PLAYING
WITH THE TIME.
EXPERIMENTAL
ARCHAEOLOGY
AND THE STUDY
OF THE PAST
Editors: Rodrigo Alonso, Javier Baena & David Canales
4th. International Experimental Archaeology Conference
8-11 may 2014, Museo de la Evolución Huma. Burgos, Spain.
Experimenta (the Spanish Experimental Archaeology Association) is a non-proit association created, among other proposes, to organize international
experimental archaeology conferences. Previous conferences were successively held in Santander (2005), Ronda (2008) and Banyoles (2011).
Organization
Experimenta (Asociación española de Arqueología Experimental)
Museo de la Evolución Humana, Junta de Castilla y León
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
EXARC
Cooperación institutions
Fundación Atapuerca
Universidad de Burgos
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientíicas - IMF, Barcelona
Asociación Española para el Estudio del Cuaternaro (AEQUA)
Organizing committee
Alejandro Sarmiento (Museo de la Evolución Humana, Junta de Castilla y León)
Rodrigo Alonso (Museo de la Evolución Humana, Junta de Castilla y León)
Javier Baena Preysler (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid)
Felipe Cuartero (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid)
David Canales (Fundación Atapuerca)
Susana Sarmiento (Fundación Atapuerca)
Roeland Paardekooper (EXARC)
Scientiic committee
Carlos Díez (Universidad de Burgos)
Marta Navazo(Universidad de Burgos)
Ángel Carrancho (Universidad de Burgos)
José A. Rodriguez Marcos (Universidad de Burgos)
Diego Arceredillo (Fundación Atapuerca)
Marcos Terradillos (Fundación Atapuerca)
Millán Mozota (Institut Milá i Fontanals, CSIC)
Xavier Terradas (Institut Milá i Fontanals, CSIC)
Ignacio Clemente (Institut Milá i Fontanals, CSIC)
Antonio Morgado (Universidad de Granada)
Gema Chacón (Institut de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social)
Josep Maria Verges (Institut de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social)
Isabel Caceres (Institut de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social)
William Schindler (Washington College)
Aidan O’Sullivan (University College Dublin)
Joseba Ríos (Centro Nacional Investigación sobre Evolución Humana)
Alfonso Benito (Centro Nacional Investigación sobre Evolución Humana)
Antoni Palomo (Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona)
Playing with the time. Experimental archaeology and the study of the past
Rodrigo Alonso, David Canales, Javier Baena (Eds.).
Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. 2017.
Coordinación editorial: Rodrigo Alonso, Javier Baena y David Canales.
Asesoramiento cientíico y revisores de la publicación: Diego Arceredillo (Universidad Isabel I), Javier Baena
(Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Alfonso Benito (Centro Nacional Investigación sobre Evolución Humana),
Isabel Caceres (Institut de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social), Amalia Canales (Universidad de Cantabria),
Ángel Carrancho (Universidad de Burgos), Ignacio Clemente (Institut Milá i Fontanals, CSIC), Gema Chacón (Institut
de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social. UMR7194, MNHN, París), Felipe Cuartero (Fundación Atapuerca,
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Carlos Díez (Universidad de Burgos), Paola García Medrano (Institut de
Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social), Millán Mozota (Institut Milá i Fontanals, CSIC), Marta Navazo (Universidad
de Burgos), Roeland Paardekooper (EXARC), Francesca Romagnolli (Institut de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució
Social), Claudia Santamaría (Universidad de Burgos), Marta Santamaría (Universidad de Burgos), Marcos Terradillos
(Universidad Isabel I) y Josep Maria Verges (Institut de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social).
© De la edición: Rodrigo Alonso, Javier Baena y David Canales.
Primera edición: Octubre 2017.
Diseño y maquetación: M de Martola.
Edita: Servicio de Publicaciones de la UAM.
Imprime: Estugraf.
ISBN: 978-84-8344-594-5
Depósito legal: M-29873-2017
PLAYING
WITH THE TIME.
EXPERIMENTAL
ARCHAEOLOGY
AND THE STUDY
OF THE PAST
Editors: Rodrigo Alonso, Javier Baena & David Canales
Index
Introduction
01. EXPERIMENTA. A tool for the consolidation of experimental archaeology.
Rodrigo Alonso, Javier Baena y David Canales..................................................................................................11
Technical and technological experimentation, Paleolithic
02. Replicating the handaxe shaping strategies from Boxgrove (Sussex, UK).
Paula García-Medrano. ......................................................................................................................................19
03. Experiments with valve shells - Retouching Callista chione to understand neanderthal technical
behaviour.
Francesca Romagnoli, Javier Baena Preysler, Lucia Sarti. ..............................................................................25
04. Dimensional analysis of assemblages generated by experimental discoid, levallois and laminar laking
with lint and quartz.
Par Michel Brenet, Mila Folgado, Laurence Bourguignon ................................................................................31
05. Specialist and learners: solutrean pedunculated points at El Higueral-Guardia Cave (Málaga, Spain).
Concepción Torres Navas, Estefanía Pérez Martín, Javier Baena Preysler......................................................39
06. The solutrean shouldered point with abrupt retouch: hafting and propulsion systems.
Francisco Javier Muñoz Ibáñez, Juan Antonio Marín de Espinosa Sánchez, Belén Márquez Mora, Ignacio
Martín Lerma, Javier Síntes Peláez ...................................................................................................................47
Technical and technological experimentation, Postpaleolithic
07. Making sickles: blade industry and her productivity in different types of sickles.
Víctor Lamas, Daniel Martínez ............................................................................................................................55
08. Experimental program: Neolithic awls and spatulas.
Millán Mozota, Antoni Palomo, Ignacio Clemente, Juan F. Gibaja ....................................................................61
09. The experiment in the service of archaeology. Pieces of osseous materials processed in the
experimental workshop developed on the archaeological site from Bordușani-Popină (Romania).
Monica Mărgărit, Dragomir Nicolae Popovici, Valentin Radu, Cătălina Cernea ...............................................67
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
10. Experimental programme on resistance/durability of prehistoric adhesives.
Juan Luis Fernández-Marchena, José Ramón Rabuñal, Gala García-Argudo ................................................73
11. Scan the archaeo-experiment! Computer science as analytical and interpretive way about
3d lithic reitting.
Alfredo Maximiano Castillejo ..............................................................................................................................81
Archaeological experimention by means of use wear analysis
12. Artefacts or geofacts? The role of experimentation and functional analysis in the determination
of tools at Pleistocene sites in Serra da Capivara (Piauí, Brazil).
Ignacio Clemente-Conte, María Farias, Eric Boëda ..........................................................................................89
13. Approach to the variability of macro-wear on two isotropic materials: lint and limestone.
Viallet Cyril ..........................................................................................................................................................95
14. Experimental and functional analysis of rock crystal projectiles.
Juan Luis Fernández-Marchena, José Ramón Rabuñal, Gala García-Argudo ..............................................101
15. Experimentation and traces analysis of macro-lithic tools: the case of Grotta della Monaca Cave
(Sant’Agata di Esaro-Cosenza, Italy).
Isabella Caricola, Cristina Lemorini .................................................................................................................107
16. Experimenting with prehistoric sickles: a traceological approximation.
Mª Cristina López-Rodríguez ...........................................................................................................................113
17. Manufacturing techniques of greenstone mosaics from Teotihuacan and Palenque.
Emiliano Ricardo Melgar Tísoc .........................................................................................................................119
18. Technological analysis of greenstone objects from the structures surrounding the Great Temple
of Tenochtitlan.
Reyna Beatriz Solís Ciriaco, Emiliano Ricardo Melgar Tísoc ..........................................................................125
19. Working pottery with laked stone tools: a preliminary experimental approach.
Niccolò Mazzucco, Ignacio Clemente-Conte, Juan Francisco Gibaja .............................................................131
20. Traces of textile technology in the Early Neolithic lakeside settlement of La Draga (Banyoles, Catalonia)
from an experimental perspective.
Miriam de Diego, Raquel Piqué, Antoni Palomo, Xavier Terradas, Ignacio Clemente, Millán Mozota ..........139
21. Experimenting with wrist-guards. Preliminary results.
Alejandro Muñoz Martínez, Iván Curto Encabo, Pedro Muñoz Moro, Carmen Gutiérrez Sáez ......................145
22. New Aterian stone tool research perspectives using experimentation and use-wear analysis.
Serena Falzetti, Elena Garcea ...........................................................................................................................151
Experimentation of cut marks, diet and bioenergy
23. Walking with carnivores: experimental approach to hominin-carnivore interaction.
Edgard Camarós, Marián Cueto, Luis C. Teira, Andreu Ollé, Florent Rivals...................................................159
24. Human breakage of bird bones during consumption.
Antonio J. Romero, J. Carlos Díez, Diego Arceredillo......................................................................................165
25. Experimental cut marks characterization using a Confocal Laser Proilometer.
Daniel Fuentes-Sánchez, María Ángeles Galindo-Pellicena, Rebeca García-González, José Miguel
Carretero, Juan Luis Arsuaga...........................................................................................................................171
26. Absorption and degradation of fatty acids in prehistoric ceramics: a preliminary study.
Olga Ordoñez Santaolalla, Cristina Vega Maeso, Isabel Jaime Moreno, Susana Palmero Díaz, Eduardo
Carmona Ballestero ..........................................................................................................................................177
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
27. Performing Paleolithic daily activities: an experimental project on bioenergy.
Olalla Prado-Nóvoa, Marco Vidal-Cordasco, Ana Mateos, Marcos Terradillos-Bernal, Jesús Rodríguez ....183
Experimental models of ire, music and rock art
28. Combined archaeomagnetic and Raman spectroscopy study of experimentally burnt
limestones from the Middle-Palaeolithic site of Pinilla del Valle (Madrid).
Ángel Carrancho, Susana E. Jorge Villar, Laura Sánchez-Romero, Theodoros Karampaglidis, Alfredo
Pérez-González, Enrique Baquedano, Juan Luis Arsuaga .............................................................................191
29. “Getting out the best in you”: observations of heat treatment on lint from the
Iberian Central System.
Sara Díaz Pérez, Paloma de la Sota Blanchart, Foivos Michos Rammos.......................................................197
30. Experiments on digital lighting simulation applied to rock art production and visualization.
Alfredo Maximiano Castillejo, Camilo Barcia García .......................................................................................203
31. Analysis of the perforated batons functional hypothesis.
Redondo Sanz, Francisco José ........................................................................................................................209
32. Experimental reproduction of the aerophone of Isturitz.
Carlos García Benito, Marta Alcolea Gracia, Carlos Mazo Pérez ....................................................................215
33. Recovering the ring-ring of the bells from various archaeological sites in the lower Ebro area
(3rd – 1st century B.C.). The results of an experimental procedure.
Margarida Genera i Monells, Fernando Guarch Bordes, José Ramon Balagué Ortiz....................................223
Technical and technological experimentation, kilns and pottery
34. Experiments with clay: approaching technological choice in pottery production.
Daniel Albero Santacreu ...................................................................................................................................231
35. Iberian cooking pots from els Estinclells (Verdú, Catalonia): new approach and experimental
possibilities.
Rafel Jornet Niella, Eva Miguel Gascón ...........................................................................................................237
36. Some results of the technical analysis of the Late Bronze Age ceramic material
of the Southern
Urals tribes.
Nikolai Shcherbakov, Liudmila Kraeva, Patrick Sean Quinn, Iia Shuteleva, Tatiana Leonova,
Alexandra Golyeva ............................................................................................................................................243
37. Experiments with surface decoration on Castelluccio pottery (Sicilian Early Bronze Age).
Giovanni Virruso, Valentina Amonti, Serena Tonietto......................................................................................249
38. Firing pits and pottery production at Lugo di Grezzana (VR): using experimental archaeology
for the interpretation of archaeological processes.
Annalisa Costa, Fabio Cavulli, Annaluisa Pedrotti ...........................................................................................255
39. Which way? Handedness in ceramic decoration.
Aixa Vidal...........................................................................................................................................................261
Technical and technological experimentation, metallurgy
40. Experimental reconstruction of copper metallurgy based on archaeometallurgical remains from the
Peñalosa Bronze Age site.
Auxilio Moreno Onorato, Charles Bashore Acero, Alberto Dorado Alejos, Juan Jesús Padilla Fernández..269
41. Iron production in the Iberian culture from an experiential perspective.
José Miguel Gallego, Manel Gómez, Josep Pou ..............................................................................................275
7
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
42. Silver ore smelting process in reverberatory furnace (Santa-Isabel mine, 17th c., Potosi, Bolivia):
experimental approach to a South American invention.
Florian Téreygeol, Pablo Cruz, Ivan Guillot, Jean-Charles Méaudre .............................................................281
Technical and technological experimentation, agriculture
and architecture
43. Reproducing Cato: experimental preparation of a sulphur mixture for viniculture.
Claudia Speciale, Luca Zambito ......................................................................................................................289
44. Architectural and agricultural experimentation (2012-2013) at the Experimental Camp of Protohistory
(CEP) (Verdú, Urgell, Catalonia).
Ramon Cardona Colell, Borja Gil Limón, Jordi Morer de Llorens, David Asensio Vilaró, Josep Pou Vallès ....295
45. L’Esquerda, archaeological experiments in medieval and ancient building techniques.
Imma Ollich-Castanyer, Montserrat de Rocaiuera, Joan-Albert Adell, David Serrat, Maria Ocaña,
Oriol Amblàs, Carme Cubero ............................................................................................................................301
46. Looking for a scientiic protocol in prehistoric daub experimental project.
Alessandro Peinetti, Giorgia Aprile, Kati Caruso, Claudia Speciale ................................................................307
47. Roman tegulae and imbrices manufacturing workshop.
Joaquim Tremoleda, Joseia Simon, Pere Castanyer, Andrea Ferrer, Adriana Clé, Josep Matés..................313
48. The archaeology of wine in Italy: a sicilian experiment.
Mario Indelicato, Daniele Maliana, Giuseppe Cacciaguerra ..........................................................................321
Experience and experiment in learning, teaching and heritage
interpretation
49. Clays, ire and wait! Prehistoric ceramic production explained to children 5 to 14 years old.
Alberto Dorado Alejos .......................................................................................................................................329
50. Sharing archaeological practice among schoolchildren: three groups, one experience.
Aixa Vidal, Paola Silvia Ramundo, Sol Mallía-Guest ........................................................................................335
51. The EduCEP programme: a didactic interdisciplinary approach to the scientiic method drawing
on experimental archaeology.
Natàlia Alonso, Ramon Cardona, Victòria Castells, Borja Gil, Rafel Jornet, Daniel López,
Jordi Morer, Ariadna Nieto ................................................................................................................................341
52. Experimental and experiential archaeology in Spain: Atapuerca (Burgos) and Arqueopinto (Madrid).
Raúl Maqueda García-Morales, Manuel Luque Cortina ..................................................................................349
53. The role of the experimental archaeology in the scientiic spreading as developer
of prehistorical empathy.
M. Pilar López-Castilla, Marcos Terradillos-Bernal, Rodrigo Alonso Alcalde ...............................................355
8
Introduction
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
01
EXPERIMENTA.
A TOOL FOR THE CONSOLIDATION
OF EXPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY
EXPERIMENTA. Una herramienta para la
consolidación de la Arqueología Experimental
Rodrigo Alonso*, Javier Baena** and David Canales***
*Museo de la Evolución Humana (Junta de Castilla y León).
Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca nº2, 09002 Burgos, Spain.
**Autonomus University of Madrid-UAM. Departament of Preshistory and Archaeology.
Campus Cantonlanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain.
***Fundación Atapuerca.
Carretera de Logroño, 44 - 09198 Ibeas de Juarros (Burgos, Spain)
ralonso@museoevolucionhumana.com
javier.baena@uam.es
david.canales.camarero@hotmail.es
Abstract
Since the foundation of the Spanish Association of Experimental Archaeology (Experimenta) in 2005, four
congresses focused on this research discipline have been held, and more than 200 scientiic articles have
been published. A bibliometric analysis of these publications shows the chronological periods that have received the greatest attention and the themes and disciplines with the greatest quantitative growth in the ield
of Experimental Archaeology.
Keywords: EXPERIMENTA Spanish Experimental Archaeology Association, bibliometric analysis.
Resumen
Desde que en 2005 se fundará la Asociación Española de Arqueología Experimental (Experimenta) se han
desarrollado 4 congresos que han generado más de 200 artículos cientíicos. Un análisis bibliométrico de
las publicaciones de estos congresos nos permite conocer que periodo cronológico ha centrado mayor
intereses en dichas reuniones, así como ver que temáticas y disciplinas han alcnazado un mayor desarrollo
cuantitativo dentro del cmapo de la Arqueología Experimental.
Palabras clave: EXPERIMENTA Asociación Española de Arqueología Experimental, análisis bibliométrico.
11
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
ORIGINS AND OBJECTIVES OF EXPERIMENTA
The Spanish Experimental Archaeology Association (Experimenta) was formed in
Santander, Spain on March 18, 2005, and registered as an association a year later. The main
objective of Experimenta is to promote research in the ield of experimental archaeology
and publicize the experimental work being done in this discipline (Ramos, 2007). The aims
of Experimenta also include:
• To promote research into experimental archaeology in order to increase public
awareness about it.
• To encourage, support and promote all initiatives aimed raising the educational
proile and dissemination of experimentation in archaeology.
• To support all initiatives aimed at implementing research into experimental
archaeology.
• To encourage, support and promote all types of cultural and scientiic activities
that promote experimentation in archaeology.
• Collaborate with public administrations on any initiatives that coincide with the
aims of this Association.
Since its establishment, Experimenta’s main activity has focused
on Experimental Archaeology
Congresses. Since 2005, the association has organised four international congresses, resulting
in the publication of four books
containing a total of more than
200 articles (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Location and date of
Congresses organized
by Experimenta,
bibliographic
references and
number of articles
from each one.
Although these congresses have
been organised on the Iberian
Peninsula, they have served as a
debate forum where researchers
from Western Europe and Latin
America have come together, thus internationalizing the scope of these meetings (Morgado,
et al., 2011 and Palomo et al., 2013).
BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS
A study of the 210 articles presented at these four Congresses has allowed us to outline
how and where researchers have used Experimental Archaeology in Spain. Nevertheless,
it is important to note that 5% of the papers focused on sites in other countries including
Portugal, France, Italy, Romania, Russia, Great Britain, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay,
Mexico, Syria and Indonesia, or were written by research groups based in these countries.
Looking at the chronological periods covered by the articles (Figure 2), there is a clear
predominance of the Palaeolithic (35%) over the rest, followed by the Neolithic (18%) and
the Iron Age (15%). The Middle Ages, the Modern and Contemporary eras were the focus of
the smallest number of papers (5%), identical in representation to works whose contents
prevented their identiication with any speciic period (General 5%).
A year-of-publication distribution (Figure 3) once again shows that the Palaeolithic has
generated the largest number of papers at all congresses. This analysis also brings to light
the importance of the Iron Age at the Congresses in Santander (2007) and Banyolas (2013),
12
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 2.
Chronological
distribution of papers
presented at the four
congresses.
Figure 3.
Distribution of
periods covered by
papers from each
Congress.
the Neolithic in Ronda (2011) and the Bronze Age in Burgos (2017). Another signiicant
aspect is that all periods were presented at all four Congresses, a good indication of
the consolidation of experimental archaeology as a valid discipline for the study of any
archaeological site, regardless of its chronology.
Analysing the subject matter of the 210 articles, we ind that studies of lithic technology
(22%) stand out from the rest (Figure 4). They are followed by papers on pottery and its
manufacturing and decoration processes (14%), and articles concerning traceology (11%)
and architecture (9%). There is also a signiicant percentage (10%) of articles focused on
the design of educational workshops and awareness-raising about archaeological sites
and parks. This is clear evidence of the positive socialization of science associated with a
discipline such as experimental archaeology.
An analysis of the subject matter covered by the articles published after each Congress
(Figure 5) shows a predominance of papers on lithic technology in all but the irst Congress,
where there was a slightly greater focus on pottery. Another highlight of the irst Congress
was the numerical importance of papers on ire production. Articles related to metallurgy,
the symbolic world (the arts, music and ornamentation), taphonomy and bone technology
show a constant percentile representation across all four Congresses. There was a notable
increase in the percentage of articles concerning architecture at the Banyolas Congress
(2013) and traceology at the last Congress in Burgos.
13
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 4.
Percentile
distribution of the
subject matter of
the 210 published
articles from all four
congresses.
Figure 5.
Thematic distribution
of the articles
published after each
Congress.
CONCLUSIONS
In the course of the irst four Experimental Archaeology Congresses organised by
Experimenta, there has been a predominance of articles concerning the Palaeolithic,
followed by the Neolithic and then the Iron Age. With regard to their subject matter, there
has been a predominance of work in the ield of lithic technology, followed by articles focused
on the study of pottery and, in the last two Congresses, a signiicant increase in the number
of papers about experimentation with use-wear (traceology). The inluence in the thematic of
the presented papers of the host institution and the research tradition is evident.
The study of stone material and pottery thus continues to predominate the archaeological
scene, although in recent times, the study of these remains by means of experimental
14
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
archaeology has allowed new issues and research ields to be addressed. Good proof of
this is the book that you now have in your hands.
The international conferences supported by Experimenta, has become an extraordinary
forum for discussion, meeting and sharing of ideas and knowledge particularly in
western Europe. Without doubt the integration of Experimenta inside EXARC network is
part of one of the main objectives of the association that is the increase of international
impact. The next conference in Tarragona 2017 will consolidate the Spanish tradition of
the experimental protocols in the archaeological research.
REFERENCES
Alonso, R., Baena, J., Canales, D. (Eds.) 2017. Playing with the
time. Experimental archaeology and the study of the past. Servicio
de Publicaciones de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
Madrid. Pp. 360.
Morgado, A., Baena, J., García, D. (Eds) 2011. La investigación
experimental aplicada a la Arqueología. Universidad de Granada,
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid y Experimenta: Asociación
Española de Arqueología Experimental. Ronda. Pp. 509.
Morgado, A., Baena, J., García, D. 2011. Introducción. In La
investigación experimental aplicada a la Arqueología. Morgado,
A., Baena, J., García, D. (Eds.). Universidad de Granada,
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid y Experimenta: Asociación
Española de Arqueología Experimental. Ronda.17-19.
Palomo, A., Piqué, R., Terradas, X. 2013. Experimentación en
Arqueología. Estudio y difusión del pasado. Presentación. In
Experimentación en Arqueología: Estudio y difusión del pasado.
Palomo, A., Piqué, R., Terradas, X. (Eds.). Sèrie Monogràica; 25,
Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya-Girona. Girona. Pp. 13-15.
Ramos, M.L., González, J.E., Baena, J. (Eds.) 2007. Arqueología
experimental en la Península Ibérica: Investigación, didáctica y
patrimonio. Asociación Española de Arqueología Experimental.
Santander. Pp. 343.
Ramos, M.L., 2007. Prólogo. In Arqueología experimental en la
Península Ibérica: Investigación, didáctica y patrimonio. Ramos,
M.L., González, J.E., Baena, J. (Eds.). Asociación Española de
Arqueología Experimental. Santander. Pp. 5.
Palomo, A., Piqué, R., Terradas, X. (Eds.) 2013. Experimentación
en Arqueología: Estudio y difusión del pasado. Sèrie Monogràica;
25, Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya-Girona.2 vol. Girona.
Pp.524.
15
Technical and
technological
experimentation,
Paleolithic
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
02
REPLICATING THE HANDAXE SHAPING
STRATEGIES FROM BOXGROVE (SUSSEX, UK)
Reproduciendo las estrategias de coniguración
de los bifaces de Boxgrove (Sussex, UK)
Paula García-Medrano*
*Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES)
Zona educacional 4, Campus Sescelades URV (Ediici W3).
43007 Tarragona, Spain
pgarciamedrano@gmail.com
Abstract
The experimental replication of lithic artefacts, speciically handaxes and cleavers, has contributed to improve our knowledge and interpretation of the archaeological record. This work consists of the experimental
reproduction of the shaping strategies of large lint cutting tools based on specimens recovered from the
Acheulean Boxgrove site (Sussex, UK), using the procedures elucidated from the archaeological record. The
raw materials used were lint nodules eroding out of mass movement chalk gravels at the site. The inal goal
of the experiments was to correctly weigh the variables required to produce the handaxes. These included the
dimensions and shape of the original nodule, the type of hammer used and the reduction strategy employed
by the knappers. Experimental knapping by a team with varying degrees of experience in handaxe manufacture proved invaluable for gaining insight into the Acheulean “chaînes opératoires”.
Keywords: Acheulean, Boxgrove, handaxes, shaping, raw material.
Resumen
La reproducción experimental de instrumentos líticos y, especíicamente de bifaces y hendedores, ha contribuido a ahondar en el conocimiento y a mejorar la interpretación del registro arqueológico. Este trabajo consiste
en la reproducción experimental de las secuencias de producción de los grandes instrumentos de sílex documentados en Boxgrove (Sussex, UK), basándonos en los rasgos derivados del estudio del material arqueológico. La materia prima utilizada ha sido nódulos de sílex procedentes de aloramientos del propio lugar. El
objetivo inal fue aislar las variables que articulan la reproducción de bifaces, incluyendo dimensiones y forma
de los nódulos utilizados, el tipo de percutor usado y las estrategias de reducción utilizadas por los talladores.
El experimento de talla, desarrollado por un equipo con diferentes grados de experiencia en la coniguración de
bifaces, aporta una información muy valiosa para entender las cadenas operativas Achelenses.
Palabras clave: Achelense, Boxgrove, bifaces, coniguración, materias primas.
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
INTRODUCTION
Lithic raw material qualities and availability are widely assumed to be a major factor
in determining differences in stone tool morphology and the different ways of adapting
knapping strategies to the characteristics of the original nodule or block (Brantingham et
al., 2000). There are two ways to consider how raw material quality interacts with other
variables (Costa, 2010; Sharon, 2008). The irst considers that hominins were not capable
of solving technical problems derived from the characteristics of the raw materials. The
second one considers that real raw material constraints limited the artefact morphology.
Figure 1. Location map of the Boxgrove site, showing the mapped
distribution of the Slindon Formation (Upper Image).
The marine-freshwater-terrestrial sequence at Q1/B (Lower Image).
The Boxgrove site consists of a sequence of Middle
Pleistocene marine, freshwater and terrestrial
sediments exposed in the former Eartham Quarry,
Boxgrove, West Sussex, UK (Figure 1). Archaeology
occurs in all the main sedimentary units in the
sequence but is preserved in situ and in the greatest
concentration within an intertidal and regressional
unit, the Slindon Silts (Unit 4b). This unit was formed
by a combination of regression and the partial
enclosureof the sea into a marine embayment
(Barnes, 1980). Artefact concentrations occur on
the surface of the silts in a soil horizon (Unit 4c)
and in rare freshwater pond/lake deposits that are
a temporal correlative of the soil horizon (Units
3c, 3/4, 4, 4u) (Holmes et al., 2010). These inegrained sediments preserve a series of ancient land
surfaces with abundant faunal and lithic remains
that have been dated by correlative mammalian
biostratigraphy to the last temperate stage of the
Cromerian Complex, Marine Isotope Stage 13, (524478 ka). The conformable juxtaposition of cold stage
sediments overlying temperate sediments and the
presence of transitional mammal faunas indicate
that the archaeology at Boxgrove dates from the inal
part of the temperate stage and into the ensuing
Anglian Cold Stage (MIS 12).
Rapid, quiet site formation processes produced exceptional preservation conditions, yielding
pristine lithic artefacts with minimal post-depositional movement. These lithic collections
contain numerous handaxes, assigned to the Acheulean industry. Typologically, ovate
handaxes predominate. They include reined examples with symmetrical outlines, regular
and sharp edges (Roberts and Paritt, 1999). Previous debitage analyses indicated that soft
hammers were used at the site (Wenban-Smith, 1989), and 36 bone and 3 antler hammers
were recovered from the Q1/B excavations (Roberts and Paritt, 1999). The combination
of Middle Pleistocene age, technological reinement, and exceptional preservation make
Boxgrove an ideal site in which to examine evidence of platform preparation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The archaeological and experimental lithic assemblages were analyzed using the Logical
Analytical System (Carbonell et al., 1992) (faciality, percentage of perimeter modiied by
shaping, the extent of the removals, the direction and delineation of the retouched edge,
etc). We also adapted the shaping sequencing of large tools, based on the British research
20
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 2. Set of measurements taken
from handaxes and cleavers,
expressed as name and initials.
Figure 3. Examples of several
handaxes manufactured during
the experimental program.
tradition, which considers different phases in the shaping process: test, rough-out, shaping
and inishing (Wenban-Smith, 1989). The tools were assigned to a speciic stage of this
process in accordance with their technological characteristics (the amount of cortex, the
distribution, size and shape of the removals, the use of different percussion modalities,
the type of retouch, the angle between the two faces, etc.). This basic technological
characterization was completed by a systematic metrical analysis of instruments (Figure
2). These measurements are accepted for the study of the variability of large tools (Bordes,
1961; McPherron, 2000; Roe, 1968).
All the raw materials (different types of lint) documented in the archaeological record
are from the same environment as the archaeological sites (Roberts and Paritt, 1999).
We therefore decided to make a prospection in situ, around the Quarry 1B location,
selecting several blocks of lint with different size and shape characteristics. We
found 4 morphological types of blanks, also documented in the archaeological record:
quadrangular and globular (both with large dimensions), and tabular and irregular (both
with smaller dimensions). The hammers used were in different raw materials and had
different degrees of hardness. We used quartzite and lint cobbles as hard hammers, and
wood and antler for a soft hammers.
There were 4 knappers, with different degrees of experience. All of them were seated in
parallel, keeping enough distance between them to avoid mixing the knapping products.
Where possible, all the products were separated on the basis of the type of hammer and
the shaping moment.
Figure 4. General
characteristics
of the shaping
sequence in the three
technological phases.
21
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 5. Length
records of the original
block, the base after
the fracture (marked
in grey) and the inal
tool.
Figure 6. Base
fractures produced
during the shaping
process. On the left,
two experimental
examples. On
the right, two
archaeological
examples from
Boxgrove.
RESULTS
We selected 29 lint bases for shaping (50% were quadrangular; 20%, were globular;
20%, were irregular blocks; and 10% were tabular). We obtained 23 handaxes and 6
fragments and from those, a total 2268 products were removed. In this case, we studied
11 complete sequences (Figure 3). We deined three phases during the same shaping
sequence in relation to the type of base used for shaping. (1) In this phase we considered
all the shaping work done on the original blank. In this case, the base was a block. The
material was tested and roughed-out by the knappers. (2) Sometimes, during the roughout, the original block was fragmented into two (or more) parts. This was mainly due to
the existence of internal issures. The work therefore had to continue on a fragment /
lake. (3) The shaping could also be continued on the other lint fragment / lake, derived
from the same block (Figure 4) (García-Medrano, 2011).
In the majority of cases (more than 55%), the knapping was done on locks. The rest were
made on lakes, except for 6% which were failures. The use of hard hammers was mainly
focused on Phase 1 during testing and roughing-out. Phase 2 presented the greatest
variability in the use of different types of hammer. Phase 3 was mainly characterized by
the use of soft hammers, basically during the inishing work, focusing on the edges and on
making the instrument as thin as possible.
22
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
In 10% of cases, we documented fracturing of the base during the rough-out. On these
occasions, there was a reduction of between 25% and 50% of the dimensions of the
original block (Figure 5). Knapping had to begin again on a new base, smaller than the
original and with different morphological characteristics, so the knapping strategy had
to be reoriented to get the same “inal template”. These fractures mainly occurred with
large blocks, mainly generating new quadrangular bases. Sometimes, these were trifacial
bases that could retain part of their cortical surface, combined with big scars. The same
characteristics are also documented in the archaeological record (Figure 6).
The number of products generated during the shaping process was totally related to the
original block size. Our experiment showed that bases of between 500-2000 gr. generated
between 20 and 60 products. Bases of between 2000 and 3500 gr. Produced 40 to 100
pieces. The largest bases, 3500-5000 gr., generated 80-200 products. Phase 1 presented
a high degree of variability in relation to the quantity of cortex kept on the dorsal faces.
Nevertheless, as the shaping process continued, most of products were non-cortical.
CONCLUSIONS
This study showed that it is possible to reproduce the shaping process documented in
the archaeological record from Boxgrove (Sussex, UK), using local blocks of lint. In most
cases, the handaxes were made from big blocks. But in addition to the classical sequence
(Test, Rough-out, Shaping and Finishing) we documented occasional fragmentation of
the bases. This variable is crucial to understanding the shaping sequence because each
time the original base was fragmented, the relationship between the size of the original
block and the size of the inal tool disappeared. In addition, the shaping process had to be
reorganized and readapted to the new base metrical and morphological characteristics.
The shaping process is thus lexible, with two clear tendencies. The irst is the use of
medium-small irregular block to shape handaxes, mainly in the Shaping stage. On the
other hand, the largest blocks generated handaxes in the Finishing stage. During this
experiment we also checked the wide use of the hard hammer and the gradual introduction
of the soft hammer, mainly during the Shaping stage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This experiment was inanced by a Catalan AGAUR project 2008-PBR-00033. We are deeply
grateful to the Boxgrove team, especially to Mark B. Roberts for his help. Also, I want to
thank the knappers, Andreu Ollé, Josep María Vergès, Miquel Guardiola and Jaume Guiu,
for their hard work. P. García-Medrano beneited from a pre-doctoral research grant from
the Fundación Siglo para el Turismo y las Artes de Castilla y León.
23
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
REFERENCES
Barnes, R.S.K. (1980). Coastal Lagoons. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Brantingham, P., Olsen, J., Rech, J. and Krivoshapkin, A.
(2000). Raw materials quality and prepared core technologies
in Northeast Asia. Journal of Archaeological Science.
27, 255-271.
Bordes, F. (1961). Typologie du Paléolithique Acient et Moyen.
Centre National de la Recherche Scientiique. Paris.
Carbonell, E., Rodríguez-Alvarez, X.P., Sala, R. and Vaquero,
M. (1992). New elements of the Logical Analitic System. Cahier
Noir. 6.
Costa, A. G. (2010). A Geometric Morphometric Assessment
of Plan Shape in Bone and Stone Acheulean Bifaces from the
Middle Pleistocene site of Castel di Guido, Latium, Italy. In New
Perspectives on Old Stones: Analytical Approaches to Paleolithic
Technologies. Edited by S.L. Lycett and P. R. E. Chauhan. Pp. 2341. Springer Science and Business Media.
García-Medrano, P. 2011. Los sistemas técnicos del Pleistoceno
Medio en el Oeste de Europa. Cadenas operativas y procesos de
coniguración en los conjuntos líticos de Galería y Gran DolinaTD10-1 (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, España) y Boxgrove (Sussex,
Inglaterra). Doctoral Thesis. Burgos University. Spain. 495 pp.
24
Holmes, J.A., Atkinson, T., Fiona Darbyshire, D.P., Horne, D.J.,
Joordans, J., Roberts, M.B., Sinka, K.J., Whittaker, J.E. (2010).
Middle Pleistocene climate and hydrological environments at
the Boxgrove hominin site (West Sussex, UK) from ostracoid
records. Quaternary Science Review. 29 (13-14), 1515-1527.
McPherron, S. P. (2000). Handaxes as a measure of the mental
capabilities of early hominids. Journal of Archaeological Science.
27, 655-663.
Roberts, M.B., Paritt, S.A. (1999). Boxgrove: a Middle Pleistocene
Hominin Site at Eartham Quarry, Boxgrove, West Sussex. English
Heritage Archaeological Report. 17
Roe, D. (1968). British Lower and Middle Palaeolithic handaxe
groups. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. 34, 1-82.
Sharon, G. (2008). The impact of raw material on Acheulian
large lake production. Journal of Archaeological Science. 35,
1329-1344.
Wenban-Smith, F. (1989). The use of canonical variates for
determination of biface manufacturing technology at Boxgrove
Lower Palaeolithic site and the behavioral implications of this
technology. Journal of Archaeological Science. 16, 17-26.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
03
EXPERIMENTS WITH VALVE SHELLS RETOUCHING CALLISTA CHIONE
TO UNDERSTAND NEANDERTHAL
TECHNICAL BEHAVIOUR
Experimentos con conchas – Retoque sobre
valvas de Callista chione para entender el
comportamiento técnico de los neandertales
Francesca Romagnoli* **, Javier Baena Preysler***,
Lucia Sarti ****
*Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES) Zona Educacional 4,
Campus Sescelades URV (Ediici W3). 43007 Tarragona, Spain.
**Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV)
Avinguda de Catalunya 35. 43002 Tarragona, Spain.
f.romagnoli2@gmail.com
***Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
Carretera de Colmenar Viejo, Km 15, Cantoblanco. 28049, Madrid, Spain.
javier.baena@uam.es
****Dipartimento di Scienze Storiche e dei Beni Culturali, Università di Siena
Via Roma 56. 53100, Siena, Italy.
lucia.sarti@unisi.it
Abstract
We conducted an experiment aimed at identifying the technical gestures used by Neanderthals in the
manufacturing of shell tools. Our analysis was compared with the archaeological shell assemblage of Grotta
del Cavallo (South-East Italy), where 126 retouched elements of Callista chione bivalves have been found.
Results suggest that shell technology was completely integrated into Neanderthal behaviour and offer new
perspectives into the interpretation of Middle Palaeolithic variability.
Keywords: Middle Palaeolithic, shell tool, technical behaviour, raw material, technical gesture.
Resumen
Los autores presentan los resultados de la experimentación que ha tenido como objetivo la identiicación
de los gestos técnicos aplicados por los Neanderthales en la fabricación de herramientas sobre conchas.
El análisis ha sido realizado a partir del estudio del conjunto arqueológico de Grotta del Cavallo (sur-este
de Italia). En el nivel L (MIS 5/MIS 4) han sido recuperados 126 fragmentos de valvas de Callista chione retocados. Los resultados de la experimentación revelan que esta tecnología estaba completamente integrada
en el comportamiento técnico de los neandertales abriendo de esta forma perspectivas para interpretar la
variabilidad del Paleolítico medio y las modalidades de adaptación a los recursos marinos de esta especie.
Palabras clave: Paleolítico medio, herramientas en concha, comportamiento técnico, materia prima, gesto
técnico.
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
INTRODUCTION
Neanderthal shell tools, reported from 13 sites around the Mediterranean Sea, have been
identiied since the late 1950s. The sites are located in Italy (Liguria, Lazio and Apulia),
and in Greece, on the Mani Peninsula, Peloponnese (for a detailed bibliography of these
records see Romagnoli et al., 2015). The presence of shell remains at European Middle
Palaeolithic sites is generally related to subsistence strategies or lesser frequently,
to symbolic behaviour (see Colonese et al., 2011 and bibliography therein). The use of
shell as raw material to produce tools has also been reported throughout Prehistory (for
bibliography see Romagnoli et al., 2015).
The use of shell as a raw material is a widespread adaptation of European Neanderthals
between the Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 and MIS 3. Non-lithic adaptations have been reported
at several European sites since at least MIS 9 with the discovery of woody tools (e.g. Thieme,
1997) and bone tools (e.g. Saccà, 2012). The spread of shell tools reveals the increasing change
of perceptions in tool manufacturing during the Middle Palaeolithic and their study is a key
topic for understanding Neanderthal behaviour from a socio-ecological perspective.
We have been studying Neanderthal shell tools with a multidisciplinary approach for some
years and several data have recently been published (Romagnoli et al., 2015; Romagnoli,
2015; Romagnoli et al., 2016, 2017). Here we present the results of experimentation carried
out to identify the technical gestures used in shell retouching.
CHAÎNE OPÉRATOIRE OF SHELL TOOLS AT GROTTA DEL CAVALLO
The shell assemblage at Grotta del Cavallo is composed of several marine specimens but
only those of Callista chione have been retouched (Romagnoli et al., 2015). The retouched
assemblage is composed of 126 fragments of valves (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Table
showing retouched
tools made of
Callista chione valve
subdivided according
to the retouch
location.
The shell tools were analysed using a multidisciplinary approach, combining taxonomy,
taphonomy, morpho-technical analysis, techno-functional analysis of the retouched cutting
edge and experimental archaeology (op. cit.). A method was designed to reconstruct the
production process of these tools and to facilitate comparison between shell and lithic
assemblages. At Grotta del Cavallo, the chaîne opératoire of shell tools was independent
from an alimentary use of these resources. Whole valves, or almost completely preserved
specimens were collected after the death of the mollusc with standard dimensions
approximating 8 cm wide (anterior-posterior axis). The laterality of the valve was not a
criterion for selection. The manufacture aimed at creating a functional cutting edge on
the external rounded fringe of the valve (Romagnoli et al., 2015). Retouching was always
located on the internal surface of the valve which is the part of the shell that preserves
use-wear traces (Cristiani et al., 2005; Romagnoli et al., 2017). Recycling behaviour
was attested within the chaîne opératoire. In a few cases (n. 9) tools with two orthogonal
cutting edges were manufactured by recycling fragmented pieces. The recycled tools were
produced by retouching the meso-endostracum of the valve as highlighted by a fracture
surface running radial to the umbo (Romagnoli, 2015).
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
The tools showed two rows of retouching. The retouch had a stepped scaled morphology,
and a convex, continuous delineation in both the front and top views (Figure 2).
Figure 2. (A): Callista chione shell; (B): internal structure of the valve: IL = Internal Layer - endostracum, ML = Middle Layer
- mesostracum, OL = Outer Layer - periostracum; (C): Grotta del Cavallo Layer L, archaeological shell tool; (D): detail of
the retouch negative of removal of an archaeological tool; (E): detail of the two rows of retouch (archaeological tool); (F):
experimental tool. (B from Moura et al., 2009, modiied; C-E from Romagnoli et al., 2014, modiied).
THE VALVE: INTERNAL STRUCTURE
The structure of the valve (macro and micro-structure) is an important variable to be
considered in the study of the use of shells as raw material (Szabó, 2008). The Callista
chione shell is composed of three layers (Figure 2): the inner one is the endostracum,
the middle one is the mesostracum and the outer layer is the periostracum. The
homogeneous endostracum is made of laminated nacreous calcite. The mesostracum is
made of columnar calcite with a crossed lamellar microstructure in the deepest part. The
periostracum is made of conchiolin and has a prismatic microstructure (Popov, 1986).
EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOL
To identify the technical gestures needed to manufacture shell tools at Grotta del Cavallo,
we carried out an experimentat using fresh whole valves from aquaculture (Mediterranean
Sea: Apulia, Calabria and Campania regions). We retouched 50 valves and the experiments
were designed and carried out by two of the authors (F.R and J.B). We used soft and semisoft stone hammers (limestone and sandstone) similar to the raw material, weight and
shape of two archaeological hammers found in layer L. They were small lat pebbles
(Figure 3). We used different gestures: (i) rectilinear, (ii) tangential keeping the wrist
“soft” or lightly mobile (“discoidal” gesture), (iii) tangential with the wrist kept stable, (iv)
tangential following a trajectory with reorientation (à inléchissement, Bourguignon, 2001)
Figure 3. Hammers
for retouch Callista
chione tools. (a, b):
experimental; (c):
archaeological (Grotta
del Cavallo, layer L).
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
pulling the hammer toward the body of the knapper (“Quina” gesture), and (v) tangential
following a trajectory with reorientation pulling the hammer away from the body of the
knapper (“Chatelperronian” gesture). We also analysed the consequences on the shell
edge of the way the hammer was held in the hand before the technical gesture: (i) hitting
the valve with the lateral rounded surface of the hammer or (ii) with its lat surface. During
the experiments we tested the consequences of each gesture on the valve fringe of varying
the tilt angle of the shell (0°, 45°, 90°); 0° means that the valve to be retouched was kept
in the hand with the external surface upward-facing. In this case, the hammer would hit
the valve on the external surface (periostracum). 90° means that the valve to be retouched
was kept vertically in the hand with the umbo facing downward. Consequently the hammer
would hit the valve at the intersection between the external and internal surfaces.
Figure 4. Technical
gestures during shell
retouch manufacture.
Both these gestures
are needed.
RESULTS
The tilt angle of the valve during retouch is the most important variable to be controlled in
order to avoid breaking the external fringe of the shell. Indeed, hitting the periostracum,
even close to the external fringe, always created a fracture that ran parallel to the growth
lines and irreparably destroyed the valve, thus preventing manufacturing. The valve hadd
to be kept between 70° and 90°. In this way the point of impact was at the intersection
between the periostracum and the internal surface, where an angular rupture allowed
initial removal from the internal surface of the bivalve. Subsequent removals were
detached by hitting on the angular rupture caused by the previous ones. The tangential
gesture allowed for easy retouching of the valve, while a linear gesture was not adequate.
The manufacturing of a stepped scale retouch, similar in angle, extent and morphology to
the one attested on the archaeological tools, was obtained using two alternate technical
gestures. A irst row of retouch had to be made by hitting the valve with the lateral rounded
surface of the hammer. The hammer had to be moved along a tangential trajectory keeping
the wrist stable. This modality of retouch created a micro-denticulation of the mesoendostracum, visible in a sharp torn morphology when looking at the internal surface
of the valve when facing toward
the observer, and a microdenticulation of the periostracum
was visible in the external edge
of the valve in the front view,
with the external surface facing
toward the observer. A second
row of retouching was needed to
regularise the edge. This second
series had to be made by hitting
the valve with the lat surface of
the hammer. The hammer had
to follow a tangential trajectory
with reorientation, by pulling the
hammer toward the body of the
knapper (Figure 4).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Our experimentation suggests that shell retouch had been made with a lat limestone or
sandstone pebble, through the alternation of two technical gestures:
1) The arm followed a tangential trajectory with the wrist stable. The lateral rounded
surface of the hammer hit the external edge of the bivalve at about the intersection
28
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
between the periostracum and the internal surface, keeping the valve highly angled in the
hand (70°-90°).
2) The arm followed a tangential trajectory with reorientation. The impact was between
the lat surface of the hammer and the external edge of the shell, keeping the valve highly
angled (70°-90°). After the impact with the shell, the hammer was pulled towards the body
of the knapper.
The two lat stone hammers found in layer L at Grotta del Cavallo show signs of both of
these gestures: percussion pits on the rounded surface and the association of percussion
pits and parallel striations on a delimited part of the lat surface.
According to Baena Preysler and Carrión Santafé (2010), this technical association is
characteristic of “Quina retouch”. Other authors have also highlighted as typical of Quina
techno-complexes the presence of retouchers with percussion pits associated with
parallel striae on a lat surface (for bibliography see Romagnoli et al., 2016). Quina lint
scrapers are thick (Bourguignon, 1997) and the stepped morphology of Quina retouch is
interpreted as the result of repeated sharpening of the tool edge. Denticulation is usually
considered part of the Quina retouch procedure (see Romagnoli et al., 2016) while the
successive re-sharpening created the typical stepped morphology. In shell tools, the
stepped morphology seems to be due to the technical gestures associated with the
internal micro-structure of the valves, in which the fractures originated by the hammer
spread parallel to the inner surface when the force was applied in the same direction as
the sheet orientation in laminated endostracum. The propagation of the fracture front
gradually varied in speed and created an abrupt transversal break which determined the
stepped morphology. In our experimentation we discovered that in bivalves with a higher
thickness of the meso-endostracum, the stepped morphology was more developed. This
is probably due to the technical response of the micro-lamellar structure of the internal
part of the mesostracum.
Our results have important implication for understanding Neanderthal variability:
-
-
-
In shell tools the “Quina retouch” is not only a morphology but seems to be part
of a strategy for achieving speciic characteristics of the edge from the beginning
of production. This consideration has important consequences in the functional
value of these tools, which we have started to investigate recently with a new
experimental approach. (Romagnoli et al., 2017)
The use of “Quina retouch” both in Callista chione and lithic assemblages in layer
L suggests that shell tools were fully integrated within Neanderthal technical
behaviour. It implies that these tools were not an expedient response to lithic raw
material constraints but rather part of the organisation of technology as result of
mobility, social and economic strategies.
The Callista chione technology is related to Neanderthals’ capacity for adaptation
to the environment, which can take several forms, and also to their capacity for
innovation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are very grateful to the organisers of the 4th International Conference of
Experimental Archaeology. We are also very grateful to the students and collaborators
from the Laboratorio de Arqueología Experimental at the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
29
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
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approach to the function and technology of Quina side-scrapers.
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Romagnoli, F., Martini, F., Sarti, L. (2015). Neanderthal use
of Callista chione shells as raw material for retouched tools
in south-east Italy. Analysis of Grotta del Cavallo Layer L
assemblage by a new methodology. Journal of Archaeological
Method and Theory. 22, 1007-1037.
Bourguignon, L. (1997). Le Moustérien de type Quina: nouvelle
déinition d’une entité technique. Ph.D. Dissertation, Université
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Romagnoli, F., Baena, J., Sarti, L. (2016). Neanderthal retouched
shell tool and Quina economic and technical strategies: an
integrated behaviour. Quaternary International. 407, 29-44.
Colonese, A.C., Mannino, M.A., Bar-Yosef Mayer, D.E., Fa,
D.A., Finlayson, J.C., Lubell, D., Stiner, M.C. (2011). Marine
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Quaternary International. 239, 86-103.
Romagnoli, F., Baena, J., Pardo Naranjo, A.I., Sarti, L. (2017).
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shell tools: a new experimental approach. Use, mode of
operation, and strength of Callista chione from a behavioural,
Quina perspective. Quaternary International. 427, 216-228.
Cristiani, E., Lemorini, C., Martini, F., Sarti, L. (2005). Scrapers
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Choyke, A.M., Batey, C. E., Lõugas, L. Oxbow Books. Oxford. Pp.
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Popov, S. V. (1986). Composite prismatic structure in bivalve
shell. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 31(1-2), 3-26.
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Saccà, D. (2012). Taphonomy of Palaeloxodon antiquus at Castel
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Szabó, K. (2008). Shell as raw material: mechanical properties
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Archaeofauna. 17, 125-138.
Thieme, H. (1997). Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from
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Zilhão, J., Angelucci, D.E., Badal-García, E., d’Errico, F., Daniel,
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TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
04
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF ASSEMBLAGES
GENERATED BY EXPERIMENTAL DISCOID
LEVALLOIS AND LAMINAR FLAKING WITH
FLINT AND QUARTZ
Análisis dimensional de débitages
experimentales Discoides, Levallois
y Laminares sobre sílex y cuarzo
Michel Brenet* **, Mila Folgado* **
and Laurence Bourguignon* ***
*Inrap Grand-Sud-Ouest, Bègles, France
**UMR 5199, PACEA, Talence, France
***UMR 7041, ArScAn-AnTET, Paris, France
michel.brenet@inrap.fr
Abstract
The experimental analysis presented here addresses questions concerning the representativity and integrity
of archaeological lithic assemblages, and in particular, the quantities of size categories of items generated
by diverse laking methods, such as those attributed to the Middle Paleolithic.
Are some laking methods more “expensive” in terms of raw materials and do they generate more waste
products and small items? In other words, do the rules and objectives of different methods – laminar or
Discoid, for example – have an inluence on the quantities and dimensions of artefacts and waste products
produced? Should we interpret the proportions of the different size categories (centimetric and millimetric)
of the items produced in the same manner?
Using calibrated sieves, our irst aim was to quantify – per experimental test, method and raw material –
the proportions of size classes of objects resulting from different laking methods attributed to the Middle
Paleolithic, and then to compare their percentages.
The results of our analysis suggest that different laking methods – hard hammer percussion being a constant
in the different tests – can generate speciic proportions of size classes, while the raw material (lint, quartz
or quartzite) does not play a role in this differentiation. In our experiments, Discoid laking differs from the
other Levallois and laminar laking conceptions tested in that it generated fewer small pieces (<14 mm). This
could be linked to the technical and volumetric rules of Discoid laking, which involve little preparation and
maintenance of the core during its reduction.
Keywords: experimental débitage, levallois debitage, discoïd debitage, dimensional lithic analysis, middle
Palaeolithic.
Resumen
El trabajo experimental aquí presentado, es el fruto de las interrogaciones que suscitan la representatividad
y la integridad de las producciones líticas arqueológicas en particular sobre las cantidades de las fracciones
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dimensionales de las lascas y de los deshechos producidos por los diferentes débitages descritos en el Paleolítico
medio.
¿Son ciertos débitages más dispendiosos en materia prima y generan más deshechos y esquirlas que otros?
¿Tienen las reglas de la cadena operatoria y los objetivos de las producciones –Laminares o Discoïdes por
ejemplo- una incidencia sobre las cantidades y sobre las dimensiones de los artefactos y los deshechos?
¿Debemos interpretar las proporciones de las diferentes categorías dimensionales, centimetricas y
milimétricas, de los elementos producidos sobre el mismo registro?
Nuestro objetivo ha sido, en un primer momento, de cuantiicar numéricamente, con la ayuda de tamices
calibrados, por test experimental, por método y por materia prima, las proporciones de las clases
dimensionales de los objetos producidos por los diferentes procesos de débitage descritos en el Paleolitico
medio y de compararlas en términos de porcentaje.
Los resultados de nuestro análisis sugieren que, procedimientos y modalidades de débitage diferentes –
siendo la técnica de percusión con percutor duro común a la totalidad de los tests- pueden generar
proporciones especiicas de clases dimensionales de elementos, sin que la materia prima explotada –silex,
cuarzo o cuarcita- tenga un rol particular en esta diferenciación.
En el cuadro de igura de los tests aquí presentados, las experimentaciones de débitage Discoïde se
diferencian de las otras concepciones de producción Levallois y laminares produciendo menos elementos de
pequeñas dimensiones (< 14 mm). Esta circunstancia podría ser una consecuencia de las reglas técnicas y
volumétricas del débitage Discoïde que necesitan menos preparación de los núcleos durante la explotación.
Palabras clave: talla experimental, talla levallois, talla discoide, análisis lítico dimensional,
Paleolítico medio.
INTRODUCTION
The experimental procedure presented here addresses techno-economic and taphonomic
issues surrounding the representativity and integrity of lithic assemblages attributed to
the Middle Paleolithic, and in particular, the signiicance of the proportions of different size
classes of lakes and waste products produced during the laking procedures most often
attributed to these industries.
We believed it is particularly relevant to explore whether the different size classes occur
in recurrent proportions or, on the contrary, are different – and can be differentiated –
according to the laking method and the properties of the raw material used. Are some
laking methods more “expensive” in terms of raw materials and do they generate
more waste products and small items? In other words, do the technological rules and
objectives of lake and blade manufacturing have an inluence on the quantities and
dimensions of artefacts and waste products? Should we interpret the proportions of
the different size categories (centimetric and millimetric) of the objects produced in
the same manner? How can a size analysis of a lithic assemblage, in conjunction with
a technological analysis of the lakes and cores, aid in the identiication of the laking
methods used?
In the irst part of this article, we present the counts of artefact dimension classes
obtained for the different experimental lake and blade manufacturing methods; these
being quantiied by method and raw material. We then present a irst comparison of the
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results obtained for each laking method to see if some lake or blade manufacturing
methods produce distinct percentages of size classes, including all object types.
METHODOLOGICAL REMARK
A calibrated sieving column that permits the quantiication of the size classes of
experimental laking sequences has already been used in the study of other experimental
lithic assemblages and archaeological assemblages (Lenoble 2005, Bertran et al 2006,
Sitzia et al. 2012) (Figure 1). It is useful to recall that the maximal dimensions of the
items studied (d) are greater than the mesh of the sieve (m) since they correspond to
the diagonal line of the quadrangular meshes through which the objects are sorted (d =
m√2). The size classes retained therefore include those objects whose largest dimension
on the orthogonal plane of the long axis – usually the maximum thickness – can pass
through the sieve.
Figure 1. Sieving
mesh sizes and size
classes of the objects
retrieved.
THE EXPERIMENTAL COLLECTION
Each of the 41 experimental lithic assemblages produced between 2005 and 2008 during
work sessions conducted in the framework of CNRS and Inrap research programs on
the Middle Paleolithic in south-western and northern France (Brenet et al. 2011). The
collection thus includes 36 experimental lake (Levallois and Discoid) and blade (Levallois
and volumetric) assemblages made with lint, and 6 lake (Discoid) assemblages made
with quartz and quartzite. These experiments were conducted according to a similar
protocol in which all of the lithic elements – regardless of their size, and including residual
cores, all lake types, chips and dust – were systematically retrieved for each experimental
test. Some of these experimental assemblages have already been used in studies of
technological, techno-economic and cognitive aspects of Middle Paleolithic assemblages
(Bourguignon et al. 2011; Brenet 2013; Brenet et al. 2013).
Each of the 41 experimental lithic assemblages was thus individually sorted in the column
of 6 sieves, and the items within each size class were irst counted per experimental test
(Figure 2).
The lithic items were then counted per size class for each of the 8 laking methods tested.
The objects in the 2 and 4 mm classes were grouped together to make them more visible
(Figure 3).
Figure 2.
Counts of the
dimensional classes
of 42 laking tests
(experimenters:
M. Brenet,
L. Bourguignon,
V. Mourre).
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Figure 3. Table of counts and percentages
of the size classes of artefacts for the
8 experimentally tested laking methods.
Figure 4. Comparisons of the percentages
of size classes for the 8 experimentally
tested laking methods.
Figure 5. Table of counts and percentages of the
size classes of artefacts greater than 7 mm for
the 8 experimentally tested laking methods.
Figure 6. Comparisons of the percentages
of size classes greater than 7 mm for the
8 experimentally tested laking methods.
Figure 7. Table of counts and percentages
of the two simpliied size classes of artefacts.
Figure 8. Comparison of the percentages
of items in the two simpliied size classes.
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Figure 9. Table of ratios between three
simpliied classes of Discoid laking and other
laking methods.
Figure 10. Ratios between three
simpliied classes of Discoid laking
and other laking methods.
SIZE COMPARISONS
The irst comparison of percentages was done with 6 simpliied size classes (Figures 3
and 4). We can irst see a great similarity in the smallest size classes of the non-discoid
laking sequences with lint, between 2.8 and 7 mm, comprising between 76 and 79% of
the experimental assemblages.
The Discoid sequences with lint and quartzite are distinct from this group since the same
classes of the smallest items comprise between 72.5 and 73.5% of the assemblages. To
more easily compare the size classes greater than 7 mm, we then produced the same type
of graph without including the smallest items, from 2.8 to 7 mm, and grouped the objects
greater than 44 mm (Figures 5 and 6).
In Figure 2, we more clearly distinguish the Discoid methods with lint and quartzite, for
which the items with dimensions between 7 and 14 mm comprise only 55 to 56%, while
for the other methods with lint, they always comprise more than 63% of the total number.
Finally, for the last comparison, we considered two simpliied size classes: items between
7 and 14 mm and items greater than 14 mm (Figures 7 and 8).
The differentiation between Discoid laking methods – whether with lint or quartzite –
and the other methods experimentally tested is even more signiicant here (Figure 8). We
observe that small items, less than 14 mm, are more numerous with the Levallois and
laminar methods (64 to 67%) than with the Discoid methods (55 to 56%). Inversely, items
more than 14 mm long are more numerous with the Discoid methods (44 to 45%) than with
the other Levallois or laminar methods used with lint (34 to 36%).
We also observe (Figures 4, 6 and 8) that the variations of proportions of the successive
size classes are less marked than with the Discoid method than with the others. The ratios
between three successive simpliied classes (A between 2.8 and 7 mm; B between 7 and
14 mm; C greater than 14 mm.) illustrate this differentiation between laking methods
(Figures 9 and 10).
CONCLUSIONS
We think that two main results of this comparative size analysis of different lithic laking
methods should be emphasized.
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First, we should note the large quantities, for all laking methods and all lithic material
types tested, of artefacts and waste products less than 14 mm, always comprising more
than 87% of the experimental assemblages. This clearly illustrates the importance of their
presence or absence in taphonomic and techno-economic interpretations of archaeological
assemblages. This preponderance of the ine fraction generated by the use of percussion
to work lithic materials – regardless of the method or lithic material– was noted in recent
research based on laking and shaping experiments with lint, quartz, quartzite and chert
(Bertran et al. 2012).
The other point we wish to emphasize is the distinction revealed by our experiments
between Discoid laking – with lint and quartzite – and other Levallois or laminar methods
with lint. In terms of proportions, the former generated fewer items less than 14 mm, and
more items above that limit. The variations between size classes were also less signiicant.
The preliminary results of this analysis therefore suggest that the methods and objectives
of differentiated laking methods – direct, freehand stone hammer percussion being
common to all of our tests – can generate speciic, and sometimes high, proportions of
some size classes of objects. The raw materials used in this analysis – lint, quartz and
quartzite – did not play a signiicant role in this differentiation.
In the context of the Middle Paleolithic industries tested here, it is the experiments involving
Discoid laking with lint and quartzite that showed the greatest differentiation from the
other lake or blade manufacturing methods with lint. Our results suggest that the
Discoid method always generates fewer small items. This could be a consequence of the
technical and volumetric rules associated with Discoid laking, which requires relatively
little preparation and maintenance of the striking platform and laking surfaces compared
to other laking methods that require greater rigour in the construction and reduction of
cores, such as the Levallois and volumetric laminar methods (Peresani 2003; Boëda, 1993,
Delagnes & Roppars 1996; Locht 2002).
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REFERENCES
Bertran P., Claud E., Lenoble A. Mason B., Vallin. L. (2006).
Composition granulométrique des assemblages lithiques,
application à l’étude taphonomique des sites paléolithique. Paléo.
18, 7-36.
Bertran P., Lenoble A., Todisco D., Desroziers P.M., Sorensen
M. (2012). Particle size distribution of lithic assemblages and
taphonomy of Palaeolithic sites. Journal of Archaeological Science.
39, 3148-3166.
Boëda É. (1993). Le débitage Discoïde et le débitage Levallois
récurrent centripète. Bulletin de la Société Préhsitorique
Française. 86 (6), 392-404.
Bourguignon L., Brenet M., Folgado M., Ortega I. (2011).
Aproximación tecno-económica del debitage Discoide de
puntas pseudo-Levallois: El aporte de la experimentación. In
La investigation experimental aplicada a la arqueología. Edited by
Morgado A., Baena Preysler J., Garcia Gonzalez D. Pp. 53-60.
Brenet M. (2013). Variabilité et signiication des productions au
Paléolithique moyen ancien. l’exemple de trois gisements de pleinair du Bergeracois (Dordogne, France). BAR International Series.
Oxford. N° 2548. 352 pp.
Brenet M., Bourguignon L., Folgado M., Ortega I. (2011).
