Regina E. Cortez and Elvira Gonzalez de Mejia
Blackcurrants (BC; Ribes nigrum) are relatively new to the U.S. market; however, they are well known and
popular in Europe and Asia. The use of BC has been trending worldwide, particularly in the United States. We believe
that demand for BC will grow as consumers become aware of the several potential health benefits these berries offer.
The objectives of this review were to provide an up-to-date summary of information on BC based on articles published
within the last decade; furthermore, to provide the food industry insights into possibilities for the utilization of BC.
The chemistry, processing methods, and health benefits have been highlighted in addition to how the environment
and variety impact the chemical constituents of BC. A search for journal publications on BC was conducted, which
included keywords such as chemical characterization, health benefits, processing, technologies, anthocyanins (ANC),
and proanthocyanidins. This review provides up-to-date information available on the subject. In conclusion, BC and
their products have industrial uses from which extractions can be made to produce natural pigments to be used as food
additives. BC contain flavonoids, specifically ANC, which provide the fruits with their purple color. BC are a rich source
of phytochemicals with potent antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. Also, BC have the potential
to improve overall human health particularly with diseases associated with inflammation and regulation of blood glucose.
Abstract:
Keywords: anthocyanins, anti-inflammation, antioxidant, berry processing, blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum)
Introduction
Blackcurrants (BC; Ribes nigrum) are small dark purple fruits
that come from medium-sized woody shrubs (Figure 1) (Corrigan,
Hedderley, Langford, & Zou, 2014; Törrönen et al., 2012). These
shrubs are native to colder climate areas such as northern Europe,
northern Asia, and central Asia, with Poland being the primary
exporter (80% to 90% of global exports) of fresh and processed BC
(Michalska, Wojdyło, Łysiak, Lech, & Figiel, 2017). Table 1 offers
details about BC producing countries. Production of BC depends
on the genetics of each cultivar and the temperature of the growing environment. BC are well known in European markets but not
in the United States. BC have remained relatively unknown to the
U.S. market because they were prohibited from being grown in
the United States from the early 20th century until the 1980s. This
was due to significant losses by the lumber industry, which discovered that some native and non-native species of the Ribes genus
could act as vectors for the fungus Cronartium ribicola. This is the
cause of the white pine blister rust, disease in pine trees, which
leads to mortality of native five-needle pines, important for the
U.S. lumber industry (Tanguay, Cox, Munck, Weimer, & Villani,
2015). Since then, new cultivars have been produced that do not
act as vectors for the fungus, in addition to the already resistant BC
cultivar “Consort.” Currently, some U.S. farmers have a renewed
interest in this high-value crop because BC and BC products are
trending worldwide. In fact, the Intl. Blackcurrant Assn. (IBA),
which began in 2008 in Christchurch, New Zealand, now has associations with growing programs in Denmark, France, Germany,
Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Ukraine, and the United
Kingdom (Table 1). Additionally, there is also the Blackcurrant
Foundation, which is based in the United Kingdom. Other BC
breeding programs can also be found in countries such as the
United States, Finland, Poland, Canada, New Zealand (Institute
for Plant and Food Research), the United Kingdom (James Hutton
Institute, Scotland), Ukraine, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Romania, Russia, and Serbia. Table 2 presents examples of sources
for BC berries. It was reported in 2017 that 3,100 new BC products appeared globally, 199 of which were from the United States
alone (FONA International, 2017; Figure 2). It should also be
noted that the IBA has its own New Product Development Unit,
which promotes the development of BC products (International
Blackcurrant Association, 2016). BC, which are known for their
characteristic deep shades of purple, also have a characteristic bitter and astringent flavor. This is why it is quite common to find
BC products with significant amounts of sugar added. BC are
also known to have a high concentration of flavonoids, specifically
anthocyanins (ANC), which provide the fruits with their purple
color (Archaina, Leiva, Salvatori, & Schebor, 2018). These winter
hardy berries are a rich source of phytochemicals that are potent
antioxidants, antimicrobials, and have anti-inflammatory properties (Nour, Stampar, Veberic, & Jakopic, 2013). The objective of
this review was to summarize and offer up-to-date information of
the available literature regarding BC and their chemical, sensorial,
processing, and potential biological properties.
Chemistry and Sensory Properties of BC
BC (R. nigrum) are widely recognized for containing high
levels of polyphenols, specifically ANC (Figure 3) and proanthocyanidins (PAC; Figure 4), when compared with other berries
(Lee et al., 2015). Both blackberries and blueberries have lower
total ANC concentrations compared to BC (949.4 ± 4.0,
JFDS-2019-0424 Submitted 3/23/2019, Accepted 7/27/2019. Authors are with 1,562.2 ± 52.4, and 1,741 ± 48.8 mg/100 g, dry weight (DW),
Dept. of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, respectively; Lee et al., 2015). Interestingly, a large degree of
Urbana, IL 61801, U.S.A. Direct inquiries to author Gonzalez de Mejia (Email:
variability of ANC concentrations was demonstrated among
edemejia@illinois.edu).
three BC cultivars (“Record,” “Blackdown,” and “Ronix”)
with a range from 80 to 476 mg/100 mg fresh weight (FW;
R
C 2019 Institute of Food Technologists
doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.14781
Further reproduction without permission is prohibited
Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019 r Journal of Food Science 1
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A Review on
Chemistry, Processing, and Health Benefits
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Figure 1–Blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) berries
and plants grown in Champaign County,
Illinois. Blackcurrant farmers in Champaign, IL
standing next to a young blackcurrant bush for
size perspective; a close-up photo of how
blackcurrant berries grow in groups; and a
young blackcurrant bush growing in
Champaign, IL. There has been a recent
increase in the number of blackcurrant farms
in Illinois in the past 5 years. Permission for
pictures has been granted.
Table 1–World blackcurrant production information.
World producer
Production tonnage
Hectares of land
Reference
Denmark
France
Germany
Japan
The Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Poland
Ukraine
United Kingdom
3,000
4,600
8,000
7
1,200
8,000
600
120,000
27,000
13,000
500
1,300
1,500
7
180
1,300
200
34,000
5,000
2,000
www.blackcurrant-iba.com/blackcurrants-denmark/
www.blackcurrant-iba.com/blackcurrants-france/
www.blackcurrant-iba.com/blackcurrants-germany/
www.blackcurrant-iba.com/blackcurrants-japan/
www.blackcurrant-iba.com/blackcurrants-netherlands/
www.blackcurrant-iba.com/blackcurrants-nz/
www.blackcurrant-iba.com/blackcurrants-norway/
www.blackcurrant-iba.com/blackcurrants-poland/
www.blackcurrant-iba.com/blackcurrants-ukraine/
www.blackcurrantfoundation.co.uk/
Nour et al., 2013). A study, which was conducted in New
Zealand, compared the chemical composition of eight juices
(Magnus, Ben Ard, Ben Rua, Blackadder White, Ben Hope,
L410, L406, and L700) from New Zealand BC cultivars (Parkar,
Redgate, McGhie, & Hurst, 2014). It is evident in this work
2 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019
that the rutinoside forms of delphinidin and cyanidin make up
the majority of ANC present. The cultivar with the highest
concentrations of delphinidin 3-O-glucoside (D3G) and delphinidin 3-O-rutinoside (D3R) was L406 (631 and 2,559 µg/mL,
respectively). The cultivar with the greatest concentration of
Table 2–Sources for blackcurrant berries (fresh and frozen), extracts, powders, plants, and pomace.
