Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. Taxus contorta Griff. Taxus mairei (Lemée & H. Lév.) S.Y. Hu Taxus wallichiana TAXACEAE Ram C. Poudel, Ripu M. Kunwar, Hassan Sher, Ikram Ur-Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Synonyms Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh.: Taxus baccata L. subsp. wallichiana (Zucc.) Pilger; Taxuscontorta var. mucronata Spjut; Taxus wallichiana var. yunnanensis (W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu) C.T. Kuan; Taxus yunnanensis W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; Taxus wallichiana var. wallichiana (Zucc.) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; Taxus virgata Wall. ex Hook. f. R. C. Poudel (*) Molecular Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal e-mail: ramchandra.poudel@nast.org.np R. M. Kunwar Cultural Geography, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal e-mail: rkunwar@fau.edu H. Sher Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan I. Ur-Rahman United Nations Development Programme, Islamabad, Pakistan R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: rainer.bussmann@iliauni.edu.ge N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Kunwar et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Himalayas, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45597-2_243-1 1 2 R. C. Poudel et al. Taxus contorta Griff.: Taxus fuana Nan Li & R.R. Mill Taxus mairei (Lemée & H. Lév.) S.Y. Hu: Tsuga mairei Leme ́e & H. Le ́veille ́; Taxus chinensis (Pilger) Rehder var. mairei (Leme ́e & H. Le ́veille ́) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; Taxus speciosa Florin; Taxus wallichiana var. mairei (Leme ́e & H. Le ́veille ́) L.K. Fu & Nan Li; Taxus chinensis var. mairei (Leme ́e & H. Le ́veille ́) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu. Taxus wallichiana: Zucc. Taxus baccata L. subsp. wallichiana (Zucc.) Pilger; Taxuscontorta var. mucronata Spjut; Taxus wallichiana var. yunnanensis (W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu) C.T. Kuan; Taxus yunnanensis W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; Taxus wallichiana var. wallichiana (Zucc.) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; Taxus virgata Wall. ex Hook. f. Local Names Taxus baccata: Chinese: 红豆杉属 (hong dou shan shu); Pashto: Bermi, Banrya, Thum; North West India: Thuner, Rakhal (Singh et al. 1990; Lanker et al. 2010; Phondani et al. 2010; Kandari et al. 2012); Nepal: Luit, Luith (Magar), Jemmersing, Chhembersing (Thakali), Singi, (Gurung, Tamang), Salin (Gurung) Dhengre, Lauthsalla, (Nepali), Talispatra (Sanskrit), Bhyambarsing, Sangsing, Tongsing (Sherpa), Kadeloti (Dolpa), (Manandhar 2002; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Poudel et al. 2012); Urdu: Barmi, Thuna, Birmi, Bermi, Barmi, Chodan (Ahmed et al. 2004; Saqib and Sultan 2004; Ishtiaq et al. 2012; Haq 2012); English: common yew Taxus mairei: India: Sehblei, Sohblei, Ksheh (Sajem et al. 2008; Jaiswal 2010); Nepal: Dhengre, Lauthsalla, Barme salla, Pate salla, Machhindra pati (Nepali), Singi (Nepali-Tamang), Talispatra (Sanskrit) (Poudel et al. 2012) Taxus wallichiana: Bhutan: Keyrang-shing, Dhengrey salla (Norbu 1996); Jammu: Barmi; Kashmir: Postul, Brammi; North East India: Dhegresalla, Dhengre, Tesiang, Tesing (Hussain and Hore 2007; Nimachow et al. 2010); Sikkim: Dhengre salla; Nepal: Silingi, Salin, (Nepal-Gurung), Silting (Nepal-Tamang), Sanga sing, Tonga sing (Nepal-Sherpa), Dhengre, Lauthsalla, Thingre, Barme salla (Nepali), Laswa (Nepal-Newari), Talispatra (Sanskrit) (Manandhar 2002; Poudel et al. 2012) Botany and Ecology Taxus baccata: Distribution of different yew species in Hindu-Kush Himalaya region that encompasses areas of Pakistan, NW and NE India, Nepal, Bhutan, North Myanmar and NW Xizhang, China had been elucidated by Poudel et al. (2012) using morphological, climatic, and molecular data. Three species of yews with distinct morphology are present in Himalaya region with their nonoverlapping distributions in different geographic areas. Shah et al. (2008) and Farjon (2010) including its latest update Farjon (2017) support the finding of Poudel et al. (2012). Majority of yew-related literature cited here precede Poudel et al. (2012). Among Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. . . . 