Elaboración de un protocolo de experimentación lítica para la
comprensión del comportamiento técnico y tecno-económico
durante el Paleolítico medio. In La investigation experimental
aplicada a la arqueología. Edited by Morgado A., Baena Preysler J.,
Garcia Gonzalez D. Pp. 77-85.
Brenet M., Folgado M., Bourguignon L. (2013). Approche
expérimentale de la variabilité des industries du Paléolithique
moyen. L’intérêt d’évaluer les niveaux de compétence et
d’eficience des expérimentateurs. In Experimentación en
arqueología. Estudio y difusión del pasado. Edited by A. Palomo,
R. Piqué y Xavier Terradas. Sèrie Monogràica del MAC. Girona
2013. Pp. 177-182.
Delagnes A. et Roppars A. (dir.) (1996). Paléolithique moyen en
pays de Caux (Haute-Normandie) : Le Pucheuil, Étoutteville, deux
gisements de plein-air en milieu loessique. D.A.F. 56, Maison des
sciences de l’homme. Paris. 242 pp.
Lenoble A. (2005). Ruissellement et formation des sites
préhistoriques : référentiel actualiste et exemples d’application au
fossile. BAR International Series. Oxford. N°1363. 212 pp.
Locht J.-L. (2002). Le site de Bettencourt (Somme) : cinq occupations
paléolithiques au début de la dernière glaciation. Documents
d’Archéologie Française. 90. 176 pp.
Peresani M. (2003). Discoid Lithic Technology: Advances and
implications. BAR International Series. Oxford. N°1120. 275 pp.
Sitzia L., Bertran P., Boulogne S., Brenet M., Crassard R.,
Delagnes A., Frouin M., Hatte C., Jaubert J., Khalidi L., Messager
E., Mercier N., Meunier A., Peigné S., Queffelec A., Tribolo
C., Macchiarelli R. (2012). The Paleoenvironment and Lithic
Taphonomy of Shi’Bat Dihya 1, A Middle Paleolithic Site in Wadi
Surdud, Yemen. Geoarchaeology: An International Journal. 27 (6),
471–544.
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TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
05
SPECIALIST AND LEARNERS: SOLUTREAN
PEDUNCULATED POINTS AT EL HIGUERALGUARDIA CAVE (MÁLAGA, SPAIN)
Especialistas y aprendices: puntas de
pedúnculo y aletas solutrenses en la Cueva
del Higueral-Guardia (Málaga, España)
Concepción Torres Navas*, Estefanía Pérez Martín*
and Javier Baena Preysler *
*Autonomous University of Madrid-UAM. Department of Prehistory and Archaeology.
Campus Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
concepcion.torres@uam.es
estefania.perezm@estudiante.uam.es
javier.baena@uam.es
Abstract
Characteristic pedunculated points have traditionally been assigned to the Upper Solutrean period. Evidence
from the populations that inhabited thein El Higueral-Guardia Cave region indicate that this region was also
occupied during this chronocultural period.
In the irst excavation season in August 2012 at El Higueral-Guardia Cave (Málaga, Spain), a group of
pedunculated points was recovered in the upper levels of the Survey 2 area. Those Solutrean levels, moved
during previous illegal excavations, left a greatly reduced sample of undoubtedly signiicant types. We inally
obtained 20 lint preforms and blades that had been very carefully worked. Through analysis of diacritical
schemas and technical reading we found different levels of technological or technical expertise in their
manufacture. This circumstance led us to initiate an experimental approach to the technical and technological
factors that were involved in the pedunculated arrow heads chaine operatoire, and particularly in relation to
the knappers´ skills.
In this paper, we present a descriptive analysis of the morphological results of experiments produced by
several knappers through a strict experimental program, and also the correlation with different technological
skills in the inal products. The technical and morphological variations of the points do not contradict the
strategies employed by expert knappers in which recycling and re-using processes constitute an important
part of the lithic strategies as a whole.
Keywords: solutrean points, learning, knapping, Paleolithic, skill.
Resumen
Las características puntas de pedúnculo y aleta solutrenses forman parte del material lítico característico
que permite encuadrar en el Solutrense superior evolucionado a las poblaciones que las fabricaron y
habitaron el sur de la Península Ibérica en este periodo cronocultural.
De la primera campaña de excavación realizada mediante sondeo arqueológico en Agosto de 2012 en la
Cueva del Higueral-Guardia (Málaga, España), resultó un conjunto de puntas de pedúnculo y aletas en los
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
primeros niveles del área sondeada número 2. Niveles solutrenses que a priori se presentaron removidos
por actividades ajenas a la excavación y ofrecieron una muestra cuantitativamente reducida de un material
sin duda signiicativo. Actualmente conservamos casi una veintena de esbozos y puntas realizadas en sílex
que muestran una talla muy minuciosa. A través del análisis diacrítico de las piezas detectamos la presencia
de diversos niveles de destreza técnica en la elaboración de puntas de pedúnculo y aletas, un hecho que nos
condujo a profundizar experimentalmente acerca de la elaboración de las mismas.
En este trabajo pretendemos, no solo realizar una presentación de los datos obtenidos a través del protocolo
experimental desarrollado para la descripción analítica e interpretativa de los patrones formales que se
producen en el proceso tecnológico, sino además corroborar la existencia de diversidad técnica entre los
talladores de puntas de pedúnculo y aletas solutrenses. La variabilidad técnica y morfológica de las piezas
elaboradas por talladores “inexpertos” o aprendices no parece contradecirse con la elevada destreza de
talladores especializados que no solo dominan las técnicas de retoque por presión sino que además reutilizan
los soportes accidentados.
Palabras clave: puntas solutrenses, aprendizaje, talla lítica, Paleolitico, destreza.
AIMS AND METHODOLOGY
The sequence documented to date at El Higueral-Guardia Cave (Málaga, Spain) (Figure 1)
has conirmed a level of signiicantly altered Solutrean occupation in which blade products,
andaxes, scrapers, blade cores, and an assemblage of pedunculated points have been
found (Baena et al., 2011-2012; 2013; Torres et al., 2012).
Of the nearly 1500 items found at the Solutrean levels, the most outstanding feature of
the assemblage is the high proportion of lithic elements connected with the production of
bifacial points and preforms have been found in different stages of production classiied,
Figure 1.
Location of El
Higueral-Guardia
Cave (Málaga, Spain).
40
Figure 2.
Archaeological
examples of different
stages of the
pedunculated point
chaine operatoire
(El Higueral-Guardia
Cave).
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 3. Technical and technological level
of the experimental knappers and number
of experiments done by each one.
Figure 4. Reduction sequence of Solutrean
pedunculated points: standardization of stage
morphology.
as per Zilhão (1997), as: inished items with lat bifacial retouch in parallel bands; uninished
items with partial or non-existent retouch and bifacial knapping that placed the items at an
advanced stage of the elaboration process; and outlines with evidence of initial work that
was advanced enough to suggest the intended type of piece (Figure 2).
The high proportion of lithic material linked to the arrowheads led us to carry out a
thorough analysis of the assemblage from a technical and technological point of view, not
only with the aim of iguring out the elaboration process of these kind of tools but also
who participated in such activity, that is, the skill of the individuals who made these kinds
of tools. To achieve that, the data supplied to us by experimentation and the following
comparison with the archaeological material were essential. References such as (Gibaja
et al., 2012; Muñoz Ibáñez et al., 2012; Muñoz y Ripoll 2006), and recently Faus Terol
(2012), have provided important information about functional analysis of these points and
experimental recognition of the knapping process.
The experimental protocol was carried out by ten individuals with different levels of
experience/skill in the manufacture of pedunculated points. The whole group possessed
high knowledge related to the inal shape of the object to copy and, in general, only vague
technological notions relating to the elaboration process. Only two of the individuals knew
the tool elaboration process and the appropriate techniques on which each stage of the
process depended (the irst outline, the preform manufacture and the inal production)
(Figure 3).
We understood that the individuals without technical expertise were those that had never
been faced with the process of making pedunculated points nor any other process of
reduction bifacial knapping. For their part, the individuals with an initial technical level
possessed some experience in bifacial knapping, although they could not match the level
of the advanced or expert lithic knapping individuals. On the other hand, the technological
level of the individuals varied according to their knowledge of dabout the process of making
the points. The expert knapper thus demonstrated not only skilful handling of the knapping
tools at the process stage, but also of the appropriate raw material, and the change and
adaptation of the knapping techniques. His high knowledge of the operational chain in
the reduction process allowed him to adjust the replicas to the sequences deined by the
diacritical analysis of the archaeological objects. The experiments carried out by the other
knappers, on the other hand, showed their deiciencies and their technical/technological
ignorance.
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Figure 5.
Archaeological
example of a result
of a low-skill
knapper.
Figure 6. Expert knapper deinition of the Solutrean pedunculated point chaine operatoire.
The experimental protocol was carried out in two stages. In an initial stage, the expert
knapper conducted a series of supervised checks in order to select suitable blanks
for the second stage of the experiment, as well as the appropriate knapping tools for
bifacial percussion and pressure laking. In addition, as we have indicated previously, the
experiment was based on a previous study at a diacritical level of the Solutrean points
found at El Higueral-Guardia Cave, with which the expert made a theoretical assumption
about the correct knapping process that he had to replicate in the experiment to achieve
the speciic shape of these tools (Figure 4). The expert knapper knew the standardization
of Solutrean point morphology and carried out the technical process in distinct stages: a)
Pre-design of peduncle; b) Thinning of the distal part in lateral series; c) Coniguration of
peduncle; d) Coniguration of blades; e)Thinning of the peduncle for hafting the piece.
All the experimenters took part in the second stage of the experiment. The lint blanks
were subjected to previous heating treatment to improve their knapping qualities. (Díaz
et al., 2014). The initial lakes came from cores with little manufacturing process, using
direct percussion with hard hammerstones and variable morphology, such as, for example,
blanks balanced on both faces were itted together on the inal object; thicker and irregular
lakes far from the inal object shape turned out less worthwhile in the reduction process,
as did and excessively thin blanks and those without possibilities because of their limited
dimensions. The choice between one or another blank would be one of the important
aspects to be kept in mind in our comparative analysis with the Solutrean archaeological
material.
MANUFACTURE OF THE PEDUNCULATED POINTS
The following aspects of a high technical level were established as markers for the
experimental phase: skill in the technique by pressure combined with control of the
abrasion to prepare platforms and get the maximum bifacial thinning; the invasive lakes
in pressure series to achieve symmetry and thinning as well as balance in the proile.
We considered the perpendicular retouch to make the base thinner as well as the total
elaboration of the peduncles (dificult elements made in the last stage) as markers of high
skill. In contrast, we deined the following aspects as markers of low technical skill: the
limited thinning ability by pressure technique, the unsuitable thickness of the blank for the
manufacture of the peduncles, and the asymmetry of the proile. Finally, we highlighted as
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Figure 7.
Example of breakage
accident from a
learner due to a
poor selection
of hamerstone/
retoucher.
technological markers of low skill: poor selection of preforms and the disorganized series
of removals (Figure 5).
In the experimental development of the expert and the learners the selection of the blanks
to manufacture points, the technical procedures in different stages, as well as the record
of mistakes/solutions and the inal product were kept in mind.
THE EXAMPLE OF THE SPECIALIST KNAPPER
In the Solutrean point manufacturing process, the specialist knapper (Javier Baena)
carried out a suitable selection of raw material regarding quality and viability, that is, the
selected blank was put against the inal shape of the tool to begin to make a balanced
preform in proile to optimize the effort needed in the bifacial reduction process. As far
as technological development is concerned, the specialist began with a thinning stage
with a direct percussion (sandstone), technique that balanced the proile and reduced the
volume needed to be pressured later. At the end of this stage, the knapper conigured the
peduncles and a thinning stage of the distal part was begun through a lateral series of
pressure, followed by the bifacial reduction through the lateral series. After coniguring
the blades, the process was inished with retouches that corrected the lateral curvature of
the point and prepared the peduncle for hafting (Figure 6).
During the process of manufacturing the points, it was signiicant that the specialist
knapper showed skill in repairing the mistakes, which demonstrated his high knapping
ability.
THE EXAMPLE OF THE LEARNER KNAPPER
The limitations of the inexperienced or learning knapper could be seen from the initial stage
of selection of blanks. The technical limitations of the knapper for the bifacial reduction
led the inexperienced knapper to choose the blanks that seem “advanced”, that is, a priori
entailed less effort for the thinning stage. Nevertheless, the bifacial reduction was not a
retouch of a scraper that needed thinning. The manufacture of the tool was simpliied and
transformed by a decrease in the outline as cutback. In other cases, the limitations turned
into inappropriate adaptation of the blank/hammerstone that resulted in ed the breaking
of the blank (Figure 7) in the initial stages of the reduction process.
The constant failures in the initial stages of the experimentation did not contribute to suitable
archaeological material where the most advanced stages of pressure manufacturing
techniques, useful as comparative models for the archaeological cases. The limitations of
the experimental individuals had been foreseen as greater in the case of those less skilled
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Figure 8.
Some examples
of inal products
produced by
learners.
in the manufacture of arrowheads
at El Higueral-Guardia Cave.
Thus, we considered introducing
a variation in the experimental
protocol where the specialist
knapper prepared the blanks
(thinning with hard hammerstone)
and then the learners continued
working the piece to register how
the technical process of pressure
progressed. In these cases, the
learners managed to continue
with the work of thinning by
pressure, although overall they
had dificulties in the preparation
of platforms, showing a limited
ability to in balancing the edges since they could not control the pressure gesture. They
managed to shape the morphology of the distal part and sometimes the peduncles. We
had examples in which the learner individual failed to create the second peduncle because
of thinning of the place where pressure was applied (Figure 8).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In general, the manufacturing process of Solutrean points in the occupation moments
of El Higueral-Guardia Cave follows an almost standardized process in which, once the
starting blank was selected, a process of bifacial reduction was initiated which achieved
the creation of an outline in which the inal shape of the piece could be assumed to it.
In this irst stage, direct percussion was employed with a soft hammerstone (sandstone),
generating lakes with lat morphology that not only reduced the blank, but also balanced
it in the proile. The percussion was made on both sides and alternately.
The experiments carried out demonstrated that is fundamental to control the location of
the cutting edge (proile) in bifacial work, because if there is no balance, there is a high risk
of breakage (Baena 1998). At the same time, it is also essential to follow a strict sequence
of steps the point manufacture to achieve a successfully result. The irst stage of direct
percussion with a sandstone/wood hammerstone inishes when the piece is not only
balanced, but also has considerable thinning in order to proceed to a change of technique.
The second stage thus begins with a combined process of pressure with deer antler and
occasional direct percussion with billet (wood or antler). The sandstone will be put behind
the piece for scraping to support the pressure process. Only the expert knapper could
match the same skills as tthe Solutrean knappers that we analysed, so although some
archaeological pedunculated points show limitations, these are by nature technologically
related to the way they organized the work and not to technical aspects, as opposed to
the learners using our experimental protocol, who not only lacked technological skills,
but also had technical shorfalls. On the other hand, it is signiicant that not following the
established archaeological patterns is consistent with with choosing the worst blanks as
raw material, which leads us to think that the individuals who were being initiated to the
manufacturing process may have had a limited access to a quality raw material.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was carried out as part of Research Proyect HAR-48784-C3-3-P-2, inanced by
the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad.
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Thanks to the management of the archaeological excavation, to each participant who
collaborated in the ieldwork, and to the G40 group of Priego de Córdoba. Equally, to
the support provided from the Consejería de Cultura de la Junta de Andalucía with the
approval of Proyecto Kuretes. Primeras ocupaciones humanas, evolución paleoecológica, y
climática del Cuarternario de las Béticas occidentales (Málaga-Cádiz) of which this work is a
part, and to the Council of Cortes de la Frontera (Málaga). Especially to the students of the
UAM Laboratory of Prehistory for their collaboration in the experiment: Sara Díaz, Paloma
de la Sota, Foivos Michos, Daniel Martínez and Rosalía Pérez.
REFERENCES
Baena Preysler J (1998). Tecnología Lítica Experimental:
Introducción a la talla de utillaje prehistórico. BAR International
Series.
Baena Preysler J., Morgado, A., y Lozano, J.A (2011-12).
Proyecto KURETES. Primeras ocupaciones humanas, evolución
paleoecológica y climática del Cuaternario de las Béticas
occidentales (Serranía de Ronda). Cuadernos de Prehistoria y
Arqueología. Homenaje a Manuel Bendala. 37-38, 121-138.
Baena Preysler J., Morgado, A., Lozano, J.A., Torres Navas C.,
Alcalá Ortiz A., Bermúdez Cano R., Bermúdez Jiménez, F., y
Ruiz-Ruano Cobo F (2013). Titanes en el Complejo Motillas: la
secuencia del Pleistoceno Superior de la Cueva del HigueralGuardia en las Béticas Occidentales (Proyecto Kuretes). Menga,
Revista de Prehistoria de Andalucía. 3, 107-117.
Díaz Pérez, S., de la Sota, P., y Michos- Rammos, F (2014).
Bring out the best in you: Observations of Heat Treatment on
Flint from Central System of the Iberian Peninsula, Abstracts.
4th International Experimental Archaeology Conference.8-11 May
2014, Burgos (Spain).
Gibaja Bao J. F., Muñoz Ibáñez, F. J., Gutiérrez, C., Márquez, B.,
Martín, I (2012). Las puntas solutrenses: de la tipología a los
estudios funcionales. Espacio, Tiempo y Forma. Serie I, Nueva
época. Prehistoria y Arqueología. 5, 491-506.
Muñoz Ibáñez, F. J. y Ripoll, S. (2006). Las primeras evidencias
de arcos en Europa: parámetros de diseño y construcción. Zona
arqueológica. 7 (1), 463-472.
Muñoz Ibáñez, FJ., Márquez Mora, B., y Ripoll López S (2012).
La punta de aletas y pedúnculo del solutrense extracantábrico:
de los “dimonis” al arco. Espacio, Tiempo y Forma. Serie I, Nueva
época. Prehistoria y Arqueología. 5, 477-489.
Torres Navas, C., Baena Preysler J., Morgado, A., Lozano, J.A.
y Alcaraz, M (2012). Un Solutrense Expoliado en la Béticas
Occidentales: La Cueva del Higueral-Guardia (Málaga). Espacio,
Tiempo y Forma. Serie I, Nueva época. Prehistoria y Arqueología.
5, 57-58.
Zilhão J.: (1997). O Paleolítico Superior da Estremadura
Portuguesa. 2 vols. Colibrí. Lisboa.
Faus Terol, E (2012). La tecnología solutrense: aproximación
experimental a la fabricación de la punta de aletas y pedúnculo
y de la punta escotada de retoque abrupto o de muesca
mediterránea. Criterios para el reconocimiento de las técnicas
de talla de las puntas de aletas y pedúnculo. Espacio, Tiempo y
Forma. Serie I, Nueva época. Prehistoria y Arqueología. 5, 469-476.
45
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
06
THE SOLUTREAN SHOULDERED POINT
WITH ABRUPT RETOUCH: HAFTING
AND PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Puntas de muesca solutrenses de retoque
abrupto: sistemas de enmangue y propulsión
Francisco Javier Muñoz Ibáñez*, Juan Antonio Marín de Espinosa
Sánchez**, Belén Márquez Mora***, Ignacio Martín Lerma****
y Javier Síntes Peláez*****
*Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología. Facultad de Geografía e Historia. Universidad
Nacional de Educación a Distancia.
Ciudad Universitaria. Paseo Senda del Rey 7. E-28040 Madrid.
fjmunoz@geo.uned.es.
**Sílex. Arqueología y Difusión del Patrimonio S.L.
info@tallarsilex.com
***Museo Arqueológico Regional. Plaza de las Bernardas s/n.
E-28801-Alcalá de Henares (Madrid).
belen.marquez@madrid.org
****Departamento de Prehistoria, Arqueología, Historia Antigua, Historia Medieval
y Ciencias y Técnicas Historiográicas. Facultad de Letras. Universidad de Murcia.
Campus de la Merced Calle Santo Cristo 1. E-30001 Murcia.
ignacio.martin@um.es
*****Advisor to the Environment and Territorial Planning Department, Madrid Regional
Government, and Madrid Hunting Federation.
yutada@telefónica.net
Abstract
The Solutrean shouldered point with abrupt retouch is one of the most characteristic hunting tools at the
end of Solutrean period in the outer-Cantabric area. Its morphological and volumetric variability permitted
a large variety of hafts with the intention of creating composed projectiles. For that reason, our main aim is
to carry out an experimental programme to ind out which hafting systems are most effective for the hunting
of medium sized ungulates. In order to achieve this, some replicas of shouldered points with abrupt retouch
have been attached with birch tar and, in some cases, strengthened by means of gut in hafts of different
lengths and diameters in order to create arrows with one, two or three shouldered points. These arrows were
shot by three different types of bows at two deer previously taken down in order to test their effectiveness. The
results have enabled us to establish four basic models of hafting shouldered points, and to test their hunting
eficiency and perfect ballistic behaviour to be mounted on arrow shafts.
Keywords: solutrean shouldered point with abrupt retouch, Upper Evolved Solutrean, hafting, bow and
arrow, hunting, ballistic.
Resumen
La punta de muesca de retoque abrupto es uno de los elementos más característicos del instrumental
cinegético del inal del Solutrense en la región extracantábrica. Su variabilidad morfológica y volumétrica
permite una importante diversidad de posibilidades de enmangue para crear proyectiles compuestos,
por lo que llevamos a cabo un programa experimental para establecer qué sistemas de engaste son los
más efectivos para la caza de ungulados de talla media. Para ello, se han realizado réplicas de puntas de
47
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
muesca de retoque abrupto que se han ijado con brea de abedul y en algunos casos con refuerzo de tripa
en astiles de diferentes longitudes y diámetros para crear lechas con una, dos y tres puntas. Para testar
su eicacia estas lechas fueron disparadas con tres tipos de arcos sobre dos gamos previamente abatidos
Los resultados obtenidos han permitido establecer cuatro modelos básicos de enmangue de las puntas de
muesca, corroborar su eicacia cinegética y su perfecto comportamiento balístico para ser montadas en
astiles de lecha.
Palabras clave: punta de muesca de retoque abrupto, Solutrense superior evolucionado, enmangue, arco
y lecha, caza, balística.
INTRODUCTION
The shouldered point with abrupt retouch (SP) is one of the most characteristic components
of the hunting tool kit used in the inal Solutrean of the outer-Cantabric area. It was irst
cited in 1912 when H. Breuil presented the systematization of the Upper Paleolithic at the
Congress of Geneva (Breuil, 1913), which he modelled on the basis of an item from the
collection of Federico de Motos from the Cueva de Ambrosio site (Vélez Blanco, Almería,
Spain). These points were manufactured from blades. They presented an abrupt, direct and
marginal retouch on the edge opposite the notch, which usually did not cover the whole
cutting edge. Some notch edges had semi-abrupt or simple retouch, others direct and
partial. The notch was formed by abrupt retouch with several series of impacts, (Muñoz,
2000), (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Solutrean
shouldered points
with abrupt retouch
knapped for the
experimental
programmme. 1-5:
Points for arrows
with 3 blades. 6-9:
Points for arrows
with 2 blades. 10-15:
Points for arrows
with 1 blade.
This projectile irst appeared during the Upper Solutrean and at the same time, more tools
were elaborated from small blades. The SP became the most important projectile in the
Valencia area. In the meantime, in the rest of the outer-Cantabric area, barbed and tanged
points were the most abundant elements. This was the most characteristic element of
the Evolved Solutrean in all regions, and it has been found more frequently than any other
projectile from the Solutrean Group. This transformation of hunting tools could be due to
the increased eficiency of this type of points, related to the use of composite elements and
the consolidation and improvement of new methods of propulsion (the bow).
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
The morphological and volumetric variability of the SP allowed a
priori for a considerable range of handle possibilities for the creation
of composite projectiles. Therefore we proposed an experimental
programme in order to deine which assembly methods were the most
effective for the purpose of hunting medium-sized ungulates.
We knapped a total of 45 lint SP, all replicas of archaeological artefacts
found in the Upper Solutrean and Evolved Upper Solutrean levels of the
Cueva de Ambrosio, (Figure 1). The experimental points were slightly
shorter, broader, thicker and therefore also heavier than the arithmetic
mean of those from Cova del Parpalló (Valencia) and Cueva de Ambrosio
(Almería), the only sites with signiicant lithic collections that could be used
for a diagnostic statistical comparison. Moreover, the angle of the point was
slightly greater than the one found in the archaeological artefacts, (Figure
2). We decided to create points which were less morphologically suitable in
order to correctly probe their use in hunting.
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 2.
Measurements
of the Solutrean
shouldered points
with abrupt retouch.
Re: Replicas. A&P:
Ambrosio and
Parpalló points. 1
SP: Points for arrows
with 1 blade. 2 SP:
Points for arrows
with 2 blades. 3 SP:
Points for arrows
with 3 blades.
These points were attached to 25 cedar, oak and beech arrow hafts. Their diameter
measured between 9 and 10 mm and their length between 66 and 90.6 mm. Vulture
feathers were attached to the arrow hafts using lamb gut. Each arrow type had 2 or 3
stabilizers, placed at regular distances from one another. We decided to use rather large
feathers (13.12 cm) and a high letching angle (42.36º). This reduced the arrow speed but
assured straight light with great directional stability (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Technical
data of the arrow
used in the
experiment.
In order to attach the points to the shafts we deined 7 basic models, some with small
variations, based on the morphology of arrowheads which are nowadays used in archery
hunting, and experimental studies with prehistoric bows, ballistics and projectiles,
(Figure 4):
TYPE 1: Arrows with three blades on one end, symmetrically x-shaped (current hunting
archery and Muñoz, 2000).
TYPE 2: Arrows with two blades on one end, symmetrically x-shaped (current hunting
archery and Muñoz, 2000).
TYPE 3a: Arrows with three blades in the shaft near the end, symmetrically x-shaped
(current hunting archery).
TYPE 3b: Arrows with three blades in the shaft near the end, asymmetrically x-shaped
(current hunting archery).
TYPE 4a: Arrows with two blades in the shaft near the end, symmetrically x-shaped in the
style of backed blades (current hunting archery; Pétillon et al., 2011 and Taylor, 2012).
TYPE 4b: Arrows with two blades in the shaft near the end, asymmetrically x-shaped in the
style of backed blades (current hunting archery; Pétillon et al., 2011 and Taylor, 2012).
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
TYPE 5a: Arrows with a single tip at the distal end, with the notch facing outwards and the
opposite edge partially incorporated into the shaft (Soriano, 1998).
TYPE 5b: Arrows with a single tip at the distal end, with the notch facing outwards and the
opposite edge completely incorporated into the shaft (Soriano, 1998).
TYPE 6: Arrows with a single tip at the distal end, with the notch facing outwards (Yaroshevich,
2012).
TYPE 7: Arrows with a single tip at the distal end, with the notch facing inwards (Geneste
and Plisson, 1989).
To insert the points, a groove was made in the shaft’s lateral side in order to insert the
edge opposite to the notch (TYPES 1-5), or at the distal end in order to insert the notch
(TYPES 6-7). The points were fastened with birch tar and, for at least one arrow of each
type, lamb gut in order to make it more resistant. In the same manner, at least one arrow
of type 3 and 4 which ended in a point was hardened using ire, (Figure 4).
The arrows were shot using three types of bows: two simple laminated bows of 40 and 50
lb and another simple bow made of a single piece of elm wood weighing 40 lb, which was
a replica of the Holmegaard bow (Rausing, 1967). Shooting was always at a distance of 8
m. In order to recreate the real hunting conditions as accurately as possible, two recently
killed deer were hung from a frame. One of them was an infant specimen of 22 kg with
an irreversible pathology, shot with a pulley bow and an arrow with a metal arrowhead.
The other one was an adult male specimen of 45 kg, shot with a irearm during selective
population control. In total 62 launches were made (Figure 5).
Figure 4. Proposed
hafting systems
(1-7) and their
implementation (A).
CONCLUSIONS
In spite of the great variety of hafting types used for these points, in order to create simple
and composite projectiles, the experiment has enabled us to restrict the possible mounting
models of SP in arrow shafts.
Type 1 and 2 are not functionally
viable options, as the projectiles
placed on the distal end do not
form a well-deined conical point.
Therefore the arrows bounced off
the target upon impact, (Figure
5). The theoretical hafting system
proposed by Muñoz (2000) would
not be plausible. Types 3a and 3b
were only effective when relatively
strong bows were used, from 50
lb and up, (Figure 5). Although
arrow with a strength similar to 50
lb may have existed at the end of
the Solutrean, similar examples
are more common only from the
Mesolithic onwards (Muñoz and
Ripoll, 2006). For this reason we
decided to discard this model.
Types 4a and 4b (without additional
gut reinforcement), 5a and 5b
showed good ballistic performance
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
and good penetrating capacity
(Figure 5). However, upon impact,
the points were lost relatively
easily, staying behind inside the
animal. For type 4 this was due to
the lack of gut reinforcement. As
for type 5, the point experienced
a slight inclination towards the
exterior side of the cutting edge of
the notch on impact, the weakest
point of the hafting. In spite of being reinforced, the collision force caused the point to
become separated from the shaft. These hafting systems do not match the data in the
archaeological record: from the 707 analysed PM from Cova del Parpalló and Cueva de
Ambrosio, 597 were fractured, of which more than 1/3 were impact fractures (Muñoz,
2000).
Figure 5. Eficiency of
the shots carried out
with different types
of arrows.
Therefore, types 4a (with gut reinforcement on the hafting), 6 and 7 would be ideal for
correct hunting use of the SP. They best reproduced the use marks found on archaeological
material and also represented the best penetration (Figure 5). Type 4 needed to use small
points with a straight or slightly curved edge opposite the notch. Types 6 and 7 could
make use of bigger examples, using points with a rectilineal border opposite the notch
for type 6 and a curved border opposite the notch for type 7. A gradual reduction in the
size of the points can be observed moving through the Solutrean sequence towards the
end of this technocomplex. Also, there are more examples with two rectilineal edges
and a lengthened triangular morphology (Muñoz, 2000). Therefore, types 6 and 7 would
be the irst to appear in the Upper Solutrean, being gradually replaced by type 4a. This
morphology would be similar to the composite projectiles formed by backed blades which
emerged in the Magdalenian.
This experimental programme, which is still running, will be completed by a use-wear
analysis of the replicas and their correlation with the archaeological material.
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
REFERENCES
Breuil, H. (1913). Les subdivisions du Paléolithique supérieur
et leur signiication. In Congrés International d’Anthropologie et
d’Archéologie Préhistoriques. Compte rendu de la XIVéme session:
165-238, Genéve, 1912. Ginebra. (2ª ed. 1937).
Geneste, J.M. y Plisson, H. (1989). Analyse technologique des
pointes à cran solutréennes du Placard (Charente), du Fourneau
du Diable, du Pech de la Boissiere et de Combe-Saunière
(Dordogne). Paleo. 1, 65-106.
Muñoz, F.J. (2000). Las puntas ligeras de proyectil del Solutrense
Extracantábrico. Serie Aula Abierta. UNED. Madrid. 357 pp.
Muñoz, F.J., Márquez, B. y Ripoll, S. (2012). La punta de aletas y
pedúnculo del Solutrense extracantábrico: de los “dimonis” al
arco. Espacio, Tiempo y Forma. Serie I. Nueva Época. 5, 477-489.
Muñoz, F.J. y Ripoll, S. (2006). Las primeras evidencias de
arcos en Europa: parámetros de diseño y construcción. Zona
Arqueológica. 7 (1), 463-472.
52
Pétillon, J.M.; Bignon, O.; Bodu, P.; Cattelain, P.; Debout, G.;
Langlais, M., Laroulandie, V., Plisson, H. y Valentin, B. (2011).
Hard core and cutting edge: experimental manufacture and
use of Magdalenian composite projectile tips. Journal of
Archaeological Science. 38, 1266-1283.
Rausing, G. (1967). The bow, some notes on its origins and
development. Acta Archaeologica. Lundensia. Papers of the Lunds
Universitets Historiska Museum. Series In 8 (6) Bonn, Allemagne
et Lund, Suede. 189 pp.
Soriano, S. (1998): Les microgravettes du Périgordien de Rabier
à Lanquais (Dordogne): analyse technologique fonctionnelle.
Gallia préhistoire. 40, 75-94.
Taylor, A. (2012): Armatures et pièces à dos du Magdalénien
supérieur de La Madeleine (Tursac, Dordogne), nouvelles
données de la technologie lithique. Paleo. 23, 277-312.
Yaroshevich, A. (2012): Experimentally obtained examples of
projectile damage: cases of similar fracture types on microlithic
tips and side elements. Bulgarian e-Journal of Archaeology. 1,
1-12.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
Technical and
technological
experimentation,
Postpaleolithic
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07
MAKING SICKLES: BLADE INDUSTRY
AND HER PRODUCTIVITY IN DIFFERENT
TYPES OF SICKLES
Fabricando hoces: Industria laminar y su
productividad en distintos tipos de hoces
Víctor Lamas*, Daniel Martínez*
*Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
victor_vkas@hotmail.com
victor.lamas@titulado.uam.es
Abstract
In different parts of the world throughout the Neolithic and in later stages of prehistory, and lithic elements
used as sickle elements have been found. Today, sickle elements found at archaeological sites can be
veriied as such by traceological analysis and its form of use can largely be deduced through ethnographic
comparison or experimental testing. In this particular case, we used archaeological experimentation to
ascertain the productivity of these elements according to their morphology. In our case we didn´t entirely
focus on the archaeological recreation of certain sickle material records. Instead, we wanted to recreate
“ideal” morphologies, also taking into account the archaeological basis in order to be able to differentiate
between the different shapes which could be present in these tools. Our inal purpose was to establish a
comparative framework between different sickles to check different levels of eficiency or different uses for
every morphological type.
Keywords: sickle, lithic industries, blade, Neolithic, harvest.
Resumen
Durante todo el neolítico, así como en etapas más recientes de la prehistoria, y en diversas partes del
mundo, encontramos elementos líticos que han podido ser empleados como elementos de hoz. Hoy en día,
los elementos de hoz encontrados en yacimientos pueden ser veriicados como tales mediante análisis
traceológicos y se puede inferir, en gran parte, su forma de uso, mediante la comparación etnográica o
mediante la contrastación experimental. En este caso recurrimos a la experimentación arqueológica como
forma de aproximación a la productividad de éstos elementos, atendiendo a su morfología. En nuestro caso
no nos centraremos tanto en la recreación arqueológica de determinadas hoces del registro material, en
cambio, nos interesa recrear morfologías “ideales”, pero con base arqueológica, para poder establecer
diferencias entre las distintas hechuras que pueden presentar estas herramientas. Estableceremos así un
marco comparativo entre las distintas hoces desde el que poder comprobar niveles de eicacia o bien usos
distintos para cada morfología.
Palabras clave: hoz, industria lítica, lámina, Neolítico, siega.
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SICKLE DEVELOPMENT
Wood is a very rarely preserved material in the archaeological record. On the Iberian
Peninsula, the most representative case of this is undoubtedly the La Draga site (Banyoles,
Catalonia) (Palomo et al, 2011). However, at almost all the archaeological sites the use of
this material as part of a composite tool has to be inferred from its archaeological study.
The manufacture of these sickles intended to show “ideal” models, not archaeologically
accurate recreations. Our inal goal was to test the effectiveness (proiciency) of these
models of productivity, and also to encourage hypothesize about how they could be used
and the kind of work they had been manufactured for, and then, how this could be applied
to archaeological remains. As noted above, experiments have been conducted previously
with different types of sickles, so the present experiment is intended to be a new source of
data from which results can be compared.
In our case, sickle elements wer manufactured with Miocene lint, obtained from an area
around the Neolithic site of Casa Montero (Madrid, Spain) (Consuegra et al., 2003). This
nodule was previously shaped in such a way that we could irstly obtain a homogeneous
core, and then use this as a starting point for industrial production to an initial item “on
point”. We used lint blades with dimensions not more than 12 cm and not less than 10 cm
long and 3 cm wide. These items were obtained by direct percussion with a soft hammer
(Buxus sempervirens).
In this process we selected pieces of lint with little
or no irregularities on at least one of its edges which
would be used as the active edge, selected for inding
archaeological examples. We have not selected any
microlithic element, in spite of the examaples that
we can ind in different sites (Domingo, 2005). Also
we selected different types of wood to produce the
desired morphologies. We manufactured a total
of ive sickles which were numbered for better
management of the experiment (S1, S2, S3, S4, and
S5). Three of them were handle-itted with blades
(S2, S3 and S4), (Figure 1.1; 1.1; 1.3) at angles less
than 90° to straight grip and placed in the mesial part
of the stem, into slots of 3x1 cm, with an approximate
depth of 3 cm. Furthermore, two of these three sickles
(S3 and S4), (Figure 1.4; 1.5) had in th a transverse
branch in their distal region that would be relevant
in experimentation. This morphology was inspired by
a sickle made of antler found at the site of Costamar
de Cabanes (Alicante, Valencia) (Flors et al., 2012).
(Figure 2).
Figure 1. Angle of
sickle used in this
experimentation.
Figure 2. Comparison
between the horn
sickle from the
Costamar site (left)
(Gibaja, 2012) and
S3 used in the trial
(right).
56
Another tool was manufactured with a piece of handle-itted lint in a 90° angle relative to
the rod, which was also straight, (Figure 1.4). This model had been previously been recorded
elsewhere in Europe, like the sickle of Stenild (Monteagudo, 1956). Finally, in another of
the lints three sheets were inserted, parallel handle-itted to the curved wooden stick (S1)
(Figure 1.5). The materials used in the handles were made of different woods: S1 (Platanus
orientalis), S2 (Quercus robur), S3 (Platanus orientalis) S4 (Sambucus nigra) and S5 (Pinus
pinaster). The selection was made on a archeological examples in the cases os S2, S4 and
S5. In other cases, wood was chosen proximity to obtain. The handle attachment was done
with rabbit glue, a good and affordable natural adhesive for Neolithic societies and later
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
stages. As additional reinforcement, sheep gut was
used because it provides good grip when dry, due to
the contraction of the material used. Note that the
blades strung on sickles were not retouched in any
of the cases.
EXPERIMENTATION
The protocol followed during experimentation
sought to calculate the time spent harvesting with
the different sickles. This would initially show us
the morphological type that would be more effective
for harvesting in the shortest time possible, on the
premise that shorter labor implies greater eficiency.
However, this assumption is not entirely correct if we
refer to the functionality of these tools. In fact, each
morphology may have different nuances with respect
to harvesting. As indicated by (Ibañez et al., 2008),
harvesting can be done in several ways: cutting the
stalk at ground level, cutting the middle part of the
stalk and the exclusive collection of the spike and
grain. In the latter case, we could be talking about
grain collection with greater inesse. However, we
took into account other variables such as the density
of plants per m² that we could control, which averaged
approximately 35/40 pl / m² (plant per m²). In this
case, the species chosen for the harvest were wild
grasses (wild oats) because of ease of access during
the experiment and the fact that these species would
have been harvested at a time when the stems were
not yet dry in April. The variety of individuals who performed the experiments was partly
remedied by the number of individuals (11) who took the test, who showed similar results,
albeit with some exceptions.
The sole movements which had to be performed were previously explained to each of
the experimenters. The cutting directions with sickles S1 and S5 were towards the
experimenter, while cuts with sickles S2, S3 and S4 were away from experimenter. Although
other movements were also worth testing, they proved too forced. (Figure 3). We thought
it important to monitor the time during the entire harvest of 1 m², without pausing during
the experiment.
Figure 3. Sequences
movement of
sickle used in this
experiment.
Figure 4. Graph
showing the average
harvest time for 1
m2 for each type of
sickle.
RESULTS
Effectiveness vs eficiency
The aim was to observe what kind of sickle was more effective, i.e. to test a simple
question: performing the indicated movements, what sickle could reap the largest area in
the shortest possible time? However, we should not confuse eficiency with effectiveness
or ignore the fact that “less effective” sickles could have been employed in a different kind
of work. The act of performing a chain of more complex gestures when we used this tool
indicated different objectives. As noted earlier, the fact that a harvesting movement of precut stalks was made could explain the greater care when picking the grain, and the plant
species containing the grain must be collected more delicately to lose the least possible
57
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
amount. Eficiency is therefore more dificult to prove
in these cases that the effectiveness, but we can
certainly make observations on the greater or lesser
eficiency for either job.
The graph of the experiments (Figure 4) shows
that the least effective sickles proved to be so
in both aspects with the harvesting movement
used. However, despite being unable to prove their
eficiency, we can say that they are more suitable for
performing more careful work and with more time
required for collection. It also seems signiicant that
the time employed with the sickles where no such
gesture was performed was quite close in terms of
eficiency.
Figure 5.
Fragmentation by
bending of the blades
during harvesting.
Problems of the harvesting process
The most common problems during harvesting were cuts by experimenters on their index
ingers (remedied by using thimbles), and also breakage by passing the lexure threshold
of the lithic elements and the loss of lithic elements due to poor gripping of the handle.
We found green luster on some of the edges, but the total harvesting time per sickle was
not large. Curved edges can be observed in areas where there was greater abrasion.
The major problems encountered were related to sickles with obliquely blades. S3 had a
fragmented blade and S4 was detached from the haft. In both cases the problem arose from
poor hafting: in S3, the blade was hafted in the less robust distal area. The fragmentation
of this blade is reminiscent of the item found at Draga.
The case of blade S4 was probably due to dilatation of the wood. Misuse and poor hafting
cause the fragmentation of blade S5 (Figure 5). Failure to retouch in the hafted zone of
this blade weakened it and made it unable to withstand the pressure of one of the cuts.
We can deduce that the movement made by this blade was not a cutting motion, if not
more pressure to the edge, which is why the lake is fragmented. The conclusion is that
the blades were probably more robust and blunt when hafted, hence the retouch of these
elements in the parts inserted in the handle.
CONCLUSIONS
The movements performed with different types of sickles deinitely leave traces of usewear in different directions. Traceological study ies of the stigmata should reveal similar
movements to those observed experimentally. The different types of media must be taken
into account when analyzing artefacts, particularly in traceological studies.
The existence of specialized sickles for speciic types of crop can be contrasted with
palynological studies. Speciically, sickles with some kind of appendix were probably used
on crops with which there was a risk of losing the essential part of the tool during the
harvest.
The data from this experiment can be compared with other experiments and archaeological
examples to infer the harvesting time and the area harvested more accurately. The problem
is to control the parameters, particularly the amount of pl/m and the moisture content.
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Javier Baena for all his support for this work and his suggestions for its
improvement. We want to thank all the Prehistory Department at the UAM that provided
us both professional and personal support, and Felipe Cuartero for his suggestions and
advice.
This study was carried out as part of Reserch Project HAR-48784- c3-3-p-2 ¿Cómo,
quién y dónde?: Variabilidad de comportamientos en la captacion y transformacion de los
recursos liticos dentro de grupos neandertales, inanced by the ministerio de economía y
competitividad.
REFERENCES
Consuegra, S.; Gallego, Mª.M., Castañeda, N. (2004). Minería
Neolítica de sílex de Casa Montero (Vicálvaro, Madrid). Trabajos
de Prehistoria. 61 (2), 127-140.
Domingo Martínez, R. (2005). La funcionalidad de los microlitos
geométricos. Bases experimentales para su estudio. Universidad
de Zaragoza. 113 pp.
Flors, E; Gibaja, J.F., Ibañez, J.J., Salazar, D. (2012). An antler
sickle from the Neolithic site of Costamar at Cabanes (Castellón).
Antiquity. 86/332.
Gibaja, J.F; Ibañez, J.J., Cabanilles, J (2010). Análisis funcional
de piezas con lustre neolíticas de la Cova de l’Or (Beniarrés,
Alicante) y la Cova de la Sarsa (Bocairent, Valencia). Archivo de
Prehistoria Levantina. XXVIII, 91-106.
Ibañez, J.J., González, J.E., Gibaja, J.F., Rodríguez, A., Márquez,
B. Gassin, B., Clemente, I. (2008). Harvesting in the Neolithic:
characteristics and spread of early agriculture in the Iberian
peninsula. In Prehistoric technology 40 years later: functional
analysis and the Russian legacy. Edited by L. Longo and N.
Skakun. BAR International Series 1783. Oxford. Pp. 183–95.
Archaeopress.
Monteagudo, L. (1956). Hoces de sílex prehistóricas. Revista del
Archivo, Biblioteca y Museo de Madrid, LXII (2), 457-531.
Palomo, A., Gibaja, J.F., Piqué, R., Bosch, A., Chinchilla, A.,
Tarrús, J. (2011). Harvesting cereals and other plants in
Neolithic Iberia: the assemblage from the lake settlement at La
Draga. Antiquity. 85, 759–71.
59
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
08
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM:
NEOLITHIC AWLS AND SPATULAS
Programa Experimental:
Espátulas y punzones neolíticos
Millán Mozota*, Antoni Palomo**, Ignacio Clemente*,
Juan F. Gibaja*.
*Institución Milá y Fontanals, CSIC
**Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya
millanmozota@gmail.com
Abstract
We present the results of an experimental program designed for studying the tools found in Middle Neolithic
funerary contexts in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. The program addressed the manufacture and
use of awls and spatulas made from goat metapods, and their analysis and documentation. It sheds light
on signiicant aspects of the bone tool assemblages placed in the graves of the “Pit Burial Culture”. We
present preliminary indings from Middle Neolithic necropolis in Catalonia, northwestern Iberia. Despite the
heavy disturbance (due to natural processes but also consolidation, restoration and storage) we were able
to determine the manufacturing process for these materials, as well as the use of some tools. Moreover, in
some cases we found that the materials were not used, or were reitted before being deposited in the graves.
Keywords: Middle Neolithic, north-eastern Iberia, technological analysis, use-wear analysis.
Resumen
Presentamos los resultados de un programa experimental diseñado para el estudio del utillaje de Neolítico
Medio recuperado en contextos funerarios del Noroeste de la Península Ibérica. El programa abordó la
manufactura y uso de punzones y espátulas sobre metápodos de cabra, así como su análisis y documentación.
El programa experimental permite arrojar luz sobre algunos aspectos signiicativos del utillaje en hueso
depositado en las sepulturas de la llamada “Cultura de los Sepulcros de Fosa”. Presentamos algunos
resultados preliminares del estudio de necrópolis del Neolítico Medio de Cataluña -Nordeste de la Península
Ibérica. A pesar del importante grado de alteración de estos conjuntos óseos (debida a procesos naturales
pero también a su consolidación, restauración y almacenaje) se pudo determinar el proceso de fabricación
de los instrumentos, así como el uso de algunos de ellos. Además, en algunos casos se determinó que los
materiales no fueron utilizados, o fueron reavivados antes de ser depositados en las sepulturas.
Palabras clave: Neolítico medio, nordeste de la Península Ibérica, análisis tecnológico, análisis huellas de uso.
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
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INTRODUCTION
Our starting point was an archaeological issue: the need to study signiicant bone tool
assemblages found in Middle Neolithic burials in Northeastern Iberia, speciically, in the
context of the “Pit Burial Culture” (Cultura de los Sepulcros de Fosa) (Figure 1).
Our study includes old digs such as for example the Puig d’en Roca necropolis (Girona),
and also recent ones like the material from Ca l’Arnella (Terrasa).
The analyzed burials contain major assemblages of bone artefacts, many of which weare
tools, or at least tool-like objects. From a morphological perspective, these tools are
primarily awls and spatulas. Awls are much more frequent than spatulas. They have been
typologically determined, and they seem to have been manufactured on the same type of
blanks, using well organized and repetitive techniques. (Figures 2 and 3) Other tools were
sometimes represented, but were anecdotal.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL QUESTIONS
Our study of the tools raised a number of important questions: Were these objects really
manufactured as tools and used? Or were they something different, maybe related to
Figure 2. Spatula from Puig d’en
Roca, burial 11. 1: General view.
2-3: details of active zone.
Figure 1. Location of the archaeological sites. Bottom Left: Grave 10 from
Puig d’en Roca Necropolis, Girona (Picture from Col. Francesc Riuró,
MAC-Girona) and bone tools from Puig d’en Roca graves 2, 5, 11, 14, 15
& 16). Bottom Right: Burials at Ca l’Arnella, Terrasa (Pictures from Atics
SL); 1: Human remains and grave goods at CCA-2; 2: Pottery from CCA-2;
3: Human remains at CCA-3; 4: Position of arrowhead in CCA-3.
62
Figure 3. Awl from
Ca l’Arnella CCA-2.
Figure 4. Diachronic diagram of the experimental program.
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
funerary rites? If they were tools, how did they
participate in the production processes? How were
they used speciically? And inally, did the tools have
a previous- to-deposition treatment?
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
The key aims to organize the experimental program
were related to the manufacture and the use of the
tools. For the tool production, we were especially
interested in the shaping (fr. “façonnage”) phase, and
the manufacturing marks left on the inal object. For
the use of the awls and spatulas, the irst thing was
to determine criteria to distinguish used and unused
tools. Then, we considered other variables: intensity
of use, worked materials, reitting and multiple
uses, etc. Also, from the perspective of the use-wear
analysis methodology, we were interested in how
use-wear develops when there is a previous polish
on the tool.
(Figure 4) The manufacturing of the tools began
with the processing of crude distal parts of goat
limbs. We obtained and cleaned the metapods, i.e.,
metatarsals and metacarpals. This included skinning,
disarticulation and the cleaning of the cortical surface.
This work was done with lithic tools.
With the metapods, we did the initial blank processing
using a mechanized process. We then inished the tools
(shaping or “façonnage”) by scraping and abrading the
blanks against a passive tool: a large sandstone slab.
At some moments during the shaping process, we also used lithic lakes to modify the tool.
12 awls and 4 spatulas were produced at the end of this phase (Figure 5).
Once the tools were ready, they were used in a series of tasks. We worked on leather, hide,
clay and birch bark (Betula sp.). The activities were: perforating (with both rotating and
piercing kinematics) and smoothing.
In the next part of our research, the use-wear analysis fulilled two objectives: on the
one hand, we described and characterized the use wear that formed on the tools while
working different materials. We also studied the wear traces that formed when the tool
was polished with smooth stone pebbles (Figure 6). We also analyzed how the use-wear
develops during this smoothing.
On the other hand, we created a series of digital micro-photographic images while
registering the different polishes, striations and other use-related stigmas (Figures 7 and
8). In conjunction with the experimental tools -which have been preserved and stored- the
data set allows us to make interesting comparisons with the archaeological materials.
Finally, it can be used to apply an inferential process, in order to determine the presence
(or not) of use-related traces in the Neolithic assemblages.
Figure 5. Up Left:
Processing goat
limbs with lithic
tools. Up Right:
An experimenter
is shaping an awl
against a sandstone
slab. Centre Left:
Leather piercing.
Bottom Left: Clay
smoothing. Bottom
Right: Experimental
tools: one spatula and
three awls.
Figure 6. Wear traces
of abrading with
sandstone. Microphotography (2) at
100x augmentation;
3-4: Wear traces of
smoothing (polish)
using a quartzite
pebble. Microphotography (4) at
100x magniication.
We can also conirm that all the documented traces (both from manufacture and use wear)
were reasonably coherent with previous studies about bone use in different chronologies
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
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Figure 7. Use wear: spatula for smoothing fresh clay.
Figure 8. Use wear: awl for piercing wet leather.
and countries – e.g. A. van Gjin and Y. Maigrot studies (van Gjin, 2005, Maigrot 2005, ).
In this regard, we also drew on published descriptions to supplement our experiments,
especially when considering other worked materials.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESULTS
We studied or re-studied a sample of previously selected awls and spatulas (total of 231
items in our sample) found at six different archaeological necropolises: Ca l’Arnella (Pou,
et al., 2014) N: 2, Can Gambús (Roig, et al., 2010) N: 91, Pla del Riu de les Marcetes (Guitart,
1987) N: 6, St. Julià de Ramis & Puig d’en Roca N: 3+18 (Riuró, Fuste, 1980), Feixa del Moro
(Llovera, 1986) N: 22, and El Llord (Castany, 1992), N: 89.
We need to explain that besides the traces of use, we documented many alterations to the
archaeological materials. These alterations were of taphonomic origin (Lyman, 1994), but
also modern (produced while extracting the tools, or more frequently, during restoration
and storage at the museum). (Figure 9) taphonomic alterations were mostly related to
oxidizing/dissolution geo-chemical processes, produced by contact with sediments and
water. There were also root marks and dissolution produced by roots, calciications and
manganese oxides, adherences of sediments, and occasionally tooth marks from micromammals and other small animals.
Restoration and management-related alterations were mostly varnish and/or glue
coverings. In a few cases, we also documented the presence of graphite (from drawing
pencils) and striations -produced by metallic measuring calipers.
Even with the alterations, traces of manufacturing are still visible on most of the
archaeological materials. Typically, they are abrading marks, but sometimes we could
document scrape marks from sharp-edged lithic tools, and percussion or grooving marks
from the initial preparation of the blanks. The manufacturing process began with the
splitting of the metapod into two (or sometimes more) longitudinal parts. The blanks were
made into awls and spatulas with abrading techniques against a passive element such as a
rock or slab of sandstone (with the occasional use of a lint lake or blade to thin the blank).
The abundance of both taphonomic and “management” alterations made it impossible to
determine the presence/absence of use-wear in most of the analyzed tools. Only a part
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
(about 25%) could be deined as having or not having
use-wear traces. 9 of the tools had deinitely been
used, 11 others were probably used, and 4 of them
were possibly used. 33 tools were probably intact in
terms of use-wear, and we consider another 2 as
being “possibly intact”.
This does not mean that they were actually unused.
They may have been used and then reitted by
scraping and abrading before they being placed in
the grave, or they may have been manufactured exprofeso.
For most of the used tools, we only determined
whether or not they were employed for work. We
also documented the direction of the kinematic, but
not the worked material. With regard to the worked
material, we found four cases of probable hide/
leather working, (Figure 10) one case of probable
plant working, possibly bark, and inally another
case of probable clay working.
In a number of artefacts (33 plus possibly another 2)
we determined that the inal technical modiication
was not related to use, but rather by a determined
scraping with lithic tools, or careful polishing with
smoothing pebbles. These items can represent two
different scenarios: (1) They were manufactured
ex-profeso for a funerary ritual, or (2) they were
reitted before the tool was placed in the grave. On
the basis of qualitative observation of the tools, we
believe that both scenarios could have happened in
different burials.
FUTURE GOALS AND ONGOING EXPERIMENTATION
Our aim is to complete our experimental database
and reference library with more experiments,
especially those related to new worked materials:
wicker and reed (for basketry), and plant and animal
ibres (for textile work). We also aim to extend the archaeological study to other close
contexts, speciically the occupation sites with a Neolithic chronology.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to give special thanks to María San Millán for collecting and providing us with
all the raw animal material used in our experiments. The heritage-archaeology irm
Arqueolític (Banyoles, Girona) provided most of the tools for the manufacture of the awls
and spatulas, and our study was possible thanks to funding for project HAR2011-23149
(main researcher: Juan F. Gibaja Bao). The irst igure in this work was partially recreated
from illustrations in one of our previously published works with Atics S.L (Pou, et al., 2014).
Figure 9. Varnish
coating documented
in awl from Pla del
Riu de Les Marcetes,
burial 5. 1: General
view. 2: Surface detail,
200 x augmentations.
3: Surface detail, 400 x
augmentations.
Figure 10. Fragment of
awl from Can Gambús
(structure 167).
Micro-photography at
100x magnification; use
wear is probably from
perforating (piercing/
rotating) leather or hide.
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REFERENCES
Buc, N. (2011). Experimental series and use-wear in bone tools.
Journal of Archaeological Science. 38 (3), 546-557.
Lyman, R. L. (1994). Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge University
Press. Cambridge. 524 pp.
Castany, J. (1992). Estructures funeràries dels megalitos
neolítics del Solsonès. In Estat de la investigació sobre el Neolític
a Catalunya. IX Col.loqui Internacional d’Arqueologia de Puigcerdà,
Andorra. Institut d’Estudis Ceretans. Andorra. Pp. 249-254.
Maigrot, Y (2005). Ivory, bone and antler tools production system
at Chalain 4 (Jura, France): late Neolithic site, 3rd millennium.
In From Hooves to Horns, from Mollusc to Mammoth. Manufacture
and Use of Bone Artefacts from Prehistoric Times to the Present.
Edited by Luik, H., Choyke, A., Batey, C. E., Lougas, L. Tallinn
Book Printers. Taillinn. Pp. 113–126.
Gijn van, A. (2005). A functional analysis of some late Mesolithic
bone and antler implements from the Dutch coastal zone. In
From Hooves to Horns, from Mollusc to Mammoth. Manufacture
and Use of Bone Artefacts from Prehistoric Times to the Present.
Edited by Luik, H., Choyke, a., Batey, C. E., Lougas, L. Tallinn
Book Printers. Taillinn. Pp. 47–66.
Guitart, I (1987). La Necropolis Neolitica Del Pla Del Riu De Les
Marcetes (Manresa, Bages). Tribuna D’arqueologia.1986-1987.
41-47.
Llovera, X., (1986). La Feixa del Moro (Juberri) i el neolític mtijà
recent a Andorra. Tribuna d’Arqueologia. 1985-1986. 15-24.
66
Pou, R., Martí, M., Mozota, M., Armentano, N., Martín, P.,
Gibaja, J. (2014). Los enterramientos neolíticos de Ca l’Arnella
(Terrassa, Barcelona). Trabajos de Prehistoria. 71 (1), 146-155.
Riuró, F., Fusté, M. (1980). Les estacions prehistòriques del Puig
d’en Roca. Associació Arqueològica de Girona. Girona. 81 pp.
Roig, J., Coll, J., Gibaja, J., Chambon, P., Villar, V., Ruiz, J.,
Terradas, X., Subirà, M. (2010). La necrópolis de Can Gambús-1
(Sabadell, Barcelona). Nuevos conocimientos sobre las
prácticas funerarias durante el Neolítico medio en el Noreste
de la Península Ibérica. Trabajos de Prehistoria, 67 (1), 59-84.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
09
THE EXPERIMENT IN THE SERVICE
OF ARCHAEOLOGY. PIECES OF OSSEOUS
MATERIALS PROCESSED IN THE
EXPERIMENTAL WORKSHOP DEVELOPED
ON THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE FROM
BORDUȘANI-POPINĂ (ROMANIA)
El experimento al servicio de la Arqueología.
Piezas de material óseo procesadas
en el workshop experimental desarrollados
en el yacimiento arqueológico de
Bordușani-Popină (Rumania)
Monica Mărgărit*, Dragomir Nicolae Popovici**,
Valentin Radu**, Cătălina Cernea***
*Universitatea Valahia din Târgoviște, România
monicamargarit@yahoo.com
**Muzeul Național de Istorie a României
mirel_d_n_p@yahoo.com
raduvalentin@hotmail.com
***Muzeul Județean Ialomița, România
cata_arch@yahoo.com
Abstract
The techno-typological study of the tools made of osseous materials, consisting in the identiication of the
operational sequence, is essential in order to evaluate the different interactions between human/animal resources and environment but also to identify those activities implicated in the tools making. The functional
level, having as objective the determination of the types of processed material is the way to determine the
productive process in which the artifacts were involved. In order to understand this dualistic approach (technologic and functional) it is necessary to implement an experimental program by means of which to examine
the manufacturing and the using of an artifact. The making of a replica allows us to reconstruct both the operative chain and to evaluate the invested time, or to understand why certain anatomic elements were chosen
for certain types of tools. The experimental utilization of these replicas proves the diversity of the marks left
by different materials and types of movement. Analyzing these marks, we are able to interpret the models
identiied in the archaeological sites. The experimental protocol we applied on the archaeological settlement
of Bordușani-Popină (Romania), where were discovered over 600 tools made of hard animal materials. The
experimental program was modeled both according to the aimed objectives – the types of Prehistoric tools
we wanted to manufacture, and to the raw materials we had access at.
Keywords: experimental program, osseous materials, operational sequence, replica.
Resumen
El estudio tecno-tipológico de las herramientas realizadas en material óseo, consistente en la identiicación
de la secuencia operacional, es esencial para evaluar las diferentes interacciones entre el ser humano/
recursos animales y medio ambiente pero también para identiicar aquellas actividades implicadas en
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
la creación de útiles. El nivel funcional, tomando como objetivo la determinación de los tipos de material
procesado, es la vía para determinar el proceso productivo en el cual los artefactos fueron involucrados.
Para comprender este estudio dualístico (tecnológico y funcional) es necesario perfeccionar un programa
experimental por medio del cual examinar la manufactura y el uso del artefacto. La creación de réplicas nos
permite reconstruir ambos, la cadena operativa y evaluar el tiempo invertido, o comprender por qué ciertos
elementos anatómicos fueron elegidos para ciertos tipos de herramientas. La utilización experimental de
estas réplicas prueba la diversidad de las marcas dejadas por diferentes materiales y tipos de movimiento.
Analizando estas marcas, somos capaces de interpretar los modelos identiicados en los yacimientos
arqueológicos. El protocolo experimental que hemos aplicado en el yacimiento arqueológico de BordușaniPopină (Rumanía), cuando se descubrieron más de 600 utensilios hechos de materiales óseos. El programa
experimental fue modelado en base a los principales objetivos – los tipos de útiles prehistóricos que queremos
manufacturar, y a los materiales brutos que hemos tenido acceso.
Palabras clave: programa experimental, materiales óseos, secuencia operacional, replica.
INTRODUCTION
The study of tools made of osseous materials is both to identify the operational schemes
used for the manufacture of different typological categories, and to look at the ways in
which the communities exploited the animal environment, in order to obtain their artifacts
belonging to the osseous industry, and at the way in which these objects are re-integrated
in the cycle of use – this time as means for exploitation of the environment, at Prehistory
level. The actual research begins to be oriented towards the reconstitution of the technical
stages of the operating chain which allow for the reconstruction of these objects’ lost
context. Moreover, starting from the microscopic observations on the original objects,
compared with the experimental results, the specialists have tried to determine data bases
for different macro- and microscopic indicators of the chaîne opératoire and use of various
artifacts (e.g., Maigrot, 2003; Legrand, 2007; Legrand and Sidèra, 2007; Buc, 2011; van
Gijn, 2014). In this way it became possible to reconstitute the series of gestures that led
to the production of different osseous objects (starting with the raw materials gathering
and continuing with the major stages of processing: debitage and shaping operations),
and the features of the tool used, and then the ways the bone object was used, reshaped
or abandoned. The general conclusion is that the technical-functional determinations on
osseous tools need to be determined based on the correlation between the experimental
results (Averbouh and Provenzano, 1998-1999), the study of the micro and macro-stigmata,
the functional analogies - ethnographic comparisons (Beyries, 2002; Torrence, 2001) and
the archeological data.
