Annals of Botany 113: 1047–1055, 2014
doi:10.1093/aob/mcu031, available online at www.aob.oxfordjournals.org
First record of bat-pollination in the species-rich genus Tillandsia (Bromeliaceae)
Pedro Adrián Aguilar-Rodrı́guez1,*, M. Cristina MacSwiney G.1, Thorsten Krömer1,
José G. Garcı́a-Franco2, Anina Knauer3 and Michael Kessler3
1
Centro de Investigaciones Tropicales, Universidad Veracruzana, Casco de la ExHacienda Lucas Martı́n, Privada de Araucarias
S/N. Col. Periodistas, C.P. 91019, Xalapa, Veracruz, México, 2Red de Ecologı́a Funcional, Instituto de Ecologı́a, A.C., Carretera
antigua a Coatepec No. 351, El Haya, C.P. 91070, Xalapa, Veracruz, México and 3Institute of Systematic Botany, University of
Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008 Zurich, Switzerland
* For correspondence. E-mail pedroaguilarr@gmail.com
† Background and Aims Bromeliaceae is a species-rich neotropical plant family that uses a variety of pollinators,
principally vertebrates. Tillandsia is the most diverse genus, and includes more than one-third of all bromeliad
species. Within this genus, the majority of species rely on diurnal pollination by hummingbirds; however, the
flowers of some Tillandsia species show some characteristics typical for pollination by nocturnal animals, particularly bats and moths. In this study an examination is made of the floral and reproductive biology of the epiphytic bromeliad Tillandsia macropetala in a fragment of humid montane forest in central Veracruz, Mexico.
† Methods The reproductive system of the species, duration of anthesis, production of nectar and floral scent, as well
as diurnal and nocturnal floral visitors and their effectiveness in pollination were determined.
† Key Results Tillandsia macropetala is a self-compatible species that achieves a higher fruit production through outcrossing. Nectar production is restricted to the night, and only nocturnal visits result in the development of fruits. The
most frequent visitor (75 % of visits) and the only pollinator of this bromeliad (in 96 % of visits) was the nectarivorous
bat Anoura geoffroyi (Phyllostomidae: Glossophaginae).
† Conclusions This is the first report of chiropterophily within the genus Tillandsia. The results on the pollination
biology of this bromeliad suggest an ongoing evolutionary switch from pollination by birds or moths to bats.
Key words: Tillandsia macropetala, Bromeliaceae, bat-pollination, Anoura geofroyii, bromeliad, chiropterophily,
humid montane forest, floral visitors, Mexico, pollinator effectiveness.
IN T RO DU C T IO N
The family Bromeliaceae is distributed almost exclusively in the
Neotropics (Benzing, 2000), and 56 % of its species are epiphytic
(Zotz, 2013). The family comprises about 3160 species in 50
genera, and Tillandsia is the most diverse genus, with more
than 670 species, of which 635 are epiphytic (Zotz, 2013).
Among bromeliads, pollination by vertebrates predominates
over that provided by insects, and most species are pollinated
by hummingbirds (Kessler and Krömer, 2000; Canela and
Sazima, 2005; Krömer et al., 2006). In some bromeliad genera
(e.g. Guzmania, Pitcairnia and Vriesea), however, syndromes
of pollination by insects, birds and bats have evolved independently (Benzing, 2000). In particular, species of the subfamily
Tillandsioideae (e.g. Tillandsia, Guzmania and Vriesea) have
on various occasions modified their floral characteristics to
attract a wide range of pollinators (Benzing, 2000).
The epiphytic bromeliad Tillandsia macropetala Wawra,
together with T. grandis Schltdl. and T. viridiflora (Beer)
Baker, belongs to the Mexican species in the Tillandsia viridiflora complex, among which T. macropetala was recently recognized as a species distinct from T. viridiflora (Krömer et al.,
2012). It is distributed in central and southern Mexico, in wet
montane or pine – oak forests at elevations of 1100 – 2500 m. In
contrast to the majority of species of the genus, T. macropetala
does not present the conspicuously coloured bracts with
contrasting flowers and diurnal anthesis typical of pollination
by hummingbirds (Endress, 1994; Wilmer, 2011). Instead, this
species has a light-green corolla, green bracts and crepuscular anthesis (Krömer et al., 2012).
Tillandsia macropetala was not included (even under its previous name T. viridiflora) in the classic work of Gardner (1986) about
the pollination in Tillandsia, but the related species T. heterophylla
E. Morren was catalogued as being moth-pollinated. These three
species present particular cases within the genus Tillandsia,
given their nocturnal anthesis and light-green petals, as seen in
other bromeliads of the subgenus Pseudoalcantarea (Benzing,
2000). Whereas Hietz and Hietz-Seifert (1994) suggested that
sphingid moths could be pollinators of T. viridiflora, Benzing
(2000) argued based on their floral characteristics that the
species of Pseudoalcantarea could be pollinated by bats.