3 Fig. 1 Taxus baccata (Taxaceae), male cones, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) cited publications, many of them had either used synonyms of actual yew species or in some cases have even mentioned name of the species which was later found not to be present in Asia, i.e., Taxus baccata. Given clear geographic delimitation among different species of yews, literature dealing with western Himalaya (Pakistan, NW India, and western Nepal) and eastern Himalaya (central Nepal, Bhutan, and NE India) are referred to Taxus contorta and Taxus wallichiana, respectively. Poudel et al. (2012) has reported the third species of yew, viz., Taxus mairei, which grows dominantly in south east China and extends toward Himalaya through the low altitudinal areas of Vietnam, Myanmar, Meghalaya of India, and in Mahabharat range of Nepal. Flowering March–May. In the Crimea, Caucasus, in mountain woods, from the seashore up to 1700 m above sea level (Iljin 1934) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Taxus contorta: Trees or shrubs to 30 m tall; trunk to 1.3 m d.b.h.; bark variably colored, grayish brownish, reddish, or purplish, peeling off in strips or cracking and falling off as thin scales; winter bud scales early deciduous or some persistent at base of branchlets, triangular-ovate, with or without longitudinal ridges abaxially. Leafy branchlets  flat in living state, 3–9  1.5–6 cm in outline. Leaves borne at (50–)60– 90° to branchlet axis, subsessile or with petiole to 1 mm; blade dark green and glossy adaxially, paler abaxially, linear to lanceolate, gradually tapered distally, usually falcate, (0.9–)1.5–3.5( 4.7) cm  (1.5–)2–4( 5) mm, midvein slightly elevated adaxially, 0.1–0.2 mm wide, densely and evenly papillate abaxially, or with papillae scattered on midvein or in 1-several lateral rows adjacent to stomatal band, or midvein not papillate, stomatal bands pale yellowish, 0.6–0.9 mm wide, densely and evenly papillate, marginal bands 0.1–0.4 mm wide, base cuneate or attenuate, 4 R. C. Poudel et al. Fig. 2 Taxus baccata (Taxaceae), female cones, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 3 Taxus baccata (Taxaceae), female cones, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) asymmetric, margin flat to revolute, apex gradually acuminate or abruptly tapered and indistinctly mucronate, mucro 0.1–0.5 mm. Pollen cones scattered along second year branchlet axis,  sessile or shortly pedunculate (peduncle ca. 0.5 mm), pale yellowish, ovoid, 5–6  ca. 3 mm; bracts usually 6, broadly ovate, pale green; microsporophylls 8–14, each with (4 or)5 or 6( 8) pollen sacs. Seed-bearing structures borne toward distal end of branchlet axis. Aril red or orange when ripe, often  translucent. Seed ovoid or obovoid, occasionally columnar-oblong, sometimes slightly flattened, 5–8  3.5–5 mm, usually with obtuse ridges (sometimes trigonous and 3-ridged); apex with small mucro; hilum elliptic to suborbicular or rounded-trigonous. Pollination September–April, seed maturity August–December (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Grows naturally in temperate conifer and broadleaved forest at an altitude of 2000–3500 m. This species is understory tree and found mostly along north and northwest facing moist slopes and gullies with Abies, Tsuga, Pinus, Acer, Quercus, and Rhododendron. Distributed in temperate region of northern Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. . . . 5 Fig. 4 Taxus contorta (Taxaceae), Nepal (Photo Ram C Poudel) Fig. 5 Taxus contorta (Taxaceae), Nepal (Photo Ram C Poudel) Pakistan, north-west India, and north-west to north–central Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2016, 2019a, b, 2020; Poudel et al. 2012) (Figs. 4 and 5). Taxus mairei: Evergreen tree of 5–25 m. Bark peeling off in stripes. Bud scales few and persistent at base of the branchlets. Leaves arranged on two lateral rows on branchlets, leaf angle 60–80°, broadly lanceolate, thin, falcate-sigmoid, 1.9–3.1 cm long 2–3 cm wide, leaf edges incurving-revolute, base asymmetric, apex obtuse, mucro indistinct, without papilla or rarely papillate below, midrib and leaf margin underneath shiny. Loosely to compactly arranged 11–16 stomatal bands, margin revolute when dried. Male and female flowers grow in different individual trees. The male cones are globose and