At the level of Romanian Neolithic and Chalcolithic, the experimental studies on ceramics
(e.g., Tencariu, 2010) or dwellings (e.g., Gheorghiu, 2009; Lazăr et al., 2012) have already a
precedent. In exchange, the working hypothesis established for the study of animal hard
materials industry is at its beginning and it must be correlated with the experimental
studies mentioned above. According with this situation, the experimental protocol we
applied on the archaeological settlement of Bordușani-Popină (Romania), belonging to
the Gumelnița culture (Chalcolithic period, the second half of the ifth millennium BC),
where were discovered over 600 tools made of hard animal materials. As a irst stage, we
achieved a descriptive chart which to include all the stages of the operated chain, with
the registration of the used raw materials, the time necessary for each type of operation,
the used tools and of the results obtained for each operation. At the same time, the
experimental program was modeled both according to the aimed objectives – the types of
Chalcolithic tools we wanted to manufacture, and to the raw materials we had access at.
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Figure 1. A - debitage by direct percussion; B - debitage by diffuse direct percussion; C - debitage by hitting against an anvil.
Figure 2. A – bipartition by indirect percussion,
B – bipartition by grooving, C – segmentation by sawing,
D – segmentation by direct percussion.
Figure 3. A, B – method of debitage by extraction; C – segmentation
by sciage à la icelle; D – segmentation by direct percussion;
E – segmentation by grooving; F – segmentation by sawing.
METHODS OF DEBITAGE
During the irst stage, we wished to check the main bone breaking methods through
percussion. For the long bones, we applied a debitage through direct percussion, diffuse
direct percussion, or by hitting the bone against an anvil (Figure 1). The conclusion is that
each type of breaking triggers different types of bone fractures, and this can also provide
clues concerning the debitage techniques applied to the archeological items. Other
applied debitage methods were: bipartition of bone in indirect percussion and longitudinal
bipartition by grooving, in order to compare the obtained types of blank (Figure 2/A-B). In
the irst case, the method is extremely fast, but it requires a good control of the hitting
force, thus the bone fragmenting randomly, while in the second case, the proceeding is
laborious, but it allows a previsualization of the two resulted blanks.
The debitage methods by segmentation, aiming the obtaining of blanks which conserve the
anatomic volume, consisted in the application of a sawing around the entire circumference
(Figure 2/C and 4/A), continued by bending or of a direct percussion (Figure 2/D). Applying
these methods to ovicaprids metapodials, may be obtained handles, whose debitage plan
may be regularized by abrasion.
For the extraction method was used a Bos taurus femur with a much thicker and tougher
compact tissue (Figure 3/A-B). These properties of the bone were also relected in the
long time it took to extract the blank, namely six hours. The procedures used were the
same: grooving, in a longitudinal direction; sawing, in a transversal sense. For the inal
extraction, an indirect percussion was applied, using a chisel and a hammer.
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In the case of antler, as we had just
one branch available, we preferred
to check a few of the debitage
methods, applied transversally. So,
the segmentation procedures used
to remove the tine were: sciage à la
icelle, direct percussion, bifacial
grooving and peripheral sawing
(Figure 3/C-F). The different
stigmata for each technique are
visible on the segmented tines.
FINISHED TOOLS
Processing the inished tools
has been a second goal of our
workshop. To illustrate, we
preferred to present as example
the Bos taurus rib, selected from
Figure 4. A – segmentation of rib by sawing, B – longitudinal partition by diffuse direct percussion,
C – longitudinal partition by scraping, D – bipartition by indirect percussion; E – abrasion for
the multitude of processed raw
production of a spatula, F – spatula (experimental piece), G - production of beads,
materials and types of tools.
H, I - inished products.
The processing of ribs requires
an important time investment
but it also provides a special
blank – lat and wide, starting
from which we can make most
various tools: spatulas (Figure
4/F), adornments (Figure 4/H-I)
or igurines (Figure 5/D). The irst
stage of rib processing consists
in the cleaning of the surface, at
the level of the periost, because
a greasy surface will lead to the
slipping of the lithic tools during
processing. In a second stage
takes place the removal of the
extremity by sawing (Figure 4/A).
The longitudinal bipartition that
offers two identical blanks, was
Figure 5. A – abrasion of the inferior side; b – igurine proile realized by sawing, C – surface model
realized by perforation, D – anthropomorphic igurine (experimental piece), E – detail of perforation
made by two procedures: in direct
by rotation (50x), F – detail of grooving technique (50x); G – detail of inal polishing (50x), H – detail
diffuse percussion (Figure 4/B)
of sawing technique (50x).
and in scraping (Figure 4/C).
The irst is obviously faster, but
presents a high degree of accidents. In the second case, the necessary time for the
inishing of the operation is about 40 minutes, but implies a good control of the bipartition
plan and ensures two regular blanks.
The bipartition of the two blanks was made by indirect percussion in this case requiring
also a special attention on the force with which is hit the intermediary tool, in order to
avoid, again, the accidental cracks (Figure 4/D). The entire spongy tissue was removed,
in order to ensure a clean and regular surface. Afterwards, the entire inferior side was
cleaned by abrasion. In the same time, the form of the active extremity was given directly
by abrasion (Figure 4/E-F).
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Another processing variant of the two semi-ribs consists in obtaining of beads, with various
shapes and dimensions. It was proved that it is a lot easier to make the perforations before
the segmenting of the blank in small fragments (Figure 4/G). Afterwards, according to the
disposal of perforations, the cutting can be made by sawing. The beads’ inal shape can
be made directly by abrasion, either the dimensions of the segment can be reduced by
cutting, the inishing process continuing by abrasion also (Figure 4/H-I).
Finally, we manufactured an anthropomorphic igurine (Figure 5/D). To attain our goal we
have invested a lot of time, maybe because of the chosen blank, as well, namely a rib of
old cattle, extremely tough, which made the bipartition of the blank very dificult. It was
the only possibility to obtain a suficiently wide blank to achieve a igurine identical, as
dimensions, to the archaeological items. For the bipartition, the procedure chosen was
the scraping of the edges, continued by direct percussion. It took 1 hour and 30 minutes
to obtain two lat, almost identical blanks. The integral abrasion of the blanks followed, to
eliminate the spongy tissue (Figure 5/A). The carving of the igurine’s proile was realized
by sawing (Figure 5/B), completed by abrasion, to create the rounded areas (head, basis),
operations that took no less than two hours. On the inside, the model was created by
the application of several procedures: for the perforations – rotation (Figure 5/C-E), to
delineate the legs – grooving (Figure 5/F), and to draw the pubic triangle – sawing (Figure
5/H), two more hours being necessary to inish the model. The item was then rubbed
against a ine piece of leather for ten minutes, to be polished (Figure 5/G).
CONCLUSION
This experimental collection aimed at better understanding the way in which the
technological traces evolve during processing and, implicitly, the patterns observed on
archaeological specimens. By comparing, it can be seen that there is an evident similarity
between the mode of traces development on the archaelogical and experimental artefacts.
It is a signiicant challenge since there is no reference point within the background of the
Romanian archaeology from which to start. After the presented examples, we can observe
that the demarche implies an important investment of time, maybe this also being the
motive that discouraged the archaeologists and which still places us, for the moment, in a
pioneering period at the level of experimental archaeology in Romania, at least in the ield
of the hard animal materials industry.
Being the irst our thematic workshop, we resumed to the technological part – the making
of inished tools –, their utilization to be applied in another working stage. Moreover, it
is necessary to continue these experimental activities which will allow us the gaining of
experience and the improving of the time implicated in the processing of an artifact, in
order to made pertinent correlations with the archaeological pieces.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientiic
Research, CNCS – UEFISCDI, project number PN-II-RU-TE-2011-3-0133.
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REFERENCES
Averbouh, A., Provenzano, N. (1998-1999). Propositions pour une
terminologie du travail préhistorique des matières osseuses. I
- Les techniques. Préhistoire Anthropologie méditerranéennes.
7-8, 5-26.
Beyries, S. (2002). Le travail du cuir chéz les Tchouktches et les
Athapaskans. In Le travail du cuir de la préhistoire à nos jours.
Edited by Audoin-Rouzeau, F., Beyries, S. APDCA. Antibes. Pp.
143-157.
Buc, N. (2011). Experimental series and use-wear in bone tools.
Journal of Archaeological Science. 38 (3), 546–557.
Gheorghiu, D. (2009). Cultural landscapes in the Lower Danube
area. Experimenting tell - settlements. Documenta Praehistorica.
XXXV., 167-178.
van Gijn, A. (2014). Science and interpretation in microwear
studies. Journal of Archaeological Science. 48 (1), 166-169.
Lazăr, C., Ignat, Th., Stan, S., Moldoveanu, K., Rădulescu, F.
(2012). Beyond the archaeological imagination. Observations
about Kodjadermen-Gumelnița-Karanovo VI architecture
based on a study of experimental archaeology. Mediterranean
Arhaeology and Archaeometry. 12 (2), 55-79.
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Legrand, A. (2007). Fabrication et utilisation de l’outillage en
matières osseuses du Néolithique de Chypre: Khirokitia et Cap
Andreas-Kastros. BAR International Series 1678. Oxford. 178 pp.
Legrand, A., Sidèra, I. (2007). Methods, Means, and Results
When Studying European Bone Industry. Chapitre 5. In Bones as
tools: current methods and interpretations in worked bone studies.
Edited by Gate, C., Walker, R. BAR International series 1622.
Oxford. Pp. 291-304.
Maigrot, Y. (2003). Etude technologique et fonctionnelle de
l’outillage en matières dures animales: la station 4 de Chalain
(Néolithique inal, Jura, France). Thèse de doctorat. Université
Paris I. 284 pp.
Tencariu, F.A. (2010). Some Thoughts Concerning the
Pottery Pyrotechnology in Neolithic and Chalcolithic. In
Signa Praehistorica. Studia in honorem magistri Attila László
septuagesimo anno. Edited by Bolohan N., Măţău F., Tencariu F.A.
Editura Universităţii “Alexandru Ioan Cuza”. Iași. Pp. 119-140.
Torence, R. (2001). Hunter-gatherer technology: macro- and
microscale approaches. In Hunter-Gatherers: an Interdisciplinary
Perspective. Edited by Panter-Brick, C., Layton, R. H., RowleyConwy, P. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. Pp. 73-98.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
10
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME ON RESISTANCE/
DURABILITY OF PREHISTORIC ADHESIVES
Programa experimental sobre la resistencia/
durabilidad de adhesivos prehistóricos
Juan Luis Fernández-Marchena*, José Ramón Rabuñal** ***,
Gala García-Argudo* ** ***
* Seminari d’Estudis i Recerques Prehistòriques (SERP)
Secció de Prehistòria i Arqueologia, Facultat de Geograia i Història, Universitat de Barcelona,
C/Montalegre 6-8, 08001 Barcelona, Spain.
juanl.ferna@gmail.com
** Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES)
C/Marcel•lí Domingo s/n (Ediici W3), Campus Sescelades, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
*** Àrea de Prehistòria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV)
Av. Catalunya 35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain
Abstract
Despite the abundance of studies about projectiles, adhesives have not been taken into account as part of the
study, and the few works focused on this topic have revolved around the function of the ochre in the mix. This
work is a preliminary approach to the evaluation of the behaviour, when facing the impact stress, of a series
of adhesives based on Pinus pinaster resin with the addition of different components and proportions. The aim
is to identify patterns or tendencies in the impact resistance of those adhesives in order to discern the role of
the different mixings in the durability and eficiency of the glues used to haft projectile points.
Keywords: adhesive, hafting, resistance, projectiles.
Resumen
Pese a la abundancia de estudios sobre proyectiles, los adhesivos no se han tenido en cuenta como parte del
estudio, y los pocos trabajos especializados en esta temática han girado en torno a la función del ocre en la
mezcla. Este trabajo supone una aproximación preliminar a la evaluación del comportamiento ante el estrés
por impacto de una serie de adhesivos elaborados a partir de resina de Pinus pinaster, empleando diferentes
componentes y proporciones. El objetivo es identiicar patrones o tendencias en la resistencia al impacto de
estos adhesivos, con vistas a discernir el papel que juegan los diferentes componentes y sus proporciones en
la durabilidad y eicacia de los pegamentos empleados para enmangar puntas de proyectil.
Palabras clave: adhesivos, enmangue, resistencia, proyectiles.
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INTRODUCTION
In the past few years there have been an increasing number of works related to the adhesives
used to ix lithic tools to hafts or shafts. These works are based on different sources such as
ethnoarchaeology (Fauvelle et al., 2012), experimental archaeology (Wadley, 2005), residue
and use-wear analysis (Helwig et al., 2014), etc. As their sources, their conclusions have also
been diverse.
In the archaeological literature there is a recurrence concerning the elaboration of adhesives
based on tree resin: the necessity of the addition of a binder element (such as beeswax or
fat) and a loading agent (such as ochre or charcoal) in order to elaborate an effective mix
(Wadley, 2005, 2010). Here, ochre has played a central role in the discussion about hafting,
being considered from the key element in the recipe (Wadley, 2005) to an addition with symbolic
meanings (Watts, 2002), although its properties or eficiency have not been explored properly.
Archaeological remains and experimental works have pointed out the employment of
different components for the elaboration of glues in prehistoric times (Helwig et al., 2014;
Wadley, 2005), and have also given chance to numerous interpretations of their capacity to
constitute an effective adhesive alone, without iber or sinew reinforcement (Wadley, 2005).
Figure 1. Points used
in the experiment.
During the elaboration of a reference collection to be used during an use-wear analysis of
lithic industries from Northwestern Iberia (Fernández-Marchena, 2013), we found out that
the adhesive made of resin, beeswax, ochre and charcoal was very effective to many works,
such as hafting end-scrapers, but when used to haft
arrowheads had a brittle behaviour. So, we started
investigating which of the components involved in the
mix could cause that brittle behaviour when facing a
great stress derived from shooting, and which other
combinations could resist well this kind of efforts.
This experiment is a irst approach to this problematic,
looking to get some preliminary results in order to
evaluate the resistance of different combinations
of elements. The main objective is to deine which
combinations would be appropriate to be used in future
experimental works about projectiles. Moreover, this
work also serves as a starting point in the elaboration
of a reference collection of adhesive samples for
residue analysis on archaeological materials.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In the designing of the experiment, we have paid especial attention to the careful control
of variables. We have focused on isolating, as far as possible, any element affecting the
adhesive behaviour, especially considering the problems identiied in other experimental
works (Wadley, 2005).
Control of variables
- Same type of resin
In this work we decided to use as base Pinus pinaster resin, due to its preponderance in
our study area in the chronologies we study (Upper Palaeolithic of NW Iberia) (Ramil Rego
et al., 2005).
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- Points
As the objective was to test the adhesive resistance to impact, the projectile points were
homogenized, avoiding the use of lithics that may itself constitute a determining factor
in the durability of the adhesive (fractures, different adherence surfaces or adherent
capacities, etc.). We decided to manufacture plain wooden points with a straight front with
a double purpose: to avoid the breakage of the point and to generate greater stress to the
adhesive (Figure 1).
Figure 2. Shooting
process.
Figure 3. Process
of elaboration of the
adhesive.
- Hafting system
With the same purpose of controlling the variables, we decided to use only one hafting
system for all the tests. We elaborated L-shaped foreshafts, and we didn’t use any kind of
reinforcements (ibres, sinew...). This way all the stress is born by the adhesive.
- Weight
The total weight of the projectile (foreshaft, adhesive and point) was maintained constant
in each experiment.
- Propulsion
All the projectiles were shoot with a commercial bow (INITECH 2, 18-22lbs) seven meters
away from the impact surface, trying to keep the same tension in every shot.
- Impact surface
An extruded polystyrene plate was used as a target. It conforms a plain, medium-hard
and rigid impact surface (Figure 2).
Elaboration of the adhesives
The adhesives were mixed on Pecten maximus shells, used as containers according
to some archaeological evidences (Álvarez-Fernández, 2011) with the aim of avoiding
contaminations in the samples for the reference collection. To elaborate the adhesives, the
shell was placed over a hearth and the components were mixed while they melt (Figure 3).
Figure 4. List of
mixtures tested.
*The measures were
obtained on the
microscope from a
random sample of
the component, and
are valid for all the
mixtures.
As it has been stated previously, the common base for
all the recipes is Pinus pinaster resin.
Fat and beeswax were selected to be used as binders,
both documented in archaeological contexts (Helwig
et al., 2014), in order to compare their properties.
In a third step, we selected a series of additives to test
their behaviour as loading agents (Figure 4).
The main objective of this experiment was to identify
some tendencies in the differential behaviours of the
mixtures that could give us some clues about possible
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working lines about this topic. For this we focused on
two aspects: the proportions of the components in
relation to the amount (weight) of resin and the type of
components used in the mixture.
First, we decided to analyse the adhesive used in
the former experiment, looking for any clue of why
it had an extremely brittle behaviour (Figure 5). This
mixture consisted on a base of pine resin, beeswax as
binder, and ochre and charcoal as loading agents, in a
3:1:1:1 weight ratio. So, the irst experiments focused
on comparing the behaviour of these two loading
agents and the inluence of the proportions of the
components.
Figure 5.
Cracked adhesive
after an impact.
On the next step, we selected other different loading agents to test them in a simple test, as
a irst approach to evaluate their behaviour.
Every mixture was used to assemble three projectiles to have a minimum of data to calculate
a mean of the shots resisted by each one. For some of the mixtures we observed a great
discordance in the resistance, so we decided to make a complete fourth shooting round
looking for more consistent results. Then, analysing the data, we calculated a mean of three
rounds, discriminating the outlier.
RESULTS
In the following jitter plot (Figure 6) we present the number of impacts each adhesive resisted
(circles) and both the mean with (squares) and without (triangles) the outlier, but we will only
analyse the results with the discrimination.
This jitter plot shows some interesting data, highlighting the following results:
- The mixture containing powdered shell as loading agent (A. 11) is extremely resistant.
- The simple combination of resin and beeswax, in a 3:1 proportion (A. 3), is one of the most
resistant mixtures.
- The mixture using ochre or charcoal as single loading agent in a 3:1:1 ratio (A. 5 and A.7)
resist more than 10 shots.
- The other exploratory recipes, excluding the shell-based one (sand (A. 9), bone (A. 10)
and water (A. 12)), have a relatively high resistance, but far low from the better ones. It
is interesting that the addition of water (A. 12) to the mixture of resin and beeswax (A. 2)
doubled its resistance.
Following the former objectives of the experiment of exploring the role of the components and
their proportions in the resistance of the adhesives, we selected some speciic data to compare.
Proportions
We tested three combinations of elements in 3:1(:1) and 5:1(:1) ratios and it is clear that the
3:1(:1) ratio is far more effective than the 5:1(:1) ratio (Figure 7).
Although it is dificult to compare our results with those coming from published experiments
(different types of base, for example), we noticed that our results show a completely opposite
tendency than that reported by Wadley (Wadley, 2010). For example, when the single mixture
of resin and beeswax in different ratios are compared, we documented a higher durability of
the one with higher proportion of beeswax.
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Figure 6.
Jitter plot of the
results of the
adhesive resistance.
Figure 7.
Jitter plot illustrating
the results in 5:1(:1)
ratios (A. 2, A. 4, A. 6)
and 3:1:(1) ratios (A.
3, A. 5, A. 7).
Figure 8.
Jitter plot illustrating
the results of the use
of ochre and charcoal
as loading agents.
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Loading agents
When dealing with the comparison of components, we focused on comparing ochre and
charcoal as loading agents. To do that, we compared the results of their different combinations
with beeswax and fat as binders in a 3:1:1(:1) ratio (Figure 8).
Comparing these results we can see how the use of ochre or charcoal as loading agent does
not make any great difference in the resistance of the adhesive. The addition of charcoal to
resin and beeswax makes the mixture more resistant than the addition of ochre, but when
we use fat as binder, instead of beeswax, the result is just the opposite.
What is really interesting is that the addition of both ochre and charcoal in the mixture makes
the adhesive much less eficient.
Although we share Wadley’s conclusions about the technical character of the diverse recipes
used in prehistoric times (Wadley, 2010), we think that this would not be the only reason for the
diversity of mixtures.
In this case, technical character refers to the hunter’s need of elaborating an adhesive
that fractures upon impact to leave the projectile point inside the animal, causing massive
damages and bleeding (Fauvelle et al, 2012).
But during this experiment we approached to the behaviour of the adhesives not only in
technical terms, but also in environmental terms. Those mixtures in which we used beef
fat as binder had a viscous character that made it dificult to ix them in the foreshaft and it
took too long for them to dry. We could only test properly these adhesives when the ambient
temperature was lower than 20ºC, but they resulted quite more effective than their analogues
with beeswax. Maybe this could be the reason for the inding of this kind of adhesives in cold
environments (Helwig et al., 2014).
PERSPECTIVES
These preliminary results allow us to identify some tendencies on the behaviour of the
different adhesives tested, which set the basis to design more solid experiments. We have to
explore the possible working lines pointed out in this irst work.
First of all, we need to enlarge the number of shooting rounds with all the recipes tested here to
be able to make a more robust statistical analysis. We also have to test the exploratory mixtures
in 3:1:1 ratio to see if they conirm the higher eficiency of this ratio respect to the 5:1:1.
Other interesting line is to go further in the inluence of the components’ proportion enlarging
the variety of ratios tested with some speciic recipes.
Finally, to improve the quality of the experimental tests we should go further in the control
of the variables. Our priorities in this subject are: to establish a rigorous and reliable control
of the shooting process, to control the velocity and the impact angle of the projectiles, and
the environmental conditions, mainly controlling the effects of temperature in the adhesive
eficiency.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors want to express their gratitude to Juan Ignacio Morales, Antonella Pedergnana
and Andreu Ollé for their support and their very helpful reviews of the text. J. L. F.-M. is the
beneiciary of a pre-doctoral FPI grant from the MINECO/FSE (BES-2015-074931).
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REFERENCES
Álvarez-Fernández, E., (2011). Humans and marine resource
interaction reappraised: Archaeofauna remains during the
late Pleistocene and Holocene in Cantabrian Spain. Journal of
Anthropological Archaeology. 30, 327-343.
Fauvelle, M., Smith, E., M., Brown, S. H., des Luriers, M. R.,
(2012). Asphaltum hafting and projectile point durability: an
experimental comparison of three hafting methods. Journal of
Archaeological Science. 39, 2802-2809.
Fernández-Marchena, J. L., (2013). Análisis funcional de
los artefactos en cristal de roca de Cova Eirós. Aproximación
experimental, análisis traceológico y de residuos. Master thesis
(unpublished). Universitat Rovira i Virgili. 300 pp.
Helwig, K., Monahan, K., Poulin, J., Andrews, T. D., (2014).
Ancient projectile weapons from ice patches in northwestern
Canada: identiication of resin and compound resin-ochre
hafting adhesives. Journal of Archaeological Science. 41, 655665.
Ramil Rego, E., Iriarte, M. J., Muñoz Sobrino, C., Gómez Orellana,
L., (2005). Cambio climático y dinámica temporal del paisaje
y de los hábitats en las ecorregiones del NW de la Península
Ibérica durante el Pleistoceno superior. Munibe (AntropologiaArkeologia). 57, 537-551.
Wadley, L., (2005). Putting ochre to the test: replication studies
of adhesives that may have been used for hafting tools in the
Middle Stone Age. Journal of Human Evolution. 49, 587-601.
Wadley, L., (2010). Compound-adhesive manufacture as a
behavioral proxy for complex cognition in the Middle Stone Age.
Current Anthropology. 51(1), 111-119.
Watts, I., (2002). Ochre in the middle stone age of Southern
Africa: Ritualised display or hide preservative? South African
Archaeological Society. 57(175), 1-14.
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SCAN THE ARCHAEO-EXPERIMENT!
COMPUTER SCIENCE AS ANALYTICAL
AND INTERPRETIVE WAY ABOUT
3D LITHIC REFITTING
¡Digitaliza el arqueo-experimento!:
Ciencias de la computación como vía analíticointerpretativa para el remontaje lítico en 3d
Alfredo Maximiano Castillejo*
*Facultad de Filosofía y Letras. UNAM. México DF
g4amaximiano@gmail.com
Abstract
In this paper we show the idea of an automatic 3D platform for machine-controlled lithic reitting. The core
of this concept adresses the material evidences of knapping archaeo-experiment as a reverse engineering
problem. Currently, the methodology and the necessary technology to carry out this automatic platform are
quite accessible and easy to implement. Therefore, we are interested in estimating/quantifying the operational complexity and the eficiency of this prototype, and we want to answer the following question: Is the
computational platform of lithic reitting more functional than a scholar in this complex and laborious task?
Keywords: knapping process; reitting; 3D automatic lithic reassembly.
Resumen
En este trabajo se presenta la conceptualización de una plataforma automática 3D para desarrollar el remontaje de conjuntos de fragmentos líticos. Partiendo desde arqueo-experimentos de talla, y entendiendo
el problema arqueológico como un caso de ingeniería inversa. Por tanto, estamos interesados en estimar/
cuantiicar la complejidad operacional y la eiciencia de este prototipo. Además de eso, queremos dar respuesta a si en la compleja y laboriosa tarea del reitting, ¿podría una plataforma de remontaje automático
ser más funcional que un especialista?
Palabras clave: proceso de talla; remontaje, re-ensamblaje lítico automático en 3D.
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
BACKGROUND
Currently, the geomatic applications proved that all types of archaeological entities could
be captured, analyzed and represented from a digital perspective. Now, applicability
and democratization of Computer Sciences enables us to run certain digital archaeoexperiments that a few years ago were not feasible in terms of the high costs in technical
devices, acquisitions and data processing, and also, these were dificult to design in terms of
archaeological thought (Maximiano, 2013).
Through this digital context, we can propose, design and implement a computational program
of lithic reitting, where the series of archaeo-experimentation in the process/sequence of
knapping are the transverse component to handle an automatic 3D reitting platform.
Essentially, we propose a methodology to help with lithic reitting. To do this, we irst
conduct an exhaustive process of 3D digital documentation of all material evidences
produced during the archaeo-experiment of lithic knapping. Thus, both the evidences
and the description of how the process was made, allows us to parameterize and create
taxonomies about items and more importantly, the causal actions of them. This way,
through the convergence among the knapping process information, the three-dimensional
databases of evidences, and reverse engineering perspective, we could establish plausible
and statistical solutions about 3D automatic reitting.
THE ARCHEO-EXPERIMENT AS A STARTING POINT FOR A 3D PLATFORM
OF AUTOMATIC REFITTING
The purpose of this initiative is to achieve a prototype which function it is to help to the
scholar in his task to reit archaeological collections. For this, the ideal starting point would
be an experimental basis to save some similarities with the empirical set, from which the
platform could learn and develop sets of plausible solutions. Thus, once the system knows
the sets of relations between the multiple variables that characterize the sequence of
knapping (e.g. lakes type f, that are the result of a stroke type s, which obliquely output
over a core ...), then the prototype shall be implemented on archaeological lithic data set
to solve the problem of reitting.
Figure 1. Example
of reverse
engineering process
with lithic evidence.
Although theoretically feasible, we must be aware that making a 3D reitting is not a
simple activity, since the volumetric dimension (6DOF) added complexity in the early
stages of process. This problem, seen from the case of lithic reitting must have metric,
geometric and topological parameters, and also must deal with qualitative information.
This leads to the occurrence of a number of
circumstances that inluence the development of
3D reitting. We want to focus on three key aspects:
i. What kind of electronic devices could capture
evidence with the appropriate level of accuracy for
the purpose of study and its intended purposes?
ii. After i., we should consider what set of parameters
and variables help to deine the characters
needed to make a 3D reitting.
iii. Necessarily, ii. leads us to think about the
computer process or algorithm that could best
adjust to self-learning by the machine and
reach solution sets of reitting with statistical
signiicance.
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Therefore, the best environment for implementation and evaluation of an automatic reitting
3D platform is to work from controlled conditions offered by an archaeo-experimental
program of lithic knapping. So, the experimental program of lithic reduction in 3D-scanned
produces a digital document of knapping process in terms of objects like inal manufactures
(e.g. lakes, blades, microlithics, tools...) and other concomitant elements in the assemble
sequence (e.g. worn cores, debris and others discards, ...). Thus, the material digitized
evidences of lithic reduction experiment could approach as a reverse engineering problem
(i.e. once we know the products, then we can deduce their initial states and the causes of
processes), it could be made in computational and automatic lithic reassembly sequence
in terms of n-solutions (Figure 1).
Synthetically, the problem we want to address is to establish the correspondences
between multiple and varied aspects that characterize each of the lithic items that are to
be potentially reassemblied (Figure 2).
The example of the above scheme, it would have to add another dimension (volumetric),
which increases the complexity (in key of 6DOF) in others words, more powerful tools for
3D reitting (Figure 3).
Beyond the inherent complexity of the reassemble sets of parts in 3D however, there is
a key factor linked with the availability/access knowledge about how these pieces were
generated. Hence we highlight the importance of archaeo-experiment of knapping and
understand the problem of reitting as a topic of reverse engineering.
Therefore, if a 3D automatic reitting system would be eficient, it would be advisable
to have the sequence of causal actions, or what is the same: the chaîne opératoire as a
benchmark in setting useful and concomitant products to the process. Hence, we need to
digitize all material evidence produced in the archaeo-experiment, as this might associate
causal actions, and physical evidence.
Therefore, when we scan the archaeo-experiment of lithic knapping in terms of its material
evidence, we achieve a double objective. First, we get a quantitative and qualitative
Figure 2. Schematic
reassembly process
from parts (A, B,
C, D) to the inal
product (or rather the
original: E) in Palmas
et al. 2013.
Figure 3. Schematic
3D reassembly
process from
the individual
components (white
and red clusters), to
3D product. Picture
and 3D model created
by author of this
paper.
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Figure 4. Recreation
of the whole process
of digital platform
reassembly. (1)
Knapping process,
(2) Measurements
of evidences (3)
Determination and
quantiication of
surfaces, edges
(Cadieux 2013:
53), and (4), virtual
reassembly (Abel et
al 2011: 881).
Figure 5. Table from
Ables et al. 2011:881.
“Techniques applied
to record virtual data
in cultural heritage
context”.
documentation of set of variables about all the entities that make up the population; and
secondly, we should recognize relationships between all material evidence to the processes
that caused them.
Therefore, from a digital environment we could not only build extensive and diverse
database about each item with high quality standards in terms of metric, geometry,
topology, morphological characterization), and in the techno-typological classiication/
attribution of residues, more than that; from this perspective we could reconsider and
deal with “old problems”, like for example:
1. Quantiication of patterns on certain types of evidence related to the lithic production
2. Prediction of the mass of detached splinters in certain platforms/ supports for the
production of usefulness (Clarkson & Hiscock, 2011).
3. Morphological variability and taxonomic resource of lithic objects (Bretzke & Conard,
2012).
4. Automatic determination of ridges and planes (Richardson et al., 2012).
5. Estimation of reduction cores processes (Clarkson, 2013).
TOWARDS AUTOMATIC 3D REFITTING PLATFORM, FROM ARCHAEO-EXPERIMENTS
OF KNAPPING PROCESS
We think that the starting point for developing our platform is to have an adequately
representative population where we perceive the occurred processes and a signiicant
sample of the material evidence associated with them (lakes, blades, microlithics cores,
debris, tools ...). In these circumstances, the best population is one that comes from an
experimental program of lithic knapping, since we can know and control all experimental
conditions, such as the skill level of the knapper, the techniques implemented in the
process, and perhaps most importantly the extensive set of material evidences produced
in the entire knapping sequence (Figure 4).
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Once we have that population, we would work in three main groups: irst, the management
of data collection in digital format. It is clear that the methodology is fully developed (Abel
et al., 2011; Palma et al, 2013). In the following table (Abel et al., 2011), they describe
the strengths and limitations of each digitization methodology. We have marked the
procedures that we have deemed most suitable for being implemented in the platform in
blue and red. The red procedure (computed tomography) is the ideal routine, but it is more
expensive (Figure 5).
Secondly, we must establish a formal characterization of diverse attributes that deine
the physical evidence, as a result of the knapping process. Thus, from a visual computing
environment, we must proceed to quantifying metric, geometric and topological elements,
from which we will obtain a complete characterization of every item. We must also include
attributes that describe certain qualitative variables related to different stages of knapping
(e.g. preparing of cores, reactivation of edges...), and describe other variables, such as:
texture, size, resistibility, composition, color...
After characterizing, we must carry out analytical series to achieve classiication sets
(recurrences, concordances, complementarity, including the detection of anomalous values)
from which to determine the possible patterns and trends existing in the big data collection.
Thirdly, we would implement a series of heavy computing processes (Machine learning)
as the implementation of neural networks and/or different types of algorithms (bayessian,
bio-inspired). Thus, we can obtain sets of geometric associations (= reitting) based on the
previously detected patterns. With this, we achieve the automatic reitting where the system
learns to recognize certain trends and establish sets of increasing relations. Finally, we
intend to achieve a series of statements, such as: “Two pieces: a and b, coming from some
knapping activity k1, with the same composition c, and texture tx, ..., in which a given concave
plane cp1, coincides with a determinate convex planes: cxp5 and cxp6; and one edge: ed3
coincides with others: ed13, ed17 … and with this information level, we could determinate
that a-b pieces are reassembled with 90.7% of probability”. This kind of statement allows the
execution of sequences (failed and correct) in automatic reitting platforms.
Finally, the last and decisive phase would be the contrast of the results of automatic
platforms with the controlled information provided by the archaeo-experiment. If the
correlation between the series of automatic reitting that proposed the system confronted
with the empirical case is within our expectations (we expect a minimum coincidence
>85%), we can implement, after a series of improvements, the automatic 3D refiting
platform on archaeological evidences, and run it over complex data collections.
CONCLUSIONS, 3D LITHIC REFITTING BEYOND THE “MICKEY MOUSE” RULES
The application of automatic 3D reitting platform is currently a fully manageable concept,
both the technological resources (Abel et al., 2011) and how to characterize the lithic
evidence on 3D digital environment (Grosman et al., 2008; McPerron et al., 2009; Richardson
et al., 2012; Gilboa et al., 2013; Palmas et al., 2013; among other) is a consolidated reality.
We believe however that the approach and design of an automatic system to deal reitting
problems has not been addressed in appropriate ways, which -inevitably- has derived
towards a skeptical position on an important part of the archaeological community.
Obviously, we cannot pretend that automatic 3D reitting platform could address, a collection
of lithic evidences from knapping activities, still belonging to the same archaeological context,
because the variability and uncertainty in archaeological lithic collections may be so high.
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But it should be possible to make a computer system is to repeat processes and routines,
introduce more attributes in the system, and re-calculate variables many times as
necessary until to determine whether there is concordance, and if these could lead to
some nontrivial solution as Mickey Mouse rules.
It is not advisable to allow a computing platform to interact directly (without the prior speciic
type of training) with archaeological lithic collections. Certainly the system itself recognizes
guidelines and establish partnerships, but it is very likely that their effectiveness would be
low. In such cases it is always better to have a good scholar to perform series of reitting.
Now, if we start from an archaeo-experimental program where we replicate the processes
of knapping, and from there characterize the entire set of material consequences of such
activities, our system will learn and be able to build meaningful relationships, which allow
us to achieve good results and, what is more important, we can set the system to expand
its use of archaeological collections.
The technology is available, and it is very accessible. The theoretical and methodological
approach is a proven fact, therefore: now is the moment to scan your lithic archaeoexperiment and move to 3D digital automatic reitting platform!
REFERENCES
Abel, R. L., Paritt, S., Ashton, N., Lewis, S. G., Scott, B. y
Stringer, C. (2011). Digital preservation and dissemination of
ancient lithic technology with modern micro-CT. Computers &
Graphics. 35, 878-884.
Grosman, L.; Smikt, O.; Smilansky, U. (2008). On the application
of 3-D scanning technology for the documentation and typology
of lithic artefacts. Journal of Archaeological Science. 35, 31013110.
Ayelet Gilboa, Ayellet Tal, Ilan Shimshoni and Michael
Kolomenkin. (2013). Computer-based, automatic recording
and illustration of complex archaeological artifacts. Journal of
Archaeological Science. 40(132), 1329-1339.
Maximiano, A.M. (2013). Experimentando con distribuciones
espaciales en CPU: simulación estocástica y visualización como
complementos analíticos en el análisis espacial arqueológico.
In Experimentación en Arqueología. Estudio y Difusión del Pasado.
Edited by Palomo, A.; Piqué, R.; Terradas, X. Serie monográica
del MAC. Pp. 487-493.
Bretzke, K.; Conard, N. J. (2012). Evaluating morphological
variability in lithic assemblages using 3D models of stone
artefacts. Journal of Archaeological Science. 39, 3741-3749.
Cadieux, N. (2013). Size Matters: Measuring Debitage Area and
Getting it Right with a Digital Scanner. Lithic Technology. 38(1),
46-70.
Clarkson, C.; Hiscock, P. (2011). Estimating original lake
mass from 3D scans of platform area. Journal of Archaeological
Science. 38, 1062-1068.
Clarkson, C. (2013). Measuring core reduction using 3D lake
scar density: a test case of changing core reduction at Klasies
River Mouth, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science. 40,
4348-4357.
Gilboa, A., Tal, A., Shimshoni, I.; Kolomenkin, M. (2013).
Computer-based, automatic recording and illustration of
complex archaeological artefacts. Journal of Archaeological
Science. 40, 1329-1339.
86
Mcpherron, S. H.; Gernat, T.; Hublin, J. J. (2009). Structured
light scanning for high-resolution documentation of in situ
archaeological inds. Journal of Archaeological Science. 36, 1924.
Palmas, G., Pietroni N., Cignoni P. and Scopigno R. (2013). A
computer-assisted constraint-based system for assembling
fragmented objects, Digital Heritage 2013, forthcoming
proceedings.
Richardson, E., Grosman, L., Smilansky, U. Y., Werman, M. (2012).
Extracting scar and ridge features from 3D-scanned lithic artifacts.
http://www.cs.huji.ac.il/~werman/Papers/Extracting.pdf
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
Archaeological
experimention
by means of use
wear analysis
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12
ARTEFACTS OR GEOFACTS? THE ROLE
OF EXPERIMENTATION AND FUNCTIONAL
ANALYSIS IN THE DETERMINATION
OF TOOLS AT PLEISTOCENE SITES IN SERRA
DA CAPIVARA (PIAUÍ, BRAZIL)
¿Artefactos o Geofacts? El papel de la
experimentación y el análisis funcional
en la determinación de las herramientas
en yacimientos del Pleistoceno en Serra
da Capivara (Piauí, Brasil)
Ignacio Clemente-Conte*; María Farias** y Eric Boëda***
* CSIC-Institución Milá y Fontanals (IMF), AGREST y Arqueología de las Dinámicas Sociales
Departamento de Arqueología y Antropología, Barcelona
ignacio@imf.csic.es
**Universidade do Rio Grande Do Sul, Brasil María FARIAS
mgluchy@gmail.com
***Professeur Université Paris X – Nanterre, Membre de l’Institut Universitaire de France.
CNRS – UMR 7041 ArScAn, Anthropologie des Techniques, des Espaces et des Territoires au
Pliocène et Pléistocène (AnTET). Maison de l’Archéologie
Abstract
Experimentation is basic in traceological methodology, and functional analysis is fundamental to determine
the productive activities carried out with prehistoric tools. The presence of use-traces can conirm the anthropic origin of artefacts and classify them as tools. This paper presents the experiments carried out with
replicas of the quartz implements found at sites in Serra da Capivara (Piauí, Brazil), with very old dates in
the South American context. Controversy over the origin of these artefacts still rages: are they artefacts or
geofacts? Research carried out at the Franco-Brazilian Mission in Piauí since 2008 under the direction of
Eric Boëda has provided new data, mainly in the form of dates and the study of these artefacts from a techno-morphological perspective. The identiication of similar use-wears traits on the surfaces of these artefacts to those produced experimentally conirms the anthropic origin of these artefacts and their use as tools.
Keywords: Pleistocene, settlement of America, quartz, use-wear analysis.
Resumen
La experimentación es básica para la aplicación del método traceológico y el análisis funcional es fundamental para conocer las actividades productivas realizadas con los instrumentos de trabajo prehistóricos.
La presencia de rastros de uso permite conirmar el origen antrópico de los artefactos al clasiicarlos como
instrumentos. En este trabajo presentamos la experimentación llevada a cabo con réplicas de instrumentos
en cuarzo de la Sierra de Capivara (Piauí, Brasil) y recuperados en sitios con dataciones muy antiguas para
el continente americano. La controversia sobre el origen de estos artefactos llega hasta el día de hoy: ¿artefactos o ecofactos? Los trabajos que está desarrollando la Misión Franco-Brasileña en Piaui desde el año
2008, bajo la dirección de Eric Boëda, aportó nuevos datos principalmente en las dataciones y en el estudio
de estos artefactos desde una perspectiva tecno-morfológica. Sin embargo, la identiicación de rastros de
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uso en las supericies de estos artefactos similares a las conseguidas experimentalmente, nos ha permitido
también reairmar el origen antrópico de esos artefactos ya que fueron utilizados como instrumentos de
producción.
Palabras clave: Pleistoceno, poblamiento americano, cuarzo, análisis de huellas de uso.
INTRODUCTION
In Serra da Capivara (Piauí, Brazil), a series of sites with Pleistocene datings are located at
the base of mountain escarpments and also on the plain several kilometres away (Figure
1). The outcrops and geological contexts of the sites are quite different. The former areas
are predominantly sandstone rock capped by a Tertiary “playa” with cobblestones mainly
quartz, whereas the other sites are in limestone outcrops. Several differences in the
procurement and use of lithic raw material has been detected in both areas. At the latter
sites, the use of very good quality quartzite is noteworthy, whereas at the former sites,
quartz is the most representative raw material. Although the mountain sites preserve
no organic remains of either animal or vegetable origin, megafauna remains have been
retrieved at limestone sites on the plain. The best-known site, Boqueiro da Pedra Furada,
is in the Serra mountain range. This is where the oldest dates have been obtained (Guidon,
1989; Guidon and Delibrias, 1986; Parenti et al., 1996). It is also precisely at this site where
the quartz objects found on the Pleistocene levels have been described as geofacts whose
removals and “retouching” were occurred when the cobble-stones fell from high points
of Serra da Capivara. In contrast, the objects with Holocene datings are acknowledged as
artefacts from the same period as the numerous paintings in hundreds of rock-shelters in
the area (Boëda et al., 2014).
Figure 1. Location
of National Park of
Serra da Capivara
in Piauí (Brazil). The
aerial photograph
on the right shows
the positions of the
archaeological sites
of Boqueiro da Pedra
Forada (*1) and Vale
da Pedra Furada (*2).
In an attempt to solve this controversy, a series of analyses were conducted on the objects
found in new excavations, where they have repeatedly been found in connection with
Pleistocene dates at archaeological sites such as Vale da Pedra Forada, Sitio do Meio, Tira
Peia, Sitio da Pena, etc. These studies include several that can be cited, based directly on
experimentation. A large number of “geofacts” from the barren levels at Boquiero da Pedra
Forada were studied, while lithic reduction experiments reproduced the different types of
implements that had been identiied. These replicas were then used in several activities
involving various types of raw materials: bone, ivory, meat, hides, wood and plant ibres. The
use-wear on their surfaces was compared with the traces on the archaeological objects,
using an analytical method based on macro- and microscopic observation (Clemente,
1997; Clemente et al., 2014).
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OBSERVATION AND DIRECT ANALYSIS AS A VALID
FORM OF EXPERIMENTATION
As other studies have shown (Boëda et al., 2013, 2014),
the analysis of 1,342 cobble-stones and pebbles and
82 lakes larger than 2 cm in size, found in 8 m3
of sediment from the barren levels at Boquiero da
Pedra Forada identiied ive modes of impact and 28
different categories of fracture on the quartz cobbles
(Boëda et al. 2014). While not enough space is
available here to describe the fractures, it should be
pointed out that of the ive modes of impact observed
on the cobbles, only three are acknowledged to be
anthropic: C, D and E (Figure 2). This is because, if the
aim is to transmit or diffuse the percussive energy as
hoped and required, the point of impact between the
hammerstone and striking platform must be single
and punctiform. Therefore, the striking platform
must be convex and/or lat. The knapper must respect these “laws of physics” to achieve
his or her goal.
The results of the taphonomic study also show that the qualities of the striking platform
—regular or irregular— are found in equal proportions, regardless of the type of impact.
This means that impacts from natural blows are located at random. Additionally, the
observation of over 1,300 cobbles from the two surveys in the sediments with no human
occupations found that between 50 and 60 % of them only displayed the negative of a single
removal (a single blow or strike) and only 5 to 12% displayed a second blow (Figure 3A). In
contrast, the objects from human occupations corroborated that many more than three
removals were needed in order to manufacture a tool (core or bifacial product) (Figure 3B).
Figure 2.
Reproduction of the
ive modes of impact
identiied on the
quartz cobbles. The
anthropic origin of the
latter three, C, D and
E, is acknowledged
archaeologically.
Another interesting observation concerned the degree of patina on the removals displayed
by the different kinds of materials. Whereas in the geofacts several kinds of patina are
seen, owing to the removals occurring at different times, in the case of the artefacts, the
patina type is similar in all the removals, as they all occurred at the same time, when the
implement was being made. Finally, another indicator of natural or anthropic removals
is their adjacency. Naturally occurring removals are rarely adjacent, unlike in artefacts,
where they may form an edge or a particular shape.
Figure 3. Charts with the percentages of strikes of blows recorded on the cobbles. The chart on the left (A) represents the
geofacts retrieved from the two soundings in barren levels at Boqueiro da Pedra Forada. Note that most of them (between
50 and 60% respectively) only display a single removal negative. The chart of the right (B) shows the percentages if blows
recorded on cobbles from an archaeological level with a human occupation.
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EXPERIMENTATION AS A BASIS
FOR TRACEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Despite previous experience in the study of usewear on heterogeneous lithic materials and quartz
surfaces (Clemente, 1997, Clemente and Gibaja,
2009, Clemente et al., 2014, Gibaja et al., 2002), they
chose to experiment with local quartz from the Serra
da Capivara in order to become more familiarised
with the speciic traits of this material.
The experiment consisted of working with several
kinds of plant matter: green or dry wood of different
hardness, and plant ibre produced in situ by crushing
the bromeliad Neoglaziovia variegata (Arruda) Mez.
Several types of animal matter including fresh goat
meat, skin and bone were used to test the tools in
butchery tasks, hide cleaning and tanning, scraping
and piercing cow bones, and scraping moist ivory. This
last substance was chosen due to its possible use by
Pleistocene inhabitants of the area, as they coexisted
with large-tusked megafauna. Fragments of Siberian
mammoth ivory from previous experiments by
Jlopachev G.A. and Gyria, E.Y (2010) were used.
DISCUSSION: EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
It is not necessary to describe the use-wear observed
on the experimental implements in any great depth.
In general, they coincide with descriptions provided
in previous publications (Clemente, 1997, Clemente
Figure 4. Use-wear of experimental quartz implements. Photographs
et al., 2014). Only a few comments will be made
1 and 2: traces of butchery. Photograph 3: edge fracturing and scarring
generated by bone piercing. Photograph 4: micropolish on crystals caused
regarding the materials and some speciic aspects
by bone scraping. Photograph 5: micropolish, rounding and orientation of
of this particular raw material. As quartz is a very
the crystal caused by contact with mammoth ivory. Photographs 6 and 7:
traces produced by wood-working, respectively scraping and chopping;
hard mineral, it takes long to alter its surface at the
Photograph 8, traces on crystal: gloss, smoothing and comet-shaped
microscopic level. Consequently, use-wear takes
striations from rubbing fresh plant ibres. Several implements were used
for each of these tasks.
longer to form than on other raw materials such
as lint. However, for the same reason, taphonomic
alterations do not affect quartz artefacts as badly, so archaeological objects made in
quartz tend to be better preserved. Although quartz is hard, it is also brittle. Therefore,
when used on hard substances, the tool edges usually break easily, which means that
microwear has less chance of developing to any great extent, unlike macrowear (Figure
4.3). However, there are exceptions to this rule, as found in in the present experiment with
plant ibres. When stretched by rubbing with the quartz surface, after 3 or 4 minutes, a
differential gloss was noticeable in the contact zone (Figure 4.8).
CONCLUSION
Use-wear observed in experiments permitted a comparison with archaeological objects
and conirmed that the latter were used as tools by human groups that lived in this region
during a period in the Pleistocene. The use-wears and the techno-morphological studies
indicate the anthropic origin of these quartz artefacts, leading to the conclusion that the
various types of tools (“rostre” denticulates, retouched edges and “becs”) can only have
had an anthropic origin (Boëda et al. 2013, 2014).
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REFERENCES
Boëda, E.; Lourdeau, A.; Lahaye, CH.; Daltrini Felice, G.;
Viana, S.; Clemente Conte, I.; Pino, M.; Fontugne, M.; Hoeltz,
S.; Guidon, N.; Pessis, A.M.; Da Costa, A. & Pagli, M. (2013).
The Late-Pleistocene Industries of Piauí, Brazil: New Data.
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and M.R. Waters. Center for the Study of the First Americans.
Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University. Pp. 445465.
Boëda, E.; Clemente Conte, I.; Fontugne, M.; Lahaye, Ch.; Pino,
M.; Felice, G.D.; Guidon, N.; Hoeltz, S.; Lourdeau, A.; Pagli, M.;
Pessis, A.-M.; Viana, S.; Da Costa, A. & Douville, E. (2014). A new
late Pleistocene archaeological sequence in South America: the
Vale da Pedra Furada (Piauí, Brazil). Antiquity. 88, 927–41.
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Clemente Conte, I.; Lazuén Fernández, T.; Astruc, L. &
Rodríguez Rodríguez, A. (2014). Use-wear analysis of non lint
raw materials: The cases of quartz/quartzite and obsidian.
In Use-Wear and residue analysis in archaeology. Manuals
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Marreiros, J., Gibaja Bao, J., Bicho, N. Springer. Pp. 59-82.
Gibaja Bao, J. F.; Clemente Conte, I. & Mir, A. (2002). Análisis
funcional en instrumentos de cuarcita: el yacimiento del
paleolítico superior de la Cueva de la Fuente del Trucho
(Colungo, Huesca). In Análisis Funcional: su aplicación al estudio
de sociedades prehistóricas. Edited by I. Clemente, J. F. Gibaja &
R. Risch. BAR International Series 1073. Archaeopress. Oxford.
Pp. 79-86.
Guidon, N. (1989). On stratigraphy and chronology at Pedra
Furada. Current Anthropology. 30, 641–42.
Guidon, N. & Delibrias, G. (1986). Carbon-14 dates point to man
in the Americas 32,000 years ago. Nature. 321, 769–71. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1038/321769a0.
Jlopachev, G. A. & Gyria, E. Y. (2010). Secrets of ancient carvers of
Eastern Europe and Siberia: Treatment Techniques of ivory and
reindeer antler in the Stone Age. Based on archaeological and
experimental data (in Russian). Russian Academy of Sciences.
Peter The Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography
(Kunstkamera) RAS. Saint Petersburg, Nauka.
Parenti, F.; Fontugne, M. & Guerin, C. (1996). Pedra Furada in
Brazil and its «presumed» evidence: limitations and potential
of the available data. Antiquity. 70, 416-421.
Terradas Batlle, X. & Clemente Conte, I. (2001). La
experimentación como método de investigación cientíica:
aplicación a la tecnología lítica. In Préhistoire et approche
expérimentale. L. Bourgignon, I. Ortega & M.C. Frère-Sautot
(Dirs.). Editions Monique Mergoli. Collection préhistoire nº 5.
Pp. 89-94
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13
APPROACH TO THE VARIABILITY
OF MACRO-WEAR ON TWO ISOTROPIC
MATERIALS: FLINT AND LIMESTONE
Aproximación a la variabilidad de
macro-desgaste en dos materiales
isotrópicos: sílex y caliza
Viallet Cyril*
*Université de Perpignan Via-Domitia. UMR 7194-HNHP
Av. Léon-Jean Grégory, 66720, Tautavel, Francia
cyril.viallet@cerptautavel.com
Abstract
The diversity of raw materials used during the Paleolithic is rarely taken into consideration by use-wear analysis. The aim of this study is to compare the frequency of the occurrence of use-wear on limestone and lint,
as well as two diagnostic criteria of tool motion: the position and distribution of use-wear.
We present experimental results from 96 non-retouched edges in lint and the same number in limestone.
Use-wear analysis is performed at low magniication.
We conclude that on the 192 analyzed edges, the position and distribution criteria of use-wear are diagnostic
of tool motion on lint and limestone. These results allow us to consider the study of tool motion on different
isotropic raw materials.
Keywords: use-wear, raw materials, experimental approach, low magniication.
Resumen
La diversidad de materias primas empleadas durante el Paleolítico rara vez son consideradas a la hora de
afrontar un estudio traceológico. El objetivo de este estudio es comparar la frecuencia de huellas de uso
en piedra caliza y sílex, así como dos criterios diagnósticos del movimiento de la herramienta: la posición y
distribución de las huellas de uso.
Presentamos los resultados experimentales de 96 bordes no retocados en sílex y el mismo número en piedra
caliza. El análisis de uso y desgaste se realiza a baja resolución.
Se concluye que en los 192 bordes analizados, la posición y los criterios de distribución de las huellas de uso
diagnosticas el movimiento de la herramienta en ambos casos (sílex y piedra caliza). Estos resultados nos
permiten entender el estudio de la mecánica de uso de las herramientas sobre diferentes materias primas
isotrópicas.
Palabras clave: huellas de uso, materias primas, enfoque experimental, baja resolución.
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INTRODUCTION
The diversity of raw materials used during the Paleolithic is rarely taken into consideration
by use-wear analysis (Marquez et al., 2001). This greatly limits the development of
functional analyses of Middle Pleistocene artefacts, which often comprise considerable
raw material diversity.
Specialized studies of rocks other than lint have been conducted for quartz (e.g.,
Knuttson, 1986), limestone (e.g., Marquez et al., 2001; Vergès, 2002), obsidian (e.g.,
Mansur-Franchomme, 1988), basalt (e.g., Plisson, 1985) and quartzite (e.g., Pedergnana
et al., 2017). However, studies comparing the development of use-wear on different raw
material are rare (Beyries, 1982; Bradley and Clayton, 1987; Clemente Conte and Gibaja
Bao, 2009; Pargeter, 2013; Pedergnana et al., 2017) and often focus on speciic microwears features such as polish. These analyses conclude that too much variability exists
between the different raw materials and that it is necessary to make speciic experimental
reference collections for each type of rock.
However, the variability of use-wear characterizing tool motion – and not the worked
material – is poorly documented. This type of use-wear depends strictly on mechanical
constraints (Prost, 1989) and can therefore have similar features on different raw
materials, if they are similar to the isotropic solids. The aim of this study is to test the
criteria for determining tool motion from macro-wear on two different raw materials, in
order to quantify the variability of the development of use-wear and also to assess the
reproducibility of functional analysis on different raw materials.
METHODS
We conducted a speciic experiment in order to control most of the variations of the
different parameters. Two raw materials were used: lint from the Bages-Sigean basin
(Aude, France) and limestone from the Var alluviums (Provence-Alpes-Côte-d’Azur,
France). Two tool motions were tested: transverse movement and longitudinal movement.
To avoid variations other than those induced by the diversity of the raw materials, the
worked materials were the same for all the lakes: dry beech calibrated at 18 mm (Figure
1). To control the variations induced by use time, half of the experimental lakes were
worked for four minutes and the other half were worked for ten minutes.
Figure 1. Raw
materials, tool
motion and worked
material used for
experimentation.
Experimental tools were knapped with a hard hammer. We used lakes, in order to avoid
variation linked to the presence of retouch on the cutting edge (Claud, 2008). For each
raw material and each tool motion, 48 experimental lakes were tested. They are
subdivided into three angle classes, recorded as
A (<35°), B (35°-65°) and C (>65°). Angulation is
an additional parameter of variation. Considering
all the parameters of variation that we seek to
control, each tool motion with the same raw
material and the same angle was tested with
sixteen experimental lakes, which should provide
statistical representation of the results.
Each experimental lake was studied using the
commonly accepted criteria for determining tool
motion from macro-wear after a critical review of
published sources (Prost, 1989; Claud, 2008). We
chose to test the reproducibility of the analysis by
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applying criteria of position and distribution.
Position criteria are recorded based on four subcriteria relecting the differential location of usewear. In addition, we distinguish the positions:
strictly unifacial (91-100% of scars are on the same
surface), mostly unifacial (76-90% of scars are on
the same surface), preferentially bifacial (61-75% of
scars are on the same surface) and homogeneously
bifacial (50-60% of scars are on the same surface).
We considered the distribution of use-wear on both
surfaces and proposed six different distribution
patterns in terms of continuity or discontinuity of
use-wear on one or both surfaces (Figure 2).
The experimental lakes were cleaned with
pure water and a soft bristled toothbrush. The
analysis was carried out with an Optika SZM-SMD
stereomicroscope, and the most characteristic usewear features were photographed with a Canon EOS
550D camera and a Sigma 50mm camera lens.
RESULTS
Position criteria
Unidirectional Perpendicular Transverse
Movement (U.P.T.M)
On the 96 experimental cutting edges (lint and
limestone combined) only one does not show usewear: this is a limestone cutting edge with a class
C angle used for 10 minutes. Thus, we present the
position of macro-wear on 95 cutting edges. Only the
strictly unifacial and mainly unifacial sub-criteria are
represented, regardless of the raw material. For lint,
87.5% of the experimental cutting edges present a strictly unifacial position and 12.5%
show a mostly unifacial position. For limestone, 80.85% of experimental cutting edges
present a strictly unifacial position and 19.15% show a mainly unifacial position (Figure 3).
Bidirectional Perpendicular Longitudinal Movement (B.P.L.M)
The 96 experimental lakes present use-wear on the cutting edges. Only the preferentially
bifacial and homogeneous bifacial sub-criteria are represented, whatever the raw material.
The homogeneous bifacial position is represented on 68.75% of the experimental lint
cutting edges, and 77.08% of the experimental limestone cutting edges. The preferential
bifacial position is represented by 31.25% of the experimental lint lakes and 22.92% of
the experimental limestone lakes (Figure 3).
Figure 2. Schematic
representation of the
criteria used for the
analysis.
Figure 3. Behaviour
of position criteria for
longitudinal (B.P.L.M)
or transversal
(U.P.T.M) movement.
Figure 4. Behaviour
of distribution criteria
for longitudinal
(B.P.L.M) or
transversal (U.P.T.M)
movement.
Distribution criteria
Unidirectional Perpendicular Transversal Movement (U.P.T.M)
The continuous unifacial distribution of use-wear is represented by 91.67% of the
experimental lint lakes and 72.34% of the experimental limestone lakes. The other
experimental pieces present discontinuous unifacial distribution, respectively 8.33% for
lint and 27.66% for limestone (Figure 4).
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Figure 5. Overview
table of tests
performed.
Bidirectional Perpendicular Longitudinal Movement (B.P.L.M)
Linked to the position of use-wear, the distribution for the longitudinal translation is always
alternating and most frequently continuous. Thus alternating continuous distribution is
present on 58.33% of experimental lint lakes and increases to 75% for experimental
limestone cutting edges. Alternating discontinuous distribution is represented by 41.77%
of the experimental lint and 25% of the experimental limestone lakes (Figure 4).
Statistical comparisons
Three statistical tests (Khi2, Fisher exact and Student) were applied for each criterion and
each tool motion. The aim of this test is to determine whether our results, are different or
not for lint and limestone. We systematically tested the null hypothesis, that is to say, that
lint and limestone experimental lakes show the same breakage behavior. The threshold
values chosen for interpreting p(value) are: <0.01 very strong presumption against H0;
0.01-0.05 strong presumption against H0; >0.05 no presumption against H0.
For the position criterion, in the case of transverse (U.P.T.T) and longitudinal (B.P.L.T)
movement, the set of p (value) of the tests carried out does not lead to presumptions
against H0 (Figure 5). We can therefore consider that for the position criterion, for both
of the tested tool-motions, the lint and limestone experimental lakes present the same
behavior to mechanical stress.
For the distribution criterion, in the case of longitudinal translation (B.P.L.T), the set of p(value)
of the tests carried out does not lead to presumptions against H0 (Figure 5). We can consider
here that lint and limestone have the same breakage behavior. However, concerning transverse
movement (U.P.T.T), the presumption against H0 is very strong for the Fisher test and strong
for the Student test (Figure 5). Therefore breakage behavior is not the same here.
CONCLUSIONS
The position and distribution criteria of macro-wear, allow for differentiation between
transverse movement and longitudinal movement on dry wood. Transverse translation
is characterized by a strictly unifacial position of use-wear and continuous distribution.
In contrast, longitudinal translation is characterized by the homogeneous bifacial
position of use-wear and an alternating distribution. Therefore it is possible to diagnose
longitudinal and transversal tool motions from the analysis of macroscopic use-wear.
The breakage behavior of both of the tested raw materials is usually equal. The observed
frequency variations do not result in the impossibility to diagnose tool motion. Apart
from the distribution criteria for transverse movement, all the statistical tests conducted
do not differentiate between lint and limestone for the selected criteria. These results
thus allow us to consider the study of tool motion on different isotropic raw materials.
However, it is necessary to expand the experimentation with other tool motions –
particularly transverse translation with bidirectional motion – and other isotropic
raw materials, such as quartzite, which is present in signiicant quantities in Middle
Pleistocene deposits.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank the organizing committee for allowing me to present my work. Thanks
to Cyrielle Mathias for proofreading this manuscript and to Louise Byrne for editing the
English.
REFERENCES
Beyries, S. (1982). Comparaison de traces d’utilisation sur
différentes roches siliceuses. In Tailler ! Pour quoi faire :
Préhistoire et technologie lithique, vol. II. Recent progress in
Microwear studies. Cahen D. (dir.). Studia Praehistorica Belgica
2. Pp 235-240.
Bradley, R. et Clayton, C. (1987). The inluence of lint microstructure
on the formation of micro-wear polishes. In The human uses of
lint and chert. Sieveking G. et Newcomer M. (dir.). Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge. Pp 81-89.
