American Journal of BioScience
2019; 7(6): 123-130
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ajbio
doi: 10.11648/j.ajbio.20190706.16
ISSN: 2330-0159 (Print); ISSN: 2330-0167 (Online)
Review Article
Integrated Potato (Solanum Tuberosum L.) Late Blight
(Phytophthora Infestans) Disease Management in Ethiopia
Yitagesu Tadesse Demissie
Department of Plant Pathology, Holeta Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Email address:
To cite this article:
Yitagesu Tadesse Demissie. Integrated Potato (Solanum Tuberosum L.) Late Blight (Phytophthora Infestans) Disease Management in
Ethiopia. American Journal of BioScience. Vol. 7, No. 6, 2019, pp. 123-130. doi: 10.11648/j.ajbio.20190706.16
Received: October 8, 2019; Accepted: November 28, 2019; Published: December 11, 2019
Abstract: Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the fourth major crop of the world after rice, wheat and maize. Potato is an
important crop which holds promise for food to millions of people especially in developing countries. In Ethiopia, the yield per
unit area of potato is very low compared to those of other countries. There are many factors that reduce the yield of the crop
among which the diseases like late blight (Phytophthora infestans) and bacterial wilt (Ralstonia (Pseudomonas) solanacearum)
which play an important role. Diseases such as late blight, early blight, fusarium wilt and black leg primarily affect the
crop/foliage whereas diseases such as black scurf, wart, powdery scab and common scab disfigure the tubers and reduce their
market value. Major fungal and bacterial diseases affecting potato crop are reviewed here with respect to their identification,
symptoms on potato plants or tubers, nature of the pathogen involved, epidemiology, control measures etc. Management of
these diseases is therefore very essential. Late blight of potato can be managed using the following management (control)
strategies: use of biological control agents, use of resistant varieties, intercropping, use of certified disease-free seed, use of
selective fungicides and cultural practices such as destruction of cull piles by freezing or deep burying, destruction of volunteer
potato plants in nearby fields throughout the season, destruction (desiccate, disc or flail and desiccate) of infected plants to
avoid spread, reduction of periods of leaf wetness and high humidity within the crop canopy by appropriately timing irrigation,
application of a recommended fungicide spray program (the program should start prior to the arrival of the pathogen) and
desiccation of vines prior to harvest.
Keywords: Potato, Late Blight, Integrated Disease Management
1. Introduction
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the fourth major crop of
the world [1] after rice, wheat and maize. Some inherent
qualities give potato a competitive edge over the leading food
crops. In fact, it is able to produce more protein and
carbohydrates per unit area than cereals and some
leguminous crops like soybeans [2]. The potato plant is
attacked by many pathogens causing significant losses to
potato producers throughout the world. Bacteria, fungi,
viruses, nematodes and phytoplasmas cause serious
production constraints [3]. Of the fungal diseases, late blight,
caused by Phytophthora infestans, stands out from the rest.
This disease is the nightmare of potato producers especially
in the coastal wet regions [4-5]. Late blight management
programs of 15 sprays per season are not uncommon in wet
and cool regions. In Ethiopia, the yield per unit area of potato
is very low compared to those of other countries like Rwanda,
Egypt and Kenya. There are many factors that reduce the
yield of the crop among which the diseases like late blight
(Phytophthora infestans), bacterial wilt (Ralstonia
(Pseudomonas) solanacearum) and viruses play an important
role [6-7].
Late blight of potato, which is caused by Phytophthora
infestans (Mont) de Bary is the major bottleneck in potato
production in Ethiopia [8] and other parts of the world [9]. It
is the best known, highly studied and stills the most
destructive of all potato disease. Late blight is probably the
single most important disease of potatoes and tomatoes
worldwide [10]. Worldwide losses due to late blight are
estimated to exceed $5 billion annually and thus the pathogen
American Journal of BioScience 2019; 7(6): 123-130
is regarded as a threat to global food security [11]. Late
blight was responsible for the Irish potato famine in the
1840s [12]. The disease caused yield losses ranging from
31-100% in Ethiopia depending on the variety used.
Excellent control of the late blight disease was achieved
through the use of the phenyl amide fungicides, like Ridomil
across the Sub-Saharan Region [13-14]. The best
management of late blight and high marginal rate of return
was obtained on plots treated with combinations of all tested
potato varieties and 0.75 kg ha-1 Ridomil application
followed by 1.5 kg ha-1 Ridomil application [13].