scattered along branchlets. Wind pollinated. Seed arises 6 R. C. Poudel et al. Fig. 6 Taxus mairei (Taxaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel) from the base of leaves, ovoid, enclosed by a fleshy aril, which turns red when ripen; seed bilaterally flattened. Flowering March–May, fruiting September–November. Grows naturally in broadleaved forest along the Mahabharat range at an altitudinal range from 1900 to 2200 m. T. mairei is associated with Alnus, Pinus, Rhododendron, Schima, Castanopsis, Lyonia, and Myrica. This species is few in number in central Nepal and Meghalaya hills of India. Rare occurrence reported from Bhutan (Poudel et al. 2012; Wu et al. 1994–2013) (Figs. 6, 7, and 8). Taxus wallichiana: Evergreen tree up to 30 m. Densely branched and are mostly recurved or bent downward around. Branches are reddish. Bud scales many, persistent, triangular. Leaves arise from both side of branches, leaf angle 60–90°,arranged in two lateral rows, lanceolate to narrowly lanceolate, 1.7–3.1 cm long 1.8–3 cm wide, leaf edges revolute, tapering toward apex, falcate, base asymmetric, apex pointed, mucro distinct, midrib and leaf margin underneath not shiny. Stomatal bands 11–17, densely arranged, pale. Male and female flower in separate individual trees. Male flower globose, creamy and dense. Wind pollinated female cone borne on branchlet axis, seed slightly flattened, pointed toward apex, enclosed partly by red edible fleshy aril. Flowering January–April, fruiting September–November. This species grows naturally at an altitudinal range of 2200–3500 m in temperate conifer and broadleaved forest. Prefers to grow mostly on north-east and south facing moist slopes and gullies with Abies, Acer, Bamboo, Ilex, Pinus, Quercus, Rhododendron, and Tsuga. In the Himalayas, this species is distributed in Central-East Nepal, Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. . . . Fig. 7 Taxus mairei (Taxaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel) Fig. 8 Taxus mairei (Taxaceae), Nepal. (Photo Ram C Poudel) 7 8 R. C. Poudel et al. Bhutan, and North East India (Poudel et al. 2012). Raw export is banned in Nepal due to overharvesting (Gurung and Pyakurel 2017; Hamilton 2004; O’Neill et al. 2017). Phytochemistry Yew bark and leaves contain mainly taxol, ecdysterone, β-sitosterol, campesterol, ephedrine, millosine, and taxine A and B. Abeobaccatin IV derivatives were isolated from the stem barks. Taxicatin, (+) – abscisic acid, ursolic acid, cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin, and beta-sitosterol glucoside were isolated from seeds. Phenyl propanoid 2-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl) – propane-1, 3-diol 1 and (+) catechin 3 were isolated from the bark; taxols – taxol 1, baccatin III 2, baccatin IV 3, taxusin 4, a C-14 oxygenated taxoid 5, 1 beta-hydroxy baccatin I 6, pentacetoxy taxadiene 7, a dibenzoylated rearranged taxoid 8, 7-xylosyl-10-deacetyl-taxol C9, and three phenolic compounds seco-isolariciresinol 11, taxiresinol 12, and isotaxiresinol 13 were isolated from the roots (Chattopadhyay et al. 1994, 1996a, b, c, 1997, 1999a, b, c, 2002). Local Medicinal Uses Taxus baccata: The species is used for fractures and headache (Bhat et al. 2013, Malik et al. 2015), also used for asthma, bronchitis, epilepsy, hiccup, diarrhea, and headache. The arilles, removed from their seeds, have diuretic and laxative effects. It was use medicinally to treat viper bites, hydrophobia (rabies), heart ailments, and as abortifacient. In the central Himalayas, the plant is used as a treatment for breast and ovarian cancer. The leaves are used in traditional medicine against rabies and heart ailments. It can be used for diseases of the cardiovascular system. Seeds contain essential and fatty oils (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The water decoction of needles is used internally in heart diseases and as gastric remedy. A water decoction of needles is used externally as antirheumatic. The species is also used for fractures and headache (Bhat et al. 2013; Malik et al. 2015). The species is used for asthma, bronchitis, epilepsy, hiccup, diarrhea, and headache. It is also used as blood purifier (Kala et al. 2004). Taxus contorta: In Garhwal, India, dried bark is powdered and boiled with refined butter and salt and taken as