Company and production region
Products
Contact information
Highland Valley Farm, WI, USA
Fresh and frozen berries
CurrantC, Staatsburg, NY, USA
CurrantC Black Currant Syrup, quick-dried
black currants, black currant vinegar, black
currant honey, preserves, nectar/juice,
fresh berries, frozen berries, and plants
Powders
Artemis International, IN, USA
ActiveMicro Technologies, Ribes
nigrum (Black Currant) Fruit
Extract
New Zealand Blackcurrant
Co-operative, Nelson, New
Zealand (the largest juice producer
in NZ)
Sujon, Nelson, New Zealand (frozen
fruit and powder producer in NZ)
Barker’s of Geraldine, NZ
BlackMax Performance Nutrition,
LTD (a NZ company selling
blackcurrant powder for sports
benefits)
NZP, New Zealand (the largest
producer of powder in NZ)
CurraNZ, New Zealand
(a UK company making products
from NZ fruit powder)
Just the Berries, New Zealand &
Japan (a US company making
products from NZ
blackcurrants—esp eye health in
Asia)
Berrico Food Company, the
Netherlands
Lemon Concentrate, Spain
PhytoCide Black Currant Powder (powders
for use as antimicrobial agent in cosmetics
and personal care products)
Juice concentrate, individually quick-frozen
berries, block frozen berries, puree, and
single strength juice
Frozen berries and powder
Squeezed NZ Blackcurrants
Over 750 blackcurrants are squeezed into
each bottle—a blend of the Magnus and
Ben Rua blackcurrant varieties. Barker’s
blackcurrant syrups only contain New
Zealand squeezed blackcurrants
Blackmax 300 g performance nutrition
Freeze-dried extract powders
CurranNz (extract capsules)
Anthocyanin extract powders (Antho Tex
35), juice powders, blackcurrant seed oil,
blackcurrant brix 65, blackcurrant brix 68,
infused dried fruits, puree, juices
(functional and consumer), antiflu drinks,
and antiflu candy
Dried fruit
Concentrate and pomace
cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (C3G) was Ben Ard (314 µg/mL) and for
cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside (C3R) it was L700 (3,138 µg/mL;
Parkar et al., 2014). Other research on the ANC content of New
Zealand BC cultivars compared with Non-New Zealand cultivars
arrived at a similar conclusion and determined that New Zealand
BC cultivars possess approximately 1.5 times more ANC (Schrage
et al., 2010). Total ANC from 107 genotypes of Vaccinium L.,
Rubus L., and Ribes L. were evaluated and it was demonstrated
that the concentration of ANC in BC is significantly affected
by berry size (Moyer, Hummer, Finn, Frei, & Wrolstad, 2002).
Variances among cultivars suggest that more research is needed to
determine which cultivars contain the highest concentrations of
these beneficial bioactive compounds. According to Nour et al.
(2013), who performed a maceration of the berries in food grade
ethanol (40%, 60%, or 96%), the compounds found in BC were
D3G, D3R, C3G C3R, petunidin 3- O-rutinoside, pelargonidin
3-O-rutinoside, peonidin 3- O-rutinoside, petunidin 3-(6coumaroyl) glucoside, and cyanidin 3-(6-coumaroyl) glucoside
(Table 3). Of the three different extractions (40%, 60%, and 96%),
60% ethanol was able to extract the highest concentrations of the
four major ANC from all three cultivars, except for D3R (Nour
87080 Valley Rd, Bayfield, WI 54814 (715)
779–5446
59 Walnut Lane
Staatsburg, NY 12580
(845) 266–8999
3711 Vanguard Drive, Fort Wayne, Indiana
46809 (260) 436–6899
107 Technology Drive, Lincolnton, North
Carolina, USA 28092 (704) 276–7086
17 Bullen Street, Tahunanui, Nelson 7011,
New Zealand +64-3-548-5130
17 Bullen Street, Tahunanui, Nelson 7011,
New Zealand
Barker’s of Geraldine Shop
Four Peaks Plaza
76B Talbot Street
Geraldine
South Canterbury 7930
New Zealand
16 Hinepango Drive, RD 3, Blenheim 7273,
New Zealand 027-864-9164
68 Weld Street, RD 2, Palmerston North
4472, New Zealand +64-6-952-3800
Curranz Ltd, 330 Parnell Road, PO Box
106109, Auckland, 1143, New Zealand
Japan Just the Berries Research Co., Ltd.
Showa Bldg 9F
2-7-17Jimnocho, Kanda
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0051
Japan Just the Berries PD Corporation
Address:
777 S.Figeuroa St, Suite 3775
Los Angeles, CA 90017
PO Box 2296, 8203 AG Lelystad,
Nederland’s +31-0-320-266-055
Avenida Virgen del Rosario, 30012 Murcia,
Spain +34-665-060-904
et al., 2013). After performing ANC extraction with an 80%
(v/v) aqueous methanol solution with 0.1% HCl, Lee et al. (2015)
reported that the contents of ANC in BC were D3R (55.2%),
cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside (23.2%), and delphinidin-3-O-glucoside
(18.8%). This suggested that ethanol was more effective than
acidified methanol for extraction of more diverse forms of ANC
from BC (Table 3). Figure 5 presents an HPLC profile at 520 nm
for the characterization of ANC showing the presence of D3G,
D3R, C3G, and C3R (Buchert et al., 2005). According to the
study by Nour et al. (2013), the concentration of total phenolics
in BC ranged between 1,261 and 1,694 mg eq of gallic acid/L
with the lesser values being from the 40% ethanol extraction and
the higher values from the 96% ethanol extraction. PAC present
in BC are polymers that can be divided into two categories,
procyanidins (PC) and prodelphinidins (PD; Figure 4; Laaksonen,
Salminen, Mäkilä, Kallio, & Yang, 2015). PC are polymers made
up of catechins (+) and epicatechins (–) and PD are also polymers
made up of gallocatechins (+) and epigallocatechins (–) (Figure 4;
Laaksonen et al., 2015). ANC are naturally hydrophilic and
therefore have limited application potential in both foods and
cosmetics that contain fats or oils (Cruz et al., 2018). However,
Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019 r Journal of Food Science 3
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Figure 2–Examples of some commercial blackcurrant beverages. (A) Products available in the United States. (B) Products available elsewhere.
there has been research done to try to improve the performance,
stability, formulation properties, and color of ANC from BC.