The discovery of dilute nectar, rich in hexoses, in T. viridiflora
(Krömer et al., 2008), together with other observations also including T. macropetala (T. Krömer and M. C. MacSwiney G.,
pers. obs.), suggests that bats could be their principal pollinators.
In addition, the helicoiform flowers of T. macropetala stay open
during the morning following anthesis (Krömer et al., 2012),
which could enable pollination by both nocturnal and diurnal
visitors (Dar et al., 2006; Ortega-Baes et al., 2011).
In this study, we analysed the floral and reproductive biology
of T. macropetala. Specifically, (1) the floral visitors that effectively pollinate the flowers were identified, (2) the floral
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Received: 2 November 2013 Returned for revision: 10 January 2014 Accepted: 12 February 2014 Published electronically: 20 March 2014
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Aguilar-Rodrı́guez et al. — Bat-pollination in Tillandsia macropetala
phenology was described, (3) the production pattern and concentration of nectar were determined, and the floral scent was
analysed, and (4) the reproductive system of the bromeliad was
assessed. As anthesis in this species begins at dusk and extends
into the following day, our primary hypothesis was that
T. macropetala receives both nocturnal and diurnal visits, but
because nocturnal visitors visit the receptive flower first, they
will be more important pollinators, accounting for the majority
of fruits or seeds. Finally, as suggested by the dilute and
hexose-rich nectar, we hypothesized that bats are the main pollinators of this species.
MAT E RI ALS A ND METH O DS
Fieldwork was carried out in March and April of 2011 and 2012, in
the municipality of Tlalnelhuayocan, in the central region of
Veracruz State, Mexico. The site has an elevation of 1500–
1700 m (Mehltreter et al., 2005), with an annual precipitation of
1650 mm and an average temperature of 14 8C (WilliamsLinera, 2002). The predominant vegetation is humid montane
forest (Williams-Linera, 2007). Monitoring of T. macropetala
phenology was conducted in 2011 in a forest fragment
(19831′ 12.9′′ N, 96859′ 17.9′′ W; Fig. 1) where the dominant trees
were Liquidambar macrophylla Oerst and Quercus spp., and
Study species
Tillandsia macropetala is an epiphytic bromeliad that is generally found on the trunks and lower parts of its host trees but can
also be lithophytic or terrestrial (Krömer et al., 2012; Fig. 2A). Its
leaves form a stemless tank-type rosette of almost 1.2 m in diameter; its inflorescence is 55– 83 cm in length and is composed of
3 – 7 spikes, each with 15– 20 flowers. The flowers (Fig. 2B)
are distichous and erect, actinomorphic and with a subsessile
helicoiform corolla. The petals are light green, strap-shaped,
twisted, and 10.7 – 12.3 cm long and 14– 17 mm wide. The lightgreen to white stamens are subequal, with free filaments 10.4 –
11.7 cm long; the anthers are green to green-whitish, curved
and 7.5 – 8 mm long. The style is free and has a trilobulate
stigma (Krömer et al., 2012).
A
B
c)
b)
N
V
E
R
IC
C
X
A
E
R
M
a)
U
O
19°40¢ 0¢¢ N
Z
3 cm
15
00
D
21
0
XALAPA
10
0
19°30¢ 0¢¢ N
2000
C
50 μm
0
97°0¢ 0¢¢ W
2 km
96°50¢ 0¢¢ W
F I G . 1. Study area location in the municipality of Tlalnelhuayocan, in central
Veracruz, Mexico. Study sites are marked with numbers 1 (2011) and 2 (2012).
F I G . 2. Tillandsia macropetala. (A) Individual with inflorescence in its habitat;
(B) flower showing the light green petals (a), as well as the extended stamens (b)
and style (c); (C) polar view of a pollen grain (phase contrast technique, 25×,
Optovar 2); (D) fruit and seeds, the latter with a plumose appendage.
Photographs: P. A. Aguilar-Rodrı́guez, M. C. MacSwiney G. and A. Knauer.
Downloaded from http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/ at Cambridge University Library on May 8, 2014
Study site
which is surrounded by a mosaic of anthropized vegetation. For
logistical reasons, the study in 2012 was conducted in another
fragment 1.2 km from the original site (19831′ 53.7′′ N,
96858′ 46.8′′ W; Fig. 1). This second fragment featured similar
vegetation, but was surrounded by fruit trees (Citrus sp.,
Macadamia sp., Musa sp.) and elements of secondary forest.
Aguilar-Rodrı́guez et al. — Bat-pollination in Tillandsia macropetala
Phenology and floral anthesis
Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA) with a level of significance of P ≤ 0.05.
To quantify the self-compatibility of T. macropetala, we calculated the self-compatibility index (SC) and the autogamy index
(AI) (Wendt et al., 2001; Kamke et al., 2011). The AI was multiplied by 100 to obtain a percentage value of self-compatibility
(Martén-Rodrı́guez and Fenster, 2008).