Claud, E. (2008). Le statut fonctionnel des bifaces au Paléolithique
moyen récent dans le sud-ouest de la France – Etude tracéologique
intégrée des outillages des sites de La Graulet, la conne de
Bergerac, Combe Brune 2, Fonseigner et Chez-Pinaud/Jonzac.
Thèse de Doctorat. Université de Bordeaux 1. 546 pp.
Clemente Conte, I. et Gibaja Bao, J. (2009). Formation of usewear trace on non-lint rocks: the case of quartzite and rhyolite
– differences and similarities. In Non-lint raw material use in
Prehistory. Sternke, F. Eigeland, L. and Costa, L.G (dir.). BAR
International Series 1939. 93-98.
Knutsson, K. (1986). SEM-analysis of wear features on
experimental quartz tools. In Technical aspects of microwear
studies on stone tools. Owen L.-R. et Unrath G. (dir.). Actes de la
conférence de Tübingen février 1985. Early Man News 9.10.11: 35-46.
Mansur-Framchomme, M. E. (1988). Tracéologie et technologie:
quelques données sur l’obsidienne. In Industries lithiques:
tracéologie et technologie. Beyries S. (dir.). Actes de la table
ronde, Centre de Recherches Archéologiques du CNRS,
Valbonne 18-20 octobre 1986. BAR International Series. Oxford.
411(2). Pp. 29-47.
Marquez, B., Olle, A., Sala, R., et Verges, J.M. (2001). Perspectives
méthodologiques de l’analyse fonctionnelle des ensembles
lithiques du Pléistocène inférieur et moyen d’Atapuerca
(Burgos, Espagne). L’Anthropologie. 105, 281-299.
Pargeter, J. (2013). Rock type variability and impact fracture
formation: working towards a more robust macrofracture
method. Journal of Archaeological Science. 40, 4056-4065.
Pedergnana, A., Garcia-Anton M. D., Olle, A. (2017). Structural
study of two quartzite varieties from the Utrilla facies formation
(Olmos de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain): from a petrographic
characterisation to a functional analysis design. Quaternary
International. 433, 163-178.
Plisson, H. (1982). Une analyse fonctionnelle des outillages
basaltiques. In Tailler ! pour quoi faire: Préhistoire et technologie
lithique II. Recent progress in Microwear studies. Cahen D. (dir.).
Studia Praehistorica Belgica 2. Pp. 241-244.
Prost, D. C. (1989). Enlèvements accidentels, enlèvements
d’utilisation et de retouche sur les outils de pierre taillée. Thèse
de Doctorat. Université Paris X, Nanterre. 552 pp.
Vergès, J. M. (2002). Caracterització dels models d’instrumental
lític del mode 1 a partir de les dates de l’anàlisi funcional dels
conjunts litotècnics d’Aïn Hanech i El-Kherba (Algèria), Monte
Poggiolo i Isernia la Pineta (Itàlia). Tesis doctoral. Universitat
Rovira i Virgila, Tarragona. 557 pp.
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14
EXPERIMENTAL AND FUNCTIONAL
ANALYSIS OF ROCK CRYSTAL PROJECTILES
Análisis experimental y funcional
de proyectiles en cristal de roca
Juan Luis Fernández-Marchena*, José Ramón Rabuñal** ***,
Gala García-Argudo* ** ***
*SERP, Seminari d’Estudis i Recerques Prehistòriques. Secció de Prehistòria i Arqueologia,
Facultat de Geograia i Història, Universitat de Barcelona
C/Montalegre 6-8, 08001 Barcelona, Spain
juanl.ferna@gmail.com
**IPHES, Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social,
c/Marcel•lí Domingo s/n (Ediici W3)
Campus Sescelades, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
***Àrea de Prehistòria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV)
Av. Catalunya 35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain
Abstract
Functional analyses on rock crystal tools are scarce. Due to the microlithic character of some elements recovered in NW Iberian sites, we believe that some of them could have been used as projectiles. To test this
hypothesis we carried out a pilot experiment that aims to evaluate if it is possible to identify projectiles in
rock crystal. We followed a dual approach to study the deformations derived from impact. Studying the pieces before and after use, we analyzed macroscopic fractures and microscopic features. Thus we could verify
what types of marks were created after shooting and which methodology should be followed in a large-scale
experiment.
Keywords: rock crystal, projectiles, traceology, experimental archaeology.
Resumen
Los análisis funcionales sobre útiles de cristal de roca son muy escasos. Debido al carácter microlítico de
algunos elementos localizados en yacimientos del NW Ibérico, creemos que algunos podrían haber sido
usados como proyectiles. Para comprobar esta hipótesis programamos una experimentación piloto con el
objetivo de comprobar si se pueden identiicar elementos de proyectil en cristal de roca. Se realizó una doble
aproximación a las deformaciones por impacto comparando el antes y el después del uso: documentación de
fracturas macroscópicas y análisis microscópico. De esta manera se pudo comprobar qué tipos de estigmas
se crearon sobre las piezas y cuál es el método de análisis que se debe priorizar en un próximo experimento
a gran escala.
Palabras clave: cristal de roca, proyectiles, traceología, arqueología experimental.
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INTRODUCTION
In archaeological sites located in areas where lint is scarce, one of the raw materials that
emerge to substitute it as high quality raw material is rock crystal. This is a remarkable
tendency documented in Late Upper Palaeolithic and early Holocene sites in NW Iberia,
where lithic assemblages with a great presence of rock crystal elements are frequently
found. In fact, in some archaeological sites rock crystal constitutes one of the most
abundant raw material, overpassing other local raw materials such as quartz or quartzite
(Villar Quinteiro, 1992).
Despite their frequency, these elements have been scarcely studied. In technological and
typological works it is common that rock crystal is not distinguished from vein quartz,
and thus it is not speciically studied. In other cases, rock crystal is directly not studied,
because it is conceived as a symbolic, magical or non-utilitarian object.
But we think that rock crystal deserves special attention as raw material. It is a high
quality variety of quartz, more suitable for knapping than vein quartz. Besides, it also has
good properties concerning the use because, although brittle, it is a hard material.
Figure 1. A/ Digital microscope with a range between 15x and 35x magniications. B/ Optical
microscope Zeiss AxioScope A1. The technical speciications of this microscope can be found in Ollé
et al (2016, pp. 156).
Functional studies on projectile
elements have had a long tradition
of research. In the past few years,
these studies have experienced a
strong impulse that unavoidably
led to open an interesting debate
about the different methodologies
that can be applied. In this kind
of studies it is considered that
there must be a comprehensive
approach, through macroscopical
and microscopical analyses, for
being able to conirm the functional attribution (Rots and Plisson, 2014).
Macrofractures produced by impact have been widely considered
in experimental works and in the
study of archaeological assemblages. In the recent years, extensive literature on the deinition of
the diagnostic fractures has been
produced (Pargeter, 2011).
Microscopic features have also
been widely analysed (Moss, 1983;
Figure 2. A/ Freehand knapping.
Figure 3. Cleaning process in the
Fischer et al. 1984). The high magB/ Bipolar knapping.
ultrasonic cleaner.
niication observation of the striations, or Microscopic Linear Impact Traces (MLIT) (Moss, 1983), has also provided a great
diagnostic value.
This pilot experimental programme intends to be a irst approximation to the identiication
of the macroscopic and microscopic deformations suffered by rock crystal elements used
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as projectiles. The objective is to establish a reference point to develop
wider experiments and to identify rock crystal projectile implements in
archaeological assemblages.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Just like Rots and Plisson stated (2014), we believe that the identiication
of projectile elements, in any given raw material, must be experimentally
tested. In this pilot experiment, we have analysed the experimental
material from both macroscopical and microscopical perspectives to
identify as many features as possible derived from the use of small rock
crystal laked elements as projectiles.
First, we photographed every tool before being hafted to compare them,
after its shooting, with the disassembled remain. The next step is the
documentation and analysis of the fractures at low magniications
using a digital microscope (PCE-MM200) (Figure 1A). Finally, we carried
out a microscopic analysis with the Zeiss Axioscope A1 relected light
microscope (Figure 1B) equipped with a Nomarski prism and DIC
system (Differential Interference Contrast). This system is essential to
avoid the relectivity of the crystal and offers a 3D image.
Figure 4. Two examples of iridescences from
projectile impact.
The experimental programme started with the knapping of the rock
crystal tools. To maximize the production of the prisms we used two
knapping techniques: freehand knapping technique, with a hard
hammerstone, and bipolar on anvil technique to exhaust the cores
(Figure 2). To avoid the confusion of the marks, the pieces obtained by
the bipolar technique were marked.
The tools were hafted in L-shaped and split-ended wooden foreshafts,
and ixed with the sole use of adhesive.
Figure 5. Iridescence from
intentional bending in the border
of the fracture.
The projectiles were shot into a Cervus elaphus corpse, at a seven meters distance,
with a commercial bow of 18-22 lb (INITECH 2, 18-22lbs and carbon arrows
(67cm+foreshaft+point). To avoid the creation of false marks, all the pieces were
transported already hafted in the foreshafts in individual zip bags, and they were kept in
the bags again after the shooting. With this same objective, the tools were unhafted from
the foreshafts by submerging them in acetone, still inside the zip bags, in an ultrasonic
cleaner (Figure 3). After that, all the tools were cleaned with different baths of acetone
and hydrogen peroxide.
To complement the data about the fractures produced by projectile impacts, we analysed a
small sample of tools that were intentionally fractured by bending them. We also analysed
some bending-like knapping accidental fractures.
RESULTS
The graphic documentation gave us some interesting results. First, we realised that
impacts produce a series of iridescences, due to the compression of the crystal. In the
studied sample -despite its small size- we documented that these features do not only
appear in the border of the fracture, but that they are also very penetrating, reaching
several millimetres to the inner part of the piece (Figure 4), while the intentionally bended
pieces only showed iridescences in the border of the fracture (Figure 5).
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We have also microscopically
documented how different types
of stress igures occur on the
border of the fractures. In those
fractures not created by impact
-including microchippings- the
different features do not penetrate
to the inner part of the tool, but in
the case of impact fractures we
could document how reticulated
issures appear in the inner part of
the tool (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Two examples of
reticulated issures.
Figure 8. A/ Furrow striation.
B/ Bright striations.
We could test that on rock crystal
there also appear different types
of MLIT. Some of the linear igures
documented can have some
resemblance to those formed on lint,
although the mechanical properties
of the two raw materials make these
striations to have their own speciic
characteristics. The surface of the
material, smooth in the case of rock
crystal and wrinkled in lint, causes
the formation of stress marks on the
crystal, in the form of microfracturing,
while on lint it is due to the smashing
and smoothening of the surface.
The striations documented are not
comparable, neither in shape nor
in size, to those appearing from the
use of the tools in domestic activities (Fernández-Marchena and Ollé, 2016). The brittleness
and hardness of the crystal make that, facing the stress of the impact, the MLIT have some
speciic characteristics. These MLIT on rock crystal can be subdivided in three interwoven
types of marks. In this case, the most frequent two correspond to the sleek and furrow
marks described by Kamminga (1979), but changing the disposition, location and size
(Figure 7). We must specify that in this case we only refer to the linear morphology, and not
to the kind of formative processes of the trace (Mansur-Franchomme, 1986). So, we can see
that sleek striations are very ine lines, characterized for having a regular margin (Figure 7
white oval). On the other hand, furrow striations, which could even be subdivided in several
subcategories (Mansur-Franchomme, 1986), are longer, wider and have a characteristic
irregular margin (Figure 8A).
Figure 7. Example of furrow striation with the
appearance of a linear polish striation and a
sleek striation in the white oval.
Figure 9. Striations over the adhesive residues.
The last group comprise the bright striations. Although formed by the same process as
the other two types, their main characteristic is their whitish colour, bright in certain cases
(Figure 8B). Despite their brightness, this has no relation with the linear polishes on lint,
but with the fracturing of the surface. This type of mark is interwoven with sleek and furrow
striations, because the edges of these bright striations can be regular or irregular.
All the striations -or MLIT- documented in the microscopic analyses are disposed
longitudinally from the distal part of the piece to the hafting area. Despite this, we did not
document any striations starting directly from the fracture. All of them were disposed in the
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mesial sector of the tool. This is very signiicant, because all the pieces used as projectiles
were selected exclusively basing on their pointed morphology, most of them without any
retouch, and with a large variability in width and thickness.
In the studied sample we didn’t ind any striations in the proximal part of
the tools. Our main hypothesis about this is that the adhesive absorbed the
force of the impact, avoiding also the brushing of the crystal fragments over
the surface. In certain cases we could document, after a deicient cleaning,
striations formed over a remaining layer of adhesive (Figure 9). These
striations don’t have the same appearance than those located directly on
the tools, looking much more like those documented in lint.
The macrofractures documented were located only in the distal area.
We could not document lateral fractures, maybe because we did not use
ibres for the hafting. Proximal areas do not show either any evidence
of fracture or removal. Probably this has the same explanation as the
absence of striations, being the adhesive the one that bears the stress
generated by the impact.
Despite having documented a wide variety of impact fractures, we could
not ind any completely comparable to those known as Diagnostic Impact
Fractures (DIF) (Pargeter, 2011). This is most probably a consequence of
the behaviour of rock crystal when facing the stress. The most frequent macrofractures we
could document are bending fractures, that in the case of rock crystal present a stepped
outline (Figure 10). Besides, we documented some fractures that could be considered spinoff fractures, after the appearance of chippings departing from the fractures.
Figure 10.
Piece smoked with
magnesium in which
it can be observed a
bending fracture with
a stepped outline.
It is obvious that, as we stated before, due to the pilot character of this experiment the data
about the frequency of the appearance of macrofractures should be conirmed with a wider
experimental basis.
CONCLUSIONS
Macro and microscopic analyses of experimental rock crystal projectiles provide a wide
variability of features to analyse. Due to the small sample analysed, we still cannot state the
grade of validity of the study of macrofractures to identify their use as projectiles. On the other
hand, the microscopic analysis does have a great diagnostic value. The documentation of the
described striations (sleek, furrow and bright) allows to differentiate them from those formed
from other kind of activities (Ollé et al., 2016), and clearly show the kinematic of the projectile.
The appearance of reticulated issures is very characteristic of projectile impacts.
Iridescences, despite that in certain cases it can be proved that were produced by impacts,
are more problematic when trying to state their attribution.
As a inal remark, we support the statement that the combination of high and low
magniications approaches is the best way to obtain reliable data. Despite this, we consider
that the microscopic analysis should be prioritized over the macroscopic one.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors want to express their gratitude to Juan Ignacio Morales, Antonella Pedergnana
and Andreu Ollé for their support and their very helpful reviews of the text. J. L. F.-M. is the
beneiciary of a pre-doctoral FPI grant from the MINECO/FSE (BES-2015-074931).
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REFERENCES
Fernández-Marchena, J. L., Ollé, A., (2016). Microscopic analysis
of technical and functional traces as a method for the use-wear
analysis of rock crystal tools. Quaternary International. 424, 171-190.
Fischer, A., Vemming Hansen, P., Rasmussen, P., (1984). Macro
and microwear traces on lithic projectile points. Journal of
Danish Archaeology. 3, 19-46.
Kamminga, J., (1979). The nature of use-polish and abrasive
smoothing on stone tools. In Lithic use-wear analysis. Edited by
B. Hayden. Studies in Archaeology. New York. Academic Press.
Pp. 143-157.
Mansur-Franchomme, M. E., (1986). Microscopie du matériel
lithique préhistorique. Traces d’utilisation, altérations naturelles,
accidentelles et technologiques. Examples de Patagonia. CNRS.
Moss, E. H., (1983). The functional analysis of lint implements:
Pincevent and Pont d’Ambon: two case studies from the French
inal Palaeolithic. BAR International Series, Oxford.
Ollé, A., Pedergnana, A., Fernández-Marchena, J. L., Martin, S.,
Borel, A., Aranda, V., (2016). Microwear features on vein quartz,
rock crystal and quartzite: A study combining Optical Light and
Scanning Electron Microscopy. Quaternary International. 424,
154-170.
Pargeter, J., (2011). Assessing the macrofracture method
for identifying Stone Age hunting weaponry. Journal of
Archaeological Science. 38, 2882-2888.
Pignat, G., Plisson, H., (2000). Le quartz pour quel usage?
L’outillage mésolithique de Vionnaz (CH) et l’apport de la
tracéologie. In MESO 97. Actes de la table ronde: epipaléolithique
et mésolithique, vol. 81. Edited by Crotti, P. Cahiers d’Archéologie
Romande. Lausanne. Pp. 65-78.
Rots, V., Plisson, H., (2014). Projectiles and the abuse of the usewear method in a search for impact. Journal of Archaeological
Science. 48, 154-165.
Villar Quinteiro, R., (1997). El Paleolítico superior y Epipaleolítico
en Galicia. Zephyrus. 50, 71-106.
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15
EXPERIMENTATION AND TRACES ANALYSIS
OF MACRO-LITHIC TOOLS:
THE CASE OF GROTTA DELLA MONACA CAVE
(SANT’AGATA DI ESARO-COSENZA, ITALY)
Experimentación y análisis traceológico
de herramientas líticas:
El ejemplo de la Cueva de la Grotta della Monaca
(Sant’Agata di Esaro-Cosenza, Italia)
Isabella Caricola*, Cristina Lemorini**
*Phd student University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’, University Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne. Paris.
France. Centro Regionale di Speleologia “Enzo dei Medici”
isabella.caricola@uniroma1.it
**Department of Classics, University of Roma “Sapienza”. Rome, Italy
cristina.lemorini@uniroma1.it
Abstract
Grotta della Monaca, located in the south of Italy (North-Western Calabria), is a mine of iron hydroxides and
mineral copper. The use of the cave covers a long period: from the Upper Palaeolithic to Post-Medieval times.
The cave has been used not only as a mineral resource but also as a burial area, probably serving some form
of “cult” role.
Sixty-nine lithic artefacts belonging to the techno-functional categories of querns, grinder/crusher and abrading stones come from the deposits at the entrance of the cave. The multiple roles played by the cave informed
the creation of experimental replicas of various activities with the aim creating a reference collection to compare with the archaeological macro-lithic tools.
The irst step of the experiments was to collect raw materials similar to those of the archaeological record. In
accordance with the petrographic analyses, the raw material comprised sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks.
The experimental reproductions were used as abrading tools for processing deer antler, stone, metal, hide,
wood and bone; and also as grinders and grinder/crusher to work minerals, cereals and pulses.
Observation of the archaeological worked surfaces using a stereo-microscope at low magniication enabled the
identiication of patterns matching the traces left on the experimental specimens by the processing of goethite,
an iron hydroxide (in 22 cases), and by stone (in 6 cases). Therefore, Grotta della Monaca can be deined as
primarily an atelier, where goethite was processed and subsequently transported out of the cave as powder.
Moreover, through experimentation we found that the hydrated goethite, coming from the inner areas of the
cave, is not immediately workable but requires a drying process by exposure to sources of heat or light. We
hypothesize a seasonal frequentation of the site, in spring/summer when this process is accelerated or, alternatively, an exposure to artiicial sources of heat.
Keywords: experimentation, macro-lithic tools, trace analysis, mine.
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Resumen
Grotta della monaca, ubicada en el sur de Italia (Noroeste de Calabria), es una mina de hidróxido de hierro y
mineral de cobre. El uso de esta Cueva abarca un largo periodo: del Paleolítico medio a la Edad Moderna. La
Cueva ha sido utilizada no solo como una Fuente de recursos minerales, sino como zona de enterramiento,
con una probable intención de culto.
Sesenta y nueve herramientas incluidas dentro de las categorías tecno funcionales de molinos, morteros y
piedras abrasivas provienen de los depósitos a la entrada de la cueva. Para comprender estos materiales
se ha generado una colección de réplicas experimentales que nos permitan conocer el uso de estos objetos.
El primer paso del experimento fue la adquisición de materia prima semejante al registro arqueológico. De acuerdo a los análisis petrográicos, la materia prima se componía de rocas sedimentarias, metamóricas y volcánicas.
Las reproducciones experimentales fueron usadas como herramientas abrasivas Para trabajar asta, piedra, metal, piel, madera y hueso; y también como morteros y molinos para procesar minerales, cereales y legumbres.
La observación de las supericies arqueológicas trabajadas se realizó a través de lupa binocular de bajos
aumentos que permitió la identiicación de patrones que coinciden con las huellas presentes en las muestras experimentales por el procesamiento de goethita, un hidróxido de hierro (en 22 casos) y de piedra (en
6 casos). Por lo tanto, Grotta della Monaca puede deinirse como un taller fundamentalmente, en el que se
procesaba goethita y posteriormente era transportada fuera de la cueva en forma de polvo.
Además, a través de la experimentación descubrimos que la goethita hidratada, proveniente de zonas internas de la cueva, no permite su procesamiento inmediato, sino que requiere de un proceso de secado
mediante la exposición a fuentes de calor o luz. Nuestra hipótesis sería un uso estacional del yacimiento
durante la primavera/verano, cuando el proceso se acelera, o bien alternativamente una exposición a fuentes
artiiciales de calor.
Palabras clave: experimentación, herramientas de piedra, análisis de huellas, mina.
INTRODUCTION
Grotta della Monaca is a karst cave located in the region of Calabria (Southern Italy), in
Sant’Agata di Esaro (Cosenza) (Figure 1).
The cave is characterized by important mining outcrops: carbonates such as malachite
and azurite, sporadic sulphates and phosphates of copper (as brochantite, libethenite and
sampleite), while iron ores are predominant (pure goethite, lepidocrocite, yukonite and
hematite) (Larocca, 2005; 2011; 2012).
These outcrops, especially those of hydroxides, have been subject to quite intense ancient
mining activities in a period dating from the Late Neolithic and Early Eneolithic; while the
cultivation of hydroxides continues up to the Post-Medieval periods (Larocca, 2005).
However, over the millennia the cave was frequented not only for mining activity but also as
a burial area in the Bronze Age; going back to the Neolithic, it was used to deposit vessels
containing vegetable remains or the burnt bone remains of wild boar (sus scrofa). Such
activities cannot be connected to a certain “cult” role, but certainly attest to an intensive use
of the site (Larocca, 2005).
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Macro-lithic tools were found at the cave entrance (“Pregrotta” area) and
69 were subject to a techno-functional analysis which required extensive
archaeological experimentation. Three classes of objects were identiied:
the querns, grinder/crusher and abrading stone.
SETTING THE EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOL
Use-wear analysis is inextricably associated with experimentation, which
entails working in laboratory conditions and developing a protocol based
on controlled parameters in order to create replicas of the archaeological
record (Longo et al., 2001). In our case, this method allowed us to
reproduce and to deine different combinations of technological and
functional traces (Adams et al. 2009; Hamon, 2006).
The petrographic analysis and the collecting of experimental raw
materials
The irst step required by the developed protocol was to search for raw
materials similar to those used in the archaeological context (Figure
2). Petrographic analyses conducted on the archaeological samples
established that the artefacts are composed of: sedimentary rocks (in
66 cases; 96% of the total), metamorphic rocks (in two cases; 3%, to
glaucophane schist) and igneous rocks (in one case; 2%, tonalite). The
majority of the sedimentary rocks are represented by sandstones (in 15
cases; 22%), limestone (in 13 cases; 19%) and arkose (in nine cases;
13%); analyses showed that quartzarenites (in three cases; 4%), arenite
(in one case; 2%) and litoareniti (in one case; 1%) are also present. A
small portion of the sample was poorly preserved (in 24 cases; 35%)
(Acquafredda, Piccarreta, 2005) (Figure 3).
Thanks to the petrographic data it was possible to identify possible
sources of raw materials near the site. Secondary deposits of sedimentary
rocks, particularly sandstones, are abundant in a segment of the river
Esaro that low just below Grotta della Monaca. The fragments of
sandstone were of different sizes. As the natural morphology of the
rocks is already suitable for human use, they do not requires signiicant
technological modiications. Limestone pebbles are also found inside
the river whereas igneous and metamorphic rocks are absent from the immediate area.
Important deposits of these materials, especially granite, occur a few kilometres from
Sant’Agata di Esaro.
The experimental reference collection
An experimental protocol was developed and implemented for the production of a reference
collection. All the data related to the experimentation were organized in a database, including
informations on: type of instrument; technological modiications; on what material was the
replica used; activity carried out (passive tool, active tool or tool used in combination with other
artefact); movement; duration of the experiment.
All replicas were observed with a stereomicroscope, before and after experimental
sessions, so as to document changes that occurred on the active surface. The used area
of the macro-lithic tools must be observed at various magniications in order to locate and
describe the traces of use. At high magniication, it is possible to observe changes in the
grains and note the possible micro-fractures, or rounding which is characteristic of the
substance worked.
Figure 1. Geographic
map: indication of
the site “Grotta della
Monaca” (CalabriaItaly).
Figure 2. Raw material
survey in the Esaro
river (Calabria-Italy).
Figure 3. Rocks
more represented at
Grotta della Monaca:
sandstone 22%;
arenite 2%; arkose
13%; litoarenite
1%; quartzarenite
4%; limestone 19%;
glaucophane schist
3%; tonalite 1%;
indeterminable 35%.
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Figure 4.
Experimental tests
of abrasion: a) deer
antler; b) stone; c)
metal; d) hide; e)
wood.
Figure 5.
Experimental test:
crushing and grinding
of goethite.
THE EXPERIMENTAL TEST
The different usage patterns of Grotta della Monaca over an extended period of time,
from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Post-medieval period, have necessitated a wide
experimentation, in order to obtain different comparative traces. The tests were designed
supposing various possible uses for the macro-lithic tools analysed.
The replicas were used as abrading stones to work deer antler, stone axes, metal objects
(copper and iron), leather, bone and wooden objects. Each of the experiments lasted about
1.5/ 2h (Figure 4).
Some replicas were used as querns and grinder/crusher for processing goethite [FeO (OH)],
an iron hydroxide. The mineral blocks were crushed and then reduced to powder, using the
same handstone as a crusher, in an alternating movement of crushing and grinding, using a
quern as a base. Mineral powder (about 3 kg from 5kg of the initial product) was produced,
ranging in colour from orange to brown (Figure 5).
During the experimentation was possible to note that the hydrated goethite, coming from the
internal areas of the cave, is not immediately workable and requires drying by exposure to
sources of light or heat (Figure 6).
Copper carbonates, in particular malachite, were also subjected to experimentation; the
small blocks of limestone with the veils of malachite found in the cave, were scraped directly
with a chipped stone tool, in our case made of lint, to obtain a colouring powder (8g of
powder of malachite-initial blocks of 800g) (Figure 7).
Some experimental tests were performed to check the eficiency of the replicas when
processing cereals and legumes. The duration of this test varied between 3/6h.
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Figure 6. Experimentation on hydrated goethite.
Figure 7. Experimentation on malachite.
Figure 8. Comparison between the trace
observed to the stereomicroscope. Traces of
goethite: a) before-experiment; b) afterexperiment; c) archaeological traces. Stone
abrasion: d) surface before-experiment; e)
after-experiment; f) archaeological traces.
THE RESULTS
The experimentation allowed us to compare the traces that developed on replicas with
those visible on the archaeological samples. The use-wear analysis was carried out at
the Laboratory of Technological and Functional Analysis of Prehistoric and Protohistoric
Artefacts (LTFAPA) of the University of Rome `La Sapienza’. As a result, on 22 macrolithic tools, including querns and grinder/crusher, displayed traces interpreted as being
the result of the pounding and grinding of goethite; six other macro-lithic tools presented
traces of abrasion, interpreted as the result of the shaping or re-shaping of lithic objects.
The traces related to goethite include disintegration of the microrelief and microfractures
on the grains alternating with areas of levelling. Traces on the abrading stone are
suggested to be the mechanical levelling of the grains (Figure 8).
The non-workability of hydrated goethite led us to hypothesize that the cave must have
been used predominantly during spring/summer; alternatively, the mineral may have been
exposed to artiicial heating sources.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Dr. Larocca for giving permission to study the macro-lithic tools of Grotta della
Monaca (Cosenza-Italy).
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REFERENCES
Acquafredda, P., Piccarreta, G. (2005). Caratterizzazione
petrograica dei manufatti litici, a cura di F. Larocc. In La miniera
pre-protostorica di Grotta della Monaca (Sant’Agata di Esaro –
Cosenza). Centro Regionale di Speleologia “Enzo dei Medici”.
Roseto Capo Spulico.
Larocca, F. (2005). La miniera pre-protostorica di Grotta della
Monaca (Sant’Agata di Esaro – Cosenza). Centro Regionale di
Speleologia “Enzo dei Medici”. Roseto Capo Spulico.
Larocca, F. (2011). La “miniera” di Grotta della Monaca.
Archeologia Viva. 149, 66-72.
Adams, J., Delgado, S., Dubreuil, L., Hamon, C., Plisson, H. &
Risch, R. (2009). Functional analysis of macro-lithic artefacts. In
Non-lint Raw Material Use in Prehistory Old Prejudices and New
Direction, 15TH UISPP congress, Session Lisbon- September 2006.
Edited by Sternke F., Eigeland L. & Costa L. BAR International
Series 1939. Oxford.
Larocca, F. (2012). Grotta della Monaca (Calabria, Italia
meridionale). Una miniera neolitica per l’estrazione dell’ocra. In
Borrell M. et al. (a cura di), Xarxes al Neolitic, Actes Congrès
Internacional (Gavà/Bellaterra 2-4 febrer 2011). Rubicatum.
Gavà. 5, 249-256.
Hamon, C. (2006). Broyage et abrasion au Néolitique ancien.
Caractérisation technique et fonctionnelle des outillages en grès
du Bassin parisien. BAR International Series 1551.
112
Longo, L., Iovino, M. R., Lemorini, C. (2001). L’analisi funzionale
per lo studio delle industrie litiche. Con un’appendice
sull’analisi funzionale delle materie dure animali. Rivista di
Scienze Preistoriche LI. 389-454.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
16
EXPERIMENTING WITH PREHISTORIC
SICKLES: A TRACEOLOGICAL APROXIMATION
Experimentando con hoces prehistóricas:
una aproximación traceológica
Mª Cristina López-Rodríguez*
*Dpt. Prehistory and Archaeology of University of Granada
mariacristina.lopez@predoc.uam.es
Abstract
In archaeological research, traceology is widely accepted in experimental studies, and plays a dual role for
archaeologists, producing reference collections and improving our understanding of the kinematics generated by the different types of traces during production, use, recycling and disposal. Thus, when studying the
archaeological record with certain questions in mind such as what happened, how, who and why, the combination of both methodologies gives us important knowledge about the life of the tools. In the present case,
our work consisted of deining an experimental protocol to obtain traces of use on lint sickles of different
types on the basis of those found in the archaeological record.
This process is framed within the study of issues related to agricultural activities and the development of a
production economy in prehistoric societies, whose changes are relected in the tools they used.
Keywords: traceology, use-wear, lithic industry, experimental archaeology, prehistoric sickles.
Resumen
Dentro de la investigación arqueológica, la Traceología se encuentra plenamente apoyada en los estudios
experimentales, ya que esta juega un doble papel para el arqueólogo tanto en la obtención de colecciones
de referencia como en la comprensión de la cinemática con la que se crean los diferentes tipos de huellas
ya sean de producción, utilización, reciclado y desecho. De esta forma, cuando le preguntamos al registro
arqueológico ciertas preguntas tales como qué se ha producido, cómo, quién o quiénes y para qué, la combinación de ambas metodologías nos aporta un conocimiento importantísimo sobre la vida de los instrumentos. Nuestro trabajo ha consistido en la creación de un protocolo experimental para la obtención de huellas
de uso utilizando hoces fabricadas en sílex, de distinta tipología en base a las que nos encontramos en el
registro arqueológico.
Todo ello, enmarcado dentro de la problemática del estudio de las actividades agrícolas y en lo que conlleva
el desarrollo de una economía productora en las sociedades prehistóricas, cuyos cambios quedan relejados
en el utillaje empleado para dichas actividades.
Palabras clave: traceología, huellas de uso, industria lítica, arqueología experimental, hoces prehistóricas.
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OBJECTIVES
Our investigation aimed to establish a state of the question for studies of prehistoric
sickles that have appeared at different archaeological sites, with a special focus on those
that have appeared on the Iberian Peninsula. We also wanted to draft an experimental
protocol with the combination of variables focused on the study of different activities that
generate different use-wear traces.
Finally we wanted to study the different characteristics of use-wear produced by cereal
cropping on the basis of variables taken into account during the experimental work.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD
When agriculture became an essential life sustaining activity for some communities,
sickles became essential objects, and in some cases were used as grave goods in funerary
offerings. Additionally, since they were mainly manufactured from pieces of lint, they can
facilitate the identiication of the lithic technology used by different prehistoric groups.
This also allows us to characterize different kinds of lithic sickles within the chronology of
the site under analysis.
In the case of the Iberian Peninsula, chronological differences have been identiied in the
study of these objects. In general, on the basis of the latest studies, we ind that during the
Neolithic, the main problem was based on the geographical and cultural contexts. During
the early stages, lint blades were used, along with smaller percentages of lint lakes, and
in time, lakes started to be abandoned and blades, either fractured or complete, became
predominant. Some authors (Skakun, 1992; Gibaja, 2004) suggest that the use of laminar
backs made it easier to attach the pieces to
the handles and also made the sickle more
effective.
Traceological studies of Copper and Bronze
Ages sickles from these periods are mainly
concentrated in Catalonia and south-eastern
Iberia.
Two main sickle groups from this period have
been be identiied in the Catalonia region
based on petrological and morpho-technical
differences and associated with different
contexts: those found at settlements are
characterized by the use of small lakes or
fractured blades retouched on both active
edges and in the area in contact with the
handle; and those found in graves, made from
large lint blades, over 15 cm. long, brought
from afar and removed by experts using
indirect percussion or pressure with a lever.
In this context, the blades show use-wear on
their sides and obvious resharpening (Gibaja
y Palomo, 2004).
Figure 1. Sickle types used in the experiments.
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Several sites have been located in the Levant and south-eastern Iberia where “sickle
teeth” or “harvest elements” have been documented, indicating both a morphological and
a functional characterization. These “sickle teeth” all have two main features: denticulated
retouch on the active edge (regardless of the kind of itting support) and cereal polish.
EXPERIMENTATION
Traceological studies are characterized by a speciic methodology based on experimentation
and observation of the archaeological record. Experimentation must therefore be thorough
and exhaustive in order to gather as much information as possible.
The experimental process designed in this case was focused on the wear of lithic material
used on elements, in this case dry cereal, that can leave traces on the lint.
The independent variables taken into account during the experiment were based on four
aspects:
Worked material: dry cereal (Triticum dicoccum), cutting height (high/low).
Tool: lint, type of active edge (smooth/denticulated), insertion angle in the handle
(parallel/oblique), position in the handle (proximal, mesial, distal), type of handle
(straight/curved).
Action: form of applied force (pressure), direction of movement (longitudinal), working
angle (height), laterality (right/left-handed), direction of movement (unidirectional).
Time: 30 and 60 minutes.
We produced ive types of sickles based on items documented in the archaeological record
(Figure 1):
Sickles composed of several denticulated elements made of lint in lakes, in a curved
handle.
Sickles composed of several denticulated elements made of lint from mesial fragments
of blades hafted in parallel to a curve handle.
Sickles composed of several elements made of lint from mesial fragments of blades
without retouch, obliquely hafted on a curved handle.
Sickles composed of two lint blades hafted in parallel to a strait handle.
Simple sickles with a lint blade hafted obliquely to a strait handle.
CONCLUSION
Before studying any element, whether experimental or archaeological, we must have an
overall vision of all the variables that might directly inluence the generation of certain
types of traces and their characteristics.
The scarce accrual of traces was due to the dryness of the cereal when it was cut, even in
sickles that were used for 60 minutes.
When referring to the description of the characteristics of the traces, some of the attributes
were affected by the independent variables taken into account during the experimentation.
Our polish/lustre experiment produced the typical polish generated by the use of lint
objects to cut cereal, varying in location, area and amount, depending on the position and
intersection of the lint piece. Nevertheless, the polish had a small area, partial topography
and an open or semi-open grid (Figure 2, 1-3). The following graphics show the spread of
the polish, depending on use time and cutting height. In igure 2, the X axis represents the
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Figure 2. Polish evolution, depending on use time.
Figure 3. Degree of development of the polish depending
of the height of cut.
Figure 4. Most of the striations were produced by low cereal cutting at the
same time that this variable (height cut) was more signiicant than the
duration of use on the spread of the striation.
Figure 5. Types of striations according to cutting height.
Figure 6. Cereal polish: 1 (50x) and, 2 (200x).
Polish produced by low cereal cutting: 3
(50x). Example of striation produced during
experiments: 4 (200x).
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spread of the polish. Although the a scale was from 0 to 3, we only managed to produce a
maximum of degree 1. The Y axis represents the number of sample of each degree. Figure
3, shows that most of the samples used for high cutting have a polish of 0.5, while in the
low cutting samples, the number with degree 1 increases, 0the majority still have a 0.5
polish.
Striations were mostly short, with a lat base and located parallel to the active area of the
item (Figure 4). Nevertheless, in cases involving an abrasive component, in this case the
ground, the striations were oblique to the cereal polish. In fact, the most signiicant variable
in the number of striations was the height of the cereal cutting (Figures 4 and 6). Additional
striations generated by percussion were also found in some cases, and were longer than
the previously mentioned items. Figure 5 shows that the biggest difference takes place
in smooth-bottomed striations, whose percentage is largest in the samples used for low
cutting. Few differences were noted in the development of additional striations and illing.
In cases where blunting was located, it was minor due to the low friction between the
materials, and always associated with cereal polish (Figure 6).
Thsi is the result of our experimentation. However, it must be included in wider experimental
programmes. On the other hand, we have to bear in mind that the inally aim of this type
of analisys is the study of these tools in their different archaeological records as a way to
approximation to prehistoric societies.
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REFERENCES
Anderson, P.C. (2000). La tracéologie comme révélateur des
debuts de l´agriculture. In Les premiers paysans du monde.
Naissances des agricultures. Edited by J.Guilaine. Errance.
París. Pp. 99-119.
Gutiérrez Sáez, C. (1993b). L´identiication des activités à travers
la tracéologie, Homenaje al Dr. Joaquín González Echegaray.
Edited by J. A. Lasheras. Museo y Centro Investigación de
Altamira. Monografías. 17. Pp. 115-123.
Gibaja, J.F. (2003). Hoces líticas argáricas del sudeste peninsular,
RAMPAS (Revista Atlántica-Mediterránea de Prehistoria y
Arqueología Social). Universidad de Cádiz, Cádiz. 6, 115-136.
Gutiérrez Sáez, C. (1996). Traceología. Pautas de análisis
experimental. Foro, Madrid.
Gibaja, J.F.; Palomo, A. (2004). Las hoces líticas usadas durante
la prehistoria. In Eines i -feines del camp a Catalunya. L´estudi de
l´agricultura a través de l´arqueologia. Generalitat de Catalunyia.
Barcelona. Pp. 84-90.
Gibaja, J.F.; Peña-Chocarro, L.; Ibáñez, J.J.; Zapata, L.; Rodríguez,
A.; Linstädter, J.; Pérez, G.; Morales, J.; Gassin, B.; Carvalho,
A.F.; González, J. E. y Clemente, I. (2012). A los dos lados del
Estrecho: las primeras hoces líticas y evidencias de agricultura
en el sur de la Península Ibérica y el norte de Marruecos. Una
perspectiva de futuro. Congrés Internacional Xarxes al NeoliticNeolithic Networks. Rubricatum. Gavá. 5, 87-93.
Gijn, van A. (1992). The interpretation of “sickles”: a cautionary
tale. In Préhistoire de l´agriculture: nouvelles approaches
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Chinchilla, J.; Turrús i Galter, J. (2011). Harvesting cereals and
other plants in Neolithic Iberia: the assemblage from the lake
settlement at La Draga. Antiquity 85. 329, 759-771.
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de elementos de hoz. Anales de la Universidad de Cádiz, vol. VIIVIII. Cádiz. Pp. 557-572.
Skakun, N. (1999). Evolution of agricultural techniques in
Eneolithic (Chalcolithic) Bulgaria. In Prehistory of agriculture.
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Unger-Hamilton, R. (1988). Method in microwear analysis: sickle
blades and other tools from Arjoune, Syria. BAR International
Series 435. Oxford.
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TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
17
MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES
OF GREENSTONE MOSAICS FROM
TEOTIHUACAN AND PALENQUE
Técnicas de manufactura de mosaicos en piedra
verde de Palenque y Teotihuacan
Emiliano Ricardo Melgar Tísoc*
*Museo del Templo Mayor, Seminario 8, Col. Centro, Del. Cuauhtémoc, México D.F., C.P.
06060. melgare@hotmail.com
Abstract
Archaeologists have found thousands of greenstone objects at Mesoamerican sites. Unfortunately, most
analyses have focused on their symbolism, trade and use, with very few studies of their craft techniques. This
text presents a technological analysis of traces of manufacture using experimental archaeology and scanning electron microscopy used on a set of greenstone mosaics from Teotihuacan and Palenque. In the irst
one, a greenstone mosaic igurine was studied from the Pyramid of the Moon, while in the second one, the
lapidary ornaments of K´inich Janaab´ Pakal were analyzed. Results show that the mosaics from Palenque
were crafted locally, while the igurine from Teotihuacan showed two lapidary traditions, one local and the
other foreign.
Keywords: technology, traceology, mosaics, Maya, Teotihuacan.
Resumen
En diferentes sitios de Mesoamérica, los arqueólogos han recuperado miles de piezas de piedra verde. Desafortunadamente la mayoría ha estudiado su simbolismo, comercio y uso, pero pocos han abordado su manufactura. Por ello, en este trabajo se presentan los análisis tecnológicos con arqueología experimental y
Microscopía Electrónica de Barrido empleados en mosaicos de piedra verde de Teotihuacan y Palenque. En el
primero se revisó una igurilla hallada en Pirámide de la Luna, mientras que en el segundo fueron los adornos de K´inich Janaab´ Pakal. Entre los resultados obtenidos destaca la producción local del ajuar funerario
en Palenque, mientras que la igurilla presenta dos tradiciones lapidarias, una local y otra foránea.
Palabras clave: tecnología, traceología, mosaicos, Maya, Teotihuacan.
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INTRODUCTION
One of the main goals of archaeology is to determine the afiliation and time of the material
remains of past societies by means of diagnostic features, in order to track their geographic,
cultural and chronological origins. This idea is based on the hypothesis that the style can be
considered as a choice, a systematic, regulated repetition of a certain way of shaping one
material instead of others in a given time and space (Carr, 1995; Velázquez, 2007).
Another issue related to the study of the place of production of lapidary items is
related to the source of the minerals. Most of us assume a priori that the place of origin
of the raw material is synonymous with where the pieces were made. However, is it
necessarily true that an artefact made from an allochthonous material was necessarily
crafted in its foreign place of origin? What materials and work tools were used in its
manufacture?
To resolve this issue, this paper presents a technological analysis of greenstone mosaics
from Teotihuacan and Palenque. This study was conducted on the basis of experimental
archaeology and the characterization of manufacturing traces studied with an optical
Microscope (OM) and a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). This permitted a highly
accurate identiication of the materials and tools employed in their production and a
distinction to be made between lapidary traditions that relect the different regions,
cultures, and styles.
Figure 1.
Experimental
archaeology on
lapidary objects:
abrading serpentine
with andesite (a), and
cutting jadeite with
obsidian lakes (b).
Photos by Emiliano
Melgar.
Figure 2. Location
of Teotihuacan and
Palenque in Mexico.
Illustration by
Emiliano Melgar.
THE STUDY OF GREENSTONE MOSAIC MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES
According to the experimental archaeology approach, all activities in human societies
are regulated. Therefore, artefacts are used and produced following speciic procedures
that give them speciic characteristics (Ascher, 1961). In this way, the uniformity criteria
postulates that the utilization of particular work tools, made of a given material and
employed in a speciic way under certain conditions, will leave characteristic features
or traces that can be differentiated from others (Velázquez, 2007).
With this in mind, in 2004 an Experimental Archaeology Workshop was set up in the Museo
del Templo Mayor in Mexico City. In this workshop, the different types of modiications
found on objects have been reproduced (Figure 1)
using materials and tools mentioned in historical
sources, found in archaeological contexts, and
proposed by researchers.
The resulting traces are then systematically compared
with those of archaeological objects with Optic
Microscopy (OM) at 10x and 30x, and with Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) at 100x, 300x, 600x, and
1000x, under constant parameters proposed by
Velázquez (2007) for the study of shell items, but
adapted to lapidary objects (Melgar and Solís, 2009;
Melgar, 2012).
MATERIALS ANALYZED
The present research project studied greenstone
mosaics from two Mesoamerican sites, Teotihuacan
in Central Mexico and Palenque in Chiapas,
southeastern Mexico (Figure 2).
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The igurine made from greenstone mosaics was found inside Burial 6 from the Moon
Pyramid at Teotihuacan (Figure 3). This context of the Early Classic period (AD 300) was
discovered in Building 5, from the fourth construction stage of this pyramid. This burial
contained human skeletons, faunal remains, lithics and more than 300 small greenstone
pieces (inlays, beads and earlares) of an anthropomorphic igurine. The minerals identiied
by geological analysis were serpentine for the green inlays, dolomite for the reddish lips,
bituminous limestone for the pupils of the eyes, obsidian for the black inlays of the diadem,
jadeite, metadiorite and quartz for the beads, and muscovite for the earlares (Sánchez
and Robles, 2005).
The tomb of Kin´ich Janaab´ Pakal in Palenque was discovered in 1952 during excavations
by Alberto Ruz in the Temple of the Inscriptions, where he found a huge funerary
assemblage (Figure 4): a mask composed of 340 pieces of jade, four nacreous shell
inlays, and two grey obsidian disks (Sánchez et al, 2010). Other greenstone adornments
were a diadem, two bracelets, two earlares, one igurine, one pendant of the Maize God,
rings for every inger and toe, necklaces, and a semicircular garment. There are also
three tiny mosaic masks and dozens of worked fragments over the sarcophagus (Melgar
et al., 2013).
Figure 3. Greenstone
mosaic igurine
with a necklace and
earlares from the
Pyramid of the Moon,
Teotihuacan. Photo by
Emiliano Melgar.
THE RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS OF THE MANUFACTURING TRACES
The following results were obtained with the aid of experimental archaeology and the
analysis of manufacturing traces on experimental and archaeological items:
1. Surfaces. Two technological patterns were identiied:
The irst one includes the jadeite inlays from Pakal and the earlares and beads of the
from Teotihuacan igurine. These objects show lattened bands 20 µm crossed by ine lines
from 1 to 2 µm, which coincide with experimental abrading with limestone, polishing with
jadeite chunks, and brightening with animal skin (Figure 5).
Figure 4. Jadeite
and greenstone
ornaments from
Pakal tomb,
Palenque. Photo by
Emiliano Melgar.
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 5. Technological analysis of Palenque item surfaces: traces
on archaeological inlays at 100x (a) and 1000x (b), comparison with
experimental abrading with limestone at 100x (c), and polishing with
jadeite and brightening with leather at 1000x (d). SEM photos by Emiliano
Melgar and Gerardo Villa.
Figure 6. Technological analysis of Teotihuacan object surfaces: traces
on the archaeological inlays at 100x (a) and 1000x (b), and comparison
with experimental abrading with andesite at 100x (c), polishing with
chert nodules and brightening with leather at 1000x (d). SEM photos by
Emiliano Melgar and Gerardo Villa.
Figure 7. Technological analysis of Palenque item edges: traces on
archaeological inlays (a), and comparison with experimental cutting with
obsidian tools (b), both at 1000x. SEM photos by Emiliano Melgar and
Gerardo Villa.
Figure 8. Technological analysis of Teotihuacan object edges: traces on
archaeological inlays (a), and comparison with experimental cutting
with chert tools (b), both at 1000x. SEM photos by Emiliano Melgar and
Gerardo Villa.
The other one is restricted to the inlays of the igurine from Teotihuacan. These pieces
show rough bands of 66 µm crossed by parallel bands from 2 to 4 µm. These features
resemble experimental traces of abrading with andesite, polishing with chert nodules, and
brightening with leather (Figure 6).
2. Edges and incisions. Two technological patterns were also found:
The irst one includes the jadeite objects from Palenque and the beads and earlares from
Teotihuacan. These pieces show ine lines of 0.7 to 1.6 µm in width, similar to the results
obtained in experimental cuts and incisions made with obsidian blades (Figure 7).
In contrast, the other pattern is restricted to the serpentine inlays of the Teotihuacan
igurine. This mosaic presents parallel bands of 2 to 4 µm. These features coincide with
the experimental cutting and incising with chert lakes (Figure 8).
3. Perforations. The holes present three patterns:
The irst one includes the pendants, earlares and tubular beads from Palenque, and some
beads and the earlares from Teotihuacan. These objects show irregular bands of 1 µm
width. This effect is generated by the use of chert powder and reed (Figure 9).
The other pattern is restricted to disc beads from Palenque and some beads from
Teotihuacan. These items show parallel strips from 2 to 4 µm. These features coincide
with the experimental drilling with chert burins (Figure 10 a-c).
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Figure 9. Technological analysis of holes in Palenque objects: traces on
archaeological beads (a), and comparison with experimental drilling with
chert powder and reed (b), both at 1000x. SEM photos by Emiliano Melgar
and Gerardo Villa.
Figure 10. Technological analysis of holes in Teotihuacan objects: traces
on archaeological beads (a-b), and comparison with experimental drilling
with chert burins (c), and with obsidian powder and reed (d), all at 1000x.
SEM photos by Emiliano Melgar and Gerardo Villa.
The last one is restricted to some beads of the Teotihuacan igurine. These pieces show
diffuse 0.6 µm lines, which coincide with perforations made with obsidian powder and reed
(Figure 10 b-d).
CONCLUSIONS
The technological differences detected in these analyses might be evidence of different
manufacturing traditions or regional technological styles. Traces of the tools identiied
in the igurine from Teotihuacan and the mosaics from Palenque were also found in the
production of other lapidary objects from the same sites (Melgar et al., 2012; 2013), while
evidence of tools such as the limestone abrader and the jadeite polisher found in the beads
and earlares of the Teotihuacan igurine are absent from Teotihuacan. These objects
might therefore be foreign manufactures (Melgar et al., 2012). Interestingly, this technology
is common among the Maya, and these objects may have arrived in a manufactured state
from the Mayan region (Melgar et al., 2013).
Finally, the new information obtained from the technological analysis of lapidary items
in combination with studies of their sources could open up new perspectives about the
acquisition, production, and trade of these prestige goods in Mesoamerica.
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
REFERENCES
Ascher, R. (1961). Experimental Archaeology. American
Anthropologist. 63 (4), 793-816.
Carr, C. (1995). Building a Uniied Middle-Range Theory of
Artifact Design. Style, Society, and Person. Archaeological and
Ethnological Perspectives. Plenum Press. New York. 151-170.
Melgar, E., and R. Solís. (2009). Caracterización de huellas de
manufactura en objetos lapidarios de obsidiana del Templo
Mayor de Tenochtitlan. Arqueología. 42, 118-134.
Melgar, E., R. Solís and J Ruvalcaba. (2012). La lapidaria
de Teopancazco: composición y manufactura. In Estudios
arqueométricos del centro de barrio de Teopancazco en
Teotihuacan. UNAM. México. Pp. 257-284.
Melgar, E., R. Solís and L. Filloy. (2013). Análisis tecnológico de
las piezas de jadeíta y pedernal del cinturón de poder y de l a
banda frontal de K´inich Janaab´ Pakal de Palenque. In Técnicas
analíticas aplicadas a la caracterización y producción de materiales
arqueológicos en el área maya. UNAM. México. Pp. 135-162.
124
Sánchez, R., and J. Robles. (2005). Petrografía y mineralogía de
los componentes líticos de una igura antropomorfa de mosaico
procedente de Pirámide de la Luna, Zona Arqueológica de
Teotihuacan. Informe preliminar. INAH. México, unpublished
report.
Sánchez, R., J. Robles, and M. Reyes. (2010). La mineralogía
de la piedra verde.In Misterios de un rostro maya. La máscara
funeraria de K´inich Janaab Pakal. INAH. México. Pp. 139-144.
Velázquez, A. (2007). La producción especializada de los objetos
de concha del Templo Mayor de Tenochtitlan. INAH. México.
202 pp.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
18
TECHNOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF GREENSTONE
OBJECTS FROM THE STRUCTURES
SURROUNDING THE GREAT TEMPLE OF
TENOCHTITLAN
Análisis tecnológico en objetos de piedra verde
procedentes de las estructuras aledañas al
Templo Mayor de Tenochtitlan
Reyna Beatriz Solís Ciriaco *, Emiliano Ricardo Melgar Tísoc**
*Museo del Templo Mayor, Seminario 8, Col. Centro, Del. Cuauhtémoc, México D.F., C.P.
06060. reynabsolis@hotmail.com
**Museo del Templo Mayor, Seminario 8, Col. Centro, Del. Cuauhtémoc, México D.F., C.P.
06060. melgare@hotmail.com
Abstract
A total of 619 greenstone objects have been found in the structures surrounding the Great Temple in Tenochtitlan, located in the centre of Mexico´s capital city with four construction stages spanning the period
between AD 1469 and 1520, under four of Mexica´s rulers. This paper aims to ascertain the manufacturing
organization of these items by means of experimental archaeology and the analysis of manufacturing traces using stereoscopic microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy. This detailed technological analysis
allowed a highly accurate identiication of the tools and techniques employed in their production. We identify
three technological patterns: one shares the techniques of the local Tenochcan Imperial style, another includes relics from an Ancient Basin of Mexico lapidary tradition, and the inal one is related to the foreign Mayan
area lapidary tradition.
Keywords: technology, Tenochtitlan, style, tradition, manufacture.
Resumen
En las estructuras aledañas al Templo Mayor de Tenochtitlan, ubicado en la ciudad de México, se recuperaron 619 objetos rituales de piedra verde y cuyas temporalidades corresponden a cuatro etapas constructivas
pertenecientes a cuatro dirigentes mexicas. El propósito de este trabajo es conocer la organización de la
producción de estos bienes empleando arqueología experimental y análisis de huellas de manufactura mediante el uso de microscopia óptica y electrónica de barrido. Gracias a estos análisis fue posible identiicar
las herramientas y técnicas empleadas. Como resultado de los análisis se identiicaron tres patrones tecnológicos: uno que comparte la manufactura del estilo imperial tenochca, el otro vinculado con la tradición
lapidaria de la cuenca de México, así como uno relacionado con la tradición lapidaria maya.
Palabras clave: tecnología, Tenochtitlan, estilo, tradición, manufactura.
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
INTRODUCTION
Several ritual objects have been recovered from the main structure of the Great Temple
of Tenochtitlan in downtown Mexico City, known as Huey Teocalli, and its surrounding
structures. Because the majority of the items deposited here were made of allochthonous
raw materials, many researchers considered them crafts of other traditions and styles
contemporary or even prior to the Mexica (Olmedo and Gonzalez, 1986; Matos, 1988).
However, recent studies have questioned the origin and manufacture of the objects recovered
in Tenochtitlan (Velázquez, 2007; Melgar, 2012; Melgar and Solís, 2009), conirming or
refuting the attribution to foreign styles on the basis of morphological similarities, and
proposing the study and classiication of artefacts based on their technology. In this
context, tradition is considered to be the long-term transmission of culture, patterns
of techniques, and social representation of technology at the regional scale (Willey and
Phillips, 1954; Sackett, 1977). In contrast, style is the short-term distribution of traits,
choices and/or distinctive attributes that are maintained at local level in a given time
(Willey and Phillips, 1954).
Figure 1.
The structures
surrounding the
Great Temple of
Tenochtitlan.
Figure 2. Localization of the offerings found
in the structures.
126
Figure 3. Greenstone
objects.
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 4. The
experimental
archaeology using
several tools on
greenstone.
Figure 5. The three
levels of analysis:
macroscopic (a-b),
optic microscopy
(OM) (c) and scanning
electron microscopy
(SEM) (d).
RESEARCH SAMPLES
The analyzed material included 619 greenstone items (marble, serpentine, aluminosilicates
and jadeite), 89% of the collection of lapidary items found in the six structures surrounding
the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan: the House of Eagles, Red North Temple, Red South
Temple, the Momoztli, the Tzompantli, and L building (Figure 1 and 2). Their time span
covered four periods or stages (IVb, V, VI and VII), from AD 1469 to 1502, corresponding to
four Tenochcan rulers (Axayácatl, Tízoc, Ahuízotl and Moctezuma II).
The objects were classiied by ornamental and votive use: 70% were beads, 11% were
musical instruments, 7% were plates, 4% were pendants and less than 1% were igurines,
pectorals, inlays and earrings (Figure 3).
ANALYSIS
We set up an experimental archaeology workshop for lapidary objects, under the
assumption that different work processes, tools and materials produce distinguishable
features (Figure 4). This facilitated the identiication of ancient techniques, comparing the
features present in archaeological materials with those produced with modern material
using the same procedures and tools (Velázquez, 2007). To characterize the traces of
manufacture, we employed three levels of analysis: macroscopic, optical microscopy (OM)
at 10x and 30x, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) at 100x, 300x, 600x, and 1000x
(Figure 5).
RESULTS
The objects had glossy surfaces with straight etches (Figure 6). These features matched
the use of non-abrasive stone slabs. SEM facilitated the observation of three patterns:
The irst one included the marble objects and some greenstone igurines with lat 100
µm strips cross-hatched by parallel strips of 2 to 4 µm. These traces were similar to
experimental abrading with basalt, polishing with chert nodules, and brightening with
leather.
The second pattern included some beads, pendants, earrings, and plates in greenstone.
These objects showed rough strips of 66 µm crossed by parallel strips of 2 to 4 µm. These
features matched experimental abrading with andesite, polishing with chert nodules, and
brightening with leather (Figure 7 a-b).
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The third pattern included some
beads and a greenstone pendant
that exhibited irregular strips
ranging from 20 to 60 µm mixed
with ine lines of 4 µm and
blurred lines of approximately 1-2
µm with particles. These traces
coincided with experimental
abrading with limestone (Figure
7 c-d), polishing with jadeite
chunks, and brightening with
leather.
Figure 6. Archaeological pendant at 10x (a) and 30x (b), experimental polished with lint (c) and
jadeite nodules (d), both at 30x.
Figure 7. Surface in archaeological igurine (a), experimental abrading with andesite (b), surface in
archaeological pendant (c), experimental abrading with limestone (d), all at 100x.
128
There were successions of parallel
lines in the cuts and incisions of
the objects, similar to the traces
produced by lithic tools. However,
it was dificult to distinguish the
speciic tool (obsidian or lint)
used with optical microscopy.
In contrast, using SEM we
observed thin and straight lines
from 0.6 to 1.3 µm over a rough
texture. These features matched
the experimental cutting and
incisions with obsidian lakes.
Two patterns were detected in the
case of the perforations. The irst
was present on the greenstone
beads and marble objects with
diffuse lines of 1 µm and smooth
surfaces, which coincided with the
experimental use of chert powder
and with reeds. The second
pattern consisted of concentric
lines of 2 to 4 µm, which were
similar to the experimental
drilling with chert burins.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Based on these results, we can infer that there were three spheres of production of the
greenstone objects found in the structures around the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan. One
of them is related to the Tenochcan style (Velázquez and Melgar, 2014), with processes
and techniques that were highly controlled and regulated by the State, perhaps due to the
existence of craft workshops in the palaces of the Mexica rulers (Velázquez and Melgar,
2014), such as the palace of Moctezuma II as indicated by historical sources. One of the
major technological attributes in this case was the use of basalt for abrading (Velázquez,
2007; Melgar y Solís, 2009; Melgar, 2012). The use of andesite for this type of modiication
has been reported at a large number of sites over a wide time scale. It is considered to
be a technological tradition of the Central Highlands (Velázquez, 2007), which covers the
northern part of Guerrero and began at middle Preclassical sites such as Las Bocas
(1250-800 BC), Teopantecuanitlán (1200-400 BC) and continued at Teotihuacan (Xalla
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and Teopancazco) (AD 200-900), Tula (AD 700-1250) and Tenochtitlan in stage IVa (AD
1440-1469). Consequently, these objects may have been obtained by exchange, tribute,
raids and/or looting of the settlements in the Basin of Mexico and the surrounding
regions. Finally the use of abrading limestone and jadeite nodules to produce inishes
is a technology detected in the Mayan area, as these tools have been found at several
jadeite workshops near the Motagua River valley (Rochette, 2009), as well in the Copán,
Tikal, Calakmul and Cancuén settlements (Moholy-Nagy, 1997; Kovacevich, 2006). This
technological pattern has also been detected by technological analysis in cases such as
the grave goods of Pakal in Paleque (Melgar et al., 2013). These items may therefore be
exogenous manufactures crafted somewhere in the Mayan area.
The presence of locally produced goods and offerings as well as exogenous products allow
us to review the concept and the value attributed to these objects, considering the raw
material and the techniques employed in their production. Some of them are linked to
certain regions and foreign traditions, which relect the scope and power of the Aztec
Empire, while the local crafts reinforce the Tenochcan identity and style.
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Kovacevich, B. (2006). Reconstructing Classic Maya Economic
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Melgar, E. and R. Solís. (2009). Caracterización de huellas de
manufactura en objetos lapidarios de obsidiana del Templo
Mayor de Tenochtitlan. Arqueología. 42, 118-134.
Melgar, E., R. Solís and L. Filloy. (2013). Análisis tecnológico de
las piezas de jadeíta y pedernal del cinturón de poder y de la
banda frontal de K’inich Janaab’ Pakal de Palenque. In Técnicas
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arqueológicos en el área maya. UNAM. Mexico. Pp. 135-162.
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Offerings: Evidence for the Organization of Classic Period Craft
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293-313.
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Sackett, J. (1977). The meaning of style in archaeology: a
general model. American Antiquity. 42 (3), 369-380.
Velázquez A. (2007). La producción especializada de los objetos de
concha del Templo mayor de Tenochtitlan. INAH. México. 202 pp.
Velázquez A. and E. Melgar. (2014). Producciones palaciegas
tenochcas en objetos de concha y lapidaria. Ancient Mesoamerica.
25, 295-308.
