agronomy
Article
Changes in Growth and Physiological Parameters
of ×Amarine Following an Exogenous Application
of Gibberellic Acid and Methyl Jasmonate
Piotr Salachna 1, * , Małgorzata Mikiciuk 2 , Agnieszka Zawadzińska 1 , Rafał Piechocki 1 ,
Piotr Ptak 2 , Grzegorz Mikiciuk 1 , Anna Pietrak 1 and Łukasz Łopusiewicz 3
1
2
3
*
Department of Horticulture, West Pomeranian University of Technology, 3 Papieża Pawła VI Str.,
71-459 Szczecin, Poland; agnieszka.zawadzinska@zut.edu.pl (A.Z.); rafal.piechocki@zut.edu.pl (R.P.);
grzegorz.mikiciuk@zut.edu.pl (G.M.); aniusia.pietrak943@gmail.com (A.P.)
Department of Bioengineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology, 17 Słowackiego Str.,
71-434 Szczecin, Poland; malgorzata.mikiciuk@zut.edu.pl (M.M.); piotr.ptak@zut.edu.pl (P.P.)
Center of Bioimmobilisation and Innovative Packaging Materials, Faculty of Food Sciences and Fisheries,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, 35 Janickiego Str., 71-270 Szczecin, Poland;
lukasz.lopusiewicz@zut.edu.pl
Correspondence: piotr.salachna@zut.edu.pl; Tel.: +48-91-4496-359
Received: 5 June 2020; Accepted: 6 July 2020; Published: 8 July 2020
Abstract: ×Amarine hybrids are attractive ornamental geophytes grown for cut flower production.
Their cultivation is limited due to lesser flowering percentages and lesser bulb weight gain. To
optimize the growth and propagation of geophytes, plant growth regulators (PGRs) are used, but so
far none have been tested in ×Amarine. We investigated the effect of gibberellic acid (GA3 ; 50, 100, and
200 mg dm−3 ) and methyl jasmonate (MeJA; 100, 500, and 1000 µmol dm−3 ) on growth, flowering,
bulb yield, and select physiological parameters of ×A. tubergenii “Zwanenburg”. PGRs were applied
as foliar sprays on the 70th and 77th day after planting. GA3 treatment at 200 mg dm−3 exhibited the
greatest leaf number, leaf length, bulb weight, daughter bulb number, CO2 assimilation intensity,
greenness index, total sugars, and total protein content in bulbs. GA3 application at 100 and 200 mg
dm−3 accelerated flowering and at 50 and 100 mg dm−3 significantly increased the bulb flowering
percentage. MeJA at all tested concentrations prolonged anthesis time and reduced the bulb flowering
percentage. GA3 at all concentrations and MeJA at 500 and 1000 µmol dm−3 stimulated daughter
bulbs formation. GA3 , especially at 200 mg dm−3 can improve anthesis and increase ×A. tubergenii
“Zwanenburg” bulb yield.
Keywords: cut flower; bulb propagation; phytohormones; GA3 ; MeJA; gas exchange
1. Introduction
Ornamental plant production is an important horticultural branch. The expansion of the selection
with previously unknown species, their hybrids, and new varieties is a key factor for the development
of this sector [1]. An important part of flower production is the cultivation and reproduction of bulbous
plants [2]. There are more than 800 different botanical genera of ornamental geophytes on the market.
Their number systematically increases due to species introduction from natural sites and extensive
breeding programs [3,4]. Plants newly introduced to the flower market lack appropriate cultivation
technologies and methods of species propagation. Therefore, research is needed to effectively encourage
producers to start growing previously unknown plants.
Among bulbous plants, considerable success was achieved in the breeding of Amaryllidaceae
interspecific and intergeneric hybrids [5], using for crosses South African species from the genera
Agronomy 2020, 10, 980; doi:10.3390/agronomy10070980
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Amaryllis L., Brunsvigia Heister, Clivia Lindl., Cyrtanthus W. Aiton, Haemanthus L., and Nerine Herb.
These plants are cultivated for their attractive flowers [6] and as a source of valuable alkaloids with
therapeutic effects [7]. Breeding resulted in the nothogenus ×Amarine tubergenii Sealy, a hybrid between
Amaryllis belladonna L. and Nerine bowdenii Watson [8]. Inflorescence of ×A. tubergenii sets on a long
leafless stem and consists of helicoid cymes inflorescence, each with several pink florets (Figure 1a,b).