Nectar analysis
To determine the production pattern and availability of nectar
for potential visitors, 21 flowers were randomly chosen from the
six individuals kept in the planthouse (comprising at least three
flowers from each individual). There was no experimental pollination treatment on any of these flowers, and all measurements of
nectar were carried out during periods of no rain. Nectar production was recorded in these flowers every 2 h, using 80- and 10-mL
capillary tubes. Extraction continued until no nectar was left.
Total nectar volume per flower was calculated as the sum of
the hourly values (Tschapka and von Helversen, 2007). The percentage of sugars contained in each nectar sample was measured
using a field refractometer (Mod. HRT32, range: 0 – 32 %, w/w,
precision: 0.2 %; A. Krüss Optronic, Hamburg, Germany).
A Pearson correlation was conducted to determine the relationship between volume and concentration of sugars in the nectar
and the period during which the measurements were taken.
Reproductive system
Floral scent analysis
To determine the reproductive system of T. macropetala, pollination treatment experiments were carried out on six individuals placed in pots with gravel in a structure covered with
mosquito netting that prevented visits to the flowers (hereafter referred to as the ‘planthouse’). The planthouse provided shade and
temperatures similar to that found in the trees, and irrigation was
carried out sporadically.
In the planthouse, the flowers were subjected to four treatments: (1) emasculation (apomixis) (n ¼ 25 flowers) consisted
of the emasculation of the flowers by removal of the anthers, to
prevent pollen deposition on the flower; (2) in spontaneous selfpollination (n ¼ 50 flowers), anthers were not removed and no
other manipulation was carried out; (3) cross-pollination (xenogamy) (n ¼ 40 flowers), in which the stigma was covered with
pollen from the anthers of another plant individual; and (4) selfpollination (autogamy) (n ¼ 29 flowers), in which the stigma
was covered with pollen from the anthers of the same individual
plant. All treatments were applied to previously covered virgin
flowers no more than 2 h after the onset of anthesis. Following
treatment, the flowers were kept covered to avoid subsequent
visits. Eight weeks after conducting the treatments, the presence
of fruits was recorded. Percentage of fructification, or fruit-set,
was calculated for each treatment and, once the fruits were
ripe, the number of seeds per fruit, or seed-set, was recorded
(Fig. 2D).
A chi-square test was used to compare percentage of fructification between treatments. To measure the influence of pollination treatments on seed-set (Schmid et al., 2011a), an
ANOVA was performed. As the data were not normally distributed (Kolmogorov – Smirnov test), a non-parametric Kruskal–
Wallis test with Tukey-type comparisons was used. Analysis
was carried out using the program Statistica (ver. 7, StatSoft
Scent was collected from two single flowers for about 3 h
between 0000 and 0330 h. We used the dynamic pull headspace
method for the collection of floral volatiles as described by Huber
et al. (2005), using Tenax GR (Tenax TR 60/80, Scientific
Instrument Services, Old York, RD, USA) as absorbent. We
collected scent from an empty oven bag as a control for air
contamination.
For chemical analysis of headspace samples, gas chromatography with mass selective detection (GC-MSD) with thermodesorption was used as described by Sun et al. (2014). Compound
identification was conducted using a mass-selective detector
(Agilent MSD 5975, Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA,
USA) and ChemStation Enhanced Data Analysis program
(version E.02.02). Compounds were identified by comparison
of spectra obtained from the samples with those from a reference
library (NIST ‘05 library, http://www.nist.gov/). Only floral
scent compounds found with larger amounts in the samples collected from flowers than from the control were considered to be
emitted by T. macropetala flowers.
Observations of floral visitors
Any animal that made contact with the corolla of the flower
was considered a floral visitor (sensu Schmid et al., 2011b). To
be considered potential pollinators, they also had to enter the
corolla (Muchhala, 2006) and come into contact with the reproductive organs of the flowers (Schmid et al., 2011b).
Recording of nocturnal visitors was carried out using a video
camera (DCR-SR65, Sony Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) in night
vision mode, equipped with an infrared light (HVL-HILR,
Sony). The camera was placed on a tripod 1.3 –1.5 m above the
ground and a distance of 1.5 m from the flower. Nocturnal
Downloaded from http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/ at Cambridge University Library on May 8, 2014
To follow the phenology of T. macropetala, 17 individuals that
were close to flowering were chosen. Each floral bud was marked
with a non-toxic indelible pen on the bract to enable monitoring
of the development of individual flowers until fruiting. Once
flowering began, floral condition was recorded every day for 3
weeks, describing flower growth, initiation of anthesis,
opening of the corolla, and withering of the petals and style
(Cascante-Marı́n et al., 2005; Martén-Rodrı́guez and Fenster,
2008). Receptivity of the stigma was determined by direct observation of the presence of mucilage on its surface (Escobedo,
2007) and to prove their status, the stigmas of six flowers were
dipped in hydrogen peroxide 1, 6, 12, 24 or 36 h after anthesis
(Martén-Rodrı́guez and Fenster, 2008).