Willey, G. and P. Phillips. (1954). Method and Theory in American
Archaeology. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago. 270 pp.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
19
WORKING POTTERY WITH FLAKED
STONE TOOLS: A PRELIMINARY
EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH
Trabajando ceramica con útiles en piedra
tallada: una primera aproximación a través
de la experimentación
Niccolò Mazzucco*, Ignacio Clemente-Conte**,
Juan Francisco Gibaja**
*Fyssen Fondation postdoc, UMR 7055 Préhistoire et Technologie, CNRS
Université Paris Nanterre, 21 allée de l’Université, 92000, Nanterre, France. nicco.mazzucco@
gmail.com
**Research Group in Archaeology of the Social Dynamics, Department of Archaeology and
Anthropology, Institution Milà i Fontanals (IMF-CSIC) (AGREST)
C/ Egipcíaques, 15, 08001, Barcelona, Spain
ignacio@imf.cisc.es, jfgibaja@imf.csic.es.
Abstract
In this paper, we present the result of a series of experiment aimed at reproducing speciic types of use-wear
traces related to the use of laked stone tools in pottery production and maintenance tasks. This experimental programme is focused to the study of the functionality of some stone tools from Neolithic sites located in
the NE of the Iberian Peninsula. The experiments and the resulting traces are described in details in the following text. A good correspondence between the archaeological and experimental traces has been observed.
Our results testify that different types of tools (unretouched lakes, unretouched blades, retouched blades,
borers) were used for different actions associated with the production of pottery vessels.
Keywords: pottery production; use-wear analysis; crafting activities; Neolithic, NE of the Iberian Peninsula.
Resumen
En este trabajo presentamos los resultados de una primera experimentación realizada con instrumentos
líticos tallados cuya inalidad es reproducir las marcas de uso vinculadas con la producción y reparación de
vasijas cerámicas. Este programa experimental está enfocado a comprender la función de algunos útiles en
sílex procedentes de ciertos yacimientos neolíticos del NE de la Península Ibérica. Tanto los experimentos,
como las huellas de uso que se generaron durante la actividad, están descritos de forma detallada en el presente texto. Como resultado de nuestro estudio, podemos decir que hay un fuerte correspondencia entre las
huellas observadas en el conjunto arqueológico y las huellas experimentales, atestiguando así la utilización
de una variedad de instrumentos de sílex (lascas no retocadas, láminas no retacadas, láminas retocadas,
perforadores) para diversas actividades asociadas al proceso productivo de cerámica.
Palabras clave: producción cerámica, análisis funcional, artesanía, Neolítico, NE de la Península Ibérica.
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INTRODUCTION
In recent decades, traceological analysis has offered insights about the use of lithic tools in a
variety of economic processes amongst farming communities. Pottery vessels are certainly
amongst the items manufactured using lithic tools. The use of pebbles and un-chipped
rocks has been observed both ethnographically and archaeologically (Rodríguez Rodríguez
et al. 2004; Clemente et al. 2008). However, not only macrolithic tools were employed for
the production of ceramic vessels. Examples for the use of laked stone tools for pottery
production are given by Gassin (1996) and Torchy & Gassin (2011) for the Chassey Neolithic
of Southern France, Jardón-Giner & Jadin (2008) for the Belgian LBK, Gijn (1989) for the
Dutch LBK.
During the study of lithic collections from several Neolithic sites in the Pyrenees (Spain),
several traces that were possibly related to pottery manufacture have been identiied. Some
of them closely resemble the experimental wear produced by Gijn (1989) and Gassin (1993),
while other traces differ substantially from their results. The latter can be divided into two
main groups:
i. Traces associated with the scraping/planning of abrasive mineral material.
ii. Traces associated with the drilling of some type of resistant abrasive material.
To ascertain the nature of these traces, a few experiments has been carried out, mainly
focusing on these two types of traces: 1) the working of dry pottery and 2) the drilling of
baked pottery.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Gassin (1993) deined a series of tasks in which lithic tools could be used in the production
and maintenance of ceramic vessels. He identiied the following operations: 1) thinning the
vessel walls (semi-dry clay); 2) bevellingor cutting the vessel lips (dry or semi-dry clay);
3) smoothing the vessel walls (semi-dry clay); 4) polishing the vessel walls (dry clay); 5)
surface decoration; 6) pottery repair. Gassin mainly used ‘verte’ clay in his experiments,
deinedas the moment when the clay, after drying, is irm enough not to be deformed by
the pressure of the tool, but is still moist and supple enough to allow the formation of
regular chips. However, this deinition leaves space for certain variables within the degree
of dryness of the clay pasta. The author distinguishes between different degrees of dryness
of worked clay: ‘argille plus plastique’ and ‘argille plus ferme’.
The differences between different
states of dryness have been
explored, with some experiments
on ‘verte’ or semi-dry clay, and then
a series of experiments on drier clay
(Figue 1). In order to overcome the
dificulty of expressing differences
in humidity, two stages (semi-dry
Figure 1. Summary of the experiments. The table shows the minutes of working time in each
experiment. The total number of experiments was 14, with 12 tools. 5 borers has been used (one
and dry) have been differentiated
was used twice) and eight lakes/blades (one used on both edges).
on the basis of the type of waste
produced during use. ‘Semi-dry’ or
verte pottery was clay material that was still moist 6 - 12 hours after producing the vessel.
In this case, the remnants of worked clay were still malleable and could be agglomerated.
The term ‘dry’ pottery was applied after more than 12 hours of drying. In this case, the waste
material had the consistency of powder.
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Figure 2. a) Schematic representation of the
experimental action: thinning the vessel lips, 25
minutes. b) Edge used for thinning the vessel lips.
Chamotte-tempered ceramic in semi-dry state; b1)
edge-scarring, 50X; b2) Same side, 200X. Smooth band
of compact matt polish characterized by transversal
striations. Note the heavy rounding of the edge,
completely abraded; b3-4) Details of the same area,
200X).
Figure 3. a) Schematic representation of the
experimental action: etching the vessel walls, 15
minutes. b) Edge used for etching/decorating the vessel
walls. Quartz-tempered ceramic in semi-dry state; b1)
retouched edge, 10X. Note the strong rounding; b2)
Same side, ventral face, 10X. Note the presence of a
marginal lustre; b3) Spots of smooth, bright polish with
longitudinal directionality. The edges of the tools are
heavily abraded, and part of the polish is destroyed,
200X; b4) Spots of smooth, bright, polish in the distal
portion of the edge, 400X).
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Figure 4. a) Schematic representation of the experimental
actions: thinning and polishing the vessel walls, 20 minutes.
b) Edge used for smoothing/polishing the vessel walls with
transversal directionality. Chamotte-tempered ceramic in
dry state; b1) Unretouched active edge, 50X. Note the heavy
rounding and the presence of overlapping abrasions on the
very edge; b2). Same side, dorsal face (contact face), 100X.
Abrasive rough polish characterized by dense striations
with transversal orientation; b3) Same face, another point
of the edge, 200X. Rough polish with striations. Note the
occasional presence of lat, bright spot of polish, (red
arrows).
Figure 5. a) Schematic representation of the
experimental actions: thinning and smoothing of the
vessel lips, 25 minutes. b) Edge used for thinning/
smoothing the vessel lips with diagonal/longitudinal
directionality. Quartz-tempered ceramic in dry state;
b1) Unretouched active edge, 10X. Note the presence
of supericial lustre; b2) Same side, dorsal face, 200X.
Abrasive rough polish characterized by dense striations;
b3) Ventral face (contact face), 100X. Rough marginal
polish with diagonal striations. Note the occasional
presence of lat, bright spots of polish (red arrows); b4)
Detail of the same area, 200X.
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Figure 6. a) Schematic representation of one of the
experimental actions: a) etching/decorating the vessel
walls, 15 minutes. b) Edge used for etching/decorating the
vessel walls. Chamotte-tempered ceramic in dry state;
b1) Retouched active edge, 100X. Note the heavy rounding
and the presence of parallel abrasions on the very edge;
b2) Same side, 200X. Abrasive rough polish characterized
by dense striations and heavy edge rounding; c) Edge
used for thinning the vessel lips. Chamotte-tempered
ceramic in dry state; c1) Unretouched active edge, 10X;
c2) Rough polish with transversal striations, 200X. Note
the occasional presence of lat, bright spot of polish (red
arrow).
In the experiment, two small pots were manufactured using the coil technique and
industrial clay, mixed with: 1) ground quartz with grain-size between 0,1 and 1,25 mm and
2) chamotte, with 0,1-0,5 mm grain size. For the drilling experiment, two archaeological
ceramic fragments has been used, both recovered from a disturbed, supericial, layer at the
Els Trocs cave site (Bisaurri, Aragón, Spain) and, thus, excluded from the archaeological
assemblage. The fragments (both undecorated fragments) presented the same
characteristics as the ceramic material from the underlying Neolithic levels.
RESULTS
Ceramic production
The irst two experiments were conducted about eight hours after the production of the
vessels. The clay was still moist but resistant and rigid enough not to be deformed by the
pressure of the tool. The irst tool was used with a transversal motion to thin the vessel walls
and lips. The lithic edge was non-retouched, with an angle of 40˚. The resulting traces were:
pronounced edge-rounding, marginal lustre on the active zone, especially on the contact
face, and marginal scarring, with feather-termination fractures distributed continuously
on both faces. Microscopically, the traces bore a close resemblance to those published by
Gijn (1989) and Gassin (1993). The polish showed a clear transversal directionality, with the
presence of many striations of different sizes and depths. There were also large patches of
compact and matt polish (Figure 2).
The second tool used on semi-dry clay was a blade employed to perform a linear decoration
on the vessel walls. The blank was previously retouched to obtain a regular edge. The
resulting wear presents almost the same features as before, except for the directionality,
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Figure 7. a) Drilling pottery 20’. A tool employed for one perforation with
the addition of water. a1) Macro- traces: the entire tip is characterized
by a strong rounding of the lateral ridges, 15X; a2) Micro-traces: rough
polish is diffuse all along the rounded edge, with the presence of
striations and tiny lat spots of compact polish, 200X. b) Drilling pottery
40’. A tool employed for two perforations with the addition of water. b1)
Macro-traces: the tip is characterized by heavy rounding of the lateral
ridges, 15X; b2) Rough polish diffused along the rounded edge, with the
presence of many parallel striations, 200X.
Figure 8. a) Drilling pottery 15’. A tool employed for one perforation with
the addition of water; a1) Macro-traces: the tip is characterized by very
heavy rounding. In particular the two sides of the tip show an abrupt
rounded edge, 20X; a2) Rough diffuse polish all along the rounded edge,
with the presence of tiny striations and lat spots produced by contact with
mineral grains. b) Drilling pottery 20’. A tool employed for one perforation
on dry ceramic material. b1) Macro-traces: the point is characterized by
major scarring. Only a few contact-spots had more intense rounding, 20X;
b2) Rough uncharacteristic polish spread across the tip, 200X. Note the
presence of tiny rounded spots.
which in this case was clearly longitudinal. After use, the retouch scars were heavily
rounded, and only a few spots of polish were identiied on the dorsal face. This was mainly
due to the continuous abrasion of the edge, which led to the partial destruction of the usewear traces that were forming on it (Figure 3).
The same tasks were then realized on drier pottery. The resulting wear was quite similar
under macroscopic observation: strong edge rounding, marginal lustre and a marginal
micro-scarring, almost imperceptible to the naked eye. However, several differences were
observed at higher magniications. The smooth, matt spots of polish produced by working
semi-dry clay gave way to rougher polish, characterized by a dense series of abrasions
and striations. Only occasional spots with a more compact, smooth polish were still visible.
Bright friction-spots, characterized by chaotic striations, were observed as well, probably
produced by friction with larger-grained quartz. The number and length of the striations
appeared greater in longitudinal/diagonal movements (Figures 5 and 6) with respect to
transversal ones (Figure 4).
Ceramic Repair
Lithic borers seemed to be the most appropriate tool for the ive perforations. Baked pottery
is very hard, and requires great pressure on the tool to complete a perforation. Using an
unretouched tool, the tip is constantly fractured, hindering the completion of of the activity.
Edge fracturing also occurs on retouched tools; however, in this case scarring is occasional
and limited to the edges and the ridges of the tip. The main observed wear is edge rounding.
Borers lose their tip almost immediately after the exertion of the irst pressure on the
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ceramic wall. Then, continuous abrasion of the lithic surfaces occurs for the entire duration
of the movement (Figure 7 and 8). Rounding is more pronounced and generalized when
water is applied to the ceramic, while with dry ceramic material there is a major fracturing
of the edges and the rounding is limited to a few spots. On a microscopic level one can
observe two main types of wear. First of all, a shiny lustre is produced all over the tip.
However, on the most rounded areas of the tip, where there was greater contact with the
pottery, more pronounced traces are visible. Such polishes are characterized by an open
texture, a rough aspect and the presence of many striations following the direction of the
drilling movement. Traces are more abundant when water is applied to the ceramic, while
with dry ceramic, polish and striations are limited to a few spots.
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
The experiments showed that the dryness of the worked clay/ pottery has a major inluence
on the resulting use-wear. In both experiments, the moisture of the worked material (i.e.,
the quantity of water) is a discriminating factor in the development of traces, affecting the
size of the polished area and its aspect.
With baked pottery, we can conirm that lithic borers are an appropriate tool for drilling
motions. Such tools were probably employed for this type of repair tasks in the past. The
presence of several heavily rounded borers amongst the studied assemblages, as well
as several ceramic fragments with perforation marks comparable to the ones obtained
experimentally, conirm this hypothesis.
With regard to the other traces related to pottery working, with this preliminary experiment
it has been possible to reproduce different use-wears on both semi-dry and dry clay. Clear
differences between the two types of traces are visible. The experimental traces resembled
the traces observed on various archaeological samples (Figure 9), although there was not
always a perfect coincidence between the experimental and the archaeological wear. Indeed,
a wide variety of micro-wear patterns were found and a degree of variation is observable
between wears, especially in the quantity of the striations, the size of the polished areas
and the occurrence of pits and craters. Several
factors probably inluence the formation of use-wear
in addition to the dryness of the clay. The quantity, size
and type of tempered materials also appear to play a
major role. On the basis of the results, it seems that
ine-grained tempering materials can produce more
extensive wears, while coarse materials are more
destructive, often removing the use-wear polishes.
Figure 9.
Archaeological
materials. Traces
attributed to the work
of abrasive mineral
material, possibly
semi-dry/dry clay.
a-b) Cova del Els
Trocs-phaseIII;
d) Espluga de la
Puyascada-levelE.II;
e-i) Cueva de Chaveslevel1.b.e.
ACKNOWLEDEGMENTS
We thank Prof. Manuel Rojo Guerra, one of the
directors of the Els Trocs excavation, for letting us use
two ceramic fragments from a disturbed supericial
stratum of the site for our experiments.
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REFERENCES
Clemente, I., Gassiot, E. & Terradas, X., (2008). Manufacture
and use of stone tools in the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua. The
analysis of the last phase of the shell midden KH-4 at Karoline
(250-350 cal AD). In “Prehistoric Technology” 40 years later:
Functional studies and the Russian legacy. Edited by Longo, L.
& Skakuk, N. BAR International Series, 1783. Archaeopress.
Oxford. Pp. 285-293.
Gassin, B. (1993). Des outils de silex pour la fabrication de la
poterie. In Traces et Fonctions: les Gestes Retrouves. Colloque
International de Liege. In Traces et Fonction: les gestes retrouvés.
Edited by Anderson, P., Beyries, S., Otte, M. et al. Université de
Liège et CRA du CNRS. Liège. Pp. 189-204.
Gijn, A.L. van (1989). The Wear and Tear of Flint: Principles of
Functional Analysis Applied to Dutch Neolithic Assemblages. Edited
by Longo, L. & Skakuk, N. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 22.
Universiteit Leiden. Leiden. 182 pp.
138
Jardón-Giner P. & Jadin I. (2008). Activities on 7 Early Neolithic
houses belonging to Darion in Belgium. First results of lithic
use-wear analysis. In “Prehistoric Technology” 40 years later:
Functional studies and the Russian legacy. Edited by Longo L.
& Skakun, N. BA. International Series, 1783. Archaeopress.
Oxford. Pp 197-204.
Rodriguez Rodriguez, A., Medina, A.M.J. & Maldonado, J.M.Z.
(2004). El instrumental lítico en el trabajo de la loza tradicional:
apuntes etnoarqueológicos. In Coloquios de Historia Canario
Americana. 16(16), 419-436.
Torchy L., Gassin B. (2010). Le travail de la poterie en contexte
chasséen: des outils en silex pour la production céramique?.
Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française. 107(4), 725-735.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
20
TRACES OF TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY IN
THE EARLY NEOLITHIC LAKESIDE SETTLEMENT
OF LA DRAGA (BANYOLES, CATALONIA) FROM
AN EXPERIMENTAL PERSPECTIVE
Indicios de tecnología textil en el yacimiento
lacustre del Neolítico antiguo de La Draga
desde una perspectiva experimental
(Banyoles, Catalunya)
Miriam de Diego*, Raquel Piqué*, Antoni Palomo* ***,
Xavier Terradas**, Ignacio Clemente**, Millán Mozota**.
*Departament de Prehistòria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
miriamde.diego@e-campus.uab.cat
raquel.pique@uab.cat
**CSIC-IMF, Barcelona
terradas@imf.csic.es
millanm@imf.csic.es
ignacio@imf.csic.es
***Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya, antoni.palomo@gencat.cat
Abstract
La Draga is a lakeside settlement located in Banyoles, Catalonia. The site has yielded evidence of two phases
of occupation, both dated in the Early Neolithic (5300-4900 cal BC). The oldest one has remained below the
water table since Neolithic era, favouring the preservation of organic material. A large number of exceptionally well preserved bone and wood artefacts has been recovered thanks to the excellent preservation conditions of this site. Some of these artefacts such as bone awls, combs and spindles-like needdles made of boxwood, are similar to those used by modern societies for weaving and spinning as part of textile production.
An experimental program has been developed with the aim of reproducing these tools and using them in
order to verify their functionality.
Keywords: Early Neolithic, textile production, experimentation, use-wear analysis.
Resumen
La Draga es un yacimiento lacustre del Neolítico antiguo (5300-4900 cal BC) ubicado en Banyoles, Catalunya.
En el yacimiento se han recuperado un gran número de artefactos elaborados en hueso y madera que presentan un excelente estado de conservación por haber permanecido cubiertos por el nivel freático desde el
Neolítico. Entre ellos se encuentran punzones de hueso, posibles lanzaderas o husos y peines, similares a
los utilizados por sociedades modernas en los procesos de tejido e hilado en la producción textil.
Se ha llevado a cabo un programa experimental con el objetivo de reproducir estos instrumentos y el uso de
los mismos para veriicar las hipótesis de funcionalidad.
Palabras clave: Neolítico antiguo, producción textil, experimentación, traceología.
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INTRODUCTION
La Draga is an Early Neolithic (5300-4900 cal BC) lakeside site located in Banyoles,
(Catalonia). At the site, two phases of occupation have been documented (Palomo et al.,
2014) (Figure 1). The oldest one has remained under the water table since the Neolithic
era, permitting the preservation of organic material, while the last one is slightly above.
Many bone and wood artefacts from the oldest phase
have been recovered in an exceptional state of preservation (Bosch et al., 2006; Palomo et al. 2011, 2013;
Piqué et al., 2015). They include bone awls, combs
and spindles-like needles made of boxwood (Buxus
sempervirens) that look like those used by modern
societies in the weaving and spinning processes involved in the textile production. This similarity led
these objects to be interpreted as textile tools (Bosch
et al., 2006; de Diego, 2014).
This paper presents the results of the experimental
work aimed at reproducing the tools and the
way they were used to manufacture textiles, and
obtaining a reference collection of use-wear on
organic material.
Figure 1. Location
of La Draga.
METHODOLOGY
This research was carried out by a multidisciplinary
team using various methodologies including the
characterization of morphotechnical features, experimentation, use-wear analysis and archaeobiological analysis. The study of morphotechnical features allowed us to characterize the procedures involved in the manufacture
of these tools and advance hypotheses about their functional roles, facilitated by the deinition of morphological similarities and differences between archaeological and ethnographic items.
The next step was an experimental programme in which these instruments were
reproduced and used to test the hypotheses. We replicated the actions involved in the
weaving and spinning processes, tested the effectiveness of the tools and compared their
use to traditional textile practises, using especially Quechua and Aymara weavers from
the Bolivian Altiplano as a model. These ethnographical study cases were chosen because
some of the tools used by these communities have morphological similarities to those
recorded in La Draga.
Additionally, we are drawing up a reference collection of use-wear on organic material
related to textile work, using replicas of bone awls, spindle-like needles, and combs,
all made of boxwood. These types of tools were used for spinning and weaving with a
horizontal loom with wool threads.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD: THE POTENTIAL TEXTILE TOOLS IN LA DRAGA
A summary of the main features of bone and wood tools potentially used in textile
activities are presented here. A more detailed description is published in Bosch et al.
(2006) (Figure 2).
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Combs
Three nearly intact small combs made of boxwood
of varying sizes as well as fragments of prongs have
been recovered. The largest and best preserved item
measures 54 x 70 x 5 mm. and has eight prongs. The
others are more fragmented. Ethnographic studies
suggest that combs might have been used in at least
two activities related to textile processing: combing for
cleaning the ibre, and undoing knots. This facilitates
the next step, spinning. A weft beater may also have
been used during weaving to obtain a denser and
more compacted fabric.
Spindle-like needles
Nine spindle-like needles made of boxwood have been
recorded. These tools have a circular section and the
maximum diameter is usually in the middle. Their sizes
ranges from 242 to 310 mm in length, and 6 to 10 mm
in diameter. A small needle has also been documented
measuring 155 mm in length by 7 mm in diameter.
They could have been used as spindles for spinning and/
or as shuttles for weaving. We propose the hypothesis
that the thickest ones could have functioned as a
spindle to withstand the force of tension of thread. The
thinnest and longest needles might have been used as
shuttles.
Bone awls
Fifteen bone awls made of metapodial of ovicaprine from La Draga have a similar shape to
those used in current weaving communities. The size of them ranges from 69 mm to 77 mm in
length, 8.5 mm to 12 mm in width, and 4 mm to 5.5 mm in thickness (Legrand-Pineau, 2011).
Figure 2. Potential
textile tools from
La Draga.
One of their uses may have been as a weft beater. However, they can also be used to select
and separate the warp threads during weaving.
EXPERIMENTATION
The tools involved in production processes present visible use-wear in the form of
localized polishing and striations and possible fragmentation. Use-wear analysis thus
allows us to igure out how the tools were used, verify their performance and detect
different types of materials that were worked with them (Gibaja, 2007, inter alia). The
studies of functionality of organic materials such as wood and bone are recent, and are
still at a preliminary stage.
On the basis of this premise, we reproduced and used some of the tools from La Draga
described in the previous section in order to test our hypothesis on their use in textile
production. On the one hand, we wanted to reproduce the actions and verify the effectiveness
of the tools, and also build a data set on use-wear generated by different actions related
to textile activities.
For this purpose we reproduced tools that can be used for spinning and weaving such
as awls, combs and spindle-like needles. A horizontal loom for weaving was built and
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we wove with wool. (de Diego et al., in press). Although there is no
direct evidence of wool, death proiles of archaeozoological remains
suggest that locks may have been managed to favour the production
of animal ibres (Saña, 2011). We also replicated the experiments
using potentially useful plants for textile production such as nettle
which is present amongst the archaeobotanical remains (Antolín and
Buxó, 2011).
The preliminar results of the experimental work conirmed the
effectiveness of the reproduced tools used for spinning and weaving.
The replicated movements follow the pattern of those used in current
textile practices (Figures 3 and 4).
Spindle-like needles
A spindle-like needle was used during two hours for turning the spindle
by hand while the yarn is being twisted tightly. We noted that thickest
spindles are preferable, since they are more resistant to force and
pressure during stretching.
On the other hand, experimentation with spindle-like needles used
as a shuttle during two hours revealed the suitability of the longest
and smallest diameter tools. This is due to the fact that it is easier to
manipulate the tool back and forth across the loom threads.
Awls
Two awl replicas were used during six hours as a weft beater as well
as a thread selector and separator. One of them was only used as a
weft beater in order to isolate the use-wear and we took note of the
wear produced by the movement, direction and its position: one side of
the distal area was worn, accentuating the diagonal of the vertex to the
medial zone.
USE-WEAR ANALYSIS
The use-wear produced on the experimental tools were observed and
compared with those observed on the archaeological items.
Figure 3. Weaving
with a loom and
experimental tools.
Figure 4. Spinning
with a experimental
tool.
- Experimental awls:
The experimental work generated stritations of various sizes and
orientations and some irregular depressions. Nevertheless, more hours of work are
required to achieve conclusive results.
Overall we observed short, thick and transverse striations. Greater microscope magniication
revealed a polished and rounded topography. The use-wear resulting from working with
wool threads can be generally summarised as follows:
- Raised lat surfaces, slightly rounded, with general polishing in both high and deep zones.
- Bone fractures resulting from pressure.
- The sides of the distal area have greater wear and a rounded shape.
- Archaeological awls:
Three archaeological awls were analyzed. The irst one shows the distal area rounded and
polished, and linear striations. There is also a longitudinal striation and perpendicular
short striations in several directions. Polishing is very strong in high zones, indicating
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little pressure on the material worked, with clearly deined depressions,
leaving deeper areas with less polishing and more pronounced
striations. Comparison with our experimental material yielded negative
results. However, comparision with the reference collection of use-wear
one bone tools from the Institució Milà i Fontanals (CSIC, Barcelona)
suggests that the awl was used for working with plant ibres.
The second awl showed use-wear from resulting of work with vegetal
matter, with deep dark unpolished areas.
In contrast, the third awl might have been used for working with
hide, since it has much abrasion, polishing and very small supericial
striations.
- Experimental spindle-like needle:
Use-wear analysis shows evidence of parallel striations as a result of
friction and incipient polishing (Figure 5).
- Archaeological spindle-like needle:
Resins, paste and other material employed in the restoration and
preservation of the wood made almost impossible to observe use-wear
on this tool.
- Archaeological comb:
Archaeological combs from La Draga show use-wear in the distal area of the prongs. The
distal area of the prongs of one item are rounded due to wear. However, use-wear was not
detected on the archaeological item, not only because of the restorations but also due to
their preservation.
Figure 5. Use-wear
on experimental
spindle-like needle.
DISCUSSION
The irst results of our experimental work allow us to conirm the effectiveness of the
reproduced tools used for combing, spinning and weaving. Experimentation was useful to
show which kind of tool is most appropriate for certain activities.
The integrated analysis of archaeobiological remains supports the hypothesis of exploitation
of animal ibres for textile production. The sheep slaughtering patterns correlate with the
husbandry strategies focused to the exploitation of animal ibres (Saña, 2011). However,
no direct evidence of animal ibre has been documented to date at La Draga, nor has any
evidence of its use been found in the the use-wear analyses of lithic tools.
At least one of the plant remains recovered at the site (nettle, Urtica dioica) has been used
traditionally for textile production. For this reason, we need to extend our experimental
work with plant ibres. Working knowledge of plant ibres in La Draga is documented by
the presence of basketry and cordage (Bosch et al., 2006; Piqué et al., 2016), and the usewear analysis of a sample of three archaeological awls conirms that these tools were
used in work with vegetal ibres.
The experimental work to date is preliminary but nevertheless shows the need to include
organic materials as active tools in experimental programs. The reference collection of
use-wear related to textile production needs to be increased.
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REFERENCES
Antolín, F., Buxó, R. (2014). L’explotació de les plantes al
jaciment de la Draga: contribució a la història de l’agricultura
i de l’alimentació vegetal del neolític a Catalunya. In El poblat
lacustre del neolític antic de la Draga: Excavacions de 2000-2005.
Edited by Bosch, J.; Chinchilla, J.; Tarrús, J. Girona. CASC. Pp.
147-174.
Bosch, A., Chinchilla, J.; Tarrús, J. (2006). Els objectes de fusta
del poblat neolític de la Draga: excavacions 1995-2005. MAC.
Generalitat de Catalunya. Girona. 184 pp.
De Diego, M.; Palomo, A.; Piqué, R.; Saña, M.; Terradas, X.;
Clemente, I.; Mozota, M.: Evidences of textile technology in
the Ancient Neolithic site of la Draga. Some hypotesis. First
Textiles. The Beginnings of Textile Manufacture in Europe and the
Mediterranean. Oxbow Books, Oxford (in press).
De Diego, M.; Palomo, A.; Piqué, R.; Saña, M.; Terradas, X.;
Clemente, I.; Mozota, M.: Fibre production and incipient textile
technology in the Early Neolithic site of La Draga (Northeastern
Spain, Banyoles-Catalonia; 5300-4900 BC). NESAT XIII. Liberec
(in press).
Gibaja, J.F. (2007). Estudios de traceología y funcionalidad.
Praxis Archaeologica. 2, 49-74.
Legrand-Pineau, A. (2011). L’industrie osseuse de La Draga.
In El poblat lacustre del neolític antic de la Draga: les campanyes
dels anys 2000-2005. Edited by Bosch, A., Chinchilla, J., Tarrús, J.
MAC, Generalitat de Catalunya. Girona. Pp. 111-123.
144
Palomo, A., Gibaja, J.F., Piqué, R., Bosch, A., Chinchilla, J.,
Tarrús, J. (2011). Harvesting cereals and other plants in
Neolithic Iberia: the assemblage from the lake settlement at La
Draga. Antiquity. 85, 759-771.
Palomo, A., Piqué, R., Terradas, X., Bosch, A., Buxó, R.,
Chinchilla, J., Saña, M., Tarrús, J. (2014). Prehistoric occupation
of Banyoles lakeshore: results of recent excavations at La Draga
site, Girona, Spain. Journal of Wetland Archaeology. 14, 58-73.
Piqué, R., Palomo, A., Terradas, X., Tarrús, J., Buxó, R., Bosch,
A., Chinchilla, J., Bogdanovic, I., López, O., Saña, M. (2015).
Characterizing prehistoric archery: technical and functional
analyses of the Neolithic bows from La Draga (NE Iberian
Peninsula). Journal of Archaeological Science. 55, 166-173.
Piqué, R., Romero, S., Palomo, A., Tarrús, J., Terradas, X. &
Bogdanovic, I. (2016). The production and use of ropes in the
Early Neolithic site of La Draga (Banyoles, Spain). Quaternary
International [doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2016.05.024].
Saña, M. (2011). La gestió dels recursos animals. In El poblat
lacustre del neolític antic de la Draga: excavacions 2000-2005.
Edited by Bosch, A.; Chinchilla, J.; Tarrús, J. MAC, Generalitat
de Catalunya. Girona. Pp. 177-212.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
21
EXPERIMENTING WITH WRIST-GUARDS.
PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Experimentado con brazaletes de arquero.
Resultados preliminares
Alejandro Muñoz Martínez*, Iván Curto Encabo*,
Pedro Muñoz Moro*, Carmen Gutiérrez Sáez*
*Dpto. de Prehistoria y Arqueología. FF.LL. Universidad Autónoma
28049 Cantoblanco, Madrid
Alejandro.munnozm@estudiante.uam.es
Ivan.curto@estudiante.uam.es
Pedro.munnozm@predoc.uam.es
Carmen.gutierrez@uam.es
Abstract
We present the experimental work of 11 archer bracelets or wrist-guards in different stone and bone material. These items had three different types of use: the irst as wrist-guards for archers, the second as
sharpeners of copper and bronze knifes, and the third as a technological footprint. Experiments evaluating
the effectiveness of these items in all functions permitted a traeceological study of the wear left in each case.
Keywords: wrist-guards, Bell-Beaker, Bronze Age, sharpener, traceology.
Resumen
Se presenta un trabajo experimental de 11 brazales de arquero sobre distintas materias pétreas y hueso.
Estas piezas fueron usadas en tres grupos diferentes: el primero a modo de protector de arquerías, el segundo como ailadores de cuchillos de cobre y bronce y inalmente, el tercero, como muestra de huellas tecnológicas. Los experimentos evalúan la efectividad de estas piezas en ambas funciones e inician un estudio
traceológico de las huellas dejadas en cada caso.
Palabras clave: brazal de arquero, Campaniforme, Edad del Bronce, ailador, traceología.
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INTRODUCTION
Archer wrist-guards are clipped plates made in stone. The most common material used
to make them on the Iberian Plateau are sandstone and schist (Garrido Pena, 1999), but
slate (Viñe Escartín et al., 1990) and, in very rare cases, bone (Lopez Plaza, 1980) and gold
(Garrido Pena, 2014) were also used.
They were usually part of the grave goods in the Bell-Beaker culture, although their use
continued until the beginning of the Bronze Age in some regions. In England, 28 of 58
studied wrist-guards have been found together with other materials, 11 of which were
copper or bronze knifes, and 7 associated with lint arrowheads (Woodward & Hunter,
2011: 104).
Figure 1. Table of experimental wrist-guards.
Their use as archer’s wrist guards
is inferred by the position in
which some of the contextualized
examples
were
found
(Sangmeister, 1964). At some sites
in Central Europe and England,
wrist-guards were placed beside
arms, usually near the forearm,
both on the inside and the outside,
with up to seven different positions
located to date. The functional
use of wrist-guards located in
outer positions is discarded,
and are usually considered to be
ornamental offerings to ancestors
(Fokkens et al., 2008: 113, 124, Fig.
2).
An alternative role of wrist-guards
has been proposed in recent years
following an old hypothesis of the
Siret brothers (1890), deining
them as sharpener-plaques used
for polishing metal on account
of its compositional content of
abrasive minerals and association
Figure 2. Set of experimental wrist-guards.
Figure 3. Shaping a wrist-guard by sawing.
with metallurgical contexts (Calvo
Trías & Guerrero Ayuso, 2002:
108). Additionally, their association with arrowheads does not deine their use as wristguards (Risch, 1995: 220), since they frequently appear in other Mediterranean areas
without any association with other items used in archery.
Their use as polishers was postulated in 1890, when the Siret brothers (1890: Lam. 20: 15
of the upper section) associated these pieces with metal elements, citing the discovery of
tomb 15 at Zapata (Ramonete, Murcia), where a small dagger was found on a perforated
plaque. Other associations between sharpeners and wrist-guards have been documented
at numerous sites in southeastern Iberia (Risch, 1995: 220). Signs of use on the reverse of
many of these objects has been highlighted by several authors. Thus, their location next
to the forearm of a body does not necessarily preclude their use as sharpeners in either
funerary or domestic contexts (Risch, 1995: 221-222).
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EXPERIMENTS
Little experimental work has been done with these kinds of items. In a study by Van der
Vaart (2009: 14), two experimental sets were built and used by expert archers with replicas
of ancient models and modern bows. This work only aimed to check their effectiveness,
since the functional study of archaeological wrist-guards was limited to the wear observed
in the perforations. The results from the experimental wrist-guards was not compared
to archaeological examples, and the only deduction from the study of the archaeological
items was a difference in the intensity of use based on the traces of the perforations (Van
Der Vaart, 2009: 29).
Figure 4. Perforation
by drill/spindle.
Figure 5. Use of
wrist-guard 9 as a
protector.
Figure 6. Use of
wrist-guard 1 as a
polisher/sharpener.
The present results are based on initial experimental phases in which we manufactured
several wrist-guards using different raw material and used them for their presumed
purpose, as archer’s wrist-guards and as sharpeners of copper and bronze daggers.
Another two wrist-guards were manufactured to analyze the technological traces (Figure 1).
For our experiments we selected similar stone material to that found on the Iberian
Peninsula (schist, slate and sandstone), along with a copy made from a cow bone (Figure
2). The stone plaques were extracted by indirect percussion using the laking of the raw
material to obtain the desired thickness. The next step was to cut the plates with stone
tools (Figure 3). The bone wrist-guard was produced similarly, by cutting a long bone.
The edges of each object were smoothed with sandstone. The forms were then drilled,
making a perforation with a pump-drill like the ones used successfully in experimental
replicas of variscite objects from the Gavà mines (Noain Maura, 1996). This drill consisted
of a horizontal crossbar connected end to end by a rope with a stone or tip twisted into
its active area. By applying vertical movement to the horizontal cross bar, the rope twists
around its axis with movement that generates the necessary drill friction (Figure 4). This
was done on both sides, resulting in a characteristic bitroncoconical section. Twelve wristguards were made, 5 of which were used as wrist-guards, 5 as polishers/sharpeners and
2 used to observe the technological wear that remained from its manufacture.
Experimentation and functional eficiency
The wrist-guards were used by strapping them to the forearm of the archer with cotton
string, placing a leather strap between the arm and the wrist-guard for extra protection
(Figure 5). After preliminary tests, we opted to use an expert archer to carry out all the
experiments. Twenty shots were performed with each wrist-guard (parts 8, 9, 10 and 12)
and 25 in the case of guard 6. The wrist-guards, tied to the inner forearm as well as
the wrist, were very effective in stopping the lash-back of the bowstring during recoil.
The impact of the rope on the wrist-guards generated a rapid and intense blow, mainly
affecting the proximal and lower side of the wrist-guards. These items proved to be very
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effective as protection for archers, stopping the
impact of rope on the arm in practically every shot.
On two occasions, the rope hit the arm in the area
prior to the wrist-guards. In some experiments
carried out by a non-expert archer, the wrist-guards
proved to be ineffective. We must therefore insist
that the technical capacity of the archer inluences
the use of wrist-guards as protective elements.
In the experimental use as polishers/sharpeners,
items 1 and 4 were used to sharpen copper daggers
and No. 2 with 14% tin bronze daggers. In two cases,
3 and 5, they were used for both types of daggers,
although on different areas of the plaque (Figure 6).
All items were used for 15 minutes, and proved to be
very effective in eliminating the oxidation of a dagger
–in this case tenorite-, characteristic of copperbased metals.
RESULTS
This experiment not only focused on assessing the
performance of the wrist-guards in both activities,
but also to study the traces from both activities in
order to apply these indings to archaeological wristguards and determine their speciic functions. In
this regard, the work on identifying characteristic
traces is still underway, and we can only anticipate
general observations.
Figure 7. Wristguard 5, traces of
sharpening.
Figure 8. Wristguard n. 6, impact
traces because of the
bowstring.
Figure 9. Wrist-guard
10, traces of impact
on bone.
Use-wear in polishers/sharpeners. Metal sharpening
leaves different tracks according to the type of stone
used. A polished surface is observed in all cases,
with a characteristic ripple (Figure 7) formed by a
series of parallel grooves in the cases of sandstone
and slate. These grooves have different depths
and widths, with lateral rounded edges. Slate only
shows small surface cracks in the outermost layer.
In some of the faces that were in contact with the metal surface, some metallic residues
still remain.
Use-wear in wrist-guards. The items used as wrist-guards manifest more irregular marks
that are harder to identify. The most noteworthy ones are irregular cracks, located on both
the sides and the edges, with different morphologies depending on the raw material. In the
cases of sandstone, schist and slate, we found abrupt microchipping (Figure 8). The impact
of the rope chipped off small fragments from the surface layer. This small layer chipping
could be accompanied by micro cracking on the stone surface. There were small irregular
depressions on the surface along with signs of isolated ibers of broken bone (Figure 9).
CONCLUSIONS
From the functional point of view, we can conclude that both uses, as wrist-guards
and as polishers/sharpeners, are equally effective with this type of object. It should be
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noted that in the case of wrist-guards, it is important for the experimenter to be an
expert archer.
Patterns of use wear from both activities are quite different. In the case of polishers
made of sandstone and schist, the activity is easily detectable with a binocular magnifying
glass, with an obvious wavy surface. However, use identiication in slate polishers
and protectors is more problematic and less conclusive, given that these traces, their
morphology and irregular distribution can be confused with those from events such as
falling or accidental collision with hard materials.
REFERENCES
Calvo Trias, M y Guerrero Ayuso, V. M. (2002): Los inicios de la
metalurgia en Baleares El Calcolítico (c. 2500-1700 cal. BC). El
Tall. Mallorca. 282 pp.
Risch, R. (1995): Recursos naturales y sistemas de producción en
el sudeste de la Península Ibérica. Tesis doctoral. Universidad
Autónoma de Barcelona. Barcelona. 601 pp.
Fokkens, H.; Achterkamp, y.; Kuijpers, M. (2008): Bracers or
Bracelets? About the Functionality and Meaning of Bell Beaker
Wrist-guards. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society.74, 109-140.
Sangmeister, E. (1964): Die schmalen “Armschutzplatten”.
Studien aus Alt-Europa. Köln-Granz. 93-122.
Garrido Pena, R. (1999): El Campaniforme en la Meseta: Análisis
de su contexto social, económico y ritual. II Vol. Tesis Doctoral.
Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Madrid. 578 pp.
Garrido Pena, R. (2014): El Campaniforme en la Península
Ibérica. In M. Almagro Gorbea (coor): Protohistoria de la
Península Ibérica: del Neolítico a la romanización. Universidad de
Burgos, Fundación Atapuerca. 113-124
López Plaza, S. (1980): Brazalete de arquero precampaniforme
procedente de “La Peña del Águila”, Muñogalindo (Ávila).
Zephyrus. 30-31, 257-258.
Siret, L. y Siret, H. (1890): Las primeras Edades del Metal en el
Sudeste de España. Barcelona. 250 pp.
Van Der Vaart, S. (2009). Bell Beaker wrist-guards reconsidered.
A research into their functionality and possible uses. Bachelor
thesis, Faculty of Archaeology. Leiden. 53 pp.
Viñe Escartín, A.; Martín Arija, A. y Rubio Carrasco, P. (1990):
Excavación de urgencia en Sntioste, Otero de Sariegos. Anuario
1990. Instituto de estudios zamoranos Florián Ocampo. 89-104.
Woodward A. y Hunter J. (2011): An examination of prehistoric
stone bracers from Britain. Oxbow Books. Oxford. UK. 192 pp.
Noain Maura, M. J. (1996): Las cuentas de collar en variscita de
las minas Prehistóricas de Gavá (Can Tintorer). Bases para un
estudio experimental. CuPAUAM. 23, 37-86.
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TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
22
NEW ATERIAN STONE TOOL RESEARCH
PERSPECTIVES USING EXPERIMENTATION
AND USE-WEAR ANALYSIS
Nuevas perspectivas de investigación sobre
herramientas de piedra ateriana a través de la
experimentación y el análisis de huellas de uso
Serena Falzetti*, Elena Garcea**
*MA student, Deaprtment of Classics, University “La Sapienza” of Rome, Italy.
** University of Cassino and Lazio meridionale, Department of Lettere e Filosoia,
Cassino, Italy.
Abstract
This paper is an initial approach that combines experimental archaeology and use-wear analysis for the
interpretation of the functional signiicance of notched edges that characterize Aterian industries (Middle
Stone Age of North Africa). Replicas of tools in the same raw material —lint and quartzite— as the archaeological specimens were used to reproduce different actions on several materials. The studied archaeological
material is from several open area sites in the Jebel Gharbi region, Libyan Sahara (Barich and Garcea, 2008;
Garcea and Spinapolice, 2013).
Keywords: Aterian, notch, quartzite, lint.
Resumen
Este trabajo es un estudio inicial que combina la arqueología experimental y el análisis de huellas de uso
para la interpretación de la importancia funcional de las muescas en los ilos que caracterizan las industrias aterianas (Middle Stone Age en el norte de África). Se han utilizado réplicas de las herramientas
arqueológicas con la misma materia prima –sílex y cuarcita- para reproducir acciones diferentes en varios
materiales. El material arqueológico estudiado proviene de varios yacimientos al aire libre en la region de
Jebel Gharbi, en el Sahara libanés (Barich and Garcea, 2008; Garcea and Spinapolice, 2013).
Palabras clave: Ateriense, muesca, cuarcita, sílex.
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INTRODUCTION
The North African Middle Stone Age “Aterian culture” (ca. 130.000 – 40.000 BP) was
discovered in 1917 in the eponymous site of Bir el Ater, located in Wadi Djebbana (eastern
Algeria). This culture its into the transition from Mode 2 to Mode 3 industry, characterized
by the beginning of a regional lithic tradition and composite lithic technology. The Aterians
were mobile groups, perfectly adapted to desert
environments (Garcea 2012).
The Aterian industry is characterized mainly by
tanged points, technologically manufactured by two
opposite notches. Some scholars, having analysed
the artifacts from Jebel Gharbi (Libya), suggests
that notches were created to facilitate the hafting
of the points (see, e.g., Radu Iovita 2001), but some
researchers have observed traces of use on some
of these notches (Massussi and Lemorini, 20042005) and presume a possible active role of this
type of retouched edge. The presence of other types
of tools in the Aterian industries showing tang or
single, double or multiple notches, raises concerns
about the real functional role of this technological
evidence.
Figure 1. Butchery
experiment.
Figure 2. Hide
softening experiment.
Figure 3. Open
concave notch;
2: closed concave
notch.
Following these suggestions, we tried to identify
the possible uses of these notches and understand
why they made this particular technological choice.
Because of the patina on the archeological artifacts
it was only possible conduct a macro-wear analysis.
All the analyzed materials come from the surface.
We applied an experimental approach using
replicas of notches retouched on lint and quartzite
lakes. We worked various materials (hide, bone,
wood and herbaceous plants), thus reproducing
activities such as scraping, cutting and smoothing, compatible with those used by the
Aterian communities during their daily life. The experiments documented the excellent
functionality of the notched forms, and moreover, produced clearly diagnostic macro
use-wear which was later also detected on the archaeological sample.
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
Experimental notched tools were measured in order to verify the relationship between
the thickness of the edge and its functionality. Notches were photographed before use
with a Nikon SZ stereo microscope (0.5X lens, 10X oculars, magniications ranging from
0.75X to 7.5X) and a relected light system. Standardized 3X and, when necessary, 4X
magniication was used.
We worked different materials in order to produce a range of use-wear to compare
with the archaeological material. Reeds (fresh and dry), bone (fresh and dry in
ash), wood (fresh and dry) and dry hide were processed using a variety of actions:
engraving, butchering, scraping, softening and smoothing. Each functional edge was
used for one hour and then washed and analyzed with the stereoscopic microscope
(Figure 1 and 2).
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The shape of the notch, in particular
the extent of its concavity, is an
important variable which affects
the functional potential of these
types of edges. For this reason, we
decided to distinguish between
“open concavity” and “closed
concavity” on the basis of the
general morphology generated by
the combination of its length and
width. A closed concavity notch
is thus very deep with a narrow
“mouth” while an open concavity
notch is less deep and has a wide
“mouth”. The morphology of this
particular edge determines the
type of material to be worked. In
fact, with a concave shape, it is only possible to choose materials with a shape that is
consistent with the morphology and size of the notch. A further limitation is imposed by the
extent of the concavity. It has been noted, for example, that notches with a closed concavity
work perfectly for producing pointed tools or for working small wood, while on the other
hand, they are less eficient for butchering or engraving. During the experimental sessions,
we realized that notches produce a particular type of distribution of edge-removals that we
deined as step. Edge-removals (Van Gijn, 1990) with a perpendicular direction to the edge
develop a horizontal overlapped line, producing a sort of terracing. This distribution has
been identiied on replicas used to process medium/hard materials (Figure 3).
Figure 4.
Experimental tool
use-wear.
The experiment showed that notches are highly functional, especially those with an
open concave morphology with edge-angle ranging from 40 ° to 70 °. There is no
uniformity in the thickness of the tools owing to functional notches, and as their
dimensions ranged from 3 mm to 11 mm. However, tools with a thickness of about 11
mm were less functional that tools with a smaller thickness. The experiments proved
that notches are especially useful for scraping fresh wood and softening stripes of
hide. Cutting can be done only on very soft material such as meat, and engraving was
only eficient on reeds.
After the experiments, we noted that a notched morphology created by retouching is a
sort of barrier against which the force resulting from use breaks, with the consequent
formation of much smaller edge removals with different morphologies from those that
develop on natural edges. Indeed, edge-removals with hinge terminations, generally
associated with the working of hard materials, are absent here. The margins with concave
morphology are therefore more resistant than the natural ones. Moreover, we noticed that
lint and quartzite develop different edge-removal morphologies, even when working the
same type of material (Figure 4).
Soft material (butchering-scraping off meat from bones and engraving reeds)
Quartzite notches: the same degree of edge-rounding (Van Gijn, 1990) (light/medium)
and edge-removal termination (feather), but differed in edge-removal size (small for
reeds and medium for meat), initiation (conical for reeds and indeterminable for meat),
and distribution (close regular for meat and close irregular for reeds).
Flint notches: edge-rounding differed in degree (light for reeds and medium/light for
meat), edge removals differed in size (small for reeds and small/medium for meat),
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Figure 5. Exp.15
and 5, see detail of
scars with feather
termination,
characteristic of soft
material processing.
Figure 6. Exp. 11, see
detail of scars with
step termination and
stepped distribution,
characteristic of wood
processing, for lint
tools.
Figure 7. Exp. 7,
see detail of scars
with feather/
step termination,
characteristic of
bone processing, for
quartzite tools.
distribution (close irregular in reeds and wide irregular/step for the meat), initiation
(conical for reeds and indeterminable for meat), and termination (feather for reeds and
step for meat) (Figure 5).
Medium hard material (debarking dry/fresh wood and softening hide)
Quartzite notches: edge-removals showed the same size (small) and termination (feather)
but differ in initiation (indeterminable for dry wood and hide, conical for fresh wood), in
distribution (step for dry wood, wide irregular for hide and closed irregular for fresh
wood), and edge rounding differs in degree (light/medium for dry wood, medium for hide
and fresh wood).
Flint notches: edge-rounding differed in degree (medium/heavy for hide and light
for wood dry/fresh), edge removals differ in size (medium for hide and small for dry/
fresh wood), distribution (overlapping for hide, step for dry wood and wide irregular
for fresh wood), initiation (conical/bending for hide and fresh wood, indeterminable for
dry wood), termination (feather for hide, step for dry wood and feather/step for fresh
wood) (Figure 6).
Hard material (bone scraping and smoothing)
Quartzite notches: light edge rounding, small edge removals size, close-irregular edge
removals distribution, conical edge removals initiation and featherstep edge removals.
Flint notches: light degree of edge rounding, small edge removal size, step edge removal
distribution, indeterminable edge removal initiation and step edge removals termination
(Figure 7).
CONCLUSION
The experiment shows that notches are highly functional, especially for working thin
materials. In the archaeological sample, we noticed that many tools types had been
recycled as notched tools. Notched morphology was deliberate and proved to have a
strong capacity for adaptation to the desert environment of the Aterian groups, who
capitalized every possible resource including the recycling of tools.
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The use-wear analysis of experimental tools, especially lint tools, proves that it is
possible to recognize general categories of worked materials that are soft, medium
and hard. Moreover, on lint replicas we can clearly distinguish combinations of edge
removals and edge rounding testifying to hide, reed and fresh wood working. It is also
possible to recognize two different actions related to butchering: cutting and scraping
(see exp.17). On quartzite replicas, we distinguished traces related to hide, wood, and
bone working. On the archaeological samples, we found traces interpretable as the result
of the reed engraving and wood and bone scraping. We also documented the presence of
tools with “tang” whose actual function was performed separately on the two notches.
It will be interesting to further investigate the “role” of this “notched” technical solution.
Notched tools seem to be deep-rooted in Aterian groups, who used them for multiple
uses and at a certain time, perhaps began to convert their active functional role into a
passive functional role of tang for enhancing the hafting of composite tools.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All microscopic analysis were done at the Laboratory of Technological and Functional
Analysis of Pre- and Protohistoric artifacts, “La Sapienza” University, Rome.
REFERENCES
Barca D., Mutri G., (2009). Caratterizzazione geochimica e
determinazione della provenienza delle selci del Jebel Gharbi,
in Africa LXIV, 3-4. Pp. 488-497.
Odell G. H., (1981). The Mechanics of Use-Breakage of Stone
Tool: Some Testable Hypotheses. Journal of Field Archaeology 8
(2), 197-209.
Garcea E.A.A., (2012). Successes and failures of human
dispersals from North Africa, in Quaternary International. 270,
119-128.
Olausson D., (1980). Starting from Scratch: the history of EdgeWear research from 1838 to 1978. Lithic Technology 9 (2), 48-60.
Hayden B., (1979). Snap, Shatter, and Superfractures: Use-Wear
of Stone Skin Scrapers, in Lithic Use-Wear Analysis. Academic
Press. Pp. 207-229.
Knutsson K., Lindé K., (1990). Post-Depositional Alterations
of Wear Marks on Quartz Tool Preliminary Observations on an
Experiment with Aeolian Abrasion, In Le silex de sa genèse à
l’outil. Actes du Vº Colloque International sur le silex. Cahiers du
Quaternaire vol. 17. Edited by M. R. Séronie-Vivien & M. Lenoir.
Editions du C.N.R.S. Pp. 607-618.
Massussi M., Lemorini C., (2004-2005). I siti Ateriani del
Jebel Gharbi: caratterizzazione delle catene di produzione
e deinizione tecno-funzionale dei peduncolati. In Scienze
dell’Antichità, storia archeologia antropologia 12. Pp. 19-28.
Rots V., Wlliamson B.S., (2004). Microwear and residue analyses in perspective: the contribution of ethnoarchaeological evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science. 31, 1287–1299.
Semenov S. A., (1964). Prehistoric technology. An experimental
study of the oldest tools and artifacts from traces of manufacture
and wear. London. Cory, Adams and Mackay Ltd.
Tringham R., Cooper G., Odell G.H. et al., (1974). Experimentation in the Formation of Edge Damage: A New Approach to Lithic
Analysis. Journal of Field Archaelogy. 1, 171-196.
Van Gijn L., (1990). The wear and tear of lint: principles of
functional analysis applied to Dutch Neolithic Assemblages. In
Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia, vol. 22, Institute of Prehistory
Leiden.
Odell G. H., (2001). Stone Tool Research at the End of the Millennium: Classiication, Function, and Behavior. Journal of Archaeological Research. 9, 45-100.
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Experimentation
of cut marks,
diet and
bioenergy
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23
WALKING WITH CARNIVORES:
EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH
TO HOMININ-CARNIVORE INTERACTION
Caminando entre carnívoros:
Aproximación experimental a la interacción
entre homininos y carnívoros
Edgard Camarós* **, Marián Cueto***, Luis C. Teira****,
Andreu Ollé* **, Florent Rivals* ** *****
*Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES)
C/Marcel.lí domingo s/n, Campus Sescelades URV (Ediici W), 43007, Tarragona, Spain.
ecamaros@iphes.cat, aolle@iphes.cat, lorent.rivals@icrea.cat
**Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV),
Avda. de Catalunya, 35, 43002, Tarragona, Spain
***Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB)
Campus UAB, Ediici B, 08193, Barcelona, Spain
mariancuetor@gmail.com
****Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones Prehistóricas de Cantabria (IIIPC-UC)
Av. de Los Castros s/n 39005 Santander, Spain
luis.teira@unican.es
*****Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain.
Abstract
The study of interactions between hominins and carnivores is essential to understand the development of
human behaviour. Therefore, understanding this relation is one of the most positive approaches for the recovery of behavioral information preserved or destroyed in the archaeological record. In this paper, we present
a general overview of our experimental approach using extant carnivores for the study of complex, modern
behaviour by means of the design of experimental scenarios with archaeological implications. Our results
attest to the importance of the use of experimental archaeology for understanding interactions between
hominins and carnivores with the aim of ascertaining patterns of human behaviour.
Keywords: hominins, carnivores, interaction, experimental series, hominin behaviour.
Resumen
El estudio de la interacción entre homininos y carnívoros es esencial para comprender el desarrollo del
comportamiento humano. Así pues, entender esta relación es uno de los acercamientos más positivos que
se pueden realizar para recuperar información comportamental conservada o destruida en el registro arqueológico. En este artículo, presentamos nuestra aproximación con carnívoros actuales al estudio del comportamiento moderno y complejo mediante el desarrollo de escenarios experimentales con implicaciones
arqueológicas. Nuestros resultados demuestran la importancia de la arqueología experimental para entender la interacción entre homininos y carnívoros y con el objetivo de postular patrones para la comprensión
del comportamiento humano.
Palabras clave: homininos, carnívoros, interacción, experimentaciones, comportamiento humano.
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INTRODUCTION
The relationship between hominins and carnivores is probably one of the most constant
interactions in human evolution (Rosell et al., 2012). It is also one of the relations with the
ecosystem that most has inluenced human behaviour, and some scholars have pointed to
a co-evolution between hominins and large carnivores during our evolution (Brantingham,
1998). By studying different archaeological contexts, it is possible to reconstruct some
aspects related to such interaction during the Pleistocene. Nevertheless, most of
the questions cannot be full answered by only approaching the issue from a strictly
archaeological perspective, and interpretations change when experiments are conducted
in order to ind new questions and new answers. Experimentation has been found to be
one of the best research strategies for tackling this problem (Camarós and Cueto, 2013).
Figure 1. Cabarceno
Nature Park location
and experiments:
1) Location; 2)
Animals in the Park;
3) Photogrammetric
record of
experimental
scenarios; 4)
Hyenas modifying a
combustion structure;
5) Bears modifying
experimental
scenarios revealing
complex hominin
behaviour.
Our taphonomic experimental
research aimed to describe
prehistoric human behaviour
by
reconstructing
controlled
hominin-carnivore
scenarios,
which can help to further
understand Pleistocene contexts
where such interactions have
been present in different ways.
The experiments were done
in the Cabarceno Nature Park
(Cantabria, Northern Spain) with
large carnivores such as lions,
hyenas, wolves and bears (Figure
1.1). The animals in Cabárceno
live in a semi-free state (Figure 1.2). Each animal group has enclosures of several hectares
limited by natural barriers (cliffs), and enclosed by artiicial integrated fences.
In the present paper, we provide an overview of how the different experiments can help to
advance new methodologies to approach modern Pleistocene human behaviour. The issues
addressed here are related to inhumation practices, specialized use of space, achievement
of pyrotechnological knowledge, use-wear patterns and subsistence strategies.
EXPERIMENTAL HOMININ-CARNIVORE SCENARIOS
The study of human evolution towards modern behaviour has a lot to do with intrasite
spatial analysis. Through the study of artefact distribution, it is possible to reconstruct
spatial organization in relation to activities performed in an area. At Lower and Middle
Palaeolithic sites, this is a very important issue because it is possible to observe modern
cognition through spatial organization patterns. For example, the presence of hearths
reveals a speciic organization of the social activity around it (Binford, 1978), and evidences
a formal concept of domestic space (MacBrearty and Brooks, 2000).
The identiication of spatial units is thus necessary in order to understand and prove
spatial organization patterns. The use of different spaces for different activities generates
an occupation loor where identiiable delimited areas can be recognized, which and this
related to behavioral patterns that show evidence of complexity.
Spatial analysis is thus an important element in studying when and how complex behaviour
and modern cognition appears in human evolution, in relation to this recurrent spatial
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organization patterns. In this sense, spatial analysis is an essential tool for debate about
periods in which the presence of this type of human behaviour is questioned.
On the other hand, interactions between hominins and carnivores are well documented
during the Pleistocene, and indeed carnivores have played an important role throughout
human evolution (Brantingham, 1998). During the Late Pleistocene, hominins and
carnivores did not just shared space at a macro level, but also literally shared same
living places (Rosell et al., 2012). The occupation of karst contexts by both hominins and
carnivores is a well-documented phenomena during this period (Skinner, 2012). Obviously,
they did not share same cavities at the same time, but caves were used alternately in time
for different activities.
Evidence of anthropic activity overlaps or is mixed with evidence of carnivore activity,
which hinders our understanding of the assemblage formation process and the isolation
of archaeo-stratigraphic units. These cave ‘palimpsests’ deriving from shared common
living places may cause problems for the study of intra-site anthropic spatial organization.
(Figure 1) In this context, the aim of our experimental project with extant large carnivores
such as bears, hyenas, lions and wolves at the Cabárceno Nature Park (Santander,
Cantabrian Spain) (Figure 1.1), was to recreate potential Pleistocene scenarios of
interaction between hominins and carnivores in order to develop a methodology for
subsequent studies of Paleolithic archaeological contexts. Several experimental scenarios
were designed to answer speciic questions:
1. How do carnivores modify specialized spatial anthropic distributions?
2. How do they modify lithic objects?
3. Can we understand the order of the superposition present on bones?
4. Do carnivores modify and erase structured inhumations?
These questions were designed with a view to observe how carnivores are able to
modify and erase evidence of hominin behaviour. The questions derived from a previous
experiment (Camarós et al., 2013) in which it was proven that carnivores modify space and
erase spatial associations, providing evidence of complex, modern behaviour (Figure 1.4).
The irst experiment was designed in order to build
an experimental scenario in which different activity
areas were relected in the space (Figure 1.5).
Several areas were ‘settled’ to relect butchering,
knapping, wood storage, ireplaces and hearthrelated activities.
The experiment was successful in the sense that
carnivores heavily modiied the experimental
scenario, erasing almost all evidence of specialized
spatial distribution and hence complex, modern
behaviour. However, an additional observation related
to spatial modiications by carnivores was also noted.
When carnivores moved experimental objects, they
recurrently chewed the lithic assemblage (Figure
2 a). They were probably attracted to these objects
as they contained traces of fat and meat. This was
also observed in the previous experiment (Camarós
et al., 2013), and therefore during the subsequent
experiments, all lithic tools were subject to prior
Figure 2. Experimental modiication of lithic tools: a) Bear biting lake
2 from the hearth-related assemblage; b) lake 2 with bear scores on
lithic Surface (highlighted in red) and c) 3D microscopic image of one of
the scores produced by a bear biting a lake 2 (3D model obtained with
Helicon Focus software after a series of metallographic extended focus
images (Zeiss Axioscope A1)).
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 3. Experimental 3D microscopic images of cutmarks and carnivore scores
and punctures on bones produced by lions (1), bears (2) and hyenas (3). All images
are a cut mark-carnivore mark sequence (1a-3b), except 3c. 3D models obtained
with Helicon Focus software after series of stereomicroscope extended focus
images (Zeiss Stemi 2000C).
Figure 4. Experimental inhumation (bear):
Structured inhumation 1) before carnivore
modiication and 2) after modiication. Objects
X,Y, Z1 and Z2 shown prior to and after
experimental scenarios (1 and 2),
controlled observation using a resin cast before the carnivores could modify them. This
control allowed us to identify which marks were made by the carnivores (Figure 2 b). We
observed bear trampling, bites and manipulation of stone artefacts that generated surface
modiications such as edge damage, micro-fractures, rounding and striations (Figure 2 c).