tea for vigor and vitality (Singh et al. 1990). Indigenous communities of Miandam Valley, Pakistan, use powdered bark as emmenagogue and antispasmodic. People in Dolpa and Humla districts of Nepal use leaf in skin diseases, cancer, asthma, bronchitis, joint problem, and muscular pain (Manandhar 2002; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Kunwar et al. 2006; Rokaya et al. 2010). In Garahwal, India, the leaves paste is also given orally for treating asthma and other bronchial disorders and indigestion (Singh et al. 1990). In Allai Valley, local people use bark in cancer and pneumonia. They use leaves in bronchitis, whooping cough, and asthma (Haq 2012). As in western Nepal communities here also take steam bath Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. . . . 9 of leaves for the treatment of rheumatism (Haq 2012). Leaves of 1 year plant are kept in between teeth to treat toothache by local people of Humla, Nepal (Rokaya et al. 2010). Indigenous communities of Leepa Valley, Pakistan, use the decoction of leaf with honey in hay fever, flatulation, epilepsy, and asthma (Ishtiaq et al. 2012). Communities residing Galliyat areas of Pakistan take decoction of stem early morning to treat tuberculosis (Ahmed et al. 2004). Traditional Vaidyas of Uttaranchal, India, give 20 g formulation of yew three times a day to patients having stomachache. The formulation is prepared with 10 g of Thuner bark powder mixed with 100 g leaf powder of Megacarpaea polyandra heated on fire with two and half spoon of butter (Kala et al. 2005). The Bhotiya tribe of Niti Valley, North West India, take namkeen tea twice a day for 1 year for the treatment of high blood pressure. Namekeen tea was made using 1 g dry powder of bark mixed with 1 g salt, one spoonful ghee, and one cupful of water. The community treats bone fracture by applying paste prepared from yew bark and yolk of the fresh egg around the fractured part for 28–35 days (Phondani et al. 2010). People residing inside Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, North West India, also apply the paste prepared from bark as a plaster on fractured bone and also apply externally on the forehead to provide relief from headache (Kandari et al. 2012). Similar use of bark paste was also reported from the same region by Lanker et al. (2010) (Singh et al. 1990; Manandhar 2002; Ahmed et al. 2004; Saqib and Sultan 2004; Jabeen et al. 2009; Jaiswal 2010; Poudel et al. 2012). Leaves and bark are used in the treatment for cough, bronchitis, headache, giddiness, coldness, diarrhea, hiccough, indigestion, piles, severe biliousness, hysteria, epilepsy, nervousness, and asthma, bronchitis, cancer, fever, toothache, cough, cold, skin disease, joint problems, piles, and muscular pain (Phole 1990; Ghimire et al. 2001; Manandhar 1986, 2002; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Bhattarai et al. 2006, 2010, 2012; Kunwar et al. 2006, 2010a, b; Ghimire and Nepal 2007; Rokaya et al. 2010; Poudel et al. 2012; IUCN 2000; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Uprety et al. 2010; Luitel et al. 2014; Malla and Chhetri 2009). Taxus mairei: Local communities of North Cachar hills district of Assam, India, use stem in the treatment of septic wounds (Sajem et al. 2008). Jaintia tribes of Meghalaya, India, use leaves as an aphrodisiac, in the treatment of epilepsy and irregular menstruation (Jaiswal 2010). Taxus wallichiana: In Sikkim and Darjeeling of India, leaves are considered antispasmodic. Leaf is used in the treatment of nervousness, hysteria, epilepsy, headache, giddiness, diarrhea, and liver disorder (Hussain and Hore 2007). Another study from Sikkim, India, reported use of bark paste around the fractured bone for treatment (Bharati and Sharma 2010). Several ethnic communities of Nepal too use leaf decoction in several gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory problems, muscular pain, and rheumatism (Poudel et al. 2012). The species is used for arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, giddiness, headache, as antiseptic, sedative, for epilepsy, cough, and indigestion (Gairola et al. 2014; Tamang et al. 2017; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). It is also used to treat piles, muscular pain, fever, diarrhea, and liver problems (Tamang et al. 2017), boils, cuts, and wounds (Singh et al. 2017). 