In the study population, the majority of T. macropetala individuals that were close to flowering were found at heights that
impeded manipulation of the flowers (3– 5 m). Therefore,
nearby plants were translocated and placed at a height of 1.5 m
on the trunks of the trees. As some of the individuals of
T. macropetala used in this study were found at this lower
height, it was considered that the translocation should not
affect the incidence of floral visitors (as confirmed by preliminary field observations). Regular trips were made to the study site,
from December to February, to determine the onset of flowering.
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Aguilar-Rodrı́guez et al. — Bat-pollination in Tillandsia macropetala
Effectiveness of floral visitors
The effectiveness of the floral visitors was evaluated using
floral visitor exclusion treatments (Montalvo and Ackerman,
1986; Sahley, 2001; Wendt et al., 2001). These treatments
were conducted on 17 plants in the field, as follows: (1) diurnal
exposure (DE) in which the stigmas of the treated flowers (n ¼
33) were covered with a plastic tube (of approx. 3 × 0.5 cm)
closed with cotton during the night and uncovered for the
diurnal visitors; (2) nocturnal exposure (NE) in which the
stigmas of the flowers (n ¼ 79) were left exposed during the
night and covered during the day; (3) emasculated diurnal exposure (EDE) was carried out as in DE, but in previously emasculated flowers (n ¼ 33); (4) emasculated nocturnal exposure
(ENE) was carried out as in NE, but in previously emasculated
flowers (n ¼ 62); and (5) control in which flowers were left continuously exposed to visitors (n ¼ 136).
To determine the effectiveness of the visitors, as well as the
fruit-set and seed-set produced by the field treatments, we considered the frequency of visits, number of visits in which the visitors pollinated the flower and the behaviour of each visitor during
its visit to the flower (e.g. consumption of pollen or petals, form
of approach, number of flowers visited and reward sought;
Montalvo and Ackerman, 1986).
R E S U LT S
Phenology and floral anthesis
Flowering of T. macropetala began in the third week of December
and finished in the second week of April. Opening of the floral bud
initiated at approx. 1600 h. The stigma protruded almost 2 h before
anthesis and, on reaching its maximum length (12.90 + 1.51 cm,
n ¼ 12 flowers), the petals opened to expose the stamens with
the dehiscent anthers. Anthesis began around 1900 h (range:
1820–2140 h, n ¼ 71 flowers), coinciding with the local time of
dusk (approx. 1845–1900 h; Fig. 3). Receptivity of the stigma
lasted for around 18 h (n ¼ 12 flowers) after opening of the flower.
Senescence began when the floral structures lost colour and
turgor between 20 and 24 h after anthesis, completely restricting
the entrance of the calyx at around 34 h after the onset of anthesis.
In covered flowers without visits, it took about 11 h for the pollen
to fall from the anthers (n ¼ 12 flowers) by anther senescence.
The inflorescence of an individual plant flowered over a period
of 36.36 + 9.51 d (n ¼ 16 inflorescences), with an average of
0.7 + 0.3 flowers d21 (mean + s.d.; range: 0 –5 flowers daily;
n ¼ 282 flowers from 14 individuals). The flowering of a spike
started at the base and progressed towards the apex over the following days.
Reproductive system
Highest fruit-set was obtained in the self-pollination (34.78 %)
and cross-pollination (34.48 %) treatments. There were no fruits
formed by the emasculation treatment and fructification was
reduced in the spontaneous self-pollination treatment (Table 1).
There was a significant difference in the percentage of fructification among treatments (x2 ¼ 37.169, d.f. ¼ 4, P , 0.05).
Excluding the emasculation treatment, which did not produce
seeds, there were no significant differences in the number of
seeds between the cross-pollination and self-pollination treatments, whereas there was a significant difference between both
of these and the spontaneous self-pollination treatment (H ¼
5.46, d.f. ¼ 2, P , 0.05; n ¼ 98, flowers of six plants; Table 1).
According to the SC and AI indices, T. macropetala is a selfcompatible species (SC ¼ 0.96, AI ¼ 0.34 or 34 %).
Nectar analysis
Mean total volume of nectar of the T. macropetala flowers was
434.04 mL (+178.03 s.d., n ¼ 21 flowers in six individuals) per
flower per night, and the average concentration of dissolved
sugars was 7.43 % (+6.34 % s.d., n ¼ 21 flowers). Nectar was
produced for 12 h. The highest quantity of nectar was found at
2200 h (147.02 + 97.38 mL), subsequently declining to almost
zero by 0800 h (1.03 + 3.90 mL; Fig. 3). The highest concentration of dissolved sugar was recorded at 2000 h, with 15.26 %
(+1.45 %) and this decreased with diminishing nectar production (Fig. 3). Pearson correlation showed that a significant
negative relationship existed between the time at which nectar
was extracted (conducted at intervals of 2 h) and the volume produced (r ¼ – 0.72; P , 0.05), as well as between the time and the
concentration of dissolved sugars (r ¼ – 0.78; P , 0.05).