The leaves are dark green, ensiform, form a rosette, and grow directly from bottle-shaped perennial
bulbs covered with brown scales (Figure 1c,d). ×A. tubergenii inflorescences demonstrate very good
post-harvest durability and are a desirable commodity on the cut flower market [9]. As a result of
further intergeneric crosses, many ×Amarine varieties were obtained, differing in floret color, size, and
flowering time. Research is lacking on ×Amarine cultivation, which is an obstacle to the wider spread
of this prospective ornamental plant.
Figure 1. An inflorescence of ×A. tubergenii (a) and in full anthesis (b). Perennial bulb of ×A. tubergenii
with daughter bulbs (c) and a longitudinal section through a dormant bulb (d).
A. belladonna and N. bowdenii species, from which ×Amarine was obtained, differ in the duration of
dormancy and growth and development stages. In A. belladonna, the foliage emerges after anthesis
(a hysteranthous growth habit), while in N. bowdenii foliage emerges before anthesis (a synanthous
growth habit) [10]. In the Northern Hemisphere, after a dormancy period, ×Amarine bulbs first grow
leaves in the spring, followed by floral stems in late summer and autumn. After anthesis, the plants
become dormant. During this time, the bulbs should be exposed to decreased temperatures for flower
primordia initiation. A serious problem in ×A. tubergenii cultivation is decreased flowering percentages
commonly observed in N. bowdenii [11], a parent plant of the hybrid. The reasons for nonflowering in
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N. bowdenii are complex and result from many independent factors, such as inadequate temperature
during bulb dormancy and plant growth, undersized bulbs, or insufficient carbohydrate content [12].
The flowering of ×A. tubergenii hybrids are irregular and extended in time (unpublished data), which
limits their widespread use as a cut-flower crop.
In ornamental plant cultivation, plant growth regulators (PGRs) are used. They are active
at exceptionally decreased concentrations and participate in the regulation of growth, anthesis,
propagation, and physiological and metabolic processes [13,14]. Gibberellins are one of the best
known natural phytohormones widely used in horticulture to terminate dormancy [15], stimulate
floret formation and development [16], and accelerate or delay plant anthesis [17]. Gibberellins are
responsible for stem elongation [18], stimulation of cell division and development of lateral buds [19],
and also intensify photosynthesis and respiration [20]. Conversely, jasmonates, including methyl
jasmonate (MeJA), are a fairly recently discovered phytohormone class [21]. MeJA is involved in
regulating germination [22], morphogenesis [23], and aging [24], as well as the plant response to
environmental stresses [25]. The available data from studies on the influence of MeJA on plant growth
present divergent results. MeJA shows both growth-stimulating and growth-inhibiting effects [26,27],
it can speed up or inhibit anthesis [28,29], and increase or decrease bulbing [30,31].
As there is no information on the use of PGRs in ×A. tubergenii cultivation, we assessed the effect
of gibberellic acid (GA3 ) and MeJA at different concentrations on ×A. tubergenii morphological traits,
anthesis, and bulb yield. To obtain information on potential physiological changes induced by GA3
or MeJA, the study also examined select gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters and
determined total sugars and total protein content in bulbs. We hypothesized that the applied regulators
influenced the growth and physiological condition of ×A. tubergenii plants.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Location, Plant Materials, and Growth Conditions
The experiment was conducted in an unheated plastic house (25 m in length, 9 m in width, and
4.7 m in total height), covered with a double layer of UV-resistant foil, located at the West Pomeranian
University of Technology in Szczecin (53◦ 25′ N, 14◦ 32′ E, 25 m a.s.l., sub-zone 7a USDA).