Integrated pest management (IPM), also known as
Integrated Pest Control (IPC) is a broad-based approach that
integrates practices for economic control of pests. IPM aims
to suppress pest populations below the economic injury level
(EIL). The UN's Food and Agriculture Organisation defines
IPM as "the careful consideration of all available pest control
techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate
measures that discourage the development of pest
populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to
levels that are economically justified and reduce or minimize
risks to human health and the environment. IPM emphasizes
the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption
to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest control
mechanisms. IPM allows for safer pest control [15]. This
includes managing insects, plant pathogens and weeds. Pests
and diseases impact on crop yield and quality, and also
reduce resource-use efficiency. Improved crop protection
strategies to prevent such damage and loss can increase
production and make a substantial contribution to food
security. Pests and diseases continue to impact on the
productivity of crops and quality of crop products worldwide
despite many years of research and development on
improved methods for their control. It has been estimated that
an average of 0·20– 0·30 of crop yield is lost annually from
the field even in crops where pesticides and cultivars with
improved genetic resistance to pests and diseases are used
[16].
2. Literature Review
2.1. Geographical Distribution and Economic Importance
of Potato Late Blight
Potato late blight is considered to be the most serious
potato disease worldwide. It is a very serious economic threat
in the vast majority of potato production systems, as well as
many tomato production systems worldwide. It is one of the
few plant diseases that can absolutely destroy a crop,
producing a 100% crop loss [17]. The disease is also very
distractive to tomatoes and some other members of the
family solanaceae. Late blight may kill the foliage and stems
of potato and tomato plants at any time during the growing
season. It also attacks potato tubers and tomato fruits in the
field, which rot either in the field or while in storage. It
attacks the leaves, stems, and tubers of potato plants [18].
In Ethiopia the disease caused 100% crop loss on
124
unimproved local cultivar, and 67.1% on a susceptible variety.
Late blight is a major limitation to potato production in high
humid elevations; with estimate average yield losses of about
30–75% on susceptible varieties. According to [19], reports,
in Ethiopia late blight of potato causes tuber yield losses of
21.71–45.8% and 29-57% depending on the resistance level
of the cultivars, respectively. It is the most devastating
disease of potato in countries like Ethiopia where subsistence
farmers do not know the cause, epidemiology and control of
the disease. In Ethiopia the disease occurs throughout the
major potato production areas [20].
2.2. The Pathogen
The causal organism of potato late blight is Phytophthora
infestans (Mont.) de Bary [21]. The genus Phytophthora
contains some species (including P. infestans) that are
heterothallic (A1 and A2 mating types). Recent studies of
Ethiopian isolates found all those tested to date to be A1
mating-type and the Ia mt-DNA-haplotype [22]. P. infestans
requires two mating types, A1 and A2, to come into contact
to produce a sexual spore known as an oospore [23].
2.3. Genetic Variability
The possible sources of genetic variation in P. infestans are
sexual reproduction, mutation, mitotic recombination,
parasexualism, migration, and selection [24-25]. The markers
most used to characterize populations of this pathogen have
been virulence, mating type, isozymes, mitochondrial
haplotypes, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
and microsatellites (also known as single sequence repeats or
SSR) [4, 26-27]. Furthermore, an increasing number of studies
based on sequencing of various nuclear or organelle genes
have been developed and the full genomes of a number of
isolates have been sequenced. Unfortunately, there is no
common usage of vocabulary in plant pathology. Within the
literature related to P. infestans, and a number of other
pathogens as well, the term “virulence” has been used as the
genetic ability of a P. infestans race (a particular strain) to
overcome host resistance, causing a compatibility reaction,
that is, the disease occurs [28]. In many other areas of biology,
the term virulence refers to the amount of disease a strain
causes (i.e., a quantitative phenomenon). When virulence is
used to define the ability to cause disease, the term
“aggressiveness” is commonly used to describe the ability of a
pathogen isolate to cause more serious disease, i.e., two
isolates may be virulent (cause disease) on a potato genotype
but one causes more serious disease and is thus more
aggressive. Resistance genes (R genes) encode products that
identify other products in a specific way, especially other
products encoded by pathogen avirulence genes. If the R gene
product in a plant recognizes the avirulence gene product of a
pathogen, rapid death of plant cells near the infection point
occurs and the infection is stopped, i.e., there is no disease.