Floral scent analysis
Nine floral scent compounds were identified in the samples
collected from two T. macropetala flowers [amounts are given
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recording took place from 1900 to 2300 h, which included the
initiation of anthesis close to dusk, over a period of 13 d (dictated
by a combination of equipment capacity and environmental conditions).
Diurnal visitors were observed directly with binoculars and a
digital camera from 0600 to 1100 h (morning period) and from
1500 to 1800 h (evening period), at a distance of around 3 m
from the flowers. Direct observations were subsequently made
for 1 h before dawn and after dusk, over a period of 16 d.
Recordings and observations of visitors were carried out from
February to April in both years.
During the observations, the species (or morphospecies) of the
visitor was recorded, along with the time of the visit, number of
flowers visited and the reward sought. The recordings were analysed using the program Final Cut Pro 7 (Apple Inc. 2009) at a
speed of 3 f.p.s. (10 % of real time). For the analysis, the duration
of each visit was defined as the amount of time that the mouthparts of the pollinator remained within the corolla (Muchhala,
2006). If a visitor moved the whole inflorescence when placing
its head inside the flower, it was considered that contact had
been made with the reproductive organs of the flower (Slauson,
2000).
To identify the bat species, sampling was carried out with
mist-nets (6 × 12 m) for a period of six nights. The nets were
placed at least 1 m from a different T. macropetala individual
in flower per night, and checked every 30 min. Nets were
opened at dusk (1900 h) and closed after 6 h. Species were identified using field guides (Reid, 2009) and following the taxonomy
of Simmons (2005) and Velazco and Patterson (2013). Samples
of pollen were taken from the bodies of the captured individuals
using a moist brush, and placed in vials with 70 % ethanol. Six
preparations were made from each sample (18 preparations in
total) for subsequent comparison with reference samples of
T. macropetala pollen grains (Fig. 2C), using an optical microscope (40×, Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany).
Aguilar-Rodrı́guez et al. — Bat-pollination in Tillandsia macropetala
300
Duration of the night
Stigma receptivity
Pollen availability
1051
18
Volume
250
16
Sugar
14
12
10
150
6
100
4
50
2
0
16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00
Hour of day
0
F I G . 3. Production (volume) and concentration (% sugar) of nectar in Tillandsia macropetala flowers. Error bars denote s.d. The duration of the receptivity of the
stigma and the duration of the night at the study site are indicated, together with the period of dehiscence of the anthers and the time at which pollen grains are
found in these.
TA B L E 1. Results of the pollination experiments carried out with
Tillandsia macropetala flowers for determination of the
reproductive system
Treatment
Emasculation
Spontaneous
self-pollination
Cross-pollination
Self-pollination
No. of flowers
manipulated
No. of
fruits
Fruit-set
Seed-set
(mean + s.d.)
24
46
0
6
0
13.04
0
50.6 + 138.5a
29
23
10
8
34.48
34.78
154.0 + 225.6b
148.0 + 215.0b
Different letters denote significant differences (H ¼ 5.46, d.f. ¼ 2, P , 0.05;
the emasculation treatment was excluded).
in per cent of total peak area (%)]: three fatty acid derivatives
(nonanal, 19.8 %; heptanal, 10 %; 1-octen-3-ol, 2.5 %) and six
terpenoids (limonene, 24.2 %; geraniol, 11.5 %; methyl geranate, 11 %; b-pinene, 8.3 %; 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, 7.2 %;
(Z )-b-ocimene, 5.6 %).
Observations of floral visitors
A total of 107 h of observation were carried out (29 h at night
and 78 h during the day) at 158 T. macropetala flowers (53 at
night and 105 during the day) during which 210 visits were
recorded (170 at night and 40 during the day), comprising nine
different species of floral visitors (three during the night and
six during the day; Supplementary Data Table S1).
Thirty-three individual bats of six species were captured near
the flowers: Anoura geoffroyi Gray (n ¼ 3 individuals), Artibeus
lituratus Olfers (n ¼ 2), Carollia sowelli Baker, Solari &
Hoffmann (n ¼ 8), Diphylla ecaudata Spix (n ¼ 2), Myotis
volans Allen (n ¼ 3) and Sturnira hondurensis Anthony (n ¼
15). All individuals of A. geoffroyi had pollen on their snouts,
chest, forearms and/or wing membranes, and even on the top
of the head (Fig. 4A). All the pollen grains identified in the preparations of pollen taken from the fur of A. geoffroyi (Fig. 4A)
belonged to bromeliads of the subfamily Tillandsioideae
(Halbritter 1992), probably from T. macropetala, as it was the
only flowering bromeliad with crepuscular anthesis at the time
of this study. The video recordings showed that A. geoffroyi
(identified by its size and reduced uropatagium) was the only
bat species visiting T. macropetala.
