) and obovate- leaves. The flowers are borne in
polythene a thermoplastic material cuneate. Borne in early spring, the pendulous catkins before leaves, the
of versatile use in gardening. It is avail- flowers are solitary and scented with male catkins denser than the females.
able in various sheet thicknesses, waxy, white, oblong petals to 3cm Tufted with white hairs, the minute
opaque or coloured, and also in (11/4in). Roughly spherical and 3–5cm seeds are released in billowing, cotton-
moulded form. Sheet polythene is used (11/4–2in) in diameter, the fruit is dull down-like masses in late spring or
for cladding greenhouses and frames; lemon-yellow and fragrant when ripe, early summer.
types incorporating an ultraviolet light with a thick, rough peel covered in A large genus of northern Hemi-
inhibitor will last longer. Low continu- copious oil glands; the pulp is very sphere natives, from a wide variety of
ous polythene tunnels are suitable for acidic. Hardy to –15°C/5°F, this shrub habitats, Populus shares many charac-
advancing crops such as strawberries. is valued for its interlacing branch pat- teristics with the closely related Salix,
Black sheet may be used as a weed- tern, orange blossom flowers and curi- and requires careful selection and
inhibiting soil mulch, and clear sheet as ous, inedible fruit. It is also used for siting. Most species produce debris in
a ground mulch for raising soil temper- hedging and as a frost-resistant root- the form of seed ‘cotton’, twigs and
ature or for advancing maturity of stock for Citrus. Grow in any well- leaves, and most have greedy and
crops, such as carrots and potatoes – in drained fertile soil in sun. Prune if extensive root systems. They are best
such instances, the sheet may be perfo-
rated. Polythene sheet is also an excel-
necessary to remove any dead or dam-
aged wood in spring; clip hedges in
suited to forestry and to the broader
landscape, where they are undeniably
P
lent means of protecting rooting early summer. Propagate by seed, useful as windbreaks and visual screens.
cuttings and of insulating greenhouses removed from flesh when ripe and One commonly used fastigiate poplar
in winter, especially in bubble form. sown in the cold frame in autumn. for this purpose, P.nigra ‘Italica’, is
Thick gauge sheet is used as a pool Increase also by semi-ripe cuttings probably the least suitable, having frag-
liner. It is also fabricated into flimsy or in summer. ile branches, and being particularly
rigid plant containers. Polythene waste prone to basal rots that may cause
should be disposed of through approved pond see water gardening. sudden collapse; P.nigra ‘Plantierensis’
collection agencies and never burnt has stronger and lower branches, and a
because the process emits toxic gases. Pontederia (for Giulio Pontedera denser head. While selected cultivars
(1688–1757), professor of botany at may be suitable for large gardens, they
polytunnel a greenhouse clad with Padua). Pontederiaceae. N and S should be sited at least 40m (130ft)
polythene sheet. America, mostly eastern. PICKEREL from buildings, drains, walls and roads,
WEED, WAMPEE. 5 species, perennial, especially on clay soils, since they are
pome a multiloculate fruit, formed by aquatic or semi-aquatic, marginal known to cause extensive damage to
the fusion of an inferior ovary and the herbs with emergent, lanceolate to foundations and drainage systems.
hypanthium, from which the flesh, sagittate or hastate leaves. Small and Many Populus species are useful on
which is tough but not woody or bony, zygomorphic, with a 2-lipped tubular difficult sites. P.alba and its cultivars and
is derived. perianth, the flowers are borne in P. x canescens are tolerant of salt-laden
dense, scapose spikes in spring and winds (but not of saline conditions at
pome fruit the fruit of apple, pear, summer. A hardy, marginal aquatic. the roots). P.tremula tolerates extremely
quince, medlar, and some other mem- Grow in full sun. Plant in the pond or alkaline soils. P. x canadensis ‘Regener-
bers of the family Rosaceae. lake bed, at its margins or in large, sub- ata’ is tolerant of urban pollution and
merged baskets containing a fertile, may be pollarded, where it has out-
pomology the science and practice of loam-based medium. Remove dead grown its allotted space. P. tremula is 627
fruit-growing. foliage after the last frosts. Propagate sometimes used to improve heavy soils
Populus
in neglected woodland. The young glabrous); P. x canadensis C US; to 30m (100ft), crown
foliage of some, notably P.balsamifera, P. (P.deltoides x P.nigra; CANADIAN broad, bark pale green-
x jackii ‘Gileadensis’ (balm of Gilead), POPLAR; tall, fast-growing yellow, young twigs
and P.trichocarpa, emits a pleasant, light tree to 30m (100ft), ribbed, glabrous, buds
balsam scent, especially after rain. crown broad; leaves sticky, balsam-
Others colour well in autumn, among 7–10cm (23/4–4in), tri- scented; leaves
them P. x canadensis, P.maximowiczii and angular to ovate, long- 7–18cm (23/4–7in), del-
P.tremuloides. Grow on deep, fertile and acuminate, base toid-ovate to rhombic,
well-drained, near neutral soil. Mound truncate, sparsely base cordate to trun-
planting is advised on wet sites. Propa- toothed, and some- cate, often with 2–5
gate by hardwood cuttings, suckers, times with 1 or 2 glands, apex acute, densely
layers or root cuttings. Sow newly glands, margins crenate, ciliate, teeth coarse, glandular, peti-
ripened seed on moist silt. All species initially ciliate, petioles white leaf oles tinged red; subsp. wislizenii, with
hybridize readily. The most serious dis- tinged red; ‘Aurea’, underside 5–10cm (2–4in), triangular to
Populus alba
ease is bacterial canker. with golden yellow leaves, broadly ovate, short-acuminate
P.alba (WHITE POPLAR, SILVER-LEAVED becoming yellow-green, and red peti- leaves, with base slightly cuneate or
POPLAR, ABELE; S, C and E Europe, N oles; ‘Eugenei’, to 50m (165ft), colum- rounded, lacking glands, coarsely cre-
Africa to C Asia; to 30m (100ft), crown nar, with pale bark, 5–8cm (2–3in), nate, and more or less glabrous); P.lasio-
broad, bark smooth, grey suckering; triangular to rhombic, short-acuminate carpa (CHINESE NECKLACE POPLAR; SW
leaves 6–12cm (21/2–43/4in), ovate, base leaves, coppery-brown when young; China; to 25m (80ft), crown rounded;
subcordate, those on long shoots lobed, ‘Marilandica’, MAY POPLAR, with a young twigs angular, densely woolly at
coarsely toothed, on short shoots ser- short trunk, broad, rounded crown, first; leaves 15–35cm (6–14in), ovate,
rate ovate to elliptic-oblong, dark green spreading, often crooked branches, acute, base cordate, glandular-crenate,
and glabrous above, white-woolly growing downwards, and leaves brown glossy grey-green above, paler and
beneath; ‘Globosa’, a tall shrub with when young, soon pale green, to 10cm downy beneath, veins red, petioles
a broadly rounded habit and pink (4in), rhombic to triangular-ovate, apex 5–10cm (2–4in), red); P.maximowiczii
young leaves; ‘Intertexta’, with dull slenderly acute, entire; ‘Robusta’, (JAPANESE POPLAR; north central China,
white young leaves becoming yellow- columnar, with ascending, almost Japan, Korea; to 40m (130ft), crown
speckled; ‘Nivea’, a juvenile form, with whorled branches, young twigs green, broad, bark grey, deeply fissured;
chalk white young twigs, leaf under- becoming red, finely hairy, and leaves young twigs red, hairy; leaves 6–12cm
sides and petioles, and deeply lobed red-brown when young, 10–12cm (21/2–43/4in), elliptic to oval-elliptic, apex
leaves; ‘Paletzkyana’, with leaves deeply (4–43/4in), glossy, tough, triangular, with abruptly acuminate to a twisted cusp,
P lobed; ‘Pendula’, with pendent
branches; ‘Pyramidalis’, a tall, nar-
to 2 basal glands, rounded teeth, and
petioles becoming red; ‘Serotina’, LATE
base slightly cordate to rounded, matt
dark green and
rowly conical tree, with large, lobed POPLAR, BLACK ITALIAN POPLAR, to 40m wrinkled above, pale green beneath,
leaves, often glabrous beneath; ‘Raket’, (130ft), with a broadly conical, open glandular-serrate and ciliate, veins hairy,
slender, columnar, with a grey stem crown, brown, flexible, glabrous young somewhat leathery); P.nigra (BLACK
and leaves glossy green above, silvery- twigs, with 7–10cm (23/4–4in), ovate to POPLAR; W Europe, N Africa, Siberia;
grey beneath; ‘Richardii’, with leaves triangular leaves, not borne until to 30m (100ft); crown broad, rounded,
golden-yellow above; var. subintegerrima, spring, with a truncate base, red-brown trunk often thickly knotted, bark deeply
with leaves almost entire); P.balsamifera when young, matt dark green when fissured; leaves 5–10cm (2–4in), rhom-
(BALSAM POPLAR; N US, Canada, mature, with petioles tinged red); P. x bic, triangular or ovate, sometimes
Russia; to 30m (100ft); suckering from canescens (P.alba x P.tremula; GREY POPLAR; wider than long, apex slenderly acumi-
base; young twigs glabrous; buds and natural hybrid; Russia (Georgia), Iran nate, base cuneate or truncate, green,
new growth covered in a fragrant resin; to C Europe; to 45m (150ft), crown paler beneath, finely crenate; ‘Afghan-
leaves 7–12cm (23/4–43/4in), oval to rounded, bark yellow-grey, scarred, ica’, columnar, with bark almost white
ovate-lanceolate, base rounded, cordate young twigs grey-woolly, soon glabrous; with age, grey young twigs, initially
or broadly cuneate, apex acute, glossy leaves 6–12cm (21/2–43/4in), triangular- hairy, and triangular-ovate leaves, with
mid-green, white or pale green ovate, base cordate, dark green above, a broadly cuneate base; subsp.
beneath, subcoriaceous, more or less grey-woolly beneath, ciliate, teeth glan- betulifolia, DOWNY BLACK POPLAR, MAN-
crenate, glabrous; ‘Aurora’, with yellow dular, rounded, petioles 1–7.5cm CHESTER POPLAR, with brown-orange
white leaves, spotted dark green); P. x (1/2–3in), woolly to glabrous; ‘Aureovar- young twigs, initially hairy, smaller
berolinensis (P.laurifolia x P.nigra ‘Italica’; iegata’, slow-growing, with leaves mar- leaves, tapering gently to acute apex,
BERLIN POPLAR; to 25m (80ft), slenderly bled yellow, and ‘Pyramidalis’, with a hairy when young, and yellow-green
columnar; leaves 7–12cm (23/4–43/4in), broadly conical crown, grey-green petioles; ‘Charkowensis’, with oblong,
broadly ovate or rhombic-ovate, long- bark, upper branches steeply ascend- broad, pyramidal crown, ascending
acuminate, base rounded or cuneate, ing, and lower branches spreading); branches, and sparsely pubescent
628 crenate to serrate, bright glossy green P.deltoides (EASTERN COTTONWOOD, young branches; ‘Italica’, LOMBARDY
above, paler beneath, more or less NECKLACE POPLAR; E and POPLAR, ITALIAN POPLAR, PYRAMIDAL
Potamogeton
POPLAR, columnar, with branches cymes in summer. Cultivate as for Argentina, Uruguay; stem prostrate or
steeply ascending, young twigs brown tender, perennial Ipomoea species. P.pan- ascending, to 30cm (12in); leaves cylin-
at apex, later grey, small, rounded- iculata (BRIDAL-BOUQUET, CHRIST VINE, drical, to 2.5cm (1in), thick, fleshy,
rhombic leaves and petioles tinged red; SNOW CREEPER, SNOW-IN-THE-JUNGLE, tinted red when grown in full sun;
‘Gigantea’, as ‘Italica’ but broader, WHITE CORALLITA; N India, Upper flowers single to double, rose, red,
with orange winter twigs; ‘Lombardy Burma; liane to 9m (30ft); leaves cor- crimson, scarlet, orange, apricot, gold,
Gold’, with golden leaves; ‘Plantieren- date, to 15cm (6in), white-pubescent yellow, white, sometimes striped or
sis’, of columnar habit, but less so than beneath; panicles large, pendulous, bicoloured, 2.5cm (1in) in diameter,
‘Italica’, with hairy young twigs, small flowers to 8mm (3/8in), white). opening in sunlight; numerous seed
leaves, and hairy petioles tinged red); races and cultivars are available).
P.szechuanica (W China; to 40m (130ft) poricidal a form of dehiscence in
in wild; young twigs red-brown, angu- which the pollen is released through post-emergence used to describe
lar; leaves 7–20cm (23/4–8in), tinged red pores at the apex of the anther. herbicides that are applied after the
at first, oblong to broadly ovate, cre- emergence of a crop from the soil.
nate, teeth with apical glands, apex porous tube rubber or polythene
acuminate, base rounded, or slightly tubing with micropores, buried in soil posterior at or towards the back or
cordate, bright green above, white- to provide subirrigation; see irrigation. adaxial surface.
silver beneath, veins red); P.tremula
(ASPEN, QUAKING ASPEN; NW Europe to porrect extending or stretching out- post-harvest, post-storage
N Africa, Siberia; to 20m (66ft), crown ward and forward. diseases various parasitic diseases
broad, much-branched, bark fissured and non-parasitic disorders that are
and dark grey with age, suckering; Portulaca (from portilaca, Latin name liable to affect fresh fruit, vegetables
leaves 3–12cm (11/4–43/4in), oval to sub- used by Pliny). Portulacaceae. Widely and flower bulbs from the time of har-
orbicular, acute, base with 2 glands, distributed in warm and tropical vesting until they are used by the con-
truncate or cordate, undulate, crenate, regions. PURSLANE, MOSS ROSE. 40 sumer. Diseases such as FRUIT BROWN
grey-green above, very pale beneath, species, fleshy or trailing, mostly annual ROT and POTATO BLIGHT are caused by
petioles slender; includes the narrow, herbs. Opening in bright sunlight in pathogens which may affect plants
upright ‘Erecta’, ‘Pendula’, a small spring and summer, the flowers consist during the growing season and also
tree, with pendulous twigs, and ‘Pur- of four to six, spreading, brightly attack their fruit or tubers at maturity.
purea’, with leaves tinged red); P.tremu- coloured petals and many stamens. Others, such as BLUE MOULD of citrus
loides (AMERICAN ASPEN; Canada to P.grandiflora is grown for its fleshy, moss- and RHIZOPUS ROT of tomato, are dis-
Mexico; to 20m (66ft), trunk slender, like foliage and for the profusion of eases specific to harvested produce and
bark very pale yellow-grey, suckering,
young twigs red-brown; leaves 3–7cm
individually short-lived, brightly
coloured flowers carried over long peri-
their incidence is strongly influenced
by damage during growth or handling
P
(11/4–23/4in), broadly oval to suborbicu- ods in summer. Ideal as a low-growing and the conditions under which pro-
lar, short-acuminate, base truncate to seasonal filler in flowerbeds and bor- duce is stored.
broadly cuneate, finely serrate, ciliate, ders, as edging and in window boxes Post-harvest disorders are caused by
dark glossy above, blue-green beneath); and other containers, it is easily grown unfavourable environmental factors
P.trichocarpa (BLACK COTTONWOOD, from seed sown in situ in spring, in any before and after harvest, of which
WESTERN BALSAM POPLAR; western N low-nutrient, freely draining, sandy soil extremes of temperature are probably
America; to 35m (115ft), slenderly in full sun. P.grandiflora (ROSE MOSS, SUN the most important, resulting in chill-
pyramidal, crown open, bark smooth, PLANT, ELEVEN-O’CLOCK; Brazil, ing or overheating.
yellow-grey, young twigs olive-brown,
glabrous to hairy, slightly angular; post-hole borer a large diameter
leaves 8–25cm (3–10in), ovate to auger-like tool, usually mechanically
rhombic-oblong, slenderly acuminate, operated to facilitate the boring of
base rounded to truncate, leathery, holes for fence posts.
shallowly toothed, dark green and
glabrous above, white or pale brown potager a kitchen garden of vegeta-
beneath; ‘Fritz Pauley’, a female clone, bles and fruits laid out for ornamental
‘Pendula’, with weeping branches, and effect, often with the beds edged with
‘Scott Pauley’, a male clone). low hedges, as in a parterre.
Porana (native name in E Indies). Potamogeton (from Greek potamos,