(Figures 2 and 3) It is also well known that one of the most consistently modiied items by
carnivores are animal bones (Binford, 1981). We also conducted experiments to understand
the order of the superposition of marks generated by both hominins and carnivores (e.g.,
bite marks over cut marks) (Figure 3). Previous experiments with the same aim have
been conducted with dogs (Blasco and Rosell, 2009). The importance of understanding
and characterizing such common phenomena in an archaeozoological assemblage (e.g.,
Krönneck, 2012) is to evidence which agents were responsible for primary or secondary
access.
Another experiment, also aimed at analysing how carnivores destroy evidence of hominin
behaviour, looked at the way carnivores interact with a structured inhumation. A rectangular
experimental inhumation was excavated and clearly inhumation-related objects were
placed at the bottom (Figure 4.1). A dead deer (Cervus elaphus) was placed inside and
buried more than 50 cm below the surface.
(Figure 4) This experiment was only conducted with bears and hyenas. Nevertheless, the
results suggest that both of them animals of destroying evidence of intentional structured
inhumations such as a burial pit and objects placed inside it (Figure 4.1).
The overall aim of this paper is to demonstrate the potential of experimental hominincarnivore interaction scenarios for the study of modern and complex hominin behaviour.
It is thus possible to regard spatial distributions destroyed by carnivores as taphonomic
agents. This understanding can help us to look at, for example, why, at some sites,
Neanderthals had a similar spatial pattern to carnivores (Pettit, 1997). We must assume
that in some cases, the action of carnivores may have been responsible for the destruction
of key social practices that infer behaviour, such as inhumation.
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Furthermore, carnivores not only destroy evidence of hominin behaviour, but can also
generate taphonomic signs that can be misinterpreted. One of them is the modiication of
lithic surfaces. This can be a major confusing factor when analyzing use-wear traces in
search of the inference of past activities. Future research will therefore have to characterize
this type of surface modiication in order to distinguish it hem from use-wear features.
Although the present experiment is not conclusive, it allows us to conirm the potential
importance of experimental scenarios with extant large carnivores for the study of human
behaviour through interactions between hominins and carnivores.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Our experiments are showing the importance of experimental archaeology related to
the study of hominin-carnivore interactions. The experimental scenarios presented here
show that it is possible to replicate aspects related to the study of modern, complex
behaviour and consider carnivore actions as post-depositional taphonomic agents. Firstly,
we can see that carnivores modify spaces linked to modern, complex behaviour such as
hearth and hearth-related assemblages, or complex spatial distributions and inhumation
contexts. Secondly, these types of experiments permit the design of new criteria for the
analysis of archaeological material with taphonomic modiications such as bones with
superimposed marks made by both hominins and carnivores. This helps to detect which
agents had primary and secondary access, and has implications for many issues related
to subsistence strategies (e.g., hunting or scavenging). Finally, the experiments underway
show how carnivores are able to modify elements in a confusing way for the interpretation
of hominin activities (e.g., signs of use-wear on lithic tools).
In conclusion, experiments with extant carnivores are providing important useful information
related to the study of human behaviour through hominin-carnivore interaction. We are
now building a multidisciplinary methodology to retrieve behavioral related-information
that has been erased due to the activity of carnivores as taphonomic agents (e.g., spatial
distributions), that was dificult to recover (e.g., in the case of superpositions) and that can
cause confusion (e.g., use-wear traces).
The aim of this methodology is to provide new insight into the study of human behaviour
through the analysis of hominin-carnivore interaction during the Pleistocene, which show
that can play a major role in the study of the evolution of human behaviour. Future studies
will apply all these results to the study of archaeological assemblages.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thanks S. Borragán (Cabárceno Veterinary Service) for his help in the
development of all phases of the experiment. M. Prieto (Cabárceno), helped us in the
animal enclosures. Thanks also to Cabárceno Nature Park and Cantur, SA. This project
was conducted with funding from project SGR 2014-SGR-900 (AGAUR) and HAR201348784-C3-1-P. EC was beneiciary of a FI Research Grant (AGAUR).
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REFERENCES
Binford, L. R. (1978). Dimensional analysis of behavior and site
structure: learning from an Eskimo hunting stand. American
Antiquity. 43(3), 330-361.
Binford, L. (1981). Bones, Ancient Men and Modern Myths.
Academic Press.
Brantingham, P. (1998). Hominin-carnivore coevolution and
invasion of the Predatory Guild. Journal of Anthropological
Archaeology. 17, 327–53.
Blasco, R., Rosell, J. (2009), Who was irst? An experimental
application of carnivore and hominin marks at the Pleistocene
archaeological sites. C. R. Palevol. 8, 579-592.
Camarós, E., Cueto, M. (2013). New methodologies for the
recovery of human behaviour through the evolution of hominincarnivore interaction during the Pleistocene. Antiquity (Project
Gallery), 87 (335).
164
Camarós, E., Cueto, M., Teira, L., Tapia, J., Cubas, M., Blasco,
R., Rosell, J., Rivals, F. (2013). Large carnivores as taphonomic
agents of space modiication: an experimental approach with
archaeological implications. Journal of Archaeological Science.
40, 1361-1368.
Krönneck, P. (2012). Die pleistozäne Makrofauna des Bocksteins
(Lonetal-Schwäbische Alb). Ein neuer Ansatz zur Rekonstruktion
der Paläoumwelt. PhD thesis, University of Tübingen.
Mcbrearty, S., Brooks, A. S. (2000). The revolution that wasn’t:
A new interpretation of the origin of modern human behaviour.
Journal of Human Evolutio. 39, 453-563.
Pettitt, P. B. (1997). High resolution Neanderthals? Interpreting
Middle Palaeolithic intrasite spatial data. World Archaeology. 29,
208–224.
Rosell, J., Baquedano, E., Blasco, R., Camarós, E. (2012).
New insights on Hominin-Carnivore interactions during the
Pleistocene. Journal of Taphonomy. 3-4 (10), 125-128.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
24
HUMAN BREAKAGE OF BIRD
BONES DURING CONSUMPTION
Fracturas antrópicas sobre huesos avianos
durante el consumo
Antonio J. Romero*, J. Carlos Díez**, Diego Arceredillo***.
*Dpto. Geografía, Prehistoria y Arqueología. Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko
Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU)
C/Tomás y Valiente, 01006, Vitoria-Gasteiz
antoniojesus.romero@ehu.eus
**Laboratorio de Prehistoria I+D+i. Universidad de Burgos (UBU)
Pl/Misael Bañuelos s/n, 09001, Burgos
clomana@ubu.es
***Laboratorio de Prehistoria I+D+i. Universidad de Burgos (UBU)
Pl/Misael Bañuelos s/n, 09001, Burgos
diego.arceredillo@hotmail.com
Abstract
An experiment was conducted on the fracture of fresh chicken (Gallus) thighs using hands and teeth, with no
use of technology. The description followed the model used by Villa and Mahieu (1991), while the morphological typology was deined by the authors. Results permit the characterization of human manual-oral action
on the bones of small taxa, producing fractures with curved outlines, mixed angles and irregular texture. The
predominant morphological types were simple curves with points or columns. This analysis facilitates the
detection and characterization of handling and consumption processes in the case of small taxa bones and
their possible application to archaeological sites.
Keywords: experimental archaeology, taphonomy, human breakage, bird bones.
Resumen
Realizamos un trabajo experimental consistente en la fracturación de fémures frescos de pollo (Gallus),
usando manos y dientes, sin ningún apoyo tecnológico. Para su descripción, hemos utilizado el modelo de
Villa y Mahieu (1991) y elaborado una tipología morfológica propia. El resultado nos ha permitido caracterizar
la acción humana de origen manual-oral sobre huesos de taxones pequeños con fracturas de delineación
curva, ángulos mixtos y textura irregular. Morfológicamente, suelen constituir tipos curvos simples, con pico
o columnas. Este análisis nos permite caracterizar y detectar procesos de manipulación de huesos de taxones pequeños y su posible aplicación a yacimientos arqueológicos.
Palabras clave: arqueología experimental, tafonomía, fracturas antrópicas, huesos avianos.
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INTRODUCTION
Bone debris is usually studied in archaeology to determine the degree of involvement of
humans in the generation of this waste material. Classic studies of species and anatomical
representation were enhanced by work on cut marks and evidence of fracturing (Shipman
et al., 1981, Binford, 1981, Marshall, 1989). Access to nutrients in small animals does not
usually require the use of technology, and thus classic evidence such as cut or cooking
marks are not always present (e.g. Laroulandie, 2005). Due to their small size and low
density, bones of small animals are subjected to taphonomic factors that cause their
natural fragmentation. Many papers on these species have focused on the distinction
between fresh or dry fractures, as well as the marks left during consumption by nonhuman predators (Lloveras et al., 2009, Saladié et al., 2013). Data from ethnological,
primatological and experimental studies with an anthropogenic base are less common
(e.g. Bunn, 1983, Landt, 2007, Martínez, 2009).
Distinguishing human consumption without technological support is of major importance
for prehistoric archaeology. For this reason, we conducted an experiment that could shed
light on the debris generated by humans when they consumed and fractured bird bones.
The results can provide data on human consumption without technological support and
also information on the diet of hominids in different periods and contexts.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Our sample consisted of 57 Gallus femora (40 days of life) eaten by volunteers (32 men
and 25 women aged between 18 and 57 years). Each item was processed by a volunteer
who had to remove the lesh with their teeth and break the bone without the use of any
technology. The uncooked lesh was only separated and removed to access the bone,
without consumption by the volunteers.
After consumption and initial inspection, the bones were cooked to remove meat and fat
remains. The material was then scrutinised with a Nikon SMZ 645 binocular microscope
for fractures and human tooth marks. In all cases, alteration measurements were taken
with an electronic calliper (numbers in millimetres with two decimals).
Existing terminology was adapted to our work, samples and requirements. For the
breakage analysis, we noted the following aspects: outline (transversal or curved), angles
(oblique, right or mixed) and texture (smooth or irregular) (Villa and Mahieu, 1991). We also
advanced a morphological typology: in transversal
outlines, we differentiated simple transversal (T1),
columnar transversal (T2), transversal with peak
(T3), irregular transversal (T4), transversal with
one (TL1), two (TL2) or more tabs (TL3). In curved
outlines we distinguished: simple curved (C1),
columnar curved (C2) and curved with tab (C3). Other
categories were longitudinal (L) and transversalcurved (TC) (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Scheme of morphological typology: simple transversal
(T1), columnar transversal (T2), transversal with peak (T3), irregular
transversal (T4), transversal with one (TL1), two (TL2) or more tabs
(TL3), simple curved (C1), columnar curved (C2) and curved with tab,
longitudinal (L) and transversal-curved (TC).
166
In addition, we analysed the point of bone breakage.
Each bone end was regarded as a unit, noting the
break development with two points (the furthest
and nearest of the distal condyles). Only one break
point was noted in the case of incomplete breaks.
Measurements were then divided into cohorts to
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Figure 2. Graph of fracture characteristics (Villa and Mahieu, 1991).
Figure 3. Percentages of morphotypes found in the test sample.
Figure 4. Distribution of break points in cohorts.
Figure 5. Number,
mean, 95%
Conidence interval,
Standard Deviation
and minimum and
maximum fracture
notch measurements.
Figure 6.
Frequency of
different types of
fracture notches.
observe the distribution of break points. Wherever possible, we analysed perforations
that originated fractures (fracture notches), dividing them into morphological groups: U,
double U (Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews, 2011), V and W.
RESULTS
We recovered 141 fragments of 57 bones consumed by the test group. The volunteers
were able to completely break 51 bones (around 89.5%), producing 101 fragments with
epiphyses. These were classiied using the categories noted by Villa and Mahieu (1991):
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for fracture outline, there were 27 transversal (26.73%) and 74 curved (73.26%); for
fracture angle, there were 30 oblique (29.7%), 18 right (17.82%) and 53 mixed (52.47%);
for fracture texture, there were 36 smooth (35.64%) and 65 irregular (64.35%) (Figure 2).
For the morphological typology, we found the following types: 11 T2 (10.9%), 1 T3 (1%), 11
T4 (10.9%), 2 TL1 (2%), 3 TL2 (3%), 11 C1 (21.8%), 28 C2 (27.7%), 12 C3 (11.9%), 8 L (7.9%)
and 3 TC (3%) (Figure 3).
All break points were placed in the following cohorts (in millimetres): 13 in 0-24 (6.37%),
79 in 24-48 (38.72%), 51 in 48-72 (25%), 53 in 72-96 (25.98%) and 8 in 96-120 (3.92%). Many
fragments retained one or two thirds of the original length (Figure 4).
We were able to analyse fracture notches in 27 cases. We could measure width in all
cases, but height only in 5 cases. We found 16 cases of U, 2 of double U, 5 of V and 4 of W
(Figures 5 and 6).
DISCUSSION
Given the number of fragmented femurs, there seems to be no doubt that hominins
are able to break them without the use of technology, and produce marks that can are
distinguishable through surface scrutiny. Action by teeth, in conjunction with the use of
hands, can break a long bone shaft relatively easily.
Description of the fractures following the criteria of Villa and Mahieu (1991) facilitated
discrimination between fresh or dry fractures of macrovertebrate bones. In our
experiment, the most frequent combination was a curved outline along with mixed
angles and irregular texture, contrary other authors’ findings (see above). In our
experiment, transversal alignments and right angles were predominant, which may
be linked to both the bone and the particular species employed in the experiment,
as well as the human action. Curved outlines seem to be longer when the shafts
have the capacity (due to thickness and length) to adapt and respond to the pressure
received, which was not the case in our experiment. The abundance of irregular
textures was probably due to the characteristic splintering of these brittle bones.
Like Shipman et al. (1981) and Marshall (1989), we produced our own morphological
classiication of fractures that adapted well to the analysed remains. This classiication is
left open, facilitating its expansion to cover future indings or analyses of small vertebrates.
This classiication showed a small number of simple fractures (longitudinal, curved
or transversal) in comparison with larger species. We found fractures with splintering
or, more often, with small, roughly triangular points. In our opinion, these points are
equivalent in avian bones to peeling in mammal bones, as the former have almost no
trabeculae inside the shaft. It was therefore the combined action of dental and manual
pressure which produced the large number of bones covered by our types T2, T4, C2,
and C3.
These bones tend to break at the shaft and at points close to the metaphysis, especially
the distal end. This is related to the combination of the bone structure and the fracture
mode, without the use of technological aid. There is a clear relationship between the
transversal fractures and the fracture points near the metaphysis. On the basis of our
data, we therefore propose that consumption and human manipulation do not generate
transverse fractures on the central shaft. Cases found in an archaeological bone
assemblage may correspond to dry bone fracture or other taphonomic agents.
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Small notches on the edge of the fracture were common in the middle of broken bones,
caused by dental pressure during the breakage process. The predominant notches in
our experiment were U-shaped, although hominins, like carnivores, can also produce
V notches. In experiments with larger animals, these notches appear in the form of a
double U in the case of anthropic consumption (Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews, 2011),
however in our experiment, they were less frequent than the other deined types.
CONCLUSIONS
At certain points in evolution or the processing of a carcass, hominins were able to resolve
their eating requirements with their teeth and hands, particularly in the case of small
species such as Gallus. This action has left marks on the archaeological material that
must be understood in order to make correct interpretations. Experimental archaeology
can be helpful for these studies.
The model provided in this paper, which groups the criteria of Villa and Mahieu (1991)
with others proposed by the present authors identiies anthropogenic marks which, in the
absence of technology, are observed in small-sized species. The model presented here
is characterized, in the case of chicken thighs, by a predominance of curved outlines,
mixed angles and irregular texture, with a curved outline, points or columns generated
by laking. U-shaped fracture points usually occur in the diaphysarial zones closest to the
metaphysis.
We believe that this study has clear applications in taphonomic and zooarchaeological
studies, primarily to ascertain the nature of human manipulation of small vertebrates.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to volunteers that were working with us in the event organized by University of
Burgos (UBU) and Museum of Human Evolution (MEH). Thanks to investigation group
UPV/EHU IT-622-13. A. J. R. Is beneiciary of a predoctoral research fellowship (PDIF)
from University of Basque Country (UPV/EHU).
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REFERENCES
Binford, L. R. (1981). Bones. Ancient Men and Modern Myths.
Academic Press. New York. 320 pp.
Blasco, R., Fernández-Peris, J. (2009). Middle Pleistocene bird
consumption at Level XI of Bolomor Cave (Valencia, Spain).
Journal of Archaeological Science. 36, 2213-2223.
Bunn, H. T. (1983). Comparative analysis of modern bone
assemblages from a San hunter-gatherer camp in the Kalahari
desert, Botswana, and from a spotted hyena den near Nairobi,
KenyaIn. In Animals and Archaeology: 1. Hunters and Their Prey.
Edited by Clutton-Brock, J., Grigson, C. BAR International
Series. London. Pp. 143-148.
Fernández-Jalvo, Y., Andrews, P. (2011). When humans chew
bones. Journal of Human Evolution. 60, 117-123.
Landt, M. J. (2007). Tooth marks and human consumption:
ethnoarchaeological mastication research among foragers of
the Central African Republic. Journal of Archaeological Science.
34, 1629-1640.
Laroulandie, V. (2005). Anthropogenic versus Non-anthropogenic
Bird Bone Assemblages: New Criteria for their Distinction. T. In
Biosphere to Lithospere. New studies in vertebrate taphonomy.
Edited by O´Connor. Oxbow Books. Pp. 25-30. Durham.
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Lloveras, L., Moreno-García, M., Nadal, J. (2009). Butchery,
Cooking and Human Consumption Marks on Rabbit (Oryctolagus
cuniculus) Bones: An Experimental Study. Journal of Taphonomy.
2-3, 179-201.
Maguire, D. J., Pemberton, D., Collett, M. H. (1980). The
Makapansgat limeworks grey breccias: hominids, hyaenas,
hystricids or hillwash? Paleontology Africa. 23, 75-98.
Marshall, L. G. (1989). Bone modiication and the laws of burial.
In Bone Modiication. Edited by Bonnichsen, R., Sorg, M. H.
Center for the Study of the First Americans. Orono. Pp. 7-24.
Martínez, G. (2009). Human Chewing Bone Surface Modiication
and Processing of Small and Medium Prey Amongst the Nukak
(Foragers of the Colombian Amazon). Journal of Taphonomy. 7
(1), 1-20.
Saladié, P., Rodríguez-Hidalgo, A., Díez, C., Martín-Rodríguez,
P., Carbonell, E. (2013). Range of bone modiications by human
chewing. Journal of Archaeological Science. 40(1), 380-397.
Shipman, P., Bosler, W., Davis, K. L. (1981). Butchering of Giant
Geladas at an Acheulian Site. Current Anthropology. 22 (3), 257-268.
Villa, P., Mahieu, E. (1991). Breakage patterns of human long
bones. Journal of Human Evolution. 21, 27-48.
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25
EXPERIMENTAL CUT MARKS
CHARACTERIZATION USING A CONFOCAL
LASER PROFILOMETER
Caracterización de marcas de corte
experimentales mediante el Perilómetro
Láser Confocal
Daniel Fuentes-Sánchez*, María Ángeles Galindo-Pellicena** ***,
Rebeca García-González*, José Miguel Carretero*,
Juan Luis Arsuaga** ***
*Laboratorio de Evolución Humana. Departamento de Ciencias Históricas y Geografía.
Universidad de Burgos. Ediicio I+D+i, Plaza Misael Bañuelos s/n, 09001 Burgos, España.
daniel.fuentessanchez@outlook.com
**Departamento de Paleontología, Facultad de Ciencias Geológicas, Universidad Complutense
de Madrid. Ciudad Universitaria. C/ José Antonio Novais, 2. Madrid, España.
mariangape79@hotmail.com
***Centro UCM-ISCIII de Investigaciones sobre Evolución y Comportamientos Humanos.
Avda Monforte de Lemos, 5 (Pabellón 14). 28029 Madrid, España.
Abstract
Cut marks provide direct evidence of faunal exploitation by humans. Several variables regulate the cut mark’s
micromorphology. One of them is the material of the blade edge. 3D microscopy is used to discern which
material was used to make each cut mark. This method has advantages over traditional methodologies
(Scanning Electronic Microscope or lens), which only allow us to obtain some morphological aspects and few
quantitative data. For this reason, the current study proposes the Confocal Laser Proilometer (LSCM) as a
new methodology to differentiate and metrically characterize cut marks. LSCM permits a 2D and 3D virtual
reconstruction of cut marks by taking topographic pictures of the bone surface. It also permits the reconstruction of the proile of cut mark sections, thus permitting metric characterization. To test this approach,
experimental lithic and metal cut marks were made on lamb bones (Ovis aries), with quantitative differences
in depth and angles. These parameters might be useful as discriminant criteria for systematic differentiation
and archaeological application.
Keywords: Confocal Laser Proilometer, cut marks, lithic, metal, archaeological systematic discrimination.
Resumen
Las marcas de corte nos proporcionan evidencias directas del aprovechamiento humano de la fauna. Aun así,
existen gran cantidad de factores de variabilidad que pueden modiicar su morfología, entre ellos, el material
con el que han sido elaboradas. Para discriminar el material con el que se ha hecho una marca de corte, la
microscopía 3D parte con ventaja respecto a las metodologías tradicionales (Microscopía Electrónica de Barrido o lupa), que sólo nos proporcionan criterios morfológicos con pocos datos cuantitativos. Por esta razón,
en esta aproximación se propone el Perilómetro Láser Confocal (LSCM) como una nueva metodología para
diferenciar y caracterizar métricamente las marcas de corte. LSCM nos permite hacer reconstrucciones vir171
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
tuales 2D y 3D de las marcas de corte, mediante imágenes topográicas de la supericie del hueso. Además,
proporciona reconstrucciones de los periles de las secciones de una marca de corte, para su análisis métrico. Para esta aproximación se han realizado marcas de corte con instrumentos líticos y metálicos sobre un
cordero (Ovis aries). Existen diferencias cuantitativas en la profundidad y ángulos. Estos parámetros pueden
ser útiles como criterios discriminantes, para su diferenciación sistemática y aplicación arqueológica.
Palabras clave: Perilómetro Láser Confocal, marcas de corte, lítica, metal, diferenciación sistemática
en arqueología.
INTRODUCTION
Cut marks are incisions that occur when a cutting edge reaches the bone surface when
faunal remains are exploited by humans (e.g., Binford, 1981; Fisher, 1995). Classically,
their analysis has been limited to the qualitative analysis of surface features, with
limited quantitative data from macroscopic observation by lens or microscopic analysis
by Scanning Electronic Microscope (SEM). The main aim of these analyses has been
the differentiation of cut marks from other taphonomic marks such as trampling
(e.g., Olsen and Shipman, 1988). However there has been little characterization and
discrimination of the micromorphology and metric differentiation between different
sets of cut marks.
Metrics characterization and micromorphology allows us to study how different types
of variability factors affect cut marks. Several factors have been proposed as variables
such as butchery strength, angle of incidence, cutting edge slope (Fisher, 1995), animal
size (Merritt, 2012), cutting edge bulk and the tools used (e.g., Greenield, 1999; Bello
and Soligo, 2008). Amongst these factors, the cutting edge material has been studied
extensively. Binford (1981) was the irst to take this factor into consideration, but it
was not systematically studied until two decades later. Several authors have identiied
morphological and statistical differences between results obtained using different
materials: lithic and shell blades (Buc et al., 2010), bamboo and lithic edges (West and
Louys, 2007) and bamboo and metal blades (Bonney, 2014). The differentiation between cut
marks made by lithic or metal edges has been analysed in more studies (e.g., Greenield,
1999; Bello and Soligo, 2008).
Figure 1. (A) Set of
lint tools. (B) Set of
copper tools.
There have been several attempts to discriminate the material of the cutting
edge. Most studies use classic techniques: lenses (Yravedra et al., 2009) or SEM
(Greenfield, 1999; West and Louys, 2007). However, three-dimensional microscopy
(3D-microscopy) permits precise quantitative discrimination. The Hirox Digital
Microscope KH-7700 was used to differentiate between metal and lithic cut marks
(Boschin and Crezzini, 2012), although the Infinite Focus Microscope (IFM) has been
used more widely (Bello and
Soligo, 2008; Bello et al., 2009,
2011; Bello, 2011; Bonney, 2014).
The present study pretends to
validate the use of Confocal Laser
Proilometer (LSCM) as a new
metholody to characterize and
systematically differentiate cut
marks.
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MATERIAL AND METHODS
Experimental cut marks
Butchery
experiments
were
carried out on two cranial and
two
caudal
musculoskeletal
lamb limbs (Ovis aries) without
metapodials and phalanges, using
ive unretouched lint blades and
three copper blades (Figure 1).
While lint is widely used in these
kind of studies, only Boschin and
Crezzini (2012) have used samples
of copper cut marks, despite the
fact that copper is considered to
be the human’s oldest metal (e.g.
Delibes de Castro and Montero
Ruiz, 1997) with good properties
for cutting lesh (Liesau von
Lettow-Vorbeck, 2002).
Figure 2. Topographies and proiles from experimental lithic cut marks. (1) 3D topography. (2) 2D
topography. The measurements were done on the deepest extreme (P), the shallowest extreme (S)
and the middle sections (M1 and M2).
Measurements
The 3D surface imaging of cut marks
was performed using a Confocal
Laser Proilometer SENSOFAR,
Nikon, Eclipse ME600 Model
(LSCM), installed in the R+D+i
Building, Scientiic Technology
Park, University of Burgos (Burgos, Figure 3. Quantitative variables: canal breadth (A), breadth at the base (a), depth (h)
and angles α1 and α2.
Spain). LSCM obtained high quality
2D and 3D cut marks reconstructions, collecting topographic images of the bone surface
(Figure 2). With a virtual reconstruction, LSCM produced detailed proiles of the all sections of
the mark, allowing an exhaustive cross-sectional metric characterization (Figure 3).
The study was carried out with a low magniication (20x). We obtained four proiles of
four different standardized sections of each cut mark (Figure 2), deining the deepest
extreme of the cut mark as Section P and the shallowest extreme, Section S. In addition,
we included two intermediate sections (M1 and M2), whose mean value deined section
M. In this way, the cut marks could be oriented using these three points, referring P to S.
Although Bromage and Boyde (1984) identiied morphological criteria to determinate the
directionality of cut marks, this is not always useful (Bello et al., 2009). For this reason,
our methodology allows us to do oriented and systematic cross-sectional analyses
without any real identiication of direction.
Figure 4. Equations
applied to calculate
the six relative
differentials (ΔA, Δa,
Δh, Δα1, Δα2, Δα1+α2).
V represents each
variable (A, a, h, α1, α2,
α1+α2) measurements
on different sections
(P, M or S).
The measurements were taken from each proile (Figure 3). Canal
Breadth (A), breadth at the base (a) and depth (h) have been described
previously (Boschin and Crezzini, 2012; Merritt, 2012). Angle α1 and
angle α2 represent right and left angles. The sum of the angles is
aperture angle (α1 + α2), previously described in (Bello and Soligo,
2008). Finally, we considered the A/a ratio (Boschin and Crezzini, 2012).
Six relative differentials were created in order to quantify variations in
the cut marks from sections P to S, corresponding to each measured
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Figure 5. p values of the relative variables, Mann-Whitney test. Only four
of them show signiicant differences.
Figure 6. Graphic representations of depth patterns made by lint and
copper. Right: table of depth in Sections P and M (hP and hM) and Δh
(P-M).
Figure 7. Graphic representations of α2 angle patterns made by lint and
copper on the P-M section. Right: table of angles in sections P, M and S
(α2P, α2M, α2S) and Δα2 (P-M), Δα2 (P-S).
Figure 8. Top view of the cut marks. Canal breadth and breadth of the base
(A and a) show four different variation patterns. Pattern 4 is exclusive to
copper blades.
variable (A, a, h, α1, α2, α1+α2). We applied each differential to the three possible sections
(P-M, M-S and P-S) (Figure 4). The discriminant analysis of cut marks was done by the
study of these six differentials and A/a ratio. Relative variables also allow us to minimize
the effect of the variability factors –edge bulk or butcher strength- that could affect
absolute data. The variability factor of animal size is not applicable in this experiment as
we only used Ovis aries, nor was the tool as we only used smooth edges.
Statistical analysis
Discriminant analysis (STADISTICA v8) was performed using relative variables (ΔA, Δa, Δh,
Δα1, Δα2, Δα1+α2) for each described section. In addition, the A/a ratio for individual sections
P, M and S was compared. The Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon test was used to compare the
cutting edge material, using the values of the six differentials and the A/a ratio.
RESULTS
Metric criteria
Seventeen experimental cut marks were measured using LSCM: seven made by lint
and ten by copper. Canal breadth (A) and breadth at the base (a) do not show signiicant
differences in any section (Figure 5). However, signiicant differences are observed for the
A/a ratio in section P (p=0.04) (Figure 5), whose values are greater in copper than lint,
but not in the rest of the sections. Besides, depth (h) in the P-M stretch and angle α2 in
sections P-M and P-S revealed signiicant differentiation (Figures 5, 6 and 7).
Micromorphological patterns
By converting quantitative data into graphic representations, we obtain different variation
patterns, depending on the variable (A, a, h, α1, α2). Depth variations show two opposing
patterns. Δh in P-M mean is negative for the lint samples, indicating a positive slope,
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while copper samples show mainly positive values and a negative slope (Figure 6). The
deepest measurement in the lint samples was found at section P, whereas in copper it
was in section M. Δα2 in P-M variations shows a similar dichotomic pattern. Flint samples
show positive values, indicating that α2 opens, while copper yields negative mean values,
so that α2 closes (Figure 7). Meanwhile, Δα2 in P-S in both materials leads to the same
patterns: α2 opens. Nonetheless, this aperture resulting from copper samples is smaller
than in the case of the lint samples (Figure 7).
Moreover, breadth (A and a) provides four patterns of variation, shared by both materials.
Only pattern 4 (Figure 8) is exclusive for copper blades.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Our study shows that there are quantitative differences in the cut marks’ depth and aperture
angle variations, depending on the use of either lithic or metal edges. Flint tends to show
the greatest value for the deepest extreme, whereas in copper it is in the intermediate
section. Only α2 indicates opposing values and patterns that discriminate lithic samples
from copper edges. In the irst section (P-M), the lint tends to open whereas copper shows
the inverse pattern. Then, both materials tend to close, especially the lithic samples
indicated in P-S values of Δα2.
We noticed that in section P, the A/a ratio differs, depending on the material used.
Boschin and Crezzini (2012) also found signiicant differences in the A/a ratio, albeit in the
intermediate section. Finally, we found that Δa only has pattern 4 (Figure 8) which seems
to belong exclusively to copper blades.
Although a larger sample is required, this initial experiment conirms that there are
quantitative differences between cut marks made by lithic and metal blades. Unlike
previous studies (Bello and Soligo, 2008; Yravedra et al., 2009; Boschin and Crezzini,
2012), we describe these differences and their variations. In further investigations, close
control of the variables in the experiments and sophisticated discriminant analysis will be
necessary in order to apply this quantitative data to archaeological remains.
In conclusion, this study validates the use of LSCM for the quantitative characterization
and discrimination of cut marks. More samples are required in order to discriminate cut
marks systematically, but the LSCM is potentially a useful tool to reach a new insights into
cut marks and other taphonomic studies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was inanced by the Ministerio of Ciencia y Investigación research project
CGL2012-38434-C03-01 and MINECO/FEDER CGL2015-65387-C3-2-P. The authors wish
to express their gratitude to everybody who participated in the butchery experiments. We
are also grateful to the Univesity of Burgos Parque Cientíico Tecnológico for allowing us
to use the LSCM, and to the Laboratorio de Evolución Humana team for their support,
especially Ana Álvarez and Carlos Díez. Marian Galindo was supported by a postdoctoral
grant from the Atapuerca Foundation.
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REFERENCES
Bello, S.M., Paritt, S.A., Stringer, C. (2009). Quantitative
micromorphological analyses of cut marks produced by ancient
and modern handaxes. Journal of Archaeological Science. 36,
1869–1880.
Bello, S.M., Soligo, C. (2008). A new method for the quantitative
analysis of cutmark micromorphology. Journal of Archaeological
Science. 35, 1542–1552.
Binford, L.R. (1981). Bones. Ancient men and modern myths.
Studies in Archaeology. Academic Press. New York. Pp. 320.
Fisher, J.W. (1995). Bone surface modiications in
Zooarchaeology. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 2,
7–68.
Greenield, H.J. (1999). The Origins of Metallurgy: Distinguishing
Stone from Metal Cut-marks on Bones from Archaeological
Sites. Journal of Archaeological Science. 26, 797–808.
Liesau von Lettow-Vorbeck, C. (2002). Eficacia e ineficiencia de
las sierras metálicas: ¿sólo sirven las de bronce? In Análisis
Funcional : Su Aplicación Al Estudio de Sociedades Prehistóricas.
Archaeopress. Oxford. Pp. 273–284.
Bonney, H. (2014). An investigation of the use of discriminant
analysis for the classiication of blade edge type from cut marks
made by metal and bamboo blades. American Journal of Physical
Anthropology. 575–584.
Merritt, S.R. (2012). Factors affecting Early Stone Age cut mark
cross-sectional size: implications from actualistic butchery
trials. Journal of Archaeological Science. 39, 2984–2994.
Boschin, F., Crezzini, J. (2012). Morphometrical Analysis on Cut
Marks Using a 3D Digital Microscope. International Journal of
Osteoarchaeology. 22, 549–562.
Olsen, S.L., Shipman, P. (1988). Surface modiication on bone:
Trampling versus butchery. Journal of Archaeological Science.
15, 535–553.
Bromage, T.G., Boyde, A. (1984). Microscopic criteria for the
determination of directionality of cutmarks on bone. American
Journal of Physical Anthropology. 65, 359–366.
West, J.A., Louys, J. (2007). Differentiating bamboo from stone
tool cut marks in the zooarchaeological record, with a discussion
on the use of bamboo knives. Journal of Archaeological Science.
34, 512–518.
Buc, N., Silvestre, R., Loponte, D. (2010). What about shells?
Analysis of shell and lithic cut-marks. The case of the Paraná
wetland (Argentina). Munibe. 31, 252–261.
Delibes de Castro, G., Montero Ruiz, I. (1997). Els inicis de la
metal·lúrgia a la península Ibèrica. Transferència de tecnologia
o descobriment autònom? Cota Zero. 19–28.
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Yravedra, J., Morín de Pablo, J., Agustí, E., Sanabria, P., López
Recio, M., Urbina, D., López Fraile, F., López López, G., Illán Illán
(2009). Implicaciones metalúrgicas de las marcas de corte en
la transición Bronce Final-Hierro en el interior de la Península
Ibérica. Gallaecia. 28, 76–91.
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26
ABSORPTION AND DEGRADATION
OF FATTY ACIDS IN PREHISTORIC CERAMICS:
A PRELIMINARY STUDY
Absorción y degradación de ácidos grasos en
cerámicas prehistóricas: un estudio preliminar
Ordoñez Santaolalla, Olga*, Vega Maeso, Cristina**,
Jaime Moreno, Isabel*, Palmero Díaz, Susana***,
Carmona Ballestero, Eduardo******
* Área de Tecnología de los Alimentos
olgavso@gmail.com, ijaime@ubu.es
**Dpto CC. Históricas. UC
cvegamaeso@gmail.com
***Área de Química Analítica UBU
spaldi@ubu.es
****Área Arqueología UBU
educarmonaball@gmail.com
Abstract
One of the most common questions in the area of ceramics is ‘what was it used for?’ The answer is not easy
because, in most cases, archaeological sets are formed by small sherds without any trace of use. Moreover, these remains are normally buried, and consequently have been affected by several post-depositional
processes that have affected the ceramics in different ways; not only their physical condition, but also their
chemical composition and the residues that they could contain. Fats are usually found on pottery; the degradation of fats depends largely on the post-depositional processes suffered by the vessel.
The aim of this experimental work, carried out by a multidisciplinary team of archaeologists, chemists and
food specialists, is to establish the function of some ceramics through the study of fatty acids. We have conducted a study to check the absorption of animal fats and their degradation process using an experimental
set of ceramics ired in open-air conditions. This study will be highly relevant when determining the fatty
acids found in some vessels that this team is currently studying, such as the residues documented in the
ceramic assemblage from the Dolmen of Arroyal near Burgos.
Keywords: fatty acids, pottery, degradation process, eating patterns, ish consumption.
Resumen
Una de las preguntas más recurrentes en el estudio del material cerámico es ¿para qué se utilizó? La respuesta no es sencilla, pues, en la mayor parte de las ocasiones las colecciones arqueológicas se componen
de pequeños fragmentos amorfos en los que no se conserva huella alguna de su utilización. Además, la
propia naturaleza de este material, que normalmente se encuentra enterrado, hace que haya estado sometido a una serie de procesos postdeposicionales que han alterado su aspecto no solo desde el punto de vista
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físico, sino también su composición química y la de los residuos que pueda contener. Entre ellos se pueden
encontrar grasas cuya degradación dependerá en gran medida de los procesos postdeposicionales sufridos
por la vasija.
El objetivo de este trabajo experimental, llevado a cabo por un equipo multidisciplinar compuesto por arqueólogos, químicos y especialistas en alimentos, es conocer la funcionalidad de la cerámica a través del
estudio de los residuos grasos. Para ello, a partir de una colección de cerámica experimental cocida en fuego
abierto, se ha llevado a cabo un estudio de la absorción de ácidos grasos de origen animal en las piezas, así
como su proceso de degradación. Este estudio será de vital importancia de cara a determinar la naturaleza
de los residuos grasos encontradas en algunas de las vasijas que este equipo está estudiando actualmente
como, por ejemplo, los restos documentados en el conjunto cerámico procedente del Dolmen de Arroyal
(Burgos).
Palabras clave: ácidos grasos, cerámica, procesos de degradación, patrones de alimentación, consumo de
pescado.
INTRODUCTION
This experimental work proceeds from a previous archaeological issue: we needed to know
the content of several prehistoric vessels recovered in the Dolmen of Arroyal I (Alfoz de
Quintanadueñas, Spain). The site is a megalithic grave that preserves rich archaeological
evidence including well-conserved funerary deposits with human skeletal remains,
and prehistoric vessels probably used as containers of food offerings. The context (a
monumental burial) and the morphological and typological characteristics of the ceramics
(well inished: carinated, polished, some of them with a profuse incised decoration) indicate
that these pots were used on special occasions as service pottery, most likely for liquids.
Aside from this, macroscopic study of the pottery remains from Arroyal I reveals little that
may suggest their use, or even their contents. Therefore, we need to follow a different
methodological approach using an analytical technique that allows us to ascertain the
probable content of these vessels.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Lipid analysis is suitable for the study of vessels’ contents because lipids are present in
human food, and have a relatively high stability with increased temperature compared
to carbohydrates and proteins. Residues can be characterised on the basis of fatty acid
composition (Romanus et al., 2007; Regert, 2011).
Figure 1. Sampled
prehistoric vessels.
For this study, three different prehistoric vessels were sampled (Figure 1). All have similar
typological characteristics: they are carinated bowls, burnished and not decorated. Sample
1 was located in a tumulus; samples 2 and 3 were deposited in a chamber.
Initial analysis by gas chromatography with
lame detection (GC-FID) revealed the presence
of fatty acids (Figure 2). The results showed that
samples were much degraded, specially samples
2 and 3; the detected fat was probably of animal
origin. Degradation had produced a high content
of saturated fatty acids, especially C16:0 and
C18:0. This pattern of fatty acids may have been
caused by oxidation over time or the conditions of
conservation.
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In the best preserved sample (# 1), a
signiicant amount of long-chain
polyunsaturated fatty acids (w3
type) was observed, indicating the
presence of ish fat. Although the
remains of any ish in Arroyal I was
not documented, the presence of ish
fat is not surprising; for example,
traces of ish consumption were
detected in prehistoric bowls from
inner Iberia (Bueno Ramírez et
al., 2005).
However, what kind of ish was
consumed? Moreover, what kind of
degradation did the fat undergo?
To answer these questions, we
needed a fat pattern to compare
with the prehistoric samples. The
fat pattern had to have particular
characteristics,
as
follows:
1. It must come from a freshwater
ish. Situated in inner Iberia,
Arroyal I is far from the coast,
therefore marine ish should
be excluded.
2. The fat has to be extracted from a vessel with similar characteristics to the prehistoric
pots from Arroyal I.
3. The fat has to suffer a kind of degradation process before being analysed.
Consequently, we needed to resort to experimentation because we have no pattern with
these characteristics.
Figure 2.
Chromatogram
resulting from
the analysis of the
archaeological
samples.
For the experiment, two types of trout were selected because these are the easiest
freshwater ish to ind:
1. Salmo trutta. The brown trout, the native trout of Spanish rivers.
2. Salmo gairdneri. Rainbow trout raised in farms.
The results of the experiment with rainbow trout will be reported here; the study using brown
trout is currently ongoing. We decided to start with rainbow trout for the preliminary test
because the “domestic” species has more fat than
the wild one and is easier to ind. It would perhaps
have been better to prepare a ish stew as that would
have been a more real experience but, in this case,
we decided to extract the pure fat from trout, to be
sure that we had enough fat for the experiment.
Figure 3. Extraction
process of fat.
In the extraction process, the ish meat was minced.
The fat was then extracted with chloroformmethanol 2:1, and the fatty acids were derivatised
to the corresponding esters for analysis by gas
chromatography (Figure 3).
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Figure 4.
Experimental
production of pottery.
Figure 5.
Experimentation
process.
It was important that, not only the ish fat, but also the experimental vessel was similar
to the prehistoric ceramics from Arroyal I. We needed pottery with the same, or at least
similar, absorption capacity. This experimental ceramic was handmade and cooked over
an open ire in a simple pit, with an irregular temperature of between 650 to 850 ºC (Figure
4). The result was a relatively permeable material that absorbed the fat.
The next step was to impregnate the ceramic fragments with the extracted fat (Figure 5).
On each piece of pottery, 200 microliters of pure trout fat were deposited. Pottery sherds
were subjected to different degradation processes for a time: burial, freezer (-80oC),
laboratory incubator (50oC) and sunlight (springtime). Fat was extracted from the ceramic
and subjected to the same treatment and analysis. Fatty extraction followed the Bligh and
Dyer method (1959). Finally, the sample was analysed by gas chromatography with lame
detection (GC-FID). For derivation of the fatty acids, the oficial AOAC 991.39 was followed:
1. Methylation of the fat with BF3-MeOH and NaOH at 100 ° C.
2. Extraction with iso-octane and addition of NaCl (sat).
RESULTS
The results show that the fat degraded in only a month (Figure 6). There are some relevant
remarks:
1. There is not much difference between degradation caused by air exposure and the
buried sample.
2. After degradation, almost all the fatty acids located at the right side from
chromatograms had disappeared, including Omega 3 (C20:5n-3, C22; 6n-3).
3. Furthermore, is observed that linoleic acid has almost completely disappeared.
4. The linoleic acid, that has two unsaturations, becomes oleic-CIS with only one
unsaturation.
5. Hydrolysis was observed as the result of breaking molecules into smaller fragments.
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In consequence, other saturated fatty acids increased such as palmitic acid and
stearic acid.
CONCLUSIONS
Experimentation was successful. Firstly, we can say that ceramics absorb and preserve
fat. Signiicant degradation was observed in the samples. Moreover, we can deduce the
fat deterioration pathway, which is similar to the fat degradation pathway observed in
archaeological samples, as shown by the increase of the saturated fatty acids: palmitic
and stearic acid. The degradation was very intensive. In only a month, we obtained similar
values to the archaeological samples; in fact, one of them was best preserved.
However, we must continue experimenting using new native species instead of using pure
fats. In addition, it would be interesting to use the ceramics as containers to cook the ish
and conduct experiments on long-term degradation.
We hope that this experiment will serve to better understand eating patterns and, above
all, ish consumption during the Chalcolithic period.
Figure 7. Percentage
ratio of fatty acids.
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REFERENCES
Bligh, E.G., Dyer, W.J. (1959). A rapid method of total lipid
extraction and puriication. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and
Physiology. 37, 911-917.
Bueno Ramírez, P., Barroso Bermejo, R, and Balbín Behrmann,
R. (2005). Ritual campaniforme, ritual colectivo: la Necrópolis
de cuevas artiiciales del Valle de las Higueras, Huecas, Toledo.
Trabajos de Prehistoria. 62 (2), 67-90.
182
Romanus, K., Poblome, J., Verbeke, K., Luypaerts, A., Jacobs,
P., De Vos, D., and Waelkens, M. (2007). An evaluation of
analytical and interpretative methodologies for the extraction
and identiication of lipids associated with pottery sherds from
the site of Sagalassos, Turkey. Archaeometry. 49, 729–747.
Regert, M, (2011). Analytical strategies for discriminating
archeological fatty substances from animal origin. Mass
Spectrometry Reviews, 30 (2), 177–220.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
27
PERFORMING PALEOLITHIC DAILY ACTIVITIES:
AN EXPERIMENTAL PROJECT ON BIOENERGY
Recreando actividades cotidianas del
Paleolítico: un proyecto experimental en
Bioenergía
Olalla Prado-Nóvoa*, Marco Vidal-Cordasco**, Ana Mateos***,
Marcos Terradillos-Bernal****, Jesús Rodríguez*****
*Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución Humana (CENIEH),
Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca 3, 09002, Burgos, Spain.
prado.novoa.olalla@gmail.com
**Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución Humana (CENIEH),
Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca 3, 09002, Burgos, Spain.
marcos-vidall@hotmail.com
***Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución Humana (CENIEH),
Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca 3, 09002, Burgos, Spain.
ana.mateos@cenieh.es
****Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales. Universidad Internacional
Isabel I de Castilla, C/ Fernán González, nº 76. 09003, Burgos. Spain.
marcos.terradillos@ui1.es
*****Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución Humana (CENIEH),
Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca 3, 09002, Burgos, Spain.
jesus.rodriguez@cenieh.es
Abstract
Current knowledge of the exploitation of environmental resources by prehistoric hominins is based on archaeological analyses of the natural anthropized resources and the lithic, fauna and lora remains recovered
from archaeological sites and their proximities. In this paper we present a new methodology to study the daily
activities of ancient hominins from a new perspective: bioenergy.
In order to carry out this experimental approach, anthropometry, body composition and indirect calorimetry
protocols were designed and applied to a sample of 21 in vivo subjects (12 males and 9 females) at the Bioenergy Laboratory of CENIEH and at the Sierra de Atapuerca sites (Burgos, Spain).
The experiment improved our skills with this methodology and the results evidence the numerous possibilities of this approach to address the study of ancient human biology.
Keywords: bioenergy, indirect calorimetry, experimentation, raw material catchment.
Resumen
Cuando nos referimos a la Prehistoria, nuestro conocimiento sobre la explotación de los recursos de un ecosistema por parte de los homínidos se basa en el análisis arqueológico de los restos naturales antropizados
y de los restos de industria lítica, fauna y lora encontrados en los yacimientos y sus proximidades. En este
trabajo presentamos una nueva metodología para estudiar las actividades diarias de un homínido, desde un
nuevo punto de vista: el bioenergético.
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Para llevar a cabo este estudio experimental hemos desarrollado una serie de protocolos de antropometría,
composición corporal y calorimetría indirecta ventilatoria, que se han aplicado a un total de 21 sujetos in vivo
(12 hombres y 9 mujeres) en el Laboratorio de Bioenergía del CENIEH y en la Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos,
España).
Gracias a este experimento se han mejorado nuestras habilidades en el uso de estas metodologías y los resultados obtenidos evidencian las numerosas posibilidades de aplicar este enfoque al estudio de la biología
humana.
Palabras clave: bioenergía, calorimetría indirecta, experimentación, captación de materias primas.
INTRODUCTION
Experimental archaeology is a ield that facilitates understanding the development of
activities in prehistory. Through experimentation it is possible to replicate the procedures
and understand the technologies used by hominids. The combination of the analyses of
prehistoric behaviour and experimental archaeology has been revealed as an excellent
tool for the comprehension and positive interpretation of life in prehistory. Many innovative
technological analyses have been incorporated to experimental archaeology during the
last decades, but in this paper we introduce an important innovation: the analysis of energy
expenditure.
Figure 1. Main
anthropometric
measurements
taken at Bioenergy
Laboratory at
CENIEH.
Energy acquisition and allocation during the course of life are key topics to understand
human biology. Adequate acquisition and use of the energy provided by the environment
guarantee the success in growth and reproduction. Research into these topics with
an experimental approach is necessary to advance in our knowledge of the energetic
constraints of ancient populations, and will help us to reconstruct the cost of living in
different situations and under different physiological conditions.
Bioenergetic studies began to be applied to
populations in the past century (Shephard
and Aoyagi, 2012), but it was during the last
two decades that these studies acquired an
evolutionary approach (Aiello and Wells, 2002;
Leonard et al., 2007; Snodgrass, 2009; WallSchefler, 2012). Analyzing human evolution from
this new perspective has great potential and is
attractive because of the scarcity of work on this
topic. Hence our interest in developing innovative
methodologies to address the study of ancient
populations from a bioenergetic point of view. We
present three experimental protocols applied to 21
volunteers (12 men and 9 women). These protocols
allowed us to obtain conclusive data about the
energy expenditure associated with some of the
daily activities essential for a hunter-gatherer
population.
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ANTRHOPOMETRY PROTOCOL
A set of anthropometrical variables was measured in each subject using a Holtain
stadiometer and an anthropometric tape (Figure 1). These variables provide a general
view of the body, and include the main lengths and widths. The indexes proposed by
the World Health Organization (WHO) were also computed, using as reference previous
biomechanical works (Carretero et al., 2012).
Figure 2. Application
of the Bioelectrical
Impedance electrodes
to a subject and
example of the
graphs produced by
the Bodygram Pro
Software AKERN®.
BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE
Body composition was measured with a BIA 101 AKERN® device and the BodyGram
Pro® software (v2010). This method relects the accumulation of nutrients and other
substrata acquired and retained in the body (Vargas et al., 2011). It is based on the
different conductivity of the body tissues when an alternate current passes through them
(Heymsield et al., 2005). The lean tissue is highly conductive due to the large amount of
water and electrolytes it contains, hence it has a low resistance. On the contrary, fat, skin
and bone are low conductive tissues and, therefore, they exhibit a high resistance. This
method has been widely used and it may be considered safe, accurate and noninvasive
(Heymsield et al., 2005; Vargas et al., 2011).
Each participant lay in supine position on a non-conductive surface and with the limbs
separated. A set of electrodes was placed distally on the metacarpals and another one on
the metatarsals. Each electrode acted as emitter and receiver of an alternate current with
low amperage (50 kHz) which passes through the different body tissues, according to their
resistance. The speciic software of the Bioelectrical Impedance device calculated total
body water (TBW), fat mass (FM), fat free mass (FFM) and lean mass data for the subject
based on the resistance values obtained (Figure 2).
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Figure 3. Indirect calorimetry device and placement of mask for Resting
Metabolic Rate (RMR) measurement.
Figure 4. Use of the mobile indirect calorimetry device during the
gathering (left) and quartzite catchment (right) activities in the ield.
Photo: J. Rodríguez.
INDIRECT CALORIMETRY
Energy expenditure was measured at the laboratory by Indirect Calorimetry using a
MasterScreen JAEGER® device (Figure 3).
This non-invasive method allowed us to estimate the production of energy and the
oxidation rate of the energetic substrata from the caloric equivalent of the volumes of
oxygen consumed and carbon dioxide produced (Leonard, 2010). Each liter of O2 consumed
by the body corresponds in energy costs to approximately 5 kcal. Thus, measuring the
oxygen consumed permits the calculation of the energy produced (Leonard, 2010; Vargas
et al., 2011). Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR) was measured in this way, making the subject
lie on a stretcher during 30 minutes.
EXPERIMENTATION AT THE FIELD
As a practical case for the approach presented here, the energy expenditure of two activities
recreated in Sierra de Atapuerca was measured. These activities were gathering plant
resources by female subjects and collection and transport of quartzite boulders by subjects
of both sexes. Energy expenditure during these activities was also measured by Indirect
Calorimetry, although an Oxycon Mobile JAEGER® device was used for ield activities (Figure
4). Moreover, the routes were monitored thanks to a GPS (Garmin Map 60CSx model) to
record the locomotion parameters (step speed and stride length), the distance travelled and
the gradient.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
The combination of the methods presented here provides a basic description of the
body composition and proportions of the volunteers, and a quantiication of their energy
expenditure at rest and during different activities. All these variables may be used to
explore the relationships between energy expenditure and body shape and composition,
as shown in Vidal-Cordasco et al. (2017), and Prado-Nóvoa et al. (2017).
These results show the great potential of the experimental bionergetic approach to study
biomechanics, mobility, transport and energy balance, always taking into account the
limitations of working with in vivo subjects.
On the other hand, Indirect Calorimetry has been proved to be a really suitable method to
measure Energy Expenditure during the experimental performance of prehistoric activities
(Zorrilla-Revilla et al., 2017). The use of this combination of methodologies to study the
bioenergetic constraints of ancient human population is highly promising.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to all the volunteers participating in this project, to the I+D+i Building and
CENIEH (Bioenergy Laboratory) for allowing us to use their facilities. This experimental
project was funded by CENIEH (EGLF Project) and MINECO Project (CGL2012-38434-C03-02)
to carry out the experimentation in the ield and at the Bioenergy Laboratory of CENIEH.
Prado-Nóvoa and Vidal-Cordasco beneited from a predoctoral research grant from Junta
de Castilla y León funded with the Social European Fund, Operative Program of Junta de
Castilla y León, through the Consejería de Educación.
REFERENCES
Aiello, L. C., & Wells, J. C. K. (2002). Energetics and the Evolution
of the Genus Homo. Annual Review of Anthropology. 31(1), 323-338.
Carretero, J. M., Rodríguez, L., García González, R., Arsuaga,
J. L., Gómez-Olivencia, A., Lorenzo, C., Bonmatí, A., Gracia, A.,
Martínez, I., Quam, R. (2012). Stature estimation from complete
long bones in the Middle Pleistocene humans from the Sima
de los Huesos, Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain), Journal of Human
Evolution. 62, 242-255.
Heymsield, S.B., Lohman, T.G., Wang. Z., Going, S.B. (2005).
Human Body Composition (2ª). United States of America: Human
Kinetics.
Leonard, W. R. (2010). Measuring human energy expenditure
and metabolic function: basic principles and methods. Journal
of Anthropological Sciences. 88, 221-230.
Leonard, W. R., Snodgrass, J. J., Robertson, M. L. (2007). Effects
of brain evolution on human nutrition and metabolism. Annual
Review of Nutrition. 27, 311-327.
Prado-Nóvoa, O., Mateos, A., Zorrilla-Revilla, G., VidalCordasco, M., Rodríguez, J. (2017). Eficiency of gathering and its
archaeological implications for an European Early Palaeolithic
population. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 45, 131-141.
Shephard, R. J., Aoyagi, Y. (2012). Measurement of human
energy expenditure, with particular reference to ield studies:
an historical perspective. European Journal of Applied Physiology.
112(8), 2785-2815.
Snodgrass, W. L. (2009). Neandertal Energetics Revisited:
Insights into Population Dynamics and Life History Evolution.
PaleoAnthropology. 220-237.
Vargas, Z. M., Lancheros, P. L., Barrera, P. M. del P. (2011).
Energy expenditure in repose related to body composition in
adults. Revista Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Nacional de
Colombia. 59, 43-58.
Vidal-Cordasco, M., Mateos, A., Prado-Nóvoa, O., Terradillos, M.,
Rodríguez, J. (2017). Shorter arms count: The energetic costs
of raw material catchment in a new experimental approach at
Sierra de Atapuerca. Quaternary International. 433(A), 179-188.
Wall-Schefler, C.M. (2012). Energetics, Locomotion, and
Female Reproduction: Implications for Human Evolution. Annual
Review of Anthropology. 41(1), 71-85.
Zorrilla-Revilla, G., Mateos, A., Prado-Nóvoa, O., VidalCordasco, M., Rodríguez, J. (2017). Carrying loads: Validating
a portable tri-axial accelerometer during frequent and brief
physical activity. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport.
20(8), 771-776.
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Experimental
models of ire,
music and
rock art
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28
COMBINED ARCHAEOMAGNETIC
AND RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY STUDY
OF EXPERIMENTALLY BURNT LIMESTONES
FROM THE MIDDLE-PALAEOLITHIC SITE
OF PINILLA DEL VALLE (MADRID)
Estudio combinado de arqueomagnetismo y
espectroscopía Raman de calizas quemadas
experimentalmente del yacimiento de
Paleolítico Medio de Pinilla del Valle (Madrid)
Ángel Carrancho*, Susana E. Jorge Villar** ***,
Laura Sánchez-Romero***, Theodoros Karampaglidis***,
Alfredo Pérez-González***, Enrique Baquedano****,
Juan Luis Arsuaga*****
*Área de Prehistoria. Dpto. Historia, Geografía y Comunicación.
Universidad de Burgos. España. acarrancho@ubu.es
**Área de Geodinámica Interna, Facultad de Humanidades y Educación,
Universidad de Burgos.
seju@ubu.es
***Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución Humana,
Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca, 3, 09002, Burgos.
susana.jorgevillar@ubu.cenieh.es; laura.sanchez@cenieh.es; teokaram30@gmail.com;
alfredo.perez@cenieh.es
****Museo Arqueológico Regional de la Comunidad de Madrid,
Plaza de las Bernardas s/n, 28801, Alcalá de Henares, Comunidad de Madrid.
enrique.baquedano@madrid.org
*****Centro UCM-Carlos III de Evolución y Comportamientos Humanos,
c/ Sinesio Delgado, 4-6, Pabellón 14, 28029, Madrid.
jlarsuaga@isciii.es
Abstract
Here we report the archaeomagnetic and Raman spectroscopy results of the analysis of samples from two
types of non-archaeological limestones that were experimentally heated. These lithologies have been commonly identiied at the sites of Descubierta Cave and Navalmaillo rock-shelter (Pinilla del Valle, Madrid,
Spain). By means of a thermocouple system, maximum heating temperatures of 400- 450 ºC were recorded
during one hour. The main goal was to characterize the variations in the magnetic mineralogy and (in)organic
compounds, and to study the record of the direction of the Earth´s magnetic ield. This allowed us to obtain a
pattern that is potentially applicable to archaeological limestones in order to identify combustion structures
at the site. All experiments were carried out on representative samples both before and after experimental
heating. The mineralogical results are discussed as well as their implications for the identiication of ire at
the site.
Keywords: iIron oxides, experimental ires, hearths, Palaeolithic.
Resumen
Se presentan los resultados arqueomagnéticos y de espectroscopia Raman obtenidos de analizar muestras
de dos tipos de calizas no arqueológicas calentadas experimentalmente, frecuentemente identiicadas en
los yacimientos de Cueva Descubierta y Abrigo de Navalmaíllo (Pinilla del Valle, Madrid, Spain). Mediante
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un sistema de termopares, se registraron temperaturas máximas de calentamiento de 400-450 ºC durante
una hora. El objetivo es caracterizar las variaciones en la mineralogía ferromagnética y los compuestos (in)
orgánicos, así como estudiar el registro de la dirección del campo magnético terrestre que permitan obtener un patrón extrapolable a las calizas arqueológicas de cara a identiicar estructuras de combustión en el
yacimiento. Los experimentos de ambas técnicas fueron realizados en muestras representativas de ambas
litologías tanto antes como después de la quema experimental. Se discuten los resultados mineralógicos y
sus implicaciones para la identiicación de fuego en el yacimiento.
Palabras clave: óxidos de hierro, fuegos experimentales, hogares, Paleolítico.
INTRODUCTION
The palaeolithic archaeological sites of El Calvero de la Higuera are located in the Eastern
part of the Central Iberian Range, in the karstic system of Pinilla del Valle (Madrid). The
archaeo-palaeontological record recovered so far is providing detailed insights into the
occupation and activity of Neanderthals on the Iberian Peninsula during the MiddleUpper Pleistocene. Among the most interesting data available is what archaeologists
consider to be possible traces of anthropic ire at the site. The occurrence of ire at
middle-palaeolithic sites is not unusual but its identiication is not straightforward since
evidence (e.g.: charcoal, ash) is usually scarce, ambiguous or poorly preserved. The
analysis of the spatial distribution of two types of local limestone forming circles at
certain levels of the site tentatively suggests the possible existence of hearths. However,
their identiication based on macroscopic observations alone is fairly dificult.
The main aim of this study was to characterize with archaeomagnetism and Raman
spectroscopy how these limestones transform when heated experimentally under
controlled temperature conditions. This experimental pattern may be useful to compare
with archaeological limestones and in a second stage of the research, to positively
identify ire at the archaeological site.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The experimental burning was carried out in early summer 2013 at Celadilla-Sotobrín,
Burgos, Spain (42° 27’ N Lat., 3° 43’ W Long.). Two types of Upper Cretaceous limestones
commonly documented during the excavations were used in the experiment: Navalmaíllo
limestone (NL) and Cueva Descubierta limestone (CDL). In order to monitor the
temperature variations with time, a K-type thermocouple system was carefully located
on selected blocks of both types of limestones which were circularly distributed (Figure
1). Wood fuel (cf. Quercus ilex) was used during burning and temperature readings were
taken every ive minutes during an hour. The highest temperatures recorded varied
between 400 and 450 ºC (Figure 1).
SAMPLING
20 cylindrical cores from both types of limestone (11 from NL and 7 from CDL) were
collected for archaeomagnetic analysis using a portable electrical drill following standard
palaeomagnetic sampling methods. When possible, each core was subsampled to obtain
more than one specimen (10 cm3) in order to study the heat penetration with depth.
Outer specimens (0-2 cm) were labelled as “x.a” and inner specimens (2-4 cm) as “x.b”.
The sample set was composed of 22 specimens (17 “a” and 5 “b”). Samples for Raman
spectroscopy analyses were obtained speciically from representative archaeomagnetic
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Figure 1. Temperatures recorded by each thermocouple during the experiment. Location of every thermocouple is shown (see legend).
cores. Two complete cores of
both limestones as well as three
other samples obtained from three
additional cores longitudinally sliced
were used for Raman analyses in
order to study the mineralogical
variations.
LABORATORY ANALYSES
Archaeomagnetic analysis consisted
of standard stepwise alternating
ield (AF) and thermal (TH) demagnetization procedures.