Nocturnal video recordings totaling 29 h were obtained, in
which 170 visits by three species were recorded: the bat
A. geoffroyi, at least two mice Peromyscus sp. and a nocturnal
moth (Noctuidae; Supplementary Data Table S1). Anoura geoffroyi made 158 visits of 0.17 + 0.08 s duration (n ¼ 10 visits).
Visits began at dusk and continued throughout the 3-h recording
period, peaking between 1930 and 2130 h. In all visits, the bats
placed their heads within the flowers and on 152 occasions
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8
% Sugar
Volume (µL)
200
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Aguilar-Rodrı́guez et al. — Bat-pollination in Tillandsia macropetala
A
B
F I G . 4. Images of: (A) Tillandsioideae pollen grains, presumably of Tillandsia macropetala, in the fur of an Anoura geoffroyi individual captured in a mist-net (circled
in black); (B) nectarivorous bat making contact with the anthers of T. macropetala during its visit (circled in white). Images: P. A. Aguilar-Rodrı́guez.
Treatment
Diurnal exposure
Nocturnal exposure
Emasculated diurnal
exposure
Emasculated
nocturnal exposure
Control
No. of
flowers
No. of
fruits
Fruit-set
Seed-set
(mean + s.d.)
33
72
31
0
25
0
0
34.72
0
0
184.5 + 268.8a
0
57
22
38.59
199.3 + 284.8a
126
49
38.88
180.5 + 249.9a
Different letters denote significant differences at P ≤ 0.05 (diurnal exposure
and emasculated diurnal exposure were excluded).
(96.20 %) made contact with the stigma and the stamens, causing
the whole spike to move as a result of the force of contact (Fig. 4B).
The Peromyscus sp. mice were recorded making ten visits in the
same night to at least six different flowers in one single bromeliad
inflorescence (Aguilar-Rodrı́guez et al., 2013). The moth was
recorded on the T. macropetala corolla on two occasions, but
was never observed taking the floral rewards.
Forty diurnal visits were recorded. The most frequent
diurnal visitor was the hummingbird Lampornis amethystinus
Swainson, which made 32 visits to the flowers of T. macropetala.
Of these visits, 28 occurred between 0630 and 0915 h and
four between 1800 and 1900 h. As a result of its way of approaching the flowers (not pressing the head against the flower,
unlike the bat), in combination with the open corolla,
L. amethystinus hardly made contact with the reproductive
organs of T. macropetala.
Effectiveness of floral visitors
Only the flowers exposed to nocturnal visitors (treatments NE
and ENE) developed fruits, with both nocturnal exposure
treatments achieving 40 % fructification (Table 2), whereas the
flowers exposed to diurnal visitors (treatments DE and EDE)
did not produce fruits. Seed-set in treatments NE and ENE did
not differ significantly from those of the control treatment
(H ¼ 0.17, d.f. ¼ 2, P . 0.05; n ¼ 255 flowers of 17 plants,
excluding those of treatments DE and EDE; Table 2).
D IS C US S IO N
Tillandsia macropetala is a self-compatible species and,
although anthesis covered both nocturnal and diurnal periods,
displays a pollination system that is specialized towards nocturnal visitors, of which the bat A. geoffroyi is the only pollinator.
Thus, we report for the first time bat-pollination of a species in
the genus Tillandsia. In bromeliads, chiropterophily has been
previously reported for species of the genera Encholirium,
Guzmania, Pitcairnia, Puya, Vriesea and Werauhia (Sazima
et al., 1989; Krömer et al., 2007; Tschapka and von Helversen,
2007; Fleming et al., 2009; Christianini et al., 2013).
Tillandsia macropetala can be pollinated either by its own
pollen or by that of another individual, a common characteristic
in bromeliads (Matallana et al., 2010). However, differences in
fructification between the spontaneous self-pollination (13 %)
and those of the cross-pollination and self-pollination (approx.
35 %) treatments indicate that, while it has the potential for selfpollination, more fruits are developed when an external agent
delivers pollen from another plant individual. This may be due
to the floral morphology of the species, which makes selfpollination difficult.
Contrary to our hypothesis, even if T. macropetala receives nocturnal and diurnal visits, the visitor exclusion treatments conducted in the field showed that only visits made by nocturnal
animals produced fruits, thus making the diurnal visitors nectar
thieves. Both the duration of stigma receptivity (approx. 18 h, of
which 9 h are nocturnal) and the period during which pollen is
available on the anthers (approx. 11 h, of which 9 h are nocturnal)
make nocturnal pollination more feasible. Nectar production patterns, in terms of volume and concentration, are higher in the initial
hours of the night and decrease to a minimum in the initial hours of
the morning. In this way, the highest potential reward is available
during the night, a trait that has been previously observed in bromeliads visited by bats (Tschapka and von Helversen, 2007).