One particular study sought to increase the stability of ANC
from BC without a loss in bioactivity (Cruz et al., 2018). This
study used the enzyme Candida antarctica lipase B and octanoic
4 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019
acid to lyophilize and esterify ANC from BC. BC extracts
(BCE) from skins were obtained (Table 3) and purified to only
contain the four major monomeric ANC D3R [43.3%], C3R
[34.0%], C3G [7.0%], and D3G [15.7%]; Cruz et al., 2018). This
work concluded that only the glucoside forms of cyanidin and
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside
Delphinidin 3-O-glucoside
Cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside
Delphinidin 3- O-rutinoside
Figure 3–The chemical structures of the four main anthocyanins found in blackcurrants.
delphinidin were acylated by the enzymes and not the rutinoside
forms. A different study found that by using lauric acid, each of
the four major ANC was monoacylated successfully without an
adverse effect on relative proportions (Yang, Kortesniemi, Ma,
Zheng, & Yang, 2019). Each of the acylations was noted at the
6′′ –OH position and at the 4′′ –OH position of the glucosides
and rutinosides, respectively (Yang et al., 2019). This process
succeeded in enhancing the lipophilicity of the compounds,
which makes them more compatible for use in lipid-based foods
and cosmetics. Although one group of researchers was able to alter
the hydrophilicity of ANC from BC, results still suggest that more
research is needed to address the hydrophilicity of ANC from BC
so that the food and cosmetics industries may better utilize them.
BC are bitter and astringent; because of this, large amounts
of sugar are often added to BC products to offset the bitterness
and astringency. This can be problematic for companies seeking
to appeal to health-conscious consumers. Pectinolytic enzymatic
treatments, which increase juice yields, also increase the perception of bitterness and astringency because the enzymes increase
the mean degree of polymerization of PAC (Laaksonen et al.,
2015). Additionally, astringency is related to the mean degree of
polymerization (mDP) of PAC, which are oligomeric and
polymeric tannins with different flavan-3-ol units (Laaksonen
et al., 2015). The mDP is an indicator of the average number
of flavan-3-ol monomers that make up the condensed tannins
(Laaksonen et al., 2015). Epicatechins, which are subunits of PC,
are thought to be more bitter and astringent than catechins at
equal concentrations. The reason for the perception of these bitter
and astringent flavors is still not fully understood (Laaksonen et al.,
2015). It has historically been hypothesized, and generally accepted, that this phenomenon is due to polymeric tannins binding
and precipitating salivary proteins, which in turn are perceived as a
Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019 r Journal of Food Science 5
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Figure 4–A schematic diagram of the
subgroups of proanthocyanidins and their
chemical structures.
rough and drying sensation in the mucous membranes (Laaksonen
et al., 2015). It is believed that proline clusters, and possibly
nearby residues, are the probable sites for the PC interactions
with salivary proteins (Soares et al., 2018). After analyses of five
different cultivars, Mortti, Mikael, Marski, Ola, and Breed15, it
6 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019
was discovered that samples that had undergone an enzymatic
treatment prior to processing showed not only a significantly
higher mDP but also demonstrated higher concentrations of PAC
(both PC and PD; Laaksonen et al., 2015). BC juices that contain
higher concentrations of PAC could be viewed as undesirable due
Table 3–Blackcurrants materials, extraction methods, solvents, and compounds obtained.
Starting materials and
extraction methods
Solvents
Whole fresh blackcurrant berries
were macerated. Phenomenex
Gemini C18
(150 × 4.60 mm, 3 µm)
column, protected with
Phenomenex security guard
column
Whole freeze-dried blackcurrant
berries. Sep.-Pak C18 Plus
Short SPE cartridge (Waters,
Milford, MA, USA)
Blackcurrant juice
Food grade ethanol (40%, 60%,
or 96%), 1% formic acid with
5% acetonitrile in water, and
100% acetonitrile
Blackcurrant pomace. SFE-CO2;
Helix 1 SFE system with a
50 mL stainless cylindrical
extractor vessel (i.d. = 14 mm,
length = 320 mm) filled with
15 g BC pomace, Soxhlet
Blackcurrant juice. Sephadex
LH-20 gel, Waters Acquity
UPLC BEH Phenyl (1.7 µm,
2.1 × 100 mm), Waters Delta
600 with Fraction Collector
III, Phenomenex Gemini (150
× 21.2 mm, 10 µm, C18,
110 Å
Blackcurrant pomace. Separation
by centrifugation
SFE-CO2 , hexane, acetone,
ethanol:water, pressurized
ethanol, and pressurized water
Blackcurrant pomace. Separation
by centrifugation
Blackcurrant pomace. Separation
by centrifugation
Solid-phase extraction Amberlite
XAD-7HP (120 g) column,
rotary evaporator, and high
vacuum
Blackcurrant pomace. Solid-phase
extraction (Amberlite
XAD-7HP, 60 g).
Blackcurrant pomace. Fruit to
solvent ratio = 1:3.
Ultrasound-assisted extraction
with an amplitude range
between 0% and 100%
(UP100H, Teltow, Germany),
0.50, 5.25, and 10 min.
Blackcurrant skins. Separation
with Buchner funnel loaded
with RP-C18 silica gel and
lyophilization
Aqueous methanol solution 80%
(v/v) with 0.1% HCl and rinses
of water, ethyl acetate, and
acidic MeOH
Acidified MeOH and ethyl
acetate
Compounds extracted
References
Delphinidin 3-glucoside, delphinidin
3-rutinoside, cyanidin 3-glucoside,
cyanidin 3-rutinoside, petunidin
3-rutinoside, pelargonidin 3- rutinoside,
peonidin 3-rutinoside, petunidin
3-(6-coumaroyl) glucoside, and cyanindin
3-(6-coumaroyl) glucoside
Delphinidin-3-O-rutinoside (55.2%),
cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside (23.2%), and
delphinidin-3-O-glucoside (18.8%)
Nour et al. (2013)
Lee et al. (2015)
Delphinidin glycosides, cyanidin glucosides,
glucosides of anthocyanins, rutinosides of
anthocyanins, anthocyanin degradation
products, flavonol glycosides, flavonol
aglycones, myricetin glycosides, quercetin
glycosides, kaempferol glycosides,
isorhamnetin glycosides, glucosides of
flavonols, rutinosides of flavonols, and
various hydroxycinnamic acids
Fatty acids (myristic, palmitic, palmitic,
palmitoleic, heptadecanoic, stearic, oleic,
linolelaidic, linoleic, arachidic, γ -linolenic,
cis-11, 14-eicosenoic, linolenic, cis-11,
14-eicosadienoic, behenic, cis-11,
14,17-eicosatrienoic, and lignoceric)
Proanthocyanins, procyanidins (with varying
mDP) and prodelphinidins (with varying
mDP)
Mäkilä et al.
(2017)
Acid-soluble pectins
Alba et al. (2018)
Calcium-bound pectins
Alba et al. (2018)
Alkali-soluble lignin, alkali-soluble
hemicelluloses, and cellulose
Alba et al. (2018)
Blackcurrant skins yielded a blackcurrant
extract (amorphous violet solid or purified
blackcurrant extract)
Cruz et al. (2018)
Water acidified with 0.01% v/v
HCl
Dark violet amorphous solid
Rose et al. (2018)
Water, 50:50 water with ethanol
(96%), (85:15) water with citric
acid (1 M, 2 M, 1.5 M, and 3.0
M), and (85:15) ethanol and
HCl (1.5 M)
Sonicated extract
Archaina et al.