Various rock-magnetic analyses (e.g: IRM curves, hysteresis
loops, thermomagnetic curves.)
were undertaken in order to identify the remanence carriers and evaluate the stability
of the magnetic signal before and after burning. These analyses were performed in the
Palaeomagnetism laboratory at Burgos University. Raman spectroscopic analyses were
done using a Thermo scientiic DXR micro-Raman spectrometer with 780 nm laser wave
length. Typically, 60 to 80 accumulations at 10 seconds exposure time were collected,
using 0.5 to 1 mW laser power to avoid mineralogical changes because of laser heating.
These analyses were carried out at the CENIEH (Burgos).
Figure 2. Raman
spectroscopy
results. Red: fresh
rock (unburnt; > 1
cm depth) and blue
(0-1 cm depth). D:
Dolomite; Cc: calcite;
Ha: haematite; Li:
limonite.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Initial natural remanent magnetization (NRM) intensities after burning are between 9.85 x 10-5
A/m and 1,02 A/m, whereas magnetic susceptibility values oscillate between 6.92 x 10-7 and
7.37 x 10-4 SI. 14 out of 22 specimens (63%) showed diamagnetic (negative) susceptibilities
indicating that concentration of ferromagnetic minerals (s.l.) for various samples even after
burning were rather low.
Rock-magneticexperimentscarriedoutonpilotpre-burningsamplesindicatethecoexistenceof
magnetite (with Curie temperatures, TC ~ 580 ºC) with a high-coercivity phase which does
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not reach saturation at ields of
1 T in the IRM acquisition curves
(haematite and/or goethite).
Raman analyses indicate that
both types of limestone are mostly
composed of calcite and dolomite,
and also show that the highcoercivity ferromagnetic phase is
goethite (Figure 2).
Rock-magnetic results on postburning samples are related to the
thermal impact suffered regardless
of the type of limestone analyzed.
Archaeomagnetic data indicate that
goethite is still present in several
outer samples (0-2 cm). The low
magnetization intensity values, the
hardness upon AF demagnetization
Figure 3. View of the experimental hearth showing the location of all limestones. Representative
(e.g: Figure 3a) and particularly the
NRM orthogonal demagnetization diagrams are shown. Sample code, intensities (NRM) and
loss of up to 80-90 % of the NRM
demagnetization steps are indicated. Both limestones are denoted with black letters (CDL) and red
number (NL), respectively.
after the 100 – 120 ºC thermal
demagnetization step is clearly
indicative of this (e.g: Figure 3b). The survival of this phase has also been conirmed by
Raman analyses in the “fresh zone” (1 – 1.5 cm depth) on various post-burning samples.
This result indicates that the heating experienced by some of these limestones was not
suficient to transform the original goethite.
Nevertheless, the dominant iron oxide identiied with Raman spectroscopy in the
outermost zone (0 – 1 cm) on both types of limestone was haematite. This would explain
the characteristic reddish colour observed in many samples which gradually dissipated
with depth. Another major compound identiied with Raman spectroscopy in the postburning limestones was carbon, responsible for the dark colours. With regard to mineral
magnetic analyses, the main magnetic carrier was magnetite. Heamatite was not clearly
identiied with rock-magnetic analyses because its concentration was much lower than
that of magnetite. Considering that magnetite is around 200 times more magnetic than
haematite (Evans and Heller, 2003), haematite´s magnetic signal is completely masked
by magnetite. Moreover, haematite formed from the dehydration of goethite is generally
superparamagnetic and does not carry remanence. This is why magnetic experiments
failed to detect it conversely to Raman. These results show the complementarity of both
methods in the mineralogical characterization of these samples.
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY OF NRM
An archaeomagnetic study was carried out in order to assess the suitability of these
limestones to record the Earth´s magnetic ield (EMF) direction under given burning
conditions (1 hour and maximum temperatures of ~ 450 ºC). This information combined
with rock-magnetic and Raman spectroscopy data is very useful to obtain a pattern
potentially applicable to the archaeological limestones. As the EMF direction for the time
and place of burning is known (Dec: 358.5º / Inc.: 57.5º; according to the International
Geomagnetic Reference Field, IGRF-11), it is worth studying how eficiently these
limestones recorded it as well as if they generated distinctive properties with respect to
their unburnt counterparts.
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Figure 3(a-g) illustrates representative orthogonal
NRM demagnetization diagrams for both types of
limestones after burning. The variation in the intensities of magnetization (NRM) initially appears to be
up to 4 orders of magnitude. It is clear that mineralogical transformations induced by heating were
much more signiicant in some blocks than in others.
During the ield experiment, most wood fuel accumulated around blocks B, C, 7, 6 and 4 (Figure 3),
coinciding with the highest temperatures recorded.
Samples from these blocks were indeed those with
the highest intensities of magnetization. Heating Figure 4. Stereoplot showing the mean archaeomagnetic direction
obtained (red circle) and the expected direction (yellow square).
not only signiicantly increased the concentration of Archaeomagnetic directional results are shown with their corresponding
magnetite in comparison with the pre-burning sam- Fisher (1953) statistical parameters. N = samples considered for
calculation;
ples but also among the post-burning ones. At the
same time, samples which did not reach high enough
temperatures (or during enough time), retained the pre-burning goethite phase (e.g.: Figure 3a-b). Otherwise, they would have altered to haematite and/or magnetite. Conversion
of goethite to haematite proceeds by dehydration which depending on topology, water content and other factors, may takes place from 200 – 250 ºC (Dekkers 1990). However, some
authors have identiied a spinel phase of near magnetite composition as an intermediate
product during this conversion (e.g.: Özdemir and Dunlop 2000) in a similar temperature
range as our experiment. In any case, for archaeomagnetic purposes, those samples carrying goethite were not considered in the calculation of the EMF direction due to their unsuitability to determine the characteristic remanent magnetization (ChRM) direction (e.g.:
Figure 3a-b).
Only the samples of both types of limestone with the highest intensities, stable, univectorial
NRM demagnetization diagrams and reproducible directions, were most heated and
produced more magnetite. Figure 4 shows how the mean archaeomagnetic direction
obtained and calculated only with “a” (0-2 cm) specimens perfectly matched the expected
direction. These samples faithfully recorded the EMF direction at the time of burning through
the acquisition of chemical remanent magnetization (CRM) and not thermal remanent
magnetization (TRM) because heating temperatures were lower than Curie temperature
of magnetite (580 ºC). This has important implications from the archaeomagnetic point of
view. Overall, these results show that under similar heating conditions to those reported
here, these limestones may record the EMF direction. A distinctive magnetic signal in terms
of intensity of magnetization, directional NRM stability and mineralogical transformations
was generated. Its combination with Raman spectroscopy data as well as archaeological
observations (reddening, charcoal and so on) might be used as a criterion to identify ire
at the archaeological site.
CONCLUSIONS
The mineralogical transformations induced by experimental heating of two types of
limestones from Pinilla del Valle sites were studied with a combination of archaeomagnetism
and Raman spectroscopy. Both types of limestones before burning were dominated by
dolomite and calcite and the main iron oxides identiied were goethite and magnetite.
After burning, the original goethite persisted in samples heated to lower temperatures
(< 200 ºC) whereas it transformed to haematite and/or magnetite in those heated up to
450 ºC. Mineralogical alterations mostly focused on the outermost 1st cm of depth where
colour alterations were most pronounced, ranging from red (haematite) to black (carbon)
as conirmed by Raman data. Archaeomagnetic results show that under similar burning
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conditions (1 hour; maximum temperatures ~ 450 ºC) these limestones may record the
direction of the Earth´s magnetic ield. The main magnetic features observed from these
mineralogical changes are increases of up to 4 orders of magnitude in the magnetization
intensities and unidirectional NRM demagnetization diagrams.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the inancial support of Junta de Castilla y León (project BU066U16).
Special thanks to Federico Alegre for his help during sampling.
REFERENCES
Dekkers, M.J. (1990). Magnetic properties of natural goethite—
III. Magnetic behaviour and properties of minerals originating
from goethite dehydration during thermal demagnetization.
Geophys. J. Int. 103, 233–250.
Evans, M.E. & Heller, F. (2003). Environmental Magnetism:
Principles and Applications of Environmagnetics. Academic Press.
San Diego. CA. 299 pp.
196
Fisher, R.A. (1953) Dispersion on a sphere. Royal Society of
London Proceedings, ser. A, 217, 295–305.
Özdemir, Ö. and Dunlop, D.J. (2000). Intermediate magnetite
formation during dehydration of goethite. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
177, 59-67.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
29
“GETTING OUT THE BEST IN YOU”:
OBSERVATIONS OF HEAT TREATMENT ON
FLINT FROM THE IBERIAN CENTRAL SYSTEM
“Saca lo mejor de ti”: Observaciones
del tratamiento térmico en el Sílex del Sistema
Central de la Península Ibérica
Sara Díaz Pérez*, Paloma de la Sota Blanchart*,
Foivos Michos Rammos*.
*Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología
de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
sara.diazp@predoc.uam.es
palomamaria.sota@predoc.uam.es
foivosmichos@gmail.com
Abstract
Heat treatment as part of the techno-cultural traditions aimed at improving the knapping properties of siliceous raw materials has been presented for several decades in available scientiic literature. However, the
physical processes involved in this treatment, and the thermal threshold in which it happens, remain to be
clearly described.
For this experiment, two different types of of siliceous rock samples from the Iberian Central Range were
chosen, to which a series of heat treatments were applied. We established an experimental protocol based
on different analytical laboratory procedures both at microscopic and macroscopic scale, in addition to experimental reproductions by direct percussion knapping and pressure techniques by an expert tool-knapper.
With this experiment, we studied how the use of heat treatment has been able to provide, whenever technological knowledge was accessible, almost unlimited access to abiotic resources necessary for the development of several technological processes documented in the Upper Paleolithic.
Keywords: lint, heat treatment, Iberian Central System, indentations, knapping.
Resumen
El tratamiento térmico como técnica para la mejora de la talla de materias primas silíceas viene siendo descrita desde hace varias décadas en la bibliografía cientíica. No obstante, todavía siguen sin ser claramente
descritos los procesos físicos que dicho tratamiento conlleva, así como los umbrales térmicos en que el
mismo se lleva a cabo.
Para la realización de este experimento, se han utilizado dos tipos distintos de rocas silíceas procedentes del
Sistema Central a los que se han aplicado series de tratamiento térmico. Hemos establecido un protocolo
experimental basado en distintos protocolos analíticos de laboratorio a nivel microscópico y macroscópico,
además de reproducciones experimentales mediante técnicas de talla de percusión directa y presión por un
tallador experto.
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Con esta experimentación queremos constatar cómo el uso del tratamiento térmico ha podido proporcionar,
siempre que fuese un conocimiento tecnológico accesible, un acceso casi ilimitado a los recursos abióticos
necesarios para el desarrollo de algunos procesos tecnológicos más utilizados desde el Paleolítico superior.
Palabras clave: sílex, tratamiento térmico, Sistema Ibérico Central, indentaciones, talla lítica.
INTRODUCTION
The use of ire was one of the greatest prehistoric discoveries. It was used to keep people
warm, ward off animals, cook foodstuffs and, from the Upper Paleolithic onwards, to
improve and facilitate the manufacture of tools as a technique for knapping. This has been
documented in Africa approximately 164 Ka at Pinnacle Point (Brown et al., 2009), however,
it is from the Upper Paleolithic and, above all, from the Neolithic onwards (Gibaja and
Clemente, 1997), that it became a recurring feature at archaeological sites worldwide.
The irst testimonies of the use of heat treatment for lithic tools was documented in the
South-eastern region and in the East of the Iberian Peninsula, at sites such as Parpalló, in
Gandía (Valencia) (Tiffagon, 1999) and Cueva Ambrosio,
in Almería (Ripoll López et al., 1997).
Pyrotechnology studies have multiplied greatly
recently (Domanski and Webb, 2007), especially with
regards to experimentation. For this reason, this
study aims to meet its objectives by combining theory
with practice.
Figure 1. Map of
the Iberian Central
System showing
the two lint sites
examined in this
experiment.
We designed an experimental protocol aimed at
understanding some of the structural changes that
a controlled heat treatment produces in silica rocks
and, furthermore, to deine the advantages that these have for knapping. For this purpose,
we used two types of lint originating from the Iberian Central System (ICS): Brihuega
(Guadalajara) and Vallecas (Madrid) (Figure 1).
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CONTEXT
The material for our experiment was found in Brihuega, Guadalajara province, in the
foothills of the ICS. Its geological origin dates to the end of the Paleozoic during the
Hercynian orogeny. In the Cenozoic, the collision of the African and Eurasian plates
generated the alpine orogeny which formed and broke down old materials, and led to the
uplift of the Central System, which also had an effect on Madrid’s surrounding area.
The ICS is a group of mountain ranges which extends 700 km in a SE-NW direction in
central Iberia. The predominant materials in this area were formed during the Hercynian
or Variscan cycle and correspond to granitoids, with some supericial Quaternary deposits
as well (alluvial, glacial, periglacial and slope deposits) (Pedraza et al. 2012: 89). The lint
found here is a shiny light grey color with a ine, opaque grain.
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The second material in our experiment was lint
dug up in Vallecas, a district in the south-east of the
national capital, Madrid. The geological history of
Vallecas dates to the formation of Cenozoic basins
in the Iberian Peninsula, speciically in the Madrid
basin, which is part of the wide of the Tagus River
basin catchment area, in turn part of the eastern
edge of the ICS. The aforementioned raising of the
ICS led to the sinking of the Tagus basin which was
fed by the sediments of this raised block (Vera, 2004).
This inill material is made up of arkosic sand, clays
and carbonates with lint and sepiolite, and gypsiferous saline levels loams. The lint found
in this region is characterized by its grey-brown colour, very ine grain and its opacity.
Figure 2.
Temperatures
recorded in both
types of lint during
the experiment.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
To carry out the experiment, the nodules of lint (Guadalajara and Vallecas) were knapped
in order to obtain 30 lakes of between 5 and 7 cm from each region. These were divided
into two groups, those destined for tests under “room temperature” conditions and those
destined to be thermally treated.
For heating, we used a P Selecta mufle furnace which reaches temperatures of 1200ºC.
The material was placed in an aluminum container designed for the furnace in which the
lakes were submerged in ine-grain sand (≤ 2mm). This prevents thermal shock as the
heat does not come into direct contact with the material. Furthermore, the sand acts as a
thermal conductor which helps to ensure homogenous, gradual heating and subsequent
cooling. The material was subjected primarily to a temperature of 250ºC which was
gradually increased by 50ºC until it reached 400ºC. The cooling process took place at
ambient temperature over a period of approximately 24 hours (Figure 2).
The objective tests were carried out in CSIC’s Institute of Ceramics and Glass (ICV). These
consisted of “indentations” which allowed us to determine: hardness (H) (a measure of
the resistance of a solid matter to various kinds of permanent shape change when a force
is applied); elasticity (E) (the tendency of solid materials to return to their original shape
after being deformed); and toughness (KIC) (the ability of a material to absorb energy and
plastically deform without fracturing). The tests involved subjecting the material (which
had been cut into cubes measuring approximately 1 x 1cm and sealed in resin) to small
amounts of pressure exerted by diamond tips.
Finally, the subjective tests were carried out, during which the material from Guadalajara
and Vallecas was tested by an expert lint knapper who assessed (using a scale from 1
to 5) the varying qualities between the heated lint and the material which had not been
subjected to heat treatment.
RESULTS ANS DISCUSSION
Each rock responded in a different way to heat treatment, as can be seen in the lint that
was analyzed. The thermal silky sheen luster was only visible on the negative surfaces
after heat treatment (Boix, 2012). Texture and colour were the principal characteristics
that changed with heating. In the negatives of each lint, we noted the thermal luster,
which in the majority of the experiments, started to appear at temperatures of 200-300ºC.
The texture of both lints tended to lead to a surface homogenization which contributed
to a greasy touch, unique to the treated materials. The rubefacient the material started
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at temperatures of 200ºC (ibidem,
2012) was more notable in the lint
from Vallecas (Figure 3 A), with
its interior becoming a light grey
colour. The lint from Brihuega, on
the other hand, did not show any
change in colour to its interior or
exterior parts (Figure 3 B).
According to the results, the
indentations conirm that the
toughness of the lint from
Vallecas diminishes signiicantly,
suggesting greater resistance when
it experiences these impacts. It is
possible, however, that the Brihuega
lint does not show these effects
with the same amount of heat
treatment because it did not
reach the required temperature
(we were keen to maintain the
same protocol for both lints)
(Figure 4).
Figure 3. Texture
and colour changes
in Madrid (Figure 3.
A) and Brihuega lint
(Figure 3. B).
Figure 4. Observed
results showing the
indentation of both
lints before (“SIN”)
and after (“CON”)
heat treatment.
The subjective tests showed
unequivocally that heat treatment
is a key process when it comes
to improving the quality and
eficiency of lint in the manufacture of lithic utensils. The lint knapper ranked the lint
from Vallecas, which had not been subjected to heating, at 2.5, and that of Brihuega at
2. Following heat treatment, the rankings rose signiicantly: 4.5 for Vallecas and 4 for
Brihuega.
The material was also used in the manufacture of arrowheads. In this process, the
lint knapper conirmed that the lint responds better to knapping with pressure or
hammering with soft hammers such as those made of horn or wood.
CONCLUSIONS
This comparative study allowed us to observe the structural and morphological
transformation of lint using mechanical and experimental evidenceThere are major
differences between heated and non-heated materials. Objective and subjective
evaluation gave heated lint a high rating, close to the best raw materials (e.g. obsidian).
Heat treatment attempts to give these raw materials new properties, which differ from
their original ones, for equally different needs.
Although heat processes usually change the surface colour in heated materials, in our
experience, the lint from the Madrid region does not undergo major changes in its surface
colour. External changes do not provide us enough information about whether there
has been heat-treatment. In contrast, analyses of resistance, toughness and elasticity,
showed variations before and after the experiment. For this reason, colour changes
are not clear indicators assessing and recognizing heat treatments in archaeological
materials.
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Analyzing the results obtained in this experiment, we believe that there are still several
aspects that can be investigated further. It would be worthwhile, above all, to focus on
structural changes at the microscopic level which happen when silica rocks undergo
heat treatment.
Finally, we studied how the use of heat treatment can provide further access to evidence
of the development of various technological processes during prehistory. The presence
or absence of techno-cultural occupation in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula has not
been explained due to the lack of quality raw materials.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are very grateful to CSIC Institute of Cerámica y Vidrio for their work that greatly
contributed to draft this paper, Javier Baena for his invaluable help and to the members
of the Laboratory of Experimental Archaeology (LAEX-UAM) at the Universidad Autónoma
de Madrid.
This study was carried out as part of Research project har-48784-c3-3-p-2 ¿Cómo, quién
y dónde?: Variabilidad de comportamientos en la captacion y transformacion de los
recursos liticos dentro de grupos neandertales, inanced by the Ministerio de Economía
y Competitividad.
REFERENCES
Boix Calbet, J. (2012). El tratamiento térmico en rocas silíceas,
un procedimiento técnico para la talla. Trabajos de Prehistoria.
69 (1),37-50.
Brown, K. S.; Marean, C. W.; Herries, A. I. R.; Jacobs, Z.; Tribolo,
Ch.; Braun, D.; Roberts, D. L.; Meyer, M. C. Y Bernatchez, J.
(2009). Fire as an Engineering Tool of Early Modern Humans.
Science. 325, 859-862.
Domanski, M; Webb, J. (2007). A review of heat treatment
research. Lithic Technology. 32 (2), 153-194.
Gibaja, J.F; Clemente, I. (1997). El tratamiento térmico del
sílex y sus repercusiones en la determinación de rastros
de uso. Algunos ejemplos del neolítico en Cataluña. Revista
d´Arqueologia de Ponent. 7, 153-159.
Ripoll López, S.; Pérez Marín, S.; López Moreno de Redroho, J.;
Martos Romero, J.A. y Muniz Pérez, M., (1997). “Las estructuras
de combustión de cueva Ambrosio. Estudio preliminar.” In
J.M. Fullola y N. Soler (eds.): El Món Mediterrani després
del Pleniglacial (18000-12000 BP). Museu d´Arqueologia de
Catalunya. Serie monográica. 17, 399-407.
Tiffagom, M. (1999). Testimonios de tratamiento térmico en
hojas de laurel del Solutrense Superior de la Cova del Parpalló
(Gandía, Valencia). Archivo de Prehistoria Levantina, XXIII. 67-85.
Vera Torres, J.A. (ed.) (2004). Geología de España. SGE-IGME.
Madrid. 890 pp.
Pedraza, J., Carrasco, R. M., Domínguez-Villar, D., & Villa,
J. (2012). Late Pleistocene Glacial evolutionary stages in
the Gredos Mountains (Iberian Central System). Quaternary
International. 302, 88-100.
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EXPERIMENTS ON DIGITAL LIGHTING
SIMULATION APPLIED TO ROCK ART
PRODUCTION AND VISUALIZATION
Experimentos sobre simulación digital
de luz aplicados a la producción
y visualización del arte rupestre
Alfredo Maximiano Castillejo*, Camilo Barcia García**.
*Universidad de Cantabria (UC).
g4amaximiano@gmail.com
**Máster en Arqueología Prehistórica (UC).
camilobarciagarcia@gmail.com
Abstract
Current digital technology gives to archaeology the chance to solve complex problems, as the case of environmental variables and their virtual simulation. On the other hand, non-invasive techniques are unavoidable
when the ‘in situ’ analysis could damage the heritage. Whether “off-situ” virtual simulations are a promising
alternative, we must keep questioning their reliability, that is, to check how much the digital model is distorted from reality. In this paper we tackle this topic from the role of light simulation in rock art.
Keywords: lighting, virtual simulation, caves, rock art.
Resumen
La tecnología digital actual da a la arqueología la posibilidad de resolver problemáticas complejas, caso de
las variables ambientales y su simulación virtual. Por otro lado, las técnicas no-intrusivas son indispensables en casos en que los análisis ‘in situ’ puedan dañar el patrimonio. Si bien las simulaciones virtuales
‘off-situ’ son una alternativa prometedora aún debemos preguntarnos por su validez, es decir, comprobar
cuán distorsionado está el modelo digital respecto a la realidad. En este artículo abordamos este tema a
partir de la simulación de luz en el arte rupestre.
Palabras clave: iluminación, simulación virtual, cuevas, arte rupestre.
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INTRODUCTION AND AIMS
Throughout the Palaeolithic and beyond, many caves and rock shelters were occupied
by human groups, where subsistence activities could coexist with more symbolical ones.
Often, hypotheses have proposed that paintings and engravings in caves and galleries
were related to environmental and physical elements such as lighting or acoustics effects,
playing signiicant roles and leading to inferences about social contexts (Arias 2009).
Artiicial lighting must have been inevitable in order to move and to “see in the dark”.
Moreover, physical effects such as light oscillations or shadows may enhance differences
between symbolic and ritual contexts of cave art and the daily ones (Pastoors and Weniger
2011), while technological improvements limited the possibilities of lighting (Beaune 1987).
Research into phenomena involving environmental variables (heavily dependent on
spatial dimension) has been boosting by recent technological advances in data capture
and processing (see Fritz and Tosello 2007, McCoy and Ladefoged 2009), as well as new
analytical approaches that were unthinkable in past decades. Consequently, several studies
about the implications of lighting in social contexts have been carried out during the last
decade and a half, deploying a broad variety of virtual simulation tools (Happa et al. 2010).
Nonetheless, rock art has been scarcely investigated from a lighting point of view: Beaune
(1987) anticipated some implications in her work about Palaeolithic lamps; Devlin et al.
tried a virtual simulation of ancient lighting in a rock-shelter to approach perception (see
Happa et al. 2010); Pastoors and Weniger (2011) proposed a more holistic perspective
about caves, including notions on spatial visibility depending on lighting artefacts. Other
contributions have been made by Dawson et al. (2007) and Papadopoulos and Earle (2014),
both papers about simulated lighting measurements, inside a Thule inuit dwelling and
Minoan bronze buildings respectively.
In this paper, we briely develop some ideas on light simulation that have been presented
in earlier works, where the need for non-intrusive methods in speciic cases makes virtual
approaches a promising solution. It also leads us to explore many possibilities without
large resources, neither time nor material restrictions, besides their low (or null) impact on
heritage. However, it is important to maintain continuous and constant exchanges between
digital environments and the material and physical reality in order to control and assess
any simulated parameter. Here we try to ill out previous and necessary considerations
about the suitability of current digital tools (those accessible to main public) before
extracting any social conclusion: at this point, virtual experimenting is an essential step to
explore the convenience of speciic digital tools.
METODOLOGY AND CASE STUDIES
In a previous work we presented the Upper Palaeolithic case of the Lower Gallery of La
Garma in Cantabria (Spain), where we discussed some initial ideas. In that case, nonintrusive approaches were needed and virtual simulations enable us to study the site
without any damage to the extremely well-preserved set of archaeological evidences
(occupation loors, supericial remains, structures, artefacts, rock art…) (for a review, see
Barcia and Maximiano 2015).
But as a consequence of this procedure a basic question arises: how realistic are these
simulations? How distant (or close) is our virtual model from/to the investigated past
phenomenon? Since simulated light parameters are controlled, the major requirement
is to assess the reliability, comparing the digital product against real observations, which
implies the calibration of known parameters on software and the observation of real
behaviour of the reproduced phenomenon (see Caulield 2014).
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The archaeological question underlying in this study is whether we can trace spatial
relations between past remains (rock art) bearing in mind human biological limitations
(vision capacity in dark zones). Rock art is usually situated in aphotic cave contexts, whose
analysis can be based on a feedback relationship between human perception capabilities
(Biology), light behaviour (Physics), and lighting devices (ancient technology). All possible
combinations in the spatial position of a light source against a target surface that contains
rock art appear limited by this triple relation. This trilateral feedback leads to “degrees of
freedom”, which we propose as an analytical concept that could measure the maximum
variability possible in feasible gestures and locations, with respect to eficient art
illumination for human eyes (Barcia and Maximiano 2015). Therefore, if digital resources
can help us to obtain an output which enables us to evaluate the best options, we need to
know how much the virtual scene differs from reality.
Figure 1. General
view of Rock Shelter
No. 1 (RS1, on top)
and No. 2 (RS2, at
bottom) from side
(left), front (centre)
and interior (right).
For virtual navigation,
see on-line models:
http://p3d.in/gHndA
(No. 1) and http://p3d.
in/Nb9KX (No. 2).
In order to do that, we have extrapolated these considerations to two non-archaeological
but real case studies from Burgos province (Spain). We chose two natural rock shelters
(RS) due to their different wall-surface morphologies, i.e. more open (Rock Shelter
no. 1, RS1) or closed (Rock Shelter no. 2, RS2), and because they’re located in karstic
contexts made of similar composition to La Garma. Both were virtualized with digital
photogrammetry (see software details below) and became the experimental scenarios
for our tests (Figure 1). The main goals are, irstly, to compare how different virtual
outputs are from real evidence, and secondly, to observe how light behaves in different
conditions (more open or closed niches, relecting elements, distance between the wall
and the light source…).
In spite of Palaeolithic lighting systems have been divided in three groups, i.e. lamps,
torches and bonires (Beaune 2000), in these irst research steps we only dealed with
lamps because in La Garma neither torch nor bonire remains were found for these
chronologies, while lamps had spread through the north and the south of the Iberian
Peninsula (Sánchez 2013). According to experimental studies, lamps have intensities
between 0.3 and 1 candle (cd), a colour lame of 2200-2400 Kelvin (K) in the Correlated
Color Temperature (CCT) scale, and non-isotropic diffusion due to lamp morphology
and the person who holds it (Beaune 1987). Virtual reproductions of both RS were done
with SFM photogrammetry (Agisoft Photoscan), and digital outputs were rendered by
modelling parameters using 3D-design software (Autodesk 3ds Studio Max 2013 with
Mental Ray renderer). The assessment was done by comparing digitally rendered images
with pictures taken in situ while one of us was holding a wax candle (1 cd), 0.5 m and 1
m away from the wall (Figure 2). In these terms, simulated parameters were the same
as the experimental light source.
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Figure 2. omparison between real (A and C, left) and rendered (B and D, right) pictures, where wax
candle is located 0.5 meters (A and B, top) and 1 m (C and D, bottom) away from the cave wall.
RESULTS
Very few differences were found
between photographs taken in
situ and digital rendered pictures:
metrically, the illuminated surface
was approximately the same and
had similar intensity, but certain
discrepancies were observed as
the light colour, the exact limits of
the illuminated surface and some
issues related to light intensity
(Figure 2: compare A against B
for 0.5 m, and C versus D for 1
m). In any case, distortion was
scarce and could be limited to
no more than 15 cm in terms of
“illuminated surface quantity”,
which indicates good digital
accuracy of the phenomenon but
still requiring more.
On the other hand, we obtained a test collection of rendered pictures for both case studies
that illustrate the lighting behaviour. In RS1 we can see how proximity to the illuminated
surface is an inluential variable for lighting, changing relief and also providing volume due
to the light contrast. Moreover, even if experimental studies have estimated low intensity
values for ancient lamps (0.3 cd), here we can observe what also happens at upper values
(1 and 2 cd) (Figure 3).
The same testing procedure was repeated with RS2, where light interacts in narrow
niches. As in the irst case, illumination was strongly dependant on the source power and
distance, providing more lighting eficiency in the case where the nearby surfaces could
act as “relective elements” (Figure 4). So, in the case of lower intensity values, these
relecting elements seem to be important for scene illumination.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In spite of the long time since the Upper Palaeolithic, perception studies are viable if we
do not focus them subjectively (cognitive perception of living places) but considering all
variables involved in the more objective process. Hence, spatial relations and proxemics
can be analyzed in isolation, depending on the means of production of light, physical
spreading and human sensory organs. Nevertheless, calibration between virtual and
reality is unavoidable.
Virtual lighting simulations have become a promising research area, as proved recently,
but it requires a consolidated framework where archaeological issues remain well deined
and the procedures permit a more objective evaluation of hypotheses (i.e. standardized
research methodology). Consequently, we afirm, regardless of variability and minor
distortions, that the simulation carried out here is close enough to reality to such a degree
that possible distortions would not affect further historical inference. Future studies
should deal, on the one hand, at obtaining quantitative measurements that enable us
to compare simulations between them and to assess eye perception of illuminated cave
surfaces (spatial gradient of luminance and illuminance: see Barcia and Maximiano
2015). On the other side, they will strive to correct the distortions and increase the
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accuracy of the virtual model. This last point lies in the ield of software and computer sciences: efforts
need to address previous-illuminated textures and inner computing algorithms of software, aiming to
reduce the “black-box effect”.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the support and advice of Dr. Pablo Arias (IIIPC, UC) and Dr. Roberto Ontañón
(IIIPC, MUPAC). Any mistakes or misconceptions belong to the authors.
Figure 3. Testing rendered pictures for RS1.
Sources are 0.5 m away from the cave wall and
0.7 m between them. Intensity increases from
top left to bottom left pictures. Pictures on the
right indicate light positions and illuminated
area (scale bar: 2 m).
Figure 4. Testing rendered pictures for RS2.
Sources are 0.5 m away from the cave wall and
1 m between them. Intensity increases from top
left to bottom left pictures. Pictures on right
indicate light positions and illuminated area
(scale bar: 2 m).
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REFERENCES
Arias, P. (2009). Rites in the dark? An evaluation of the current
evidence for ritual areas at Magdalenian cave sites. World
Archaeology. 41 (2), 262-294.
Happa, J., Mudge, M., Debattista, K., Artusi, A., Gonçalves, A.,
and Chalmers, A. (2010). Illuminating the past: state of the art.
Virtual Reality. 14 (3), 155-182.
Barcia, C., and Maximiano, A. M. (2015). Interpretar la oscuridad:
cuevas, arte rupestre y análisis de luz simulada mediante
escenas virtuales. Virtual Archaeological Review. 6 (12), 5-18.
McCoy, M. D., and Ladefoged, T. N. (2009). New developments
in the use of spatial technology in archaeology. Journal of
Archaeological Research. 17, 263-295.
Beaune, S. A. (1987). Lampes et godets au paléolithique. XIIIé
supplément à Gallia Préhistoire. CNRS, Paris. 278 pp.
Papadopoulos, C., and Earl, G. (2014). Formal three-dimensional
computational analyses of archaeological spaces. In Spatial
analysis and social spaces: interdisciplinary approaches to the
interpretation prehistoric and historic built environments. Edited
by E. Paliou, U. Lieberwirth, and S. Polla. De Gruyter, Berlin, Pp.
135-165.
Beaune, S. A. (2000). Les techniques d’éclairage paléolithiques:
un bilan. Paleo. 12, 19-27.
Caulield, B. (2014). How our Maxwell GPUs debunked the Apollo
11 conspiracy theory. http://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2014/09/18/
debunked/.
Dawson, P., Levy, R., Gardner, D., and Walls, M. (2007).
Simulating the behaviour of light inside arctic dwellings:
implications for assessing the role of vision in task performance.
World Archaeology. 39 (1), 17-35.
Fritz, C., and Tosello, G. (2007). The hidden meaning of forms:
methods of recording Paleolithic parietal art. Journal of
Archaeological Method and Theory. 14 (1), 48-80.
208
Pastoors, A., and Weniger, G.-C. (2011). Cave art in context:
methods for the analysis of the spatial organization of cave
sites. Journal of Archaeological Research. 19 (4), 377-400.
Sánchez, D. (2013). Los sistemas de iluminación en el
Paleolítico parte 3: las lámparas portátiles en la Península
Ibérica. http://prehistorialdia.blogspot.com.es/2013/01/lossistemas-de-iluminacion-en-el_30.html#.U0qDVaIUpQR.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
31
ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORATED BATONS
FUNCTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
Análisis de las hipótesis funcionales
de los bastones perforados
Redondo Sanz, Francisco José*
*External collaborator in the International University of Valencia
cheroto_3@hotmail.com
Abstract
Perforated batons together with Spear throwers are the most elaborated tools made from antler in the Upper
Palaeolithic. The richness of its decoration with the search for its functionality has been a source of countless
studies on behalf of prehistorians. The present research is based on experimentation as a method to reproduce the several existing functional hypotheses of the Upper Palaeolithic perforated batons.
Keywords: experimental archaeology, Prehistory, Upper Palaeolithic, perforated batons, mobiliary art.
Resumen
Los bastones perforados, son junto con los propulsores, los útiles realizados en asta más elaborados del
Paleolítico Superior. La riqueza de su decoración unida a su funcionalidad ha sido fuente de innumerables
estudios por parte de prehistoriadores. La investigación que presentamos, se fundamenta en la experimentación como método para reproducir las distintas hipótesis funcionales existentes en los bastones perforados del Paleolítico Superior.
Palabras clave: arqueología experimental, Prehistoria, Paleolítico superior, bastones perforados,
arte mobiliar.
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INTRODUCTION
Since the irst discovery at 1833 of one of these objects/tools in Veyrier quarry (Switzerland),
perforated batons have reached the unnegligible amount of 40 functional hypotheses.
Currently, there is no a widespread agreement in relation to the functionality of these tools.
However, it seems clear that there is a particular purpose and speciic intentionality in the
represented decorations. Only we miss in deciphering what is the inal purpose and with
what intention were expressed the engravings on the base. The lack of decoration in early
stages suggests a practical functionality that remains unknown.
In this regard, we are conducting a speciic study about the tools concerned by adding the
experimentation to the traditional research methods, bibliographical analysis, study of the
decoration, geographic distribution, etc. This article is a summary of an unpublished Thesis
called: Perforated Batons of the Upper Paleolithic. Analysis and experimental study.
Figure 1. Chart of
the relation of the
functional hypotheses
proposed by different
researchers.
It is therefore worth mentioning that the experimentation can be determinant when
establishing a functional hypothesis which could be corroborated and suficiently
contrasted.
In the current article, in order
to maintain a proper extent, we
will provide a bibliographical
analysis of the approach about the
different functional hypotheses
that a limitation of 100 most
relevant authors was chosen
because while arbitrary, allows a
manegable size of documentation.
We will explain briely the experimental testing of the perforated
batons we have carried out (aim,
methodology and results) and inally the conclusions we have obtained (Figure 1).
STATE OF THE QUESTIONS
Following further bibliographical
analysis of the approach about the
different functional hypotheses,
we carry out a statistical chart that
provides us different percentages
for the cases in which raw materials were used in the functional hypothesis development.
In this regard, we determine a
group of hypotheses by the type of
material employed. We justify this
choice because the main aim of our
hypothesis, based on the drilling
as a key element in the research
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of the function of the perforated batons, establishes
the need to delimit by raw materials the different
hypotheses, materials that can be checked and liable
to be reproduced using the experimental method. A
magic wand or totem cannot be compared nor can be
experimented with, but the materials related to the
different functional hypotheses, can be experimented.
Once the analysis of the approach about the
functionality of these tools has been completed, it
is established a group of hypotheses by the type of
material employed, being distributed in an overview
mode in:
-45% of the authors support or recognize the Baton
of commandament hypothesis, as totem or magic wand, originally thought to be as a
symbol of power or status (hardly liable to be veriied through experimentation).
-14% acknowledge the Spear straightener hypothesis. Raw material employed is antler
or bone.
-13% employ vegetable ibres as raw material (cords, cordages). It is acknowledged a
hypothesis as hanging objects, hanging ornamentations, button, cable lock, etc.
-With a smaller percentage, less than 5 % suggest the Spear Thrower and Dart Calibrator
hypothesis (using wood as raw material).
-23% of the hypotheses left do not suggest a functional use for the perforation (axes,
striker, trophy, hook, weapon, smooth, straightener).
Figure 2. This graphic
shows percentages
obtained by relating
the different
hypotheses with the
researchers who
support them.
The liable materials to be subjected to experimentation are reduced to wood, antler or
bone and vegetable ibres (Figure 2).
EXPERIMENTATION
In the previous congress we introduced an experimental protocol for the realization of
four perforated batons. Our work focused on the drilling reproduction using liable raw
materials to be employed in the Upper Palaeolithic. Redondo (2013, 133-139). For this
investigation, we keep the same criteria. We reproduced the drilling of these tools in order
to ind parameters that help us to identify all possible signs of use. Our objective is to
differentiate the existing ones, mainly due to the same action for the realization of the
drilling, after the use of different materials.
Aims
The main aim of our research focuses on establishing a possible functionality in order
to be contrasted. On this issue, the aim is to test the behaviour of different materials
mentioned previously, to obtain the possible traces produced and to check the previous
experimental studies of other authors as Rigaud (2001, pp 101-151) Lompre (2003),
Rigaud (2004) and Menendez (1994), who support their own hypotheses with at least an
experimental contribution, in accordance with our work.
We also want to check the different techniques of processing antler, working with dry and
wet materials. As we expected to experiment new variables without negatively affecting to
the traces and the results of previous experimentation, we decided to do three more batons.
We used deer antler to make the baton and the spear, cord made of vegetable ibres, in
this case Arundo donax to test the wood. For the realization of the drillings, several burins
made of lint were used (Figure 3).
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Figure 3. Materials
employed for the
realization of this
experimentation.
Metholodogy and process
After making the drilling, some traces of use
resulting of the drilling action were documented and
analysed. We only used the manual drilling technique
by rotation. Afterwards, we proceeded to experiment
the different materials. In the case of spears, tests
were carried out in dry and wet conditions and
also by application of heat (with the cord and the
wood, the experiment consisted of doing repetitive
movements holding the baton in a lathe doing the
action of introducing the cord and the wood in
forward and reverse continuous movements in the
same direction one hundred times with a constant
speed to produce the maximum possible wear and try to leave a clear trace. Traces were
documented and analysed using a digital microscope.
Afterwards, we compared there experimental traces with the ones extracted from the
perforated batons recovered in an archaeological context (Figure 4).
RESULTS
The results in the case of the experimental perforated batons were not as conclusive as we
expected, not leaving evident stigmas with the exception of the baton number 2 and number 6.
-Baton 1: Drilling is performed manually using rotation by arch. It is achieved a bi-conical
oval shaped drilling. As we only intend to have stigmas from the action of drilling we do not
experiment with any raw material.
-Baton 2: Drilling is performed with a PE3 shrink itting drill by manual rotation. The drilling
is performed on both sides and as a result the hole is biconical. For the experimentation
of the signs of use, we introduce a wooden shaft across the hole. The resulting traces are
characterized by a slight transversal smooth.
Figure 4. Images
of the process and
technique used
as well as tests
carried out.
-Baton 3: Drilling is performed with a shrink itting drill using the palms of hand, the hole
is performed on one side and as a result the hole is cone-shaped. For the experimentation
of the hypothesis, we introduce a linen cord and when sliding the cord, the cord is broken
easily (ine cord derived from plants). This type of cords does not leave a tangible trace in
the drilling.
-Baton 4: The hole is performed with a PE3 shrink itting drill on one
side. Before the drill is inished, it is performed with a pointed tool and
a blow to inish the hole. This action produced a law at the top of the
shaft. With this test, we wanted to prove the law of the “Volcan del
Faro Cave” baton. With this baton, we performed the Spear straightener
hypothesis. The pressure practised does not leave any evident marks.
-Baton 5: After performing the drilling manually and retouching the
tool, we proceed to experiment the Spear Straightener functional
hypothesis. The raw material employed was it antler, the spear in dry
conditions produces the breakage. If the spear has been dampened
previously, it can be straightened. Traces are dificult to check because
there are virtually no traces in the inner side of the drilling. It exhibits
slight crushing different parts of the upper edge due to the leverage
action.
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-Baton 6: The hole was performed
using the same technique employed
with the baton 5. Afterwards, we
proved the dart calibrator hypothesis. The wood is the only raw material that smooth the inner surface.
Hence, it could modify the hole.
However, with the friction caused by
the continuous displacement, heat
by friction is produced.
-Baton 7: After performing the
drilling to this baton, we proved
the hypothesis that uses the cord as a functional element. The cord produced a slight
smooth by rubbing in the outside area, low wear in the inner part due to the arched natural
shape of the cord regarding the holes.
The cord has a bigger impact in the outer part than in the inner part. However, the use by
friction produces the breakage of the bow and therefore the breakage of the ibres (Figure
5a and 5b).
Figure 5. Results
obtained; It is shown
the different signs of
use in three rows. A)
Traces resulting of
the action of drilling.
B) Testing of the
different hypotheses.
C) Comparison
with archaeological
batons.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
We have presented the different hypotheses in a chart reuniting the researchers who
supported them. We can observe how some authors support different hypotheses at the
same time. Some of them are impossible to explain scientiically through experimentation
(symbolic character, cult object or social status). Others can be tested. The ones which we
have reproduced in this research give us a range of traces that do not correspond exactly
to the ones recovered archaeologically.
As we have presented previously, the results of the most experimentations did not leave
clear traces that modify the traces produced by making the drill, only the experimental
batons number 2 and number 6. Baton 6 presents microgrooves. Baton 7 also presents
smooth in the outside area.
The different raw materials employed cannot wear away and modify suficiently to
affect the produced previously (not even repeating the produced traces for a second
time). However, the produced traces by the use of the wood delimitate the hypothesis
by the raw material employed, if identical signs of use are documented in recovered
archaeologically baton.
The crushings, the nibbling (literal translation from the French word “le broutage” that
could be considered as an erosion or breakage of the internal ibres) and the laminate
have not been visible in the experimental testing of the hypotheses and refer to the
produced traces by the action of drilling.
The nibbling is present to a greater extent in the archaeological perforated baton due to
the state of deterioration. We can appreciate it in all the analysed batons although it is
more emphasized in the Cualventi’s perforated baton, Pendo’s baton or Castle’s baton
due to its physical state. If we observe carefully, we can appreciate the sense of rotation.
The crushing is not noticeable in the archaeological batons. Lompre (2003) exposes that
crushing is the most repeated action. We think that these crushings are the result of a
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lowering of the edge by the type of tool employed when performing the drill and as a result
we can observe an oval shaped hole.
The batons which are in good condition present marks or stigmas due to the action of
drilling (apart from the stigmas we found in the ornamentation) not inding other traces. We
associate these stigmas to the nibbling and the laminate because they are traces associated
with the directionality and which are a result of the deterioration of the antler ibre.
It is notable in most cases the lack of spongy tissue (gray matter) and even the lack of the
drilling or the bad condition of the items has been crucial in not being able of drawing clear
conclusions.
REFERENCES
Lompre, A. (2003): Une nouvelle aproche techno-fonctionnelle.
Prehistoires Mediterrannees.
Menéndez, R. (1994): Consideraciones en torno a los llamados
“bastones de mando”. Zephyrus XLVII. Pp. 333-342.
Peltier, A. (1992): Fiche générale: bâtons-percés. In Fiches
typologiques de l’industrie osseuse préhistorique. Cahier 5:
bâtons-percés baguettes. Edited by Camps-Fabrer, H. Treignes,
CEDARC.
214
Redondo, F. J. (2013): Reproducción Experimental de
la perforación de los bastones perforados paleolíticos.
Experimentación en arqueología. Estudio y difusión del pasado.
Edited by A. Palomo, R. Pique y Xavier Terradas. Serie
Monográica del MAC, Girona 2013. Tomo 1. Pp 133-139.
Rigaud, A. (2001): Les batons percés: décors énigmatiques et
fonction possible. Gallia préhistoire. 43, 101-151.
Rigaud, A. (2004): Usures expérimentales sur quatre bâtons
percés utilisés comme bloqueurs de câble. Gallia préhistoire.
46, 155-169.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
32
EXPERIMENTAL REPRODUCTION
OF THE AEROPHONE OF ISTURITZ
Reproducción experimental
del aerófono de Isturitz
Carlos García Benito*, Marta Alcolea Gracia*, Carlos Mazo Pérez*
*Departamento de Ciencias de la Antigüedad, Área de Prehistoria ,
Universidad de Zaragoza
C/ Pedro Cerbuna 12, 50009 Zaragoza (Spain)
carlosgarciabenito@gmail.com
malcolea@unizar.es
cmazo@unizar.es
Abstract
We have reproduced the most complete Gravettian aerophone recovered at the site of Isturitz (Saint Martin
d’Arberoue, France) in order to evaluate its musical performance and check their manufacturing process
with the alterations recorded in the lithic tools used.
Keywords: Isturitz, aerophone, operational chain, chipping, micropolish.
Resumen
Reproducimos el más completo aerófono gravetiense recuperado en el yacimiento de Isturitz (Saint Martín
d’Arberoue, Francia) para comprobar su rendimiento musical y comprobar su proceso de fabricación junto
con las alteraciones registradas en los útiles líticos empleados.
Palabras clave: Isturitz, aerófono, cadena operativa, esquirlamientos, micropulidos.
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INTRODUCTION
An imprecise number of perforated pipes of bone, or even ivory –the initial catalogue
of remains has increased signiicantly (García Benito, 2014), but not everybody agrees
about the true nature of some of the evidence. Natural processes can modify the
appearance of bones, coming to generate perforations that can be misinterpreted and
attributed to the manufacturing process of one of these instruments–,that traditionally
have been regarded as lutes have been recovered in European Upper Palaeolithic
sites (Buisson, 1990; Münzel et al., 2002; Horusitzky, 2004; or Conard et al., 2009,
among others). One of these sites is Isturitz (Saint Martin d’Arberoue, France) that
has provided the largest body of evidence of this kind, and one of the most whole
objects, designated as 1914 F3α75252/A3-Ist.III83888 1939. Regarded archaeologically
as virtually complete (Buisson, 1990) and therefore also organologically (Le Gonidec
et al., 1996), we addressed its musical performance in another work, based on a
reproduction. The result, congruent with what was already stated by other researchers
(for example Le Gonidec et al., 1996; Lawson and d’Errico, 2002; or Wyatt, 2012), is
that at least this perforated pipe, with a poorly developed mouthpiece, can be played
in various ways to produce sounds, so the more general term, aerophone, matches
better that the more speciic, lute, although we believe it is more versatile played as
such (García Benito et al., 2016). Here we only explain the manufacturing process of
this replica.
AEROPHONE REPRODUCTION
The basic requirement for realization of a perforated pipe is the pipe. Nature provides
materials, some more accessible than others, which are suitable for that purpose:
cylindrical hollow stems of certain plants, such as common reed (Phragmites australis),
bones of certain animals, or calamous of some feathers. Among the bones ulnas of
some diurnal raptors of the family of accipitridae represent a signiicant volume of
total prehistoric perforated pipes that are known. They are long and narrow bones,
with slightly lared shape, with an internal and very regularly cavity, so that the airlow
runs unhindered, and with a limited thickness of the bone tissue, allowing to be easily
worked. The original aerophone could have been made from a left ulna bearded vulture
(Gypaetus barbatus) (Buisson, 1990), although vulture ulnas were used in most of the set
of Isturitz (Gyps fulvus or Aegypius monachus). The bearded vulture is a resident bird in
the Aragonese Pyrenees but we unfortunately could not obtain an ulna of that species.
The reproduction was therefore done on a right ulna of griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus)
(Figure 1). This implies that although the length of the two pipes is the same (212 mm.),
measures of both ends are larger than in the original, as in the reproduction of Buisson
and Dartiguepeyrou (1996).
PHASES, TOOLS AND WORK TRACES
In the manufacturing process we have discerned ten phases, which collectively have
meant an hour of work (Figures 2 and 3). A kit of eight lithic artefacts was disposed
(Figure 4) of which four were retouched (two burins and two borers) and four were
unretouched supports. Before use a total of 16 active areas were deined, whose macro
and microscopic condition was properly registered, of which eventually 12 were used
(Figure 5). The lint used came from the Aragonese village of Botorrita. In the area
Botorrita-Muel-Fuendetodos it is possible to obtain chert nodules of very good quality.
They appear embedded in layers of white limestone of structural platforms such as La
Muela and La Plana Muel-Jaulín, and also in secondary position in the river terraces of
Huerva and the glacis extending along its banks (Mazo, 2013).
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Figure 1. 1 a 4: Left ulnas of adult
griffon vulture osteologically oriented
– The line marks the position of the
distal end of nutritional hole (n.f.). 5.
Used ulna to reproduction in dorsal and
lateral views together with a left ulna
of adult individual of bearded vulture,
signiicantly smaller. 6. Elaborated
aerophone. 7. Aerophone with a reed in
his mouth for use as a reed instrument.
All measurements are in mm. Lenght
n.f. (distal end of nutritional hole) to
t.c. (tuberculum carpale). Lenght n.f. to
c.v. (star of cotyla ventralis). Vulture
photo: Image adapted from the original
photography of Pierre Dalous used
under license of Creative Commons.
Figure 2. Manufacture phases of the
perforated pipe, speciic goals, active
areas used, angle, use and stage time
and working resulting traces (0 absent;
5 highly developed).
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Figure 3. Phases
of fabrication.
Figure 4. Pieces of
lint used with details
of their edge angles
and location of active
areas.
Stage 1.
The irst stage of intervention on bone (which has been worked dry) involves planing or
scraping of the diaphysis, in order to clean and reduce, if necessary, insertion tubers of
secondary feathers. This task is done effectively with the edge facet / ventral face of one
of the burins, but could have been done with any of the unretouched supports. The result
(Figure 6) is the modiication of the bone surface that changes in appearance especially at
the microscopic level, from moderately rough and rather mat (6.1) to smooth, shiny and
microfacetted. Also the surface recorded traces of this action, in the form of numerous
long bundles of parallel arrangement striae (6.3), on which some groove may occasionally
be observed to be much wider and deeper. This corresponds to an involuntary variation in
the movement of the tool, usually by uncontrolled lowering.
Stages 2 to 5.
Stages two and four involve the removal of the epiphysis by a transverse cut in the bone
(Figures 3 and 6.2). Upon completion of an incision that is considered deep enough along
the entire perimeter, the bone is broken. This leaves a burr (6.5) that is removed in this
case with a burin and by rubbing with sandstone (stages 3 and 5). As shown in igure 2
the removal of the proximal epiphysis increased time used in respect to the time used at
the distal edge, simply by the fact that its perimeter
is slightly greater. The tools used were unretouched
lakes and of these actions have also remained traces
in the bone, in the form of transverse grooves along
the edges of the tube, which are produced by lateral
movements of the edge cut, when the tool has not yet
been itted in a deep enough groove (6.5).
Stages 6 to 9.
These phases suppose the successive perforation
the pipe to generate the four holes presenting on its
dorsal face. The holes are numbered, with 1 being the
closest to the distal edge of the bone (which later will
be the proximal edge of aerophone because it is its
mouth) and 4 closest to the proximal edge. As shown
in igure 2 the perforations are basically done with
the piece 3 (a straight dihedral burin) and to a lesser
extent the piece 1 (a double burin). Borers initially
earmarked for this task were completely useless
because they are too fragile. The angle between the
dorsal and ventral sides was too sharp and these
pieces instantly suffered severe damage. Some
traces of these stages remained in bone in the form
of perpendicular incisions to the tube, located next to
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the holes (6.4). Traces of the same
condition and the same situation
are observed in prehistoric objects
such as the aerophone of Hohle
Fels (Conard et al., 2009) and must
serve, as they have served in our
case, to indicate the location in the
tube where the holes should be.
Stage 10.
The last stage consisted of
regularizing the inner edge of the perforations. We used a notch in a narrow blade for it.
Finally, the inished pipe was rubbed with leather, to remove any debris that might remain,
and their nutritional hole was sealed with wax.
Figure 5. Lithic
artefacts used.
Work traces registered in the tools are summarized in igure 2, and some of the alterations
in igure 7. The manufacturing process of aerophone required minimal time, which is
coincident with what is recorded in other studies (Buisson and Dartiguepeyrou, 1996;
Clodoré-Tissot et al., 2009). Some tools have been used for just a few seconds, and most
have suffered signiicant damage in the form of chipping. Brief use and severe macroscopic
damage reduces the presence of micropolish dramatically. And indeed, only one piece has
this type of trace (Figure 7), in a moderate stage of development, but well distributed over
the active area and adopting self-reticular pattern of the work on hard materials. Chipping
is present in all tools, although less on the burins. Borers have been greatly altered their
morphology and the pieces used in cutting actions also have the typical jagged pattern by
the presence of snap - fractures.
CONCLUSIONS
Making this aerophone is very simple and very fast. We believe that we could reduce the
time for manufacturing if the bone is wet. It could be carried out with the exclusive use of
unretouched supports if the holes are made according to the original.
Indeed, one aspect in which the reproduction is different from the original is the way
how we made the holes. In the reproduction these are regular and circular, because the
used piece (basically a burin) has been employed as a perforator with a rotary movement,
whereas in the original object the holes are elongated and irregular because they were
made by successive incisions or cuts that knocked the bone digging a “crater” (Buisson,
1990: ig. 2; Lawson and d’Errico, 2002: plates II and V). It has been said that the depressed
surface that accompanies the perforation of bone by repeated incisions would have served
to improve pneumatic eficiency, thereby facilitating plugging of holes with the ingertips;
ingers that, modelled by a hard activity, would be more calloused and less lexible than
ours (Lawson and d’Errico, 2002). Although it is dificult to gather the information, and
we are working on it, it seems that there is a predominance of perforations by incision or
recess over by rotation in these Palaeolithic instruments, then reversing that frequency in
later times. However, the perforation by rotation is also present in Isturitz. In one of the
most complete objects (Buisson, 1990: ig. 5; Lawson and d’Errico, 2002: plate III) and also
on the ventral surface of the bone, having a convex surface (and not lat as dorsal) holes
have been made by rotation, or at least have clearly been completed so, without leaving
traces of which had a different start. In some cases it even seems that both techniques on
the same tube are used, as in Pair-non-Pair (García Benito, 2014: appendix 1, 224-226). We
do not question the supposed pneumatic eficiency, but we want to point out that i) during
the use of the reconstructed aerophone there has been no problem when plugging holes on
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 6. Bone surface. 2. Scraped surface and burr. 3. Scraped surface
and parallel striations (arrow indicates an accidental groove). 4. Marks
made by different tools next to hole 3. 5. Accidental marks on the distal end.
Figure 7. Chipping and the only micropolish registered.
less than 1 cm. in diameter, such as these, with ingers which maybe are also smaller; ii)
the inevitable conical shape of a perforation done with a lithic tool already provides certain
“countersunk” of the hole facilitating the pneumatic eficiency in case it is needed, and iii)
the supposed eficacy not seem to be decisive in light of the typologies of our current and
traditional aerophones, in which predominate circular section and not countersunk holes.
Currently the countersunk, is used by some luthiers for ultra tuned of the instrument,
reducing the chimney of the hole, but we do not think this is the Isturitz case. We think
rather, than a possibility, which could explain the performance so the holes would be to
have directly transferred the mechanics of manufacture of this type of perforated pipes
into more fragile and perishable materials (which even be more common) to the bone.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study has been carried within the Research Group First Settlers of the Ebro Valley. We
want to acknowledge the cooperation that it has given us the Recovery Center of Wildlife
“La Alfranca” of the Government of Aragon and in particular to Chabier González.
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REFERENCES
Buisson, D. (1990). Les lutes paléolithiques d’Isturitz
(Pyrénnées-Atlantiques). Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique
Française. 87, 420-433.
Buisson, D. and Dartiguepeyrou, S. (1996). Fabriquer une
lute au Paléolithique supérieur: récit d’une expérimentation.
Antiquités Nationales. 28, 145-148.
Clodoré-Tissot, T., Le Gonidec, M-B., Ramseyer, D. and
Anderes, C. (2009). Instruments sonores du Néolithique à l’aube
de l’Antiquité. Industrie de l’os préhistorique, cahier XII. Éditions
S.P.F. Paris.
Conard, N.J., Malina, M. and Münzel, S.C. (2009). New lutes
document the earliest musical tradition in southwestern
Germany. Nature. 460, 737-740.
García Benito, C. (2014). Arqueología Musical Prehistórica:
aproximación a través de la Arqueología Experimental aplicada a
la Arqueo-Organología, de la Arqueoacústica y de la Iconografía
Musical Prehistórica. Unpublished PhD. University of Zaragoza.
García Benito, C., Alcolea Gracia, M. and Mazo Pérez, C. (2016).
The Aerophones of Isturitz. Experimental Archaeology and Usewear analysis: Preliminary Study. Studien zur Musikarchäologie
X. Orient-Archäologie. Verlag Marie Leidorf. Rahden/Westf.
Lawson, G. and d’Errico, F. (2002). Microscopic, Experimental
and Theoretical Re-Assessment of Upper Palaeolithic Bird-Bone
Pipes from Isturitz, France: Ergonomics of Design, Systems of
Notation and the Origins of Musical Traditions. In Hickman, E.
Kilmer, A. and Eichman R. (eds.) Studien zur Musikarchäologie
III. Orient-Archäologie 10. Verlag Marie Leidorf. Rahden/Westf,
119-142.
Le Gonidec, M.-B., García, L. and Caussé, R. (1996). Au sujet
d’une lûte paléolithique. Antiquités Nationales. 28, 149-152.
Mazo, C. (2013). Análisis tecno-tipológico y funcional de la
industria lítica. En El campamento mesolítico del Cabezo de la
Cruz. La Muela-Zaragoza. Edited by Rodanés, J.M. and Picazo,
J.V. Monografías Arqueológicas. PUZ, Zaragoza. Prehistoria. 45,
31-42.
Münzel, S.C., Seeberger, F. and Hein, W. (2002). The
Geißenklösterle Flute - Discovery, Experiments, Reconstruction.
In Hickman, E., Kilmer, A. and Eichman R. (eds.) Studien zur
Musikarchäologie III. Orient-Archäologie 10. Verlag Marie Leidorf.
Rahden/Westf, 107-118.
Wyatt, S. (2012). Sound Production in Early Aerophones. Short
Report on a Work in Progress. In Eichmann, R., Jianjun, F.
and Koch, L.-C. (eds.) Studien zur Musikarchäologie VIII. OrientArchäologie 27. Verlag Marie Leidorf. Rahden/Westf., 393-398.
Horusitzky, F.Z. (2004). Les artefacts en os et bois de cerf
à Bukovac, Lokve (Croatie). Une seconde lûte possible?
Arheoloski vestnik. 55, 9-37.
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33
RECOVERING THE RING-RING OF THE BELLS
FROM VARIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN THE
LOWER EBRO AREA (3RD – 1ST century. BC).
THE RESULTS OF AN EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURE
Recuperando el dring dring de las campanillas
de diversos yacimientos del territorio del Ebro
inal (s. III-I aC): Resultados del procedimiento
experimental
Margarida Genera i Monells*, Fernando Guarch Bordes** ,
José Ramon Balagué Ortiz***
*Prehistorian, archaeologist, Graduated in plastic arts. UNED-Barcelona
margaridagenera9@gmail.com
**Pedagogy, musical language, clarinet teacher and musicologist
fernandoguarch62@gmail.com
***Telecommunications engineer. Universitat Politècnica de València
jrbalague@gmail.com
Abstract
We studied the hypothetical sounds made by different bells found at 3rd-1st-century-BC archaeological sites
in the Lower Ebro. Each bell was struck with three different types of bell-clappers (bronze, iron and wood) to
analyse the spectral content of the notes made.
In order to investigate the tonal components, all the information was processed using high resolution calculation models. The spectrum was studied alternately in bands of 1/24th octave and Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT). In addition, a series of measurements was taken with a digital tuner (spectrum frequency analyser)
calibrated to 440 Hz to establish a moderate pitch point for orientation.
Keywords: Tintinnabula, Sant Miquel de Vinebre, La Carrova, musical language, archaeology of sound.
Resumen
Estudiamos el hipotético sonido de un conjunto de campanillas, procedentes de yacimientos del territorio
del Ebro inal, de cronología comprendida entre los siglos III y I aC, al golpearlas con tres percutores de
distinta naturaleza (bronce, hierro y madera) con el objetivo de analizar el contenido espectral de las notas
conseguidas.
Con el in de investigar los componentes tonales, toda la información fue tratada con modelos de cálculo de
alta resolución. El espectro se estudió en bandas de 1/24 de octava y Transformada Rápida de Fourier (FFT)
alternativamente. A parte, se han efectuado una serie de mediciones con un ainador digital (analizador
espectral de frecuencia) calibrado a 440 Hz (la 3), para establecer un punto de ainación temperada, que
resultara orientativo.
Palabras clave: Tintinnabula, Sant Miquel de Vinebre, La Carrova, lenguaje musical,
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Figure 1. Sant Miquel
de Vinebre, general
view.
INTRODUCTION
On this occasion we present the study of an assemblage of sound-producing objects from
various archaeological sites dating from the 3rd to the 1st centuries BC in the territory we
identify as the Lower Ebro (Genera 1991). We refer to the discovery of three small bells
between 2005 and 2007 at the settlement of Sant Miquel in Vinebre (2nd-1st c.BC), in the
Ribera d’Ebre county, and a small round bell at Racó d’Aixerí or Racó de Sant Miquel (4th2nd c.BC) in the same town. Due to their chronological and territorial proximity we have
also included two small bells excavated at the La Carrova burial site, near Amposta, in
Montsià County (Figure 1).