In accordance with our second hypothesis, the only effective
pollinator of T. macropetala was the bat Anoura geoffroyi, and
the captured individuals of this species were found to carry bromeliad pollen of presumably this species. Although Anoura bats
visit different flowering species, as revealed by different pollen
morphotypes (Muchhala and Jarrı́n-V., 2002), we only found
pollen of the same morphotype, which may indicate that nightflowering Tillandsioideae bromeliads were the only source for
nectar in the vicinity at the time of this study. It is known that
A. geoffroyi visits at least two other bromeliad species, namely
Downloaded from http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/ at Cambridge University Library on May 8, 2014
TA B L E 2. Results of the exclusion experiments with Tillandsia
macropetala flowers for determination of the effectiveness of the
pollinators
Aguilar-Rodrı́guez et al. — Bat-pollination in Tillandsia macropetala
(Tschapka and von Helversen, 2007), whereas T. macropetala
has only limited capacity for spontaneous self-pollination and
was pollinated only by one bat species at our study site. The
higher number of bat pollinators may explain the differences in
the volume and sugar concentration in nectar of W. gladioliflora
compared with T. macropetala (1129 mL and 17 % vs.
434.04 mL and 7.43 %; Tschapka and von Helversen, 2007).
Unlike the floral scent of W. gladioliflora, which included dimethyl disulphide, an unusual component of floral scents that
attracts even naı̈ve flower-visiting glossophagine bats (von
Helversen et al., 2000), T. macropetala scent lacks this compound.
However, not all bat-pollinated species have dimethyl disulphide
in their scent (Knudsen and Tollsten, 1995), and six out of nine
detected compounds in the T. macropetala scent have been
detected in other bat-pollinated plants (Knudsen and Tollsten,
1995; Bestmann et al., 1997). Also, it is known that plants with
an extended floral anthesis change the pattern and components
of their floral scent (e.g. Silene otites, Caryophyllaceae; Dötterl
et al., 2012). For practical reasons, we could only evaluate the
floral scent compounds from 0000 to 0330 h from two different
flowers, so perhaps monitoring the scent emission through the
entire anthesis of T. macropetala – including the period with
maximum number of visits – would reveal additional volatile
compounds.
Our results on the pollination biology of this bromeliad are in
accordance with the isolated phylogenetic position of
T. viridiflora (the type species of Pseudalcantarea) as sister to
the rest of Tillandsia/Racinaea/Viridantha (Barfuss et al.,
2005). This might indicate an ongoing evolution from bird or
moth pollination, which are common in Tillandsia (Benzing,
2000; Kessler and Krömer, 2000), to bat-pollination, in the
same way as suggested for the origin of chiropterophily (von
Helversen and Winter, 2003). Likewise, the present study supports Krömer et al.’s (2008) suggestion, based on the characteristics of the nectar, that this bromeliad may be considered a
chiropterophilous species.
However, note that at our study site T. macropetala is at the
northern limits of its distribution, and in the more tropical
areas of Mexico and in Central America there are more species
of nectar-feeding phyllostomid bats (Espinoza et al., 1998;
Estrada and Coates-Estrada, 2001; Laval and Rodrı́guez-H.,
2002), and also other animals that could possibly serve as pollinators (e.g. hummingbirds and moths). Thus, more detailed
studies of nectar characteristics, pollinators and reproductive
biology of the relevant species, especially realized in more
diverse tropical zones, are necessary to understand the evolution
of pollination syndromes in the genus Tillandsia in general and
the subgenus Pseudoalcantarea in particular.
S U P PL E M E N TARY D ATA
Supplementary data are available online at www.aob.oxford
journals.org and consist of Table S1: list of principal floral visitors of T. macropetala recorded with video cameras and by direct
observation.
ACK NOW LED GE MENTS
We are grateful to Luz Marı́a Ordiales, Anı́bal Silva Ayala,
Jonathan Ott, Madian Rivera, Jorge Gómez, Juan Manuel
Downloaded from http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/ at Cambridge University Library on May 8, 2014
Vriesea longiscapa Ule in the coastal tropical lowland forest of
south-eastern Brazil (5 – 90 m; Sazima et al., 1999) and
Vriesea platynema Gaudichaud at a montane humid forest of
Brazil (1100 m; Kaehler et al., 2005). Early morning field observations on the flowers recorded in the previous night showed that
in flowers visited by bats, pollen was frequently found on the
stigma and the anthers were found without remaining pollen.
Due to this lack of pollen available in the morning, diurnal
visits probably had no effect on the production of seeds. The predominance of nocturnal visitors to T. macropetala is clear from
the low frequency of diurnal visitors (19 % of the total visits),
which act only as nectar thieves (sensu Irwin et al., 2010), as
no diurnal visitor was observed to make contact with the
anthers and/or stigma while taking nectar.