Convolvulaceae. Tropical Asia, Aus- river, and geiton, neighbour, referring
tralia. Some 20 species, slender, twin- Portulaca grandiflora ‘Cloudbeater Mix’ to the natural habitat). Potamoget-
ing herbs or shrubs with cordate-ovate Plant breeding programmes have extended onaceae. Cosmopolitan. About 90
leaves and small, campanulate or fun- the colour range, flowering time and robust- species, aquatic perennial herbs. The 629
nelform flowers in terminal panicles or ness of these undemanding bedding annuals. shoots arise from creeping rhizomes
Potamogeton
rooted in the bottom of the pond, preceded by spotting and chlorosis. favour early growth; during later devel-
stream or river. The leaves are sub- Flowers and fruits drop excessively, and opment, temperatures around
merged and/or floating, and variable fruits are invariably small and of poor 18°C/64°F are optimal. High soil tem-
in shape and size. Small, apetalous, quality; in tomatoes, the fruit quality perature can retard stolon initiation
green flowers are produced either defects known as ‘greenback’ and and tuberization, which is generally
above the water or submerged in fleshy ‘blotchy ripening’ are symptoms of best in the range 16–20°C/61–68°F.
spikes. Hardy aquatics suitable for potassium deficiency. Cure is by pre- Potato foliage is very susceptible to
large, cold water aquaria and outdoor vention only. damage by frost.
pools. Plant the stems in sandy loam Potassium fertilizers include: potas- Propagation is through healthy
and plunge in neutral to alkaline water. sium chloride (60% K2O) which is the ‘seed’ tubers, true seed generally pro-
Give full sun or strong light. Remove least expensive but potentially toxic ducing unacceptable levels of variabil-
fading foliage and thin colonies when where excessively applied, and some ity in resulting tubers. The use of
necessary. Propagate by stem cuttings plants, especially tomatoes, gooseber- microtubers produced in vitro by tissue
in spring/summer or by scaly resting ries and redcurrants, are susceptible to culture is a possibility.
buds in spring where produced. chloride damage; potassium nitrate In temperate regions, potatoes can
P.crispus (CURLED PONDWEED; (44% K2O, 13% N), which is expensive be harvested throughout the summer
Europe, naturalized E US and Califor- and mostly used in liquid feeds; and months and tubers stored to extend the
nia; leaves submerged, to 10cm (4in), potassium sulphate (50% K2O), which season; it is also possible to obtain ear-
narrow-oblong, crisped or undulate); is more expensive than potassium lier harvests of immature or ‘new’
P.lucens (SHINING PONDWEED; Europe, chloride but widely used and available potatoes, which have a superior flavour
W Africa; leaves submerged, to 20cm as sulphate of potash. Potassium is not to the later crop.
(8in), narrow-elliptic to obovate-elliptic, stored in high quantity in organic Potatoes require a frost-free site,
tips acuminate or cuspidate, translu- matter. preferably with a slightly acid soil, and
cent, undulate); P.natans (BROAD-LEAVED they should be grown on at least a
PONDWEED; Europe, N US; floating potato (Solanum tuberosum) a short- three-year rotation to avoid the build-
leaves to 12.5cm (5in), broadly oval, lived herbaceous perennial cultivated up of eelworm. Good quality ‘seed’
with flexible joint at base, petioles often as an annual for its swollen, under- tubers, certified as virus free, should be
longer than blade; submerged leaves ground stem tubers. The potato origi- chosen and growth can be started by
reduced, linear). nated in the Andean highlands, being the process of ‘sprouting’ or ‘chitting’,
cultivated by the Incas for over which is particularly useful for advanc-
potassium (abbreviation K) a major 2000 years before the arrival of the ing development of early cultivars.
(macro-) nutrient, important in plant Spanish in the 16th century. It was During the latter part of winter, tubers
P metabolism. It is highly mobile in soils,
and although effectively held by the
first recorded in Europe in 1587 and
rapidly became a staple crop in Ire-
are stood in shallow trays in a well-lit,
cool but frost-free environment. The
cationic exchange capacity of most land and much of northern Europe. It dormant buds or ‘eyes’ are concen-
soils, it is leached on free-draining, was taken to North America by immi- trated at what is often referred to as the
acidic and sandy soils. On cropped grants from Scotland and Ireland in ‘rose’ end and these should be placed
sites, potassium is commonly in short the early 18th century. uppermost in the trays to encourage
supply and replenishment through Potatoes are widely cultivated in strong shoots about 2.5cm (1in) long
fertilizer application is regularly temperate and tropical regions prior to planting. Chitting will take
required; as a base dressing, it should throughout the world for human con- about six weeks. For early potatoes of
always be applied to balance applica- sumption and stock feed, and there is good size, the number of sprouts per
tions of nitrogen. large genetic variability within the tuber should be restricted to two or
Apples, gooseberries and redcur- species. It is a versatile food crop, three by rubbing off the excess at
rants, potatoes, beans, spinach and amenable to processing. However, if planting; for later main crops, all
tomatoes are notably affected developing tubers are exposed to shoots should be retained for higher
by potassium deficiency, light, they become green yield. Seed-tuber size can significantly
which is mostly seen and poisonous, as are affect final yield and tuber size, and
well into the growing the green berries ideally seed tubers should be approxi-
season. Symptoms of produced after mately the size of a hen’s egg.
deficiency are flowering. Planting can commence in early
restricted shoot Tuber formation spring, starting with early cultivars, the
growth, leading proceeds better chitted tubers planted rose end upper-
to die-back in fruit under cooler con- most either in drills 10–12cm (4–43/4in)
trees. In most ditions and pota- deep or in individual planting holes,
crops, there is mar- toes are a difficult before covering with 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in)
ginal scorch of older crop to grow in hot of soil. As a general guide, earlies
630 leaves, often with humid lowlands. Tempera- should be planted closer together than
curling, and this may be Potassium deficiency tures around 22°C/72°F later main crops; typically, early
Potentilla
potatoes are planted flowers give Cultivars vary in time taken to Those listed here are hardy to
approximately 35cm rise to green reach maturity, disease resis- –25°C/–13°F. The shrubby P.fruticosa
berries
(14in) apart in rows tance, flavour and skin and its numerous cultivars form loose
35–45cm (14–18in) apart, colour. In the UK, they and floriferous mounds, suitable for the
whereas row spacing for are commonly categorized front of the shrub border, for mass
later cultivars should as first earlies (e.g. ‘Accent’, planting as groundcover, and also as
be increased to ‘Epicure’, ‘Foremost’); low informal hedging. The summer
75cm (30in). second earlies (e.g. ‘Char- and autumn blooms of the border
Planting can be lotte’, ‘Estima’, ‘Maris perennials, largely derived from
advanced by planting Bard’); and main- P.nepalensis, P.atrosanguinea, and P.recta,
under cloches or by crop (e.g. ‘Desiree’, are held on slender stems well above
covering with perfo- ‘Maxine’, ‘Navan’). the foliage; these are selected for their
rated clear plastic Some are often warm and brilliant shades of yellow,
top-growth
film or non-woven known as referred to as salad terracotta, vermilion, mahogany and
polypropylene ‘haulm’ potatoes (e.g. ‘Pink Fir Apple’, deep crimson, and are well-suited to
‘fleece’. An uncovered ‘Ratte’). Cultivars in the US are strong colour schemes and to cottage
early crop can be pro- edible categorized as early (e.g. ‘Red gardens. The alpine species are suitable
tected from late frost by tubers Norland’, ‘Irish Cobbler’, ‘Yukon for crevices and scree in the rock
covering exposed shoots Gold’); maincrop (e.g. ‘All garden, or for growing on walls; some
Potato plant
with straw or by drawing a Blue’, ‘Chieftain’, ‘Russet species, such as P.alba, form low mats of
thin layer of soil over them. Burbank’); and late season (e.g. ‘Bintje’, grey or silver foliage, carrying their
Potatoes should be earthed-up ‘McNeilly Everbearing’, ‘Yellow Finn’). flowers on short stems. P.nitida is small
during growth to prevent greening of Possible problems: cutworms, eelworm, and neat and well-suited to sink or
tubers; the process also serves to kill off slugs, wireworms; blight (see phytoph- trough plantings.
weed seedlings. A single operation thora), scab, virus, wart disease; hollow Grow in well-drained soils in
when plants are about 20cm (8in) high heart, internal rust spot. full sun to part-shade; too rich a soil
is usually sufficient, drawing soil to will produce soft foliar growth at the
approximately 10cm (4in) depth potato planter a tool for planting expense of flowers. Grow small alpines
around the stems. potatoes and other tubers or bulbs, in poor gritty soil or on scree in full
Early cultivars in particular can be which has two triangular scoop-shaped sun, or in the alpine house, using a low
grown in large containers, of 30cm blades that hold the tuber or bulb in a fertility loam-based mix, with added
(12in) width and depth minimum. V-shaped cradle whilst the tool is grit. Prune shrubby species in early
These can be placed on a patio or held
in a cool greenhouse for early cropping.
inserted into the soil. The tuber or
bulb is released when the handles are
spring, removing weak growth at
ground level and cutting back strong
P
Chitted tubers are placed in the con- pulled together and the blades open. growth by half or one third. Old
tainers on 10–13cm (4–5in) depth of neglected plants may be rejuvenated
fertile garden soil or potting compost pot-bound used of a pot-grown by cutting hard back, although this
and covered to a similar depth, with plant whose roots have completely may be more safely done in two or
further soil or compost added when the explored the growing medium and are more stages. Trim hedges in spring.
plants are about 15cm (6in) high. densely packed into the container, Propagate herbaceous species by seed
Crops can be raised in carefully man- often becoming woody and constricted. sown in autumn or early spring, or
aged, large, black polythene sacks with The condition should be avoided by by division in spring or autumn.
drainage holes. timely potting-on or planting out, Remove rooted runners to increase
Developing tubers should be kept because affected plants are likely to be alpine species. Propagate shrubby
well-supplied with water and, depend- starved and their potential for produc- species by softwood cuttings in summer
ing on growing conditions, will be ready ing a vigorous, strong root system after and, except for cultivars, by seed in
to harvest 90–120 days from planting. planting out is much reduced. autumn.
Potatoes may be lifted as required; the P.alba (C, S and E Europe; low-
entire crop is removed, including the Potentilla (from Latin potens, power- growing, spreading perennial herb to
smallest tubers, which may otherwise ful, referring to the plant’s alleged med- 10cm (4in); leaves palmate, leaflets 5,
contribute to a weed and disease prob- icinal properties). Rosaceae. Northern 2–6cm (3/4–21/2in), oblong to obovate-
lem in following seasons. Potatoes for Hemisphere. CINQUEFOIL, FIVE-FINGER. lanceolate, apex toothed, glabrous
storage should be left in the ground for About 500 species, mostly perennial above, silvery silky beneath at first;
a couple of weeks after the haulm has but some annual and biennial herbs flowers to 2.5cm (1in) in diameter,
been removed to allow the skins to and shrubs, with palmate, pinnate or white); P.atrosanguinea (Himalaya; hairy
harden; tubers should be allowed to dry trifoliate leaves. Produced in spring and perennial to 90cm (36in); leaflets 3, to
thoroughly before storing in a cool dark summer, the flowers are usually saucer- 7.5cm (3in), elliptic-ovate to obovate,
environment between 4–10°C/39–50°F shaped, solitary or in terminal or axil- toothed, silky above, white-hairy 631
with high humidity. lary clusters, and 4-, 5-, or 6-parted. beneath; flowers to 3cm (11/4in) in
Potentilla
and hybrids of P.fruticosa are available, pot herb used of herb-like plants
ranging in habit from the dwarf and that are edible rather than medicinal.
compact to the large and robust, from See herbs.
low and spreading to upright, in foliage
from small- to large-leaved, bright x Potinara (Brassavola x Cattleya x Laelia
green to lime, variegated or silver and x Sophronitis). Orchidaceae. Quadri-
silkily hairy, and in flower colour from generic hybrids made from species and
white to cream, palest primrose, butter- hybrids of these genera and named
cup yellow, rich gold, tangerine, vermil- after a French orchid grower, Monsieur
ion, fiery red, apricot, pink and Potin. The plants are small and com-
bicolours); P.megalantha (Japan; softly pact with flowers in shades of yellow,
hairy tufted perennial to 30cm (12in); orange and red.
leaves to 8cm (3in) wide, leaflets 3,
broad obovate, coarsely crenate, hairy pot-in-pot a method of displaying
Potentilla atrosanguinea beneath; flowers to 4cm (11/2in) in creeping or trailing plants, in which two
The Himalayan cinquefoil is representative of diameter, bright yellow); P.nepalensis (W or more pots of different sizes are filled
the herbaceous potentillas, prized for their Himalaya; perennial herb, stem leafy, with growing compost and partially
bright colour range and long flowering. erect, to 60cm (24in); leaflets 5, 3–8cm embedded inside one another, with
(11/4–3in), obovate or elliptic-obovate, plants or cuttings grown in the smallest
diameter, deep purple-red; includes var. coarsely toothed, hairy; flowers 2.5cm pot and around the edges of the larger
argyrophylla, with yellow or yellow- (1in) in diameter, purple-red or crim- one(s) to produce a cascade effect.
orange flowers; hybrids derived from son, base darker; ‘Flammenspiel’, with
these and (in some cases) P.nepalensis red flowers narrowly edged yellow; pot-pourri dried aromatic petals and
include ‘Etna’, to 45cm (18in), with ‘Miss Willmott’, with cherry red flow- leaves, often mixed with spices used to
leaves tinted silver and deep crimson ers; ‘Roxana’, with red buds and scent rooms or clothes.
flowers; ‘Fire-dance’, compact, with salmon pink flowers); P.neumanniana (N,
deep coral flowers; ‘Gibson’s Scarlet’, W and C Europe; mat-forming, peren- pots and potting plants were
with bright scarlet flowers; and ‘Mons. nial to 10cm (4in), stem woody, grown in pots by the early Egyptians,
Rouillard’, with double, dark copper procumbent; leaves digitate, leaflets Greeks and Chinese and traditionally
flowers); P.aurea (Alps, Pyrenees; mat- 5–7, to 4cm (11/2in), obovate, dentate; made from baked clay. Old hand-made
forming perennial to 30cm (12in), sil- flowers to 2.5cm (1in) in diameter, pots can be identified by the uneven
very hairy; leaves digitate, leaflets 5, yellow; ‘Goldrausch’, to 10cm (4in), finish and rather ridged surface inside
P silver-hairy on margins and veins
beneath, oblong, toothed at tip; flowers
with bright gold flowers; ‘Nana’, to
7.5cm (3in), with vivid green leaves and
the pots. Terracotta pots were pro-
duced from the late 1940s by mecha-
to 2cm (3/4in) in diameter, golden gold flowers); P.nitida (SW and SE Alps; nized manufacturing methods. Various
yellow, base deeper; ‘Aurantiaca’, with tufted, silver-grey, downy perennial to plastics have replaced clay or terra-
sunset yellow flowers, ‘Florepleno’, 10cm (4in); leaflets 3, to 1cm (1/2in), cotta, except in the case of decorative
with double, light gold flowers, and oblanceolate to obovate, apex usually tubs and containers, and most plants
‘Goldklumpen’, with bright gold flow- 3-toothed, silvery-silky; flowers 2.5cm grow equally well in either.
ers with an orange ring); P.crantzii (1in)+ in diameter, white or pink, base Pot types and uses Convention-
(ALPINE CINQUEFOIL; N US, N, C and S deeper; ‘Alannah’, with pale pink flow- ally shaped pots are usually classified
Europe; perennial herb to 20cm (8in), ers, ‘Alba’, with white flowers, ‘Com- by internal diameter at the rim,
rootstock woody; leaves digitate, leaflets pacta’, very dwarf, to 5cm (2in), with although commercial growers often
3 or 5, 2cm (3/4in), obovate to cuneate, large, gold flowers, ‘Lissadel’, with describe containers by capacity (e.g. 1
toothed at apex, green, hairless above, vivid pink flowers, and ‘Rubra’, with or 2 litre (13/4 or 31/2 pints)), which
hairy beneath; flowers to 2.5cm (1in) in deep rose flowers); P.recta (Europe, Cau- relates to the volume of growing com-
diameter, yellow, often orange spotted casus, Siberia, naturalized eastern N post needed to fill them.
at base); P.fruticosa (SHRUBBY CINQUE- America; perennial; stem to 45cm References are sometimes made to
FOIL, GOLDEN HARDHACK, WIDDY; (18in), velvety hairy, with glandular the practice of grading pots according
northern Hemisphere; deciduous, hairs; leaves digitate, leaflets 5–7, to to the number that could be made from
much-branched shrub, to 150cm 3.5cm (11/2in), oblong-lanceolate, green, a cast of clay. The largest size, made
(60in); leaves pinnate or trifoliate, serrate to pinnatisect; flowers yellow, to from one cast, was of 45cm (18in) in
leaflets 3 or 5, to 2.5cm (1in), ovate to 2.5cm (1in) in diameter, many in flat diameter and known as a ‘number one’;
lanceolate, light to mid-green, silky; corymbs; ‘Macrantha’, with large, 32 pots measuring 16cm (6in) in diame-
flowers to 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, bright yellow flowers in loose clusters); ter could be produced from the same
bright yellow or white; var. mandschurica, P. x tonguei (P.anglica x P.nepalensis; stem amount of clay and these were known
low-growing, to 45cm (18in), with grey procumbent, not rooting; leaflets 3–5, as ‘32s’, Very small sizes were often
632 silky hairy leaves and white flowers to obovate, dark green; flowers apricot referred to as ‘thumbs’ (6cm (21/2in))
2.5cm (1in) in diameter; many cultivars with carmine-red eye). and ‘thimbles’ (5cm (2in)).
potting media
Special sizes and shapes are pro- Bitumenized cardboard pots, known and shadier conditions than usual for a
duced for particular uses. The pan as ‘whale-hides’, are used for ring cul- few days after moving.
(seed pan or mini-pot) is less than half ture; these consist of bottomless tubes,
the depth of a normal pot and used for approximately 23cm (9in) in diameter pot-thick the arrangement of con-
seed-sowing or for small bulbs and at the top and tapered towards the tainer-grown plants on a bed or green-
shallow-rooting plants such as alpines. bottom to hold the potting medium. house bench so that their pots are
Half-pots are half the depth of a They are stood on an aggregate, espe- touching.
normal pot and often used for plants cially for the ring culture of tomatoes,
such as azaleas. Long toms are much cucumbers, and peppers. Versions with potting machine a device used in
deeper in proportion to width, and are bottoms are available for plants requir- commercial nurseries to fill pots
used for plants with early developing ing a large pot, such as chrysanthe- mechanically with potting medium and
tap roots, those that produce deep mums. Both types are discarded after thus increase the speed of the potting
roots and resent restriction or distur- one season. operation.
bance, and those that demand perfect Potting The initial placing of
drainage, as can be provided with a seedling plants in pots is known as potting media (singular: potting
deep layer of crocks. All pots must potting-off or potting-up, while moving medium) used to describe mineral and
have adequate drainage holes. With potted plants to larger containers is organic substances suitable for growing
terracotta sorts it is usual to place a known as potting-on or re-potting. containerised plants. In some Euro-
layer of broken pots, known as crocks, Young and rapidly growing plants need pean countries the term is synonymous
over the drainage holes, to form a shal- potting-on fairly frequently to avoid with substrate. The word ‘compost’ is
low layer at the bottom of the pot. growth being checked, slow-growing widely used in the UK as a general
Plastic pots are not normally crocked plants less often. Plants that cannot be term for potting, seed and cutting
and are generally more suited to capil- potted-on due to limits on the possible media but in some other countries it
lary watering. size and weight of container can often refers only to the product of a compost
Plastic pots are light, clean, and easy be maintained by replacing the top and heap. The term ‘compost’ traditionally
to handle but although the potting bottom layers of the potting medium describes all soil-based potting mixes,
medium dries out less quickly than in each year, and by regular feeding. especially the John Innes composts.
clay pots, accurate assessment of water Established plants should be potted-up Lightweight media primarily based on
requirements is more difficult. or re-potted when they are about to peat are often referred to as ‘mixes’,
Polypropylene is the plastic widely start growth or are growing actively; particularly in the US.
used, but for large container pots, a with young plants, the best time to Potting media are classified as either
proportion of polyethylene (polythene) move them is when the roots have fully soil- or loam-based if they contain
is used for added strength in cold
weather. Polythene is used for inexpen-
explored the growing medium but
have not yet started to spiral round the
mineral soil, and soilless or loam-less if
they are based on lightweight ingredi-
P
sive, collapsible, fold-flat pots. pot. Overpotting (using a pot that is ents, such as peat or composted bark.
Clay pots are attractive, and useful too large) must be avoided because In the past, gardeners used their own
where their weight provides stability, the unexplored potting medium may special recipes, in which a wide range
for example for tall plants. Plants that remain too wet. Normally, choose a of materials were added to soil, includ-
need good drainage, such as alpines pot one or two sizes larger than the ing leafmould, animal manures,
and many orchids, benefit from the existing pot. mortar, wood ashes, sand and grit. To
porosity of clay pots. A few plants succeed best if the overcome variable results, research in
Peat pots are available for plant rais- roots are restricted, for example, the 1930s by W.J.C. Lawrence and J.
ing, and are generally made of a mix- sansevierias are best re-potted only Newell at the John Innes Horticultural
ture of sphagnum moss peat and wood when the roots fill the pot and start to Research Institute, Hertford, England
fibre. They are useful for plants, such emerge from the compost; aspidistras led to development of the standard
as Salvia, sweetpeas and runner beans. are not re-potted frequently, and the John Innes composts; these are based
Roots eventually grow through the variegated form is usually better if on loam, sterilized to kill weed seeds
walls and the pots disintegrate when slightly starved and pot-bound. Cacti and reduce the incidence of soil-borne
planted out. Expandable pellets of fer- can be re-potted less frequently than pests and diseases, and generally
tilized compressed peat held in a net most plants, and these, together with produce reliable results.
are available for rooting cuttings and bromeliads, orchids and other epi- Advances in producing container-
the direct sowing of seeds, which can phytic or partly epiphytic groups, ized nursery stock in the late 1950s led
be later planted into conventional pots require relatively small pots for their to the development of soilless mixes,
intact. Care must be taken to keep size. In general, large woody plants based on peat. These overcame the dif-
these peat containers moist at all should be potted more firmly than ficulties of obtaining bulk supplies of
times. Durable containers made solely those with soft growth, while soil-based good-quality loam and reduced the
of compressed paper or wood fibre potting media can be firmed much labour costs of sterilizing and handling.
are available as alternatives to peat- more than peat-based types. Newly Soil-based composts, such as the 633
based ones. potted plants will appreciate moister John Innes range, confer the possible
potting media
advantage of container wind-stability; for potting into 9cm (31/2in) pots. JIP-2 Composted bark and coir are well-
they are also often considered more tol- and JIP-3 are used for growing more tried peat alternatives, as are pine
erant of over- and under-watering, and vigorous plants and for potting on into needles and leafmould. When using
have better nutrient-storage capacity. larger pot sizes, and for large tubs and growing media based upon these mate-
However, batches are likely to be more window boxes. rials, or ones in which they are used as
variable than those of soilless mixes Lime-hating plants can be success- additives, special attention needs to be
due to the difficulty of standardizing fully grown in a compost termed JIS-A, given to avoid overwatering and early
loam texture and organic content. which is the John Innes seed compost starvation of nutrients.
There are three basic formulations with ground limestone replaced by Coarse sands or grits can be added
of John Innes composts (see table): seed 0.6kg/m3 (5/8oz/ft3) of sulphur. to peat to change the physical proper-
compost for germinating seeds; cutting Soilless mixes are usually based on ties of the mix and to increase its
compost for rooting cuttings; and pot- peat blended with materials such as weight in order to improve the stability
ting composts for growing on plants, sand, perlite and vermiculite. Some of tall plants growing in pots; very fine
designated JIP-1, JIP-2 and JIP-3. The soilless media are mixes of different sands can reduce aeration and
potting composts contain increasing grades of peat. Peat is deficient in the drainage, and suitable types should also
amounts of base fertilizers to accom- principal plant nutrients and these are be lime-free. Perlite and vermiculite
modate varying degrees of plant vigour added as fertilizers; lime is also can be used as a light-weight substitute
and seasonal changes in growth rate. included to neutralize natural acidity. for sand in soilless mixes. Mixes con-
For the higher fertility JIP-2 and The use of peat is contentious due to taining 50% or more perlite are very
JIP-3, the quantities of fertilizer in JIP- actual and potential damage caused to useful for rooting cuttings, especially
1 are doubled and tripled, respectively. the natural environment during har- under mist. Unlike perlite, vermiculite
Hoof and horn, superphosphate and vest; of special concern is sphagnum contains some potassium and magne-
potassium sulphate can be obtained peat taken from raised bogs. sium and can absorb mineral elements
ready-mixed as ‘John Innes Base’ The search for alternatives to peat such as calcium, magnesium, potas-
fertilizers. has included developments with waste sium and ammonium nitrogen from
Loams suitable for John Innes com- materials, such as straw, sewage sludge, added fertilizers, which will reduce the
posts should be of clay texture, contain municipal refuse, and animal wastes. loss of these nutrients through leach-
fibrous organic matter and have a pH However, the quality of different ing. Particles of vermiculite are less
value of between 5.5 and 6.5. It is batches of media derived from these stable than perlite, but normally last
essential that the loam is pasteurized, types of organic materials can be vari- long enough for plants that are regu-
by steaming, at around 82°C/180°F able and they can deteriorate during larly re-potted. Also used in peat mixes
maintained for 10 minutes. This heat storage. In addition, there are potential are polystyrene granules, expanded
P treatment, which is aimed at killing
most harmful insects and diseases and
health risks if contaminated residues
persist in the medium and it is advis-
aggregates made from clays, shales
and pulverized fuel ash, and flocks of
weed seeds, must be carefully con- able to handle any organic material rockwool.
trolled to avoid risk of producing sub- with care; always wear gloves or wash Lime is added variously to peat
stances toxic to plants. hands when handling such mixes, and mixes as a mixture of ground chalk or
Sphagnum peats are the most suit- avoid dusty conditions by working in a limestone and ground magnesium
able, since they retain water and pro- well-ventilated area. limestone, both to reduce acidity and
vide aeration. Coconut fibre or coir
appears to be a generally satisfactory Composition of the John Innes range:
substitute for peat as an ingredient of parts/volume fertilizer kg/m3 (oz/ft3)
John Innes compost, where used at the
same volume. The sand will improve SEED
drainage and should be a coarse grade loam 2
and lime-free. peat 1 grnd. limestone 0.6 (5⁄8)
Ideally, John Innes composts should sand 1 superphosphate 1.2 (11⁄4)
be used within four weeks of making
since changes in the forms and CUTTING
amounts of available nitrogen and the loam 1
pH can occur; successful storage will peat 2 nil
depend on moisture content, tempera- sand 1
ture and the amounts of organic nitro-
gen added. Mixing the fertilizers into POTTING (JIP-1)
the compost shortly before use will loam 7 grnd. limestone 0.6 (5⁄8)
minimize storage problems. peat 3 hoof and horn 1.2 (11⁄4)
The low-fertility seed compost is sand 2 superphosphate 1.2 (11⁄4)
634 used for seed-sowing and pricking out potass. sulphate 0.6 (5⁄8)
and JIP-1, a medium fertility compost,
primary infection
as a source of calcium and magnesium. (Phyllactinea guttata), Lagerstroemia (1/4in), white, more or less sessile; ‘Fra-
Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (Erysiphe lagerstroemiae), oak (Microsphaera grant Carpet’: white, fragrant flowers;
are applied either as soluble inorganic alphitoides), pea (Erysiphe pisi), peach and ‘Summer Meadows’: bronze-tinted
fertilizers, such as potassium nitrate rose (Sphaerotheca pannosa) and straw- leaves, fragrant, white flowers).
and superphosphate, which usually berry (S.macularis), as well as very many
require frequent replenishment, or in ornamental garden plants. precocious appearing or developing
a slow-release form. Trace elements Despite their importance as early, usually applied to flowers that
are usually added in slow-release form pathogens of flowering plants, only one open before the leaves emerge.
as powdered glass frits or as soluble species of powdery mildew (Erysiphe
chemicals. graminis) is known to occur on mono- pre-emergence used to describe
cotyledons, but this has many special- herbicides that are applied after sowing
potting off, potting on, potting ized pathotypes. but before the emergence of a crop
up see pots and potting. Control measures involve the from the soil or, in the case of peren-
removal of infected plant debris, prun- nial crops, before shoot emergence.
potting stick a short, thick rounded ing affected shoots and growing resis- The herbicides may be of contact or
stick used to firm potting media down tant varieties. Dusting or spraying with selective residual action.
the sides of large pots when potting-on sulphur is a traditional remedy but can
or re-potting specimens with a large cause injury to some ornamental plants prepared used of bulbs that have
root-ball. and certain cultivars of apples, goose- been treated, usually with heat, whilst
berries and vines. Some systemic fungi- dormant, so as to advance growth
pot worms see enchytraeid worms. cides are available to gardeners for use and/or flowering, for example
as preventative sprays on ornamentals. hyacinths, shallots.
powdery mildew a type of patho-
genic fungus characteristically showing praemorse raggedly or irregularly pre-sowing a method of preparing
as white mycelium on the surface of truncated, as if gnawed or bitten. seeds for sowing, whereby they are
green tissues of a host plant, with pow- fixed to a sheet fabric, such as paper,
dery spores. The fungus is mostly Pratia (for M.C. Prat-Bernon of the which rots after being covered with
external on its host and feeds by pene- French navy who accompanied soil, leaving the germinating seeds to
trating the epidermal cells. The Freycinet on his second round-the- develop; it is designed to ensure proper
mildews are obligate parasites, and world voyage, but died in 1817, a few spacing and is used for grass, vegeta-
may overwinter in the buds of decidu- days after the expedition set sail). Cam- bles and annual flowers.
ous and perennial plants or in resting panulaceae. Australia, New Zealand,
structures on fallen leaves. Symptoms
of powdery mildew infection may
tropical Africa, S America. About 20
species, dwarf, perennial herbs with
pricking lightly forking the soil
among growing plants to stir and break
P
include chlorosis, stunting and distor- slender, creeping stems, very small up the surface for aeration and
tion, all of which appear before obvi- leaves and, in summer, delicate, 2- improved water penetration. It is also
ous signs of the pathogen. As infection lipped flowers followed by berries. done to aerate lawns.
progresses, there can be loss of vigour Grow in a sheltered position (minimum
and reduction in quality of foliage, temperature –13°C/9°F), in sun or pricking out the operation of trans-
flowers and fruit. light, part-day shade, in gritty, moist ferring very young seedlings from the
Unlike most other fungal pathogens soil. In the alpine house, grow in pans site where they have germinated to
of plants, the powdery mildews are in a mix of equal parts loam, leaf- other containers or beds, in order to
capable of developing on their hosts in mould and sharp sand. Water plenti- provide more space for growth. Great
the absence of free water; their geo- fully when in growth and keep just care should be taken to handle only
graphical distribution reflects their moist in winter. Propagate by seed in the seed leaves and to ensure that the
adaptation to drier conditions. autumn in a sandy propagating mix, or roots are mostly intact and gently set-
Species of powdery mildews are by division. tled in with a dibber and by subsequent
often restricted to certain host families, P.angulata (New Zealand; leaves subor- watering.
and within species there may be patho- bicular, succulent, serrate; flowers to
types affecting different cultivars. 1cm (1/2in), subsessile, white with purple prilled granules small solid glob-
Plants commonly affected by veins; ‘Ohau’: large, white flowers and ules of fertilizer or herbicide. These
powdery mildews include apple (para- bright red fruit); P.pedunculata (Australia; are designed to aid even distribution,
sitized by Podosphaera leucotricha), cru- leaves ovate or orbicular, with few teeth; and may allow for slow release of the
cifers (Erysiphe cruciferarum), cucurbits flowers to 7mm (1/4in), blue, on pedicels effective ingredient as the outer casing
(E.cichoracearum and Sphaerotheca fulig- longer than leaves; ‘County Park’: bright decomposes.
inea), Euonymus japonicus (Oidium euonymi- blue flowers); P.perpusilla (New Zealand;
japonici), gooseberry (Microsphaera leaves minute, oblong or ovate-oblong, primary infection the first infec-
grossulariae and Sphaerotheca mors-uvae), acute or obtuse, fleshy, dentate, glabrous tion by a pathogen after a period of 635
grapevine (Uncinula necator), hazelnut or short-pubescent; flowers to 6mm dormancy.
priming
priming the preparation of seeds tions of P.vialii and P.denticulata, seed P.malacoides, P.obconica and P.sinensis
prior to sowing by promoting the par- germination in primulas is inhibited at are decorative pot plants for winter
tial imbibition of water to aid germina- temperatures above 20°C/68°F, and and spring flowering. Sow seed
tion and establishment. Priming has seed of many species needs stratifica- between early summer and early
been successful with crops such as tion. Primulas are relatively free from autumn for a succession of bloom; use
carrot, parsnip and celery. Polyethylene pests and diseases. The most damaging a soilless propagating mix and germi-
glycol 600 is an example of a substance pests are vine weevil, red spider mite nate at 15°C/59°F. Grow on in the
used to activate processes leading to ger- and aphid, particularly root aphid, shaded frame in a medium-fertility
mination, and after which seeds can be and slugs. The main diseases, generally loam-based mix with additional leaf-
stored dry. Primed seeds germinate avoided by good hygiene and cultural mould and grit. Bring under glass in
more quickly and evenly after sowing. conditions, are botrytis, root rots late autumn, or before first frost and
and viruses. maintain good light and ventilation
primocane the stem of a biennial In terms of individual cultural with a minimum temperature range
cane fruit, such as raspberry, in its first, requirements, primulas can be divided of 5–7°C/41–45°F. P.kewensis is less
non-fruiting year. cf. floricane. into nine groups – commonly grown but requires similar
1. full sun; permanently moist soil treatment.
Primula (the diminutive form of the 2. full sun or part-shade; moist but fast- The group numbers given in each
Latin primus, first; from the mediaeval draining soil description refer to the cultivation
Latin name for the cowslip, Primula 3. part-shade; moist but well-drained requirements outlined above.
veris, meaning ‘first little thing of soil P.allionii (France and Italian Mar-
spring’). Primulaceae. PRIMROSE. 4. part-shade; well-drained, gritty loam itime Alps; leaves cushion-forming,
Northern Hemisphere, Ethiopia, Trop- 5. full sun or part-shade; gritty, alkaline oblanceolate to rounded, entire or
ical mts to Java and New Guinea, soil finely toothed, fleshy, viscid, hairy;
southern S America. 400 species, small 6. part-shade; gritty, alkaline soil scapes very short; flowers 1–5, tubular,
or dwarf perennial herbs. The leaves 7. full or part-shade; moist and humus- 1.5–3cm (5/8–11/4in) diameter, pale pink
are usually borne in basal clumps or rich, neutral to acid soil to red-purple with white eye, or wholly
rosettes. Produced at various times of 8. sun or part-shade; humus-rich, neu- white; group 5); P.alpicola (Tibet; leaves
year, the flowers may be solitary or tral to acid soil with grit elliptic to spathulate, finely toothed;
clustered and short-stalked, or carried 9. part-shade; humus-rich neutral to scape 15–50cm (6–20in), flowers to
in scapose heads, spikes and umbels. acid soil with grit 2.5cm (1in) diameter, bell-shaped, pen-
The corolla is cup-like to tubular, In addition to these groups, there dent, white, yellow, purple or violet, eye
with a limb of 5, spreading or are the Auricula Primulas (see auriculas), farinose, fragrant; var. luna: flowers soft
P incurved lobes.
Almost without excep-
the Polyanthus Primulas or
Pruhonicensis Hybrids derived
yellow; group 7); P.aurantiaca (SW
China; leaves oblanceolate to obovate,
tion, primulas like rel- from P.vulgaris, P.veris, P.juliae finely toothed; scape to 30cm (12in),
atively cool, humid and related species, and tinged red; flowers whorled, 1.5cm
summers with a those species such as P.mala- (5/8in) diameter, tubular, red-orange;
ready supply of soil coides, P.obconica and P.sinensis, group 1 or 7); P.aureata (Nepal; leaves
moisture when in (which, for all that they con- broadly spathulate to oblong, toothed,
growth. Most need a form to cultivation group farinose; scapes very short; flowers to
well-aerated soil that 4, are commonly grown 10, to 4cm (11/2in) diameter, flat, cream
allows excess mois- under glass and in the to yellow, eye dark yellow; subspecies
ture to drain freely home). Polyanthus Prim- fimbriata: flowers pale cream-yellow,
away during the ulas are available in a with orange eye, lobes deeply toothed;
winter months to avoid number of named series group 8); P.auricula (Alps, Carpathians,
risk of root rots. A fertile with an extensive colour Apennines; leaves rounded to obovate,
loam with additional Primula japonica range. They are raised from sometimes farinose, entire to dentate,
organic matter and ‘Postford White’ seed and treated as biennials, fleshy; scapes 1–16cm (1/2–6in); flowers
coarse sand is a good starting point used for bedding. They include the 2–30, 1.5–2.5cm (5/8–1in) diameter, flat
for most primulas and can be adapted exceptionally large flowered Regal deep yellow, fragrant; group 5 or 6, see
to suit individual requirements. The series; the Pacific series, both dwarf also Auriculas); P.bulleyana (SW China;
majority of European and American and giant, with fragrant, brilliant, vel- leaves ovate to lanceolate, toothed;
species enjoy or at least tolerate sun, vety flowers, and the low growing Posy scapes to 60cm (24in); flowers many
whilst the Asiatics generally need light series, predominantly pastel with con- per whorl, to 2cm (3/4in) diameter, tubu-
shade unless the soil remains constantly trasting centres. Surface sow seed in lar, deep orange; group 1 or 7); P.chio-
cool and moist. Propagation is by seed, late spring, keep constantly moist and nantha subsp. melanops (China; leaves
division, cuttings, root cuttings, leafbud germinate at temperatures no higher lanceolate, toothed, farinose beneath;
636 cuttings and, increasingly, by micro- than 20°C/68°F; prick out and grow scape 20–35cm (8–14in); flowers 6–12,
propagation. With the possible excep- on to plant out in late autumn. to 2cm (3/4in) diameter, purple, eye
Primula
black, to 2cm (3/4in) diameter, fragrant, (2–43/4in); flowers 1–30, flat, rose-lilac smaller, white-farinose flowers pink-
narrowly funnel-shaped, pendent; to red-purple, to 1.5cm (5/8in) diameter, purple with a yellow eye; group 8);
group 1 or 7); P.chungensis (China, eye and tube yellow; group 8); P.gra- P.nana (Himalaya; leaves spathulate to
Bhutan, Assam; leaves elliptic to cilipes (Nepal, Tibet; leaves oblong- ovate, irregularly toothed or lobed,
oblong-obovate, toothed and shallowly spathulate to elliptic, irregularly wavy; scapes absent; flowers solitary, to
lobed; scapes to 60cm (24in); flowers toothed; scapes absent; flowers solitary, 3cm (11/4in) diameter, blue, lilac, pink
whorled, to 1.8cm (3/4in) diameter, 1–4cm (1/2–11/2in) diameter, bright pink- or white, eye orange-yellow edged
tubular, pale orange, tube red, fragrant; purple, eye small, green- to orange- white; group 8); P.nutans (Mountains of
group 1 or 7); P.clarkei (Kashmir; leaves yellow with narrow white border, North Asia, North Russia, North Scan-
rounded to broadly ovate, toothed; tubular, lobes toothed; group 8); P.hir- dinavia, Alaska, South West Yukon;
scape usually absent; flowers to 2cm suta (syn. P.rubra; Central Alps, Pyre- leaves oblong to ovate to orbicular,
(3/4in) diameter, flat, rose-pink, eye nees; leaves obovate to rounded, entire or finely toothed, fleshy; scapes
yellow; group 8); P.clusiana (W Austrian toothed, fleshy, glandular-hairy, sticky; 2–30cm (3/4–12in); flowers 1–10, 1–2cm
Alps; leaves oblong to obovate, leath- scape 1–7cm (1/2–23/4in); flowers 1–15, (1/2–3/4in) diameter, lilac to pink-purple,
ery, entire, ciliate, shiny above, grey- to 2.5cm (1in) diameter, flat, pale lilac eye yellow, pendent; group 7 or 8);
green beneath; scapes 1–5cm (1/2–2in), to deep purple-red, usually with white P.obconica (GERMAN PRIMROSE, POISON
glandular-hairy; flowers 1–4, 1.5–4cm centre; group 8); P.ioessa (Tibet; leaves PRIMROSE; China; leaves ovate to ellip-
(5/8–11/2in) diameter, tubular, bright rose, narrowly oblong to spathulate, toothed; tic to oblong, finely toothed or lobed,
fading to lilac, throat glandular, eye scapes 10–30cm (4–12in); flowers 2–8, hairy; scapes 15–17cm (6–61/2in); flow-
white; group 8); P.denticulata (DRUM- to 2.5cm (1in) diameter, funnel-shaped, ers 10–15, to 2.5cm (1in) diameter, flat,
STICK PRIMULA; Afghanistan to Tibet pink-mauve to violet or white, fragrant, pale-lilac or purple, eye yellow; group
and Burma; leaves obovate to spathu- calyx almost black, farinose; group 7); 4); P.palinuri (S Italy; leaves broadly
late, finely toothed; scapes 10–30cm P.japonica (CANDELABRA PRIMULA; Japan; spathulate to oblong-ovate toothed,
(4–12in); flowers in a tight, rounded leaves obovate to broadly spathulate, fleshy, viscid, aromatic, glandular-hairy;
head, each to 1.7cm (2/3in) diameter, finely toothed; scapes to 45cm (18in); scapes 8–20cm (3–8in); flowers 5–25,
flat, pale purple to red-purple, some- flowers in tiered whorls, to 2cm (3/4in) to 3cm (11/4in) diameter, narrowly
times white, eye yellow; group 1 or 3); diameter, tubular, purple-red, crimson, funnel-shaped, deep yellow, throat with
P.elatior (OXLIP; Europe to Near East; pink to white; Miller’s Crimson’: crim- white, farinose ring; group 5); P.petiolaris
leaves ovate to oblong or elliptic, cre- son; ‘Postford White’: white with a (Himalaya; leaves spathulate, finely
nate to jaggedly toothed, downy yellow eye; ‘Valley Red’: bright red; toothed; scapes 3–5cm (11/4–2in), flow-
beneath; scapes 10–30cm (4–12in); other candelabra-type primulas include ers many, 1.5cm (5/8in) diameter, tubu-
flowers many, 2–2.5cm (3/4–1in), yellow, P.aurantiaca, P.bulleyana, P.chungensis, lar, pink, eye yellow with thin white
throat green-yellow to orange, tubular,
fragrant; group 1,7 or 9); P.farinosa
P.prolifera, P.pulverulenta; group 1 or 7);
P.kewensis.(P.floribunda x P.verticillata;
border, lobes 3-toothed; group 8);
P.polyneura (China; leaves ovate to orbic-
P
(Scotland and Central Sweden to Cen- garden origin; leaves obovate to ular, more or less downy; scapes to
tral Spain to Bulgaria, North Asia and spathulate, finely toothed, thinly fari- 23cm (9in); flowers 10–50 per umbel,
North Pacific; leaves oblanceolate to nose; scapes to 30cm (12in); flowers each to 2.5cm (1in) diameter, tubular
elliptic, entire or finely toothed, fari- whorled, to 2cm (3/4in) diameter, tubu- pale rose to rich rose-red to crimson or
nose; scape 3–20cm (11/4–8in); flowers 2 lar, yellow, fragrant; group 4); P.mala- purple, eye yellow; group 7); P. Pruhon-
to many, 0.8–1.6cm (3/8–2/3in) diameter, coides (FAIRY PRIMROSE, BABY PRIMROSE; icensis Hybrids (POLYANTHUS; the name
lilac-pink, rarely purple or white, China; leaves broadly oblong to ovate, here is taken to cover several groups of
throat yellow, tubular; group 8); P.flac- shallowly lobed and toothed; scapes hybrids between P.juliae, P.veris, P.elatior
cida (China; leaves elliptic or obovate, 20–30cm (8–12in); flowers whorled, to and P.vulgaris, all of which have inter-
finely toothed, downy; scapes 20–40cm 1.5cm (5/8in) diameter, flat, mauve to bred producing a vast range of plants
(8–16in); flowers 5–15, to 2.5cm (1in) pink, red, or white; group 4); P.marginata in many colours and conforming to
diameter, lavender to violet, tubular, (Alps; leaves obovate to oblong, either the primrose-type habit or the
farinose, pendent; group 7 or 8); toothed, leathery, fleshy, farinose on cow-/oxlip with stalked umbels. P. x
P.florindae (Tibet; leaves broadly ovate, margins; scape 2–12cm (3/4–43/4in); pruhoniciana (P.juliae x P.vulgaris) (P. x hele-
toothed; scapes to 90cm (36in); flowers flowers 2–20, 1.5–3cm (5/8–11/4in) diam- nae) covers the early spring primulas
many, to 2cm (3/4in) diameter, yellow, eter, lilac to lavender or blue, some- with flowers in red, purple, pink and
creamy-farinose within and on calyx, times violet or pink, shallow white, often with white or yellow eyes.
fragrant, funnel-shaped; group 1 or 7); funnel-shaped, faintly fragrant, eye P. x margotae (P.juliae x P. Elatior Hybrids)
P.forrestii (China; leaves ovate to elliptic, white-farinose; ‘Prichard’s Variety’: have leaves often flushed purple-bronze
toothed, rugose above, farinose lilac to purple, eye white-farinose; and pink, red or purple flowers in
beneath; scapes 15–22cm (6–9in); flow- group 5); P.modesta (Japan; leaves elliptic short-stalked umbels. For example
ers 10–25, to 2cm (3/4in) diameter, flat, to spathulate, wavy-toothed, yellow- ‘Garryarde Guinevere’ (leaves bronze;
yellow, eye orange; group 8); P.frondosa farinose; scapes 2.5–12.5cm (1–5in); flowers lilac-pink). Elatior Hybrids (P. x
(Balkans; leaves spathulate or obovate, flowers 2–15, to 1.5cm (5/8in) diameter, polyantha) are strictly hybrids between 637
finely toothed, farinose; scapes 5–12cm pink-purple, tubular; var. fauriae: members of Primula section Vernales.
Primula
These are the polyanthuses with P.sonchifolia (W China; leaves oblong to Pedaliaceae. S America north to cen-
stalked umbels of flowers in shades of obovate, toothed and lobed; scapes to tral US. UNICORN PLANT, DEVIL’S-
gold, pale yellow, bronze, brown and 30cm (12in); flowers 3–20, to 2.5cm CLAW, ELEPHANT-TUSK, PROBOSCIS
red. Included here are the gold and (1in) diameter, tubular, blue to purple FLOWER. About 9 species, clammy-
silver-laced forms with small, virtually with a yellow eye and white-edged, hairy, muskily scented, annual or
black flowers edged in golden yellow sometimes toothed lobes; group 8); perennial herbs. The flowers are fun-
and silver-white;); P. x pubescens (P.auricula P.veris (COWSLIP; Europe, W Asia; leaves nelform to campanulate, with a spread-
x P.hirsuta; a group including many pop- ovate to oblong-ovate, crenate or ing limb of five lobes. The fruit is a
ular cultivars in a wide range of entire; scapes 6–30cm (21/2–12in); flow- woody capsule with large, curving
colours, among them shades of white, ers 2–16, 1–1.5cm (1/2–5/8in) diameter, horns at its apex. Cultivate as for Mar-
yellow, pink, red, purple and brown, tubular, yellow, fragrant with an orange tynia. P.fragrans (SWEET UNICORN PLANT;
sometimes with a differently coloured mark at base of each lobe; group 1 or Mexico; flowers fragrant violet- to red-
eye; they differ basically from P.hirsuta 3); P.verticillata (SW Arabian Peninsula, purple, upper lobes often blotched with
in having farinose, sometimes entire NE Africa; leaves lanceolate to darker purple, lower lobe with bright
leaves and a slightly farinose calyx; ovate-lanceolate, sharply and finely yellow band).
group 2 or 8); P.reidii (Himalaya; leaves toothed, white-farinose beneath;
oblong or lanceolate, crenate or lobed, scapes 10–60cm (4–24in); proliferation (1) the pres-
hairy; scapes 6–15cm (21/2–6in); flowers flowers many, whorled, each ence of an abnormal
3–10, 2–2.5cm (3/4–1in) diameter, to 2cm (3/4in) diameter, bell- number of organs in a
white, bell- to urn-shaped, fragrant, shaped, yellow, fragrant; flower or of an abnormal
pendent; var. williamsii: more robust, group 4); P.vialii (China; number of flowers or
flowers pale blue to white; group 8); leaves broadly lanceolate to flowerheads on a
P.rosea (Himalaya; leaves tinted red- oblong, hairy, toothed; scape stem. See hen and chick-
bronze at first, emerging with or after 30–40cm (12–16in); flowers ens, hose-in-hose; (2) a
flowers, obovate to oblanceolate; scapes pointing downwards in a stage in micropropaga-
3–10cm (11/4–4in); flowers 4–12, 1–2cm dense, narrowly conical tion, where new cells
(1/2–3/4in) diameter, flat, rose-pink to red; spike, each to 1cm (1/2in) develop from tissue, such as an
group 1 or 7); P.secundiflora (W China; diameter, tubular, calyx, red excised meristem; (3) a form of nat-
leaves oblong to obovate or oblanceo- in bud, later pink, corolla blue ural vegetative reproduction whereby
late, toothed, farinose beneath; scapes to violet; group 1 or 3); P.vulgaris plantlets or offsets (foliar embryos)
30–60cm (12–24in); flowers 10–20, (PRIMROSE; W & S Europe; are produced on leaves or
nodding to one side, 1.5–2.5cm leaves oblanceolate to obo- Proliferation on stems of the mother plant, for
P (5/8–1in) diameter, funnel-shaped, red-
purple or deep rose-red; group 1 or 7);
vate, toothed, downy; scapes
absent; flowers 2.5–4cm (1–11/2in)
Tolmeia menziesii example Tolmiea menziesii, Asple-
nium bulbiferum. Also known as vivipary;
P.sieboldii (N E Asia; leaves ovate to diameter, solitary, short-stalked, flat, (4) a disease of apples and onions
oblong, with toothed lobes; scapes to sometimes fragrant, pale yellow, throat caused by phytoplasma (q.v.).
30cm (12in); flowers 6–10, 2.5–3cm more or less orange; cultivars include
(1–11/4in) diameter, flat, white, pink or forms with single, double or hose-in- propagating frame a garden frame
purple, eye white; includes numerous hose flowers, in a wide range of where used for a similar purpose to a
cultivars with flowers ranging in colour colours. ‘Jack in the Green’: abnormal- propagating case but constructed at
from white to bright cerise and wisteria ity with a leafy calyx; group 1 or 3); ground level outdoors. It is used for
blue; some of the best have cut or P.warshenewskiana (C Asia to Himalaya; sowing and rooting hardy specimens.
toothed corolla lobes, in the pure white leaves oblong to oblanceolate, finely A propagating frame allows for pro-
‘Kuisakigarri’, for example, they are so toothed, dark green; scapes short; flow- gressive hardening off as the covering
delicately fimbriate as to resemble ers 1–8, to 1.2cm (1/2in) diameter, flat, lights are variably raised or removed.
snowflakes; group 7); P.sikkimensis bright rose or pink with yellow eye sur- It should be sited in a sheltered posi-
(Nepal to SW China; leaves elliptic or rounded by narrow white zone; group tion out of full sun, and provided with
oblong to oblanceolate, toothed; scapes 8); P.whitei (syn. P.bhutanica; E Himalaya; shading and insulation against cold
15–90cm (6–36in); flowers many, to leaves oblong to spathulate, finely as necessary.
2.5cm (1in) diameter, yellow or cream- toothed, slightly farinose; scapes short;
white, pendent, funnel-shaped, variably flowers 5–10, to 2.5cm (1in) diameter, propagating house a greenhouse
fragrant, calyx yellow-farinose; group 1 tubular to bell-shaped, blue to violet, devoted to propagation, commonly
or 7); P.sinensis (China; leaves broadly eye white or yellow-green, lobes including mist-propagation equipment
ovate to rounded, hairy, lobed and toothed; ‘Sheriff ’s Variety’ differs in its and propagating cases.
toothed, often red beneath; scapes more conspicuously toothed flowers;
10–15cm (4–6in); flowers whorled, group 8). propagation the increase of plants
2–5cm (3/4–2in) diameter, flat, purple, by seed or vegetative means. See
638 pink or white with a yellow eye and Proboscidea (from Greek proboskis, cuttings, division, grafting, layering, micro-
entire or incised lobes; group 4); snout, referring to the beaked fruit). propagation, scooping, scoring, seed sowing.
protoplasm
propagation case an enclosed box- Produced in summer in leafy racemes apply dilute liquid feed of magnesium
like structure used for seed raising and or terminal panicles, the flowers are sulphate and urea in spring and
the rooting of cuttings within a green- shortly tubular and 2-lipped, the upper autumn and water plentifully but
house, usually with wooden walls about lip 2-lobed and hooded, the lower lip judiciously when in flower and full
30–40cm (12–16in) high and a glass or 3-lobed. Free-flowering, dependable growth. Maintain a winter minimum
sometimes plastic-clad detachable shrubs for the cool greenhouse and temperature of 5–7°C/41–45°F
cover, fitted tightly to retain a humid conservatory. Grow in a medium- with a summer maximum at about
environment. It is usually mounted on fertility loam-based mix. Give direct 27°C/81°F. Propagate by seed sown
the greenhouse benching, and may fea- light, maintain low humidity and water fresh in autumn, in a 2:3 mix of peat
ture an electrically heated warming plentifully when in full growth. Keep and grit in individual small pots in the
cable; this is fitted beneath an overall just frost-free and almost dry in winter. frost-free cold frame or cool green-
layer of rooting medium or a covering Container-grown plants can be moved house. Keep seedlings moist but not
of sand, upon which containers of seed outdoors in late spring, making fine waterlogged and ensure full ventilation.
or cuttings are stood. The term close patio specimens. Prune out exhausted Avoid root disturbance. Root semi-ripe
case (sometimes closed case) is an alter- growth after flowering. Propagate from cuttings in summer.
native description. seed in spring or by semi-ripe cuttings P.cynaroides (KING PROTEA; shrub to
in late summer. 2m (61/2ft); inflorescence 12–30cm
propagator a purpose-built portable P.ovalifolia (E Australia; erect shrub, (43/4–12in), goblet-shaped resembling a
propagating unit, consisting of a stout to 4m (13ft); leaves to 1.5cm (5/8in), globe artichoke, bracts to 12cm (43/4in),
plastic seed tray to which is fitted a oval to ovate, glaucous; flowers numer- ovate-lanceolate, deep crimson to pink
moulded translucent plastic dome. ous in short terminal racemes, purple, or cream, silky); P.magnifica (small
There are small ventilators in the top mauve or white tinted lilac); P.rotundifo- shrub; inflorescence turbinate-obovoid,
of the dome, and some propagators lia (MINT BUSH; SE and S Australia; to 15cm (6in), bracts creamy pubescent
have warming cables incorporated in erect shrub to 3m (10ft); leaves orbicu- to tomentose, ovate-lanceolate to
their base. lar to ovate, obscurely dentate or cre- linear-lanceolate, white-ciliate); P.neriifo-
nate, dark green above; flowers in lia (shrub to 3m (10ft); inflorescence
propagule any part of a plant used short, loose, racemes, violet or lilac; goblet-shaped, to 13cm (5in), bracts
for propagation. ‘Chelsea Pink’: aromatic, grey-green 14cm (51/2in), oblong to spathulate,
leaves and pale rose flowers with incurved, pink to dark rose, tipped with
propping a method of support for mauve anthers). long black hairs); P.repens (low shrub or
leaning trees or long low branches, in small tree to 4m (13ft); inflorescence
which the ground is used as a firm base prostrate lying flat on the ground; goblet-shaped, to 9cm (31/2in) in diame-
for a timber or metal crutch. the Latin equivalent prostratus, -a,-um is
frequently encountered as a botanical
ter, bracts creamy white, sometimes
tinged dark red or pink, glabrous,
P
prickle a small, weak thorn-like out- and cultivar name. resinous).
growth from the bark or outer layers,
generally irregularly arranged. protandry the shedding of pollen protection (1) any measure taken to
before the stigma of the same flower is make conditions tolerable for tender
procumbent trailing loosely or lying receptive, which discourages self-polli- plants grown in a climate to which they
flat along the surface of the ground, nation; cf. protogyny. are not adapted, or to guard hardier
without rooting. plants from vagaries of weather. Pro-
Protea (for Proteus, the ancient Greek tected cultivation involves growing
proliferous producing buds or off- sea-god, famed for his ability to change plants under some form of cover, such
shoots; especially from unusual organs, shape, a reference to their diversity of as a cloche, frame, or greenhouse;
for example plants or plantlets pro- form). Proteaceae. South Africa. 115 (2) used of the protection of plants
duced from stolons or runners. species, evergreen shrubs or small trees against pests and diseases, as in ‘crop
with leathery leaves and slender flowers protection’.
prop root a root that arises adventi- packed in terminal, cone-like heads
tiously from the stem of a plant, surrounded by tough, brightly coloured prothallus the gametophyte genera-
descends to and roots in the ground bracts. Grow in full light with low tion of ferns and other cryptogams, a
and supports the stem. humidity and good air circulation. Use delicate liverwort-like structure.
a perfectly drained, low-nutrient pot-
Prostanthera (from Greek prostheke, ting mix, comprising equal parts peat protogyny the development of a
appendage, and Latin anthera, anther, and grit, with additional charcoal; receptive stigma before pollen shedding
from the spur-like projections on the ensure pH is 6.5 or lower. Proteas are by the same flower, which discourages
anthers). Labiatae. SE Australia, extremely sensitive to nitrates and self-pollination; cf. protandry.
Tasmania. AUSTRALIAN MINT BUSH. phosphates, which can be toxic even at
About 50 species, viscid, usually aro- moderate levels. Conversely, they may protoplasm the contents of living 639
matic evergreen shrubs or small trees. suffer from magnesium deficiencies: cells. Protoplasm is composed of water,
protoplasm
proteins, lipids, sugars, a variety of dead or diseased parts. Young growth Buddleja davidii, Caryopteris x clandonensis,
other organic compounds, and mineral is often more readily damaged by Eccremocarpus scaber. Hydrangea paniculata
salts. extremes of temperature and strong and Spiraea japonica; these should have
sunlight, and pruning of examples such their flowered shoots pruned in early
proximal used of the part nearest as Laurus, Rosmarinus and evergreen spring, cutting back to within one or
to the axis, thus the base of a leaf is Cotoneaster should therefore be under- two buds of the previous season’s
proximal; cf. distal. taken in late spring. growth. Within this group are those
Rhododendrons and camellias can which may or may not form a woody
proximate close together. be suitably pruned by removing flower- framework, depending on locality, such
ing branches; special care should be as Ceratostigma willmottianum, Perovskia
Prunella (from Prunella, pre-Linnaean taken to cut back to buds or shoots atriplicifolia, Leycesteria formosa, Rubus
name for the genus; the origin is because there may be no regrowth cockburnianus, Cotinus coggygria and hardy
obscure but may stem from Die Breaune, from old bare wood. fuchsias; these should have all stems cut
German for quinsy, a throat infection Conifers have a natural tendency for back to a few inches from ground level,
which these plants allegedly cured). lower branches to die as the trees age a procedure known as stooling. Bright-
Labiatae. Eurasia, N Africa, N Amer- and pruning can improve the overall stemmed Salix and Cornus may be
ica. SELF HEAL, HEAL ALL. 7 species, appearance. Occasionally, pruning to stooled, or headed back on an upright
decumbent perennial herbs. Produced improve shape may be desirable, but stem or ‘leg’, using the procedure
in spring and summer, whorled in otherwise this group requires little known as pollarding. Paulownia tomentosa
dense spikelets or heads, the flowers attention, except when grown as hedg- produces leaves many times normal
are tubular and 2-lipped, the upper lip ing; vigorous young specimens can size if stooled or pollarded. Pruning
erect and somewhat hooded, the lower have crowns removed. Conifers are should be delayed until the danger of
lip shorter, deflexed and 3-lobed. Fully best pruned when they are in a slow- frost is past.
hardy, grow in fully exposed areas or growing phase. The second group comprises the
partial shade. It is also useful for Deciduous plants Deciduous large number of summer-flowering
groundcover and for meadow and woody ornamentals such as Amelanchier, woody plants, such as Philadelphus,
other naturalistic plantings. Propagate Hamamelis, Potentilla, Viburnum, Hibiscus Deutzia, Buddleja, Kerria, Hydrangea x
from seed or lengths of rooted stem. and Chaenomeles, which bear flowers on macrophylla and Weigela, which bear
P.grandiflora (Europe; sparsely pubes- short shoots and spurs of an estab- blooms on shoots produced in the pre-
cent, to 60cm (24in); leaves to 10cm lished framework, require no more vious season. These respond to the
(4in), ovate to lanceolate, entire or than occasional cutting for shaping, thinning out of old branches and
crenulate; flowers 18–30mm (3/4–11/4in), tidying and renovation. This is best crowded shoots, and the removal of
P lips deep mauve to violet, tube paler to
off-white; ‘Alba’: white; ‘Rotkäppchen’:
carried out in late winter or spring,
outside the flowering period. The
faded flower trusses, immediately after
blooming. Earlier-flowering subjects in
carmine; ‘Loveliness’: pale lilac; ‘White majority of deciduous shrubs that ben- this group, such as Jasminum nudiflorum,
Loveliness’: white; ‘Loveliness Pink’: efit from regular attention, especially as Forsythia and Prunus triloba, should have
pink). a means of encouraging a good supply flowered shoots cut out soon after
of flowering shoots, may be considered blooming to encourage vigorous
pruner usually, a pruning tool used in two main groups. The first group replacement growth over the longest
for branch lopping, where a movable comprises those blooming from mid- possible growing season. Deadheading
blade cuts against a fixed one. See long summer onwards on wood produced in is a suitable method of pruning
arm pruner. the current season, for example, heathers and lavender.
pruning the practice of cutting out