Dormant ×A. tubergenii “Zwanenburg” bulbs with a 12–14 cm circumference and an average
fresh weight of 39.0 g, imported from the Netherlands by Ogrodnictwo Wiśniewski Jacek Junior
(Góraszka, Poland), were stored for 3 weeks in dark at 5–8 ◦ C until planting. Before planting, sorted
for disease-free bulbs were treated for 30 min in a fungicide mixture containing 0.7% (w/v) Topsin M
500 SC (Nippon Soda, Tokyo, Japan, active ingredient: thiophanate-methyl) and 1% (w/v) Kaptan 50
WP (Organika-Azot Chemical Company, Jaworzno, Poland, active ingredient: Captan). On 14 April,
the bulbs were planted individually into black round PVC pots with 15 cm diameter and a 1.5 dm3
capacity, filled with deacidified peat (Kronen, Cerkwica, Poland) (pH 6.3; 16 mg dm−3 N-NO3 , 42
mg dm−3 P, 19 mg dm−3 K, 1550 mg dm−3 Ca, 101 mg dm−3 Mg and 27 mg dm−3 Cl) mixed with
Hydrocomplex fertilizer (Yara International ASA, Oslo, Norway) containing 12% N, 11% P2 O5 , 18%
K2 O, 2.7% MgO, 8% S, 0.015% B, 0.2% Fe, 0.02% Mn, and 0.02% Zn at a dose of 3 g dm−3 . The pots
were placed in 60 × 40 × 19 cm plastic boxes, six pots per box, which were placed in a tunnel on white
non-woven fabric. The air temperature was regulated with air vents, which opened automatically
when the temperature exceeded 22 ◦ C. The average monthly maximum/minimum air temperature
and average relative humidity (RH) in the plastic house were respectively: April 22.7 ◦ C/6.8 ◦ C, 70.9%
RH; May 25.0 ◦ C/6.9 ◦ C, 76.9% RH; June 27.3 ◦ C/13.3 ◦ C, 70.6% RH; July 32.5 ◦ C/17.6 ◦ C, 69.4% RH;
August 25.6◦ C/14.7 ◦ C, 78.5% RH; September 25.9 ◦ C/13.0 ◦ C, 80.4% RH; October 18.6 ◦ C/7.1 ◦ C, 90.2%
RH; and November 14.9 ◦ C/5.5◦ C, 95.7% RH. The plants were cultivated until 15 November under
natural day/night conditions (without shade nets or artificial lighting). The photosynthetic photon
flux density (PPFD) in the plastic house on a sunny day ranged from 420 to 1151 µmol m−2 s−1 (as per
Radiometer-Fotometr RF-100, Sonopan, Białystok, Poland).
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2.2. Experimental Design
On the 70th and 77th day after planting we used two growth regulators from Sigma-Aldrich
Chemie GmbH (Schnelldorf, Germany): gibberellic acid (GA3 ) at 50, 100, and 200 mg dm−3 , and methyl
jasmonate (MeJA) at 100, 500, and 1000 µmol dm−3 . The plants were sprayed in the afternoon with an
aqueous solution of GA3 or MeJA, using about 15 cm3 solution per plant. The control plants were
sprayed with distilled water. Ethanol (0.04%, v/v) was used as a solvent. Directly after spraying, a
plastic bag was placed on each plant and removed after two hours. Each experimental variant included
18 plants, six plants per repetition, in a random block system (Figure 2).
Figure 2. ×A. tubergenii “Zwanenburg” plants on the 70th day after planting.
2.3. Determination of Plant Growth Parameters
The number of days from bulb planting to the beginning of anthesis was recorded when the first
florets in the inflorescence opened. In this phase, we determined the stem length, leaf number, and
length and width of the longest leaf. The flowering bulb number (%) was determined in relation to the
bulb number planted. When the inflorescences were fully developed, we counted the florets in each.
Once the cultivation was complete, we removed the plants from the pots and determined the bulb
fresh weight and the daughter bulb number per single planted bulb.
2.4. Determination of Gas Exchange Rate, Chlorophyll Fluorescence, and Leaf Relative Chlorophyll Content
The parameters of the gas exchange rate, including CO2 assimilation intensity (A), transpiration
(E), stomatal conductance for water (gs ), and CO2 concentration in the intercellular spaces of the
assimilatory parenchyma (ci ) were measured with a TPS-2 (PP Systems) portable gas analyzer (with
standard settings), equipped with a PLC4 measuring chamber operating in an open system. Based
on CO2 assimilation intensity and transpiration, the photosynthetic water-use efficiency (ωW ) was
calculated as a ratio of assimilation intensity to transpiration [32].
Chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were recorded using a Handy PEA (Hansatech)
spectrofluorometer, based on the standard apparatus procedure. Leaves were shaded for 20 min prior
to the measurement with a leaf clip (4 mm in diameter). The following parameters of chlorophyll
fluorescence induction were measured and calculated using the spectrofluorometer: initial fluorescence
excitation energy loss index in power antennas (F0 ); maximum fluorescence after reduction of acceptors
in photosystem II (PSII) and after dark adaptation (FM ); variable fluorescence, determined after dark
adaptation, a parameter dependent on the maximum quantum yield of PSII (FV = FM − F0 ); maximum
potential photochemical reaction efficiency in PSII determined after dark adaptation and after reduction
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of acceptors in PS II (FV /FM ); PSII vitality index for the overall viability of this system (P I); the surface
area above the chlorophyll fluorescence curve and between the F0 and FM points proportional to the
size of the reduced plastoquinone acceptors in PS II (Area) [33].