(2018)
Dissolved in 100 mL acidified
water (2% HCl), extracted with
ethyl acetate (3 ×
100 mL), elution solvent
(water/methanol 70:30 (v/v)
and acidified (2% HCl)
Purified blackcurrant extract (amorphous
violet solid) yielded a dark red solid
Cruz et al. (2018)
Acetonitrile and formic acid
HCl/KCl buffer (pH 2.0, 0.1 M),
95% ethanol, isopropanol, and
deionized water
0.25% w/v ammonium oxalate
(pH 4.6); solid to liquid ratio
1:40
6% v/v H2 O2 (60 pH 11.5) and
3 g/L of NaBH4 ; solid to
liquid ratio 1:20
Acidified water (0.01% v/v HCl)
and acidified ethanol (0.01%
v/v HCl)
to their flavor, despite their benefits (Laaksonen et al., 2015). This
does, however, offer unique opportunities for extractions because
the diversity of ANC in BC is not complex. Sensory evaluations
of other parts of BC have also been conducted to explore the use
Basegmez et al.
(2017)
Laaksonen et al.
(2015)
of BC pomace (BCP) as a source of dietary fiber. In one study,
consumers were blindly tested for acceptance of a 50% wheat flour,
30% buckwheat flour, and 20% corn flour crackers compared with
crackers made up of the same ingredients with the addition of BC
Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019 r Journal of Food Science 7
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Environmental and Variety Impact on Chemical
Composition
Figure 5–A representative HPLC chromatogram showing the peaks at
520 nm and retention times of the four major anthocyanins found in blackcurrants. These chromatograms were made before and after a pectinase
(Pectinex BE-3L) treatment on blackcurrant juice (Buchert et al., 2005).
Reproduced with permission from Wiley Imprint/Publication.
pomace (10%, 20%, and 30%; Schmidt, Geweke, Struck, Zahn,
& Rohm, 2018). The 20% pomace cracker scored a 4.17 on an
acceptance scale of 1 to 7, whereas the reference scored a 4.37 on
the same scale (Schmidt et al., 2018). However, the 30% pomace
crackers produced a stiffer dough, which led to a lower hardness
trait due to high water absorption; thus, the pomace restricted the
ability of a strong protein network to form. The poor formation of
a protein network also resulted in at least a 57% decreased volume
of the 20% and 30% pomace crackers compared with the 10%
pomace and reference crackers (Schmidt et al., 2018). Changes
to the color of the cracker were also noted as the BC pomace
changed the color of the crackers from the traditional light tan
color to a deep shade of red. There were only slight differences
between the structures and appearances of the 20% and 30%
pomace crackers compared with the reference with no pomace
and 10% pomace crackers (Schmidt et al., 2018). Despite this,
there was virtually no difference between consumer preferences of
crackers, which shows BC pomace is a viable option to replace a
significant amount of wheat flour in baked goods (Schmidt et al.,
2018). The ANC in BC berries and juices provide rich colors to
commercial products, some of which are recorded in Table 4. The
color parameters of some commercially available BC beverages
were measured in our laboratory using the CIELAB color scale.
∗ ∗ ∗
Both hue angle and chroma were calculated using
the L a b
2
∗
values and the following formulas:
Chroma C = (a ∗ ) + (b ∗ )2
−1 b ∗
and Hue angle h a b = tan ( a ∗ ). Results are presented in Table 4.
Chroma is the saturation or richness of a color and hue angle
referrers to the color perceived based on the wavelength (Cortez,
Luna-Vital, Margulis, & Gonzalez de Mejia, 2017).
8 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019
Although it is clear that there are several benefits to be
gained by using BC in food products, both the environment
and genetics play critical roles in the production, chemistry, and
nutritional quality of the BC fruits. A study, which investigated
the environmental effects on BC, was conducted in Denmark
(55° 18′ N 10° 26′ E) from October 2014 to April 2015. It was
demonstrated in this study that there was a significant decrease in
the number of flowers when the experimental plots were warmed
to an average temperature of 1.3 °C greater than the control plot
(ambient temperature; Andersen et al., 2017). The temperature of
the control plots did not vary the height of the plants; however, air
temperature of warmed plots led to lower height of 50 and 80 cm
(on average by 0.4 and 0.7 °C, respectively). Both cultivars (Narve
Viking and Zusha) grown in ambient temperatures produced more
flowers per plant (451 and 491, respectively) and had higher berry
yields, total berries per plant, and produced berries with greater
individual weights (Andersen et al., 2017). When comparing each
of these two cultivars, warmer temperatures did not physically
damage them. This ultimately led to the conclusion that the
environment does not lead to a direct correlation between the crop
and production, but rather has an effect on the genes of growth
and development. This, consequently, leads to changes such as
fewer flowers and less beneficial health properties, for instance,
a decrease in flavanol and ANC content (Andersen et al., 2017).
Not only does temperature affect decreasing the aforementioned
bioactive compounds, but there was a clear correlation between
higher concentrations of gallic acid and the colder temperatures
in the control plots (Andersen et al., 2017). Production of
BC berries depends on the genetics of each cultivar and the
temperature of the growing environment. High temperatures
during the growing season are also associated with the inhibition
of various biochemical processes during BC development, which
in turn decreases the amount of ascorbic acid produced (Woznicki
et al., 2017). High temperatures (12 to 24 °C) have been shown
to reduce the amount of ascorbic acid and the overall sugar
content by 27% in BC (Woznicki et al., 2017). However, higher
temperatures do not diminish all desirable properties of BC as
citric acid concentrations were increased (Woznicki et al., 2017).
It can be concluded from these studies that growing BC plants in
colder climates produce berries, which have higher concentrations
of beneficial bioactive compounds such as phenolics, which add
value to an already high-value fruit. Another recent study also
examined the effects of growing temperature and day length
from a metabolomics approach (Xu et al., 2019). The recorded
data from this work confirmed earlier observations by Woznicki
et al. (2017) by concluding that growing temperature significantly
affected a total of 365 metabolites constituting a wide variety of
chemical classes. A comparison between ambient conditions and
controlled conditions (planted in pots outdoors with ambient
summer conditions, 59°40’N) demonstrated that ripening BC
berries had accumulated a total of 34 additional metabolites
under ambient conditions, the majority of which were ANC and
flavonoids (Xu et al., 2019). Additionally, a significant upregulation of 100 metabolites (linear increase) was noted with increased
cultivation temperatures, and 42 metabolites experienced a linear
decrease. It is particularly interesting to note that phenylalanine
was one of the upregulated metabolites (with increased cultivation
temperatures) and it is also the main precursor for the synthesis
of flavonoids. However, it is not the limiting factor for synthesis
Table 4–Color parameters of commercially available blackcurrant beverages.