Loss or change of avirulence genes leads to what is often
called a compatible reaction and disease occurs. The term race
groups isolates based on virulence related to R-genes in
125
Yitagesu Tadesse Demissie:
Integrated Potato (Solanum Tuberosum L.) Late Blight (Phytophthora Infestans)
Disease Management in Ethiopia
different potato genotypes. These plants are referred to as
“differentials” because they are used to identify the race of a
pathogen isolate. Using virulence phenotypes to infer genetic
variation in the pathogen population has many constraints
because the inference is based on the phenotypic reaction of a
pathogen and host without knowing the genetic makeup of
either [29].
As noted, two mating types are needed to initiate sexual
reproduction in heterothallic species. The discovery of the A2
mating type out of the Toluca valley of Mexico, considered by
most researchers as the pathogen’s center of origin, was the
first evidence of major change in the population of P. infestans
worldwide, which until then had only reproduced asexually
outside Mexico. Since then, the A2 mating type has been
reported world-wide [30-31].
Pathogen resistance to fungicides occurs when certain
strains have lower sensitivity than normal to a particular
product or class of products. This resistance is the result of
stable and hereditary mutations. Resistance to the active
ingredient metalaxyl and other phenylamides has been
reported in P. infestans populations worldwide, becoming a
limiting factor when using this type of fungicides. Temporary
reduction in sensitivity to a fungicide is an adaptation trait of
the pathogen; however, because it is not hereditary, it can be
reverted by changing chemical control strategies. Isozymes
are variants of an enzyme with the same or similar catalytic
activity. Allozymes are a special type of isozymes in which
variants are codified by the same locus. Therefore, they are
allelic to one another [32].
2.4. Development, Epidemiology and Life Cycle of Late
Blight
At temperatures of 13-21°C, sporangia germinate by
means of a single germ tube. Night temperatures of 10-16°C
accompanied by light rain, fog or heavy dew and followed by
days of 16-13 °C with high relative humidity are ideal for
late blight infection and development. The first symptoms of
late blight in the field are small, light-to-dark green, and
circular-to irregularly-shaped, water-soaked lesions. These
usually first appear on the lower leaves where the
microclimate is more humid [33]. A zone of white, downy
mildew growth 3-5 mm wide appears at the border of the
lesions on the undersides of the leaves. Soon entire leaves are
infected, die, and become limp. Conditions must remain
moist for a minimum of 7-10 hours for spore production to
occur. Tubers become infected most often when soils are cool
and wet (near field capacity); soil temperatures higher than
18°C seem to suppress infections. Because sporangia can
survive days or weeks in soil, tubers can become infected for
a period of time after infections in the foliage are no longer
producing sporangia [34]. P. infestans can survive in living
host tissue, such as in seed tubers, cull piles, and volunteer
potatoes that over-winter in the field, on other solanaceous
plants and in the soil. Sporangia of P. infestans may be spread
from infected plants in one field to healthy plants in
surrounding fields by wind, splashed rain, mechanical
transport and animals [35]. Sporangia of P. infestans
germinate either directly with a germ tube or indirectly, by
liberating zoospores. Germ tubes can also form secondary
sporangia, which may serve to increase the longevity of the
spore. Sporangia may germinate at temperatures between 7
and 13°C when free water is present on leaves and form 8-12
motile zoospores per sporangium. Encysted zoospores infect
leaves by penetrating the leaf surface with a germ tube, either
through stomata or by means of direct penetration [36].
2.5. Economic Importance
Potato is an important cash crop which gives ready cash to
farmers. It is said to be ‘complete food’ as it contains
carbohydrates, proteins, vit. B. vit. C and minerals like P, Ca
and Fe required for body growth. It is the richest source of
starch. Its calorific value is high. It produces more food per
unit area than any cereal crop within short period. In India it
is used as vegetable alone or mixed with other vegetables
[37-38].
2.6. Production Constraints
The potato plant is attacked by many pathogens causing
significant losses to potato producers throughout the world.
Bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes and phytoplasmas cause
serious production constraints [39]. In Ethiopia, the yield per
unit area of potato is very low compared to those of other
countries like Rwanda, Egypt and Kenya. There are many
factors that reduce the yield of the crop among which the
diseases like late blight (Phytophthora infestans), bacterial
wilt (Ralstonia (Pseudomonas) solanacearum) and viruses
play an important role [40].