Leaf relative chlorophyll content (greenness index) on the Soil and Plant Analysis Development
(SPAD) scale was measured with the Chlorophyll Meter SPAD 502 (Konica-Minolta cooperation, Ltd.,
Osaka, Japan).
Non-destructive measurements of the gas exchange rate, chlorophyll fluorescence, and SPAD
were carried out on the 91st cultivation day from 09:00 AM to 12:00 PM in the middle part of the
adaxial leaf blades. The measurements involved two fully expanded leaves with a length of 48–50 cm
and width of 2.0−2.2 cm in two matched for size plants from each repetition. The conditions in the
tunnel during the analyses were: temperature 20−22 ◦ C, relative air humidity 70−75%, natural light
(PPFD 450 µmol m−2 s−1 ), air CO2 concentration 600 µmol mol−1 .
2.5. Determination of Total Sugars and Total Protein Content in Bulbs
Once the cultivation was complete, four bulbs from each experimental variant were cleaned from
the covering scales and roots. The analyses involved bulbs of similar fresh weight. The bulbs were
cut longitudinally into four segments with a knife, and then middle scales were cut out from each
segment and analyzed. Samples (250−300 g) were taken for the determination of total sugars and
total protein. Concentrations of both reducing and invert sugars were determined by extraction with
diluted ethanol, clarification of extracts with Carrez solutions, and titration with sodium thiosulphate
solution in the presence of Luff-Schoorl reagent according to PN-R-64784:1994 standard. Total protein
content was calculated based on nitrogen content determination according to the Kjeldahl method
using a mineralization block, copper catalyst, and steam distillation into boric acid according to PN-EN
ISO 5983-2:2009 standard. Content determination of the tested components was performed in three
repetitions and presented as a percentage of fresh weight.
2.6. Data Analysis
The experimental results were statistically analyzed with the one-way ANOVA using Statistica
13.3 (TIBCO Software Inc. Statsoft, Kraków, Poland). To ensure the normality of data distribution, the
plant flowering percentages were subjected to the Bliss transformation (arcsin(sqrt(X)) and the analysis
of variance. The confidence intervals were calculated based on Tukey’s HSD test (p ≤ 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Effects of Foliar Application of GA3 and MeJA Solutions on Growth, Flowering, and Bulb Yield
Treatments with exogenous PGRs significantly affected the leaf number and their length, but not
the stem length and floret number per inflorescence (Table 1). Plants treated with GA3 at all applied
concentrations and MeJA at 500 and 1000 µmol dm−3 formed significantly more leaves as compared
with the control. The plants sprayed with GA3 at 200 mg dm−3 produced the greatest leaf number,
which were also the longest.
In all cases, one bulb produced only one inflorescence. Anthesis time and bulb flowering
percentage depended on the phytohormone type and concentration (Table 2). Plants treated with 100
and 200 mg dm−3 GA3 were the first to start anthesis, while those sprayed with 50 and 100 mg dm−3
GA3 showed the greatest flowering percentage. MeJA treatment delayed flowering and significantly
reduced the flowering plant number, regardless of the concentration applied.
PGR treatments and their concentrations influenced bulb yield (Table 3). Spraying with GA3
solutions at all tested concentrations and MeJA at 1000 µmol dm−3 significantly increased the fresh
bulb weight as compared with the control plants. Plants treated with 100 and 200 mg dm−3 GA3
exhibited the greatest fresh bulb weight. Greater PGR concentrations (GA3 at 100 and 200 mg dm−3 ;
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MeJA at 500 and 1000 µmol dm−3 ) significantly increased the daughter bulb number in comparison
with untreated plants.
Table 1. Effects of GA3 and MeJA on morphological traits of ×Amarine tubergenii “Zwanenburg” at the
beginning of anthesis.
Treatment
GA3
MeJA
Control
50 mg dm−3
100 mg dm−3
200 mg dm−3
100 µmol dm−3
500 µmol dm−3
1000 µmol dm−3
Leaves (no.)
Leaf Length (cm)
Stem Length (cm)
Florets (no.)