Beverage
Mathilde Cassis
Briottet Crème de
Cassis
Cassis Lambic
Ars-sur-Formans,
France
Dijon, France
Vlezenbeek, Belgium
Pomona Kir
Cider Kir
Pomona, IL, USA
Nelson, New Zealand
Wasosz Beer
Konopiska, Poland
Black Mead
White Winter
Winery, Iron River,
WI, USA
Stockley Park,
Uxbridge, UK
Ribena
Fortuna Czarna
Porzeczka Nektar
Warsaw, Poland
Black Box Cabernet
Sauvignona
Madera, CA, USA
a
Ingredients
La
aa
ba
Hue
Angle
Chroma
Noir de Bourgogne and
Blackdown
Blackcurrants, sugar, and
alcohol
Barley, unmalted wheat,
blackcurrant juice, aged
hops, and wild airborne
yeast.
Blackcurrants and apples
Carbonated cider, 84% apple
juice, 10% blackcurrant
(Upper Moutere) juice, 5%
water, 1% cane sugar, and
ascorbic acid
Water, pilsner malt, caramel
malt, hops, yeast, and
currant juice
Honey, blackcurrant, and
natural flavors
16
38
20
28 ± 0.1
43 ± 0.01
11
32
13
22 ± 0.01
34 ± 0.0
47
36
47
53 ± 0.02
60 ± 0.04
60
39
31
47
53
46
60 ± 0.02
44 ± 0.02
61 ± 0.04
66 ± 0.01
60
24
42
60 ± 0.04
49 ± 0.0
29
40
42
47 ± 0.02
58 ± 0.01
69
35
17
26 ± 0.01
39 ± 0.0
27
44
38
40 ± 0.01
58 ± 0.0
13
35
15
23 ± 0.01
38 ± 0.01
Manufacturer and
Origin
Water, sugar, blackcurrant
juice from concentrate
(23%), citric acid, vitamin
C, preservatives (potassium
sorbate, sodium bisulfite),
and color (anthocyanins)
Water, blackcurrant juice from
concentrate, sugar, and
natural blackcurrant flavor
Red wine from grapes
Color
Square
Black Box Cabernet Sauvignon red wine added for a comparison between blackcurrant products and a red wine. Ribena was diluted 1:4 with water.
efficiency (Xu et al., 2019). A study conducted in New Zealand
(Inst. for Plant and Food Research) concluded that BC juice from
BC grown in New Zealand contained approximately 1.5 times
more ANC than those not grown in New Zealand (Schrage et al.,
2010). Although this information does provide great insight into
ideal BC growing conditions for the maximization of various
polyphenolic compounds, it also offers producers an opportunity
to adjust growing methods as temperatures become extreme with
the changing global climate. Allwood et al. (2019) demonstrated
that under high temperature, BC present lower concentration
of ANC; so, these values will be lower in years with extreme
hot summers. Concentrations of polyphenols vary depending on
the cultivar, so more research is need to find out which cultivars
contain the highest concentration of bioactive compounds.
Technological Methods for BC Processing
Enzymatic treatments
Generally, the reasons for berry fruit processing are to maximize juice yields, inactivate microorganisms, inactivate enzymes,
and to maintain the sensory qualities of the finished product
(Mäkilä, Laaksonen, Kallio, & Yang, 2017). The use of enzymatic
treatments in juice production is quite common, especially in the
processing of berry juices because it can increase juice yields up
to approximately 91% (Laaksonen et al., 2014; Table 5). These
treatments improve the juice yield, decrease the viscosity of the
juice, and also significantly increase the extraction of bioactive
compounds such as phenolics (Bender, Killermann, Rehmann,
& Weidlich, 2017; Laaksonen et al., 2014). The contents of PC
and PD are significantly higher with enzymatic maceration than
without (Laaksonen et al., 2015). A possible explanation for this
phenomenon is that bioactive compounds, which are trapped
in the networks of the pectins, are liberated with the effects of
the enzymes. Employment of the enzymatic process increases
the nutritional value of BC juices because of the increase in
what is an already high concentration of bioactive compounds. A
Finnish research group demonstrated a 151 mg/100 mL increase
in total PAC and a 121 mg/100 mL increase of total PD with
the utilization of an enzymatic process for BC juice production
(Laaksonen et al., 2015). In 2017, a different study demonstrated
that the total ANC concentration of BC juice could be increased
by 584 mg/100 g before pasteurization and 524 mg/100 g after
pasteurization with the use of enzymatic pectinases (Mäkilä et al.,
2017). Enzymatic treatments achieve these higher extraction
rates as a result of the enzymes demolishing cell wall structures,
which happens by cleaving pectins and causing the degeneration
of soluble pectins (Bender et al., 2017). Berries are known to
have higher viscosities during processing for juice making, than
other fruits. After the berries have been crushed, the higher
viscosity complicates the pressing process and causes a great deal
of inefficiency, which is why it is necessary to use enzymatic
treatments in the production of berry juices (Bender et al., 2017).
Processing Methods
BC are relatively expensive fruits containing concentrated
amounts of compounds in the skins and seeds that are beneficial
to health, all of which are typically discarded. Included in these
compounds are not only polyphenols but also polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFA), tocopherols, phytosterols, polycosanols, and
Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019 r Journal of Food Science 9
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Table 5–Examples of processing methods, treatments, and changes in composition of blackcurrant juice.
Processing methods
Treatments
Enzymatic maceration
Pectinase 714L, Biocatalysts Ltd.,
Cardiff, UK (dosage = 57 mg of
enzyme/380 g of berry mash
R
50 °C, 85 °C, Pectinex
Ultra Color
Heat and enzymatic
treatments
Enzymatic maceration
Changes in composition
Pectinase 714L, Biocatalysts Ltd.,
Cardiff, UK (dosage = 57 mg of
enzyme/380 g of berry mash
References
Increase in mDP (increases
astringency and bitterness)
Mäkilä et al. (2017)
Heat treatment had no effect on juice
yield; enzymatic treatment reduced
turbidity and viscosity
Increase in procyanidins and
prodelphinidins (dimers and
trimers)
Bender et al. (2017)
Laaksonen et al. (2015)
All enzymatic treatments increased overall juice yields. Mean degree of polymerization (mDP).
fiber (Basegmez et al., 2017). One way of maximizing the many
benefits of BC is to find ways in which the BCP can be processed
and repurposed for use. Pomace is the material that remains after
the BC have been processed for juice, which consists mainly of
skins and seeds. At present, much of the pomace, which is acidic, is
discarded as waste and has the potential to become an environmental hazard when it is disposed of in landfills (Basegmez et al., 2017).