parts of plants for specific purposes,
carried out almost entirely on woody
plants. The main purposes of pruning
are to remove dead, diseased or
unsightly growth, to maintain a man-
ageable and attractive shape, to pre-
vent overcrowding of other plants, to
improve the size or quality of flowers
and fruits, and to enhance vigour.
Pruning requirements differ accord-
ing to species, and special considera-
tion should be given to timing. Pruning deciduous shrubs
Evergreens Cutting evergreens Prune shrubs such as Deutzia (left), which flower on the previous season’s growth, by removing
640 may be necessary or beneficial for reju- old wood and thinning shoots after flowering. Shrubs that flower on the current season’s
venation, shaping and the removal of growth, such as Hydrangea paniculata (right) can be pruned to a framework in early spring.
Prunus
Roses Roses are pruned according fruit on canes of the current year, and trees, including shy flowering ornamen-
to type, for example, shrub roses are pruned to ground level in late tals, albeit less convenient than bark
should have old, diseased or dead winter. Blackberries and hybrid berries, ringing. A trench 45–60cm (18–24in)
wood removed, with some trimming to although their canes are perennial, are deep should be dug encircling the tree
maintain shape, while modern bush pruned on the replacement system beneath the branch extremities, and
roses, like hybrid teas and floribundas, in the same way as summer-fruiting exposed thicker roots severed. The pro-
need cutting back moderately hard, or raspberries. vision of subsequent support may be
sometimes severely, to produce good The pruning of apples, pears, advisable as anchorage is weakened.
growth and flowers the next season. gooseberries and currants is carried out
Prune when dormant, between leaf fall during dormancy. Stone fruits are pruning knife a pocket knife used
and budbreak; never in frosty condi- pruned in spring and summer in order for light pruning, more usually by
tions. See roses. to avoid exposure to the active stages of experts, with one folding blade that is
Climbers Pruning of woody silver leaf disease and bacterial canker. slightly curved.
climbers can be made difficult by tan- Additional summer pruning is an
gled growth. With wisterias and orna- essential means of restricting vigorous pruning saw a narrow bladed saw,
mental vines, it may be possible to growth with intensive tree forms, and used for pruning small branches. The
spread out a permanent stout frame- of developing and maintaining good blade and handle may be straight or
work of growth and shorten all side structure in gooseberries and red- and angled, or more usually curved. See
growths to it. Climbers with weaker white-currants. See renewal pruning, Grecian saw.
stems, such as Clematis, Jasminum and summer pruning.
Lonicera, may require more drastic Pruning techniques All pruning pruning shears see secateurs.
pruning of the previous season’s flow- cuts should be made cleanly, with
ered growth, which is borne on tangles sharp tools, directly above a growth pruinose thickly frosted with white
of old bare stems, and severe thinning bud or close to where another branch or blue-grey bloom, usually on a dark
or pruning of a few selected leads to arises. It is good practice to make ground colour.
near ground level may be necessary. pruning cuts to shoots and small
Timing is relative to flowering habit. branches slope down from a bud at an Prunus (the Classical Latin name for
Fruit For fruit trees and bushes, the angle of 45°. The wounds left by the these plants). Rosaceae. PLUM, CHERRY,
objective is to build a strong framework removal of large branches are likely to PEACH, ALMOND, APRICOT. N Temper-
in the formative years, and to ensure a heal more rapidly if the cut is made a ate regions, S America. 430 species,
regular supply of replacement shoots little distance from the trunk, beyond deciduous and evergreen trees and
or spurs capable of producing suffi- the slight swelling that encircles its shrubs. Produced between autumn and
cient blossom for a full crop of good-
quality fruit. The removal of diseased
base. Care must be taken to ensure that
branches which are being removed
early summer (predominantly spring),
the flowers consist of five rounded and
P
parts and the maintenance of con- with a saw do not break and tear bark spreading petals and numerous sta-
trolled growth with branches open to from the main limb. A branch should mens; they are usually white, pink or
air and sunlight, are also important first be cut off a short distance from red. They give rise to fleshy drupes
reasons for pruning. the trunk and two further cuts then with hard stones. In some cases these
Pome and stone fruits flower on made; with each cut, a shallow under- fruits are edible and important crops –
wood that is usually one or more years cut from the lower surface of the see almond, apricot, cherry, peaches and nec-
old, and pruning of branches, shoots branch should be followed by a second tarines, plums.
and spurs of established trees should complete cut from above, just a little Grown for their attractive habit and
aim at producing a balance of old and nearer the trunk or limb. The branch form, their decorative bark, their fine
new wood. Currants and gooseberries will snap off cleanly and the short autumn colours and for their unrivalled
bear flowers mainly on shoots of the remaining stub can be removed with- display of blossom which, with judi-
previous year, but also on older wood out risk of damage. cious selection of species and cultivars,
and spurs. In pruning established Wound dressing with proprietary can be extended almost throughout the
blackcurrants, about one third of the paints may protect from infection, and year, from the late autumn and winter
total number of branches is removed this is an important requirement for blooms of P.subhirtella ‘Autumnalis’,
annually to encourage the production stone fruits, but untreated wounds through late spring and early summer
of young wood, which fruits best. heal faster, and large wounds are only with the late-flowering Japanese cher-
Other currants and gooseberries briefly protected since paint cover ries such as ‘Fugenzo’ and ‘Shirofugen’,
should have leaders reduced to about soon cracks. and into summer with the intermittent
half their length, and laterals cut back Root pruning The roots of estab- flushes of blossom on P.cerasus ‘Semper-
short. Summer-fruiting raspberries lished fruit trees may be cut to reduce florens’. Most flower in spring.
bear fruit on laterals arising on canes growth and encourage fruiting. This P.cerasifera and its cultivars, and P.davidi-
produced in the previous year, and practice was more common before the ana are among the earliest to flower:
these are cut to ground level after crop- advent of dwarfing rootstocks, but it is the former with spectacular combina- 641
ping. Autumn-fruiting raspberries bear still an effective treatment for older tions of bridal white blossom and wine
Prunus
red new growth, the latter blooming as wall or forcing shrubs. If grown as a first; flowers 3cm (11/4in) diameter,
soon after New Year in a mild season. flowering hedge, trim after flowering. bright rose, double; ‘Moseri’: leaves
The shrubby species, P.incisa, P. x cistena Cut back P.laurocerasus and P.lusitanica light red flushed brown; flowers small,
and P.spinosa, are used for hedging, the with secateurs in spring or late pale pink); P.campanulata (TAIWAN
last especially useful in cold, exposed summer; neglected specimens can be CHERRY, FORMOSAN, CHERRY, BELL-
and maritime areas. When grown as rejuvenated by cutting hard back into FLOWERED CHERRY; South Japan,
shrubs, P.cerasifera and its dark-leaved old wood in spring. Taiwan; small tree; bark purple-brown;
cultivars also make excellent hedging Propagate species by seed; they may leaves to 11cm (41/2in), elliptic acumi-
plants. The evergreen P.laurocerasus and hybridize and not come true, although nate, toothed; flowers to 3cm (11/4in)
P.lusitanica are often used as informal seed-raised specimens are generally diameter, dark rose-red, bell-shaped,
screens and in more manicured hedg- longer-lived. Collect seed when ripe, nodding; fruit 1cm (1/2in) diameter,
ing. Both make good game cover and remove flesh and stratify in damp coir black-purple; ‘Okame’ (P.campanulata x
are often planted as understorey in or sand for 10–14 weeks (3–4 weeks for P.incisa): leaves small, dark green, flam-
woodland. P.laurocerasus is extremely P.dulcis and P.armeniaca) prior to sowing. ing orange in autumn; flowers shocking
tolerant of shade and tree drip. Alternatively sow outdoors in the cold pink); P.cerasifera (CHERRY PLUM,
Species grown primarily for their frame in autumn and protect from MYROBALAN; Asia Minor, Caucasus;
beautiful peeling bark include P.serrula, rodents. Propagate shrubby species large shrub or tree to 9m (30ft), often
a glossy deep mahogany-red, and such as P.glandulosa, P.laurocerasus, spiny; leaves to 6.5cm (21/2in), ovate to
P.maackii, a shining, translucent amber P.pumila, P.tenella and P.triloba by simple obovate, toothed; flowers to 2.5cm
to gold. The Japanese Flowering layering in early spring. Cultivars are (1in), pure white; fruit to 3cm (11/4in)
Cherries (Sato-zakura Group), con- propagated commercially by budding diameter, round red to yellow, some-
tribute a range of form and habit, or grafting – the Japanese and large- what pruinose; ‘Pissardii’: leaves
from the upright narrow columns of flowered cherries on to P.avium; bird emerging dark red, later deep purple to
‘Amanogawa’ and stiffly ascending cherry types, such as P.cornuta, P.serotina red-bronze; flowers white, buds pink,
branches of ‘Sekiyama’, to the small and P.virginiana, on to P.padus. Species profuse, appearing before foliage; fruit
weeping domes of ‘Kiku-shidare’. The such as P.cerasifera, P.incisa, P.spinosa and maroon); P.cerasus (SOUR CHERRY; SE
flowers may be large or small, single, P.subhirtella, can be propagated by semi- Europe to W Asia; shrub or tree to 6m
semi-double or double, regular or ripe heel cuttings in summer, in a (20ft); leaves 6cm (21/2in), narrowly
ragged, sweetly fragrant or almond- closed case with bottom heat Most ovate to elliptic, finely toothed, dark
scented, snow white, cream, pale rose, species can be propagated by softwood green, glossy; flowers to 2.5cm (1in)
pink, pale red, pale lilac or purple- cuttings taken when plants are growing diameter, white; fruit 1.8cm (3/4in)
pink. This group includes many small strongly, in spring and early summer, diameter, dark red; var. austera:
P trees for the confined spaces of urban
gardens, where their tolerance of pol-
treated with hormone-rooting powder,
and rooted with mist and bottom heat.
MORELLO CHERRY; tree to 9m (30ft),
somewhat pendulous; flowers to 6cm
lution is especially useful. Most colour Ornamental Prunus species are (21/2in) diameter; fruit black-red; var.
well in autumn, in shades of yellow affected to various degrees by the same caproniana: AMARELLE CHERRY, KENTISH
and tawny orange, and many also have pests and diseases that attack the edible RED CHERRY, tree to 9m (30ft); fruit
bronzed new growth, in beautiful con- species (q.v.). globose, light red; var. marasca:
trast to the emergent blossom. P. x amygdalopersica (P.dulcis x P.persica; MARASCHINO CHERRY; arching tree;
The following are fully hardy. Grow tree or shrub; leaves similar to P.dulcis, fruit black-red, small); P. x cistena
them in well-drained moisture-retentive coarsely toothed; flowers to 5cm (2in) (P.cerasifera ‘Atropurpurea’ x P.pumila;
soils, siting deciduous species in full sun diameter, light pink; fruit peach-like, garden origin; shrub to 2.5m (8ft);
to ensure good flowering and autumn dry; ‘Pollardii’: flowers large, rich pink); leaves to 6cm (21/2in), obovate to lance-
colour. P.glandulosa and P.triloba thrive P.armeniaca (APRICOT; North China; tree olate, red-brown, toothed; flowers
when trained against a sheltered south- to 10m (33ft); leaves to 12cm (43/4in), white, calyx red-brown; fruit black-
facing wall. Plant evergreens in sun to orbicular or ovate, glabrous, toothed; purple; ‘Crimson Dwarf ’: dense,
semi-shade. Stake standard specimen flowers to 4cm (11/2in) diameter, white upright, to 1.2m (4ft) high; leaves red
trees until established, especially in or pink; fruit to 5cm (2in), white to tinted bronze, crimson when young;
areas exposed to wind, and protect orange-red or yellow, downy); P.avium flowers shell pink, calyx dark red);
young stems from rabbits and hares. (BIRD CHERRY, SWEET CHERRY, WILD P.davidiana (DAVID’S PEACH; China; tree
With the exception of P.laurocerasus, CHERRY; Europe, Asia; tree to 20m to 9m (30ft); leaves to 1cm (1/2in), lance-
which becomes chlorotic on shallow (66ft); leaves to 10cm (4in), oblong- olate, tapering finely, dark green and
chalk, most grow particularly well on ovate, acuminate, toothed; flowers shiny, sharp-toothed; flowers 2.5cm
calcareous soils. Prune if necessary in 2.5cm (1in) diameter, white; fruit 2cm (1in) diameter, white or pale pink; fruit
late summer, ensuring a long enough (3/4in), dark maroon; ‘Plena’: flowers 3cm (11/4in) diameter, yellow to red,
period for wounds to heal before the double, pure white); P. x blireana downy); P.domestica (P.spinosa x P.cerasifera
onset of winter. Cut back the flowered (P.cerasifera ‘Atropurpurea’ x P.mume; subspecies divaricata; PLUM, COMMON
642 shoots of P.glandulosa and P.triloba to 2–3 garden origin; shrub or small tree to PLUM; S Europe, Asia; tree to 12m
buds from the base, especially if grown 4.5m (15ft); young leaves bronze-red at (39ft), sometimes spiny; leaves to 10cm
Prunus
green shrub or tree to 6m (20ft); diameter, white with toothed petals, in

leaves to 25cm (10in), oblong to ellip- racemes to 12cm (43/4in); fruit pea-
tic, glossy and dark green, thick and sized, black; ‘Plena’: flowers semi-
rather rigid; flowers white, small, in double, large, long-lasting; ‘Watereri’:
dense racemes to 10cm (4in); fruit flowers white, large, almond-scented in
0.8cm (3/8in), plum red to black; pendulous racemes; var. commutata:
‘Aureovariegata’: leaves tipped yellow; medium-sized tree; leaves coarser, cre-
‘Castlewellan’: leaves slightly contorted, nate; racemes to 15cm (6in)); P.pensyl-
speckled white; ‘Otto Luyken’: com- vanica (BIRD CHERRY, PIN CHERRY, RED
pact and low-growing, spreading shrub CHERRY; N America; tree to 9m (30ft);
to 1m (31/4ft); leaves narrow glossy dark leaves 9cm (31/2in), narrowly ovate,
green; free-flowering; ‘Schipkaensis’: acuminate, with glandular teeth; flow-
broad, goblet shaped, to 2m (61/2ft); ers 1.5cm (5/8in), white; fruit 0.6cm
Prunus glandulosa ‘Alba Plena’ leaves large; very hardy); P.lusitanica (1/4in) diameter, red); P.persica (PEACH;
This flowering almond is of modest size and (PORTUGUESE LAUREL CHERRY, PORTU- China; small tree to 8m (26ft); leaves to
suitable for the mixed border or for wall GAL LAUREL; Iberian Peninsula; ever- 15cm (6in), elliptic to lanceolate, taper-
training. It bears large double white flowers. green shrub of wide, bushy habit, or ing narrowly; flowers pink to white, to
tree to 20m (66ft); branchlets red; 3.5cm (11/2in) diameter; fruit to 7cm
(4in), elliptic or oblong, downy at first; leaves to 12cm (43/4in), oblong to ovate, (23/4in) diameter, downy, yellow blushed
flowers to 2.5cm (1in) diameter, white; somewhat toothed, thinly coriaceous red, fragrant, very juicy; numerous cul-
fruit to 8cm (3in), yellow or red to blue- dark green, shiny above; flowers to tivars grown for their fruit; the follow-
black or violet-purple, pruinose, flesh 1cm (1/2in) diameter, white, erect, in ing are ornamental – ‘Klara Mayer’:
green or yellow); P.dulcis (ALMOND; racemes to 15cm (6in); fruit 8mm shrub-like; flowers double, to 4cm
Syria to N Africa; tree to 9m (30ft); (3/8in), red to dark purple or black; (11/2in), strong red-pink; fruit pale
leaves to 13cm (5in), lanceolate, taper- subsp. azorica: AZORES LAUREL CHERRY; green, tinted red; ‘Russel’s Red’: habit
ing narrowly, finely toothed; flowers Azores; shrub or small tree to 4m dense; flowers double, striking red;
palest pink to deep rose, to 5cm (2in); (13ft); leaves to 10cm (4in), ovate ‘Palace Peach’: flowers double, small,
fruit to 6.5cm (21/2in), green, with thin, to elliptic; racemes shorter, fewer- deepest red; ‘Peppermint Stick’: flowers
tough flesh and velvety skin; numerous flowered; ‘Variegata’: leaves edged double, white, striped red; ‘Dianthifo-
cultivars with single or double flowers white, sometimes flushed pink in lia’: flowers very large, semi-double,
in tones of white, pale pink, rose and winter); P.maackii (MANCHURIAN petal narrow, striped deep red); P.sargen-
magenta); P.glandulosa (DWARF FLOWER- CHERRY, AMUR CHERRY; Korea, tii (Japan; spreading tree to 18m (60ft);
ING ALMOND; China, Japan; shrub to
2m (61/2ft); leaves to 7cm (23/4in), oblong
Manchuria; tree to 16m (52ft); bark
golden to russet, pellucid, papery, peel-
leaves to 10cm (4in), broadly oblong-
elliptic to obovate, tapering, sharply
P
to lanceolate, finely toothed with glan- ing; leaves 10cm (4in), elliptic or toothed, somewhat, glaucous beneath;
dular stipules; flowers to 2cm (3/4in) oblong; flowers small, white, in dense flowers to 4cm (11/2in) diameter, blush-
diameter, red becoming pink or white; racemes; fruit 4mm (1/8in), dry, black; pink with cut petals; fruit to 1cm (1/2in),
fruit 1cm (1/2in), dark red; ‘Alba Plena’: ‘Amber Beauty’: bark golden); P.mahaleb glossy crimson; ‘Columnaris’: colum-
flowers double, large, white; ‘Sinensis’: (ST. LUCIE CHERRY; Europe, Asia nar, to 10m (33ft); bark mahogany;
flowers large, double, bright pink); P. Minor; tree to 9m (30ft); leaves 4.5cm leaves flaming red and gold in autumn;
‘Hillieri’ (P.incisa x P.sargentii; garden (13/4in), broadly ovate to rounded, flowers single, pink; ‘Accolade’: P.sargen-
origin; densely branched tree to 9m toothed; flowers 1.4cm (1/2in) diameter, tii x P.subhirtella; habit flat-topped, older
(30ft); leaves bronze at first, colouring white, in racemes; fruit 0.6cm (1/4in), plants somewhat pendulous; flowers
brilliantly in autumn, toothed; flowers black; ‘Albomarginata’: leaves edged semi-double, to 4cm (11/2in) diameter,
3cm (11/4in) diameter, pink, calyx white; ‘Aurea’: leaves splashed yellow); shocking pink in pendulous clusters); P.
bronze-red); P.incisa (FUJI CHERRY; P.mume (JAPANESE APRICOT, MEI; Japan; Sato-zakura Group (JAPANESE FLOWER-
Japan; tree to 5m (16ft); leaves to 5cm tree to 9m (30ft); branchlets glossy; ING CHERRIES; most probably derived
(2in), obovate or ovate, downy on veins, leaves to 10cm (4in), broad, toothed; from P.serrulata; ‘Amanogawa’: narrowly
sharply toothed; flowers produced in flowers to 3cm (11/4in), pale rose; fruit erect, to 6m (20ft); flowers single or
late winter and early spring, to 2cm to 3cm (11/4in) diameter, somewhat semi-double, pale pink, fragrant;
(3/4in) diameter, white to rose, petals downy, yellow; ‘Beni-shidori’: flowers ‘Kanzan’: syn. ‘Sekiyama’; ascending
notched; fruit to 0.8cm (3/8in), purple- double, intense pink, fading later, fra- to spreading, to 12m (39ft); leaves
black; ‘February Pink’: young growth grant; ‘Omoi-no-wac’: flowers semi- lightly tinted red-bronze at first, yellow
red-tinted, autumn colour good; flow- double, cup-shaped, white, occasional and copper in autumn; flowers large,
ers pale pink, produced early in the petal or even whole flower pink); double, pink in hanging clusters; ‘Kiku-
year); P.insititia (BULLACE; branches P.padus (BIRD CHERRY, COMMON BIRD shidare-zakura’: syn. ‘Cheal’s Weep-
often spiny; fruit small, usually dark CHERRY; Europe, Asia; tree to 1.5m ing’; small weeping tree; flowers
purple); P.laurocerasus (CHERRY LAUREL, (5ft); leaves to 9cm (31/2in), obovate to double, clear deep pink; ‘Shogetsu’; 643
LAUREL; SE Europe, Asia Minor; ever- elliptic, toothed; flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) small with a wide-spreading, flattened
Prunus
crown; flowers large, double, fringed, semi-double, petals somewhat frilled, bracts and overlapping, not twisted
blush pink opening white; ‘Shirofugen’: opening white, pink in bud, almond- corolla lobes. Cultivate as for Eranthemum.
wide and spreading, flat-crowned; flow- scented); P.tenella (DWARF RUSSIAN P.atropurpureum (Polynesia, naturalized
ers large, double, pink in bud, opening ALMOND; C Europe to E Siberia; low, tropical America; slender shrub to
white; ‘Shirotae’: small, spreading to bushy shrub to 1.5m (5ft); leaves to 1.5m (5ft); leaves 10–15cm (4–6in),
pendulous; flowers large, single to 9cm (31/2in), obovate or oblong, some- linear to ovate-elliptic, dark purple to
semi-double, white with a hawthorn- what thick and glossy, coarsely toothed; deep metallic green; flowers to 2.5cm
like fragrance; ‘Ukon’: habit erect to flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in) across, rose-red; (1in), white, spotted rose or purple at
spreading; leaves colouring well in fruit 2.5cm (1in), grey-yellow, velvety; base; ‘Variegatum’: leaves bronze-
autumn; flowers large, semi-double, ‘Fire Hill’: dwarf, to 75cm (30in) high, purple, marked pink and variegated
creamy white tinted primrose yellow; forms thickets of thin erect stem; flow- cream-yellow, flowers magenta marked
‘Uzuzakura’: syn. ‘Hokusai’; spreading, ers intense red-ink, profuse); P.tomentosa red); P.reticulatum (Polynesia; subshrub to
vigorous; autumn colour good; flowers (DOWNY CHERRY; Kasmir, China, 1m (31/4ft); leaves to 27cm (11in), ovate-
large, semi-double, shell pink develop- Tibet; shrub to 2.5m (8ft); young shoots lanceolate, undulate, dark green net-
ing a dark stain in centre with age; downy; leaves to 5cm (2in), obovate to veined cream-yellow; flowers to 3cm
‘Yaemarasakizakura’: syn. ‘Yae- oblong, slightly rugose, downy above, (11/4in), flushed and spotted damson).
Murasaki’; small, slow-growing; leaves densely so beneath, toothed; flowers to
brilliant orange in autumn; flowers 2.3cm (1in) diameter, white or pink; pseudobulb the water-storing thick-
semi-double, purple-red in bud, open- fruit 1.2cm (1/2in), subglobose, hairy, ened bulb-like stems found in many
ing purple-pink, very freely produced); red); P.triloba (FLOWERING ALMOND; sympodial orchids. Pseudobulbs vary in
P.serrula (BIRCH-BARK CHERRY; SW China; shrub or small tree to 4.5m shape and size and usually grow
China; tree to 15m (50ft); bark shiny (15ft); branches brown, often rod-like actively for only one season, persisting
mahogany-brown, peeling and birch- and erect; leaves to 6cm (21/2in), ovate thereafter as backbulbs.
like; leaves to 7.5cm (3in), lanceolate, or obovate, often trilobed, coarsely
finely toothed; flowers 2cm (3/4in) diam- toothed; flowers to 2.5cm (1in) diame- pseudocarp see accessory fruit.
eter, white; fruit 1cm (1/2in), bright red); ter, pink to white, often double; fruit
P.serrulata (ORIENTAL CHERRY; China; 13mm (1/2in) diameter, red, downy; pseudogamy development of an
tree to 3m (10ft); leaves to 13cm (5in), ‘Multiplex’: flowers double, pink); P.vir- embryo following pollination but not
ovate, tapering narrowly, finely giniana (VIRGINIAN BIRD CHERRY; N fertilization.
toothed; flowers 3.5cm (11/2in) diame- America; shrub to 3.5m (111/2ft), or
ter, pure white, double; fruit small, rarely small tree; leaves to 8cm (3in), Pseudogynoxys (literally a ‘false
black; var. spontanea: HILL CHERRY, broadly obovate or elliptic, very finely Gynoxys’ – the name of another genus
P JAPANESE MOUNTAIN CHERRY; Japan; to
18m (60ft); bark brown or grey with
toothed; flowers 1cm (1/2in) diameter,
white, in dense racemes; fruit dark red
of South American Compositae).
Compositae. Tropical S America.
conspicuous lenticels; leaves bronze to black; ‘Schubert’: habit dense, About 13 species, evergreen perennial
when young; flowers to 2.5cm (1in), spreading to 6m (20ft) high; leaves shrubs or climbers with daisy-like flow-
diameter, white or pink, petals incised); becoming purple-brown in summer); erheads. A vigorous evergreen climber
P.spinosa (SLOE, BLACKTHORN; Europe, P. x yedoensis (P. x subhirtella x P.speciosa; suited to the cool to the intermediate
N Africa, Asia Minor; very spiny shrub YOSHINO CHERRY, TOKYO CHERRY; greenhouse or conservatory, where it
or small tree to 8m (26ft); leaves to 5cm small tree to 15m (50ft), broadly will rapidly cover walls and pillars with
(2in), elliptic to oblong or obovate, upright; bark smooth; leaves to 12cm deep green foliage and cheerful
finely toothed; flowers to 2cm (3/4in) (43/4in), elliptic, tapering, toothed, stalk orange-red flowerheads. Plant in a
diameter, white; fruit to 1.5cm (5/8in), yellow with red hairs; flowers to 3.5cm moist, but not overwet, loam-based fer-
black, pruinose); P. x subhirtella (WINTER (11/2in) diameter, pure white in racemes; tile mix in semi-shade or full sun. Feed
FLOWERING CHERRY, SPRING CHERRY, fruit pea-sized, black; ‘Moerheimii’: fortnightly in spring and summer. Trim
HIGAN CHERRY, ROSEBUD CHERRY; shrub-like, to 3m (10ft), weeping; twigs back shoots after flowering. Increase by
Japan; tree to 18m (60ft) with a flat to pendulous, grey; flowers pink fading seed or semi-ripe nodal cuttings.
somewhat weeping crown; branchlets to white; to 2cm (3/4in) diameter; late- P.chenopodioides (syn. Senecio chenopodioides,
slender, cascading; leaves to 8cm (3in), flowering; ‘Shidare Yoshino’: syn. ‘Pen- S.confusus; MEXICAN FLAMEVINE,
ovate to lanceolate, tapering, toothed, dula’; habit weeping; flowers snow ORANGEGLOW VINE, TRAILING GROUND-
colouring richly in autumn; flowers to white, profuse). SEL, MEXICAN FIREVINE, MEXICAN
1.8cm (3/4in) diameter, pale pink to DAISY; Colombia; climbing shrub to 6m
white with cut petals, appearing at leaf Pseuderanthemum (from Greek (20ft); leaves narrowly ovate, dentate,
fall and and often again before new pseudo, false, and Eranthemum, a closely light green, glabrous; flowerheads to
leaves; fruit to 9mm (3/8in), purple- related genus with which this one is 5cm (2in) in diameter, bright orange to
black; ‘Autumnalis’: habit spreading, to much confused). Acanthaceae. Tropics. flame, usually fragrant).
5m (16ft); leaves deeply serrate, red and Some 60 species, evergreen herbs, sub-
644 orange in autumn; flowers produced in shrubs and shrubs, differing from Eran- Pseudolarix (from Greek pseudo,
autumn, late winter and early spring, themum in their inconspicuous floral false, and Larix, which it resembles).
Psychopsis
Pinaceae. E China. GOLDEN LARCH. 1 toothed, dark glossy green above); less pectinately. Ovoid to cylindric, the
species, P.amabilis, a deciduous, conifer- P.crassifolius (HOROEKA, LANCEWOOD; cones are pendulous, green, pink or
ous tree, to 40m (130ft). The crown is New Zealand; tree to 15m (50ft) tall, purple, with a pale or violet bloom,
broadly conic with horizontal usually erect, slender and unbranched ripening brown, often resinous. The fol-
branches, the bole covered with rust- when young; juvenile leaves to 100cm lowing species is an important timber
brown, narrow-ridged bark, becoming (39in), linear, tough to rigid, sinuately tree. Fully hardy, it should be planted
grey and fissured in old trees. The toothed, downward pointing, olive to on moist but well-drained, acid to neu-
leaves are whorled or spiralled, needle- flesh pink mottled black to maroon or tral soils. Increase by seed, or (cultivars)
like, 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in) long and pale silver-grey, sometimes solid black- by grafting on stocks of typical P.men-
green becoming rich gold in autumn. brown with an orange-pink midrib; ziesii. Leaf-cast fungus can partly defoli-
A difficult tree to grow well in cool- adult-leaves simple or 3–5-foliate, ate trees of P.menziesii subsp. glauca, and
temperate regions: if planted out when upright, linear to linear-obovate, leath- more particularly its var. caesia, but
small, it is easily scorched and may be ery, to 20cm (8in), sinuate or coarsely severe attacks are rare in gardens. Adel-
killed by –5°C/23°F. Good trees are toothed; P.ferox (TOOTHED LANCEWOOD; gids attack several species.
found only in southern England yet the New Zealand; resembling P.crassifolius P.menziesii (syn. P.douglasii, P.taxifolia;
30m (100ft) trees in New Jersey and but to 7m (23ft); leaves always simple, DOUGLAS FIR, GREEN DOUGLAS FIR; SW
New York show clearly that very cold in adults to 15cm (6in) or so; juvenile British Colombia, to west central Cali-
winters are no problem where summers leaves to 45cm (18in), jaggedly fornia; to 100m (330ft), bark green-
are long and hot. The golden larch toothed); P.laetus (New Zealand; shrub brown with resin blisters, becoming
fares best in warm, sheltered sites on or small tree, to 6m (20ft) or so; leaves red-brown, corky, fissured, crown
fertile, deep soils, around pH 5–6, with 5–7-foliolate, petioles purple-red, to dense, conic, more slender and open in
about 1000mm (40in) rainfall. Avoid 25cm (10in), leaflets obovate, thick, to vigorous trees, spire-like, branches level
exposure to dry winds, and fast-drying 30cm (12in), stalked, toothed above). or gently downswept, branchlets
soils. Propagation as for Larix. drooping, shoots aromatic; leaves
Pseudosasa (from Greek pseudos, 1.5–4cm (5/8–11/2in), bright green above,
Pseudopanax (from Greek pseudo, false, and Sasa). Gramineae. China, two dull white bands beneath, blunt,
false, and Panax.) Araliaceae. New Japan, Korea. 6 species of tall or short rounded; cone 6–12cm (21/2–43/4in),
Zealand and associated islands, Tasma- bamboos; the rhizomes are usually green; subsp. glauca: BLUE DOUGLAS FIR,
nia, Chile. LANCEWOOD. 12–20 species, spreading and running but in colder COLORADO DOUGLAS FIR, C and S US,
evergreen trees or shrubs, some with climates may become shorter and con- to 40m (130ft), leaves strongly upswept,
distinct kinds of foliage in different life- gested, giving the culms a clumped 1.5–2.5cm (5/8–1in), grey-green to blue-
stages. The leaves are simple or appearance; see bamboos. green, with stomatal bands above as
palmately compound, the blades entire
or variously toothed. Small, pale flow- pseudostem an erect aerial ‘stem’
well as beneath, cultivars including
dwarf and tall clones with blue to
P
ers are borne in umbels on large, com- apparently furnished with leaves but in silver-white foliage; var. caesia: GREY-
pound inflorescences. The following fact composed of the packed or over- DOUGLAS FIR, FRASER RIVER DOUGLAS
species tolerate temperatures down to lapping sheaths and stalks of essentially FIR, leaves dull grey-green with some
at least –5°C/23°F, provided that they basal leaves. It is a common feature of stomata above, grey-white beneath).
are given a warm, sheltered location. the families Musaceae, Zingiberaceae,
Cultivate in any fertile, well-drained Heliconiaceae, Strelitziaceae and Psychopsis (from Greek psyche, but-
soil, giving full sun or part-shade. Cannaceae. terfly, and opsis, appearance referring to
Large plants respond well to heavy the flower shape). Orchidaceae. C and
pruning and to careful transplanting. In Pseudotsuga (from Greek pseudo-, S America. BUTTERFLY ORCHID. 5
cold areas, grow in large containers in false, and Tsuga). Pinaceae. Western N species, evergreen epiphytic perennial
the conservatory or cool to intermedi- America south to Mexico; E Asia from herbs, closely allied to and formerly
ate greenhouse (winter minimum S Japan to Taiwan and SW China. included in Oncidium. The pseudobulbs
7–10°C/45–50°F), giving strong, fil- DOUGLAS FIR. 8 species, evergreen are circular to ovoid and laterally com-
tered light in summer and low humid- coniferous trees. The crown is conic, pressed. Each bears a leathery, oblong
ity; ventilate whenever possible. Water becoming irregular with age in expo- to lanceolate leaf, often dotted or mot-
moderately in summer, sparingly in sure, the branches long, spreading or tled red-brown. The flowers are pro-
winter. Propagate from seed in sweeping downwards, and the branch- duced at various times of year, singly in
autumn, by semi-ripe cuttings in lets and shoots somewhat drooping. long succession atop a wiry raceme.
summer or by air-layering. The bark is smooth, dark purple-grey, They consist of a large, frilled and
P.arboreus (FIVE-FINGER, PUAHOU, with resin blisters when young, becom- near-circular lip, broadly scimitar-
WHAUWHAUPAKU; New Zealand; ing very thick, deeply fissured and shaped, with decurved lateral sepals
round-headed tree to 8m (26ft), trunk corky red-brown with paler fissures on and very slender petals and dorsal
slender, branches pointed upwards; mature trees. The needle-like leaves are sepal, arising like antennae. Provide full
leaflets 3–7, thick, narrowly oblong to radially arranged with their short stalks sunlight and high summer temperatures 645
oblong-obovate, to 20cm (8in), coarsely twisted to position the leaves more or (30–40°C/86–104°F). Pot in an open
Psychopsis
mixture of equal parts coarse bark and bark of apple. Hatching occurs in Grow in fertile, well-drained but
charcoal, surrounding the leaf base spring and nymphs crawl into the moisture-retentive soil in full sun or
with fresh sphagnum at first to promote opening buds where they feed between light part-day shade. Sow seed out-
rooting. Alternatively, mount on rafts or developing leaves and blossoms. There doors in autumn, or in spring following
cork slabs. Suspend plants in a dry, airy is only one generation each year. In three months of stratification at
position, water freely during the grow- severe attacks, the blossoms turn 5°C/41°F. Root softwood cuttings in
ing period and give a weak foliar feed brown; this can be mistaken for frost early summer. P.trifoliata (HOP TREE,
every third week. Once pseudobulbs damage. Pear suckers differ from apple STINKING ASH, WATER ASH; E and C
are completed, withhold water, provid- suckers in that they overwinter as US; shrub or tree to 8m (26ft); leaflets
ing only a heavy misting every few days. adults and pass through three genera- 4–12cm (11/2–43/4in), ovate to oblanceo-
Provide a minimum winter temperature tions each year. Spring infestations are late; fruit 2–2.5cm (3/4–1in), suborbicu-
of 18°C/64°F. Do not remove flower associated with death of blossoms and lar, rounded or notched at base;
spikes, which may continue to produce black sooty moulds growing on the ‘Aurea’: leaves soft yellow, later lime;
flowers even though they appear spent. excreted honeydew; later generations ‘Glauca’: leaves glaucous).
Propagation is by division, although may cause premature defoliation in late
plants seldom become large enough to summer and death of developing fruit pteridophytes a division of non-
warrant this. buds in autumn. flowering vascular plants. They repro-
P.krameriana (syn. Oncidium krameri- Box suckers prevent shoot extension duce by spores in the process of
anum, O.nodosum, O.papilio var. krameri- and the resultant cupped leaves form alternation of generations. Among
anum; Costa Rica, Panama, Ecuador, tight clusters resembling small cab- these are ferns, club mosses, and horse-
Peru, Colombia; flowers to 12cm bages, in which the developing nymphs tails. There are 365 genera organized
(43/4in) in diameter, showy; sepals deep may be found in the spring. The in four classes comprising 2000 species.
red-brown with golden yellow margins nymphs of the bay sucker live in curled
or bands; lip deep red-brown); P.lim- over leaf edges of bay laurel. In severe Pteris (from the Greek word for fern,
minghei (syn. Oncidium limminghei; Brazil, attacks, leaves shrivel prematurely and pteron, wing, referring to the feathery
Venezuela; flowers to 5cm (2in) in shoots are killed; this type of damage is fronds). Pteridaceae. Subtropics and
diameter; sepals dull red-brown; petals most serious on young trees under five tropics. BRAKE, DISH FERN, TABLE FERN.
bright red-brown barred with pale years old. About 280 species, terrestrial, rhizoma-
yellow-brown; lip cream-yellow spotted Other psyllids include the ALDER tous ferns. The fronds are slender-
orange-brown); P.papilio (syn. Oncidium SUCKER (P.alni); the BLUE-GREEN GUM stalked and loosely clumped, the blades
papilio; Trinidad, Venezuela, Colombia, SUCKER (Ctenarytaina eucalypti), intro- pinnately divided with narrow segments,
Ecuador, Peru; flowers to 15cm (6in) in duced into Europe, South Africa and the lowermost segments often forked or
P diameter; dorsal sepal and petals
purple-brown mottled yellow-green;
New Zealand from Australia, and
sometimes a serious pest of nursery
themselves divided. The following
species are widely grown as house plants
lateral sepals bright chestnut-red, trees; and the CITRUS SUCKER (Trioza and will tolerate neglect and low tem-
barred or blotched deep yellow; lip erytreae), prevalent on citrus in eastern peratures. For best results, grow in dap-
yellow spotted orange-brown, apex and southern parts of Africa. In pled light to deep shade, with a
golden yellow bordered or heavily North America, the POTATO minimum temperature of 10°C/50°F
mottled red-brown at margins). PSYLLID (Paratnoza cockerelli) is an and a humid but buoyant atmosphere.
important pest of potato and Plant in a porous, soilless, acid to neu-
psyllids (Hemiptera: Psyllidae tomato, causing leaves to tral medium. Keep just moist in cool
and allied families) small sap- become curled and yellow, a winters. Water, feed and syringe gener-
feeding insects up to 3mm condition known as ‘psyllid ously in spring and summer. Propagate
(1/8in) long, the adults of which yellows’. Severe attacks cause by division or spores.
have two pairs of wings and are loss of yield. P.argyraea (tropics; fronds pinnate to
usually very active. The flat- Psyllids are best controlled by pinnatisect, dark green with a broad
bodied nymphs are known as Psyllid (pear using systemic insecticides which silver-white central stripes, terminal
sucker)
suckers, and produce drops of are effective against aphids. pinna 15–30cm (6–12in) x 3.5cm
honeydew and conspicuous white Apple sucker eggs may also be con- (11/2in), segments linear-oblong); P.cretica
waxy threads; some have toxic saliva trolled with winter washes applied to (Old World tropics and subtropics;
which induces various forms of galling. apple trees in the dormant season. fronds with 1–5 pairs of simple or
Most species are host-specific. Psyllids forked pinnae, pinnae 10–20cm
common to Europe and North Amer- Ptelea (Greek name for the elm tree). (4–8in), linear to lanceolate; var. albolin-
ica include the APPLE SUCKER (Psylla Rutaceae. N America. HOP TREE, eata: fronds striped and edged white;
mali), PEAR SUCKER (P.pyricola), BOX SHRUBBY TREFOIL. About 11 species, ‘Childsii’: fronds bright green, lobed,
SUCKER (P.buxi) and BAY SUCKER shrubs or small trees, with trifoliolate, waved or frilled; ‘Cristata’: compact,
(Trioza alacris). muskily aromatic leaves, small, starry fronds crested; ‘Wilsonii’: fronds com-
646 Apple suckers overwinter as straw- green flowers in summer and winged pact, bright green, lobed and heavily
coloured, elongate-oval eggs on the fruit. Hardy to at least –15°C/5°F. crested, giving a fan-like appearance);
Pueraria
P.ensiformis (SWORD BRAKE; Himalaya 6–12cm (21/2–43/4in)); P.stenoptera (China; months. Increase also by semi-ripe
to Japan, Philippines, Polynesia and to 25m (80ft); young twigs tawny cuttings in late summer. P.hispida (FRA-
tropical Australia; fronds bipinnate, pubescent; leaves 20–40cm (8–16in), GRANT EPAULETTE TREE; Japan, China;
15–30cm (6–12in) x 8–15cm (3–6in), rachis winged, sometimes serrate, tree to 15m (50ft) or shrub to 4.5–6m
terminal pinna 5–10cm (2–4in), slightly leaflets 11–23, oval-oblong to narrow- (15–20ft), bark grey, peeling, aromatic;
compound with central portion entire, oblong, serrulate). leaves 7–17cm (23/4–61/2in), oval to obo-
lateral pinnae to 4–5 pairs, cut into 2–6 vate; flowers white, in downy, pendu-
obovate-oblong pinnules to 12mm Pteroceltis (from Greek pteron, wing, lous panicles 12–25cm (43/4–10in) long).
(1/2in) wide, dentate; ‘Arguta’: fronds and Celtis). Ulmaceae. N and C China.
dark green with central, silver-white 1 species, P.tartarinowii, a deciduous tree puberulent, puberulous minutely
markings; ‘Victoriae’: fronds with a to 10m (33ft), with a broad crown and pubescent; covered with minute, soft
white zone flanking the midrib on pale grey bark, peeling in flakes. To hairs.
either side); P.multifida (SPIDER BRAKE, 10cm (4in) long, the leaves are ovate-
SPIDER FERN; E Asia, introduced Amer- oblong to ovate-lanceolate and serrate. pubescent generally hairy; more
ica; fronds pedate, 2-pinnate at base, The flowers are inconspicuous, the specifically, covered with short, fine,
pinnatisect above, 20–50cm (8–20in) fruits circular, broad-winged, and to soft hairs.
long, 10–25cm (4–10in) broad, pinnae 2cm (3/4in) wide. Cultivate as for Celtis.
elongate-pinnatisect, decurrent, to puddling (1) the breakdown of soil
5mm (1/4in) broad, long-attenuate); Pterocephalus (from Greek pteron, surface structure by the impact of rain-
P.tremula (TENDER BRAKE, SHAKING wing, and kephale, head). Dipsacaceae. drops; (2) the practice of dipping the
BRAKE, TURAWERA, AUSTRALIAN Mediterranean to C and E Asia. Some roots of transplants into a slurry of soil
BRACKEN, POORMAN’S CIBOTIUM; New 25 species, annual or perennial herbs, and water, traditionally held to aid
Zealand, Australia, Fiji; fronds 3–4 pin- subshrubs and shrubs with entire or establishment and discourage root
nate at base, 30–90cm (12–36in) x pinnately lobed leaves. Produced in pests; (3) sometimes used to describe
20–70cm (8–28in); pinnules to 2cm summer, the flowerheads are rounded, the application of a heavy flow of
(3/4in), narrowly oblong to linear, den- flattened, long-stalked and subtended water at the time of inserting a trans-
tate, ultimate segments linear to 3.5 x by narrow bracts. The flowers are pink plant; (4) the compression of a clay
0.5cm (11/2 x 1/4in), toothed). to purple, the outermost conspicuously layer by treading or pounding, to form
2-lipped and larger than those at the a natural waterproof lining to a pool.
Pterocarya (from Greek pteron, wing, centre. The following is an undemand-
and karyon, nut, referring to the winged ing, hardy mat-forming perennial with Pueraria (for M.N. Puerari
fruit). Juglandaceae. Caucasus to E and attractive foliage, flowers and seed- (1766–1845), professor at Copen-
SE Asia. WINGNUT. Some 10 species,
deciduous trees with handsome pinnate
heads. It is suitable for sunny well-
drained situations in the rock garden,
hagen). Leguminosae. SE Asia, Japan.
Some 20 species, herbaceous or woody
P
leaves and long, green catkins in where it may self-seed when conditions twiners with trifoliolate leaves and pea-
summer. Hardy to about –12°C/10°F suit. Propagate by seed, or by softwood like flowers. Particularly useful as a
and tolerant of soil compaction. The or semi-ripe cuttings. P.perennis (Greece; rapidly growing screen, or, if unsup-
root system may be too invasive for cushion-forming perennial, to 10cm ported, as groundcover. In good soils
smaller gardens. P.fraxinifolia grows well (4in), usually shorter, tufted; leaves to growth may exceed 15m (50ft) during a
in damp soils. Most frost-resistant and 4cm (11/2in), ovate to oblong, crenate to season, as evinced by its performance
vigorous is probably the hybrid lyrate; flowers purple-pink in heads to in the SE US, where it has now
wingnut, P. x rehderiana, which has a ten- 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, on 5–7cm become a notorious weed. In areas
dency to spread by suckering. Propa- (2–23/4in) stalks). where winter temperatures fall much
gate from seed, by suckers or by below –15°C/5°F, P.montana var. lobata
layering; root cuttings are sometimes Pterostyrax (from Greek pteron, may be grown as an annual; given ade-
successful. wing, and Styrax). Styracaceae. Japan, quate protection at the roots, however,
P.fraxinifolia (CAUCASIAN WALNUT; China, Burma. EPAULETTE TREE. 3 it will re-sprout from the base in spring
Caucasus to N Iraq; to 25m (80ft), species, deciduous shrubs or trees with if cut down by frost. Grow in full sun
often multi-stemmed, bark grey-black, drooping racemes or panicles of bell- on most well-drained soils, training the
deeply furrowed; young twigs olive- like flowers in summer. Hardy to young stems to cover any support.
brown, slightly pubescent; leaves –20°C/–4°F and fast-growing. The Prune in spring, if necessary, to control
20–40cm (8–16in), leaflets 11–21, oval- fragrant-flowered P.hispida is a small tree spread. Propagate from seed in spring,
oblong to oblong-lanceolate, 8–12cm with shedding grey bark, which gives sown singly in pots in the warm green-
(3–43/4in); ‘Albomaculata’: young leaves off a foetid odour when bruised. Grow house; plant out when the danger of
speckled white); P. x rehderiana (P.fraxinifo- in deep acid soil, in sun or semi-shade, frost has passed. P.montana var. lobata
lia x P.stenoptera; to 30m (100ft), sucker- allowing ample room for the branches (syn. P.lobata, P.thunbergiana; JAPANESE
ing; young twigs red-brown; leaves to spread; if necessary, prune to shape ARROWROOT, KUDZU VINE; China,
about 20cm (8in), rachis partially after flowering. Sow ripe seed, after Japan; deciduous, woody, hairy- 647
winged, leaflets 11–21, narrow-oblong, stratification at 5°C/41°F for three stemmed vine to 20m (66ft); roots
Pueraria
tuberous; leaflets to 18cm (7in) bright pubescent above; flowers violet to flower stalks to 10cm (4in), slender,
green turning yellow and copper in blue; includes cultivars with white, hairy, flowers 2–4cm (3/4–11/2in), nod-
autumn; raceme erect, to 25cm (10in); coral red and pink flowers); P.officinalis ding, campanulate to urceolate with
flowers to 1.5cm (5/8in), purple fragrant, (JERUSALEM SAGE; Europe; leaves to recurved sepal tips, very hairy, pale to
in summer and autumn). 16 x 10cm (6 x 4in), spotted white, deep purple – black-violet in subsp.
setose; flowers red to rose-violet or nigricans); P.vernalis (Europe to Siberia;
pulhamite a type of artificial rock, blue; includes cultivars with white, pale to 15cm (6in); flowers pendent, becom-
noted for its adherence to geological blue, pink and opalescent flowers); ing erect, 4–6cm (11/2–21/2in) in diame-
detail, manufactured by James Pulham P.saccharata (JERUSALEM SAGE; Europe; ter, with brown silky hairs outside and
(1820–98) in the second half of the leaves to 27 x 10cm (11 x 4in), green, a white outer segment, usually flushed
19th century. It was made of clinkers usually spotted silver-white, long-setose, pink or violet-blue outside); P.vulgaris
and cement and moulded into strata glandular-pubescent; flowers white or (PASQUE FLOWER; Great Britain and W
and boulders for use in rock garden red-violet to dark violet; includes culti- France to Sweden, eastwards to
construction. vars with white, pink- or blue-tinted, Ukraine; 3–12cm (11/4–43/4in); flowers
pale to deep blue, pink-tinted blue, 4–9cm (11/2–31/2in) in diameter, pale or
Pulmonaria (from Latin pulmonarius, mauve, rich indigo, pink and red dark violet, rarely white; many cultivars
relating to the lung, referring to the flowers). exist from dwarf to tall, woolly to
spotted leaves of P.officinalis, which almost smooth with coarsely to finely
resemble diseased lungs and were Pulsatilla (from the Latin pulso, strike dissected leaves, and with flowers large
thought to be a cure for lung disease). – meaning obscure). Ranunculaceae. or small, open or closed, erect or nod-
Boraginaceae. Europe, Asia. LUNG- Eurasia, N America. 30 species, clump- ding, and in tones of white, lilac,
WORT. Some 14 species, bristly-hairy, forming, perennial herbs with finely mauve, violet, cobalt, plum, blood red
rhizomatous perennial herbs. The dissected, downy leaves. Borne in and pink).
leaves are ovate to elliptic or lanceolate spring and summer, the flowers are
and often spotted or blotched. Pro- solitary and bowl- to bell-shaped. They pulverulent powdery; covered in a
duced from late winter to early spring consist (usually) of six oblong to elliptic fine bloom, dusty, or minutely freckled.
in forked cymes, the flowers are bell- segments with silky-hairy exteriors, and
shaped to shortly tubular with five numerous golden stamens in a central pulvinus a cushion of enlarged
lobes. Pulmonaria provides hardy boss surrounded by a ring of nectar- tissue, such as found on a stem at the
groundcover for open woodland and secreting staminodes. The globe-like insertion of a petiole.
border edging, and is also suited to fruiting heads are composed of feath-
plantings in the sunless shade of build- ery styles. Fine, spring-flowering peren- pumice a light, porous aluminosili-
P ings; in the wild garden, it is a valuable
early nectar source for honey bees,
nials for the rock garden, alpine sinks
and well-drained borders. The seed
cate volcanic mineral, used in potting
mixtures to improve drainage and
especially in massed plantings. Grow in heads may be cut and used in dried- aeration. It has low cation exchange
part- to full shade in moist, humus-rich flower arrangements. All species here capacity and contains some potassium
soils. In zones with cool summers, P.sac- are fully hardy and tolerant of alkaline and sodium.
charata may be grown in full sun, pro- soils. Large plants have a deep woody
vided that the soil remains adequately rootstock and transplant poorly. Plant pumpkins and squashes (Cucur-
moist throughout summer. Increase by out young pot-grown specimens in full bitaceae) loose collective terms for four
division in autumn or after flowering. sun, in humus-rich, gritty, well-drained species of Cucurbita: C.maxima, C.argyros-
P.angustifolia (Europe; leaves to 40 x soils, and leave undisturbed. Increase perma (C.mixta), C.moschata and C.pepo.
5cm (16 x 2in), typically unspotted, by fresh seed or root cuttings. They are annual herbs, which can be
setose; flowers bright blue; includes cul- P.alpina (ALPINE PASQUE FLOWER; C of bushy or more often trailing habit,
tivars with spotted or unspotted leaves, Europe; 20–45cm (8–18in); flowers and are usually separated into summer
low-growing or tall, with flowers in more or less erect, 4–6cm (11/2–21/2in) in and autumn/winter harvesting groups.
shades of deep azure, clear blue, coral diameter, white flushed blue-purple or Summer squashes are usually boiled
red and pink); P.longifolia (Europe; leaves palest creamy yellow, sericeous outside); or fried when immature, before the
to 50 x 6cm (20 x 21/2in), usually spotted P.halleri (C and SE Europe, Crimea; to rind hardens. Autumn and winter
silver-white, setose and sparingly glan- 15cm (6in); flowers erect or nearly so, squashes and pumpkins are usually
dular above, setose and glandular 4–9cm (11/2–31/2in) in diameter, violet- baked when mature, or stored for later
beneath; flowers violet to blue-violet; purple to lavender-blue; forms with use. Winter squashes are usually white-
includes cultivars with strongly spotted lacinate petals are cultivated as well as fleshed, whereas pumpkins are usually
to solid silver leaves and flowers in others with semi-double flowers); P.occi- orange-fleshed, with types derived from
tones of pale blue and deep azure, dentalis (N America; 10–60cm (4–24in); each of the four species.
some tinted pink, also dusky mauve); flowers 4–6cm (11/2–21/2in) in diameter, Pumpkins embrace cultivars with
P.montana (syn. P.rubra; Europe; leaves to erect, white or cream-white, sometimes coarse, strong-flavoured flesh, used for
648 50 x 12.5cm (20 x 5in), usually unspot- flushed purple or blue, exterior villous); pies in the US, for Hallowe’en ‘Jack
ted, setose and sparingly glandular- P.pratensis (Central and Eastern Europe; o’lanterns’ and for stock feed, and
Pycnostachys
scallop dumpling pumpkin Punica (from the classical pupa see chrysalis.
squash squash Latin name, Malum
punicum). Punicaceae. E Mediter- Puschkinia (for Count Apollo Apol-
Turk’s turban ranean to Himalaya. 2 species, losovich Mussin-Pushkin (d. 1805),
squash deciduous or semi-evergreen, Russian chemist who collected plants in
densely branched shrubs or small the Caucasus and Ararat). Liliaceae
trees. The flowers consist of a (Hyacinthaceae). Caucasus, Turkey,
fleshy, tubular or more or less N Iran, N Iraq, Lebanon. 1 species,
campanulate calyx with five to P.scilloides, a small, spring-flowering,
eight sepals, five to seven, silky bulbous perennial closely related to
summer
squash pattypan petals, and numerous stamens. Chionodoxa and Scilla. Hardy to about
squash The fruit is a globose, pulpy –20°C/–4°F. Grow in sun or partial
Pumpkins and squashes
berry packed with flesh-coated seeds shade on gritty, well-drained, humus-
some grow very large. The acorn, but- inside a thick, leathery shell. Generally rich soil. Flowering is usually better
tercup and butternut groups are the requiring long, hot continental sum- where bulbs can dry out in summer.
most edible. mers for its fruit to ripen, P.granatum is Propagate by offsets when dormant in
All pumpkins and squashes are frost- nevertheless a handsome ornamental late summer, or by seed in autumn.
tender. They may be sown directly into for warm south- or southwest-facing
the ground in appropriate conditions, walls in regions where frosts are light pustule a pimple-like or blister-like
otherwise in small pots or cell modules and short-lived. In Mediterranean cli- eruption.
for planting out usually within two mates, it is sometimes used as hedging.
weeks of sowing. In frost-susceptible Where size and fruit are not priorities, Puya (from the Chilean vernacular
climates, seed must be sown in warm the dwarf var. nana is an altogether name for the genus). Bromeliaceae.
protected conditions for transplanting better garden plant, ideal in scale for Andean S America, N Brazil, Guyana,
after the danger of frost is past. Spac- patio tubs overwintered under cool Costa Rica. 168 species, perennial, ter-
ing should suit the plant type and culti- glass. It is also hardier than the typical restrial herbs, stemless or with long,
var. Bush forms are typically sown on plant and may survive outdoors in shel- stout, simple or branched stems. Packed
ridges or mounds, 60–90cm (24–36in) tered rock gardens and against sun- in dense terminal rosettes, the leaves are
each way, with 90–120cm (36–48in) drenched walls in climate zone 7. Grow tough to rigid, linear to narrowly trian-
between rows, leaving one seedling per in well-drained, fertile, moderately- gular, the margins normally toothed and
station when established; for trailers, retentive, loamy soils in full sun. spinose. The tubular flowers are pro-
leave 120–150cm (48–60in) between Although it may be cut to the ground duced in great abundance in massive,
plants and 2–4m (61/2–13ft) between
rows. Planting into a black plastic
by severe frost, given wall protection
and a deep mulch at the roots, var. nana
spire-like pancles. Plant in a soil, rich in
grit, sand and leafmould. Water liberally
P
ground mulch is a useful technique to will re-sprout vigorously from the base. in hot weather; keep almost dry in
suppress weed growth and reduce sur- Prune in late spring or summer to winter. Under glass, grow in full sun
face evaporation of soil moisture. remove old or weak wood. Shorten with a buoyant, dry atmosphere and a
Soil should be prepared with well- outward-growing shoots from trained minimum temperature of 5°C/41°F.
rotted manure or garden compost. specimens in spring at bud break – Outdoors, light frosts may be tolerated
Supplementary feeding with a bal- flowers are carried on the tips of the where plants are kept dry and sheltered
anced fertilizer at fortnightly intervals current year’s growth. Propagate by (see Fascicularia). Increase by seed or by
is valuable; foliar feed plants grown suckers, by semi-ripe cuttings, by layer- offsets detached after flowering. P.alpestris
under plastic mulch. Irrigation is essen- ing, or by grafting on to seedling (south central Chile; 1.2–1.5m (4–5ft) in
tial in dry periods. understock. Increase also by seed in flower; leaves to 60cm (24in), arching,
Suitable cultivars are best stored spring. P.granatum (POMEGRANATE; E covered in white scales beneath,
over winter at temperatures of Mediterranean to Himalaya; deciduous hooked-spinose; inflorescence sparsely
10–16°C/50–61°F; curing fruits at or semi-evergreen shrub to 2m (61/2ft), branched on a stout scape, loosely bip-
21–27°C/70–81°F for 2–3 weeks or small tree to 6m (20ft); leaves 2–8cm innate, pyramidal; flowers petrol blue
enhances sweetness in cultivars not (3/4–3in), obovate to oblong, pale green, with orange-red anthers).
subject to deterioration. Possible glossy, subcoriaceous, tinted red in
problems: aphids, red spider mite, autumn; flowers to 3cm (11/4in) in Pycnostachys (from Greek pyknos,
whiteflies; virus, downy mildew, grey diameter, silky, crumpled, scarlet; fruit dense, stachys, ear of corn, referring to
mould. to 12cm (43/4in) in diameter, globose, the density of the flower spikes). Labi-
brown-yellow to purple-red, with a atae. Tropical and South Africa, Mada-
punctate dotted with minute, translu- leathery rind and a chimney-like, per- gascar. About 40 species, erect perennial
cent impressions, pits or dark spots. sistent calyx; seeds with an edible fleshy herbs or subshrubs. Borne in dense ter-
crimson coat; var. nana, a dwarf, intri- minal spikes, the flowers consist of a
pungent ending in a rigid and sharp cately branched tree, with small leaves, spiny-toothed calyx and a 2-lipped, 649
long point. flowers and fruit). tubular corolla. Grow from seed in
Pycnostachys
spring, at 13–15°C/55–59°F. Pot into a Grow in well-drained, moisture- (16ft), with orange fruit; ‘Lalandei’:
high-fertility loam-based potting mix. retentive soils, in sun or part-shade. upright to 5m (16ft), hardy, with profuse,
Give bright indirect light, a minimum Avoid very hot, sunny south-facing bright orange fruit; ‘Lalandei Mon-
temperature of 15°C/59°F and water walls for wall-grown plants. Prune free- rovia’: upright, dense, with orange fruit;
plentifully. Propagate also by stem cut- standing specimens after flowering to ‘Sparkler’: slow-growing, with leaves
tings in early summer, or by softwood restrict size or to remove damaged variegated white and red fruit); P.roger-
cuttings in autumn, after flowering. wood. Clip back formal, wall-trained siana (SW China; shoots pale downy at
P.dawei (tropical Central Africa; to plants after flowering to give dense first becoming glabrous, red-brown;
180cm (70in); leaves to 30cm (12in), cover; otherwise, remove only outward- leaves 2–3.5cm (3/4–11/2in), oblanceolate
linear to lanceolate, serrate, red- facing shoots, tying-in new growth in to narrow obovate, apex rounded and
glandular beneath; flowers to 25mm late summer. Cuttings may be taken shallow toothed; fruit 8–9mm (3/8–3/8in),
(1in), cobalt blue); P.urticifolia (tropical from late spring onwards, but better yellow to orange-red; ‘Flava’: bright
and South Africa; to 2.5m (8ft); leaves growth is obtained from autumn cut- yellow fruit). Cultivars: ‘Alexander Pen-
4.5–12cm (13/4–43/4in), ovate, crenate to tings: large, branched semi-hard cut- dula’, to 1.8m (6ft), with weeping
deeply incised-dentate, smooth to tings (to 30cm (12in)), wounded and branches and coral red fruit; ‘Apache’,
hairy; flowers 12–20mm (1/2–3/4in), gen- treated with hormone rooting com- forming a compact spreading mound
tian blue, rarely white tinted blue with pound and placed under mist, will root 1.5 x 2m (5 x 61/2ft), with bright red fruit,
a purple-red calyx). in 3–4 weeks, and will flower and berry resistant to scab and fireblight; ‘Bril-
the following season. Raise larger num- liant’, with bright red fruit; ‘Buttercup’,
Pyracantha (from Greek pyr, fire, bers of plants for hedging from fresh spreading, with small, yellow fruit; ‘Fiery
referring to the colour of the berries, ripe seed; remove the flesh and sow in Cascade’, upright, 2.5 x 3m (8 x 10ft),
and akanthos, thorn). Rosaceae. SE the cold frame in autumn. Susceptible with small, shining leaves and small,
Europe to China. FIRETHORN. 7 species, to pyracantha scab which causes small red, disease-resistant fruit; ‘Golden
evergreen, viciously thorny shrubs, with scabby lesions on twigs, olive-brown Charmer’, to 2.4m (8ft), with large,
obovate to oblong-lanceolate leaves and spotting on leaves and flowers, and golden yellow fruit, resistant to scab;
small, white to cream flowers in dense serious disfigurement of the fruit; it is ‘Harlequin’, with variegated leaves and
corymbs in late spring and summer. often accompanied by premature leaf red fruit; ‘Mohave’, upright, to 4 x 5m
These give rise to small and spherical, drop. Treat with systemic fungicide in (13 x 16ft), with bright orange fruit,
orange to red fruits. Pollution- and spring and early summer. Leaves may unaffected by bird feeding and resistant
exposure-tolerant evergreens for the also blister and discolour as a result of to scab and fireblight; ‘Navaho’, low,
border, where they form mounds of the larvae of the firethorn leaf miner dense, with orange-red fruit, resistant to
glossy green foliage, for training against moth, Phyllonorycter leucographella. As yet, scab; ‘Orange Giant’, with bright
P walls, and for thorny and impenetrable
hedging. Some, such as P.atalantoides, can
there is no specific treatment for this
pest, although control measures for
orange fruit; ‘Pueblo’, spreading, com-
pact, with orange-red fruit, resistant to
be trained with a single stem to form other types of leaf miner may succeed. scab and fireblight; ‘Red Column’,
small specimen trees. They are grown P.angustifolia (SW China; shoots stiff, upright, with small, red fruit; ‘Red
for the masses of white flowers in spring densely downy in the first year; leaves Cushion’, dense, to 1 x 2m (31/4 x 61/2ft),
and early summer and for the profusion 1.5–5cm (5/8–2in), linear-oblong to obo- with mid-red fruit; ‘Red Elf ’, dwarf,
of long-lasting, brightly coloured vate, apex rounded and sometimes compact, mounding, with bright red
berries. Given protection from cold toothed; fruit to 1cm (1/2in), felted at fruit; ‘Red Pillar’, vigorous, upright,
winds, all species are tolerant of temper- first, later yellow-orange; ‘Gnome’: very with orange-red fruit; ‘Renault d’Or’,
atures down to at least –15°C/5°F. hardy, of erect, dense habit, with pro- with yellow fruit; ‘Ruby Mound’, low,
fuse flowers and orange fruit orange; dense, with orange-red fruit, resistant to
‘Yukon Belle’: of dense habit, with per- scab; ‘Shawnee’, dense, spreading to
sistent orange fruit); P.atalantoides (SE to 3.5m (111/2ft), with abundant, yellow-
W China; branches olive-brown, downy orange fruit, colouring early, resistant to
only at first; leaves 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in), scab and fireblight; ‘Soleil d’Or’, spread-
lanceolate to elliptic or obovate, mostly ing, with pale green leaves and yellow
entire, sometimes small-toothed; fruit fruit; ‘Sunshine’, open, orange fruit;
7–8mm (1/4–3/8in), scarlet-crimson; ‘Tiny Tim’, with dwarf habit, to 1m
‘Aurea’: yellow fruit; ‘Bakeri’: red fruit; (31/4ft), densely leafy, with profuse fruit;
‘Nana’: dwarf, to 1m (31/4ft), with red ‘Watereri’, compact, vigorous to 2.5m
fruit); P.coccinea (PYRACANTH, FIRETHORN, (8ft), with profuse, orange fruit.
BUISSON ARDENT; Italy to Asia Minor;
shoots downy at first; leaves 2–4cm pyramid see dwarf pyramid.
Pyracanthas grown as hedging (3/4–11/2in), elliptic to lanceolate; fruit
With their dense habit and sharp thorns, 5–6cm (2–21/2in), bright scarlet; ‘Baker’s pyrene the nutlet of a drupe or dru-
650 pyracanthas make excellent flowering and Red’: hardy, with red fruit; ‘Kasan’: pelet; a seed and the bony endocarp
fruiting hedge plants which deter intruders. compact, upright, fast-growing to 5m that surrounds it.
pyxis
pyriform pear-shaped. summer. P.venusta (syn. Bignonia ignea, 1cm (1/2in), rounded, brown, pitted;
B.venusta, P.ignea; GOLDEN SHOWER, ‘Aristocrat’, fast-growing to 13m (43ft),
Pyrola (diminutive of the Latin Pyrus, FLAME VINE, FLAMING TRUMPET, broadly pyramidal, with thornless
pear, alluding to the supposed similar- ORANGE-FLOWERED STEPHANOTIS, branches, wavy-edged, glossy leaves,
ity of the leaves). Pyrolaceae. Northern TANGO; Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, NE brilliant red in autumn, plum when
temperate regions. WINTERGREEN, Argentina; flowers 3.5–6cm (11/2–21/2in) young, and red to yellow fruit; ‘Autumn
SHINLEAF. 15 species, perennial, dwarf x 0.3cm (1/8in), fiery orange). Blaze’, fast-growing, to 12m (39ft), of
herbs with creeping rhizomes and slen- asymmetrical and open habit, with
der-stalked leaves in basal clusters. Pyrus (classical Latin name for the glossy leaves and crimson autumn
Borne in summer in scapose, loose pear). Rosaceae. Europe to E Asia and colour; ‘Bradford’, to 13m (43ft), with a
racemes, the flowers consist of five, N Africa. PEAR. About 30 species, broadly ovate, dense crown and red to
broad, cupped petals. Fully hardy and deciduous trees and shrubs, occasion- maroon leaves in autumn; ‘Capital’, to
generally grown in wild gardens; it is ally thorny. They are grown for their 12m (39ft), loosely pyramidal, dense,
also suitable for cool positions in the habit and foliage, their white to cream, with rich glossy green leaves, purple in
rock garden, peat terrace and at the 5-petalled flowers borne in spring, and autumn; ‘Chanticleer’, to 13m (43ft),
woodland edge. Plant in shade on for their fruit, in some cases ornamen- with a narrow-conical crown, evenly
damp, sandy acid soils containing tal, in others, edible (see pears). branched, with glossy green leaves,
leafmould and pine needles. Avoid Most species are hardy to at least becoming carmine-scarlet in autumn;
disturbance – any damage to the wide- –15°C/5°F and are tolerant of atmos- ‘Redspire’, to 12m (39ft), with a mod-
spreading fibrous-feeding roots may pheric pollution and a range of soil erately pyramidal crown, upright, well-
cause either death or prevent any fur- types. The genus includes a number of branched, with long, thick, glossy
ther increase in size. Increase by divi- attractive foliage trees, notably P.salicifo- leaves, coloured crimson to purple in
sion, or by seed, which germinates lia ‘Pendula’. P.communis, is especially autumn, and profuse flowers; ‘Stone
infrequently and should be sown on beautiful in flower, and is worth grow- Hill’, to 12m (39ft), upright, with an
moist sphagnum moss. ing for this alone, even in regions oval crown, deep green, shiny leaves,
P.asarifolia (BOG WINTERGREEN; where frosts make fruit set unreliable. brilliant orange in autumn; ‘Trinity’,
Canada, E US, Asia; to 65cm (26in); P.calleryana ‘Bradford’ flowers profusely to 10m (33ft), with a rounded crown,
leaves broadly elliptic to reniform, to in spring and colours well in autumn, light green, somewhat serrate leaves,
10cm (4in), entire or crenate, often in shades of russet and red. It is com- orange to red in autumn; and ‘White
purple beneath; flowers pink to crim- monly grown as a street tree in the House’, to 10m (33ft), upright, com-
son; includes var. purpurea, from N US. The narrowly conical P.calleryana pact, with crown ovate in outline and
America, with leaves sometimes red ‘Chanticleer’ is more suitable for the red to plum leaves in early autumn);
beneath and large, fragrant, bright
violet or rose flowers); P.rotundifolia
smaller garden. Grow in full sun.
Propagate cultivars by budding or
P.communis (COMMON PEAR; Europe,
Asia Minor; tree to 15m (50ft), crown
P
(Europe, N America; to 25cm (10in); grafting on to seedling rootstocks of conical, broad, bark dark, fissured to
leaves round to oval; flowers white). P.communis. Propagate species by seed, flaking; branches often thorny;
although progeny may be variable; branchlets, crabbed; leaves 2–8cm
Pyrostegia (from Greek pyr, fire, and stratify for 8–10 weeks, at 1°C/34°F, (3/4–3in), oval-elliptic, pointed, scal-
stege, covering, referring to the fiery and sow in spring. Temperatures above loped, soon glabrous, autumn colour
corolla). Bignoniaceae. Americas. 3–4 15–20°C/59–68°F in the sowing red-yellow; fruit 2.5–5cm (1–2in), pyri-
species, lianes climbing by tendrils. medium may induce a secondary dor- form or sub-globose, yellow green,
The leaves consist of paired leaflets mancy. Most of the pests and diseases flesh bitter; var. sativa is the collective
with a tendril between them. Borne in are as for pears (q.v.). name for all edible pear cultivars);
terminal sprays usually in summer, the P.amygdaliformis (S Europe, Asia P.salicifolia (WEEPING PEAR, SILVER PEAR;
flowers are showy, tubular to club- Minor; shrub or small tree to 6m SE Europe, Asia Minor, Caucasus; tree
shaped, with the curved corolla tube (20ft); shoots slender, thorny; leaves 5–8m (16–26ft), shoots slender, arching
swollen and expanded towards its 2.5–7cm (1–23/4in), ovate-obovate, to pendulous; leaves 3–9cm (11/4–31/2in),
apex. Grow in sun in a fertile, well- pointed or blunt, coriaceous, entire or narrowly oblong-elliptic, apex acumi-
drained medium. Maintain a humid finely scalloped, grey-felted at first nate, entire or sparsely toothed, silvery
atmosphere and a minimum tempera- becoming shiny green, glabrous; fruit grey-downy, becoming more or less
ture of about 10°C/50°F. Water plen- 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in), rounded, yellow- glabrous above; flowers cream; fruit
tifully in summer; sparingly in winter. brown; includes var. oblongifolia, with 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in), pyriform, green;
Prune in late winter early spring, cut- elliptic to oblong leaves, with a blunt ‘Pendula’, with weeping branches and
ting back flowered stems to within apex and rounded base, and larger narrow, silvery leaves; ‘Silfrozam’, with
30cm (12in) of the base. P.venusta works fruit, yellow flushed red); P.calleryana a broadly weeping crown and willow-
well if trained to a single overhead (CALLERY PEAR; China; tree to 10m like, silvery grey leaves).
stem, with flowered shoots cut back to (33ft); shoots thorny; leaves 4–8cm
2–3 buds each spring. Propagate by (11/2–3in), ovate, short tapered, undu- pyxis a capsule exhibiting circumscis- 651
semi-ripe cuttings of 2–3 nodes in late-scalloped, shiny, glabrous; fruit sile dehiscence.
quadrate
Q
continental E US, China and Japan years, where a high proportion of seed
are generally of poor vigour and many escapes damage. If possible, seed col-
suffer autumn frost damage to the lection should be made in such years;
unripened shoots. Of these, the most crop assessment can be made from
tolerant is Q.rubra, almost as vigorous mid-summer. Collect the acorns in
as in its native E US. Q.alba has very mid-autumn after falling.
rarely been successful in the UK except Acorns must be stored moist and
in the warmest parts of SE England. cold; they will be killed if they drop
Conversely, the Mediterranean oaks, below 60% fresh weight. They cannot
adapted to relatively cooler summers normally be stored for more than one
during the ice ages, thrive in Britain’s winter, except in the case of very hardy
climate, responding to the higher rain- species (zone 6 origin or colder); these
fall by growing faster in S England can be deep-frozen. For freezing, the
than in their native areas. acorns, which must not be showing any
In the eastern US, all oaks can be sign of germination, should be slightly
quadrate more or less square. grown in either the northeast, or (the dried to about 80% fresh weight (to
less winter-hardy species) in the south- prevent ice damage to the cells) and
quadripinnate pinnately divided east. None reacts adversely to the hot, acclimatized first for a few days at
into four pinnae, or groups of humid summer. The European oaks 0°C/32°F, then –5°C/23°F and finally
four pinnae. retain considerable winter hardiness to –20°C/–4°F. The seed should be
from ice age adaptations: Q.petraea from stratified for 3–5 months in damp sand
quassia a bitter extract produced N England is hardy in Wisconsin and refrigerated at 0–2°C/32–36°F before
by boiling wood fragments of the tree also enjoys the warmer summers there. sowing, stored in plastic bags.
Picrasma excelsa. It is used as a non-toxic Q.cerris from S Europe is hardy to zone Acorns commonly start to germinate
deterrent to dogs, cats, rabbits and 6. No oak shows extreme cold toler- in early winter (even those stored at
birds, applied repeatedly in the form ance, and the genus is absent from 0°C/32°F), establishing a root system
of sprays. most of Canada and Siberia. (though not a shoot). These sprouting
Growth is best on fertile, deep acorns must be planted immediately, the
quenouille a form of ornamental soils with medium drainage and others in early spring. Lie the acorn hor-
wall-trained fruit tree, with a central 400–1500mm (153/4–57in) rainfall, but izontally at its own thickness under soil
stem and tiers of successively shorter in such a large genus, different oaks can surface. Place in a cold frame in deep
horizontal branches forming a triangle be found to tolerate almost all condi- narrow pots to accommodate the long
in outline. tions, from poor dry acid sands, freely tap-root. If the seed supply is plentiful
drained mountain screes, through heavy and high losses to rodents are accept-
Q quercetum a plantation of oak trees. damp clays to ill-drained marshy areas
and dry chalk. Only acid deep peats are
able, it is always preferable to avoid
checks to growth by planting the acorns
Quercus (Latin name for this tree). consistently avoided. Most are sensitive directly where the tree is to grow.
Fagaceae. N America to western tropi- to salt, but Q.ilex is often planted in mar- Oaks are best planted as small trees,
cal S America, N Africa, Europe and itime gardens. Most tolerate exposure one to two years old and 10–40cm
Asia, in temperate and subtropical only moderately, surviving best in a (4–16in) tall. Larger, older plants
zones, and tropics at high altitudes. woodland site, among or not far from require special nursery treatment; for
OAK. 600 species, evergreen or decidu- other similarly sizes trees or shrubs. these, sever the tap-root early and reg-
ous trees or shrubs. The male flowers Propagation is by seed, or by grafting ularly (every few weeks) either by cut-
are inconspicuous and crowded in where seed is unavailable and for desir- ting under the seedbed with a spade,
slender pendulous catkins. The female able cultivars. For grafting, side graft or pruning roots that appear at the
flowers are solitary or two to many in a sucker shoots (preferably erect) on bottom of the pot; this will encourage
spike. They give rise to a single-seeded seedlings of a closely related species the seedling to develop a more fibrous
nut (acorn). This is ovoid to globose and bind with tape. Normal branch root system. Plant when 1–2m
and partly or almost wholly enclosed by shoot scions should be avoided if possi- (31/4–61/2ft) tall; lengthy check can occur.
a cup-shaped, scale-covered involucre ble, as they have poor apical dominance Water well, protect from rabbits, and
(cupule), composed of adpressed scales. and may not develop into good trees. keep weeds clear until established.
Oaks are excellent trees for parks As many oaks hybridize freely in Oaks are affected by numerous pests
and large gardens, having interesting cultivation, wild-collected seed should and diseases, though only a few are
foliage and often good crown shape; be used whenever possible. Even in the serious. In North America, oak wilt has
most are long-lived and many are large wild, hybrids are frequent. Acorn pro- caused heavy losses. The red oaks are
trees. All oaks like warm summers. The duction is usually cyclical: there is low most affected; white oaks are more
constraints of low summer heat affect production in most years to defeat par- resistant and suffer only scattered shoot
652 the range and health of species which asites and predators, with, more spo- death and only rarely whole tree death.
can be grown in Britain; oaks from radically, a massive crop in the ‘mast’ Q.robur is commonly defoliated by
Quercus
Q UERCUS
Name Distribution Habit Bark Leaves Fruit
Q.acutissima China, Korea, deciduous ashen to 6–20cm (21⁄2–8in), lanceolate to acorns to 2.5cm (1in), solitary,
SAWTHORN OAK Japan tree, seldom black, corky, obovate, apex long acuminate, ovoid; cupule to 3.5cm (11⁄2in)
exceeding fissured base cuneate to rounded, teeth diameter, concealing two-thirds
25m (80ft) broadly triangular, bristle-tipped, of acorn, covered with long,
lustrous green above, paler and hairy scales
glabrous beneath
Q.agrifolia California evergreen tree thick, 2.5–7cm (1–23⁄4in), ovate-elliptic or acorns 2–3.5cm (3⁄4–11⁄2in),
CALIFORNIA LIVE OAK to 25m (80ft), smooth to broadly elliptic, apex acute, base ovoid, acute, solitary; cupule
often shrubby grooved, rounded, spiny-toothed, deep glossy enclosing one-quarter to one-
in cultivation; grey, red green and rather concave above, third of acorn, sericeous
crown broad or black paler beneath, glabrous except for
tufted hairs in axils of veins
Q.alba E US deciduous pale grey 10–20cm (4–8in), obovate, oblong acorn l–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in), ovoid-
WHITE OAK tree in 45m to brown, or elliptic, apex abruptly acute, oblong; cupule enclosing quarter
(150ft); crown exfoliating base cuneate, lobes 3–4 per side, to one-third of acorn, grey-
rounded in plates entire or sparsely toothed, initially white, composed of adpressed,
pubescent, dull mid-green above, compacted, hairy scales
orange to burgundy in fall,
glaucous beneath
Comments: f. elongata: leaves slender, to 25cm (10in), orange to purple red in fall. f. pinnatifida: leaves deeply pinnatisect, lobes slender,
dentate. f. repanda: leaves very shallowly lobed. Hybrids between Q.alba and Q.bicolor are referred to as Q x jackiana.
Q.aliena Japan, Korea deciduous 10–20cm (4–8in), obovate to acorns 2–2.5cm (3⁄4–1in), ovoid,
tree to 25m oblong, apex acute to rounded, solitary or grouped 2–3; cupule
(80ft) base cuneate, sinuately dentate, enclosing one third of acorn,
teeth coarse, blunt, 10–15 per side, grey-tomentose with scales
yellow-green glabrous above, adpressed
Comments: var. acutiserrata: leaves smaller and narrower, grey-white to blue-green
teeth acute, rather incurved, gland-tipped. and lightly hairy beneath
Q.alnifolia Cyprus evergreen coarsely 2.5–6cm (1–21⁄2in), broadly acorns 2.5–3.5cm (1–11⁄2in),
GOLDEN OAK shrub to 2m textured, obovate to suborbicular, apex obovoid, mucronate, solitary or
(61⁄2ft) or tree
to 8m (26ft)
grey and base rounded to subtruncate,
denticulate above, glossy dark or
livid green above, with ochre or
paired; cupule small, enclosing
to half acorn, scales spreading,
long-pubescent, arranged in a
Q
ash-coloured felty hairs beneath broad band
Q.canariensis N Africa, deciduous thick, 5–18cm (2–7in), oval or obovate, acorns to 2.5cm (1in), solitary,
ALGERIAN OAK, Iberian tree, to 40m rugged, apex rounded, base tapering, paired or in small clusters; cupule
MIRBECK’S OAK peninsula (not (130ft) tall in black rounded or subcordate, margins with adpressed downy scales,
Canaries) habitat obtusely lobed or coarsely toothed, enclosing one-third of acorn
coriaceous, rusty-floccose at first,
becoming dark green and glabrous
above, paler beneath, glabrous except
for rusty residual hairs on veins
Q.acutissima Q.agrifolia Q.alba Q.alnifolia 653