9.00 ± 0.50 d, *
11.2 ± 0.76 bc
12.3 ± 0.25 ba
12.8 ± 0.29 a
9.00 ± 0.50 d
10.5 ± 0.50 c
11.5 ± 0.50 abc
49.9 ± 1.49 bc
51.8 ± 1.07 bc
53.8 ± 1.97 b
58.1 ± 2.28 a
49.1 ± 1.50 c
51.1 ± 0.75 bc
50.4 ± 0.80 bc
72.5 ± 4.39 a
72.5 ± 0.95 a
74.0 ± 4.52 a
75.6 ± 4.15 a
72.3 ± 2.78 a
71.6 ± 3.45 a
73.5 ± 4.20 a
7.97 ± 0.64 a
8.33 ± 0.76 a
8.33 ± 0.76 a
7.97 ± 0.64 a
7.87 ± 0.15 a
7.58 ± 0.38 a
7.50 ± 0.43 a
* Means over each column not marked with the same letter are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05. Data are expressed
as mean and standard deviation (±SD).
Table 2. Effects of GA3 and MeJA on anthesis time and the bulb flowering percentage of ×Amarine
tubergenii “Zwanenburg”.
Treatment
GA3
MeJA
Control
50 mg dm−3
100 mg dm−3
200 mg dm−3
100 µmol dm−3
500 µmol dm−3
1000 µmol dm−3
Time to Anthesis (d)
Bulbs Flowering (%)
188 ± 1.00 b *
185 ± 2.65 bc
177 ± 2.65 c
176 ± 1.00 c
206 ± 5.51 a
206 ± 5.03 a
203 ± 5.86 a
46.5 ± 8.85 bc
82.2 ± 16.3 a
82.2 ± 16.3 a
65.6 ± 4.21 ab
30.4 ± 6.66 c
22.8 ± 8.28 c
28.0 ± 7.68 c
* Means over each column not marked with the same letter are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05. Data are expressed
as mean and standard deviation (±SD).
Table 3. Effects of GA3 and MeJA on ×Amarine tubergenii “Zwanenburg” bulb yield.
Treatment
GA3
MeJA
Control
50 mg dm−3
100 mg dm−3
200 mg dm−3
100 µmol dm−3
500 µmol dm−3
1000 µmol dm−3
Bulb Weight (g)
c*
97.7 ± 1.46
107 ± 3.61 b
128 ± 5.51 a
134 ± 4.26 a
99.1 ± 2.80 c
100 ± 3.61 c
112 ± 4.63 b
Daughter Bulbs (no.)
1.28 ± 0.03 b
1.78 ± 0.20 ab
2.16 ± 0.15 a
2.30 ± 0.30 a
1.35 ± 0.13 b
2.27 ± 0.25 a
2.27 ± 0.25 a
* Means over each column not marked with the same letter are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05. Data are expressed
as mean and standard deviation (±SD).
3.2. Effects of Foliar Application of GA3 and MeJA Solutions on Gas Exchange Rate
Table 4 presents the data on leaf gas exchange parameters depending on the plant hormone and
its concentration. The greatest CO2 assimilation intensity (A) was found in plants sprayed with 200
mg dm−3 GA3 solution. This parameter in the other variants did not differ significantly from the
control. GA3 or MeJA application resulted in a significant increase in the intensity of transpiration (E),
as compared with untreated plants, except for 1000 µmol dm−3 MeJA. The greatest E was recorded in
plants sprayed with 100 µmol dm−3 MeJA. The increase was more than twofold vs. the control. Plants
treated with 50 mg dm−3 GA3 exhibited the greatest photosynthetic water-use efficiency (ωW ). The ωW
for the other treatments did not differ significantly from the control. Exogenous application of GA3
and MeJA at all tested concentrations resulted in a significant increase in water stomatal conductance
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(gS ). Compared to untreated plants, the greatest, more than fourfold increase in gS was recorded after
the application of 100 and 500 µmol dm−3 MeJA. Both phytohormones triggered a significant increase
in CO2 concentration in the intercellular spaces (ci ), particularly noticeable in the plants treated with
1000 µmol dm−3 MeJA.
Table 4. Effects of GA3 and MeJA on CO2 assimilation intensity (A), transpiration (E), photosynthetic
water-use efficiency (ωW ), stomatal conductance (gs ), and CO2 concentration (ci ) of ×A. tubergenii
“Zwanenburg”.