In addition, it is quite wasteful to discard such an enriched material. Basegmez et al. (2017) discovered a remedy for these issues
that has many advantages. It is the use of supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide (SFE-CO2 ) along with response surface
methodology and central composite design (Basegmez et al., 2017;
Table 3). This is a green technology method for the recovery of
high-value fractions. This process is rapid, automatable, selective,
nonflammable, involves no toxic solvents, does not allow exposure
to light or oxygen during extraction, and produces solvent-free extracts and residues (Basegmez et al., 2017). As the name implies,
SFE-CO2 involves the use of carbon dioxide, which is of low
toxicity and generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the Food
and Drug Administration (Basegmez et al., 2017). Another study
performed ultrasound-assisted extractions (UAE) of BCP by using
water acidified with citric acid (Archaina et al., 2018). In this work,
it was documented that UAE is a viable method for the extraction of bioactive compounds from BCP. Furthermore, in this same
study, the investigators used a maltodextrin carrier matrix to spray
dry the extracts. It was concluded in this research that the obtained
powder maintained high levels of total ANC and total phenolic
contents (63.01 ± 1 mg eq C3G/100 g dry material and 116.87 ±
5 mg eq gallic acid/100 g dry material, respectively; Archaina et al.,
2018). Conventional drying methods, such as convective drying,
freeze-drying, and microwave vacuum drying, offer less expensive
alternatives to SFE-CO2 for the recovery and use of BCP; however, they do have some limitations. It was discovered that the dehydration of BCP by freeze-drying reduced the total phenolics by
76% and with convective drying (90 °C) by 90% compared to fresh
pomace (Michalska et al., 2017). Interestingly, samples that were
dried using convection exhibited the most significant decrease in
total flavonols when dried between 50 and 60 °C (Michalska et al.,
2017). The use of BCP as a means of adding fiber to processed
foods offers an attractive incentive for BC producers and processors
alike. A recent characterization study on BCP sourced from two
different countries (Lucozade-Ribena-Suntory, UK and GreenField Natural Ingredients, Warsaw, Poland) reported that 25% to
30% of BCP is soluble dietary fiber (SDF; for example, pectin and
some hemicelluloses), whereas approximately 47% is insoluble dietary fiber (IDF; for example, cellulose or lignin; Alba et al., 2018).
Pure IDF was measured as being approximately 61%. Ratios for
IDF/SDF were calculated for the BC from the United Kingdom
10 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019
and the BC from Poland as 1.9 and 1.6, respectively (Alba et al.,
2018). The main cell wall component noted in this research was
Klason lignin, which was the major insoluble fiber in both BCP
(Alba et al., 2018). This characterization of BCP was preceded
by fractions of constituent soluble and insoluble fractions followed
by extractions of pectins (acid soluble and calcium soluble), alkalisoluble lignin, alkali-soluble hemicelluloses, and cellulose (Table 3;
Alba et al., 2018). This study confirmed that downstream waste
from BC processing could be fractioned, used as food ingredients for added benefits, and potentially increasing the ability to
make health claims. Another study was able to demonstrate how
BCP (skins and other solid material that remain after juice processing) can be used to create hair dyes that are an intense blue
color by employing entirely sustainable technology (Rose et al.,
2018). It should also be noted that the resulting colorant was entirely biodegradable, which is attractive for consumers (Rose et al.,
2018). A similar study found an environmentally friendly way to
extract ANC from BC waste to be used as colorants (Farooque,
Rose, Benohoud, Blackburn, & Rayner, 2018).
Health Benefits of Bioactive Compounds from BC
The study of polyphenols and ANC has been well documented;
however, there are still many unknown factors regarding health
benefits. ANC account for 90% of the total polyphenols in BC
and as much as 73% of the consumed ANC may reach the colon
and be broken down by microbes (Parkar et al., 2014). One
promising discovery regarding ANC from BC is that they have
the ability to inhibit the adhesion of Salmonella enterica serovar
Typhimurium to Caco-2 cells by up to 39%, which would be
advantageous for food industry processing. This same study confirmed strong dose-dependent correlations with D3G and C3R
from BC juice and the ability to inhibit the adhesion of Salmonella
enterica serovar Typhimurium to Caco-2 cells (Parkar et al., 2014).
In addition to possessing antimicrobial properties, BC juices and
PAC-rich BCE have been proven to be beneficial for asthma and
airway-related issues. The mechanism is by the downregulation of
Th2 cytokines, cytokines, cyclooxygenase, and the modulation of
CCL 1 and CCL secretion (Table 6; Hurst et al., 2010; Nyanhanda
et al., 2014; Shaw, Nyanhanda, McGhie, Harper, & Hurst, 2017).
Xu et al. (2018) characterized the effects of ultrasound irradiation
on the bioactivities of BC polysaccharides. During this characterization process, three different BC polysaccharide solutions
were assessed for the effects from ultrasound treatments and its
impact on antioxidant activity, free radical scavenging activities,
inhibition of lipid peroxidation, protection from DNA damage,
and the inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities. It was
concluded that the higher wattage of ultrasound power produced
a higher reducing sugar content along with improved thermal
Table 6–Examples of health benefits and associated compounds found in blackcurrant products.
Blackcurrant
product used
Whole berry and
juice
Compounds
Cyanidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin
3-rutinoside, delphinidin
3-glucoside, delphinidin
3-rutinoside, and ascorbic acid
Properties beneficial to health
References
Antioxidant (reduction in oxidative stress
by scavenging of free radicals)
Bender et al. (2017), Braakhuis et al.
(2014), and Lyall et al. (2009)
Anti-inflammatory (in vitro)
Benn et al. (2014), Lyall et al. (2009),
and Shaw et al. (2017)
Cook, Myers, Gault, Edwards, and
Willems (2017a)
Kim et al. (2018)
Hypocholesterolemic (mice & rats)
Increase in cellular LDL uptake, decrease
postprandial blood glucose
Phytoestrogenic (in vitro), ameliorate
glucose tolerance (mice and rats and
humans)
Increases fat oxidation (humans)
Seeds
Gamma linoleic acid
Leaves
Derivatives of quercetin and
kampferol, prodelphinidins,
chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, gallic
acid, ferulic, and gentisic acid
Biosynthesis of collagen and production
of some peptide hormones
Antioxidant
Potential attenuation of inflammatory
responses
Antioxidant
Nanashima et al. (2018)
Cook, Myers, Gault, Edwards, and
Willems (2017b) and Strauss et al.
(2018)
Woznicki et al. (2017)
Nour et al. (2013)
Sergeant, Rahbar, and Chilton (2016)
Ferlemi and Lamari (2016), Tabart
et al. (2012), and Teleszko and
Wojdyło (2015)
Each sample description may also represent an extract from that particular source material. See text for more examples.
stability. Although there was an increase in reducing sugar content,
six species of monosaccharides (galacturonic acid, galactose, mannose, glucose, arabinose, and rhamnose) were found in the treated
sample. The same six monosaccharides were also found in the
control suggesting that the ultrasound treatments did not produce
any significant structural changes. However, the study concluded
that ultrasound irradiation improves the antioxidant capacity, and
the percent inhibitions of both α-amylase and α-glucosidase,
likely because there was a degradation of polysaccharides present.
The degraded polysaccharide U-600 W (Mw = 1.32 × 104 kDa)
ultrasound treated sample exhibited the best results for all assays
performed when compared to the polysaccharide that received a
lower wattage treatment.