The morphology of the flowers of T. macropetala enables many
animals (e.g. hummingbirds and various insects) to access the
floral reward while making no contact with the reproductive
organs. The free extended filaments and style imply that arthropods, because of their small body size, cannot make contact
with both anthers and stigma during one visit. In the case of the
hummingbird, however, it is the form of approach and visit to
the flower that impedes pollination (see Muchhala, 2006).
Considering the characteristics of chiropterophilous plants, the
floral morphology of T. macropetala does not match the typical
traits of large, zygomorphic and bell-shaped flowers with strong
scent (Tschapka and Dressler, 2002), such as presented by bromeliads of the genera Vriesea and Werauhia (Vogel, 1969; Sazima
et al., 1995; Cascante-Marı́n et al., 2005; Krömer et al., 2007).
Also, sulphur-containing compounds are absent from the
scent of T. macropetala, unlike in other bat-pollinated plants
(Bestmann et al., 1997; von Helversen et al., 2000). It has also
been reported that the nectar of some chiropterophilous bromeliads has a strong and disagreeable odour (e.g. Sazima et al.,
1989), whereas the nectar of T. macropetala has a faintly sweet
odor in the early hours of the night when the volume of nectar is
highest (P. A. Aguilar-Rodrı́guez, pers. obs.).
However, the nocturnal anthesis of T. macropetala, its temporal
pattern and characteristics of nectar production, extended stamens
and stylus, petal colour and phenology, and floral display (annual
flowering, with about one flower per night for several nights)
match those expected for a bat-pollinated species (Sazima et al.,
1999; Tschapka and von Helversen, 2007; Wilmer, 2011).
Nectar sugar concentration of T. macropetala is low for a batpollinated flower, being about 10 % below the average
(Tschapka and Dressler, 2002). Comparing nectar characteristics
of chiropterophilous bromeliads, the nectar sugar concentration
of T. macropetala is lower than those of Guzmania, Vriesea and
most Werauhia species (Krömer et al., 2008), but the nectar
volume is higher (434.04 + 178.03 mL) than those recorded
for Vriesea longiscapa and V. bituminosa Wawra (116 –
235 mL; Sazima et al., 1999) and T. heterophylla (82.21 +
48.13 mL; P. A. Aguilar-Rodrı́guez, pers. obs.).
The most studied chiropterophilous bromeliad, Werauhia gladioliflora (H. Wendland) J.R. Grant, produces more than twice
the fruit-set (87 vs. 38 %) and ten times as many seeds as
T. macropetala (1871–2018 vs. 180 seeds; Cascante-Marı́n
et al., 2005; Tschapka and von Helversen, 2007). These differences may be due to the fact that W. gladioliflora has a high potential for self-pollination, and may be pollinated by at least four
species of bats in the tropical lowland rain forest of Costa Rica
1053
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Aguilar-Rodrı́guez et al. — Bat-pollination in Tillandsia macropetala
Pech, Grecia Benı́tez and Zuemy Vallado for their help in the
field. Emmanuel Solı́s, Lilia Ruı́z and Samaria Armenta
helped with editing photographs, videos and the map. Andrew
P. Vovides and Sonia Galicia Castellanos kindly allowed use
of the Laboratorio de Biologı́a Evolutiva de Cycadales, of
INECOL A. C. to process the pollen samples. We also thank
Florian Schiestl for providing the gas chromatograph and to
Edward Connor for his help with scent analysis. This work was
supported by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologı́a
(grant number 59406 awarded to P.A.A.-R.), the Claraz
Schenkung and The Bromeliad Society International. The collection permit (SGPA/DGVS/02294/11) was issued by the
Secretarı́a de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales.
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SUPPLEMENTARY DATA
Principal floral visitors of T. macropetala recorded with video cameras and by direct observation.
Period of
activity
Nocturnal
Nocturnal
Nocturnal
Diurnal
Diurnal
Diurnal
Diurnal
Diurnal
Diurnal
Species
Anoura geoffroyi
(Chiroptera:
Phyllostomidae)
Peromyscus sp.
(Rodentia:
Cricetidae)
Noctuidae sp.1
(Lepidoptera)
Lampornis
amethystinus
(Apodiformes:
Trochilidae)
Dismorphia sp.
(Lepidoptera:
Pieridae)
Bombus sp.1
(Hymenoptera:
Apidae)
Apis mellifera
(Hymenoptera:
Apidae)
Vespidae sp.1
(Hymenoptera)
Blattidae sp.1
(Blattodea)
Relative frequency (N) %
Visit reward /
objective
Visitor category
(158) 75.24
Nectar
Pollinator
(10) 4.76
Pollen
Pollen thief
(2) 0.95
-
-
(32) 15.24
Nectar
Nectar thief
(2) 0.95
Nectar
Nectar thief
(2) 0.95
Nectar
Pollen thief
(2) 0.95
-
-
(1) 0.48
Nectar
Nectar thief
(1) 0.48
Nectar
Nectar thief
1
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