Treatment
GA3
MeJA
Control
50 mg dm−3
100 mg dm−3
200 mg dm−3
100 µmol dm−3
500 µmol dm−3
1000 µmol dm−3
A
(µmol m−2 s−1 )
E
(mmol m−2 s−1 )
ωW
(mmol mol−1 )
gS
(mol m−2 s−1 )
ci
(µmol mol−1 )
6.67 ± 0.41 bc *
7.40 ± 0.60 bc
7.75 ± 0.65 ab
8.99 ± 0.84 a
6.32 ± 0.27 c
6.16 ± 0.52 c
7.10 ± 0.77 bc
0.82 ± 0.21 d
1.49 ± 0.12 bc
1.41 ± 0.26 c
1.44 ± 0.15 c
1.75 ± 0.09 a
1.72 ± 0.07 ab
1.05 ± 0.14 d
4.67 ± 1.14 bc
6.99 ± 0.60 a
5.75 ± 0.98 ab
5.40 ± 0.65 bc
4.32 ± 0.21 c
4.16 ± 0.40 c
5.10 ± 1.48 bc
0.10 ± 0.02 d
0.28 ± 0.03 b
0.31 ± 0.07 b
0.34 ± 0.07 b
0.43 ± 0.05 a
0.44 ± 0.04 a
0.21 ± 0.04 c
409 ± 40.3 c
449 ± 4.12 b
455 ± 9.66 ab
470 ± 9.35 ab
444 ± 6.00 b
468 ± 6.57 ab
482 ± 21.1 a
* Means over each column not marked with the same letter are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05. Data are expressed
as mean and standard deviation (±SD).
3.3. Effects of Foliar Application of GA3 and MeJA Solutions on Chlorophyll Fluorescence and SPAD
In comparison with the control plants, GA3 and MeJA did not significantly affect the chlorophyll
fluorescence parameters (FV /FM , PI, and Area), but caused changes in the leaf greenness (SPAD index)
(Table 5). Plants treated with 200 mg dm−3 GA3 showed the greatest SPAD values. Similarly, an
increased greenness index was observed in plants treated with 50 and 100 mg dm−3 GA3 and 1000
µmol dm−3 MeJA.
Table 5. Effects of GA3 and MeJA on chlorophyll fluorescence parameters (FV /FM, PI, Area) and leaf
greenness index (SPAD) in ×A. tubergenii “Zwanenburg” leaves.
Treatment
GA3
MeJA
Control
50 mg dm−3
100 mg dm−3
200 mg dm−3
100 µmol dm−3
500 µmol dm−3
1000 µmol dm−3
FV /FM
PI
ab *
0.79 ± 0.03
0.77 ± 0.03 ab
0.78 ± 0.02 ab
0.82 ± 0.04 a
0.77 ± 0.05 ab
0.73 ± 0.04 b
0.76 ± 0.05 ab
Area
ab
1.72 ± 0.39
1.71 ± 0.30 ab
1.66 ± 0.18 b
2.02 ± 0.20 a
1.73 ± 0.08 ab
1.66 ± 0.06 b
1.76 ± 0.12 ab
SPAD
ab
49,428 ± 8097
40,656 ± 6448 b
47,401 ± 7553 ab
59,420 ± 13,999 a
41,702 ± 6330 b
47,593 ± 7939 ab
37,339 ± 14,819 b
52.2 ± 1.40 c
56.9 ± 0.67 b
58.5 ± 1.35 b
66.0 ± 2.48 a
51.8 ± 0.40 c
55.0 ± 1.50 bc
59.5 ± 2.35 b
* Means over each column not marked with the same letter are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05. Data are expressed
as mean and standard deviation (±SD).
3.4. Effects of Foliar Application of GA3 and MeJA Solutions on Total Sugars and Total Protein Content
GA3 and MeJA application significantly increased bulb total sugar content (Figure 3a) at all
concentrations. The greatest total sugars content was found in plants treated with 100 and 200 mg
dm−3 GA3 and 1000 µmol dm−3 MeJA. GA3 and MeJA at the greatest concentrations also increased the
bulb total protein content (Figure 3b).
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Figure 3. Effects of foliar application of GA3 and MeJA solutions on total sugar (a) and total protein
(b) content in the bulbs of ×A. tubergenii “Zwanenburg”. Data are mean ± SD (n = 3). Different letters
above the error bars indicate significant differences for p < 0.05.