Quercus
Q UERCUS
Q.castaneifolia Caucasus, Iran, deciduous brown, leaves 6–16cm (21⁄2–6in), narrowly acorns 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in), ovoid,
N Africa tree to 35m rough- elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, apex often dorsally compressed,
(115ft); crown textured acute, base cuneate or rounded, solitary or to 5 on a stout stalk;
large, and corky with coarse triangular aristate cupule clothed with slender
rounded saw-teeth, deep glossy green above, scales (sometimes reflexed),
dull grey-green beneath, glabrous enclosing one-third to half
or minutely downy of acorn
Q.cerris C and S Europe, deciduous grey-white, 5–12cm (2–43⁄4in), oblong- acorns in groups of 1–4, to
TURKEY OAK Asia Minor tree to 43m splitting lanceolate, tapered to an acute 3.5cm (11⁄2in), ellisoid, apex
(140ft); crown into thick apex and a rounded or truncate subtruncate and mucronate;
conical plates base, lobes or teeth triangular to cupule of subulate often
lobulate, mucronulate, dark green spreading or reflexed scales,
and stellate-pubescent initially enclosing one-third of acorn
Comments: ‘Argenteovariegata’: leaf margins variegated above, lighter and pubescent to
cream-white. ‘Aureovariegata’: leaves yellow-variegated. tomentose beneath,
‘Pendula’: branchlets pendulous. yellow-brown in fall
Q.coccifera W Mediterranean, evergreen smooth 1.2–3.5cm (1⁄2–11⁄2in), oval, elliptic acorns to 1.5 x 3cm (5⁄8 x 11⁄4in),
KERMES OAK, S Europe, bushy shrub, and grey or oblong, apex acute or rounded, ovoid or oblong-ovoid, apex
GRAIN OAK NW Africa usually at first, mucronate, base rounded or attenuate with an apical spine
0.25–1.5m cracked cordate, becoming leathery, dark light brown striped darker;
Comments: ssp. calliprinos: PALESTINE (3⁄4–5ft), rarely with age and glabrous above, paler and cupule enclosing one-half to
OAK, SIND OAK; tree to 12m (39ft); leaves a tree 4.5m glabrous or with a few hairs two-thirds of acorn, scales spiny,
larger and more oblong, to 5cm (2in); (15ft) in vein axils beneath, margin often reflexed, lightly puberulent
acorn to three-quarters enclosed by cup. undulate, with 4–6 pairs of
East Mediterranean, South West Asia. spreading, spine-like teeth
Q.coccinea E US, S Canada deciduous pale grey- 8–12cm (3–43⁄4in), oval or obovate, acorns 1.5–2.5cm (5⁄8–1in), ovoid
SCARLET OAK tree to 30m brown, rarely oblong, base truncate, rarely to subspherical, apex and base
(100ft) cracked into cuneate, silky at first, becoming rounded, with thin red-brown
irregular, glabrous and glossy, paler and with tomentum; cupule turbinate,
scaly plates tufts of hair in vein axils beneath, scales yellow-brown, oval,
scarlet in fall, margin deeply subglabrous, enclosing one-third
pinnately sinuate-dentate or to one-half of acorn
Q Comments: ‘Splendens’: leaves brilliant scarlet in fall.
Q.dentata NE Asia, Taiwan deciduous brown,

serrate, lobes usually 7
15–50cm (6–20in), orbicular- acorns 1.2–2.4cm (1⁄2–1in), ovoid

DAIMIO OAK, tree, fast- fissured obovate to oblong-obovate, base to subglobose, glabrous, apex
JAPANESE EMPEROR growing to and split attenuate to cordate, apex rounded, mucronate; cupule
OAK 20–25m into grey- attenuate or rounded, sinuately scales adpressed, upper scales
(66–80ft); scaly plates lobed, lobes large, rounded, often erect to recurved, enclosing
crown large, mucronulate, pale yellow more than half of acorn
rounded tomentose at first, becoming dark
green and glabrous except on
nerves above, paler and densely
Comments: ‘Pinnatifida’: leaves crispate, deeply and narrowly lobed tomentose beneath
654 Q.canariensis Q.castaneifolia Q.cerris ‘Argenteovariegata’ Q.coccifera

Quercus
Q UERCUS
Q.ellipsoidalis NE US deciduous tree grey-brown, 6–15cm (21⁄2–6in), obovate or acorns 1.2–2cm (1⁄2–3⁄4in), solitary
NORTHERN PIN OAK to 20m (66ft) fissured into elliptic, base truncate or cuneate, or paired, ellipsoid, mucronate,
narrow plates margin deeply lobed, lobes 5–7, puberulent, chestnut-brown with
oblong, with 1–3 teeth, silky- darker lines; cupule light red-
tomentose at first, becoming brown, scales adpressed, finely
glabrous except in vein axils pubescent, enclosing one-third
beneath, dark green and shining to one-half of acorn
above, paler beneath, yellow to light
brown with red markings in fall
Q.frainetto S Italy, Turkey, deciduous smooth with 8–25cm (3–10in), obovate or acorns 1.25–3.5cm (1⁄2–11⁄2in),
HUNGARIAN OAK Balkans tree to 30m small scale- oblong-obovate, apex rounded, oblong-ellipsoid or ovoid-oblong,
(100ft) like plates, base subcordate or truncate, apex rounded, mucronate; cupule
dark grey; margins pinnatifid, lobes 6–10(–12) densely tomentose outside, scales
crown large; pairs, sometimes lobulate or adpressed, enclosing up to one
branches sinuate, initially white-yellow- half of acorn
sometimes tomentose, becoming glabrous or
pendulous stellate-pubescent above, paler
glaucescent beneath
Q.garryana WN America deciduous tree pale grey, leaves 10–15cm (4–6in), obovate acorns 2–2.5cm (3⁄4–1in), ovoid,
OREGON WHITE OAK 10–30m shallowly or oblong-obovate, apex rounded, base truncate, apex rounded,
(33–100ft); cracked base cuneate, rounded, or mucronate, glabrous; cupule
crown rounded, subcordate, margins slightly shallow, puberulent inside,
branches revolute, lobes 3–5 per side, scales adpressed, pubescent
crooked, entire or dentate, dark green
ascending or and glabrous above, paler and
pendulous soft pubescent beneath
Q.glauca Japan, China, evergreen tree 5–15cm (2–6in), lanceolate or acorns 17–25mm (2⁄3–1in) x
Laos 12–25m lanceolate-elliptic, apex long- 7–10mm (1⁄4–1⁄2in), narrowly
(39–80ft) acuminate, base rounded or ovoid, puberulent at first,
shortly acuminate, leathery, dark becoming glabrous, crowned
green above, glaucescent, slightly with persistent styles; cupule
papillose beneath, margin with slightly glaucous, ashy-
fine teeth in upper half puberulent outside, silky inside,
with scales forming 7–9 rings
Q
Q. x heterophylla US deciduous smooth, 10–18cm (4–7in), oblong- acorns closely resembling those
(Q.phellos x Q.rubra) tree 20–25m pale-grey lanceolate to obovate, apex of Q.rubra
(66–80ft) or brown. mucronate, base cuneate, entire or
with few shallow teeth, or with 4–6
shallow or deep, often mucronate
lobes each side, ultimately glabrous
or slightly hairy on veins beneath
Q.coccinea Q.dentata Q.ellipsoidalis Q.garryana 655

Quercus
Q UERCUS
Q. x hispanica S France to semi- less corky 4–10cm (11⁄2–4in), oblong-elliptic, acorns 3–4cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in),
(Q.cerris x Q.suber) Portugal and evergreen than in acute, margin sinuate-dentate, oblong-ovoid, mucronate, mostly
Italy, Balkans tree or shrub Q.suber teeth small, mucronulate, dark glabrous; cupule hemispherical
to 30m (100ft) green and sparsely hairy to ovoid, tomentose scales erect
above, densely yellow-white to reflexed, enclosing half or
tomentose beneath more of acorn
Comments: ‘Ambrozyana’: leaves 6–10cm (21⁄2–4in), usually rather leaves 7.5–9 x 3.5cm (3–31⁄2 x 11⁄2in), ovate, apex acute, base rounded to
small, oblong-obovate, lobes subulate-mucronate, dark green and subcordate, margin dentate, teeth 5–8 each side, apex acute, tomentum
shining above, grey-tomentose beneath. ‘Diversifolia’: small tree; bark white. ‘Lucombeana’: crown conical; bark only slightly corky; leavs
very corky; leaves 5 x 2cm (2 x 3⁄4in), ovate, each side with conspicuous resemble those of Q.cerris, 6–12 x 2.5–4cm (21⁄2–43⁄4 x 1–11⁄2in), oblong,
sinus, thus resembling Q.cerris leaves, margin lobed in lower half, entire coarsely dentate, teeth 6–7(9) each side, green, glabrous, shining above,
to denticulate above; acorn cup hemispherical, scales more adpressed. paler and tomentose beneath; acorn to 2.5cm (1in), cupule with lower
‘Fulhamensis’: graceful tree; branch more slender and bark less corky; scales reflexed, upper scales erect, enclosing more than half of acorn.
Q.ilex Mediterranean evergreen tree smooth, 2–9cm (3⁄4–31⁄2in), narrowly elliptic, acorns in groups of 1–3,
HOLM OAK, to 20m (66ft); grey, ovate-lanceolate or suborbicular, 1.5–3cm (5⁄8–11⁄4in), oblong-ovoid
EVERGREEN OAK, crown broad, becoming slightly concave beneath, apex to subglobose, mucronate, grey-
HOLLY-LEAVED OAK rounded shallowly acute or obtuse, base attenuate or brown with darker lines, lightly
split slightly cordate, entire or with lanate becoming pulverulent;
mucronate, acuminate teeth, cupule scales adpressed,
Comments: ‘Fordii’: crown narrow. Leaves 2.5–3.75cm (1–11⁄2in), leathery, subglabrous above, triangular, obtuse, tomentose,
oblong, apex and base attenuate, margin undulate, entire or dentate. densely pubescent beneath enclosing about half of acorn
Q.imbricaria E and C US deciduous light 10–17cm (4–61⁄2in), oblong- acorns 1–1.5cm (1⁄2–5⁄8in),
SHINGLE OAK tree 15–20m brown, lanceolate to ovate, apex subglobose, mucronate,
(50–66ft); smooth, acuminate, apiculate, base subglabrous to silky-pubescent;
crown conical split by attenuate or cuneate, entire, often cupule scales adpressed, hairy,
to rounded narrow crispate undulate, revolute, enclosing up to half of acorn
cracks into occasionally lobed, initially red-
plates puberulent above and thick white-
tomentose beneath, becoming dark
green, glabrous above, soft-
tomentose beneath
Q Q.ithaburensis
VALLONEA OAK
Syria, Palestine
Comments: Subspecies macrolepis:

semi-
evergreen to
deciduous tree
to 25m (80ft)
bark
furrowed,
dark
brown
4–9cm (11⁄2–31⁄2in), ovate to
lanceolate-elliptic, apex acuminate,
base subcordate, teeth 5–9 each side,
triangular, aristate, grey-tomentose
acorns clustered 1–3, 2.5–4.5cm
(1–13⁄4in), ovoid, apex obtuse or
depressed; cupule to 5 x 5cm (2 x
2in), with broad, thick, flattened,
leaves more deeply incised; acorn cupule becoming glabrous above, persistent woody scales enclosing two thirds
scales more flexible and less woody grey-tomentose beneath to nearly all of the acorn
Q.laurifolia SE US deciduous to smooth, 6–13cm (21⁄2–5in), oblong to acorns solitary or paired,