Ashigai et al. (2018) demonstrated the effectiveness of oral intake of BC cassis polysaccharide on reducing skin dehydration
caused by ultraviolet light in mice. They also reported decreases
on markers of inflammation, such as those of interleukin-6 and
matrix metalloprotein transcription levels in the skin of hairless
mice.
BC are high in ascorbic acid (50 to 280 mg/100 g or
300 mg/100 mL of juice), this together with a high flavonoid
content bolsters the antioxidant capacity of the berries and
increases their potential to promote health benefits (Bladé et al.,
2016; Castro-Acosta et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2015; Nour et al.,
2013; Woznicki et al., 2017). By comparison, BC have a much
higher concentration of ascorbic acid than both raspberries and
blueberries (Bender et al., 2017). According to Nour et al. (2013),
ascorbic acid concentration can be found in a range from 50 to
280 mg/100 g FW, adding to the attractiveness of BC for the food
and beverage industries. Not only is ascorbic acid an antioxidant,
but it also facilitates the biosynthesis of collagen, and aids in the
production of some peptide hormones (Woznicki et al., 2017).
The antioxidant properties of BC are largely attributed to phenolic
compounds (such as ANC), which act as either hydrogen donors
or transfer electrons, depending on the ANC (Blando et al., 2018;
Wang, Cao, & Prior, 1997). ANC antioxidant activity is directly
related to their chemical structure. Differences in antioxidant
activity in anthocyanidins can be attributed to differences such as
the type, position, and number of methyl and hydroxyl groups
(Blando et al., 2018). Polyphenols are known to be responsible
for the scavenging, or trapping, of free radicals, which are
responsible for oxidative stress. Results from the study by Nour
et al. (2013) indicated that there was a high correlation (r = 0.85)
between antioxidant activity and the total concentration of ANC
(Table 6). Generally speaking, ANC are supposed to increase the
antioxidant capacity; however, BC exhibit a lesser antioxidant
capacity than both blackberries and blueberries (Lee et al., 2015).
This reduced antioxidant capacity in BC can likely be attributed
to the presence of other polyphenols that are not ANC such as
phenolic acids, PAC, tannins, and flavonoids (Lee et al., 2015).
Additionally, the lower antioxidant capacity of BC could also
be attributed to the specific structures of the ANC present and
perhaps steric hindrance by glycones attached to the B-ring (Lee
et al., 2015). A different study found that the antioxidant capacity
can be increased by first completing a mash enzymatic maceration
of the berries (Bender et al., 2017). It has also been reported that
BCE were able to produce hypocholesterolemic effects in mice
with diet-induced obesity (Benn et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2018;
Table 6).
Both animal and human studies reported the effects of BC and
BCE on athletic training and performance. It was demonstrated
that BC and BCE reduce oxidative stress–related injuries that
cause fatigue and damage (Braakhuis, Hopkins, & Lowe, 2014;
Hurst, 2015; Hurst & Hurst, 2013; Schrage et al., 2010). It has also
been well documented that flavonoids protect retinal cell types
from death due to oxidative stress (Kalt, Hanneken, Milbury, &
Tremblay, 2010). This phenomenon can likely be explained by the
fact that the highest metabolic rate of any tissue in the body is in
the retina, which is susceptible to oxidative stress injury (Kalt et al.,
2010). An in vivo study with mice and rabbits evaluated the ANC
Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019 r Journal of Food Science 11
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Table 7–Examples of some commercially available blackcurrant products.
Name
Type of product
Origin
Monin blackcurrant
syrup
Premium gourmet
syrup
Clearwater, FL, USA
St. Dalfour
blackcurrant all
natural fruit spread
Fruit spread
Chambord, France
Pepsi Co 1893
blackcurrant cola
Soda/soft drink
Purchase, NY, USA
Gabriel Boudier
crème de casis
Ribena blackcurrant
concentrate and
ready to drink
beverages
Liqueur
Dijon, France
Drink
Uxbridge, England
Harney and Sons Fine
Teas blackcurrant
tea
Tea
NY, USA
Standard Process
blackcurrant seed
oil supplements
a Not FDA approved
Nutritional
supplements
WI, USA
a
Ingredients
Pure cane sugar,
water, and natural
blackcurrant flavor
Blackcurrants,
concentrated grape
juice, and fruit
pectin
Carbonated water,
sugar, caramel
color, natural flavor,
phosphoric acid,
sodium citrate,
potassium sorbate,
caffeine, gum
Arabic, and kola nut
extract
Blackcurrants,
ethanol, and sugar
Water, sugar,
blackcurrant juice
from concentrate
(6%), vitamin C,
citric acid, and
color
(anthocyanins)
Black tea, currants,
blackcurrant flavor,
and contains natural
flavors
Blackcurrant seed oil,
gamma-linolenic
acid, gelatin,
glycerin, and water
Health claims
Price in U.S. dollars
None
$9.95 for 750 mL glass
bottle
None
$9.89 for 283.5 g
None
$1.79 for 355 mL
None
$32.99 for 375 mL
Daily dose of vitamin
C
$1.66 for 1 L
None
$5.99 for 40 g
Encourages proper
eicosanoid
synthesis, supports
the body’s normal
tissue repair process,
normal blood flow,
and healthy
immune system
function
$16.50 for 60 perles
All prices listed were obtained in 2017.
content in eight parts of the eyes (cornea, sclera, choroid, ciliary
body, iris, retina, vitreous, and lens) at various time intervals after
being given BC juice powder (21.6% ANC) by oral administration
(rats, 100 mg/kg body weight), intraperitoneal administration
(rats, 108 mg/kg body weight), or intravenous administration
(rabbits, 92.6 mg/kg body weight; Matsumoto, Nakamura, Iida,
Ito, & Ohguro, 2006). The results of this study were that after
oral administration, ANC were found intact in both the whole
eyes and plasma. ANC reached a maximum concentration of 115
± 32 ng/g in the whole eye after 30 min. The half-lives of ANC
in the plasma and whole eye were 1.4 and 1.1 h, respectively. The
majority of ANC were detected in the sclera with choroid and
cornea (Matsumoto et al., 2006). After the intraperitoneal administration, the ANC concentration reached 4.99 ± 0.48 µg/g in
the whole eye after 30 min, which was the maximum. The ANC
concentration in the whole eye was two times greater than that
of the plasma and the majority of ANC were found in the sclera
and choroid. Intravenous administration results demonstrated that
ANC found in the sclera and choroid had significantly lower
concentrations and that higher concentrations were reported in
the plasma (Matsumoto et al., 2006). The ANC concentrations
of the rabbits’ ocular tissues were determined and were ranked
as follows: sclera > choroid > ciliary > body > aqueous humor
> iris > cornea > retina > vitreous > lens, suggesting that
there is an affinity between ANC and collagen fibers (Matsumoto
12 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019
et al., 2006). This study confirmed that ANC from BC juice
(from powder) can pass through both the blood–retinal and
blood–aqueous barriers in both rats and rabbits. These results are
promising in that they suggest BC and BCE have the potential to
be used as therapies for the treatment of ophthalmological diseases.