4. Discussion
4.1. Effect of GA3 and MeJA on Growth, Flowering, and Bulb Yield
To improve ornamental geophyte quality, various plant growth and development regulators are
used in horticultural practice [34,35]. ×Amarine tubergenii “Zwanenburg” treated with GA3 (50, 100,
and 200 mg dm−3 ) and MeJA (500 and 1000 µmol dm−3 ) exhibited a significantly increased leaf number
(Table 1). Moreover, at the greatest GA3 concentration, the leaves were much longer. More leaves after
GA3 application were observed by Ramzan et al. [36] in Tulipa gesneriana L. The activity of gibberellin
family growth regulators involves the stimulation of plant cell mitotic division [37], which can lead to
intense growth and production of more leaves. Diallo et al. [38] showed a stimulating effect of MeJA
on leaf count in Triticum aestivum L. The researchers suggested that the beneficial effect of MeJA on
the leaf count may be because MeJA maintained plants in the vegetative phase longer, so that plants
continued their intense growth instead of proceeding to the generative phase. Similarly, we showed
MeJA treatment delayed anthesis time (Table 2).
Neither of the phytohormones used in this study affected the inflorescence morphology, including
the floret number (Table 1). The lack of PGR effects on the floret number may stem from the fact that
both phytohormones were applied after the inflorescence initiation inside of the bulb. In Nerine bowdenii
the time between flower primordia initiation and anthesis is 2-3 years, and in Amaryllis belladonna over
a year [6,10].
Foliar treatment with both GA3 and MeJA strongly influenced the anthesis time and the flowering
percentage, but GA3 worked differently than MeJA (Table 2). The plants sprayed with GA3 at 100
and 200 mg dm−3 began anthesis faster. Earlier flowering following GA3 application at 150–300 ppm
was also observed in A. belladonna [39]. However, in Nerine flexuosa GA3 bulb-dip treatment at 100
mg/L did not accelerate flowering [40]. In Nerine, many inflorescences did not elongate and became
desiccated, thus no flowering occurred [41]. It may be assumed that in ×A. tubergenii “Zwanenburg”
GA3 stimulates the final stages of stem elongation and anthesis. GA3 treatment at 50 and 100 mg dm−3
not only accelerated anthesis, but also positively affected the inflorescence yield by increasing the
bulb flowering percentage (Table 2). The increased number of ×A. tubergenii “Zwanenburg” flowering
plants following GA3 treatment is probably because of the faster execution of the flowering phase. Our
results are highly practical, as GA3 makes more plants flower at an earlier stage, which allows for
harvesting the inflorescences of field or unheated tunnel-grown plants before the autumn frosts.
MeJA, regardless of its concentration, delayed flowering and decreased the number of flowering
×A. tubergenii “Zwanenburg” plants (Table 2). Similarly, Zhai et al. [42] reported an inhibitory effect
of jasmonic acid on Arabidopsis thaliana flowering. Maciejewska and Kopcewicz [28] observed that
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treatment with MeJA reduced the flower bud number in Pharbitis nil (L.) Roth. Conversely, 50 µM
MeJA application in Brassica napus L. moved the flowering time forward and increased the flower
number [29]. Jasmonates control individual plant ontogenesis phases, but their exact mode of action in
the regulation of growth and flowering induction is not known.
A common problem in bulbous plant propagation is their low propagation rate, which can be
increased using PGRs [43]. Bulb yield analysis in ×A. tubergenii “Zwanenburg” clearly showed that
GA3 increases the bulb weight and daughter bulb number (Table 3). In Allium karataviense Regel GA3
spraying increased the bulb weight and total bulb yield [44]. Allium sativum L. treatment with GA3
positively affected axillary bud formation, clove number per bulb, bulb weight, and bulb volume [45].
The stimulating effect of GA3 on bulbing may be because gibberellins enhance gene expression
correlated with cell elongation necessary for cell development and differentiation, and induced lateral
bud formation [46].
MeJA at concentrations of 500 and 1000 µmol dm−3 had a similarly stimulating effect on the
propagation rate as GA3 application. Moreover, bulbs obtained from plants treated with the greatest
MeJA dose displayed significantly greater weight (Table 3). In vitro jasmonates application increased
the bulb number and improved bulblet quality parameters in A. sativum [47] and Narcissus triandrus
L. [48]. Nojiri et al. [49] postulated that both jasmonic acid and MeJA are bulbing hormones, as they
both stimulate bulbing through microtubles disruption.