LAUREL OAK semi- dark brown obovate, apex acute to rounded, 1–1.5cm (1⁄2–5⁄8in), ovoid-
evergreen tree to black, base tapered, acute or rounded, globose, black-brown; cupule
to 30m (100ft) fissured margin entire or with to 3 shallow scales adpressed, obtuse,
teeth at apex, glossy above, paler enclosing only the base
and initially pubescent beneath, of acorn, subsessile
midvein and petiole yellow
656 Q.glauca Q. x hispanica ‘Lucombeana’ Q.ilex Q.imbricaria

Quercus
Q UERCUS
Q.macranthera Caucasus, deciduous 8–20cm (3–8in), obovate, apex acorns 1.6–2.5cm (5⁄8–1in),
CAUCASIAN OAK, N Iran tree 25–30m rounded or blunt, base rounded, ovoid-ellipsoid, almost glabrous;
PERSIAN OAK (80–100ft) subcordate or subcuneate, serrate, cupule scales erect to spreading,
teeth 7–11 each side, rounded or lanceolate, pubescent, enclosing
obtuse, rarely mucronate, dark half of acorn
green, glabrous above, yellow or
red-brown tomentose beneath
Q.macrocarpa C and NE US, deciduous rugose, 10–45cm (4–18in), obovate to acorns 2.5–4cm (1–11⁄2in), ovoid
BURR OAK, MOSSY SE Canada tree to 50m split into oblong, base attenuate, cuneate or to hemispherical, mucronate,
CUP OAK (165ft); crown irregular cordate, lyrate, lobes 5–7 per side, softly tomentose; cupule hairy,
rounded plates, dark green and glabrous above, lower scales adpressed, upper
light grey- paler, glaucous or white-tomentose scales with free, spreading
brown beneath, pale-yellow to brown apices, enclosing half or
in fall more of acorn
Q.marilandica C and SE US small rough, 10–17cm (4–61⁄2in), broadly acorns solitary or paired, l–2cm
BLACKJACK OAK deciduous, black- obovate, apex obtuse, often divided (1⁄2–3⁄4in), ovoid; cupule hairy,
slow-growing brown, into 3 mucronate lobes, base made up of broad, adpressed
tree, 6–15m split into rounded to cordate, dark green, scales, enclosing one- to two-
(20–50ft) square shining above, paler and red- thirds of acorn
plates brown tomentose beneath, yellow
to brown in fall
Q.mongolica NE Asia deciduous tree 10–20cm (4–8in), obovate, apex acorns 2cm (3⁄4in), ovoid; cupule
to 30m (100ft) obtuse, base attenuate, cordate, made up of tuberculate scales,
teeth rounded, glabrous above, uppermost scales acuminate,
glabrous or pubescent on ciliate, enclosing one-third
veins beneath of acorn
Comments: Largely represented in cultivation by ssp. crispula var. grosseserrata: leaves 10–20cm (4–8in), teeth acute, sometimes themselves
dentate; acorn cupule made of closely adpressed scales, these are not ciliate; native to Japan, Sakhalin and the Kuriles
Q.muehlenbergii E US deciduous grey, split 10–18cm (4–7in), oblong, obovate acorns solitary, 1.3–3cm
YELLOW CHESTNUT tree to 20m into thin, or lanceolate, apex acute or (1⁄2–11⁄4in), ovoid, mucronate,
OAK, CHINKAPIN OAK (66ft), rarely
45m (150ft)
flaky scales acuminate, base cuneate, serrate,
teeth acute, pale green flushed
bronze at first, subglabrous above,
silky-pubescent; cupule made up
of tomentose scales, uppermost
scales acute, forming fringe,
Q
tomentose beneath, becoming enclosing half of acorn
glabrous above, white silky-
pubescent beneath, orange
or scarlet in fall
Q.nigra SE US deciduous brown, 3–15cm (11⁄4–6in), obovate with acorns solitary, 1–1.5cm
WATER OAK tree smooth shallowly lobed apex, lobe tips (1⁄2–5⁄8in), globose to ovoid,
20–35m initially, bristle-like, or oblong and entire, black; cupule made up of
(66–115ft) becoming leathery, matt blue-green and short, adpressed scales,
black-brown, glabrous above, glabrous but for tufts enclosing up to half
channelled of hair in axils of veins beneath of acorn
Q.macranthera Q.macrocarpa Q.muehlenbergii Q.nigra 657

Quercus
Q UERCUS
Q.palustris NE US, deciduous tree, smooth, grey- 8–15cm (3–6in), obovate, apex acute, acorns 1.2–1.7cm (1⁄2–2⁄3in),
PIN OAK SE Canada 20–25(–35)m brown base attenuate or truncate, pinnately mucronate; cupule saucer-
(66–80(–115)ft); becoming lobed, lobes oblong to triangular, tips shaped, puberulent, red-
crown dense, fissured and slightly lobed and bristle-like, brown, enclosing only
ovoid-conical ridged glabrous and glossy above, paler and base of acorn
glabrous except for tufts of green-
Comments: ‘Pendula’: branches pendent. white hair in vein axils beneath
Q.petraea Europe to deciduous tree bark grey to 6–17cm (21⁄2–61⁄2in), broadly or narrowly acorns clustered, 2–3cm
W Russia to 45m (150ft); black-brown, obovate, base attenuate or truncate to (3⁄4–11⁄4in), ovoid to oblong-
crown regular, furrowed subcordate but not auriculate as is ovoid; cupule made up
trunk reaching Q.robur, apex rounded, margin with 4–6 of closely adpressed,
far into crown pairs of even, rounded lobes, glossy, pubescent scales
glabrous above, paler, glaucous,
Comments: ‘Insecata’: leaves laciniate. glabrous to pubescent beneath
Q.phellos SE US deciduous tree bark grey 7–12cm (23⁄4–43⁄4in), oblong- acorns to 1cm (1⁄2in),
WILLOW OAK to 40m (130ft); tinted red- lanceolate, apex acute, base attenuate, subglobose, pale yellow-
crown rounded brown, entire, often undulate, dark green brown; cupule shallow, scales
to columnar glabrous above, paler beneath, almost glabrous adpressed, grey-tomentose,
enclosing only base of acorn.
Q.pontica NE Turkey, deciduous 15–25cm (6–10in), obovate to elliptic, acorns 2cm (3⁄4in), ovoid;
ARMENIAN OAK Caucasus shrub or small apex acute, base attenuate, margin cupule of triangular,
tree, to 6m shallowly and irregularly dentate, pubescent, adpressed scales,
(20ft), rarely teeth mucronate, dark green and enclosing to half of acorn
10m (33ft) shining above, paler with sparse hair
on veins beneath, midrib yellow
Q.robur Europe to deciduous tree grey-brown, 5–14cm (2–51⁄2in), oblong to obovate, acorns solitary or clustered,
ENGLISH OAK, W Russia 20–30m deeply apex rounded, base attenuate, 1.5–2.5cm, (5⁄8–1in), ovoid to
COMMON OAK, (66–100ft); fissured auriculate, margin with 3–6 pairs of oblong-ovoid, apex mucronate;
PEDUNCULATE OAK crown broad, deep, rounded lobes, glabrous dark cupule sub-hemispherical,
spreading, green above, paler blue-green beneath made up of tightly adpressed,
irregular velvety scales, enclosing one-
Q quarter to one-third of fruit
Comments: Cultivars vary in habit, from dwarf to columnar, in colour from variegated to yellow or purple throughout, and in leaf from flat to
convex, entire to deeply incised and crispate. ‘Contorta’: dwarf; leaf lobes twisted. f. fastigiata: columnar, branchlets erect. ‘Pendula’: vigorous;
branches pendent. ‘Atropurpurea’: to 10m (33ft); leaves plum purple. ‘Concordia’: leaves golden. ‘Salicifolia’: slow-growing; leaves elliptic, entire.
Q.rubra EN America deciduous tree 10–22cm (4–9in), oblong to obovate, acorns 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in),
RED OAK, to 45m (150ft); base attenuate or rounded, margin ovoid, cupule made up of
NORTHERN RED crown rounded with 3–5 pairs of lobes, lobes tightly adpressed, short scales,
OAK triangular or ovate, acute, sinuses run enclosing one-third of acorn
to midrib, margins irregularly toothed,
dark green, glabrous except for red-
Comments: ‘Aurea’: leaves golden yellow becoming slightly green brown hairs in vein axils, colouring
towards autumn. dull red or yellow-brown in fall
658 Q.phellos Q.robur Q.rubra ‘Aurea’ Q.suber

Quisqualis
Q UERCUS
Q.suber NAfrica, evergreen tree to 15cm (6in) to 3.5cm (11⁄2in), ovate to lanceolate, acorns solitary or paired,
CORK OAK S Europe to 26m (85ft) thick, very apex acute, base sometimes slightly 2–4.5cm (3⁄4–13⁄4in), ovoid
corky, deeply cordate, margin dentate, teeth 5–7 or ellipsoid, apex slightly
fissured each side, mucronate, dark green, mucronate; cupule sub-
shining, glabrous above, grey- hemispherical, lower scales
tomentose beneath closely adpressed, upper scales
spreading enclosing half or
more of acorn
Q. x turneri semi-evergreen obovate or elliptic, apex acute or acorns, where produced,

(Q.ilex x Q.robur) tree to 25m (80ft) obtuse, base rounded to subcordate, in clusters of 3–7, to 2cm
margin sinuately-lobed, lobes 5–6, (3⁄4in), ovoid; cupule sub-
obtuse, leathery, dark green and hemispherical, pubescent,
Comments: ‘Pseudoturneri’: leaves narrowly oblong-ovate, lobes glabrous above, paler subglabrous enclosing half of acorn
narrower, more glabrous beneath, remaining green for longer. but pubescent on veins beneath
Q.velutina E US, SE deciduous tree black-brown, 6–25cm (21⁄2–10in), narrowly ovate to acorns solitary or paired,
BLACK OAK Canada to 30m (100ft) deeply obovate, often misshapen, apex acute, 1.5–2.5cm (5⁄8–1in), ovoid to
fissured, base truncate, deeply 5- or 7-lobed, subglobose, pale brown;
fissures orange lobes ovate to triangular, 1–3 bristle- cupule made up of loosely
at center tipped teeth, dark green, glabrous overlapping, hairy scales,
and glossy above, paler, densely enclosing half of acorn
tomentose at first beneath
tortrix moths, but the tree merely matic, and of gritty texture, it is used square and one in the centre, favoured
grows a second flush of leaves; it is also for preserves, in cooking and as a from ancient times to the 17th century.
attacked by numerous gall-wasps, but herbal medicine. The seeds are poison- The term is also often loosely applied
these also do no real harm. Q.coccifera is ous. Quince is of uncertain origin but to a square planting of trees.
host to the Kermes insect. Acorns are grows wild in Iran, Anatolia, Turkestan
commonly infested by weevils and gall and Transcaucasia; it was highly Quisqualis (from Latin quis, who,
wasps, including the conspicuous regarded by the ancient Greeks. and qualis, what kind – there was at
‘knopper gall’ on Q.robur and Q.petraea; Quince makes an attractive small first some uncertainty as to the family
they may account for most of the crop
in years of low seed production, but in
mast years most of the very large seed
specimen tree, with white or pale pink
flowers in spring and yellow foliage in
autumn. It may be grown as a stan-
to which this plant belonged.) Combre-
taceae. Tropical and South Africa,
tropical Indomalaysia. Some 17 species
Q
crops will escape their attention. dard, bush, fan or espalier. Selections of scandent shrubs often climbing by
have been grown as rootstocks for woody hooks (persistent petioles).
quicklime see lime. pears for many centuries and quince Borne in spring and summer in
is propagated by chip budding on to racemes or panicles, the flowers are
quiescence the inability of a seed to quince root-stock or by hardwood narrowly tubular, with five spreading,
germinate, particularly where due to cuttings or suckers. Trees should be oblong lobes. Grow in sun or part-
insufficient hydration. It is also used of planted about 4m (13ft) apart. The shade in well-drained and not too fer-
other plant parts that fail to grow due flowers are self-fertile and fruits are tile soil. Provide a minimum
to suboptimal environmental condi- best picked when turned golden yellow. temperature of 10°C/50°F and bright
tions or natural dormancy. Store in a dark well-ventilated place, filtered light or full sun with shade
unwrapped and separated from other during the hottest summer months.
quilled applied to petals that are fruits to avoid aroma taint; they will Water plentifully when in growth.
inrolled into a narrow tube for much keep for 2–3 months under suitable Reduce water in winter to allow a
of their length, as in certain dahlias conditions. Quince bears its fruits on period of almost dry rest. In late winter,
and chrysanthemums. spurs and on shoot tips of the previous thin congested growth and shorten flow-
year’s growth. Apart from the need ered stems back to the main framework
quinate possessing five leaflets emanat- to remove congested growth, pruning of growth. Propagate by heeled soft-
ing from the same point of attachment. required for established trees is mini- wood cuttings or by seed. Q.indica
mal. Possible problems: brown (DRUNKEN SAILOR, RANGOON CREEPER);
quince (Cydonia oblonga) A small decid- rot, fireblight. Old World Tropics; rampant climber;
uous tree belonging to the family flowers fragrant to 6cm (21/2in), white
Rosaceae. Grown for its golden-yellow quincunx an arrangement of five becoming pink to red on upper surfaces 659
fruits, which are downy, strongly aro- trees with one at each corner of a and within throat over a period of days).
rabbits
R
the US can cause severe damage radial symmetry describes the
to fruit and vegetables, and also to form of a flower that is circular in
water lilies. Shooting and trapping outline when viewed from above and
are the only effective controls and where the flower parts radiate from
local advice on procedures should a central point, such as a primrose.
be sought.
radiate (1) spreading outward from
a common centre; (2) possessing ray
florets, as in the typically daisy-like
capitula of many Compositae.
radical arising directly from the

rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) small root, rootstock or root-like stems;
burrowing mammals of the family usually applied to leaves that are
Leporidae that feed on a wide range basal rather than cauline.
of wild and cultivated plants, and may Laburnum anagyroides
graze them to ground level; they also radicle the rudimentary root of
cause damage in gardens by gnawing raceme an the embryo.
the bark of young trees, frequently indeterminate,
girdling them, and by digging holes in unbranched and, radish (Raphanus sativus) an
lawns and borders. Rabbits generally usually, elongate annual or biennial species, vari-
live in colonies underground with inter- inflorescence able in size, colour and pun-
connecting tunnels, but some spend all composed of gency, grown primarily as an
of their adult lives above ground. They pedicelled flowers. annual for its enlarged tap-
raceme of
usually breed all the year round, but flowers root, which is usually eaten raw;
especially from January to July. There rachilla a secondary the immature leaves and
may be 2–5 litters per year, consisting axis of a compound leaf seed pods are also edible.
of 3–6 young, which are at first blind or inflorescence. The radish probably originated in
and naked of fur but able to leave the eastern Mediterranean region and
the nest after 3–4 weeks. rachis (plural rachises, rachides) the was important as a food crop in Egypt
Foxes, stoats, cats, badgers and some axis of a compound leaf or a com- by 2000 BC. It is widely distributed and
large birds of prey are natural enemies. pound inflorescence, as an extension adapted to various climatic conditions.
Deliberate introduction of the virus of the petiole or peduncle, respectively. Roots can be available year round
disease myxomatosis, spread by fleas from two main types. Small-rooted cul-
and mosquitoes, initially reduced num- raddichio see chicory. tivars are suitable for summer harvest
bers but rabbits have become partially and are globose or long in shape, with
R immune to it. Control by shooting or

gassing is not practicable for most
gardeners, and humane trapping
Radermachera (for J.C.M. Rader-
macher (1757–83), Dutch resident in
Java who published a list of Javanese
red, pink, bicoloured or white skins;
selections are available for
autumn/winter sowing with cold or
requires skill. plants). Bignoniaceae. Indomalaysia, S warm protection, and these usually
Fencing is an alternative, effective China, Hainan, Taiwan, Ryukyu Islands. produce less leaf and are slower to
means of control. In order to be rabbit- About 15 species, trees or shrubs, mostly mature. Large-rooted types include the
proof, it needs to be constructed out of evergreen with 2–3-pinnate leaves. Tubu- white mooli radishes, which are about
2.5cm (1in) wire mesh, 1.2–1.4m lar, 5-lobed flowers are carried in termi- 20cm (8in) long and suitable for
(4–41/2ft) high, with the bottom 30cm nal thyrses in summer. Young examples summer use, and the hardy Chinese
(12in) sunk below ground level; of the of the following species are often treated and Spanish types, which may be
underground section, the lower 15cm as pot plants, valued for their evergreen, white-, red-, black- or violet-skinned,
(6in) should be bent outwards to dis- lustrous foliage. Eventually, they will round or long, in some cases up to
courage burrowing. Trees and shrubs make handsome flowering trees. Grow 60cm (24in) long, and capable of pro-
may be protected from bark stripping in sun or part shade. Water moderately ducing roots up to 500g (1lb) in weight.
by netting or spiral tree protectors. when in growth; maintain a winter min- All of the large-rooted types may be
Hares cause similar damage to rab- imum temperature of 15°C/59°F. Prop- eaten raw or cooked.
bits but they are much more erratic in agate by seed, cuttings or air layering. Small radishes, such as ‘French
their attacks since they usually exist only R.sinica (S and E Asia; shrub or tree; Breakfast’ and ‘Crystal Ball’, can be
in small numbers. Fences against hares leaves to 75cm (30in), triangular to del- sown at 10 day intervals from early
need to be 1.5–1.75m (5–53/4ft) high. toid, 2-pinnate; segments ovate to rhom- spring until autumn, and the season
boid, somewhat lobed or toothed, glossy, extended with cloches or other forms
660 raccoon an omnivorous, largely deep green; flowers scented, to 7.5cm of protection. Sow in rows 15cm (6in)
nocturnal climbing animal which in (3in), deep yellow). apart with seeds 2.5cm (1in) apart, or
rake
sow broadcast. Too dense a stand will species is Senecio jacobaea, a hardy bien- Beds have walls made of brick or
result in lanky unproductive plants. nial, sometimes perennial, of the cement blocks, or of timber such as old
Mooli types should not be sown before family Asteraceae, native in Europe. railway sleepers; these may have
June to avoid bolting, and these take Erect stems to 1.5m (5ft); leaves to planting holes left during
10–12 weeks to mature. Large radishes 20cm (77/8in), pinnatifid. construction in which to
for winter use should be sown in July Flowers numerous in establish ornamental trail-
or August in rows 25cm (10in) apart, a dense corymb, ing plants and to provide
aiming at a final spacing between capitula to 2cm side drainage. For most
plants of 15cm (6in). Sow all types (3/4in), ray florets plant use, a foundation layer
13–20mm (1/2–3/4in) deep. yellow. In the UK of rubble is desirable as an
An open site is preferable, although Ragwort is specified aid to drainage. The growing
summer crops tolerate light shade; crop as an injurious weed medium can be mixed accord-
rotation is necessary because, like other under the Weeds Act ing to intended use, a soil-based
members of the family Cruciferae, 1959. It is not a prob- mix being the best choice.
radishes are liable to club lem in well-maintained
root infection. gardens but garden- rake a hand imple-
Small-rooted types can be sown ers need to be ment consisting of a
thinly along the prepared drills of aware of the hazard crossbar with short
slower germinating vegetables, such as presented if the plant prongs, or ‘teeth’, fixed
parsnips and parsley, to mark the rows, is allowed to establish in to a long handle. Most commonly
and these may be progressively pulled uncultivated areas adjoining used, for levelling and preparing
as they mature; alternatively, they may farmland where livestock is seed-beds, is the steel-headed rake,
be grown as an intercrop in rows grazed. Plants should be dug Ragwort which consists of a head 30–38cm
between other vegetables. Rapid ger- out and carefully disposed of. (12–15in) wide, with prongs 6mm
mination and establishment is essential (1/4in) long, mounted on a wooden
and summer radishes must be pulled rain shadow the area immediately handle 150cm (60in) long. It is some-
early since they soon become woody; to the leeward of a wall, fence, hedge, times used for forming seed drills,
small-rooted types may be ready within screen or shelter belt, which receives where with the head turned so that the
a month from sowing. Winter types much less rainfall than the surrounding prongs are facing upwards a continu-
can be left in the ground until areas because of its protection from ous depression can be made in a fine
required, or lifted for indoor storage. prevailing wind. It is an important tilth; this is a suitable method where
Possible problems: cabbage root fly, consideration in planting and in less precise drilling is required, as may
flea beetle. the provision of irrigation. be acceptable, for example, in the
sowing of annual flowerbeds. Held
raffia a flat, fibrous material used for raised bed any growing bed formed at the same angle, the rake may then
tying plants, including shoot and bud above ground level, which may range be used for pulling soil back over the
grafts. It is derived from the leaves of
certain palms, especially the RAFFIA
PALM (Raphia farinifera). The term is
in height from a very shallow construc-
tion up to almost 1 metre (3.3ft). All
raised beds offer the advantages of
sown drills.
The wooden rake consists of a head
about 76cm (30in) wide, bearing prongs
R
often used interchangeably with good drainage, a growing medium of 8cm (3in) long, fixed to a 177cm- (70in-)
bass or bast q.v. relatively high temperature, and free long handle, and is particularly useful
root run. Beds up to 30cm (12in) high for levelling ground and pulling off
raft (1) piece of bark, osmunda fibre are used in the vegetable garden and stones and litter. The spring-tined rake
or tree fern fibre onto which epiphytic for growing strawberries, in a system has a special purpose in lawn mainte-
plants are fixed and hung – this referred to as the deep bed method. nance; it comprises a fan-shaped head
method of growing is particularly suit- Taller raised beds are appropriate for about 30cm (12in) long, with a number
able for orchids with abundant clinging sites where there is no soil or where its of thin-gauge tensile wire prongs,
aerial roots and rambling stems and composition or profile is unsuitable for spring mounted over a central wire
rhizomes e.g. Bulbophyllum; (2) a form of satisfactory plant growth; they are often bearer, with the end of each prong
training used in bonsai where the prin- used for growing alpines, either direct bent to a common shallow angle. Plas-
cipal trunk of the tree is laid on its side planted or as plunged container-grown tic and bamboo versions are available.
and the lateral branches along the specimens. It is used for raking out thatch or gath-
exposed side are trained up as if they Raised beds provide opportunities ering mowings and, like every other
were themselves individual trees. for gardeners who use a wheelchair type of rake, is useful for general tidy-
or otherwise have restricted mobility, ing, such as leaf gathering; for some
ragwort a weed especially of grass- and it is possible to grow a wide range purposes, a rubber-headed rake is suit-
land and uncultivated ground; poiso- of plants, including ornamentals, able. A very small, short-handled rake
nous particularly to cattle and horses vegetables and some forms of fruit is sometimes used as a cultivator in 661
when cut and dry. The most common in this way. much the same manner as a hand fork.
rambler
rambler a climbing plant that trails marshes). Ranunculaceae. BUTTERCUP, R.japonica, a perennial, rhizomatous herb,
or scrambles in an informal habit; used CROWFOOT. Cosmopolitan. Some 400 15–40cm (6–16in) tall. The compound
especially of a type of rose. species, annual, biennial and perennial leaves consist of three leaflets, each ovate
herbs (those here perennial). They vary to round, 3-lobed and 8–12cm (3–43/4in)
ramentaceous stems or leaves pos- greatly in size and habit, but most pro- across. To 2.5cm (1in) across, the nod-
sessing small, loose, brownish scales. duce simple to palmately lobed leaves ding flowers appear in early summer.
in basal clumps. Solitary or carried in They are pale lavender-violet and com-
ramet (1) an individual member of a cymose panicles, the flowers are bowl- posed of six petaloid sepals and six small
clone; (2) an underground tree system shaped to starry with five or more petals each with two nectaries at its base.
giving rise to large suckering colonies. petals and numerous stamens. For cool, humus-rich, moist soils in light
Some of those commonly grown are woodland, for the shaded rock garden.
ramiflorous bearing flowers directly selections of garden weeds (for exam- Hardy to –10°C/14°F. Propagate from
on large branches and leafless twigs, ple, cultivars of R.acris), fully hardy and ripe seed in a cold frame – this can take
but not the trunk. suited to damp places in sun or part up to 18 months to germinate and a
shade in informal borders, woodland further 3–5 years to flower.
ramiform branched, branch-like. or water gardens. Where they prove
invasive, cut back the running rhizomes Raoulia (for Edouard F.L. Raoul
rammer see potting stick. with a spade. Cultivars of the lesser (1825–52), French botanist). Composi-
celandine, R.ficaria, are charming addi- tae. New Zealand. About 20 species,
Ramonda (for L.F. Ramond (d. tions to the woodland garden and dwarf, evergreen perennial herbs or
1827), French botanist and traveller). equally suited to underplanting in subshrubs, often forming dense cush-
Gesneriaceae. S Europe. 3 species, shrubberies and mixed borders. They ions or mats. The leaves are very small
stemless, more or less evergreen peren- prefer some shade and a moist, humus- and usually densely packed or overlap-
nial herbs. Borne in a low, basal rich soil, at least when in growth. They ping. Button-like, stalkless flowerheads
rosette, the leaves are rugose and flower in early to mid-spring and their with yellow florets appear in spring and
white-hairy. Produced in spring and foliage (often their finest feature) will summer. Silvery cushion-formers for
summer, the flowers are solitary or few disappear by summer, when their pea- the rock garden, fine scree and raised
together in scapose umbels; they are sized tubers will withstand drought. beds. Grow in sun on moist, gritty,
shallowly tubular with a broad, spread- This species may also become invasive humus-rich soils. Protect from excessive
ing limb of four to six lobes. Plant on and is easily propagated by tubers wet in winter. Hardy to –15°C/5°F. In
the rock garden and in wall crevices, taken in summer and autumn. Taller the alpine house, grow in pans with a
especially those with a northerly and sadly non-invasive, R.gouanii has mix of equal parts loam, leafmould
aspect. Kept free of damp in winter, similar requirements. R.lingua is an and sharp sand with a top dressing of
these plants may be hardy to about excellent plant for water margins, pools grit. Water freely when in growth; keep
–15°C/5°F. They may also be grown and bog gardens. R.asiaticus should be almost dry in winter. Propagate by
in the alpine house or cold frame in grown as for the tuberous-rooted De division of rooted tufts.
R shallow pans, with a well-drained neu-

tral or slightly acidic, loam-based pot-
ting mix. Outdoors, establish in pockets
Caen and St Brigid anemones. Its
cultivars make beautiful pot plants
and cut flowers. Alpine species such as
R.australis (leaves to 2mm (1/16in),
spathulate, closely overlapping, silver-
pubescent; flowerheads to 5mm (1/4in)
of gritty and freely draining soil, and R.alpestris and R.montanus are hardy and in diameter, phyllaries tipped bright
position so that water is unable to settle will thrive in sun on the rock garden yellow); R.haastii (leaves to 5mm (1/4in),
in the leaf rosette. Plants may shrivel given a moist, gritty soil. R.crenatus and ovate to linear-oblong, loosely overlap-
under dry conditions but will readily R.glacialis are harder to please, needing ping, pale sea green; flowerheads to
resurrect given water. In winter, keep an acid medium and careful watering. 9mm (3/8in) in diameter, phyllaries
barely moist. Propagate by seed or by They are perhaps more easily culti- tipped white or yellow); R.hookeri (leaves
leaf cuttings as for Saintpaulia. R.myconi vated in the alpine house. R.lyallii. to 2mm (1/16in), narrowly obovate to
(syn. R.pyrenaica; Pyrenees; flowers to R.amplexicaulis, R.bullatus, R.calandrin- spathulate, closely overlapping, silvery
4cm (11/2in) in diameter, 1–6 on glan- ioides and R.gramineus need a fast-drain- white-tomentose toward apex; phyllar-
dular-hairy scapes to 12cm (43/4in), ing, sandy soil in full sun. They grow ies green or straw-coloured).
violet to lilac, rosy pink or white well in the more sheltered reaches of
with a yellow centre). the rock garden, gravel garden and rape see green manuring.
silver border. Some of them may
rank (1) a vertical row or column, for become dormant in summer and dis- Raphanus (name used by Theophras-
example of leaves; (2) in taxonomy, the like wet winter conditions. Increase tus for this plant). Cruciferae. Europe,
position of a taxon in the hierarchy. by seed or division. temperate Asia. 8 species, annual, bien-
nial or perennial herbs with pungently
Ranunculus (name used by Pliny, Ranzania (for Ono Ranzan, flavoured and crisply succulent taproots
662 derived from Latin rana, frog: several (1729–1810) Japanese naturalist). Berb- and lyrate to pinnatifid leaves. R.sativus
species are aquatic or grow in eridaceae. Japan (Honshu). 1 species, is the RADISH (q.v.)
Ranunculus
R ANUNCULUS
R.aconitifolius W to C Europe perennial to 60cm (24in) dark green, palmately, few to many, white, to spring
3–5-lobed 2cm (3⁄4in), across; sepals
Comments: ‘Flore Pleno’: WHITE BACHELOR’S BUTTONS, FAIR MAIDS red or purple beneath
OF FRANCE, FAIR MAIDS OF KENT; flowers fully double, long-lasting.
‘Luteus Plenus’: flowers double, yellow.
R.acris Europe, Asia, perennial to 1m (31⁄4ft) with 3–7 deep lobes several, glossy golden spring
MEADOW BUTTERCUP naturalized simple or further divided, yellow, to 2.5cm (1in)
elsewhere dentate, hairy, sometimes across
marked black
Comments: ‘Flore Pleno’: YELLOW BACHELOR’S BUTTONS; to 90cm (36in); flowers double. ‘Hedgehog’: leaves marked dark brown; flowers pale.
R.alpestris Europe perennial, 3–12cm glossy dark green, 1–3, white to 2cm (3⁄4in) spring-
(11⁄4–43⁄4in) orbicular, lobes 3–5, across; sepals tinged red- summer
deeply crenate brown 3–5
R.amplexicaulis Pyrenees, N perennial 8–30cm (3–12in) ovate-lanceolate, glaucous, several, white, spring
Spain blue-grey; stem leaves occasionally pink,
amplexicaul 2–2.5cm (3⁄4–1in)
diameter; petals
sometimes more than 5
R.asiaticus SE Europe, pubescent perennial to 3-lobed, lobes stalked, few to several, red, pink, spring-
SW Asia 45cm (18in) divided and toothed purple, yellow to white, summer
3–5cm (11⁄4–2in) across;
anthers purple-black
Comments: Bloomingdale Hybrids: dwarf; flowers double in shades ‘Pot Dwarf ’: flowers semi-double and double, in scarlet, pink, salmon,
of pink, yellow, rose, red and white. ‘Color Carnival’: tall, robust; orange and white. ‘Superbissimus’: tall; flowers large. Tecolote
flowers large, double, many colours. ‘Picotee’: compact; flowers double, Hybrids: robust; flowers exceptionally large. Victoria Hybrids: flowers
very large, ruffled, in pink, red, orange, white and yellow, picotee edge. large, fully double in wide range of colours.
R.bullatus Mediterranean perennial; roots tuberous; ovate, crenate, bullate 1–2, yellow, 2.5cm (1in) autumn-
to NW Spain stem to 30cm (12in) across, violet-scented; spring
and Portugal petals 5–12
R.calandrinioides Morocco perennial to 15cm (6in) to 6.5cm (21⁄2in), long-

petiolate, lanceolate to
ovate, entire, undulate,
grey-green, glaucous
1–3, white, sometimes
flushed pink, to
5cm (2in) across
winter-
spring R
R.crenatus E Alps, perennial to 15cm (6in) orbicular, weakly cordate, 1–2, white, to spring
Apennines to crenate or 3-lobed at apex 2.5cm (1in) across
Balkans and
Carpathians
R.acris ‘Flore Pleno’ R.alpestris R.asiaticus R.calandrinioides 663

Ranunculus
R ANUNCULUS
R.ficaria Europe, perennial 5–30cm (2–12in) cordate, angled or crenate, solitary to few, brilliant spring
LESSER CELANDINE, NW Africa, with small, clustered tubers 1–4cm (1⁄2–11⁄2in), dark golden-yellow, fading to
PILEWORT W Asia, green, long-petiolate white, 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in)
naturalized across; petals 8–12
N America
Comments: var. albus: leaves with a dark marks; flowers very pale creamy, lower surface tinged grey. flore-pleno: flowers double, yellow,
yellow, blue-green below. var. aurantiacus: leaves heavily marked petals tinged green beneath. ‘Green Petal’: flowers with many narrow,
coppery-bronze; flowers coppery-orange. ‘Bowles Double’: flowers wavy-edged green and yellow staminodes; sepals 0. ‘Hoskin’s
double, green centre on opening, later paler yellow. ‘Brazen Hussy’: Miniature’: small; leaves slightly marked silver. ‘Lemon Queen’: flowers
leaves chocolate brown; flowers golden. ssp. chrysocephalus: large in all simple, pale yellow, petals tinged bronze beneath. ‘Randall’s White’:
parts. ‘Collarette’ syn. ‘E.A. Bowles’: anthers petaloid, forming a tight upper surface of petals pale cream, lower surface slate-blue. ‘Salmon’s
anemone centre.‘Double Bronze’: flowers double, yellow, with bronze White’: leaves with dark markings; upper surface of petals very pale
backs to petals. ‘Double Mud’: flowers double, upper surface of petals cream, lower surface slate-blue.
R.glacialis Alps, Pyrenees, perennial, 4–25cm dark-green, somewhat 1–3, white or pale pink, spring-
Sierra Nevada, (11⁄2–10in) fleshy, lobes 3, stalked, becoming red after summer
Arctic, deeply segmented pollination, 2–3cm
Iceland, (3⁄4–11⁄4in) across
Greenland
R.gouanii Pyrenees pubescent perennial to leaves 3–5-lobed, lobes 1–5 per stem, rich spring
30cm (12in) obovate, dentate yellow, to 4cm (11⁄2in)
across
Comments: close to R.montanus. R.gouanii ‘Plenus’, also known as R.speciosus ‘Plenus’ is, properly, R.constantinopolitanus ‘Plenus’, with double flowers
to 4cm (11⁄2in) across in chrome yellow with a green centre.
R.gramineus S Europe, perennial, 20–50cm linear to lanceolate, flat, 1–3 per stem, citron spring-
N Africa (8–20in) glaucous yellow, to 2cm (3⁄4in) summer
across
R.lingua Europe to semi-aquatic stoloniferous to 20cm (8in), ovate to in lax cyme, bright summer
GREATER SPEARWORT Siberia perennial; stem stout, lanceolate, usually toothed yellow, to 5cm (2in)
50–200cm (20–79in) across
Comments: ‘Grandiflorus’: flowers large, fleshy
R R.lyallii
MOUNT COOK LILY,
MOUNTAIN LILY
New Zealand perennial; rootstock thick,
roots fleshy; stem stout,
to 1.5m (5ft)
peltate, 12–40cm
(43⁄4–16in) broad, crenate,
leathery, dark green,
5–15 in a panicle, white,
summer
long-petiolate
R.montanus Europe glabrous to pubescent 3–5-lobed, lobes obovate, 1–3, glossy golden- spring-
(mountains) rhizomatous perennial, dentate yellow, 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in) summer
Comments: ‘Molten Gold’: dwarf, robust; leaves dark; flowers large, rounded, gold.
664 R.ficaria flore-pleno R.gramineus R.lingua

raspberry
raphide an elongated, needle-like not so high in winter as to asphyxiate

crystal of calcium oxalate, sometimes roots. Raspberries show iron deficiency
in a bundle and found in the vegetative on calcareous soils.
parts of many plants. Plant canes of certified stock, with
a good fibrous root system, during the
raspberry (Rubus species) a decidu- dormant period, with plants spaced
ous woody perennial, with fruits gener- 40cm (16in) apart in rows 2m (61/2ft)
ally red, but also yellow, black or apart. In temperate climates, planting
purple. The temperate climate species should preferably be undertaken in
is the red-fruited R.idaeus, named after late autumn to encourage early root
Mount Ida in Asia Minor, the possible growth; in countries with very cold
origin of the raspberry. European and winters, spring planting is usual to
North American raspberries are classi- avoid winter losses. Plant the canes
fied respectively into subspecies vulgatus Pruning raspberries with the roots 5–7cm (2–23/4in) deep,
(native to much of Europe and north- Canes in their second year that have borne a and cut back each cane to 20cm (8in);
ern Asia to Japan), and strigosus (which crop are cut to ground level. Current season autumn-fruiting canes are cut back to
grows wild in North America, in the canes are left to crop in the next year. ground level.
mountains of Georgia to Pennsylvania, In gardens, raspberries are usually
through Maine and Dakota to of the 20th century, but the work of grown in upright rows, running north-
Canada). The North American sub- breeders in both North America and south for uniform light distribution,
species is hardier and has brighter Europe has greatly reduced its inci- with post and wire support. For red
coloured fruits. dence with the introduction of the raspberries, three wires are fixed, along
The AMERICAN BLACK RASPBERRY, virus-tolerant cultivar ‘Malling Jewel’ single rows of 2.3m- (71/2ft-) long posts
(R.occidentalis), has a similar natural and a series of others that show resis- driven 45cm (18in) into the ground,
range to the AMERICAN RED RASPBERRY tance to aphid vectors. ‘Glen Clova’ at 0.7m (28in), 1.0m (31/4ft) and 1.6m
(R.idaeus subspecies strigosus), but is not and ‘Glen Prosen’ are widely grown (51/2ft) above ground level and the
found so far north and also further as early and late red-fruited cultivars. canes are tied to the wires. An alterna-
south; and it is less hardy. A selection of The season is lengthened with tive system is to erect two parallel rows
the HILL RASPBERRY (R.niveus ‘Mysore’) autumn-fruiting or primocane culti- of support posts, with 60cm (24in)
is grown commercially in Florida and vars, such as ‘Autumn Bliss’, ‘Zeva’ and between each row, and the line of rasp-
harvested from March to May. ‘Heritage’. These fruit on the current berry canes is planted down the centre.
Domestication of the raspberry in season’s canes, from late summer until Wires are attached along each row of
Europe was mentioned by Roman writ- the first autumn frosts, and can be posts at 0.75m (21/2ft) and 1.5m (5ft)
ers in the 4th century, the fruits being grown in areas where severe winter above ground level, and twine or wire
eaten or used for flavouring drinks and temperature would normally ties fixed across each tier of parallel
the leaves used for making tea. By the damage growth. wires. The raspberry canes grow up
16th century, raspberries were culti-
vated in gardens, and during the next
century, different forms were described,
Yellow-fruited raspberries have been
known for centuries – ‘Yellow Antwerp’
was one of the first to be selected;
through the structure with no tying.
Canes of autumn-fruiting raspberries
are shorter and do not need permanent
R
including red, yellow and white fruited more recent cultivars include ‘Amber’ support. Black and purple raspberries
and thornless cultivars. Selection for and ‘Golden Queen’. Black raspberries, require more space than red ones, and
larger fruits had made considerable such as ‘Ohio Everbearer’ and ‘Black are planted 75–120cm (30–48in) apart
progress by the end of the 18th cen- Hawk’, are grown in North America, in rows about 2.5m (8ft) apart; they
tury, and in 1823 the Horticultural but in the UK are susceptible to Phy- are usually grown without support
Society of London reported that it had lophthora root rots. Purple raspberries, or attached to a single wire running
23 cultivars in its collection. Over the hybrids of red and black types, grow 45–60cm (18–24in) above soil level
next hundred years, nurserymen intro- more vigorously than black raspberries along a row of posts.
duced more selections and and give higher yields, and cultivars In cold areas such as the central US
chance seedlings. such as ‘Brandywine’ are grown and east Canada, canes are not tied in
Some European cultivars were intro- commercially in a limited area in until the spring since the winter snow-
duced to North America from the end New York State. fall protects them from very low winter
of the 18th century onwards, but due Raspberries are self-fertile, so temperatures.
to temperature extremes they did not that single cultivars may be planted. Summer-fruiting red raspberries are
flourish. They were combined with Raspberries are best grown in cool pruned by cutting out the fruited canes
American forms to produce improved temperate conditions, sheltered from immediately after harvesting, together
cultivars like ‘Cuthbert’ and spring frosts and wind; soil moisture with any weak ones, to leave about
‘Willamette’. content is crucial, and should be ade- 8–10 canes per metre (3.3ft) of row;
Virus disease developed as a serious quate to supply water in summer for winter-damaged tips are cut out in late 665
problem of raspberries in the first half growing canes and swelling fruit, but winter. Autumn-fruiting raspberries are
raspberry
cut to the ground in winter. New canes heads are produced in summer and Chazay d’Azergues). Cactaceae.
of black and purple raspberries are early autumn. The ray florets are long, Bolivia, NW Argentina. To 40 species,
tipped in summer to encourage the colourful and somewhat shaggy, the low-growing cacti with small, globose
growth of laterals, which are then disc florets are small, dark and packed to shortly cylindric stems – these are
pruned back in spring, according to into a prominent rounded or cone-like tuberculate or weakly ribbed and
climate and varietal vigour, to increase receptacle. Tolerant of drought, heat covered in rather weak spines. Small,
fruit size. The old fruited canes are and high humidity, the following funnelform flowers usually appear
usually cut out each winter. species are hardy and suitable for use near the stem-base. Grow in a cool
The main nutrients required by in the herbaceous border, as cut flow- greenhouse (minimum temperature
raspberries are potassium for fruiting ers, in native plant collections and in 7°C/45°F) in a gritty, mildly acid to
and nitrogen for cane production; other naturalistic plantings. Propagate neutral medium in full sun; ensure
15–30g/m2 (1/16–1/8oz/sq. ft) of sulphate by seed. The deep taproots make a dry atmosphere. Keep dry from
of ammonia applied in spring is suffi- division difficult. R.columnifera is often mid-autumn until early spring, except
cient to meet requirements, together treated as an annual. for light misting on warm days in
with a mid-winter dressing of sulphate R.columnifera (LONG-HEAD CONE- later winter.
of potash at 30g/m2 (1/8oz/sq. ft). Phos- FLOWER, PRAIRIE CONEFLOWER; British R.aureiflora (NW Argentina; stems
phates are needed every third year, Colombia to New Mexico; receptacle depressed-globose to globose, to 6cm
applied as superphosphate at 60g/m2 cone-shaped, ray florets to 2.5cm (1in), (21/2in) in diameter, often red-tinged;
(1/4oz/sq. ft). An annual mulch of yellow to red or partly to entirely spines to 1cm (1/2in), bristly; flowers
organic matter will help conserve brown-purple); R.pinnata (GREY-HEAD about 4cm (11/2in) in diameter, yellow
soil moisture and control weeds. CONEFLOWER, DROOPING CONEFLOWER; with white throat, sometimes orange,
Watering in dry spells as the fruits central North America; receptacle glo- red or purple); R.fiebrigii (syn. R.muscula;
start to ripen is beneficial. It is also bose, ray florets to 5cm (2in), yellow). Bolivia, NW Argentina; stem globose,
recommended for autumn-fruiting depressed at apex, 5cm (2in) tall; spines
raspberries to maintain fruit size and Ravenala (the native name in Mada- to 2cm (3/4in), brown-tipped; flower
number. Fruits should be harvested gascar). Strelitziaceae. Madagascar. 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in), bright orange to red);
when dry, pulled from the stalk, and TRAVELLER’S TREE. 1 species, R.mada- R.krainziana (probably garden origin;
kept as cool as possible. gascariensis, a giant, evergreen tree-like stem depressed-globose, 4cm (11/2in)
Possible problems: aphids, birds, herb, to 16m (52ft). The columnar in diameter; spines about 1–2mm
raspberry cane borer (see longhorn stems are unbranched, ring-scarred (1/16–1/8in), bristly, white; flowers about
beetles), raspberry beetle; cane spot. and olive green or grey. The paddle- 3 x 4cm (11/4 x 11/2in), bright red with
shaped leaves are to 4m (13ft) long, violet sheen and violet throat); R.minus-
raspberry beetle (Byturus tomentosus) 2 ranked, dull green and become torn cula (syn. R.violaciflora; N Argentina;
a small brown beetle, about 4mm (1/8in) along the veins. The petiole bases over- stem globose, to about 5cm (2in) in
long, which overwinters in the soil as lap to form a distinctive fan at the diameter; spines 2–3mm (1/16–1/8in),
an adult to emerge in late April to summit of the stem. The flowers bristly; flowers to 4cm (11/2in), variable
R early June. The beetles feed upon the