2.7. Importance and Distribution of Late Blight Pathogen
Late blight [Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary] is one
of the oldest, most destructive and most serious diseases of the
potato. It was first reported from Europe and the United States
about 1830. It became increasingly worse in Western Europe
until 1845 when it was responsible for the Irish famine. The
disease was so serious in Ireland, where potato constituted the
main diet that thousands of people died of starvation.
Thousands of others immigrated to the United States, Canada
and other countries. Late blight continued to be an extremely
serious disease of potato until the accidental discovery of
Bordeaux mixture about 40 years later. The fungicide was
used widely for many years until more effective and less
phototoxic fungicides were developed [41].
Therefore understanding its development, epidemiology
and life cycle are most important in selecting and
implementing its effective management strategy. There are
different types of management options of potato late blight,
which can help in reducing its effect. But because of its new
strain development, there is no single effective management
strategy of late blight of potato in this world. Therefore,
adopting integrated disease management (IDM) approach is
the most effective, environmentally safe (to both humans and
animals), and low costly to the users [42-43]. The use of
protectant and systemic fungicides for managing late blight
American Journal of BioScience 2019; 7(6): 123-130
has perhaps been the most studied aspect of late blights
management in the temperate countries [13, 44-45]. Like
many other countries in the world, potato is a very important
food and cash crop especially on the highland and mid altitude
areas of Ethiopia. Late blight, caused by the oomycete P.
infestans, is a devastating disease of potato worldwide. Yield
losses due to the disease are attributed to both premature death
of foliage and diseased tubers. In Ethiopia, the disease occurs
throughout the major potato production areas and it is difficult
to produce the crop during the main rainy season without
chemical protection measures [20]. Integrating fungicide
applications with Varieties by choosing the best
fungicide-cultivar
combinations
improves
the
durability/sustainability of the released potato varieties in the
potato production system. This is particularly important in
developing countries such as Ethiopia, where the set-up of
efficient and sustainable breeding programs for potatoes are
inadequate. Integration of fungicides with cultivars has been
commonly practiced for sustainable production of potatoes in
most developed world. In tropical Africa, however, fungicide
application intervals, frequency of application and timing, and
fungicide dose response relationships have not been well
investigated [46]. Excellent control of the late blight disease
was achieved through the use of the phenyl amide fungicides,
like Ridomil across the Sub-Saharan Region [13, 44].
In addition to the benefits of reducing yield losses due to
epidemics of late blight, the combined uses of fungicide with
resistance varieties can also contribute to reduce the health
risks associated with high fungicide applications. Integration
of fungicide with potato cultivars could reduce the need of
application of high fungicide and able to decrease the risk to
human health, environmental contamination, and increase the
economic benefit of farmers [47].
2.8. Sustainable Late Blight Management Approaches
Effective control of this disease requires implementing an
integrated disease management approach. The most
important measures are cultural, use of resistant cultivars and
chemical controls [39].
2.8.1. Cultural Control
Cultural practices are the first line of defense against late
blight [42]. Cultural practices can be applied to reduce the
pathogen population; by reducing its survival, reproduction,
dispersal and penetration of the pathogen. Survival of P.
infestans to initiate epidemic can be reduced through
avoidance of introducing late blight into a field by planting
only disease-free seed tubers, preferably certified seed,
destroying all cull and volunteer potatoes, avoid frequent or
night-time overhead irrigation and good soil coverage [9].
Late blight is controlled by eliminating cull piles and
volunteer potatoes, using proper harvesting and storage
practices, and applying fungicides when necessary The
cultural measures include: the use of disease free/healthy
seed, removal of volunteer potato plants, hilling with
adequate amounts of soil and management of plant nutrition
[48]. Heavy weed infestations also prevent adequate
126
coverage of potato foliage with fungicides [9]. Since wet
conditions are favorable for infection, sprinkler irrigation
should be carefully scheduled, or minimized, particularly late
in the season when the closed potato canopy provides ideal
conditions for late blight development. If possible, rows
should be oriented parallel with prevailing winds to
encourage better air circulation and foliage drying. After
harvest, if tubers are stored, they should be dry when placed
in storage, and the storage air temperature and humidity
should be managed (Kirk 2009. Scouting all stored potatoes
frequently and removing diseased tubers from storage is
desirable to prevent disease spread [49].