10 R. C. Poudel et al. Local Food Uses Taxus baccata: The red aril surrounding the seed can be eaten. In India, local people use the bark as a tea substitute. The red fruit mantle is edible and eaten raw or as jam, while all other parts of the tree are highly toxic (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Local people of Palas Valley, Pakistan, use bark of Taxus contorta to make tea (Saqib and Sultan 2004). Similar use was also reported in western Nepal (Poudel et al. 2012; Kunwar 2018). Ripen red aril of all the three species of yew that covers seed around is eaten in Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan (Singh et al. 1990; Manandhar 2002; Ahmed et al. 2004; Saqib and Sultan 2004; Jabeen et al. 2009; Jaiswal 2010, Poudel et al. 2012) Generally the red aril is edible (Phole 1990; Ghimire et al. 2001; Manandhar 1986, 2002; Kunwar and Duwadee 2003; Kunwar and Adhikari 2005; Bhattarai et al. 2006, 2010, 2012; Kunwar et al. 2006; Ghimire and Nepal 2007; Kunwar et al. 2010 Rokaya et al. 2010; Poudel et al. 2012; IUCN 2000; Joshi and Joshi 2001; Uprety et al. 2010; Luitel et al. 2014; Malla and Chhetri 2009). Local Handicraft and Other Uses All species are used as fuelwood (Aumeeruddy-Thomas et al. 2004). Taxus baccata: Yew is a very useful tree for hedging and topiary as it can be closely trimmed. It tends to become a very large bush without trimming. It is used as a wind break. Leaves are poisonous to cattle; however, in parts of western Himalayas, the trees are lopped for cattle fodder. The foliage and seeds contain several alkaloids (taxine) and glycoside (texicatine), very poisonous, which alters to hydrotaxine by hydrolysis. In Europe, poisoning is frequent in animals such as horses, asses, and mules which are extremely sensitive, while rabbits, guinea pigs, and cats are insensitive. In humans, the yew generates digestive, nervous, respiratory, and cardiovascular disorder. The wood is hard, fine, even grained, and moderately heavy (about 7 kg per m). The timber is very valuable and is known for its resistance against rooting. It is used mainly for turnery, marquetry, and wood carvery. The colorful wood (red heart wood, white sap wood) was used to veneer furniture, to make lute bodies, bowls, tankards, combs, tool handles, pegs, and various art objects. In the UK, yew veneers is in high demand for its decorative value. It is used for caring poles, bows, and furniture. The fine-grain yellowish-red or brownishred wood, with a rather narrow layer of white or yellowish sapwood, is very hard and durable. It provides good material for carpentry and turning. The bark yields a glue used for bird catching. The leaves are deadly poisonous to horses, cows, and goats. Common yew has high quality wood, which is used in construction and furniture. A dye solution is prepared from fruits and wood to obtain violet color. The solution is used for dyeing wool. Good nectariferous plant, producing much nectar. The wood is very hard and used for tool handles. It also serves as posts in constantly wet areas (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. . . . 11 Communities of Miandam Valley, Pakistan, often sell dried leaves of Taxus contorta or its use to prepare shampoo. Communities of Leepa Valley, Pakistan, use T. contorta leaves and root extract to poison and catch fish from rivers and dams (Ishtiaq et al. 2012). In Uttarakhand of India, red color extracted from the bark of T. contorta is believed to be superior for dyeing woolen and silk fabrics (Gaur 2008). Along the Himalayas, wood of all the three species of yew is regarded as hard and durable for making furniture, carving, windows, door, and as house construction material (Lanker et al. 2010; Poudel et al. 2012). Several agriculture implements like grain pounders, plough, sickle handles, and household items such as milk/whey and water containers are made of yew (Singh et al. 1990; Norbu 1996; Manandhar 2002; Poudel et al. 2012). Indigenous people of Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan use yew as a good fodder for cattle (Norbu 1996; Jabeen et al. 2009; Nimachow et al. 2010; Poudel et al. 2012).The dried zig-zag branches are used for decoration in Garhwal Himalaya, India (Singh et al. 1990). 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