petals and stamens of cane fruit flow-
ers, and also apple and hawthorn.
resemble those of the larger Strelitzia
species, but are duller. Cultivate as
for the larger Strelitzia species.
in colour scarlet to purple-red);
R.pygmaea (NW Argentina; stem ovoid
to short-cylindric, 1–3cm (1/2–11/4in)
Eggs are laid on the fertilised flowers x 1.2–2cm (1/2–3/4in); spines 2–3mm
of blackberry, loganberry, raspberry ray (1) the primary division of an (1/16–1/8in); flowers 18–25mm (3/4–1in),
and related fruits. The brownish-white umbel or umbelliform inflorescence; rose-purple); R.senilis (N Argentina;
maggots, up to 8mm (3/8in) long, feed (2) a ray flower, or a circle of ray flow- stem to 7cm (23/4in) in diameter, deep
on the outside of developing fruits at ers, or the corolla of a ray flower. green; spines to 3cm (11/4in), chalky
the stalk end; as the berries ripen they white or tinged yellow;
tunnel into the plug and feed inside the ray flower, ray flowers 3.5cm (11/2in),
fruit. Fully fed larvae go down into the floret a small flower carmine with
soil to pupate. There is one generation. with a tubular corolla white throat or
Control by spraying a recommended and the limb expanded citron yellow).
insecticide when the larvae are feeding and flattened in a
on the outside of the fruits. strap-like blade (ligule); receptacle the
usually occupying ray florets enlarged or elon-
Ratibida (derivation of name the peripheral rings gated, and either flat,
obscure). Compositae. N America, of a radiate Com- disc florets concave or convex, end
Mexico. PRAIRIE CONEFLOWER, MEXI- positae capitulum; of the stem from which
CAN HAT. 6 species, erect, roughly cf. disc floret. the floral parts derive.
hairy biennials or perennial herbs. The
666 leaves are pinnate to pinnatifid. Large Rebutia (for P. Rebut, wine- recessive used of a particu-
and long-stalked, the daisy-like flower- grower and cactus dealer of Chrysanthemum lar hereditable characteristic
red thread
which is masked by the dominance MITE (T.pacificus), SCHOENE SPIDER MITE the early 17th century. The red- and
of another characteristic-transmitting (T.schoenei), the FOUR-SPOTTED MITE whitecurrant grows easily in cool moist
component of a gene. For example, (T.canadensis), the STRAWBERRY SPIDER climates, requiring a sheltered site
dwarfness being recessive may be car- MITE (T.turkestani) and the MCDANIEL that is not readily prone to frost at
ried as a latent characteristic, whilst SPIDER MITE (T.mcdanieli). All the mites flowering time. In gardens, it is com-
tallness being dominant is expressed attack a wide range of edible and monly grown as a bush on a short leg
in offspring following fertilization; ornamental plants. The LIME MITE planted 1.5m2 (16sq. ft), although com-
cf. dominant. (Eotetranychus tiliarius) on Tilia spp. in mercially it is often trained as a higher
Europe attracts attention because, in yielding stooled bush. Redcurrants and
recurved curved backwards and severe infestations, mites vacate the whitecurrants may also be grown as
downwards. leaves in late summer and autumn and standards, or as cordons, espaliers or
swarm over the trunk, coating it with fans which may be trained against a
red spider mites (Acarina: glistening silk webbing. Other species fence or on a wired structure as both
Tetranychidae) small, spider-like mites, occur in North America, including the space-saving and potentially attractive
up to 1mm (1/16in) long, red or greenish YELLOW SPIDER MITE (E.carpani borealis) garden features. Single cordons are
yellow with darker markings and with and the YUMA SPIDER MITE (E.yumensis). conveniently spaced 45cm (18in) apart.
four pairs of legs; they are divided into The CONIFER SPINNING MITE (Oligony- Two year old bushes from a certified
two subfamilies: red spider mites chus ununguis), known as the SPRUCE source are a good choice for planting
and bryobia mites. Colonies SPIDER MITE in North America, is in autumn.
develop on plant foliage an important pest of conifers; Redcurrants depend on potash for
and throughout the summer affected foliage turns healthy growth; this should be applied
all stages are usually present; yellow during the summer as 25g/m2 (7/8oz/sq. ft) of sulphate of
overwintering is as eggs or and in severe attacks needles potash in late winter. Nitrogen dressing
adults depending upon species. are shed. Other North Ameri- is advisable only on poor soils. Organic
Young and adult mites suck can species include the mulching and early summer irrigation
sap from plant tissues, pro- AVOCADO BROWN MITE are highly beneficial. Fruit is produced
ducing a characteristic pale (O.punicae), the SOUTHERN from buds borne at the base of one-
mottling of the upper surface RED MITE (O.ilicis), the BANKS year-old shoots, and the objective is
of leaves; in severe attacks, Red GRASS MITE (O.pratensis) and to form a goblet-shaped bush of 8–10
leaves become chlorotic, desic- spider mite the AVOCADO RED MITE (O.yothersi). main branches on which fruiting spurs
cated, bronzed or silvered and usually Natural enemies play an important are carried. In the formative years,
covered with spun silk webbing. part in the control of red spider mites prune leading shoots to about half
The FRUIT TREE RED SPIDER MITE and the red spider predator (Phytoseiulus their length. On established bushes, lat-
(Panonychus ulmi), known as the persimilis) is widely used in Europe and erals should be cut back to two or three
EUROPEAN RED MITE in America, is North America to control Tetranychus buds each winter, with old less fruitful
an important pest, especially of apples urticae in greenhouses. Spraying green- branches being selectively removed.
and plums, and it also attacks other
deciduous trees and shrubs. Severe
infestations cause leaves to become
house plants with a fine mist of water
at frequent intervals helps check
populations. The choice of acaricides
Trained forms should have spur growth
encouraged by shortening laterals to
one or two buds each winter; all cur-
R
bronzed; premature defoliation follows is restricted for amateur gardeners rent season growth should be short-
and on fruit trees loss of yield. Eggs and red spider mites readily become ened to five leaves during early
overwinter in bark crevices of woody resistant to the main groups of summer. New plants can be established
plants. The CITRUS RED MITE (P.citri), is chemicals. See mites. from hardwood cuttings, 30–38cm-
a worldwide pest of citrus. The GLASS- (12–15in)-long, taken in autumn or
HOUSE RED SPIDER MITE (Tetranychus redcurrant (Ribes rubrum Red Cur- early winter, and from which all but the
urticae), known as the TWO-SPOTTED rant Group) a deciduous shrubby plant top 3 or 4 buds are removed. ‘Jonkheer
MITE in North America, is common grown for its translucent berries borne van Tets’, ‘Red Lake’ and ‘Stanza’ are
and very troublesome, attacking a wide in pendant trusses. The main differ- amongst well-liked cultivars of redcur-
range of greenhouse and outdoor ence between the red- and whitecurrant which will provide some harvest
plants, including strawberries, peaches rant is the absence of cyanidin succession; ‘White Grape’ is a notable
and nectarines, cucumbers, beans, car- glycosides in the whitecurrant. Each cultivar of whitecurrant.
nations, chrysanthemums, fuchsias, is cultivated in the same manner. Possible problems: birds, capsid bug,
orchids and roses. The closely-related Cultivars of both fruits are developed sawflies; grey mould, leaf spot.
CARMINE MITE (T.cinnabarinus) is found mainly from Ribes rubrum and R.sativum,
in similar situations, but is mostly and also R.petraeum, R.vulgare and red thread (Laetisaria fuciformis) a
restricted to greenhouses in temperate R.multiflorum, all of which are native to common disease of turf, especially
countries. Both species overwinter as Europe. They are first recorded in cul- where conditions of low fertility are
adults. Other injurious species in North tivation in the late 15th century, and combined with hot weather; it is also 667
America include the PACIFIC SPIDER were introduced into North America in known as PINK PATCH. RED FESCUE
red thread
(Festuca rubra) and PERENNIAL RYE- coconuts. The glossy leaves often have of new shoots from which a new fruit-
GRASS (Lolium perenne) are most often attractive autumn tints. Hardy to ing framework can be developed.
affected. Patches of diseased grass, up –10°C/14°F. Plant in a sheltered
to 35cm (14in) in diameter, appear position. Sow seed when ripe, in mid- relative humidity the amount
pink or red due to needle-like threads summer; take semi-ripe cuttings, and of water vapour present in the air
of fungus sticking out from the leaves. root in a closed case with bottom heat. expressed as a percentage of total
Nitrogen fertilizer applications can Otherwise, cultivate as for Styrax. saturation.
control the disease. See lawns. R.macrocarpum (W China; tree to 9m
(30ft) flowers to 5cm (2in) in diameter, remontant used of plants that flower
reel mower a cylinder mower. finely downy, fragrant, appearing and/or fruit more than once in a grow-
before leaves). ing season.
Rehmannia (for Joseph Rehmann rendzina a very shallow, humus-rich

(1799–1831), German physician active soil overlying chalk or limestone.
in St. Petersburg). Gesneriaceae.
China. 9 species, hairy perennial herbs renewal pruning a basic system of
with 2-lipped, tubular flowers in termi- pruning apples and pears, carried out
nal racemes in spring and summer. in order to ensure a successional supply
Suitable for permanent outdoor culti- of one-year-old (growth), two-year-old
vation, in the lightly shaded herba- (bud) and three-year-old (fruiting)
ceous border only where frosts are shoots, thereby restraining the ten-
short-lived. In cooler zones they are dency of most cultivars to produce too
best treated as half-hardy, overwintered much fruit bud. On established trees,
in frost-free conditions. Alternatively, about one third of the number of one-
grow all year in the alpine house in year-old laterals is left uncut, and the
an open, humus-rich loam. Propagate remainder cut back to stubs or com-
from seed, root cuttings or cuttings pletely removed. Budding and fruiting
Reflexed petals of basal shoots. laterals are either left uncut, cut back
The narrow, swept-back petals of R.elata (to 1.5m (5ft), usually smaller; to stubs or removed completely,
Dodecatheon meadia f. album have leaves lobed, sometimes toothed; flow- according to the balance of growth
given it its common name of shooting stars. ers 7–10cm (23/4–4in), bright rose- desired. Leaders are pruned lightly or
purple, throat yellow, spotted red); heavily, depending on general vigour,
reflexed abruptly deflexed at more R.glutinosa (to 30cm (12in), with sticky and always with a view to providing
than a 90° angle. purple hairs; leaves obovate, coarsely major replacement shoots. See pruning.
toothed; flowers to 7.5cm (3in), red-
regular see actinomorphic. brown to yellow, striped purple, lobes reniform kidney-shaped in outline.
R regulated pruning a system of

pruning involving thinning out and
pale yellow).
Reinwardtia (for K.G.K. Reinwardt

repand sinuate, with less pronounced
undulations.
spacing branches and removing weak (1773–1822), director of the Botanic
growth, mostly with a saw, without Garden, Leiden). Linaceae. N India, repellents materials intended to
attention being given to leaders, later- China. 2 species. R.indica, YELLOW deter animals from attacking plants,
als or spurs. It is applied primarily to FLAX, a glabrous, evergreen shrub or while not killing or injuring them.
large vigorous apple trees, and some- subshrub, to 90cm (36in). Produced in Mechanical methods, especially those
times referred to as saw pruning. late spring and summer, the flowers are intended to repel birds, include devices
bright yellow, 2.5–5cm (1–2in) in diam- such as scarecrows, distress-call record-
Rehderodendron (for Alfred eter, broadly funnel-shaped to bowl- ings, mimic birds of prey, and explo-
Rehder (1863–1949), German botanist, shaped and consist of five, rounded sives. Chemical repellents have limited
dendrologist and gardener, and Greek petals. Grow in full sun or bright fil- use in the garden, except against birds
dendron, tree). Styracaceae. S and W tered light; water plentifully and feed and mammal pests. Lawn seed may be
China. 9 species, deciduous shrubs or fortnightly when in full growth. Provide dressed to deter seed-eating birds and
trees with serrulate leaves and white, a minimum winter temperature of several proprietary substances are
5-petalled flowers in axillary leafless 7–10°C/45–50°F. Cut back after available to repel deer, rabbits, dogs
panicles or racemes in spring. The flowering. Propagate by seed or by and cats, although most remain effec-
fruit is a woody capsule. R.macrocarpum softwood cuttings. tive only for relatively short periods.
is a beautiful small tree, valued for its
lemon-scented flowers in mid- to late rejuvenation pruning the heading replant disease a reduction in
668 spring; these are followed by bright red back of non-productive branches on growth or yield, often with associated
fruits, which resemble miniature old fruit trees, which results in a mass root lesions, seen when plants of the
Rhamnus
same species are replanted on the same species or cultivars may be resistant to
site. In many cases, replant disease is disease infection by reason of having
associated with pathogenic soil fungi, thicker surface leaf cells, which prevent
for example Pythium sylvaticum in spe- ready penetration of a fungus, or as a
cific apple replant disease (SARD). It result of gum barriers or antibodies
is also known as soil sickness. Roses formed after infection. Certain tomato
are commonly affected and where it is cultivars may be resistant to attack by
required to replant on the same site it root eelworm. These are important fac-
is advisable to change the soil wherever tors in reducing reliance on pesticides
practicable; the removed soil may be in the garden. Another context is
used safely for non-rosaceous plants. where pests and diseases may become
resistant to a particular chemical
Reseda (from Latin resedo, to heal or control treatment; this points to the
calm: the Romans applied the plant to importance of using alternative
external bruises). Resedaceae. Mediter- substances from time to time.
ranean, E Africa, SW Asia to NW See immunity, insecticides.
India. MIGNONETTE. 55 species, herbs, Reverted shoots
producing erect racemes crowded with respiration the breakdown of Variegated-leaved plants such as Euonymus
small, often fragrant flowers in summer; organic molecules in plant cells, during fortunei ‘Emerald Gaiety’ occasionally produce
the flowers are composed of four to which process energy is released and green shoots, which should be cut out.
eight, entire to cut petals and many sta- carbon dioxide produced. It takes place
mens. R.odorata is valued for its intense, following the absorption of oxygen by reversion used of (1) alteration in a
spicy fragrance. It is grown in the a plant cell. Respiration can proceed plant’s growth back to a less desirable
annual and cut-flower border (the flow- independent of light intensity. Diffu- form, as indicated by changes in colour
ers are remarkably long lived, persisting sion of the gases involved occurs or other characteristics. It is commonly
for many weeks in water in cool condi- through stomata and lenticels. encountered in variegated clones where
tions) and as a pot plant for the cool leaves or part of the plant are found to
greenhouse or conservatory in winter. resting period a period when a be wholly green or yellow, representing
Sow seed in situ in spring, or in autumn plant makes little or no growth, usually the nature of the plant from which the
where temperatures do not fall much in response to environmental condi- variegation is a sport or mutant. Such
below –10°C/14°F; alternatively, sow tions of temperature, light or moisture. reverted shoots should be cut out.
in cellular trays and introduce young See dormancy, quiescence. Suckering, seeding and virus infection
plants as plugs. For winter/early spring sometimes produce forms that are mis-
blooms under glass, make successional resupinate, resupine a leaf or taken for reverted forms, while circum-
sowings at monthly intervals from late flower inverted by a twisting of 180° stances of breeding occasionally result
summer; sow several seeds in small pots, of the petiole or stalk. in the expression of normally recessive
germinate at about 13°C/55°F and thin
to the strongest, potting on into a
medium fertility, loam-based medium.
retaining wall a supporting
wall between different levels of
characteristics, which may be misinter-
preted as true genetic reversion to an
ancestral species; (2) a disease of black-
R
Pinch to encourage bushy plants. Grow a terraced slope. currants, affecting the size and shape of
in full light and maintain good ventila- the leaves and causing a reduction in
tion with a temperature range between retarding the process of artificially the number of flowers and therefore
7–13°C/45–55°F; high temperatures delaying growth and/or flowering in crop yield. It is caused by an unknown,
will prevent flowering. R.odorata plants. The retarding method most graft-transmissible agent, which may
(MIGNONETTE, SWEET RESEDA, BASTARD commonly used is that of storing at be a mycoplasma-like organism, proba-
ROCKET; Mediterranean; annual, erect low temperature, as may be practised bly transmitted by the BLACKCURRANT
to ascending, to 80cm (32in); flowers with lifted stock of lily-of-the-valley, GALL MITE (Cecidophyopsis ribis).
white, sometimes tinged green or yellow daffodils and flowering shrubs. It can
or buff, intensely fragrant). also be achieved by mechanical means revolute with margins rolled under,
(e.g. deblossoming strawberries in order i.e. toward the dorsal surface.
reserve border see nursery bed. to encourage a later flush).
reworking changing the scion culti-
residual used of herbicides that persist reticulate netted, i.e. with a close or var of a fruit tree by grafting onto
in soil for some time after application open network of anastomosing veins, existing branches. See frame-working,
and continue to kill germinating weeds. ribs or colouring. grafting, top working.
resistance the ability of one organ- retrorse turned, curved or bent Rhamnus from the Greek name
ism to ward off the harmful effects of downwards or backwards, away from for the genus, Rhamnos). Rhamnaceae. 669
another; for example, some plant the apex; cf. introrse. Widely distributed in northern
Rhammus
temperate areas, with a few species in five obovate petals and numerous MINIATURE FAN PALM, FERN RHAPIS;
E and South Africa and Brazil. BUCK- stamens. They are followed by small, probably originally from China but
THORN. 150 species, deciduous or ever- subglobose pomes, often black or introduced from Japan; stem to 5m
green trees or shrubs. Produced in purple-black. Hardy to –15°C/5°F. (16ft); leaf segments 3–10, 20–30cm
summer, the small, yellow-green flow- Grow in a warm sheltered position in (8–12in) x 1.5cm (5/8in), tips truncate;
ers are followed by small berries, red full sun. Prune if necessary, after flow- includes ‘Variegata’, with leaves striped
at first and ripening black. Fully hardy, ering. Propagate by semi-ripe cuttings, ivory to white; many other variegated
the following will thrive on most fertile layering, or seed. forms are cultivated and highly prized,
soils in full sun, but benefit from some R. x delacourii (R.indica x R.umbellata; particularly in Japan); R.humilis (REED
protection from harsh winds. Prune garden origin; to 2m (61/2ft); flowers RHAPIS, SLENDER LADY PALM; S China;
in late winter/early spring only to to 1.8cm (3/4in) in diameter, rose-pink; differs from R.excelsa in leaf segments
remove dead and overcrowded wood. includes ‘Coates’ Crimson’, with crim- numbering at least 9, and 15–18cm
Propagate by seed, stratified for son flowers, ‘Enchantress’, dwarf, with (6–7in) x to 2cm (3/4in), with more
60–90 days at 5°C/41°F and sown small, rose flowers in late winter-early acuminate tips).
in spring, by semi-ripe cuttings or summer, and ‘Majestic Beauty’, with
by simple layering. large, dark green leaves and milky pink, rheophyte a plant that grows in
R.alaternus (S Portugal to N Africa scented flowers, in clusters to 25cm running water.
and SE Russia; evergreen shrub, 1–5m (10in) across); R.indica (S China; to 1m
(31/4–16ft); leaves 3–7cm (11/4–23/4in), (31/4ft); flowers to 1.6cm (5/8in) in diam- Rheum (from Greek rheon, rhubarb).
ovate to elliptic, coriaceous, more or eter, white tinted pale pink toward Polygonaceae. Asia. RHUBARB. 50
less serrate, glabrous; ‘Argenteovarie- centre, stamens bright red-pink; culti- species, deciduous perennial herbs with
gata’: leaves elliptic to oblong-lanceo- vars include ‘Charisma’, small tightly tough or woody rhizomes. Produced in
late with broad creamy-white margins branched, with double, soft pink, abun- basal clumps, the leaves are large and
on leaden green); R.imeretina (E Turkey, dant flowers in late winter-spring, sinuately toothed to palmately lobed,
Georgia, Armenia; deciduous shrub, ‘Indian Princess’, broadly mounding, their stalks often thick and differently
2–4m (61/2–13ft); leaves 8–25cm compact, with bright pink flowers coloured to the leaf blades. Small flow-
(3–10in), elliptic to broadly lanceolate, fading to white, in broad clusters, in ers are massed amid large bracts on
finely toothed, glabrous and dull green spring, ‘Rosea’, with deep pink flowers, tall panicles in late spring and early
above, pale, velvety beneath, bronze- ‘Snow White’, with white flowers in summer. Impressive specimens for
purple in autumn). early spring, and ‘Springtime’, com- focal plantings in moist borders, at the
pact, vigorous, with new growth woodland edge, bog gardens and the
Rhaphidophora (from Greek raphis, flushed pink-brown and broad, candy margins of pools and streams. Hardy
needle, and phora, to bear; the cells con- pink flowers); R.umbellata (Japan, Korea; to about –15°C/5°F. Grow in sun to
tain raphides.) (Sometimes spelt Raphi- flowers fragrant to 2cm (3/4in) in diame- part shade in humus-rich, moisture-
dophora). Araceae. SE Asia. 70 species, ter, white, stamens bright pink-red; retentive soils. Propagate by division in
evergreen climbers or creepers interme- ‘Minor’: dwarf, small, white, scented spring, cutting through the tough fleshy
R diate in appearance between the smaller

Monstera species and Philodendron. Culti-
vate as for the climbing Philodendron
flowers, in early spring).
Rhapis (from Greek rhaphis, needle,

rootstock with a sharp knife or spade.
Alternatively, sow seed in autumn in
the shaded cold frame. R. x hybridum,
species and cultivars. R.celatocaulis probably referring to the narrow leaf RHUBARB (q.v.) is cultivated for its
(syn. Pothos celatocaulis; SHINGLE PLANT; segments). Palmae. China, Japan. LADY edible leafstalks.
Borneo; tall climber; leaves of juvenile PALM. 12 species, small to medium- R.alexandrae (W China, Tibet; to
plants 8.5–10cm (31/3–4in), in 2 ranks, sized palms. Ultimately, they make a 1.5m (5ft); leaves to 22 x 13cm (9 x 5in),
closely adpressed to substrate, overlap- clump of slender, cane-like stems, ovate to oblong, base cordate, entire,
ping and obscuring stem, entire, elliptic clothed in their upper portions with the dark green in neat rosettes, glabrous,
to ovate, coriaceous, blue-green; adult remains of fibrous leaf sheaths. The petiole slender; inflorescence bracts,
leaves to 40cm (16in), entire, pinnatifid leaves are palmate, dark green and yellow-green, subcordate, flowers
or pinnatisect, occasionally perforate). slender-stalked, the leaflets, finger-like, green-yellow); R.nobile (SIKKIM
ribbed and folded. Suitable for pot and RHUBARB; Nepal to SE Tibet; to 2m
Rhaphiolepis (from Greek rhaphis, tub cultivation in the home, green- (61/2ft); leaves to 30cm (12in) in diame-
needle and lepis, scale, referring to the house or conservatory (minimum ter, rounded, base cuneate to rounded,
extremely narrow persistent bracteoles temperature 10°C/50°F). Plant in a glossy, leathery, dark green veined red,
on the inflorescence). Rosaceae. Sub- fast-draining, loamy medium, rich in entire, edged red, petiole stout, red;
tropical E Asia. Some 15 species, ever- leafmould. Water, syringe and feed inflorescence bracts cream; flowers
green shrubs or small trees with tough, generously in warm conditions. Shade green); R.palmatum (NW China; to 1.5m
glossy dark green leaves. Produced from direct sunlight. Propagate by (5ft); leaves 50–90cm (20–36in) x
mostly in spring and summer in termi- seed, suckers or division. 50–70cm (20–28in), more or less
670 nal racemes or panicles, the flowers R.excelsa (syn. R.flabelliformis; GROUND rounded, palmately lobed, toothed;
resemble apple blossom and consist of RATTAN, BAMBOO PALM, LADY PALM, inflorescence bracts tinted pink to
Rhododendron
bronze-red, flowers brick red to deep epiphytes), and producing roots, stems, Rhodiola (from Greek rhodon, rose,
red; includes various forms with leaves leaves and inflorescences along its referring to the rose-scented roots of
deeply and sharply to broadly cut, length and at its apex. Rhizomes are the type species). Crassulaceae.
many flushed bronze-red at first, later common to many perennial herbs. Himalaya, NW China, C Asia, N
coppery olive; two popular forms are America, Europe. Around 50 species,
‘Atrosanguineum’, the whole of which rhizomorph a root-like aggregation perennial herbs with thick, fleshy and
is suffused blood-red, later bronze-red, of fungal threads, or hyphae, often scaly rhizomes. The flowering stems
and rubrum, with leaves flushed dark referred to as a ‘bootlace’ or ‘shoe- arise annually bearing fleshy leaves.
maroon-red when young). string’, of Armillaria species, by means Produced in late spring and summer
of which the fungus survives and in terminal heads, the small flowers
Rhipsalis (from Greek rhips, wicker- spreads. See armillaria root rot. consist of four or five petals and twice
work, and -alis, alluding to the very as many rather longer stamens. The
slender stems). Cactaceae. Tropical rhizosphere the zone of soil following species is very hardy and
America, with one species extending immediately surrounding plant roots. favours a fast-draining position in full
to tropical Africa, Madagascar and Sri sun. It grows well on the rock garden
Lanka. Up to 50 species, epiphytic or Rhodanthe (from Greek rhodon, rose, and in wall crevices. Propagation as for
lithophytic cacti. The stems are cylin- and anthos, flower, in reference to Sedum. R.rosea (syn. Sedum rosea; ROSE-
dric, ribbed, angled, winged or flat. the plumose pappus). Compositae. ROOT; northern Hemisphere; 5–30cm
They are usually pendulous and seg- Australia, South Africa. EVERLASTING, (2–12in); leaves 1–4cm (1/2–11/2in),
mented, lacking spines and with the STRAWFLOWER. About 50 species, glaucous, grey-green, oblong, apex
younger segments arising singly or in annual or perennial herbs or shrubs, obtuse to acuminate, entire or toothed,
whorls. The flowers are small, rotate more or less covered in white hairs. often tinged red, base round or slightly
and usually white; they are followed by Papery, daisy-like flowerheads appear cordate; flowers green-yellow, anthers
berry-like fruit. Grow in an intermedi- in summer and dry well. Cultivate as deep yellow to copper).
ate greenhouse (minimum temperature for Helichrysum bracteatum. R.splendidum
10°C/50°F). Plant in an acid medium (SHOWY SUNRAY, SPLENDID EVERLAST- Rhodochiton (from Greek rhodon,
rich in coarse bark and perlite. Shade ING, SILKY-WHITE EVERLASTING; West rose, and chiton, cloak, referring to the
in summer. Maintain high humidity. Australia; tufted annual to 50cm (20in); large, rosy calyx). Scrophulariaceae.
Reduce watering in winter. Increase leaves linear, grey-green; flowerheads Mexico. Some 3 species, perennial,
by stem cuttings. to 6cm (21/2in) in diameter, phyllaries climbing herbs with pendulous solitary
R.baccifera (tropical America, Africa, cream-white, often with a flowers in summer; these have a deco-
Madagascar, Ceylon; stems cylindric, purple band). rative parasol-like calyx and a tubular
pendent, 1–4m (31/4–13ft), 4–6mm corolla with five, blunt lobes. In zones
(1/8–1/4in) in diameter; fruit white or Rhodanthemum (from Greek, 7 and under, it may be grown outdoors
pink); R.gracilis (E Brazil; stems 10–30cm rhodo-, red and anthemon, flower). as an annual (sometimes surviving as a
(4–12in) long, 1–3mm (1/16–1/8in) in Compositae. N Africa. 5 species. Semi- herbaceous perennial in favoured situa-
diameter; fruit white to deep red).
rhizoid a structure resembling a root

hardy perennial, evergreen subshrubs
or tufted, woody-based herbs, usually
with silver, finely divided leaves and
tions) or treated as a perennial in cool
greenhouses or conservatories. Grow
in a sunny, sheltered spot, on rich,
R
in appearance and function, as found long-stalked daisy-like flowerheads in well-drained soil. Provide support while
in Selaginella. summer. Hardy in climate zone 7, if plants are still very young. Under glass,
planted in a sheltered, warm site and water plentifully during the growing
new shoot protected from winter wet; grow in full season, sparingly in winter, and give a
growth sun on a free-draining, gritty soil. Prop- minimum temperature of 5°C/41°F;
agate by semi-ripe cuttings in summer. ventilate freely and shade from direct
fleshy storage R.hosmariense (syn. Chrysanthemopsis summer sun. Cut back and re-pot in
tissue hosmariensis, Chrysanthemum hosmariense, spring. Sow seed under glass in early
Leucanthemopsis hosmariensis; Morocco; spring or as soon as ripe. R.atrosan-
low subshrub to 30 x 50cm (12 x 20in); guineum (to 6m (20ft), slender-stemmed;
leaves finely-divided, silver-grey, flower- calyx to 3cm (11/4in) in diameter,
heads to 4cm (11/2in), ray florets white 5-lobed, shallowly-campanulate, rose-
and disc florets yellow); R.maresii pink or mauve, corolla dark blood-red
(syn. Chrysanthemopsis maresii; to maroon-black, to 6.5cm (21/2in),
Rhizome (Zingiber) Algeria; woody-based, bushy minutely hairy, anthers ash-white).
herb or subshrub to 30cm
rhizome a special- (12in) tall, with silver-grey, finely Rhododendron (the Ancient Greek
ized stem, slender or swollen, branch- dissected or simple leaves and yellow name for the unrelated rose-flowered
ing or simple, subterranean or lying flowerheads ultimately tinged purple oleander, Nerium oleander, from rhodon, 671
close to the soil surface (except in to purple-black). rose and dendron, tree). Ericaceae.
Rhododendron
Africa. 6 species, small perennial herbs range of soil conditions, shade, and
with fibrous and fleshy roots and hairy, temperatures as low as –20°C/–4°F.
grass-like leaves in a basal clump. For best results, grow in dappled shade
Produced in spring and summer on on a well-drained, moisture-retentive
slender stalks, the solitary flowers con- soil. Thin out old flowered shoots
sist of a short tube and six, spreading, to ground level. Propagate by seed
oblong to obovate lobes. Plant in peaty sown in autumn, or by softwood or
pockets in the rock garden, or in sinks semi-ripe cuttings in a closed case
and troughs. Although hardy to at least with bottom heat.
–5°C/23°F, Rhodohypoxis is intolerant of
winter wet. When grown outside, pro- Rhoicissus (from Greek rhoia,
tect in winter with a propped pane of pomegranate, and Cissus). Vitaceae.
glass. Otherwise, keep in the alpine Tropical and southern Africa. 12
Rhododendron ‘Inga’ house or bulb frame. Grow in sun in a species, more or less woody vines
This Indian azalea belongs to the evergreen free-draining, acid to neutral medium, climbing by tendrils. The leaves are
rhododendron hybrids, which can be grown with additional sharp sand and leaf- simple or 3-foliolate, rarely digitately
in containers under protection, and make mould; water plentifully when in 5-foliolate. Inconspicuous flowers are
excellent house plants. growth, avoiding the foliage; keep produced in axillary cymes and fol-
almost completely dry in winter. lowed by small, grape-like fruit. The
Cosmopolitan. Some 800 species, trees Propagate by offsets, by division of following species is a useful house or
and shrubs, evergreen or deciduous with established clumps, or by seed. R.baurii conservatory plant, grown for its attrac-
simple leaves. Produced in racemes in (RED STAR; leaves to 15cm (6in), usually tive, leathery foliage. Cultivate as for
spring and summer, the flowers are shorter, flowers 1–2, white, pink or red, the more resilient Cissus species, with
tubular, funnel-shaped or campanulate to 4cm (11/2in) diam., lobes hairy). a minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F.
with 5, more or less spreading lobes. R.capensis (syn. Cissus capensis, Vitis
Species listed are hardy in climate Rhodothamnus (from Greek rhodon, capensis; South Africa; tuberous-rooted
zones 6 or 7, but prefer a mild and shel- rose, and thamnos, a shrub). Ericaceae. evergreen vine; leaves simple, orbicular
tered site. Plant in dappled sun or light E Alps. 1 species, R.chamaecistus, an to reniform, broadly cordate at base,
shade on a fertile, humus-rich and acid evergreen, dwarf shrub to 40cm (16in). obtuse at apex, bluntly 5-angled,
to neutral soil. Ensure that the root-run The leaves are 0.5–1.5cm (1/4–5/8in) toothed, 8–20cm (3–8in) across, leath-
is cool and moist, especially in summer. long, elliptic to oblanceolate, leathery ery, rusty-tomentose when young; fruit
Prune only to keep within bounds and dark green. Produced in late very dark red tinged black, glossy).
(after flowering), or to remove dead spring and summer, the flowers are
or exhausted growth (in early spring). 2–3cm (3/4–11/4in) in diameter, rose rhomboid of leaves and tepals,
Increase by layering, grafting, or semi- pink, with five spreading lobes and diamond-shaped, angularly oval, the
ripe cuttings in a case in late summer. slender stamens tipped with purple-red base and apex forming acute angles,
R Affected by powdery mildew, honey

fungus, phytophthora root rot, rusts and
chlorosis (caused by poor drainage and
anthers. For the rock or peat garden;
hardy to –15°C/5°F. Plant in sun or
part shade in moist, humus-rich, acid
and both sides forming obtuse angles.
Rhombophyllum (from Greek

unsuitable soil pH). Attacked by rodents, soils with a cool root run. Propagate rhombos, lozenge, and phyllon, leaf,
weevils and leatherjackets. from seed, by careful layering, or by referring to the leaf shape). Aizoaceae.
Several of the small, evergreen semi-ripe cuttings in late summer. South Africa (Cape Province). 3
hybrids and cultivars popularly known species, compact succulent perennials,
as azaleas grow well in containers in Rhodotypos (from Greek rhodon, sometimes small shrubs. The leaves
the cool greenhouse. They can be rose, and typos, type, referring to its are more or less united at the base and
brought indoors at flowering time. resemblance to a rose). Rosaceae. semicylindric, keeled below, with the
In addition to the species listed oppo- China, Japan. 1 species, R.scandens, underside pulled forward and chin-like.
site, hundreds of hybrids and cultivars a spreading, deciduous shrub to 5m Their margins are entire or with 1–2
have been named. Varying greatly in (16ft). To 6cm (21/2in) long, the leaves short teeth. The surface is smooth,
size and shape, the flowers range in are ovate, acuminate, sharply serrate more or less glossy and deep green
colour from pure white to cream, with corrugated veins. Produced in with pale translucent dots. Golden-
yellow, gold, apricot, salmon, rose, spring and summer, the flowers are yellow, daisy-like flowers are produced
deep pink, cerise, crimson, magenta, solitary, white, to 4cm (11/2in) in diame- a few per stalk from summer to
mauve, lilac, scarlet, orange and coral ter and composed of four, spreading, autumn. Cultivate as for Pleiospilos.
red, often spotted, stained or suffused a rounded petals and numerous stamens. R.rhomboideum (leaves 4–5 pairs
different colour. (See table facing page.) They are followed by shiny black resting on soil, 2.5–5cm (1–2in) x
berries. Suitable for the border and 1–2cm (1/2–3/4in), rhombic above,
672 Rhodohypoxis (from Greek rhodon, for woodland garden or other informal dark grey-green with white dots
rose, and Hypoxis). Hypoxidaceae. SE plantings. It will tolerate a wide and pale margins).
Rhododendron
R HODODENDRON
R.aberconwayi SW China evergreen, to 2m (61⁄2ft) 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), thick, elliptic 2.8–3.5cm (1–11⁄2in), open-campanulate,
white to pale rose with purple spots
Comments: ‘His Lordship’: flowers white with crimson streaks.
R.albrechtii Japan deciduous, to 2m (61⁄2ft) 4–12cm (11⁄2–43⁄4in), obovate, to 5cm (2in), open-campanulate,
ciliate, finely toothed, densely red-purple
Comments: ‘Michael McLaren’: flowers purple, spotted with grey-tomentose beneath
yellow-green.
R.arboreum Himalaya, evergreen tree to 50m 6.5–19cm (21⁄2–71⁄2in), broadly 3–5cm (11⁄4–2in), tubular-campanulate,
China to (165ft) oblong-lanceolate, glabrous and fleshy, pink to deep crimson or rarely
Thailand, S wrinkled above, densely hairy white, often with dark spots
India and Sri beneath
Lanka
Comments: ssp. arboreum: leaves 8–19cm (3–71⁄2in), with silvery or dark green above with bright orange-brown hairs beneath. var. roseum:
white hairs beneath. ‘Goat Fell’: flowers cherry red with some spots in similar to var. cinnamoneum, but leaves with a 1-layered, fawn to off-
throat. ‘Rubaiyat’: flowers red with darker spots. ssp. cinnamomeum var. white compacted indumentum, flowers tinged red. ‘Tony Schilling’:
cinnamoneum: leaves with off-white or fawn hairs beneath; flowers pink flowers deep pink with darker spots. ssp. delavayi; leaves 7–15.5cm
to red, rarely white. ‘Sir Charles Lemon’: flowers creamy white; leaves (23⁄4–6in), off-white to fawn – hairy beneath; flowers red.
R.argyrophyllum SW China evergreen, spreading, l.8–6cm (3⁄4–21⁄2in), elliptic to 3–5.5cm (11⁄4–21⁄8in), funnelform-
to 12m (39ft) oblanceolate, glabrous above, with campanulate or open-campanulate, white
thin, silvery to fawn hairs beneath. to pale pink with purple spots
Comments: subsp. hypoglaucum ‘Heane Wood’: flowers white, flushed and spotted with purple, opening from pink buds
R.augustinii China evergreen, bushy shrub narrowly elliptic to elliptic, 2.8–4cm (1–11⁄2in), openly funnel-shaped,
or small tree to 10m (33ft) usually evergreen, 4–11cm purple, lavender or almost blue, rarely
(11⁄2–41⁄2in), glabrous above, white, with greenish or brownish spots
golden scaly beneath inside
Comments: Electra Group: flowers large, deep blue. ‘Tower Court Form’: flowers large, lavender-blue, veined red. ssp. augustinii: leaves mostly
evergreen; flowers lavender to blue. ssp. chasmanthum: leaves mostly evergreen; flowers lavender to blue. Exbury form: flowers blue-purple with
some yellow spots.
R.auriculatum W China evergreen shrub or tree 15–30cm (6–12in), oblong- 8–11cm (3–41⁄2in), fragrant, funnel-
to 6m (20ft) oblanceolate, base auriculate,
margin fringed with small glands,
villous and glandular beneath
shaped, white or cream to pink, tinged
green at the base
R
R.barbatum Himalaya evergreen shrub or tree 9–19cm (31⁄2–71⁄2in), elliptic to 3–3.5cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in), fleshy, tubular-
to 6m (20ft) obovate, glabrous above, with campanulate, crimson to blood-red or,
scattered hairs and glands beneath rarely, pure white
R.calendulaceum SE US much-branched, 3.5–9cm (11⁄2–31⁄2in), elliptic to to 5cm (2in), funnel-shaped, exterior