2.8.2. Intercropping
In the central highland of Ethiopia, potato is a garden crop
and intercropping with brassica at a lower population being an
ordinary practice but crop like garlic is also grown as a sole
crop in the same garden. Of the various options available in
the high altitudes, cropping systems, other than so many
advantages related to intercropping mentioned elsewhere,
disease problems is low in an intercropping production
systems compared to sole cropping production system [50].
For pathogens like Phytophthora which mostly disperse by
wind and rain, interrupting with none host crop for a disease
may physically interfere and be able to entrap the spores,
thereby reduce the available inoculum [51].
2.8.3. Host-Plant Resistance
Host resistance to late blight is of significance in
integrated late blight management due to its long-term
economic benefits for farmers. It also minimizes changes in
the population structure of P. infestans, decreasing the
likelihood of fungicide resistance [13, 42]. The use of
resistant varieties is among the most effective and
environmentally safe means of managing the disease. Thus,
breeding for resistance to P. infestans started in the 19th
Century and has continued at a slower rate. Biotechnology is
also being employed in the pursuit of late blight resistance.
Genetically-engineered plants, however, are not acceptable
for organic production. Polygenic resistance has proved to be
helpful in reducing the amount of fungicides. Cultivars with
polygenic resistance have significantly reduced area under
disease progress curve (AUDPC) values compared with
susceptible ones. Use of resistant varieties is one of the main
components of late blight management and is especially
effective under tropical conditions [10, 52].
Generally resistant potato varieties and improved cultural
practices can reduce late blight. Even resistant varieties
should be sprayed regularly with fungicides to eliminate, as
much as possible, the possibility of becoming suddenly
attacked by races of the fungus to which they are not resistant.
However, it is always advisable to use resistant varieties,
even when sprays with fungicides are considered the main
control strategy, because resistant varieties delay the onset of
the disease or reduce its rate of development so that fewer
sprays on a resistant variety may be needed to obtain a
satisfactory level of control of the disease [18, 53].
127
Yitagesu Tadesse Demissie:
Integrated Potato (Solanum Tuberosum L.) Late Blight (Phytophthora Infestans)
Disease Management in Ethiopia
Table 1. Late blight–resistant varieties from CIP population A, which were
released in 2002.
CIP Number
387792.5
Proposed name
Degemegne
384321.9
Guasa
382173.12
Gorebela
384321.19
Jalenea
Adaptation
Wide Adaptation
Regionally releasefor western
Ethiopia from Adet Research Center
Regionally released for North shewa
from Sheno Research Center
Wide Adaptation
2.8.4. Chemical Control
At a global level, the major approach to prevent late blight
development has been application of fungicides. Protection
by fungicides is temporary because they are subject to
weathering and breakdown over time [54]. They must be
reapplied at certain intervals to protect new growth when
disease threatens. Fungicides can slow or stop the
development of new symptoms if applied in a timely fashion,
but fungicides will not cure existing late blight symptoms
[55]. Hence, most fungicides need to be applied before
disease occurs or at the first appearance of symptoms to be
effective. Generally, few fungicides are effective against
pathogens after they have infected a plant [56]. Several
broad-spectrum and systemic fungicides are used against
potato late blight control. The new strains of the oomycete
produced as recombinants of fertilization of the two
mating-types (A1 and A2) are resistant to some of the
systemic fungicides like, metalaxyl and, therefore, sprays
with such materials are ineffective against such strains [31,
57]. The use of fungicides in controlling late blight was
found to boost potato yield in Ethiopia. In Ethiopia the first
spray with Ridomil MZ 63.5% WP at a rate of 2 kg ha-1
followed by 2-3 sprays (need base application) of Dithane
M-45 (mancozeb) at a rate of 3 kg ha-1 were found to be
effective in controlling late blight. Bekele K. and Hailu B.
(2001) had done a research on the efficacy and economics of
fungicide spray in the control of late blight of potato in
Ethiopia. The result showed that, Ridomil MZ - 63.5% WP
which is both systemic and protectant in action gave the best
control (78.8%). On the other hand Chlorothalonil,
Mancozeb and Brestan 10 did not differ significantly in
respect to disease control, and gave 59.3, 43.0 and 46.8%
control, respectively. However, the three fungicides
significantly (P < 0.05) controlled late blight when compared
to the control plot. Binyam et al. [13] also reported that,
reduced rates of Ridomil application resulted in better
management of potato late blight with the highest marginal
rate of return. Despite the fact that fungicide use increases
production costs and has negative consequences on
environment and human health, the efficacy of fungicides is
appealing to resource-poor farmers and fungicide use is a
common practice in almost all developing countries.