4.2. Effect of GA3 and MeJA on Physiological Parameters
Numerous studies have shown that the course and intensity of the most important plant
physiological processes can be regulated with exogenous growth regulators [50,51]. In our study,
GA3 regardless of its concentration enhanced transpiration, stomatal conductance for water, CO2
concentration in the intercellular spaces of the assimilatory parenchyma, and SPAD in ×A. tubergenii
“Zwanenburg” (Tables 4 and 5). A significant increase in CO2 assimilation intensity was found only in
plants sprayed with GA3 solution at 200 mg dm−3 . These plant leaves showed the greatest chlorophyll
fluorescence and SPAD index values. It can be assumed that as a result of increased photosynthesis,
plants treated with GA3 in the greatest dose produced the greatest leaf number and daughter bulbs, and
had the longest leaves and bulbs with the greatest fresh weight. Increased photosynthetic efficiency
results in faster vegetative growth and leads to increased biomass production [52].
MeJA applied in all tested concentrations increased the stomatal conductance and leaf CO2
concentration without affecting CO2 assimilation intensity and assessed fluorescence parameters
(Table 4). Moreover, MeJA application at 100 and 500 µmol dm−3 increased transpiration, and at
1000 dm−3 enhanced leaf greenness (SPAD; Table 5). Our results partially confirm those of Ahmadi
et al. [53], who found that spraying B. napus with 100 µM MeJA significantly increased the CO2
compensation point and respiration rate. A positive effect of MeJA on photosynthetic parameters
was observed in two Prunus dulcis Mill. rootstocks [54]. The effect of exogenous MeJA on the plant
photosynthetic apparatus is complex and depends on many factors, including species, concentration,
and environmental conditions [21,23,25].
Geophytes accumulate reserve substances in their bulbs that determine the correct course of
dormancy, growth, and flowering [55]. Both PGRs significantly increased total sugar content in ×A.
tubergenii “Zwanenburg” bulbs, especially when applied at 100 and 200 mg dm−3 (GA3 ) and 1000 µmol
dm−3 (MeJA) (Figure 3a). Moreover, bulbs obtained from plants treated with GA3 or MeJA in the
greatest concentrations featured significantly more total protein (Figure 3b). Wakchaure et al. [56]
found an increased total soluble sugar content and total protein content in Allium cepa L. bulbs treated
with GA3. Jasmonates promote starch accumulation in tubers, as it was apparent in Solanum tuberosum
L. subsp. tuberosum [57]. In ×A. tubergenii “Zwanenburg”, the greatest total sugars content and total
bulb protein was found in plants sprayed with GA3 at 200 mg dm−3 (Figure 3). This could have been
related to increased CO2 assimilation intensity, and as a result, better bulb supplementation with
photosynthesis products. Plant bulbs treated with GA3 at the greatest dose showed the greatest fresh
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weight (Table 3). Most probably, increased bulb weight and a greater nutrient content, especially
sugars, improves plant flowering in the subsequent growing season. In the case of N. bowdenii, the
parent species of the nothogenus ×Amarine, inflorescence quality and flowering percentage is related
to bulb size and carbohydrate content in fleshy leaf bases and fleshy scales [11,12]. Decreased sugar
level in bulbs during gynoecium development is implicated in inflorescence abortion [58]. Therefore, it
seems advisable to conduct further research on the residual impact of PGRs on the growth and anthesis
of ×A. tubergenii. We intend to observe bulb performance in the following year, and to dissect them to
observe flower primordia and their development after external PGR application, and monitor how it
affects floral initiation and development.
5. Conclusions
We examined the possibility of using PGRs in the cultivation of ×A. tubergenii, an ornamental
geophyte with great floricultural potential. Plant growth and physiological condition depended on the
PGR type and its concentration. The influence of GA3 and MeJA on anthesis time was opposite, as
GA3 accelerated and MeJA delayed the beginning of anthesis. Additionally, GA3 increased and MeJA
decreased the bulb flowering percentage. All GA3 concentrations and MeJA at 500 and 1000 µmol
dm−3 stimulated daughter bulb formation. Among all treatments, GA3 at 200 mg dm−3 seemed to
most favorably affect the leaf number, their length, bulb weight, daughter bulb number, photosynthesis
rate, greenness, total sugar, and total protein content in bulbs. This treatment could be used as
a method for improving ×A. tubergenii “Zwanenburg” plant growth, anthesis, and bulb yield in
commercial production.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.S.; methodology, P.S. and M.M.; software, P.S., M.M. and R.P.; formal
analysis, P.S., M.M., A.Z. and P.P.; data curation, P.S., M.M., A.Z., R.P. and P.P., writing—original draft preparation,
P.S.; writing—review and editing, M.M., A.Z., G.M., A.P. and Ł.Ł.; visualization, P.S. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Christina Baker, for linguistic corrections of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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