FLAME AZALEA deciduous shrub broadly elliptic or ovate-oblong, pubescent, orange, red or yellow, more
to 3m (10ft) finely pubescent above, more rarely pink
densely so beneath
R.arboreum R.argyrophyllum R.augustinii R.calendulaceum 673

Rhododendron
R HODODENDRON
R.calophytum SW China evergreen tree to 14–30cm (51⁄2–12in), oblong- 4–6cm (11⁄2–21⁄2in), open-campanulate,
12m (39ft) oblanceolate, glabrous glabrous, pink-white with purple spots
when mature and a basal blotch
R.calostrotum NE India, evergreen, low to l–3.3cm (1⁄2–11⁄3in), oblong-ovate l.8–2.8cm (3⁄4–11⁄8in), magenta, rarely
N Burma, prostrate, matted or to almost circular, upper surface pink or purple, often with darker spots
W China erect shrub, 5–150cm usually matt with persistent, on the upper lobes, exterior hairy and
(2–60in) dried-out scales, margins bristly, occasionally scaly
lower surface with dense
overlapping scales
Comments: ‘Gigha’: compact, very free-flowering flowers, large, rosy-crimson. Rock’s form: flowers large, blue-purple; foliage purple-tinged.
Calciphilum Group: leaves smaller, flowers pink. Nitens Group: pink-purple flowers in June-July, later than other cultivars.
R.catawbiense E US evergreen shrub 6.5–11.5cm (21⁄2–41⁄2in), broadly 3–4.5cm (11⁄4–13⁄4in), funnelform to

to 3m (10ft) elliptic to obovate, glabrous campanulate, usually lilac-purple with
when mature faint spots
Comments: ‘Catawbiense Album’: flowers large, white, opening from lilac buds. ‘English Roseum’: flowers bright pink, faintly tinged with lilac.
‘Lavender Queen’: flowers pale lavender. ‘Lee’s Dark Purple’: flowers deep purple. ‘Powell Glass’: flowers pure white. ‘Roseum Elegans’: flowers
purple-pink. Some of the above forms, heat-resistant and widely grown in the United States, may be hybrids.
R.cinnabarinum Himalaya to evergreen straggling 3–9cm (11⁄4–31⁄2in), broadly to 2.5–3.5cm (1–11⁄2in), tubula to
N Burma shrub to 7m (23ft) narrowly elliptic, scaly or scaleless campanulate, yellow, orange, red, red
above, with fleshy scales beneath and yellow or purple, usually with a
often tinged red or purple waxy bloom
Comments: ‘Aestivale’: a late-flowering form (July in Great Britain) glaucous-white beneath, blue-green above. ‘Copper’: flowers coral-red
with narrow leaves. ‘Nepal’: flowers red at base, yellow towards margin. flushed with orange and red. Purpurellum Group: flowers pale
Blandfordiiflorum Group: flowers narrowly tubular, red on outside, pink-purple, broadly funnel-shaped. R.cinnabarinum has been widely
yellow, apricot or green inside; late-flowering, hardy. Roylei Group: used in hybridization; some of the hybrids, previously thought to be
flowers rose-red to purple-red, relatively open; leaves glaucous blue- interspecific, are now within the species, e.g. ‘Conroy’ (R.cinnabarinum
green. ‘Magnificum’: flowers large, red-purple tinged with orange. ssp. cinnabarinum ‘Roylei’ x ssp. xanthocodon); others involve other species,
‘Vin Rosé’: flowers red with a waxy bloom. ssp. xanthocodon: flowers e.g. Cinnkeys Group (x R.keysii); Royal Flush Group and ‘Rose
campanulate, yellow, orange, orange with a purple flush or purple. Mangles’ (both x R.maddenii ssp. maddenii) and ‘Yunncinn’
Concatenans Group: flowers campanulate, apricot to coral; leaves (x R.yunnanense).
R.dauricum E Siberia, straggling, semi-evergreen leathery, densely scaly beneath, 1.4–2cm (1⁄2–3⁄4in), pink or violet-pink
R Mongolia, N
China, Japan
shrub to 1.5m (5ft) 1–3.5cm (1⁄2–11⁄2in), elliptic.
Comments: ‘Arctic Pearl’: flowers white. ‘Hokkaido’: flowers large, rusty brown beneath, most overwintering. R.ledebourii – leaves pale
white, later-flowering. ‘Midwinter’: flowers bright rose-purple. above and beneath, mostly falling in autumn, with a few scales on the
Sometimes split into 3 species: R.dauricum – leaves dark green above, upper surface; R.sichotense – leaves without scales on the upper surface.
R.davidsonianum W China evergreen shrub 3–6.5cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), often V- 2.3–2.7cm (1in), pink, pink-lavender
to 5m (16ft) shaped in section, lower surface or lavender
Comments: ‘Caerhays Blotched’: flowers pale pink with covered in small brown scales
darker spots.
674 R.calophytum R.cinnabarinum subsp. xanthocodon R.decorum

Rhododendron
R HODODENDRON
R.decorum W China, evergreen shrub or 6–20cm (21⁄2–8in), oblanceolate 4.5–11cm (13⁄4–41⁄2in), funnelform-
NE Burma, small tree to 6m (20ft). to elliptic, glabrous when mature campanulate, sparsely glandular outside,
Laos with punctate hair bases beneath densely so within, white to pale pink,
with or without green or crimson spots
Comments: ssp. decorum: flowers 4–6.5cm (11⁄2–21⁄2in), and leaves to 12cm (43⁄4in). ‘Cox’s Uranium Green’: flowers chartreuse green. ssp. diaprepes:
leaves and flowers larger. ‘Gargantua’: flowers very large, white, flushed green below.
R.degronianum Japan evergreen shrub 8–14cm (3–51⁄2in), elliptic to 3–4.5cm (11⁄4–13⁄4in), widely funnelform-
to 2.5m (8ft) oblanceolate, with dense grey campanulate, pink with conspicuous
to fawn hairs beneath darker spots
Comments: ‘Gerald Loder’: flowers white, spotted and flushed with red-purple. ssp. yakushimanum see R.yakushimanum.
R.fortunei China evergreen shrub or tree 8–18cm (3–7in), broadly 5.5–7cm (21⁄8–23⁄4in), open-campanulate
to 10m (33ft) oblanceolate to obovate, or funnelform-campanulate, pale pink to
glabrous when mature except for almost pure white, exterior glandular or
persistent hair-bases beneath glabrous
Comments: ‘John R. Elcock’: flowers purple-pink, yellow in throat. ‘Sir Charles Butler’: flowers pink. ssp. discolor: syn. R.discolor; leaves
oblanceolate; flowers fragrant, pink, funnelform.
R.fulvum W China, evergreen shrub or 8–22cm (3–9in), oblanceolate to 2.5–4.5cm (1–13⁄4in), campanulate, white
NE Burma small tree to 8m (26ft) elliptic, glabrous above when to pink usually with a dark basal blotch,
mature, velvety brown-hairy with or without crimson spots
beneath, appearing granular
R.glaucophyllum Himalaya, shrub to 1.5m (5ft) 3.5–6cm (11⁄2–21⁄2in), elliptic, 1.8–3.2cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in), tubular to
W China upper surface dark brown-green, campanulate, pink or white flushed
lower surface white, with pale with pink, scaly outside
and dark scales
Comments: Plants grown under the name R.shweliense are usually this species. ‘Branklyn’: flowers pale pink, bell-shaped. ‘Prostratum’: low-growing.
R.glischrum W China, shrub or small tree to 11–30cm (41⁄2–12in), obovate to 3–5cm (11⁄4–2in), campanulate, pink
NE Burma 8m (26ft) elliptic, ciliate, upper surface to scarlet or occasionally white
smooth to wrinkled, with some flushed pink, with purple spots and
Comments: ‘Frank Kingdon Ward’: flowers purple-pink,

spotted purple.
glandular bristles, lower surface
with a dense covering of bristles
sometimes also with a thin
brown covering of hairs
usually also a basal blotch
R
R.hippophaeoides W China erect, evergreen openly 5–12mm (1⁄4–1⁄2in), narrowly broadly funnel-shaped, pale lavender to
branched shrub to elliptic, oblong or narrowly deep purple, rarely white
1.2m (4ft) obovate, aromatic, grey-green
above, yellow-green or
Comments: ‘Haba-shan’ syn. ‘Bei-ma-shan’: tall, flowers grey-green with numerous
lavender blue in large trusses. scales beneath
R.fulvum R.kaempferi R.kiusianum R.lutescens 675

Rhododendron
R HODODENDRON
R.impeditum W China compact, much- 4–14mm (1⁄8–1⁄2in), aromatic, 8–15mm (3⁄8–5⁄8in), broadly funnel-shaped,
branched, evergreen lower surface pale grey-green violet to purple, rarely lavender
Comments: Parent of a number of shrub to 1m (31⁄4ft) speckled with brown or more
low, blue-flowered hybrids, e.g. Blue uniformly brown
Tit Group (x R.augustinii).
R.kaempferi Japan semi-evergreen shrub 1–5cm (1⁄2–2in), entire, strigose 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in), funnel-shaped,
to 3m (10ft) pink or red
Comments: Very similar to R.indicum, but with broader leaves. ‘Mikado’: flowers red with darker spotting in throat.
R.kiusianum Japan semi-evergreen to 0.5–2cm (1⁄4–3⁄4in), obovate, 1.5–2cm (5⁄8–3⁄4in), funnel-shaped, usually
deciduous, dwarf red-brown strigose rose-pink, occasionally purple
shrub to 1m (31⁄4ft)
Comments: The Obtusum Group of cultivars and the Kurume white. ‘Harunokikari’: flowers lavender-blue. ‘Harusame’: flowers
Azaleas had their origin in this species and its hybrids with R.kaempferi. bright pink. ‘Hillier’s Pink’: flowers pink. "Komokul-shan’: flowers pale
‘Album’: flowers white. ‘Benichidori’: flowers salmon orange. ‘Betty pink, tipped rose pink. ‘Muraski Shikibu’: flowers hose-in-hose,
Muir’: flowers bright pink. ‘Chidori’: flowers white. ‘Hanejiro’: flowers red-purple.
R.lacteum W China shrub or small tree 8–17cm (3–61⁄2in), elliptic to 4–5cm (11⁄2–2in), widely campanulate,
to 7.5m (25ft) obovate, with grey-brown pure yellow, without spots through
hairs beneath sometimes with a purple basal blotch
Comments: ‘Blackhills’: flowers clear yellow, unmarked.
R.lutescens W China semi-evergreen, straggling 5–9cm (2–31⁄2in), lanceolate to 1.8–2.5cm (3⁄4–1in), pale yellow with
shrub to 6m (20ft) oblong, bronze-red at first, green spots in the inside of the upper
variably scaly above, with lobes, funnel-shaped
golden scales beneath
Comments: Flowers in late winter and early spring. ‘Bagshot Sands’: hardy and free-flowering; flowers primrose yellow with darker spots.
‘Exbury’: flowers clear lemon yellow; new growth red, rather tender.
R.luteum E Europe to deciduous shrub to 5–10cm (2–4in), oblong to to 3.5cm (11⁄2in), funnel-shaped, yellow,
Caucasus 4m (13ft) lanceolate, sticky with fragrant, exterior glandular-sticky
adpressed bristles
R R.macabeanum NE India evergreen tree

to 15m (50ft)
14–25cm (51⁄2–10in), broadly
ovate to broadly elliptic,
to 5cm (2in), tubular-campanulate, lemon
yellow with a purple blotch at the base
glabrous above when mature,
with dense woolly hairs beneath
R.mallotum W China, evergreen shrub or small 10–13cm (4–5in), broadly 4–4.5cm (11⁄2–13⁄4in), fleshy, tubular-
NE Burma tree to 6.5m (21ft) oblanceolate to obovate, glabrous campanulate, crimson
above, with dense, red, woolly
hairs beneath
676 R.luteum R.occidentale R.orbiculare

Rhododendron
R HODODENDRON
R.maximum EN America shrub or small tree 10–16cm (4–6in), oblanceolate 2.5–3cm (1–11⁄4in), campanulate, white
to 3.5m (111⁄2ft) to elliptic, glabrous above, to pink-purple, with yellow-green spots
thinly hairy beneath
Comments: ‘Summertime’: flowers white, flushed red-purple at tips; yellow-green spots in throat.
R.moupinense W China evergreen, compact 3–4cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in), narrowly 3–4cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in), white, often flushed
shrub to 1m (31⁄4ft) ovate, elliptic or obovate, green or pink and with dark red spots on the
tinged brown beneath with rather upper part of the tube inside
dense scales, margins bristly
Comments: Cilpinense Group, hybrids between R.moupinense and R.ciliatum, are semi-evergreen, compact shrubs to 1.5m (5ft) tall with pink
flowers produced in early spring.
R.occidentale W US deciduous shrub 3–9cm (11⁄4–31⁄2in), elliptic to 3.5–5cm (11⁄2–2in), funnel-shaped, white
to 3m (10ft) oblong-lanceolate, ciliate, or sometimes pink, with a yellow blotch,
thinly pubescent glandular-hairy outside
Comments: ‘Crescent City Double’: flowers semi-double, cream with pink mid-line, upper petal with yellow flare. ‘Miniskirt’: dwarf;
flushed with apricot. ‘Humboldt Picotee’: flowers white, edged with flowers white, very small, with long red style. ‘Stagecoach Frills’:
rose carmine. ‘Leonard Frisbee’: flowers white with broad, frilly petals flowers frilly, white flushed with pink, with orange-yellow flare.
R.orbiculare W China evergreen shrub or 7–12.5cm (23⁄4–5in), orbicular 3.5–4cm (11⁄2in), campanulate, rose-pink
tree to 15m (50ft) to ovate, glabrous
R.oreotrephes W China evergreen shrub 2–8cm (3⁄4–3in), mostly evergreen, 2.5–3.4cm (1–11⁄3in), rose to
to 8m (26ft) circular to elliptic or oblong, rose-lavender
blunt, lower surface with dense
Comments: Exquisetum Group: flowers pale mauve-pink purple, red-brown or grey scales
spotted red. ‘James’s White Form’: flowers white.
R.ponticum W and E evergreen shrub to 8m 6–18cm (21⁄2–7in), oblanceolate 3.5–5cm (11⁄2–2in), campanulate,
Mediterran- (26ft), young shoots to broadly elliptic, glabrous lilac-pink to purple, usually with
ean, widely glabrous when mature green-yellow spots
naturalized
in Britain
Comments: ‘Aucubifolium’: leaves spotted yellow. ‘Cheiranthifolium’: leaves very narrow, undulate; flowers small. ‘Foliis Purpureis’: leaves
coppery-purple in winter. ‘Variegatum’: leaves bordered with cream-white.
R
R.racemosum W China evergreen shrub 5
1.5–5cm ( ⁄8–2in), broadly obovate 1–2cm (1⁄2–3⁄4in), openly funnel-shaped,
to 3m (10ft) to oblong-elliptic, glabrous above, white to pale or deep pink
shining white-papillose beneath,
with dense scales
Comments: ‘Forrest’: dwarf; flowers pink. ‘Glendoick’: taller, with deep pink flowers. ‘Rock Rose’: flowers bright purple-pink. ‘White Lace’:
flowers white.
R.racemosum R.rex subsp. fictolacteum R.sinogrande R.souliei 677

Rhododendron
R HODODENDRON
R.rex W China, evergreen, large shrub or 2–37cm (3⁄4–141⁄2in), obovate campanulate, white, pale yellow or pink,
NE Burma small tree to 12m (39ft) to oblanceolate, glabrous with a crimson basal blotch and spots
above, smooth or finely
wrinkled, lower surface with
a dense fawn to red hairs
Comments: ‘Quartz’: flowers pink with crimson blotch and spots. ‘Roseum’: flowers pale rose pink with small dark blotch, opening from deeper
pink buds. ssp. fictolacteum: syn. R.fictolacteum; leaves brown, flowers white or pink. ‘Cherry Tip’: flowers white, edged with pink, and with crimson
blotch spots.
R.rubiginosum W China, evergreen shrubs or 5–11.5cm (2–41⁄2in), narrowly 1.7–3.8cm (2⁄3–11⁄2in), openly funnel-
NE Burma small trees to 10m (33ft) elliptic to elliptic or almost shaped, pink, mauve-pink or rarely white,
or more lanceolate, glabrous and scaleless flushed with pink-purple, scaly outside
above, scaly beneath
Comments: ‘Wakehurst’: flowers mallow purple with crimson spots. Desquamatum Group: flowers usually larger and flatter; plants often more
compact with slightly larger leaves.
R.schlippenbachii Korea, deciduous shrub 2.5–11cm (1–41⁄2in), obovate or 3–6cm (11⁄4–21⁄2in), very openly funnel-
E Russia to 5m (16ft) broadly ovate, truncate, rounded shaped, pale pink, upper lobes spotted
or notched at apex, sparsely with red-brown
pubescent at first
Comments: ‘Prince Charming’: flowers rose, flushed with deeper pink and spotted with crimson.
R.simsii NE Burma, evergreen to semi- 1–7cm (1⁄2–23⁄4in), elliptic, ovate 2.5–5cm (1–2in), broadly funnel-shaped,
INDIAN AZALEA China, evergreen shrub to obovate or oblanceolate, red, spotted
Taiwan to 3m (10ft) sparsely strigose above, more
densely so beneath
R.sinogrande W China, evergreen tree to 20–90cm (8–36in), oblong- 4–6cm (11⁄2–21⁄2in), ventricose-
NE Burma 10m (33ft). oblanceolate to oblong-elliptic, campanulate, pale cream to ivory,
glabrous and wrinkled above blotched crimson at base
when mature, with silvery or
fawn hairs beneath
R.souliei W China evergreen shrub 5.5–8cm (41⁄2–3in), broadly 2.5–4cm (1–11⁄2in), openly saucer-shaped,
to 5m (16ft) ovate, glabrous pale purple-pink
R Comments: ‘Exbury Pink’: flowers deep rose pink. ‘Windsor Park’: flowers white, edged with pink, upper petal with small red blotch at base.
R.sutchuenense W China evergreen shrub 11–25cm (41⁄2–10in), oblong- 5–7.5cm (2–3in), widely campanulate,
to 5m (16ft) lanceolate, glabrous above, pink with darker spots
floccose along midrib beneath
Comments: ‘Seventh Heaven’: flowers red-purple, white in centre.
678 R.sutchuenense R.thomsonii R.wardii R.yunnanense

rhubarb
R HODODENDRON
R.thomsonii Himalaya, evergreen shrub or small 3–11cm (11⁄4–41⁄2in), orbicular 3.5–5cm (11⁄2–2in), campanulate, fleshy,
W China tree to 3.5m (111⁄2ft) to obovate or elliptic, glabrous, deep crimson, usually without darker
glaucous beneath, sometimes spots
with some red glands
R.trichostomum W China small, intricately l.2–3cm (1⁄2–11⁄4in), linear, oblong 0.6–2cm (1⁄4–3⁄4in), white or pink, tube
branched shrub, or oblanceolate, upper surface glabrous outside, with a few scales
30–150cm (12–60in), green; scaly or not, margins on exterior
often forming usually revolute, lower surface
rounded bushes pale brown with golden scales
Comments: Ledoides Group: corolla not scaly. ‘Collingwood Ingram’: flowers red-purple, paler in throat. ‘Lakeside’: flowers white, flushed with red-
purple. ‘Quarry Wood’: flowers white, flushed with red-purple. ‘Rae Berry’: flowers clear, pale pink. ‘Sweet Bay’: flowers white flushed with rose.
R.venator W China shrub to 3m (10ft) 8–14cm (3–51⁄2in), elliptic to to 3.5cm (11⁄2in), fleshy, tubular to
lanceolate, glabrous except campanulate, crimson with darker
for hairs on midrib beneath nectar pouches
R.wardii W China evergreen shrub or small 6–11cm (21⁄2–41⁄2in), narrowly 2.5–4cm (1–11⁄2in), saucer-shaped, white
tree to 8m (26ft) obovate to broadly ovate, to pale yellow, sometimes with a purple
glabrous, somewhat basal blotch
glaucous beneath
Comments: ‘Ellestee’: flowers lemon yellow with crimson blotch. Litiense Group: leaves oblong, wavy, glaucous on underside. ‘Meadow Pond’:
flowers primrose yellow with crimson blotch. var. puralbum: flowers white.
R.williamsianum W China dwarf, evergreen shrub 2–4.5cm (3⁄4–13⁄4in), ovate- 3–4cm (11⁄4–11⁄2in), campanulate, pale
to 1.5m (5ft) orbicular, more or less glabrous pink with darker spots
R.yakushimanum Comments: much used in recent hybridization as a parent of a range of striking, very hardy hybrids: leaves silvery then
R. degronianum ssp. dark green, covered in thick, dense, brown-felty hairs beneath; flowers broad, pink fading to white, speckled green within.
yakushimanum ‘Ken Janeck’: plants and leaves larger than usual; flowers pink. ‘Koichiro Wada’: flowers white opening from pink buds,
in dense trusses, freely produced.
R.yunnanense Burma, shrub to 6m (20ft) 3–7cm (11⁄4–23⁄4in), evergreen or 2–3cm (3⁄4–11⁄4in), white, pink or lavender,
W China deciduous, narrowly elliptic or usually densely spotted above with red
elliptic, scaly beneath, margins or yellow
and upper surface bristly
R
rhubarb (Rheum x hybridum) a leafy sure required varies between cultivars. Rhubarb plants should be re-propa-
perennial grown for its thick succulent Those requiring the shortest cold gated every five years or so by dividing
petioles. It is probably a hybrid of treatment to break dormancy crowns, with a spade, into wedge-
R.rhaponticum and R.palmatum but its produce the earliest crops. shaped pieces, each bearing at least
origins are unclear. The two likely Harvesting takes place from the one strong bud; vigorous healthy
parents and other Rheum species are spring, but plants can be forced to mother plants of named cultivars
common in China and elsewhere in produce an early crop of blanched should be chosen because long-stand-
the east; R.officinale and R.palmatum stalks during late winter. On no ing stocks are prone to degeneration
were described in a Chinese herbal of account should leaves be eaten since from virus infection. Plant during late
2700 BC for their strong laxative prop- they contain a poisonous glycoside. autumn, 75–90cm (30–36in) apart,
erties. The culinary use of rhubarb in Blanched and natural stalks may be with the buds just showing at the soil
Europe dates from the 18th century. cooked by boiling or baked in pies surface. Propagation from seed is possi-
The crop is more frequently culti- and tarts, with sugar usually being ble from spring-sowing but the result-
vated in temperate regions, but necessary to reduce acidity. ing plants are likely to be variable.
cultivars have been selected for high Where grown on a well-prepared site, Plants should be kept well-watered
elevations in tropical areas. With short- rhubarb plants may extend to 2m (61/2ft). and free from weeds, and provided
ening day length in autumn, rhubarb Soil must be made moisture-retentive with a thick layer of organic mulch
becomes dormant and leaf production through the incorporation of rotted each autumn or spring.
is only resumed following exposure to organic matter; good drainage is essen- To enable crowns to build up 679
low temperature; the period of expo- tial and plants do not thrive in shade. reserves, harvesting should not be
rhubarb
carried out during the first growing rhytidome the periderm and tissues
season. Always retain three or four external to it; bark.
leaves per plant to sustain the crown.
Flowering stems should be removed ribbed possessing one or more
since they weaken the plant. Early har- prominent veins or nerves.
vests of outdoor crops can be obtained
by forcing plants, either by covering Ribes (from the Arabic ribas ‘sharp-
with a thick layer of straw during mid- tasting’). Grossulariaceae. Northern
winter or by covering individual crowns temperate regions. CURRANT,
with a rhubarb pot or similar to pro- GOOSEBERRY. 150 species of small to
vide protection and to exclude light, medium-sized shrubs, mainly decidu-
thereby blanching the developing ous, often thorny. They bear small,
leaves. Crowns can also be lifted during Rhus typhina 4–5-petalled flowers singly or in
autumn and early winter and forced Although prone to suckering, the staghorn racemes in spring. These are followed
under protection in a greenhouse or sumac is valued for its velvety stems, fine-cut by small, juicy berries, which, in some
shed; they must first be exposed to frost leaves and superb autumn colour. cases, are edible. The ornamental Ribes
in order to break dormancy. The lifted species are grown primarily for their
crowns should be replanted in soil in cuttings of semi-ripe shoots with a flowers, although some also have
large pots or boxes and brought under heel, taken in late summer and inserted attractive foliage as in the golden-
protection, where growth will resume in a sandy medium in a propagating leaved R.sanguineum ‘Brocklebankii’.
at a temperature between frame with bottom heat. Root cuttings The low-growing evergreen R.lauri-
7–16°C/45–61°F. The containers will succeed potted vertically in a sandy folium is particularly valuable in the
should be positioned where light can medium in winter, under glass. Prune winter garden, bearing dense panicles
be excluded, for example, under a only to keep in bounds or to remove of green-yellow flowers in late
greenhouse bench with an improvized damaged or ungainly wood; the brittle winter/early spring. The most com-
curtain attached. Plants forced in situ wood of the taller shrubs and tree monly grown species, the spice-scented
will take time to recover and are best types is prone to storm damage. R.odoratum and the rather feline
left uncropped the following season; R.aromatica (FRAGRANT SUMAC, R.sanguineum, are reliably hardy where
those forced indoors are best discarded. LEMON SUMAC, POLECAT BUSH; SE temperatures fall to –25°C/–13°F.
Recommended cultivars include: Canada to S and E US; shrub to 1m R.speciosum, with fuchsia-like flowers
(early) ‘Hawkes Champagne’, ‘Timper- (31/4ft), prostrate; leaflets 3, to 6.5cm and fine glossy foliage, will tolerate
ley Early’; (mid-season) ‘Prince Albert’, (21/2in), ovate, serrate; flower spikes to temperatures to –15°C/5°F, and is
‘Canada Red’; (late) ‘The Sutton’, 2cm (3/4in), yellow; ‘Gro-low’: very low suited to wall or pillar training,
‘Victoria’. Notable in the US are and spreading, with golden yellow, fra- especially in zones at the limits of
‘Linneus’ and ‘Martha Washington’. grant flowers); R.glabra (SMOOTH SUMAC, hardiness. R.laurifolium shows similar
Possible problems: crown rot virus. SCARLET SUMAC, VINEGAR TREE; NE cold tolerance, given shelter from
R rhubarb pot a tall, upright earthen-

ware pot with a removable lid, specially
US to S Canada; deciduous shrub or
tree, to 4m (13ft); leaflets 11–31, to
11cm (41/2in), oblong to lanceolate,
cold drying winds. R.viburnifolium
does not tolerate temperatures much
below –5°C/23°F.
made for forcing rhubarb. serrate, glabrous, dark green above, Grow in any moderately fertile,
blue-green beneath, fiery red in moisture-retentive but
Rhus (from Greek name for this plant, autumn; flower spikes dense, to 25cm
rhous). Anacardiaceae. Temperate and (10in), green turning deep rusty
subtropical N America, southern red; ‘Flavescens’: leaves yellow in
Africa, subtropical E Asia, NE Aus- autumn; ‘Laciniata’: leaflets
tralia. SUMAC, SUMACH, TAAIBOS. About deeply and jaggedly cut); R.typhina
200 species, trees and shrubs, decidu- (STAGHORN SUMAC, VELVET
ous or evergreen, with simple to pin- SUMAC, VIRGINIAN SUMAC; eastern
nate or palmatifid leaves and very small N America; spreading deciduous
flowers massed in panicles or spikes. tree or shrub to 10m (33ft); twigs
The species listed here are deciduous bristly-velvety; leaflets 11–31, to
with pinnately compound leaves. The 11cm (41/2in), oblong to lanceo-
autumn foliage colour is superb, and late, serrate, coarsely hairy,
the ornamental flower and fruiting fiery red to orange and gold in
spikes persist until winter. Hardy to autumn; flower spikes to 30cm
at least –25°C/–13°F. Plant on a (12in), dense rusty-red; ‘Dis-
well-drained, fertile soil in full sun. secta’: leaflets pinnately dissected;
680 Propagate by removal of suckers from ‘Laciniata’: leaflets deeply and
autumn onwards, also by 10cm (4in) jaggedly cut). Ribes odoratum (autumn colour)
ring culture
well-drained soil in sun. R.sanguineum mulching and as an ingredient of pot- green flowers are borne in terminal
‘Brocklebankii’ performs better in parting mixtures. They provide good aera- inflorescences to 15cm (6in). These are
tial shade. R.laurifolium is also shade- tion and drainage and are especially followed by prickly capsules which split
tolerant. Trim over immediately after beneficial where incorporated into to reveal highly toxic marbled, bead-
flowering to maintain a compact habit mixes for epiphytes. like seeds. Several cultivars are grown
and remove a proportion (a quarter to with leaves variously veined, flushed
one third) of flowered wood at the base Richea (for the French naturalist and marbled with yellow, lime green,
to maintain a supply of younger wood: Colonel A.G. Riche, who died in bronze, purple-red, orange and fiery
flowers are carried on the previous 1791 during the Australian voyage red. One of the finest is ‘Impala’ with
season’s growth. Older wood in wall- of Admiral d’Entrecasteaux in search metallic purple-bronze leaves veined
trained specimens of R.speciosum should of La Perouse). Epacridaceae. Aus- with scarlet, and scarlet flowers. The
be removed in late summer and new tralia, Tasmania. 11 species, evergreen castor oil plant is often treated as a
basal growth tied in. Propagate decidu- trees or shrubs. Crowded along the half-hardy annual, grown each year
ous species by nodal hardwood cuttings stems or tufted at their tips, the leaves from seed and planted out after the last
in late autumn/early winter. Increase are narrow and usually sword-shaped frosts. It is valued for its bold foliage,
R.laurifolium by semi-ripe cuttings with sheathing bases. The flowers do and traditionally used as a dot plant in
in summer. not open fully, but are waxy and subtropical bedding. It is also suitable
R.laurifolium (W China; evergreen colourful and crowded in simple termi- for the cool greenhouse or conserva-
shrub to 1.5m (5ft); leaves 5–10cm nal clusters, spikes or panicles. Hardy tory. Grow in sun with shelter from
(2–4in), oval or ovate, coarsely toothed, to –15°C/5°F. Grow in moist, humus- wind, in a fertile, moisture-retentive
leathery, smooth; flowers green-yellow; rich, acid soils in partial or dappled but well-drained soil enriched with
fruit red to black, downy); R.odoratum shade, or with part-day sun where well-rotted organic matter. Sow seed in
(CLOVE CURRANT, BUFFALO CURRANT, soils remain moist throughout the spring in individual pots at 20°C/68°F.
MISSOURI CURRANT; C US; shrub summer. Propagate from semi-ripe
to 2m (61/2ft); deciduous or semi- cuttings or by seed in autumn. riddle a wide-meshed sieve used for
evergreen; leaves 3–8cm (11/4–3in), R.scoparia (Tasmania; bushy, erect sifting soil or coarse materials.
oval to rounded, 3–5-lobed, toothed; shrub to 1.5m (5ft); flowers white,
flowers, sweetly scented, yellow; fruit pink or orange in dense cylindric ridger a hand tool shaped like a
globose, black); R.sanguineum (WINTER racemes to 30cm (12in) long). miniature plough. It is used to produce
CURRANT; W US to California; to a furrow into which seeds can be sown.
4m (13ft), deciduous shrub, glandular,
mustily aromatic; leaves 2.5–7cm ridging see digging.
(1–23/4in), rounded, base cordate, 3–5-
lobed, dark green, downy; flowers red rigid paving paving units bedded
or deep rosy pink; fruit glandular, blue- on mortar, and with the joints sealed
black with white bloom; ‘Albescens’: with mortar.
flowers white flushed pink, appearing
earlier than other cultivars; ‘Brockle-
bankii’: leaves yellow; ‘Plenum’: double,
ring barking see bark-ringing. R
red flowers; ‘Pulborough Scarlet’: bright ring culture a method of cultivating
mid-pink flowers; ‘Pulborough Scarlet tomatoes, also used satisfactorily for
Variegated’: leaves variegated yellow; chrysanthemums and carnations, in
‘Tydemans White’: bright white flowers); which young plants are set into a grow-
R.speciosum (FUCHSIA-FLOWERED GOOSE- ing medium contained in bottomless
BERRY; California; evergreen shrub to Ricinus communis ‘Impala’ whalehide (q.v.) rings; these measure
4m (13ft), bristly-thorny; leaves 1–4cm This shrub may also be grown as a half-hardy 22cm (9in) in depth and diameter and
(1/2–11/2in), rounded, 3–5-lobed, bluntly annual, providing exotic foliage for a are stood on a 15cm (6in) deep layer
toothed, smooth, glossy; flowers pendu- sub-tropical bedding scheme. of gravel, weathered clinker or similar
lous, red, glandular-bristly, with long, aggregate. The aggregate is sealed at
red, downward-pointing stamens; fruit Ricinus (from Latin ricinus, a tick, the base with a polythene sheet in order
glandular-bristly, red); R.viburnifolium which the seeds resemble). Euphor- to prevent root penetration into disease-
(California; evergreen shrub to 1.5m biaceae. NE Africa to Middle East, or pest-infested soil. All water is subse-
(5ft), stems low often rooting; leaves naturalized throughout tropics. 1 quently applied to the aggregate, and
2–4cm (3/4–11/2in), broadly ovate to oval, species, R.communis, CASTOR OIL PLANT, liquid feed to the medium. In this way,
entire or slightly dentate, glandular, tur- a glabrous shrub to 12m (39ft), seldom nutrition is concentrated within the ring
pentine-scented; flowers pink; fruit red). exceeding 2m (61/2ft) in cultivation. The and mainly water-extracting roots
leaves are up to 60cm (24in) across, develop throughout the aggregate. The
rice husks a by-product of the rounded in outline and palmately lobed method is especially useful on unsuitable 681
processing of rice, useful for ground with toothed margins. In summer, red- soils, and also on solid garden surfaces.
ringspot
ringspot an area of visually normal first; racemes to 6cm (21/2in), crowded,

leaf tissue surrounded by one or more glandular-hairy, flowers lilac to rose);
rings, which may be darker green, R.pseudoacacia (BLACK LOCUST, YELLOW
yellow, chlorotic or necrotic. It is LOCUST; E and C US, widely natural-
usually a virus-disease symptom. ized in temperate regions; tree, to 27m
(89ft), nearly glabrous; young branches
ripeness, ripening used to describe thorny; racemes dense, nodding, to
(1) the stage at which fruits reach physi- 20cm (8in), flowers white to ivory, fra-
ological maturity and are in a condi- grant, blotched with yellow at base;
tion favourable for eating. In apple ‘Frisia’: a fine small tree with bright
fruits, it coincides more or less with golden new foliage, turning a cool lime
maximum respiration rate, at a phase by mid-summer).
known as the climacteric. Carbon
dioxide, water and volatile products, robin’s pincushion see bedeguar. Rock plant gardening (Androsace carnea)
notably ethylene, are evolved at this This long established form of gardening pro-
time; (2) the maturation of young rocambole (Allium sativum var. vides the fascination and challenges of culti-
woody shoots on trees and shrubs, or of ophioscorodon) a perennial grown for its vating plants found naturally at high altitude.
bulbs, especially onions, which occurs bulbs, which are used in flavouring in
during high summer temperature. a similar way to garlic. It is propagated One of the earliest natural-looking
vegetatively from both offsets and rock gardens in England was built in
Robinia (for Jean Robin (d. 1629), bulblets produced at the top of its the early 1800s by William Beckford
herbalist to Henry IV of France). stem. These should be planted 5cm in a quarry at Fonthill, Wiltshire. In
Leguminosae. US. Some 20 species, (2in) deep and about 20cm (8in) apart the UK and North America interest
deciduous trees and shrubs with pin- during early spring, and lifted during and achievements in rock gardening
nate leaves and pea-like, fragrant flow- the summer months after the foliage evolved throughout the 19th century.
ers in pendulous racemes in late spring dies back. They may be stored in Today, rock gardeners in the UK, US,
and early summer. The following will a cool dry place in a similar way and Canada cultivate rock plants with
tolerate temperatures to –15°C/5°F to onions. great seriousness under the aegis of
and atmospheric pollution. Good The Alpine Garden Society and the
drainage and shelter from strong winds rock phosphate an inorganic fertil- American Rock Garden Society. There
are necessary. Robinia regenerates izer made of finely ground phosphate- are various ways in which rock plants
strongly after pruning, which should containing rock (25–40% phosphoric can be grown in the garden, accomo-
be done in late summer to reduce risk acid). Its usefulness varies according to dating interest on a large or small scale.
of bleeding. Most sucker freely and the source of the rock and processing Rock gardens This is the com-
felled trees will produce coppices. treatment, and it produces best results monest form of rock plant growing.
Propagate by seed in spring, scarified on acid soils. The cheapest and most natural-looking
R or soaked in hot water for 12 hours

before sowing, or by removal of rooted
suckers. Cultivars can be side-grafted
rock plant a herbaceous, shrubby,
or bulbous plant that is suitable for
features are those made by exposing
existing rock, but the incorporation of
any existing mound, slope or change
on to seedling rootstock of the species growing in a rock garden. See alpine. of level is an opportunity to be looked
in winter, although suckering may be a out for. Artificially created mounds in
problem. Take root cuttings of plants rock plant gardening the cultiva- a flat scene look contrived, especially
grown on their own roots. Locust borer tion of alpine and other rock plants in in a small garden, but this effect can be
and locust leaf miner are serious pests a garden area specially constructed to minimized by making gentle slopes or
in North America. simulate natural rock formation. The by creating a surrounding pavement
R. x ambigua (R.pseudoacacia x R.viscosa; construction of rock gardens dates of flat rocks. A south or west outlook
differs from R.pseudoacacia, in the some- from 1772, when the director of what is best, but a northwest-facing rock
what glutinous branches with small is now the Chelsea Physic Garden in garden still provides good west-facing
thorns; flowers pale pink to lavender); London had placed there about forty planting pockets; alternatively, a
R.hispida (ROSE ACACIA, MOSS LOCUST, tons of stone from the Tower of mound of smaller rocks can be gently
BRISTLY LOCUST; SE US; shrub to London, together with lava, brought stepped on both sides, offering a vari-
2.25m (7ft), bristly, suckering; flowers from Iceland by Sir Joseph Banks, ety of growing conditions, perhaps
3–5 in short raceme, pale purple or and a topping of flints and chalk. with one short, sharp slope and a
rose; includes ‘Monument’, to 4m This was the precursor of many such second long, gentle one. In all cases,
(13ft), compact, conical, sparsely bris- collections of stones, known as ‘stoner- the site must be open to good light.
tled, with racemes to 10cm (4in) and ies’ or ‘lapideums’, which were built Arrange the stones as they would
large, delicate lilac-pink flowers); largely for their own sake, although an be found in a natural outcrop, but with
682 R.kelseyi (ALLEGHANY MOSS; SE US; attempt was sometimes made to grow some positioned as if they have rolled
shrub to 3m (10ft), branches bristly at plants on them. to the bottom of the slope. Incorporate
rock plant gardening
some flat stones for standing upon roots of plants. It is generally used for widely spaced perforations. Scree
while tending plants, and, in the larger special situations, including sinks or depends on rainfall or overhead
rock garden, plan discreet gravel or troughs, where holes 2.5–5cm (1–2in) watering; moraine relies mainly on
stone-based paths. Ensure good wide and 5cm (2in) deep are drilled at its subterranean watering system
drainage, and at each level set the a 45° angle and filled with equal parts which should be used in hot dry
largest stones into the bank first, deeply tufa debris, soil and leafmould. weather. Both scree and moraine
enough to be stable to stand upon and Sandstone is a more angular rock, benefit from occasional overhead
tilted slightly backwards so that rain available in a wide range of colours, fine spray in very hot weather.
will run off the top surface to the including soft pinks and yellows; it has
plants’ roots. Smaller stones are placed obvious strata and can be split easily.
on either side, their tops more or less Its main advantage is that it absorbs
level, but always with the strata lying moisture, which it will release into
in straight lines. The second layer of surrounding soil in dry spells and
rocks uses some of the first layer as a which makes it relatively cool. As
base, together with an excavated sec- sandstone weathers, it produces acidic
tion of bank. As each stone is posi- residues, and mosses and lichens will
tioned, soil must be packed firmly at its establish on its surface.
back and in any vertical and horizontal Slate can be used to dramatic effect,
crevices. Adjacent rocks should be echoing natural outcrops, where strata
butted up close but the distance point almost vertically upwards; it
between each cluster of rocks can be consists of relatively thin layers of
varied. It is easiest to plant alpines in easily split, grey rock. Crevice planting
the crevices as building progresses. Granite is least satisfactory because This alpine campanula is being established by
All true alpines need a well-drained it is heavy, hard to cut or split, and wedging a stone in the base of the crevice
growing medium, which can be packed does not weather. It has few strata and packing gritty compost around the plant.
into the rock crevices; a generally suit- lines, and if crevices develop, they
able mixture is three parts loam to two tend to be vertical and unsuitable Raised beds These provide a
parts grit and one part coir or leaf- for planting. more formal way of growing scree
mould. Plants need little feeding and Scree and moraine beds These plants, allowing a large number to be
some thrive in very dry and poor soil. are made to simulate particular natural grown in a small space. They can be
MATERIALS Wherever possible, local rocky habitats. Scree is a sloping area any size or shape, built against a wall
stone should be chosen since it will of stone fragments at the base of a or in the form of an island bed, and
harmonize with the landscape, as well rock face, formed by deposits of weath- may be partitioned to provide both
as being relatively cheap to transport. ered rock and notable for its perfect acid and alkaline growing conditions.
Where this is not possible, matching drainage and lack of moisture. Dry-stone retaining walls, built to a
the colours of existing stone or brick Moraine is an accumulation of rock height up to 1m (31/4ft), are best since
used for house and garden may be a
consideration. A mixture of sizes is
best, with several bold blocks and
fragments, with sand or silt particles,
which arises from the grinding action
of a glacier on bedrock; it is well-
plants can be grown in narrow cracks
between the stones. A gritty soil mix is
used to fill the bed, topped with a 5cm
R
some large, flat pieces included. drained but retains moisture, (2in) layer of coarse gravel. A few
Limestone is an interesting rock, becoming a damp habitat. pieces of rock protruding from the
which varies in consistency and colour, Scree beds may be sited either run- finished level provide an authentic-
producing flowing lines where it has ning between large rocks or as a sepa- looking miniature landscape.
been worn by running water; it is also rate feature. They can be made with Walls A variety of trailing rock
quite easy to cut. A disadvantage of its a deep layer of stone fragments and plants can be grown in the gaps
weathering is that the surrounding soil chippings laid over 20cm (8in) of a between the stones of a dry wall. The
becomes alkaline, thus precluding the very gritty soil, which in turn tops top of a brick wall can be used if it has
cultivation of some desirable plants. In a well-drained foundation. Moraine a coping at least 30cm (12in) wide and
Britain, conservation measures justifi- can be constructed by digging out a narrow trough specially built on top
ably restrict the supply of the choicest a site to about 60cm (24in) deep and of it. The trough is filled with a mix-
rock, which was formerly obtained at placing coarse drainage material to a ture of two parts fibrous loam to one
the cost of severe damage to surface depth of 30cm (12in). Inverted turves part leafmould and one part sharp
limestone pavements, but quarried are placed on top of this layer as a sand; to this is added slow-release
limestone is available. Tufa is a water- moisture reservoir, and a very gritty soil fertilizer.
retentive form of limestone, deposited mix is added to a depth of 20cm (8in). Paving Alpine plants can be grown
by dripping water or mineral springs; The site is finished with 5cm (2in) of where soil rather than cement is used
it has no strata, is soft to cut and coarse gravel into which is laid a 3cm between paving slabs in courtyards, ter-
although it hardens on exposure to (11/4in)-deep subsurface watering system races, patios, and in paths laid on sand. 683
the air can be easily penetrated by the comprising plastic pipes with small Planting should be done during con-
rock plant gardening
struction, or if the paving is already in Thermostatically controlled heating was discovered). Saxifragaceae. Nepal,
place, holes can be made in the cement will provide plants with the protection China, Japan. 6 species, rhizomatous
and gritty soil trickled into the opening. against very low temperatures afforded perennial herbs. The leaves are large
Sink or trough gardens Old by snow cover in their natural habitat, and basal, with stout stalks, palmate
stone sinks and animal drinking and prevent freezing of pots. Protec- or pinnate blades and leathery, toothed
troughs provide excellent foundations tion in summer with external blinds or leaflets. Numerous, small, white, red
for growing alpine plants, but original a layer of green plastic netting is desir- or purple flowers are carried in dense
ones are scarce and new ones very able, any covering being easily remov- panicles in summer. Hardy foliage
expensive. Artificial troughs can be able on dull days. Plants are best kept plants for damp borders, bog gardens
made using redundant glazed white on sturdy benches covered with shingle. and pond margins, their leaves often
sinks, simulating natural stone with Frames Frames allow perfect water emerging bronze or becoming so later
a coating of hypertufa; the mix is control and protection from winter in the season. The plume-like flowers
plastered over a layer of bonding damage for plants starting growth in are fine and the seedheads become
agent, such as tile cement. The same autumn, and can be used for the prop- red-tinted in autumn. Plant in moist
material can be used to construct agation, growing on and storage of all humus-rich soils, in sun or part shade,
a trough using cardboard boxes as types of rock plants. They can also be with shelter from strong winds. Mulch
moulds, a smaller sized box placed used to hold plants not currently on annually to conserve moisture and give
inside another. See hypertufa. display; these are trimmed over after a balanced slow-release fertilizer. Water
flowering, repotted if necessary and plentifully in drought. Propagate by
stood out until flower buds reappear. division in early spring.
Containers in frames are best R.aesculifolia (China; to 2m (61/2ft);
plunged in a well-drained bed of ashes, leaves palmate, leaflets acute and
sand or bark fibre, to reduce water loss coarsely toothed at apex, veins rusty-
and protect roots and pots from frost. tomentose; flowers white); R.pinnata
By watering the bed in which pots are (SW China; to 120cm (47in); leaves
planted, rather than the pots them- pinnate, leaflets obovate-lanceolate,
selves, even plants drying off over the flowers red; ‘Superba’: tall, with leaves
summer can be given the minute tinted bronze to purple and rose flow-
amount of moisture they require for ers); R.podophylla (Japan, Korea; to
optimum growth in the next season. 120cm (47in); leaves palmate, turning
Plants within frames need plenty of bronze in autumn, leaflets cleft and
air movement, so lights should only be toothed at apex; flowers cream; ‘Rot-
Alpine house closed in periods of frost or fog; they laub’: leaves tinted red); R.sambucifolia
A greenhouse bench brings these attractive will also need shading in high summer. (China; to 90cm (35in); leaves pinnate,
plants nearer the eye, in conditions where leaflets acute; flowers white or pink).
they are protected from harmful winter wet. Rockwool a lightweight material
R Alpine houses Alpine houses are