Effective control necessitates multiple applications of
fungicides, sometimes as frequently as every 5 days for many
diseases [19].
2.8.5. Biological Control
Ephrem Debebe et al. [58] had done a research on
biocontrol activity of Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas
fluorescens against Phytophthora infestans under greenhouse
conditions in Ethiopia. The result, in In vitro antagonism test
carried out between T. viride and P. infestans, showed a radial
growth inhibition of the pathogen by 36.7% and a complete
overgrowth of T. viride on P. infestans later, whereas P.
fluorescens inhibited the radial growth of the pathogen by
88%. In Foliar spray of the suspensions, T. viride was found to
be more efficient than P. fluorescens and mixed culture. This
study revealed that the foliar application of T. viride-ES1 has
good potential in controlling the late blight disease of potato.
2.8.6. Integrated Disease Management (IDM)
Effective management of this disease requires
implementation of an integrated disease management
approach. Although the most important measures are
cultural, resistant cultivars and chemical controls should
also be utilized. Integrated pest management has helped
farmers drastically reduce the need for chemical controls
while increasing production. Effective control of late
blight requires implementing an integrated disease
management
approach.
Integration
of
different
management options, including cultural practices (good
crop husbandry), resistant varieties and fungicides is
required to control late blight. Late blight of potatoes can
be controlled successfully by a combination of sanitary
measures, resistant varieties, and well-timed or scheduled
chemical sprays [18]. In integrated management of disease
the host resistance contributes to reducing the number of
sprays required to keep late blight below an economic
threshold level. The integration of reduced rate of Ridomil
application and moderately resistant potato varieties, in
the management of potato late blight is very important in
reducing environmental pollution and input cost of the
fungicide, and increase in production and profitability of
high quality potato tuber yield [13, 19].
3. Conclusion and Recommendation
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the fourth major crop
of the world after rice, wheat and maize. In Ethiopia, the
yield per unit area of potato is very low compared to those
of other countries. There are many factors that reduce the
yield of the crop among which the diseases like late blight
(Phytophthora infestans) and bacterial wilt (Ralstonia
(Pseudomonas) solanacearum) which play an important role.
Major fungal diseases such as late blight, early blight, black
scurf, fusarial wilt/dry rot, wart, powdery scab, charcoal rot
and major bacterial diseases like soft rot, common scab,
bacterial wilt and brown rot cause considerable loss to
potato production in field. Diseases such as late blight, early
blight, fusarial wilt and black leg primarily affect the
crop/foliage whereas diseases such as black scurf, wart,
powdery scab and common scab disfigure the tubers and
reduce their market value. Some tuber diseases such as dry
rots appear mostly in storage while others such as soft rot
affect potato tubers at every stage i.e. in field, storage and
American Journal of BioScience 2019; 7(6): 123-130
in the transit and may cause substantial loss under certain
conditions. Major fungal and bacterial diseases affecting
potato crop are reviewed here with respect to their
identification, symptoms on potato plants or tubers, nature
of the pathogen involved, epidemiology, control measures
etc.
Management of these diseases is therefore very
essential. In Ethiopia, however, much research has not
been done for the management of bacterial wilt disease
except identification of bacteria and screening of
biological control agents and use of resistant varieties.
Late blight of potato can be managed using the following
management (control) strategies: use of biological
control agents, use of resistant varieties, intercropping,
use of certified disease-free seed, use of selective
fungicides and cultural practices such as destruction of
cull piles by freezing or deep burying, destruction of
volunteer potato plants in nearby fields throughout the
season, destruction (desiccate, disc or flail and desiccate)
of infected plants to avoid spread, reduction of periods of
leaf wetness and high humidity within the crop canopy
by appropriately timing irrigation, application of a
recommended fungicide spray program (the program
should start prior to the arrival of the pathogen) and
desiccation of vines prior to harvest.
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to thank the Almighty God and St.
Marry for making all things possible with their boundless and
kind supply of unconditional supports. I would like to
deep-heartedly express my affectionate thanks to my beloved
wife Bire Kifle Geteneh for her irreplaceable support
throughout my life. Thanks to God and the mother of my
Lord for making all ups and down possible. I have no word
to say anything about my sweet families due to so many
support God bless all too.
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