It was reported by Nanashima et al. (2018) that treatments with
BCE increased collagen, elastin, and hyaluronic acid in human skin
fibroblasts and ovariectomized rats. This study used normal human
female skin fibroblast cells (TIG113), OVX female Sprague–
Dawley rats (12 weeks old) that had their ovaries removed to
simulate menopausal women, and sham surgery rats (Nanashima
et al., 2018). The TIG113 cells were treated with BCE with
1.0 µg/mL for microarray gene expression profiling and either
1.0 µg/mL or 10.0 µg/mL for reverse phase polymerase chain
reaction (RT-qPCR) assays. The rats were fed AIN-93M diets,
with and without 3% BCE (Nanashima et al., 2018). Results
from this study indicated that TIG113 cells that were exposed to
BCE had similar effects to TIG113 cells that have been exposed
to estradiol. The results from the OVX rat study indicated that
the thickness of the collagen was significantly greater in those
treated with 3% BCE (1,156 ± 36 µm) and in sham rats (845 ±
36 µm) (Nanashima et al., 2018). Therefore, it was made evident
that BCE, particularly the four major compounds (D3G, D3R,
C3G, and C3R) in BCE, produce phytoestrogen effects, which
are favorable for the skin (Table 6).
A separate study was conducted to evaluate the effects of BCE
on mRNA and protein expression of genes of Caco-2 cells, which
are human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (Kim et al.,
2018). This study demonstrated that BCE increased low-density
lipoprotein receptors without any changes to the cell mRNA.
Overall, the data suggested that BCE increased the transport of
cholesterol via the enterocytes, which suggests that the BCE play
a part in the hypocholesterolemic effects (Kim et al., 2018). The
exact mechanism of action was not determined in this study, which
means that further in vivo studies are needed to characterize the
mechanisms.
In addition to being able to affect cholesterol levels positively,
BC have been reported to lower blood glucose levels and ameliorate glucose tolerance in both mice and rats, and also to decrease
postprandial blood glucose concentrations in humans (Iizuka,
Ozeki, Tani, & Tsuda, 2018). A recent study reported that dietary
forms of BCE, which are heavily concentrated with delphinidin
3-rutinoside (D3R), can significantly reduce blood glucose levels and improve glucose tolerance in type 2 diabetic mice (Iizuka
et al., 2018). The mechanistic changes that produced these effects
were due to an increased secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1
(GLP-1) in plasma. It was also due to the upregulation of intestinal prohormone convertase 1/3 (PC1/3) expression and the
activation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinasemediated translocation of the insulin-regulated glucose transporter
(Glut4) in the skeletal muscle of type 2 diabetic mice (Iizuka et al.,
2018).
A significant decrease in mean arterial pressure and total
peripheral resistance in 15 endurance-trained male cyclists who
received 600 and 900 mg BCE supplement per day during 2 h
of prolonged exercise has been observed (Cook, Myers, Gault,
Edwards, & Willems, 2017b; Table 6). In a separate study, the
mean fat oxidation in endurance-trained females increased by 27%
during 120 min of moderate-intensity cycling when ingested 600
mg/day of BCE in comparison to placebo (Strauss, Willems, &
Shepherd, 2018). The time of consumption and the concentration
of ANC from BC were important to enhance their health benefits
associated to regular exercise (Lyall et al., 2009). It was also found
that drinking 16 oz of BC nectar (BCN) twice a day for eight
consecutive days at 48 h postexercise increased Oxygen Radical
Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) blood levels in comparison to the
placebo (BCN = 2.68% compared with PLA = –6.02%, P =
0.039). It was demonstrated that BCN consumption prior to
and after a bout of eccentric exercise attenuated muscle damage
and inflammation (Hutchison, Flieller, Dillon, & Leverett, 2016).
Perkins, Vine, Blacker, and Willems (2015) tested New Zealand
BCE (CurraNZ) on high-intensity intermittent running and
postrunning lactate responses. They found that CurraNZ may
enhance performance in sports characterized by high-intensity intermittent exercise as greater distances were covered with repeated
sprints. There are human intervention studies that give evidence
of the improvements to cognitive performance, modulation of
blood flow, regulation of blood glucose, and inhibition of enzymes
related to normal cognitive function after consuming BC (Watson
et al., 2015; Watson, Okello et al., 2018; Watson, Scheepens et al.,
2018).
and cyanidin) while other ANC may be present in much smaller
concentrations. Further evaluations are needed to examine and
document the differences in bioactive compounds in all known
cultivars and varieties of BC. The characteristic bitter and astringent flavors in BC can be attributed to PAC with the intensity of
the taste being determined by the mean degree of polymerization
of the compounds. Although PAC are known to promote health,
more research is needed to understand how to overcome the challenges that astringency and bitterness present for the formulation
of desirable food products without the addition of sugar. Furthermore, it is equally important that the solution to this issue does not
negate the health benefits of these complex compounds. It is not
only the berries that have industrial uses, but also the pomace from
which extractions can be made to produce natural pigments to be
used as food additives and nutritional supplements. These products
are in demand by consumers and can also minimize environmental impacts. Extractions of ANC and other bioactive compounds
yield significant concentrations depending on the method, and
there is a need to develop additional green and food safe methods
for BC. Drying methods, particularly freeze-drying and convection drying, significantly reduce the concentration of phenolics
in BC. This also presents a gap in knowledge, which needs to
be addressed to preserve the beneficial aspects of these healthful fruits. Current research has demonstrated that BC have great
potential to improve overall health particularly with diseases associated with inflammation and regulation of blood glucose. BC also
have the potential to improve the performance and recovery times
of athletes and also offer treatments for ophthalmological diseases
such as glaucoma. Additionally, the use of BC in the cosmetics
industry is also attractive due to their ability to activate estradiol
pathways and decrease the appearance of wrinkles on the skin.
Concentrations of ANC and other bioactive compounds are dependent on the genetics and growing conditions of the berries.
However, the berries do exhibit much higher levels of phenolic compounds when grown in cooler climates. More research is
needed to fully understand the breadth of health benefits to be
gained from BC and how these berries can be incorporated into
foods.
Summary and Perspectives
References
There is an increased interest in BC in the United States because of their unique flavor and biological characteristics (Table 7). Various reports have concluded that there are four major
ANC present in BC (rutinoside and glucoside forms of delphinidin
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Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge Dr. Kevin Wolz and Mr. Eric Wolske
permitting us to use their photograph in this publication, and the
Dept. of Crop Sciences at the Univ. of Illinois for their generosity
donating Consort blackcurrants.
Author Contributions
Cortez and Gonzalez de Mejia conceived the idea and drafted
the structure of the review. Cortez compiled the information and
wrote the first draft. Gonzalez de Mejia contributed with editing the manuscript, critical interpretation, and scientific guidance
throughout the development of the manuscript. Both authors read
and approved the final version.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019 r Journal of Food Science 13
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
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Vol. 00, Iss. 0, 2019 r Journal of Food Science 15
Concise Reviews &
Hypotheses in Food Science
Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum): A review . . .
Regina Cortez