a means of growing mountain plants
manufactured from spun mineral
fibres, with high air-filled porosity
and low nutrient content or nutrient-
rogue any plant with characteristics
that deviate from those desired or
expected. Rogueing is the culling of
with protection from winter rain, holding capacity. There are water- such plants, used especially for the
severe frost and icy winds. They permit absorbent and water-repellent forms, removal of atypical or diseased bulbs.
the cultivation of slightly tender species both available in granules and suitable
and the propagation, growing on and for use as growing-media additives; the Rohdea (for Michael Rohde
establishment of young plants. They water-absorbent form is widely used for (1782–1812), physician and botanist
can also be used for the display of soilless cultivation of greenhouse crops of Bremen). Liliaceae. SW China,
spring-flowering alpines and dwarf and for propagation. Rockwool is also Japan. 2 species. R.japonica, a rhizoma-
bulbs, which often flower two or three available as slabs or blocks, and as tous perennial herb. The leaves are
weeks earlier in containers than in the small modules for rooting cuttings. 30–40cm (12–16in) long, dark green,
garden outside. Another use in summer thick and strap-shaped and loosely
is for drying and ripening many dwarf rod an outmoded linear measure 2-ranked in a basal rosette. Fleshy,
bulbs, which need summer heat when of land, referred to in old gardening white or yellow-green flowers emerge
dormant to ensure regular flowering. literature, and equivalent to about 5m in a short dense spike in early spring.
The alpine house should be situated (16ft). It is often loosely used to mean They are followed by red or yellow
in an open site and, where possible, an area about 5m2 (54 sq. ft). It is also berries. Numerous variegated cultivars
orientated north/south. Typically, it known as a pole or perch. of this plant are available with leaves
is unheated, very well-ventilated but variously striped or edged gold, cream
draught-free; wooden structures are Rodgersia (for US admiral John and white. They are highly prized in
684 preferable to aluminium, which gives Rodgers (1812–1882), commander of Japan. Grow in cool but frost-free, airy
rise to condensation and drips. the expedition on which R.podophylla conditions in bright, indirect light.
roof gardens
Plant in a loamy mix rich in leafmould Mediterranean north to SW England; axillary or terminal panicles, cymes
and garden compost. Keep evenly South Africa, and at high altitudes or corymbs of funnel- to salverform,
moist. Propagate by seed or division. in C and E Africa north to the Medi- 4–6-lobed flowers in summer. Grow in
terranean. Some 80 species, spring- the intermediate greenhouse (minimum
roller a large garden hand-tool, com- flowering, crocus-like, perennial temperature 13°C/55°F), in a loam-
prising a wide, smooth-surfaced wheel cormous herbs. Where they can be based medium, in bright filtered light.
mounted on an axle and fixed to a kept dry in summer (when dormant), Water plentifully when in growth, spar-
handle; used as an aid in the prepara- the European and Asiatic species are ingly in winter. Propagate by semi-ripe
tion of level sites, especially prior to hardy to –10°C/14°F; they are best cuttings in a closed case with bottom
laying paving. Modern garden rollers planted at the base of a south-facing heat in autumn. R.amoena (Mexico,
come in various weights, are made of wall or niche in the rock garden. Panama, Guatemala; shrub to 1.5m
metal or of plastic (sometimes filled with R.bulbocodium is slightly more cold-toler- (5ft), or tree to 14m (46ft); flowers
water) and are usually a little longer in ant. The South African species, with white to pink, to 1.5cm (5/8in) in
width than diameter. Rollers are con- the possible exception of the alpine many-flowered cymes or panicles).
structed so as to be pushed or pulled. R.macowanii, are probably more safely
Rolling lawns, traditionally done to grown under glass or in the bulb frame roof gardens the practice of con-
disperse worm casts and level minor in cool temperate zones. Grow in full structing gardens on the rooftops of
surface undulations, is not recom- sun, in a sandy soil. Under glass, use a buildings dates back to ancient times,
mended because of the deleterious loam-based mix with additional sharp the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, built
effects of consolidation, particularly on sand and leafmould; grow in direct about 600 BC, being terraced gardens
heavy soil; the small roller built into a sunlight, with good ventilation, and arranged in a stepped pyramid over
cylinder mower is adequate for level- water moderately when in growth. Dry elaborate state rooms. There were
ling, and certain types of roller fitted off gradually as the foliage dies down. rooftop gardens in Roman cities such
with spikes are effective for aerating Propagate by seed in autumn, or in as Pompeii, balcony gardens in Con-
the surface layers. Light rollers have a spring for R.macowanii. Increase also stantinople, and roof gardens were
place in aiding seedbed preparation, by offsets. made by the Aztecs in Mexico. On a
after initial cultivation, but treading is R.bulbocodium (syn. R.grandiflora, R.clu- smaller scale, roof terraces with potted
invariably a more effective technique; siana; Mediterranean, Portugal, NW plants have probably always been a
such rollers may prove more effective Spain, Bulgaria; flowers 1–6 per scape; common feature of private houses in
for lawn seedbed preparation. perianth 2.25–5cm (7/8–2in), bright the Mediterranean and other dry
violet, rarely white, tube 0.3–0.8cm mild regions. In the 20th century, Le
Romneya (for Rev. T. Romney (1/8–3/8in), yellow, orange or white within Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright are
Robinson (1792–1882), astronomer or at throat: var. crocea: flowers yellow; among architects to have promoted
in Armagh, Ireland). Papaveraceae. var. leichtliniana: flowers white with a rooftop gardens.
California, Mexico. MATILIJA POPPY; yellow throat; var. subpalustris: flowers Ecologically, roof gardens contribute
CALIFORNIAN TREE POPPY. 1 species, tinted purple-blue, with a white throat); to an increase in air humidity, and help
R.coulteri, a woody-based, suckering
perennial herb 20–200cm (8in–61/2ft)
tall. The leaves are to 15cm (6in) long,
R.flava (syn. R.bulbocodioides; South
Africa; flowers 1–4 per scape; perianth
2.25–4cm (7/8–11/2in), yellow-green,
to purify the air and filter dust in
towns. However, proper consideration
must be given during the planning
R
pinnately lobed and toothed, grey-blue occasionally white or tinted blue or stage to factors such as access, weight
and glaucous. Produced in summer, the pink, tube yellow within and at throat); of soil and containers, roof water-
flowers are to 15cm (6in) in diameter, R.macowanii (syn. R.longituba; South proofing and durability, drainage
white and fragrant, with six obovate, Africa; flowers 1–3 per scape; perianth and also local by-laws.
silky petals and many golden stamens. 3–10cm (11/4–4in), golden yellow, tube Plants can be grown on roofs in
The flowers unfurl from tough, deep orange-yellow within and at large tubs, boxes and other containers,
pod-like calyces. In plants sometimes throat); R.nivalis (Lebanon; flowers 1–3 or, in some instances, in beds. Growing
named var. trichocalyx, these are covered per scape; perianth to 2.5cm (1in), lilac media should be fertile, soil-based and
in sharp bristles. Such plants also tend to mauve, tube to 0.3cm (1/8in), yellow with good moisture-retention proper-
to have more finely divided, steely blue within and at throat); R.sabulosa (South ties since rapid drying out is inevitable;
foliage. Hardy to –10°C/14°F if given Africa; flowers 1–4 per scape; perianth an adequate water supply is necessary.
sharp drainage and a warm, sunny, to 3–5.5cm (11/4–21/8in), bright scarlet, Screening from wind is essential for the
sheltered site. Cut back in spring before tube with a dark white- or pink-edge protection of plants and users – panels
the appearance of the new growth. blotch within and at throat). of fine wire mesh or similar material
This plant may become invasive. will reduce wind force and sheets of
Propagate by root cuttings in late Rondeletia (for W.G. Rondelet strengthened glass are often used.
winter or by rooted suckers in spring. (1507–1566), French scholar, physician, A very wide range of shrubs and
and specialist in fish and algae). Rubi- small trees can be grown, provided
Romulea (for Romulus, founder and aceae. C to S America, Polynesia. large containers are available. Species 685
first King of Rome). Iridaceae. Some 150 species, shrubs or trees with with strong branch structure and
roof gardens
natural adaptation to hot dry condi- In North America, the WOOLLY

tions are a good choice; rock-garden APHID (Eriosoma lanigerum) has a bark-
plants, heathers and low-growing infesting form as well as one that
shrubs can be effective. Even vegeta- attacks the roots of hosts, such as
bles and soft fruit can be grown with apple, Cotoneaster and Pyracantha; in
adequate protection and watering Europe only the bark feeding form
facilities, and growing bags are suitable occurs. Another injurious pest in North
in some instances. Maximum use America is the STRAWBERRY ROOT
should be made of climbing plants APHID (Aphis forbesi); several other
against walls, chimney stacks, and, species of root aphids attack ornamen-
if possible, on pergola-like structures. tals, such as asters, calendulas, cosmos,
Similar considerations apply to dahlias, primulas and sweet peas. Barrier against root flies
gardening on balconies, where long Root aphids may be controlled by A physical barrier protects these young
narrow window boxes, growing bags applying soil drenches of a recom- carrots from the low-flying adult flies,
and smaller containers are a mended aphicide. Pot plants may be preventing them from laying eggs on the crop.
suitable choice. treated by washing the roots and dip-
ping them in similar insecticides. Some treating the soil around the plants with
rond-point a circular open space lettuce cultivars are resistant to the granules of recommended insecticides
in a large formal garden, from which lettuce root aphid, for example the subject to local pesticide approvals.
alleys or avenues radiate and several butterheads ‘Avondefiance’ and Correct timing is important and varies
vistas are presented. ‘Sabine’. See woolly aphid. with different species. On a small scale,
physical barriers such as horticultural
root the axis of a plant that serves rootball the mass of roots and grow- fleece are effective against cabbage root
to anchor it and absorb nutrients from ing medium formed by a plant, espe- fly, onion fly and carrot fly, and peas
the soil; usually geotropic, subter- cially a container-grown one, but also and beans may be protected from bean
ranean and derived from the radicle. applicable to plants lifted from the seed fly by seed dressing subject to
Roots may also be adventitious open ground. local pesticide approvals. See bean seed
or aerial. fly, cabbage root fly, carrot fly, chrysanthe-
root-bound see pot-bound. mum stool miner, onion fly.
root aphids the roots of various
plants are subject to attack by aphids, root crop a vegetable crop grown for root grafting see grafting.
invariably attended by ants. its edible roots or tubers,
In severe infestations, plant such as carrot, parsnip and root hairs specialized epidermal cells
growth is checked and wilt- potato. situated a short distance behind the
ing occurs. Most root aphids root tip, which increase the root’s
are light-coloured and cov- root cuttings see cuttings. capacity to absorb water and mineral
R ered with white powdery

wax. Some, such as the
ARTICHOKE TUBER APHID
root dipping the prac-
tice of immersing the roots
salts. Root hairs are short-lived and
continually being produced as root
growth proceeds.
(Trama troglodytes) live on of transplants into a
roots continuously, but for recommended pesticide root house an ornamental garden
most species root-feeding solution subject to local feature of Victorian gardens, formed
represents one phase in Root aphid approvals. It is also applied from the bases of tree trunks, and
their annual migratory life cycle; to the dipping of bare-root trees often thatched.
for example, the LETTUCE ROOT APHID or shrubs into a water-retentive poly-
(Pemphigus bursarius) migrates from leaf mer or alginate in order to prevent rooting hormone see cuttings
petiole galls on Lombardy poplars to their desiccation. See puddling. (synthetic hormones).
the roots of lettuce. Other species
injurious to garden plants include root flies, maggots Common to rootlet a small or secondary root.
the AURICULA ROOT APHID (P.auriculae), Europe and North America, root flies
which infests the roots of auriculas and are some of the most serious vegetable root nodules small galls of different
primulas, especially in pots; the ELDER pests and include CABBAGE ROOT FLY shapes that occur on the roots of cer-
APHID (Aphis sambuci), which migrates (Delia radicum), ONION FLY (D.antiqua), tain plants, in particular members of
from elder to Dianthus species, Lychnis BEAN SEED FLY (D.platura) and CARROT the Leguminosae, and are produced by
species, London pride (Saxifraga FLY (Psila rosae). All the Delia species the reaction of the host to infection by
umbrosa) and many weeds; and the have adult forms about 6mm (1/4in) various nitrogen-fixing microorgan-
HAWTHORN-CARROT APHID (Dysaphis long, which are of similar appearance isms; they are beneficial. See nitrogen.
686 crataegi), which attacks the roots of to the HOUSEFLY (Musca domestica). Root
carrots and parsnips. fly attacks are best prevented by root pruning see pruning.
Rosa
root restriction reducing the root roridulous covered with small, leafhoppers, leaf miners, leaf-rolling
run of a plant by planting it in a con- translucent prominences, giving the sawflies, rose scale, rose slugworms
fined space in order to contain vegeta- appearance of dewdrops. and shoot or pith borers.
tive growth and induce flowering. Roses are divided into three princi-
Rosa (the Classical Latin name for the pal groups, the first includes the species
root rot decay of plant roots encour- rose). Rosaceae. ROSE. N Hemisphere. described in detail in the table below;
aged primarily by disease organisms, Some 150 species, mostly deciduous the other two groups comprise hybrids
often in unfavourable soil conditions shrubs, erect, arching or scrambling, and cultivars so numerous that only
such as waterlogging. Fleshy roots, such with prickly and/or bristly stems. The brief generalisations can be made here.
as beet, carrot and turnip, may develop leaves are pinnate, trifoliate or simple. Each group is further divided.
soft rots, caused by the bacterium Solitary or corymbose, the flowers con- SPECIES ROSES
Erwinia carotovora, or hard dry rots, such sist of 4 or 5(–7), usually obovate and Species – all rose species and their
as those caused by the fungi Leptos- spreading petals (8–14 in semi-double, varieties and cultivars, including shrub
phaeria maculans on swede and Alternaria and 15–30+ in double flowers), and roses and climbers.
radicina on carrot (BLACK ROT). Many numerous stamens. In some species Species Hybrids – hybrids between
different fungi, including Colletotrichum, and many cultivars, flowering is species and clearly showing their influ-
Fusarium, Phoma, Phytophthora, Pythium, remontant (occurs at least twice per ence. Flowers usually single, borne in
Rhizoctonia and Verticillium, cause root season). Known as hips or heps, the one phase. Hips often handsome.
rots of herbaceous plants and some fruits are usually waxy, flesh, brightly OLD GARDEN ROSES
are also responsible for damping-off in coloured and crowned with remnants Alba – large shrubs. Foliage grey-green.
seedlings. Root rots caused by Phytoph- of the sepals. Flowers semi-double or double, 5–7 per
thora species commonly affect fruit trees The following are fully hardy. Plant cluster in mid-summer. Hardy. Good
and ornamental trees and shrubs. in sun or light shade on a well-drained, for border and specimen planting.
HONEY FUNGUS (Armillaria mellea), WHITE fertile soil. Avoid sites where other Bourbon – shrubs, loosely branched
ROOT ROT FUNGUS (Rosellinia necatrix) roses have been grown and have deteri- and open. Remontant – flowers usually
and VIOLET ROOT ROT (Helicobasidium orated. Feed generously in late winter double, produced in threes in summer
brebissonii) are other root rots with a and mulch with garden compost. and autumn. Can be trained to climb:
wide host range. See armillaria root rot, Continue to feed at regular intervals good for borders and for growing
black rot, violet root rot. between mid-spring and late summer. on fences, walls and stakes and
Remove spent flowerheads unless the pillars.
root run the area of soil explored by hips are decorative. Prune in late China – sparsely branched shrubs with
a plant’s roots. winter or early spring. Pruning require- pointed, glossy leaflets. Remontant –
ments vary, but can be broadly flowers single or double, solitary or in
root spiralization the root configu- described as follows – remove any clusters of 2–13 in summer and autumn.
ration developed by plants left too long dead, damaged, weak or spent growth Good for sheltered borders and walls.
in a pot or container. See pot-bound. for all species and hybrids. Old Garden Damask – lax, open shrubs. Flowers
rootstock (1) a woody or fleshy plant

upon which is grafted a shoot or bud
and Groundcover Roses usually need
only a light trim. Modern Bush and
Miniature Roses can be divested of as
very fragrant, semi-double to double,
solitary or in 5–7 in loose clusters in
summer. Good for borders.
R
from a chosen specimen. The rootstock much as two thirds of the previous Gallica – dense, freely branching
thereby provides the root system of the season’s growth. Modern Shrub and shrubs. Leaves dull green. Flowers
new plant. Besides facilitating propaga- Climbing Roses, ramblers and species single to double, richly coloured,
tion, rootstocks may influence growth usually need only a light prune. usually in threes, in summer. Good
and other characteristics in the new Increase by bud- decorative for borders and hedging.
individual, such as ultimate size and ding (bud graft- hips Hybrid Perpetual – vigorous, freely branch-
early bearing in fruit trees and resis- ing) in summer ing shrubs. Leaves usually olive green.
tance to soil-borne pest infestations in or by hardwood Remontant – flowers double, solitary or
tomatoes. Widely used examples of cuttings in in threes in summer and autumn. Good
clonal rootstocks are the EMLA selec- autumn. Affected for beds and borders.
tions for apple, Quince for pear and by powdery Moss – loosely branched shrubs
Myrobolan for plum. Many ornamen- mildew, black spot with moss-like, fuzzy growth on
tal plants are grafted on to seedlings of and rose rust; also stems and calyces. Flowers
the same or closely related species, see canker and crown gall, double in summer.
EMLA; (2) botanically, a rhizome, as in rose anthracnose and Noisette – climbing
some ferns; (3) loose descriptive term die-back. Pests include shrubs with smooth
for the crown and root system of a aphids, Japanses beetles stems and glossy leaves.
compact plant. and chafers, rose cur- Remontant – flowers usu-
culio, fuller beetles, ally double, somewhat 687
root vegetable see root crop. froghoppers and Rosa canina spicily scented, to 9 per
Rosa
M ODERN BUSH - TYPE ROSES
Hybrid Tea Floribunda (‘Westerland’) Patio (‘Sweet Magic’)

Vigorous, remontant, flowers single to fully Vigorous, remontant, flowers single to fully Dwarf floribundas, compact, cluster-flowered,
double, usually borne singly on stout stems. double, free-flowering, flowers clustered at remontant, flowers often unscented. Good in
Good for borders and for cutting. stem tips. Good for borders and as hedging. containers and as low hedges.
Miniature (‘Stacey Sue’) Polyantha (‘The Fairy’) Groundcover (‘Snow Carpet’)

Very compact, small-leaved, often sparsely Compact, remontant, small flowers, single or Spreading and trailing, many remontant, the
thorned, remontant, flowers rarely scented. double, in loose sprays over a long season. best flowering along the entire length of
Good in raised beds and containers. Very suitable for mixed plantings. stem; good for groundcover and on banks.
cluster in summer and autumn. Good (31/4–61/2ft) in height. Flowers single double, 3–11 per spray. Good for
R for sheltered, warm walls.

Portland – erect shrubs. Remontant –
flowers semi-double to double, solitary
or double, solitary or in sprays, in
summer and autumn. Good for beds
and specimen planting.
containers and small gardens.
Polyantha – compact, resilient shrubs.
Remontant – flowers small, single
or in threes in summer and autumn. Hybrid Tea (Large-flowered Bush) – or double, 7–15 per spray in summer
Good for borders. vigorous shrubs. Remontant – flowers and autumn. Good for borders.
Provence (Centifolia) – loose, thorny usually double, large, and pointed, Groundcover – stems long, trailing or
shrubs. Leaves dark green. Flowers solitary or in threes, in summer and spreading, more or less prostrate. Often
scented, usually double, solitary or in autumn. Good for borders and remontant – flowers single to double,
threes in summer. Good for borders. for cutting. in clusters of 3–11 in summer and
Sempervirens – semi-evergreen climbers. Floribunda (Cluster-flowered Bush) – vigor- autumn. Good for low to medium
Leaves glossy, bright pale to mid-green. ous, free-flowering shrub. Remontant – groundcover, threading through low
Flowers semi-double to double, many, flowers single or double, 3–25 per shrubs and for beds, banks and walls.
in late summer. Good for pergolas and spray in summer and autumn. Good Climbing – vigorous climbers with
fences, also for naturalizing. for borders and hedges. rather rigid stems. Sometimes remon-
Tea – shrubs and climbers. Leaves Patio (Dwarf Floribunda) – small, com- tant – flowers single to double, solitary
glossy, pale green. Remontant – flowers pact shrubs (to 60 x 60cm (24 x 24in)). or clustered, from late spring to
semi-double to double, pointed, spicily Remontant – flowers single to double, autumn. Good for walls, fences
scented, slender-stemmed, solitary or in 3–11 per spray in summer and and pergolas.
threes in summer and autumn. Good autumn. Good for beds, hedging Rambler – climbers with robust, lax
for sheltered borders. and containers. stems. Flowers single to double, in
MODERN ROSES Miniature Bush – dwarf bush (to 45 x clusters of 3–21 in summer. Good
688 Shrub – varied category of bush roses, 40cm (18 x 16in)). Leaves very small. for walls, pergolas and trees.
mostly remontant and attaining 1–2m Remontant – flowers small, single to (See table, facing page.)
Rosa
ROSA
R. x alba garden origin stout, arching, leaflets 5(–7), dull green, 1–3 per cluster, semi-double 2–2.5cm
(R.gallica x R.arvensis or 1.8–2.5m (6–8ft), ovate to round, shortly or double, 6–8cm (21⁄2–3in) (3⁄4–1in), more
R.corymbifera or R.canina prickles scattered, acuminate to obtuse, across, fragrant; sepals with or less spherical,
x R. damascena) hooked, often glabrous above, downy lobes and leafy tips, red
WHITE ROSE, WHITE mixed with bristles beneath, toothed glandular-bristly, reflexed;
ROSE OF YORK petals white to pale pink
Comments: ‘Alba Maxima’: JACOBITE ROSE, CHESHIRE ROSE; flowers double, pink fading to cream. ‘Alba Semiplena’: semi-double, white.
R.banksiae W and C strong, climbing to leaflets 2–6.5cm (3⁄4–21⁄2in), many per umbel-like cyme, 0.7cm (1⁄4in),
BANKSIAN ROSE, LADY China 12m (39ft), more 3–7, oblong-lanceolate to single or double, fragrant, spherical,
BANKS’S ROSE or less unarmed elliptic-ovate, acute or 2.5–3cm (1–11⁄4in) across; dull red
obtuse, glossy above, sepals entire, reflexed; petals
sometimes downy beneath, creamy white to lemon or
margin wavy, toothed pale primrose yellow
Comments: var. banksiae: flowers double, white, violet-scented. var. normalis: flowers single, white, very fragrant, and stem usually prickly. ‘Lutea’:
stem generally unarmed; leaflets usually 5; flowers double, yellow, slightly fragrant. ‘Lutescens’: flowers single, yellow, highly scented.
R.californica W US to erect, 1.5–3m leaflets 1–3.5cm (1⁄2–11⁄2in), in clusters, single, fragrant, to 1.5cm (5⁄8in),
Mexico (Baja (5–10ft) tall, red- 5–7, ovate to broadly 3.7–4cm (11⁄2in) across; spherical with a
California) brown, prickles elliptic, obtuse, hairless or sepals entire, hairy on the neck, smooth
stout, broad-based, downy above, downy and back, erect; petals deep pink
recurved in pairs, often glandular beneath, to bright crimson
with bristles on toothed
young shoots.
R. x centifolia garden to 2m (61⁄2ft), leaflets 5–7, dull green, 1 to few, double, globose, ellipsoidal or
PROVENCE ROSE, origin prickles many broadly ovate to almost very fragrant, 6–8cm spherical, red
CABBAGE ROSE, small, almost round, glabrous above, (21⁄2–3in) across; sepals
HOLLAND ROSE straight and downy beneath, lobed, glandular; spreading;
larger, hooked glandular-toothed petals usually pink, more
rarely white or dark red
Comments: A complex hybrid involving R.gallica, R.moschata, R.canina pink flower with a green fringe. ‘Muscosa’: COMMON MOSS ROSE; calyx
and R. x damascena. ‘Bullata’: leaflets crinkled, tinged brown above and flower-stalks bearing a mass of many-branched, green, scented
when young; flowers pink. ‘Cristata’: sepals divided, providing each glands forming the so-called ‘moss’.
R.chinensis
CHINA ROSE, BENGAL
ROSE
garden
origin
dwarf to more or
less climbing to 6m
(20ft), prickles
leaflets 2.5–6cm (1–21⁄2in),
3–5, lanceolate to broadly
ovate, acuminate, glossy and
solitary or in clusters, single or
semi-double, 5cm (2in) across,
often fragrant; sepals entire or
l.5–2cm
(5⁄8–3⁄4in), ovoid
to pear-shaped,
R
absent or scattered, hairless above, hairless beneath lobed, smooth or glandular, green-brown
hooked, flattened except for downy midrib, reflexed; petals pale pink to to scarlet
margins with simple teeth scarlet or crimson
Comments: Repeat-flowering, contributing this feature to European purple or coppery when young; flowers single, fragrant, 4.5–6cm
roses when it was introduced around 1800. ‘Minima’ (syn. ‘Pompon de (13⁄4–21⁄2in) across, petals yellow with an orange back, turning coppery
Paris’): FAIRY ROSE, PYGMY ROSE; 20–50cm (8–20in); flowers circa 3cm salmon-pink and eventually deep pink, and ‘Viridiflora’: GREEN ROSE;
(11⁄4in) across, rose-red, single or double, petals pointed. Cultivars now petals green streaked with purple-red, stamens and pistils mutated to
included in R. x odorata: ‘Mutabilis’: 1–1.7m (31⁄4–51⁄2ft); leaflets tinged leafy, narrow, toothed segments.
R. ‘Maiden’s Blush’ (Alba) R. x centifolia R. x centifolia ‘Muscosa’ R. x damascena var.

semperflorens 689
Rosa
ROSA
R. x damascena Asia Minor to 2.2m (7ft), leaflets 5(–7), grey-green, in clusters of up to 12, semi- 2.5cm (1in),
(R.gallica x R.moschata) prickles dense, ovate to elliptic, acute to double, fragrant; sepals turbinate, red,
SUMMER DAMASK ROSE stout, curved, obtuse, downy beneath, lobed, with slender tips, bristly
bristles stiff toothed glandular and hairy, reflexed;
petals pink
Comments: var. semperflorens: AUTUMN DAMASK ROSE, FOUR SEASONS partly pale pink. ‘Trigintipetala’ (syn. ‘Professeur Emile Perrot’):
ROSE, QUATRE SAISONS ROSE, MONTHLY ROSE; flowers produced in KAZANLIK ROSE; flowers semi-double, circa 8cm (3in) across, red.
autumn. var. versicolor: YORK AND LANCASTER ROSE; flowers loosely ‘Portlandica’: PORTLAND ROSE; flowers semi-double, bright red, faintly
double, petals deep pink or very pale pink or partly deep pink and scented, produced from mid-summer to autumn.
R. ‘Dupontii’ garden Comments: Differs from R.moschata in its smaller size (2–3m (61⁄2–10ft) tall), leaflets with compound
DUPONT ROSE; SNOW- origin teeth, flowers single, 6–7.5cm (21⁄2–3in) across, creamy pink with sepals glandular beneath.
BUSH ROSE
R.ecae NE much-branched, aromatic, leaflets solitary, single, 2–3m 0.5–1cm

Afghanistan, erect, suckering, to 0.4–0.8cm (1⁄8–3⁄8in), 5–9, (61⁄2–10ft) across; sepals (1⁄4–1⁄2in),
NW Pakistan 1.5m (5ft), prickles elliptic to obovate or more entire, hairless, spreading or spherical, shiny
and adjacent dense, straight, or less orbicular, obtuse, deflexed; petals deep yellow red-brown,
Russia, flattened, red-tinged glandular beneath, teeth smooth and
N China often glandular hairless
Comments: ‘Golden Chersonese’: R.ecae x R.xanthina ‘Canary Bird’; to 2m (61⁄2ft), with the aromatic leaves and deep yellow flowers of R.ecae.
‘Helen Knight’: R.ecae x R.pimpinellifolia ‘Grandiflora’; stems red-brown to 3m (10ft) with support; flowers large, yellow.
R.filipes W China arching and coppery when young; to 100 or more in large 0.8–1.5cm
climbing to 9m leaflets 3.5–8cm (11⁄2–3in), clusters, single, fragrant, (3⁄8–5⁄8in),
(28ft), purple when 5–7, narrowly ovate to 2–2.5cm (3⁄4–1in) across; spherical to
young, prickles few, narrowly elliptic, sepals lobed, glandular and ellipsoid, orange
small, hooked acuminate, hairless slightly downy or hairless, to crimson-
or downy on veins reflexed; petals creamy or scarlet
beneath, toothed white
Comments: ‘Kiftsgate’: fast-growing climber; very free-flowering, inflorescence to 45cm (18in) across, flowers white to cream.
R.foetida SW and erect or arching, leaflets 1.5–4cm (5⁄8–11⁄2in), solitary or 2–4, single, to 1cm (1⁄2in),
AUSTRIAN BRIAR, WC Asia l–3m (31⁄4–10ft), 5–9, elliptic to obovate, 5–7.5cm (2–3in) across, spherical, red,
AUSTRIAN YELLOW then grey-brown, obtuse to subacute, bright malodorous; sepals entire or smooth or
R ROSE prickles few, straight

or curved, mixed
with bristles
green and subglabrous
above, dull green, downy
and somewhat glandular
lobed, apex expanded,
hairless or glandular-bristly,
erect; petals deep yellow
bristly
beneath, teeth few,

compound, glandular
Comments: ‘Bicolor’: AUSTRIAN COPPER BRIAR; petals coppery red inside and yellow-buff on the back; branches occasionally revert to the
yellow-flowered form. ‘Persiana’: PERSIAN DOUBLE YELLOW; flowers very double, yellow, freely produced, smaller than those of R.foetida.
R. x damascena ‘Portlandica’ R. ‘Dupontii’ R.ecae R.filipes ‘Kiftsgate’

690
Rosa
ROSA
R.gallica S and C erect, shrubby, leaflets 3–7, leathery, solitary, or 2–4, single or to 1cm (1⁄2in),
FRENCH ROSE, RED ROSE Europe to suckering, 50–200cm broadly elliptic to almost semi-double, fragrant, 4–8cm spherical to
Caucasus (20–79in), green orbicular, dark green (11⁄2–3in) across; sepals lobed, ellipsoid, brick
to dull red, prickles above, hairy and glandular glandular, reflexed; petals red, glandular-
slender, curved to beneath, teeth compound, rose-pink or crimson bristly
hooked, bristles usually glandular
glandular
Comments: var. officinalis: syn. R.officinalis; APOTHECARIES’ ROSE, OFFICINAL ROSE, RED ROSE OF LANCASTER; flowers semi-double, crimson, very
fragrant. ‘Versicolor’ flowers semi-double 7–9cm (23⁄4–31⁄2in) across, striped white, pink and red; often reverts; often confused with R. x damascena
‘Versicolor’.
R.glauca C and S erect to arching leaflets 2–4.5cm (3⁄4–13⁄4in), solitary or 2–12, single, 1.3–1.5cm
R.rubrifolia Europe 1.5–3m (5–10ft) tall, 5–9, leaden grey-green to 2.5–4cm (1–11⁄2in) across; (1⁄2–5⁄8in), ovoid
dark red and blue-green, often tinged sepals entire or lobed, to subglobose,
bloomy when pink to purple-red, smooth or glandular-bristly, brown-red,
young, prickles glaucous, ovate to narrowly spreading; petals pale to smooth or with
sparse, straight or elliptic, acute, hairless, deep pink, white at base sparse glandular
decurved, broad- toothed bristles
based, bristles
sometimes present
R.laevigata S China, green, climbing to leaflets 3–9cm (11⁄4–31⁄2in), solitary, single, fragrant, 3.5–4cm (11⁄2in),
CHEROKEE ROSE Taiwan, 10m (33ft) or more, 3–5, lanceolate to elliptic 5–10cm (2–4in) across; sepals pear-shaped,
Vietnam, prickles scattered, or ovate, leathery, acute or entire, bristly, erect; petals orange-red to
Laos, stout, red-brown, acuminate, glossy above, white or creamy white red, bristly
Cambodia, hooked midrib sometimes prickly
Burma, beneath, toothed
naturalized
S US
R.longicuspis NE India, scrambling and tinged red when young; to 15 in a loose cluster, 1.5–2cm
W China, climbing to 6m leaflets 5–10cm (2–4in) single, smelling of bananas, (5⁄8–3⁄4in),
Burma (20ft), tinged red 3–7, narrowly ovate to to 5cm (2in) across; sepals broadly ellipsoid
when young, elliptic, leathery, lobed, hairy and glandular; to spherical, red
prickles short, acuminate, occasionally petals white, silky beneath to orange, often
curved or hooked downy on midrib beneath, hairy and
or absent toothed glandular
R.moschata
MUSK ROSE
unknown
in the wild;
widely
arching or semi-
climbing, purple or
leaflets 3–7cm (11⁄4–23⁄4in),
5–7, broadly ovate to
in few-flowered loose
clusters, single, with a musky
scent, 3–5.5cm (11⁄4–21⁄8in)
to 1.5cm (5⁄8in),
subglobose to
ovoid, orange-
R
red-tinged 3–10m broadly elliptic, acute
cultivated (10–33ft), prickles or acuminate, shiny and across; sepals entire lobed, red, usually
few, scattered, hairless above, downy or hairy, reflexed; petals white downy an

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THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY

For Dorling Kindersley

First published by Dorling Kindersley in 2005

THE PENGUIN GROUP

Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 375 Hudson Street, New York,

Penguin Group (Canada), 10 Alcorn Avenue, Toronto,

Penguin Books Ltd, 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL, England.

Penguin Ireland, 25 St Stephen’s Green, Dublin 2, Ireland

Penguin Group (Australia), 250 Camberwell Road, Camberwell,

Penguin Books India Pvt Ltd, 11 Community Centre,

Penguin Group (NZ), Cnr Airborne and Rosedale Roads, Albany,

Penguin Books (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd, 24 Sturdee Avenue,

Text copyright © 2005 The Royal Horticultural Society

A-Z of horticultural and botanical terms and phrases 07

Notes, abbreviations and conversions 08

Pests and diseases: diagnostic charts 839

Visual glossary of plant forms 843

Index of common names 855

The introduction of carefully chosen colour

Limited mention is made of chemical control measures for pests,

10 A.alba A.balsamea A.concolor A.homolepis

A.lasiocarpa var. SW USA bark thick, creamy-white, corky silver-grey

A.lasiocarpa var. arizonica A.magnifica A.nordmanniana A.pinsapo 11

Acacia (From Greek akakia, a plant

14 A.baileyana A.cultriformis A.dealbata A.decurrens

A.mucronata Australia Comments: Similiar to A.longifolia, but with narrower

A.pendula E Australia to 6 x 4m (20 x 12ft) to 10 x 1cm (4 x 1⁄2in), undivided, lemon-yellow in short,

Comments: Small to medium-sized

A.farnesiana A.longifolia A.pravissima A.retinodes 15

A.ulicifolia SE Australia to 3 x 2m to 2cm (3⁄4in), undivided, needle-like, solitary, creamy-yellow balls

light misting over on warm days in late

18 A.buergerianum A.campestre A.carpinifolium

A.cissifolium China; small, spreading tree to composed of 3 distinct leaflets to 8cm

A.circinatum A.crataegifolium ‘Veitchii’ A.davidii 19

A.macrophyllum W N America large, broad-crowned to 28cm (11in) wide, palmately 3–5-

A.maximowiczianum Japan; round-headed small composed of 3 leaflets to 12 x 6cm (43⁄4 x

20 A.heldreichii A.japonicum ‘Aconitifolium’ A.negundo ‘Variegatum’

A.oblongum Himalaya; semi-evergreen or peeling, grey to 12cm (43⁄4in) long, oblong-obovate,

A.palmatum ‘Bloodgood’ A. platanoides ‘Crimson King’ A.pseudoplatanus ‘Brilliantissimum’ 21

22 A.rubrum ‘Schlesingeri’ A.saccharum ‘Temple’s Upright’ A.tataricum ssp. ginnala

2–3-pinnate, each segment ending in a

Infestations on young conifers –

unbranched, to 25cm (10in) tall and

aestivation the arrangement of

and flowing branches of some species).

A unscented); A. x pentaphylla (leaflets

alkaline in gardening, mainly

36 A.acuminatum A.caeruleum A.cernuum A.cristophii

Comments: Includes ‘Blue Leaf ’ (‘Glaucum’) with strongly glaucous, blue-

A.flavum A.giganteum A.karataviense 37

A.scorodoprasum E Europe; spring–summer 25–90cm to 30cm (12in), lilac to purple, small in

38 A.moly A.neapolitanum A.oreophilum A.schoenoprasum ‘Forescate’

allogamy see cross-fertilization. bark dark and sooty in appearance and

Comments: Stately, slow-growing tree for hot, dry climates.

40 A.arborescens ‘Variegata’ A.aristata A.ciliaris A.distans

A.distans S Africa stems to 3m (10ft) long, to 15 x 7cm (6 x 2 ⁄4in),

A.ferox A.saponaria A.striata A.variegata 41

A.variegata S Africa; Namibia very short-stemmed, 5–15 x 1.5–5cm (2–6 x ⁄8–2in),

describe a piece of grassland where a

species from autumn to early spring.

feed liberally when in growth,

A.coronaria ‘Lord Lieutenant’ A. x fulgens A.narcissiflora A. pavonina 49

bearing delicately branched panicles.