In addition to the typological study
of each discovery, the hypothetical
sound they made was also
investigated by striking them with
three different types of resonator
(bronze, wood and iron) with the
aim of analysing the spectral
content of the notes obtained.
THE HISTORICALARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
OF THE FINDS
The Sant Miquel
settlement, Vinebre
Site situated on the peak of a
small promontory 100 m above
sea level at the point closest to the
river, a castellum or castra from
the Ibero-Roman period. (Figure
2) We have recorded different
construction phases between the
last quarter of the 2nd century and
the second half of the 1st century
BC. An example of a settlement
for which a topological analysis
and prior planning were carried
out before it was built.
We have recently identiied a
sacred area, an entrance shrine,
next to the main entrance to the
enclosure where, in addition to one of the bells, were also found various Iberian grafiti
on Campanian ware, a gold naviform earring, part of a situla, a bronze simpulum, small
kalathoi, other miniature vessels and a small concentration of metal objects (weapons,
tools, remains of lead objects, smelted mineral).
Figure 2. Aerial view of the settlements of Sant
Miquel and Racó d’Aixerí before the new stretch
of the C-12 in 2002.
Figure 3. Detail of the three bells from Sant
Miquel and the round bell from Racó d’Aixerí.
Racó d’Aixerí or Racó de Sant Miquel, Vinebre
This is a small harbour, the remains of which are near the foot of this hill overlooking
the river. The harbour’s construction would have only required a few modiications to the
natural environment, as its location would have been determined by the geographical
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Figure 4. Detail of the bells from La Carrova.
Figure 5. Chart of the bells.
characteristics of the area. To date we have identiied two occupational phases
corresponding to the period between the 5th-4th and 2nd centuries BC. Highlighting
a signiicant percentage of Attic pottery, mainly banqueting ware related to the
consumption of wine, which would have arrived here via the Emporiae area during the
4th century BC.
La Carrova, Amposta
This site is situated 4 km to the north of Amposta, on the right bank of the Ebro. There are
numerous vestiges of human occupation from the Neolithic to the Middle Ages, including
a funerary deposit, where the bells referred to in this study were found. This was a chance
ind attributed to a presumed in situ cremation. It comprised pottery (Iberian painted ware,
thin-walled ware, Campanian ware, etc.), as well as a set of metal inds (nails, knife, the
remains of a Montefortino-type helmet, etc.), which the archaeologists dated last third of
the 2nd century BC (Garcia and Villalbí 2002: 248).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The irst assemblage –from the Sant Miquel de Vinebre settlement– comprises three small
bells that belong morphologically to two different typologies (Figure 3).
Both the bells from the La Carrova archaeological site are made of bronze. In both cases,
an iron pin was used to hold the resonator, the remains of which can still be seen inside
both bells (see chart) (Figure 4). The bell (22095) retains part of the ring at the top and part
of the interior support for the resonator or clapper (Figure 5).
Instrumentation
The on-site acoustic measuring equipment consisted of:
- A condenser microphone to record the sound waves.
- A pre-ampliier to provide a 48-volt power supply to the microphone, amplify the recorded
sound and adapt it to the sound card.
- A sound card to convert the analogue signal to a digital format for processing.
- A PC and processing software for the recording and FFT (Fast Fourier Transform)
processing of the audio signal for subsequent analysis.
- An acoustic calibrator to generate a reference signal for adjusting the whole measurement
series.
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- A loudspeaker to provide a source of reference
noise for calculating the acoustic conditions of the
measuring room.
Measurement procedure
The purpose of taking the measurements was to
obtain the frequency response of the bells and to
evaluate the presence of harmonic links in their
spectrum. Spectral analysis shows the amount of
energy present in the different frequency ranges for
the whole audible spectrum. The time-domain audio
samples from the sound card’s analogue to digital
converter are changed to the frequency domain
using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm.
The data are represented on the screen by a narrow
(high resolution) band in octave or fractions of octave
bands (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Frequency
response with
resolution in octave
fractions.
Figure 7. Impulse
response.
The acoustic analysis of a sound-producing object
(bells) requires laboratory conditions –an anechoic
chamber– close to the so-called relection-free
ield. The relected signals caused by the impact of
the sound wave on surfaces such as walls, loors
or ceilings can alter and contaminate a study of the
true performance of a speciic instrument. The use
of an anechoic chamber –device used to characterise
microphones and loudspeakers for commercial
purposes– would signiicantly increase the cost of a
rigorous study of the spectral content of the bells.
Therefore our objective was to set up the acoustic
measurements in such a way as to avoid the intrusion of undesired data that could
contaminate the inal conclusions. We aimed to record only those parameters generated
by the instrument being studied.
Prior to the spectral analysis, the impulse response of the room to be used for the
measurements was analysed to allow us to disregard any surface relections (Figure 7).
The impulse response gives us the frequency response of the reference speaker (direct
sound), plus the contributions from the room caused by relections. The chart clearly
shows the time it takes for the irst relection (from the loor) to arrive: 3.4 milliseconds.
With these data we calibrate a time window in the analysis. This involves limiting the
impulse response to a speciic value, in our case, 3.2 milliseconds (Figure 8). The time
window allows us to eliminate unwanted data from the speaker’s frequency response
measurement. By applying this same time window to the measurement of the bell spectra
we are able to graduate and stabilise the graphs, blocking out from the window any
relections that may give rise to erroneous interpretations of the harmonic content of the
instruments being studied. These conditions make it possible to approximate an anechoic
(relection free) setting. To validate the recording of the different sound recordings, various
measurements were made of the background noise in the room. A signal-to-noise ratio of
over 20 dB was veriied for each of them.
For effective recording and subsequent measurement of the analysis, the equipment used
was: a condenser-type laboratory microphone placed 50 cm from the bells, an analogue-
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digital converter and acoustic analysis software to process the data obtained. In order to
investigate the tonal components, all the information was processed using high resolution
calculation models. The spectrum was studied alternately in 1/24 octave bands and Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT). Another series of measurements was made with a digital tuner
(spectral frequency analyser) calibrated at 440 Hz (Bell No. 3) to set a guideline tempered
tuning point. The results were evaluated using modern notation and tempered tuning as a
reference. The sampling resolution was 48.000 samples/ sec. A rate of 24 bits per sample
was used for quantiication. The system was calibrated before and after the measurement.
RESULTS
The presence of harmonics when the objects were struck, producing an excitation, and the
spectral content of the achieved notes, was identiied separately (Figure 9).
The measurements demonstrate the lack of a signiicant, more accentuated resonance in
the two smallest bells (SM 05 01 and SM 05 02), which implies that they had a more symbolic
purpose than would be expected of an object with sound-producing characteristics. The
third bell (SM 07 03), despite its small size (a little larger than the other two), would have
had a more important function.
Thus, based on these analyses, we have observed the coincidence in the generating note
that determines the harmonics and, therefore, the sound produced. This corroboration
leads us to ask whether there was indeed a ‘characteristic votive sound’ at the end of
the Iberian period. Similar results were obtained in the analyses of the other group of
bells, but with a higher rate of tuning, although with a certain comparative similarity in the
results and, therefore, in the sound they make.
Final considerations: functionality and signiicance
The use of bells in the ancient world can be linked to spirituality, mysticism and higher
beings who ruled the magical world of divinities or the souls of the deceased. The shape,
the low-pitched yet penetrating sound and their
placement in the highest positions such as belfries,
roofs, door jambs, etc. may suggest a supernatural
signiicance. We can interpret this as an intermediate
element between Heaven and Earth. Thus they
represent the gateway between the mystic and the
human, a point midway between two worlds with
physical (shape) and mystic (sound) components.
Figure 8. Frequency
response without
relections.
Figure 9. Spectrum of
bell 1 Amposta.
Small bells are the practical derivation on an
individual portable level of their bigger brothers.
With the same spiritual qualities, over time they have
been used in all kinds of rites and celebrations. In
the earliest European cultures there is a tradition
of using bells as talismans to protect people and
certain spaces from evil spirits.
In conclusion, we can state that, in general terms,
both sets of tintinnabula studied here present a
series of parallelisms both typologically, due to
their functional nature, and chronologically. Both
sets come from possibly sacred contexts linked to
spiritualism at the end of the Iberian period. However,
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although they all bear a certain resemblance to each other, both in shape and size, the
bells from Sant Miquel de Vinebre and La Carrova present clear differences in shape.
Once we had completed the experimental analysis, we also observed that the three
examples from Vinebre coincided in the generating note that determined the harmonics
and, therefore, their sound. (Genera et al. 2012). This discovery led us to ask ourselves
whether a magical sound existed at the end of the Iberian period or at least an attempt
to achieve certain characteristics when it came to making bells with a similar sound. To
conirm this we would need to continue this line of research using a much larger sample.
REFERENCES
Esteve Gàlvez, F. (1999): Recerques arqueològiques a la Ribera
Bixa de l’Ebre: Protohistòria i Antiguitat tardana. Vol II. Museu del
Montsià-Ajuntament d’Amposta. 306 pp.
Garcia, D, Villalbí, M.M. (2002): Un probable context funerari
de l’època iberoromana a la partida de la Carrova (Amposta,
Montsià). I Jornades d’Arqueologia. Ibers a l’Ebre, Recerca i
interpretació, Tivissa 2001, Ilercavonia. 3, 229-250.
Genera, M. (1991): L’Ebre inal: del paleolític al món romà. Centre
d’Estudis Dertosenses. Tortosa, 1991, 350 pp.
228
Genera, M; Brull, C.; Gómez, A.; Alberich, J. (2005): Modiicació
i canvi en el sistema defensiu de l’establiment de Sant Miquel
de Vinebre (Ribera d’Ebre). Un efecte de la romanització del
territori?. XIII Col·loqui Internacional d’Arqueologia de Puigcerdà.
14-16 de novembre de 2003: 629-643.
Genera, M; Guarch, F.; Alberich, J., Balagué, J.R. (2012):
Algunos hallazgos de tintinnabula en el asentamiento de Sant
Miquel de Vinebre (la Ribera d’Ebre). Notas sobre musicología
prerromana en el Ebro inal. Actas del II Congreso Internacional
sobre Iberos en el Ebro. Alcañiz-Tivissa, 16-19 de noviembre de
2011, Documenta 25, ICAC, Tarragona: 359-365.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
Technical and
technological
experimentation,
kilns and pottery
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34
EXPERIMENTS WITH CLAY:
APPROACHING TECHNOLOGICAL CHOICE
IN POTTERY PRODUCTION
Experimentación con arcillas:
abordando la elección tecnológica
en la producción cerámica
Daniel Albero Santacreu*
*Departamento de Ciencias Históricas y Teoría de las Artes. Ediicio Ramon Llull.
Campus UIB. Universidad de las Islas Baleares. Ctra. de Valldemossa km 7.5 s/n, 07122,
Palma de Mallorca. España.
d.albero@uib.es
Abstract
Clay properties can inluence the practices potters perform. This idea guided the experimental analysis of
materials from diverse clay deposits in southwest Mallorca -a territory intensively occupied during Prehistory. The research considers highly relevant aspects to approach raw materials behaviour in several phases
of the pottery production process. Thus, rates for water absorption and weight loss after drying and heating
were measured in 40 experimental clay briquettes. This proposal ultimately aims to understand the qualities
of the clays, identify differences in the clay deposits available in the area and assess if their physical properties could have promoted potters’ technological choices.
Keywords: technological choices, clay procurement, tempers, experimental archaeology.
Resumen
Falta resumen y palabras clave
Este artículo profundiza en la inluencia de las propiedades de las arcillas en las prácticas llevadas a cabo
por lo/as alfarero/as. Para ello se ha realizado un análisis experimental con varios tipos de arcillas del suroeste de Mallorca –un territorio intensamente ocupado durante la prehistoria– incidiendo en una serie de
variables consideradas relevantes para conocer el comportamiento de las materias primas en diferentes
fases del proceso de producción. De este modo, se ha analizado el porcentaje de agua de absorción, y el porcentaje de peso perdido tras las fases de secado y cocción en 40 plaquetas experimentales. El objetivo inal
de este protocolo experimental consiste en conocer las cualidades de las arcillas, establecer la existencia de
diferencias entre los diferentes depósitos disponibles en el territorio y constatar si sus propiedades físicas
pudieron determinar de una u otra forma las elecciones tecnológicas realizadas por los individuos.
Palabras clave: elección tecnológica, captación de arcillas, desgrasantes, arqueología experimental.
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INTRODUCTION
Any raw material presents certain shortcomings regarding physical and mechanical
aspects that can condition, limit or expand the different phases of artefact manufacture
and the techniques performed by the potter. From a functionalist view based on Material
Sciences, ancient potters may be assumed to have accommodated production or made
technological choices in the châine opératoire depending on the physical properties of the
resources used. Hence, a thorough analysis of technical choices in pottery production
demands knowing the physical properties and behaviour of the raw materials potentially
exploited by artisans.
With this idea in mind, an experimental analysis was proposed for ive secondary clay
deposits from southwest Mallorca, an area intensively occupied during Prehistory. The
samples included the main types of geological deposits found when prospecting this
territory (García & Albero, 2011). Mineralogical, textural, and paleontological features of
these clay deposits were characterised elsewhere (Albero & García, 2011; Albero, 2011;
Albero & Mateu, 2012).
The archaeometric analyses of the pottery from the prehistoric site of Puig de Sa Morisca
conirmed the long-term use of local Palaeogene clays during the Late Bronze Age
and the Iron Age. They would be the most accessible and plastic clays in the nearby
territory (Albero, 2011; García & Albero, 2011; Albero & Mateu, 2012). Considering the
preferential exploitation for this deposit, this article discusses the properties, advantages
and drawbacks of the clays present for pottery production. The ultimate aim is thus to
establish a relationship between the physicochemical properties of these clays and the
technological choices made by prehistoric potter’s communities to temper clays. These
choices basically involved the use of spathic calcite and other calcareous rocks (e.g.
biocalcarenites, limestones), as well as organic matter as additives for all kinds of pottery.
METHODOLOGY
In order to approach the qualities of the different clay deposits, 40 experimental briquettes
(eight for each deposit) were modelled. The experimentation considered relevant phases
of pottery production: wetting, drying and iring. Hence, variables such as the rates of
water absorption and weight loss after drying and heating were included. For a proper
observation of clays behaviour in natural state, they were not modiied other than grounded
to facilitate hydration and homogenisation, and macroscopically removed of visible rock
fragments and organic matter.
The water absorption rate followed procedures indicated by P. Rice (1987), whereas the
rate of weight loss during drying was calculated by the reduction in weight and the drying
time at room temperature. The water remaining in the internal pores after this phase was
estimated by the difference in weight between the dry and leather-hard stage sample.
Once the weight of the samples was stabilised by drying them at room temperature, they
were heated to 110ºC for two hours (Carter, 2002) and eventually ired in a gas AIM Ceramic
Kilns Hi-Temp. Firing atmosphere was oxidasing and temperature reached 705ºC. Due to
their calcareous nature (Albero and Mateu, 2012), a low iring temperature was chosen
to avoid carbonate decomposition. The analysis of archaeological pottery has already
evidenced that iring rarely exceeded this temperature (Albero, 2011). Temperature was
increased in an average of 8.4ºC/min, and lasted for 84 minutes, reaching 640ºC at 60
minutes, and 705ºC at 74 minutes. Maximum temperature was kept for 10 minutes. At the
end of the process, the plaquette weight was measured to record the weight loss during
iring. Measurements were made in a precision scale (E = 0.1 g).
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RESULTS
Water absorption rate
This variable indicates the amount of water the
different clays can absorb, as much as the water
needed to make them plastic. All the experimental
samples reported more than 20% water absorption,
the minimum amount required for modelling most
clays (Rice, 1987). Nevertheless, two different groups
are recognised depending on the water absorption
rates (Figure 1). First, samples from Cretaceous,
Palaeogene and Holocene levels yielded a high
absorption capacity (23-29%). These samples were
appropriate to make experimental briquettes, as
they did not crack when drying. Second, lower rates
of water absorption were documented in Pleistocene
clays (20-26%). Three out of eight briquettes modelled
with this clay developed cracks during drying.
Weight loss during drying
The behaviour of the many clays during the drying
phase was different as well (Figure 2). Samples
from Pleistocene material reported a larger weight
reduction and were not stabilised until 75hs of drying,
with a total reduction of 16.8%. On the opposite,
samples from Palaeogene clays, more prone to
absorb water, had a more gradual weight loss during
the drying phase which lasted for 133hs, and resulted
in a higher loss (19.2%) at the end of the process.
Water absorption rate in internal pores
As plotted in Figure 2, Palaeogene clays yielded a
higher capacity to retain water in the matrix, generating micro-pores (6.4%), whereas in
less plastic clays, such as Pleistocene materials, this rate dropped to 3.5%. Consequently,
Palaeogene clays also presented a large weight loss, both during drying and heating to
110ºC, due to the high capacity of this material to absorb and retain water in the laminar
layers of the minerals present in the clay.
Weight loss during iring
After iring, the differences in quality of the clays analysed became evident. On the one
hand, alterations noted during drying were still present (Figure 3). Pleistocene clays
experienced the most drastic weight loss. During iring, cracks originated in the briquettes
at drying worsened and new ones appeared. On the other hand, clays with rather similar
water absorption rates now differed in their behaviour. The briquettes with less weight
loss during iring where the samples from Pleistocene clays, followed by the ones from
Holocene and Cretaceous materials. They both reached an optimum iring and provided a
solid and consistent product.
Figure 1. Boxplot
showing the
percentage of
water absorption
of the different clay
deposits analysed.
Figure 2. Drying
curve comparing the
weight loss during
drying as well as
after heating the
samples at 110ºC in
the Paleogene and
Pleistocene clay
deposits.
Palaeogene clays reported higher weight loss in iring (20-30%). During the irst minutes of
exposition, many of the briquettes were chipped (40-60%) due to the complete elimination of
absorbed water at 110ºC. Water remaining in the paste after the drying phase evaporated,
expanding and increasing in volume, with the resulting cracks on the walls where it could
not escape.
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To better understand the behaviour
of this clay, a thermo-gravimetric
analysis on the powdered sample
was proposed. It indicated that,
after heating the sample to
1000ºC, a total weight loss of
23.5% was produced. There was
also a signiicant loss (5.4%) of the
water absorbed by phyllosilicates
between 50ºC and 110ºC (Figure
4). Furthermore, from 650/700ºC,
the
decomposition
of
the
carbonates present in the paste
was evident, a reaction which
resulted in important weight loss
in the clay (11.6 %). It should
be noted that this reaction was
probably not generated in the
experimental briquettes ired
at 705ºC (Albero, 2011), so the
noticeable weight loss observed
in the experimental materials of
Palaeogene clay could be related
to larger amounts of water
absorption by phyllosilicates.
Figure 3. Graphic
showing percentage
of water absorption
and percentage of
weight loss during
iring after iring in
each clay deposit
analysed.
Figure 4. Thermogravimetric analysis
carried out in the
Paleogene clay
sample. Note the
signiicant weight
loss at about 100 ºC.
234
CLAY QUALITIES AND
TECHNOLOGICAL CHOICE
The experiments discussed here
veriied that the potters living in
southwestern Mallorca during
the Late Bronze Age and the Iron
Age chose highly plastic clays
with a high water absorption rate
which needed long drying times
and accumulated an excess of
water content in the internal pores that had to be eliminated at the beginning of the iring
phase. The behaviour of these clays had serious consequences for pottery-making if no
additives were used, with frequent crack generation in untempered briquettes during the
irst minutes of iring.
However, to avoid the high stress derived from clay dehydration and facilitate its use,
a series of technical solutions were available: 1) Promoting the gradual dehydration of
the pieces and an even drying previous to iring, i.e. by preheating. 2) Using a slow iring
temperature curve to avoid rapid changes by using structures with highly controlled
environments (e.g. chamber kilns). 3) Modifying the qualities of the clay by adding temper.
The latter was the technological choice made by the potters in the period considered. The
tempers used (i.e. carbonated rocks such as spathic calcite, and organic matter) would
have solved many of the problems derived from these clays (Albero, 2010). Nevertheless,
diverse recipes were used to temper the same clay (Albero et al., 2014), making clear the
existence of different technological choices which were not necessarily conditioned by the
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
physical properties of the materials, but rather by other factors. Thus, it should not be
considered that the addition of these tempers was based on exclusively technical criteria;
social dynamics related to tradition, identity and resistance may have played a key role
when applying these technological choices (Albero, 2011).
REFERENCES
Albero, D. (2010). Pastas desgrasadas con calcita y pastas
desgrasadas con materia vegetal: aproximación experimental.
Boletín del Laboratorio de Petrología y Conservación Cerámica. 2
(2), 18-34.
Albero, D. (2011). Caracterización tecnológica, social y adaptación
funcional de cerámicas prehistóricas en el Oeste y Sureste de
Mallorca (1700-50 BC): aproximación sincrónica y diacrónica a
partir del estudio arqueométrico de pastas. Ph.D. Universidad de
Granada, Granada.
Albero, D., García, J. (2011). Áreas fuente de arcilla: Una
propuesta para su estudio. In La investigación experimental
aplicada a la Arqueología. Edited by A. Morgado, J. Baena y D.
García. Universidad de Granada, Universidad Complutense de
Madrid y Asociación Experimenta. Pp. 371-376.
Albero, D., Mateu, G. (2012). Raw materials and pottery
production at the Late Bronze and Iron Age Site of Puig de Sa
Morisca (Mallorca, Spain). Geoarchaeology. 27 (4), 285-299.
Albero, D., García, J., Calvo, M. (2014). Pottery Production in
Santa Ponsa (Majorca, Spain) from the Late Bronze to the Late
Iron Age (1100-50 BC): Ceramics, Technology and Society. In
Craft and science: International perspectives on archaeological
ceramics. Edited by M. Martinón-Torres. UCL Qatar Series
in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage. Bloomsbury Qatar
Foundation: Doha, Qatar. Pp. 73-84.
Carter, M. (2002). Prehistoric Ceramic Production: Raw
Materials and Firing Methods of La Crosse Locality Oneota.
Journal of Undergraduate Research. 5, 261-280.
García, J., Albero, D. (2011). Áreas fuente de arcilla: Prospección
y análisis de plasticidad. In La investigación experimental
aplicada a la Arqueología. Edited by A. Morgado, J. Baena y D.
García. Universidad de Granada, Universidad Complutense de
Madrid y Asociación Experimenta. Pp. 385-391.
Rice, P.M. (1987). Pottery analysis: A Sourcebook. The University
of Chicago Press. Chicago.
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TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
35
IBERIAN COOKING POTS FROM ELS
ESTINCLELLS (VERDÚ, CATALONIA):
NEW APPROACH AND EXPERIMENTAL
POSSIBILITIES
Las ollas de cocina ibéricas de els
Estinclells (Verdú, Cataluña): nuevo enfoque
y posibilidades experimentales
Rafel Jornet Niella*, Eva Miguel Gascón**
*Món Iber ROCS S.L. “Recerca i difusió de la Cultura Ibèrica”
C/ Nou de Sant Oleguer, 4, 3er B, 43004 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain.
rafeljornet.rocs@gmail.com
**Cultura Material i Arqueometria UB (ARQUB, GRACPE). Dept. de Prehistòria, Història Antiga
i Arqueologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Montalegre 6, 08001 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
evamigascon@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper describes the preliminary results of the C.E.P.’s experimental archaeology research project focused
on the operational sequence of Iberian hand-made pottery at the Els Estinclells site. One of the main objectives
is to provide interpretive tools through ethnographic analogies, archaeometrical analysis and experimental
archaeology in order to understand more about the production technology of these Iberian vessels.
Keywords: experimental archaeology, Iberian cooking pots, archaeometry, ethnoarchaeology, open iring.
Resumen
Este artículo muestra los resultados preliminares del proyecto de investigación de arqueología experimental
del C.E.P. enfocado en la cadena operativa de la cerámica a mano ibérica del yacimiento de Els Estinclells.
Uno de los principales objetivos es obtener herramientas interpretativas que nos permitan profundizar sobre
la tecnología de producción de estas cerámicas ibéricas.
Palabras clave: arqueología experimental, ollas de cocina ibéricas, arqueometría, etnoarqueología;
cocción a cielo abierto.
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INTRODUCTION
Since 2012, studies of the operational sequence of Iberian hand-made pottery have been
underway at the Centre d’Experimentació de la Protohistòria (C.E.P.) at the Iberian site
of Els Estinclells (Verdú, Catalonia). Traditionally, this type of pottery has been related to
household production and open iring techniques. It is dificult to identify evidence of this
type of process, because no traces of it remain in the archaeological record. Moreover,
most of the experimental research into ceramics is focused on wheel-thrown pottery and
kiln iring.
Most of this pottery consists of cooking pots, whose technical quality should not be
underestimated. In order to verify the possible techniques used to manufacture them, seven
hand-made cooking pots from Els Estinclells were sampled for the experiment (Figure 1).
The objective of our study was to reproduce the operational sequence of these pots in order
to obtain a inal result that was as close as possible to the archaeological artefact. Our
approach proposes the conluence
of ethnographic, archaeological
and archaeometrical data in order
to improve the inal experiment. In
this paper we present the methods
applied and the results obtained.
Figure 1. Samples
of Iberian cooking
pots of Els Estinclells
analysed.
METHODS
The lack of any evidence that
could help to reconstruct the
operational sequence of the
Iberian hand-made pottery and
the raw materials used led us to
contemplate ethnographic analogies. The raw materials used in this experimental process
were chosen with the help of living potters in Verdú, who still remember which clays were
used by their grandparents in the past. Following the hypothesis that the hand-made
pottery from Els Estinclells was local, we decided to use this clay in the assumption that
it was similar to that used by the Iberian potters. The steps followed to reproduce the
Iberian cooking pots were the ones identiied for the El M’édéïna hand-made pottery (El
Kef, Tunisia) in the “Ouartani” ethnoarchaeological project (Jornet et al., in press). This
project, in which part of the C.E.P. team participated, allowed us to record techniques
(coiling, burnishing, open iring) that might be similar to those used by the Iberian potters.
In order to verify that the raw materials were similar to those used in Iberian times,
seven samples of cooking pots from Els Estinclells and the clay of Verdú were analyzed
using different techniques. First, all seven pottery samples were analyzed using thinsection petrography. All specimens were cut transversely to the direction of the wheelthrown marks using a saw. Thin sections were examined at x25 to x100 magniications
under a petrological microscope to study their mineralogy, petrography and texture.
Petrographic groups were described following Whitbread’s system (Whitbread, 1989,
1995).
To characterize the chemical composition of the clay (EST008) and the pottery (samples
EST003 and EST006), X-ray luorescence (XRF) was carried out in the Centres Cientíics
i Tecnològics of the Universitat de Barcelona. Major and minor elements (MgO, Al2O3,
SiO2, P2O5, K2O, CaO, TiO2, MnO, Na2O and Fe2O3 -as total Fe-) were determined by preparing duplicates of glass beads (dilution 1/20) of 0.3 g of specimen mixed up with 5.7
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g of lithium tetraborate (Li2B4O7),
melted in a fully automatic bead
preparation system, PAN analytical Perl’X-3, at a temperature of
1125 ºC. Trace elements (V, Cr, Co,
Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo,
Sn, Ba, Ce, W, Pb and Th) were determined from powdered samples
made from 5 g of the powdered
specimen mixed with 2 ml of a solution of n-butylmethacrylate synthetic resin (Elvacite 2044, in 20 % acetone). Concentrations were quantiied using an AxiosMAX-Advanced
PANalytical spectrometer with an
Rh excitation source. The calibration line followed 56 International
Geological Standards. Interferences were taken into consideration
and matrix effects were corrected
using the PANanalytical Pro-Trace
software. Loss on ignition (LOI) was
determined by iring 0.3 g of dried
specimens at 950 ºC for 3 h.
The mineralogical composition of the seven pottery samples was studied by means of
X-ray diffraction (XRD) at the Centres Cientíics i Tecnològics of the University of Barcelona.
Measurements were made using a Bragg-Brentano PANalytical X’Pert PRO MPD Alpha
diffractometer equipped with an X’Celerator detector, working with the Cu-Ka radiation (I
= 1.5406 Å) at 1.8 kW (45 kV – 40 mA). Measurements were taken from (4 to 100)º2q, with a
step size of 0.026º2q and an acquisition time of 50 s per step. Evaluation of the crystalline
phases present in each analyzed sample were performed using PANalytical X´Pert High
Score Plus, which includes the database of the International Centre for Diffraction Data,
Joint Committee of Powder Diffraction Standards, 2006 (ICDD-JCPDS).
RESULTS
The seven samples analyzed using thin-section petrography showed two different groups.
The irst group, represented by samples EST001, EST002, EST003, EST005, EST006 and
EST007, is characterized by the presence of metamorphic rock, mainly slate in coarse
fraction (Figure 2, left). The second group, represented by sample EST004, is characterized
by the presence of crushed calcite as the dominant inclusion in coarse fraction (Figure 2,
right). The angular and even, regular shape of calcite inclusions in this sample suggests
that this mineral was crushed and added deliberately to the clay as temper.
Figure 2. Left:
Photomicrograph,
showing
metamorphic
inclusions. EST002
in XP (x40). Right:
Photomicrograph
illustrating crushed
calcite inclusions.
EST004 in XP (x40).
Figure 3. Left:
Dendrogram of the
two cooking pots
(EST003 and EST006)
and the local clay
(EST008) after cluster
analysis. Right:
Biplot after principal
component analysis.
Verdú clay (EST008) and samples EST003 and EST006 were analyzed using XRF. For
the statistical data treatment of the results, different techniques were used following
Aitchison’s considerations about compositional data (Aitchison, 1986; Buxeda, 1999). Raw
concentrations were accordingly ALR transformed, according to
,
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
where Sd is the d-dimensional simplex, x-D = [x1,...,xd],
and D = d+1. Several elements were discarded: Mo
and Sn due to analytical imprecision, and Co and
W because of the possible contamination from the
tungsten carbide cell of the mill.
A cluster analysis was performed with R software (R
Core Team, 2013) using the square Euclidian distance
and the centroid agglomerative algorithm on the
subcomposition Fe2O3, Al2O3, MnO, P2O5, TiO2, MgO,
CaO, Na2O, K2O, SiO2, Ba, Rb, Th, Nb, Zr, Y, Sr, Ce, Ga,
V, Cu, Ni and Cr, with ALR transformation using Zn
as the divisor. Figure 3 (left) shows the dendrogram
resulting from this statistical treatment. The irst
group that appears, Group a, includes only individual
EST008. The second group, Group b, includes
individuals EST003 and EST006.
Principal components analysis was performed on
the same subcomposition. In this case, the irst
component explains 95.16% of the total variation.
The biplot (Figure 3, right) shows a great difference
between the cooking pots and the analyzed clay,
related to the CaO and Mg concentrations.
Figure 4. XRD
spectra. Top: EST003,
fabric ESTb-1.
Centre: EST001,
fabric ESTb-2.
Bottom: EST004,
fabric ESTc-1. Cal:
calcite; Qz: quartz;
Ilt: illite-moscovite;
Pl: plagioclase; Kfs:
potassium feldspar;
Hem: hematite.
Abbreviations after
Whitney and Evans
(2010).
With these analyses, we can conirm there is no
correspondence between the clay of Verdú and the
archaeological pottery. The problem lies in the fact
that this clay is calcareous (13.9% of CaO in normalized
data) while samples EST003 and EST006 corresponds
to non- calcareous production (1.36% and 2.92% of
CaO in normalized data). Moreover, petrographic
analyses shows that most of the cooking pots of Els
Estinclells are included in this Group b, related to the
petrographic group where metamorphic inclusions
are dominant. Taking into account that sample EST004 is the only one that seems to have
been manufactured with calcareous raw materials, we decided to continue our research
with the selected clay for the experiments, although was only representative of a small
part of the cooking pots used at Els Estinclells. In the experimental phase, crushed calcite
from the Verdú area was added to the local clay in an attempt to reproduce sample EST004.
This paste was used to manufacture all the cooking pots for the experimental iring using
the coil technique.
XRD results permitted the identiication of different materials. For material ESTb1 (samples EST002, EST003, EST005, EST007 and EST006) we estimate a low iring
temperature, below (750/800) ºC, since no iring phases were observed (Figure 4, top). In
the case of material ESTb-2 (EST001), we also estimate a low iring temperature (800/850)
ºC (Figure 4, centre), while in the case of material ESTc-1 (EST004), the total decomposition
of illite-muscovite except for the 4.5 Å peak pointed to a temperature of around (950/1000)
ºC (Figure 4, bottom).
For the experimental iring, we was decided to use an open iring system, like the one
observed in the “Ouartani” ethnoarchaeological project, where fuel consists of animal
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 5. Top:
ethnographical iring.
Bottom: experimental
iring and pyrometer
spectrum.
dung and straw. In order to control the temperature, iring was done with the help of
a pyrometer. Different experiments were done with the aim of obtaining the largest
possible amount of data. As we can see in the pyrometer graph (Figure 5), the curve
describes the different temperatures at different moments during the iring process. The
temperature never passed 1000 ºC, and for nearly an hour it was above 600 ºC, which is
compatible with the XRD results.
FINAL REMARKS
The fact that there is no relation between the local raw materials and the predominant
archaeological cooking pots in Els Estinclells obliges us to formulate new questions about
this research procedure. Geological maps show that the Urgell region, where Verdú and
the site of Els Estinclells are, is mainly calcareous. There are no metamorphic seams
in the area and petrographic analysis does not suggest a possible explanation through
detrital particles and riverbeds, since the shape of the slate fragments are not round or
even rounded.
Was there Iberian trade in cooking pots? The speciic functionality of these vessels makes
them high-tech pots, and not all raw materials were successful for their manufacture
and use. Nowadays, Verdú is famous for its production of earthenware pitchers, for which
its local calcareous clays are suitable. The idea of a possible specialization of ceramic
production in the 3rd century B.C., is a possibility.
Another reason for the discovery of exogenous cooking pots in Els Estinclells could be
related to the reasons for the site’s foundation, due to the colonization of new territories
as a consequence of population growth (Asensio et al., 2003) and its brief occupation of
only two or three generations.
In the light of these preliminary results, future research will carry on with more
experimental and analytical work. It is necessary to repeat experimental iring in order
to obtain more information. In the future, ethnographic and experimental pottery will be
archaeometrically analyzed to compare them with the archaeological results. We also
contemplate the inclusion in this research of other sites in the area in order to hopefully
understand the consumption and trade dynamics of Iberian cooking pots.
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REFERENCES
Aitchison, J. (1986). The Statistical Analysis of Compositional
Data. Chapman and Hall. London.
Asensio, D., Cardona, R., Ferrer, C., Morer, J., Pou, J., Saula,
O. (2003). El jaciment ibèric dels Estinclells (Verdú, Urgell):
un assentament fortiicat ilergeta del segle III a. C. Revista
d’Arqueologia de Ponent. 13, 223-236.
Buxeda, J. (1999) Alteration and contamination of archaeological
ceramics: the perturbation problem. Journal of Archaeological
Science. 26, 295-313.
Jornet, R.; Miguel, E.; Alonso, N.; Cantero, F. J.; Montes, E.
(in press) Etnoarqueologia de la cerámica en El M’édéïna (El
Kef, Túnez). Etnoarqueología y Experimentación: Más allá de la
analogía. Universidad de Granada.
242
Whitbread, I. K. (1989). A proposal for the systematic description
of thin sections towards the study of ancient technology.
Archaeometry Proceedings of the 25th International Symposium
(held in Athens from 19 to 23 May 1986). Maniatis, Y. (dir.).
Elsevier. Amsterdam. Pp. 127-138.
Whitbread, I. K. (1995). Greek Transport Amphorae. A Petrological
and Archaeological Study. Fitch Laboratory Occasional Paper, 4.
British School at Athens. Athens.
Whitney, D. L. and Evans, B. W. (2010). Abbreviations for names
of rock-forming minerals. American Mineralogist. 95, 185-187.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
36
SOME RESULTS OF THE TECHNICAL ANALYSIS
OF THE LATE BRONZE AGE CERAMIC
MATERIAL OF THE SOUTHERN URALS TRIBES
Algunos resultados del análisis técnico del
material cerámico de la Edad del Bronce tardío
de las tribus de los Transurales del Sur
Nikolai Shcherbakov*, Liudmila Kraeva**, Patrick Sean Quinn***,
Iia Shuteleva*, Tatiana Leonova****, Alexandra Golyeva*****
*Bashkir State Pedagogical University named after M. Akmulla, Laboratory of Method and
Methodology of Humanitarian Research. Revolutsionnaya, 49 – 33, Ufa 450006.
sherbakov@rambler.ru
shutelevai@gmail.com
**Archeological Museum of Orenburg State Pedagogical University.
Sovetskaya 19, Orenburg 460014.
kraeva_ludmila@mail.ru
***UCL Institute of Archaeology.
31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY UK.
patrick.quinn@ucl.ac.uk
****Bashkir State Pedagogical University named after M. Akmulla, Laboratory of Method and
Methodology of Humanitarian Research. Aksakova 7, 165 Ufa 450076.
leonotan@mail.ru,
*****Institute of Geography, RAS Moscow, Russia 119017.
golyevaaa@yandex.ru
Abstract
The topic of the research is the analysis of a ceramics complex. The analysis is within the framework of the
historical and cultural approach and the structure of the pottery industry as developed by A.A. Bobrinsky
(Bobrinsky, 1978). In the process of technical analysis of the ceramics it was established that in the vessels
there were admixtures of ire clay, sand and organics in different concentrations. Thin section petrographic
analysis has been undertaken on six Late Bronze Age sherds from the Usmanovo 3 Burial Ground, Kazburun
Region, Southern Transurals (Quinn, 2016). Constructing of ware was carried out in accordance with several
programs of stuff preparing. Wide variety of clays and many compositions of molding compounds discovered
in investigated ceramics may mean possible inlow of little groups of population probably caused by marital
contacts. At the same time investigated methods of stuff preparation in accordance with different programs
prove that in combining of population groups that left these settlements and barrows at least two culturally
different population groups took place. Radiocarbon dating in Beta Analytic of ceramics and anthropological
material gives the date: 1930 - 1750 BC; 1890 – 1740 BC.
Keywords: ceramics of the Late Bronze Age, experimental pottery.
Resumen
El análisis fue realizado en el marco del enfoque histórico-cultural y de la estructura de la producción alfarera, elaborado por A. A. Bobrinsky (Bobrinsky, 1978). En el proceso del análisis técnico de la cerámica fue
establecido que los vasos estaban compuestos de mezclas de barro cocido, arena y sustancias orgánicas
en concentraciones diferentes. Una sección ina del análisis petrográico fue realizada en seis fragmentos
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
de la edad del bronce tardío de 3 sepulcros de Usmanovo, región de Kazburun de los Transurales del Sur
(Quinn, 2016). La reconstrucción de la vajilla se realizaba a través de algunos programas de preparación del
material. Una amplia variedad de barros y muchas composiciones de mezclas de moldeo reveladas en las
cerámicas estudiadas puede signiicar un posible aluente de pequeños grupos de población, tal vez originados por contactos matrimoniales. Al mismo tiempo los estudios hechos con métodos de preparación del
material a través de programas diferentes, prueban que en la unión de grupos de la población que dejaron
estas colonias y túmulos había por lo menos dos grupos de poblaciones culturalmente diferentes. La datación del radiocarbono con Beta Analytic de la cerámica y del material antropológico indica la fecha de los
años 1930 – 1750 a. C., 1890 – 1740 a. C.
Palabras clave: cerámica de la Edad del Bronce tardío, alfarería experimental.
Figure 1. The
geographic location
of the territory
of the Kazburun
archaeological
micro-district.
244
INTRODUCTION
The Late Bronze Age on the territory of the Southern Urals is represented by a large number
of archaeological cultures and population groups, the largest of which were Srubnaya and
Andronovskaya (Alakulskaya) archaeological cultures. The interaction of these population
groups created a special mixed material culture. The main peculiarities
of this material culture were maintenance of both stable independent
features of Srubnaya and Andronovskaya (Alakulskaya) cultures and
formation of similar mixed features of Srubnaya and Andronovskaya
cultures. These population groups created new ways of ceramics
production in the region, combining the two traditions: those of
Srubnaya and Andronovskaya (Alakulskaya) cultures. These processes
took place in the Late Bronze Age on the vast area of the Southern Urals
region (over 120 thousand km2). The population interactions found their
relection in the archaeological microdistrict in the basin of the Urshak
River (Figure 1). The application of historical and cultural approach
developed by A.A.Bobrinskiy to the study of ancient ceramics and the
reconstruction of ancient pottery should give an answer to the question
of synchronism or time difference (chronological periodization) of
Srubnaya and Andronovskaya (Alakulskaya) archaeological cultures in
the region, as well as population migrations into the region. The use of
scientiic methods, alongside with the reconstruction of ancient pottery
in a certain microdistrict in the Southern Urals, made it possible to
trace the peculiarities of the population adaptation and to extrapolate
these peculiarities on the entire territory of the Volga-Ural region. This
research was sponsored by the RFBR and the Republic of Bashkortostan in the framework
of a scientiic project number 16-11-02003.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Ceramics is the most popular material excavated in the Late Bronze Age monuments. The
study of the ceramic complexes, together with the study of the funeral rite peculiarities
made it possible to distinguish archaeological cultures and their interaction in the Late
Bronze Age of the Southern Urals. In Russia A.A.Bobrinsky developed an independent
scientiic trend of the pottery study, i.e. a historical and cultural approach to the study of
ancient ceramics. The purpose of the pottery material study within the frames of historical
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 3. The Kazburun I barrow burial ground let identify two burial traditions in the
same area Srubnaya and Alakulskaya.
Figure 2. Site of archaeological monuments
around Kazburun barrow burial ground.
Figure 4. Pottery vessels Srubnaya
and Alakulskaya cultures.
and cultural areas is the reconstruction of cultural traditions in pottery manufacturing
within the studied population.
The Kazburunovsky archeological district of the Late Bronze Age is located in the Urshak
River basin (an area of 23,4 km2). This complex of monuments consists of ive simultaneous
settlements: Usmanovskoye settlements I – III (1930 - 1750 BC – Beta Analytic), Muradym
settlement and 57 Kazburunovsky mounds (1820 - 1795 BC - Beta Analytic). The complex
of monuments is located on the right bank of the Urshak Rriver, its length is 12 km (Figures
2 and 3). 7028 ceramic fragments (including 48 intact vessels) were obtained in the course
of archaeological studies (Figure 4) (Sherbakov, et al., 2011).
We applied the following groups of scientiic tests to the study of the Kazburunovsky
micro-district complex of monuments belonging to the Late Bronze Age: radiocarbon
dating of the settlement pottery and AMS dating of the buried in Kazburunovsky mounds,
paleopedological analysis (including raw materials for pottery) (Figure 5), metallographic
analysis, paleozoological and paleoanthropological analyis and ADNA.
The historical and cultural approach provides a detection system, recording and study of
speciic labor skills used for pottery making. The objects of study are the technological
marks on the vessels, indicating the application of certain skills by potters in their work.
The interpretation of technological information is based on the knowledge of cultural and
historical events and the way they were relected. The technique is based on trasology,
binocular microscopy and physical modeling. The structure of the research includes two
levels: empirical and theoretical. At the empirical level the information about the technology of every individual vessel is singled out; we have compiled the information about the
technology of all the multitude of the studied vessels from the ceramic complex of the
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PLAYING WITH THE TIME
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Figure 5. The paleopedology investigations of the of
the Kazburun archaeological micro-district.
Figure 7. The iring process vessels.
Figure 6. The process of creating the vessel
of the Late Bronze Age.
Figure 8. Reconstruction campire roasting
vessels.
sanctuary and identiied technological traditions, determined
their time and location. As a result, the general characteristics
of the studied pottery industry
are formed. On the theoretical
level, all the received technological information is converted
into the historical one and the
reconstruction of historical and
cultural processes among the
studied population is carried out.
The experiment plays an important role in the historical and
cultural approach to the ceramics study (Figures 6, 7 and
8). During the expedition, the
following series of experiments
were carried out and reference
databases on the following programs were created: 1) natural
clays and sludge; 2) molding
compositions; 3) vessels construction; 4) surface processing;
5) firing.
The ceramics of the Srubnaya cultural and historical community is fairly standardized
(the ornament is represented by a spiked stamp, barbs, incised lines, diamonds, open
triangles, seed-shaped indentations). In the contact zone of the two population groupmixing - Srubnaya and Andronovskaya (Alakulskaya) - vessels with signs (zoomorphic
pictographs, sophisticated symbolic igures) were identiied (Figure 4). The morphological
analysis of the vessels allowed identifying three groups: the Srubnaya archaeological
culture, the Andronovskaya (Alakulskaya) archaeological culture and the mixed SrubnoAlakulsky vessels.
The application of the historical and cultural approach of A.A. Bobrinsky and petrographic
analysis of prehistoric ceramics of P.S. Quinn helped establish that the vessels had an
admixture of grog, sand and organic matter in different concentrations (technical and
technological analysis of ceramics). The clay pits were directly linked to the river system
which was actively used by the representatives of the two population groups of the Late
Bronze Age: Srubnaya and Andronovskaya (Alakulskaya) cultures; the fragments of their
dishes were found together. All the clay for the pottery manufacturing was mainly used in
its natural wet condition, only a number of the vessels were recorded to have preliminary
clay drying and crushing. Rivers and settlements development were inseparably connected
in the Late Bronze Age. Most of the settlements were located on rivers (Figure 9).
The combination of raw materials and the input components gives an idea about the skills
of making the molding compositions by the studied population. The bulk of the crockery
was produced according to three main recipes: grog + organic solution, grog + manure and
grog + squeeze from manure (methods of A.A. Bobrinsky). The grog particles are in many
cases associated with ring voids due to the shrinkage of the surrounding clay compared
to the already ired pottery. Sample Usmanovo III settlement is particularly notable for its
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 9.
Areal near Kazburun
burial ground.
grog and contains material deriving from several different fabrics and therefore different
vessels, that were crushed and added. Most of the grog material has a non-calcareous
fabric with angular quartz silt and other larger inclusions such as chert. This indicates
that it could have come from a similar fabric to the host ceramics. Sample Muradym VIII
settlement contains examples of multiple recycled ‘second-generation’ grog (Quinn, 2016).
Spiral-straps and spiral-patches methods of making a hollow body were ixed in the
ceramics of Andronovskaya (Alakulskaya) culture. Furthermore, an additional method of
constructing a hollow body was detected - a zonal one - when separate parts of a hollow body
are made using a basic form on which the patches were built up spirally. After that, the parts
were connected to each other.
Only one method of pottery processing was singled out in Srubnaya culture: a simple smoothing,
but the tools for smoothing were very diverse. We can distinguish the tools with soft (leather,
fabric, potter’s ingers) and solid (pebble stone, wood stamp, wooden knife) working part.
A great variety of clays and diversity of recipes for molding compounds revealed in the
studied pottery may indicate an inlow of small population groups, possibly as a result of
marital contacts. This is conirmed by the ADNA analysis. In general, it should be noted that,
judging from the adaptive skills (especially clays, composition of molding compounds, surface
processing) the population that had left the monuments was homogeneous in its cultural
composition. At the same time, the studied ways of potter blanks manufacturing in accordance
with different programs indicate that at least two culturally different groups took part in the
composition of the population groups that had left the settlements and burial mounds.
RESULTS
A.A.Bobrinsky methods of historical and cultural approach to the pottery analysis allow
considering each vessel as a source of information through the ways of a potter blank
and a hollow body construction of a vessel. Thus, it is possible to get information on
each relatively intact vessel or on the construction skills inherent in a particular group of
potters. This may assist in the assessment of patterns of the Late Bronze Age intercultural
exchange. However, it is worth noting that ceramics tempered with grog are ideally suited
to petrographic provenance determination (Quinn, 2016).
CONCLUSIONS
The pottery complex of the Kazburunovsky funeral-settlement complex has become one of
the important factors in the issue of identifying the cultural transformations and cultural
interactions in the Bronze Age in the Southern Urals. Experimental methods of Historical
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and cultural approach by A.A.Bobrinsky made it possible to reconstruct the Late Bronze
Age ceramics of the Southern Urals. Methods of technical and technological pottery
analysis made it possible not only to reconstruct the pottery tradition of the Late Bronze
Age in the Southern Urals, but also to take a look at the past of the studied population.
REFERENCES
Bobrinsky, A. (1978). Pottery of Eastern Europe. Moscow. 272 pp.
Quinn, P.S. (2013). Ceramic Petrography: The Interpretation
of Archaeological Pottery & Related Artifacts in Thin Section.
Archaeopress. Oxford.
Quinn, P. S. (2016). Petrographic Analysis of Prehistoric Ceramics
from the Usmanovo 3 Burial Ground, Kazburun Region, Southern
Transurals, Russia (unpublished).
248
Sherbakov, N., Shutelevaa, I., Obydennovaa, G., Balonovaa,
M., Khohlovab, O., Golyevac, A. (2011). Some Results of the
Application of a Complex Approach to the Research of the Late
Bronze Age Muradymovo Settlement in the Volgo-Ural Region.
Interdisciplinaria Archaeologica. 1(1-2), 29-36.
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37
EXPERIMENTS WITH SURFACE
DECORATION ON CASTELLUCCIO POTTERY
(SICILIAN EARLY BRONZE AGE)
Experimentación con la decoración de
supericie en la cerámica de Castellucio
(Edad de Bronce inicial en Sicilia)
Giovanni Virruso*, Valentina Amonti**, Serena Tonietto***
*MUSE – Museo delle Scienze Trento, corso del lavoro e della scienza 3, 38123 Trento.
giovannivirruso@gmail.com
**Musei Civici di Reggio Emilia, via Lazzaro Spallanzani 1, 42121 Reggio Emilia.
amonti.valentina87@gmail.com
***MUSE – Museo delle Scienze Trento, corso del lavoro e della scienza 3, 38123 Trento.
serena.tonietto@gmail.com
Abstract
Castelluccio pottery is one of the most representative elements of the Sicilian Early Bronze Age. It is easily
identiied by its shape and surface treatment, an orange-reddish background and brown bands, making Castelluccio pottery a good chronological marker. Experimental reconstruction of the chaine operatoire involved
in the surface decoration was done in order to ascertain the technological processes of pottery production.
Clay tablets were made and decorated with iron oxide and manganese oxide, using different procedures to
identify those closest to the archaeological specimens. The tablets were then ired under controlled temperatures and visually analyzed to verify the quality and pigments of the pottery. Experimental data were
compared with Early Bronze Age specimens to improve the quality of the methods and identify the best manufacturing procedures.
Keywords: castellucciana facies, surface paint decoration, Early Bronze Age, pottery.
Resumen
La cerámica de Castelluccio es uno de los elementos más representativos de la Edad del Bronce de Silicia.
Se identiica fácilmente por su forma y tratamiento supericial, un fondo naranja-rojizo y bandas marrones,
convirtiendo la alfarería de Castelluccio en un buen marcador cronológico. La reconstrucción experimental
de la cadena operatoria involucrada en la decoración de la supericie se realizó con el in de conocer los
procesos tecnológicos de la producción de cerámica. Las tabletas de arcilla fueron hechas y decoradas con
óxido de hierro y óxido de manganeso, utilizando diferentes procedimientos para identiicar a aquellos más
cercanos a los especímenes arqueológicos. Las tabletas de arcilla se cocinaron entonces bajo temperaturas
controladas y se analizaron visualmente para veriicar la calidad y los pigmentos de la cerámica. Los datos
experimentales se compararon con los especímenes de la edad de bronce temprana para mejorar la calidad
de los métodos e identiicar los mejores procedimientos de fabricación.
Palabras clave: facies de castelluccio, decoración supericial, primera Edad del Bronce, cerámica.
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INTRODUCTION
One key feature of the Sicilian Early Bronze Age is its unmistakable pottery, probably inspired
by the indigenous cultural base that preceded the Serraferlicchio facies and contact with
Anatolian culture.
Castellucciano pottery has been found in different shapes and sizes. It is subdivided into
periods, decoration and source areas. Its three stylistic groups are generally characterized
by geometric decorations which follow the shape of the vessel, composed of bands, lines,
zigzags, arches, triangles and brownish grids on a background that varies from pale yellow
to orangey-red.
Some of the interesting technological aspects have been highlighted in previous studies.
Analysis of items from Tornambè (Ianni) shows that the raw clay material probably came
from sites near the manufacturing area. This site has also yielded evidence of a deliberate
choice of certain types of clay, accompanied by production techniques that may have remained
unchanged for almost 1000 years. Castellucciano style pottery was produced without lathes,
and the lack of ilites in samples from Tornambè points to iring temperatures above 800° C.
In 2000, X-ray analysis by McConnell of the pigments of prehistoric ceramic from
southern Sicily found that, despite some differences in composition, Fe is present in
all the colours, observable in the orange-red pigment, and Mn in the brown-black
pigment, the latter mineral combined with dark ochre. The source of these raw
materials was near the studied sites, where iron and manganese oxides can be found.
EXPERIMENTATION
Our study and experimentation has found a way to tentatively individualize the technological
process used in the decorative system of this ceramic material, add it to knowledge about
the chaine operatoire on the basis of the decoration of this group of products, and contribute
new perspectives about the issue.
Figure 1. Chaine
operatoire.
250
In the experimental process, we manufactured clay blanks with various shapes and
decorated them with different patterns and manufacturing times. The totally dry base
tablet was ired in an electric kiln at a maximum temperature of 900º C. Using the Munsell
table, the results obtained were subject to macroscopic comparison with remains from
the Scintilia (AG) site provided to us by Dr. Guilli from the Agrigento Superintendency
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
in order to ensure a chaine operatoire that was as
close as possible to the original.
Figure 2. Painting
the tablet.
Experimentation began with the production of blanks
using two types of clay material: one composed of TR2
grey clay and the second, green clay with a kaolinic
carbonaceous composition, both mixed with sand and
ground Opus signium. Tablets measuring approx. 10
x 7 cm were shaped from this mass, smoothing the
fresh surfaces with the aid of a repeatedly moistened
wooden tool and marking them with Roman numerals.
The natural oxide stains applied to the clay surface
included yellow ochre, red haematite and manganese
black (Figure 1).
We made a copy of the tablets for each experiment,
one with a limonite base and another with natural red
haematite, in order to detect the reactions of the different
stains in the preparatory, drying and post-iring stages,
and record the results on the basis of the experimental
data. The yellow ochre and the red haematite were
applied as a background on each sample pair, while the
manganese black was used for the geometric decoration,
a simple grid adornment (Figure 2).
Figure 3. Tablet with
polished surface.
Bibliographic references to the Castellucciana “facies” and the macroscopic observation
of several artefacts have brought to light another notable feature: the bright colour of the
ceramic surface. We tried to recreate this effect using several techniques and methods. In
the irst experiment, it was recreated with a pair of samples whose surface had reached a
leather-like hardness after smoothing them irst with our ingers and then with lat pebbles
(Figure 3) and afterwards, applying yellow ochre or red haematite. However, the second
pigment had an unexpected result while the tablets were drying: part of the haematite was
absorbed by the clay surface and another part lifted, cracked and laked off. In the light of
this poor result, we discarded this procedure from the chaine operatoire (Figure 4).
We painted the fresh clay surface of two tablets with the yellow ochre and red haematite
pigments. Once the pigments were fully absorbed, we decorated the surface with manganese
black. After becoming completely dry, part of the tablet was smoothed manually to produce a
dusty blur of the manganese black (Figure 5).
To produce a similar shiny effect to the samples in the archaeological record, we smoothed
the leather-like surface with our ingers and then with a lat stone before applying the natural
yellow ochre and red haematite pigments. The clay lost its shine immediately after painting,
and after iring, the pigments became dusty and lost their surface adherence.
First hand observation of archaeological material and bibliographic information showed a
clear heterogeneity which we tried to recreate by applying a heavily diluted layer of green
carbonatic and kaolinitic clay to the still fresh surface of the tablet (Figure 6).
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
These initial experiments enable us to advance deinitive answers about the production of
Castellucciana ceramics. Signiicant aspects include:
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Figure 4. A sample
with surface and
another part lifted,
cracked and laked
off.
Figure 5. A sample
with dusty surface.
• Conirmation that in most cases, pigments on tablets that were smoothed with stones
prior to decoration became completely raised or cracked, leaving intact only part of the
underlying pigment that had been absorbed by the surface of the clay item.
• The shiny effect found to varying degrees on Castelluccian ceramics does not seem
to have depended on the partial fusion of the pigments at a temperature near 900 ° C.
• The backing pigment was thus probably applied to a still-moist surface and then
smoothed, only achieving the hardness of polished leather after polishing and then
hitting the manganese. This was mixed with some sort of binder, perhaps clay, since
when applied in powder form, it did not adhere well to the walls.
• The diluted pigment yielded quite similar results to the archaeological material, and
was probably used to prevent the pigment from cracking during drying and/or iring.
• Caolinitic carbonatic clay may have been used to produce the shiny surface. The results
pending from Raman and Diffrattometry diagnostic tests may conirm this aspect.
• An interesting detail about the use of the pigments which emerged subsequently
was that yellow ochre generated the nearest colour to Castellucian pottery, while red
haematite produced a more violet shade, more reminiscent of the older facies from
Serraferlicchio.
• We were also able to conirm that repeated handing of the samples which best
resembled the originals tended to result in the loss of part of the black pigment
(Figure 7).
Figure 6. An
archaeological
sample of pottery of
Castelluccio facies.
252
Figure 7.
Replica of a cup.
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
In conclusion, subsequent investigation using the possible source zone of the raw materials,
diagnostic examination of the indings, and new experiments may be able to clarify other
technological aspects of the chaine operatoire of this Sicilian Early Bronze Age terracotta.
REFERENCES
Copat, V., Costa, A., Piccione, P., (2012). Alcune considerazioni
sulla ceramica dipinta della facies di Castelluccio. In Atti della
XLI Riunione scientiica IIPP. Dai ciclopi agli ecisti. Società e
territorio nella Sicilia preistorica e protostorica. Pp. 763-773.
Gualtieri, A. F., Venturelli, P., (1999). In situ study of the goethitehaematite phase transformation by real time synchrotron
powder diffraction. In American Mineralogy Institute. Vol. 84. Pp.
895-904.
Mc Connell, B.E., Pappalardo, L., (2000). I colori della preistoria
siciliana: i pigmenti rossi e bruni nella cerámica. In Bollettino
dell’Accademia Gioenia delle Scienze Naturali in Catania. 33. Pp.
399-414.
Comuo Di Caprio, N., (2007). Ceramica in archeologia 2. Antiche
tecniche di lavorazione e moderni metodi di indagine. Nuova
edizione ampliata. “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, Rome.
Fragnoli, P., Manin, A., Giannitrapani, E., Iannì, F. and Levi, S.,
(2013). Indagine archeometrica sulla tecnologia produttiva
e la composizione della ceramica preistorica e protostorica
di Tornambè (EN). In Atti del VII Congresso Nazionale di
Archeometria. Modena 22-24 Febbraio. Patròn Editore. Bologna.
Pp. 137-149.
Gullì D., Adamo O., (2008). Il sito di Contrada Colonne in Sicilia.
XLIII Riunione Scientiica IIPP. Bologna 26-29 novembre. Casalini
Libri. Florence.
Tusa, S., (1997). Prima Sicilia. Alle origini della società siciliana.
Arnaldo Lombardi Editore. Siracusa.
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38
FIRING PITS AND POTTERY PRODUCTION AT
LUGO DI GREZZANA (VR): USING EXPERIMENTAL
ARCHAEOLOGY FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF
ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Hoyos de cocción y ceràmica en Lugo di
Grezzana (VR): empleo de arqueologìa
experimental para la interpretación de los
procesos arqueológicos
Annalisa Costa*, Fabio Cavulli*, Annaluisa Pedrotti*
*Laboratorio “B. Bagolini” – Archeologia preistorica, medievale e Geograia storica.
Dipartimento di Lettere e Filosoia, Università degli studi di Trento,
via Tommaso Gar 14, I-38122, Trento.
annalisa.costa@unitn.it
fabio.cavulli@lett.unitn.it
annaluisa.pedrotti@unitn.it
Abstract
The poster presented a PhD project in progress of the University of Trento which aims to analyse several iring pits found at Lugo di Grezzana, an early Neolithic site located in Valpantena, Italy, at the foot of the Lessini
Mountains, one of the major lint source for the area. Firing pits excavated in the site have been studied in a
previous work that evaluated and conirmed their possible use for pottery iring. Several hypotheses related
to their use and function still need to be developed and will be listed in this work. Particular attention will be
paid to igulina ware, a class of very ine ceramic usually considered the result of iring at high temperatures.
Experimental archaeology will be used as support for testing new hypotheses on pottery production and
iring processes, in order to verify their technical and functional features and for a better understanding of
processes involved in manufacturing and iring pottery.
Keywords: northern Italy Neolithic, iring pits, pottery technology, experimental archaeology.
Resumen
Esta presentación se basa en un proyecto de doctorado de la Universidad de Trento que tiene como objetivo
analizar la tecnología cerámica en Lugo di Grezzana, un antiguo yacimiento Neolítico situado en Valpantena, al pie de las montañas Lessini, una de las principales fuentes de sílex de la zona. Varios pozos de fuego
excavados fueron estudiados en un trabajo previo que evaluó y conirmó su posible uso para la cocción de
cerámica. Varias hipótesis relacionadas con su uso y función y se presentan en este trabajo. Se prestará
especial atención a los utensilios de cocina, una clase de cerámica muy ina que normalmente se considera
el resultado de la cocción a altas temperaturas. Sin embargo, un análisis reciente de las muestras encontradas en el sitio ha revelado que las temperaturas máximas de cocción que no superan los 900 ° C. Estos
nuevos datos relativos a los utensilios de cocina pueden proporcionar conocimientos sobre el papel que pudo
haber tenido en el norte de Italia y y las decisiones de fabricación que estaban implicadas en su elaboración.
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
La experimentación se utilizará como soporte para probar hipótesis sobre la producción de cerámica y los
procesos de cocción, con el in de veriicar sus características técnicas y funcionales y para una mejor comprensión de los procesos involucrados en la fabricación y cocción de cerámica.
Palabras clave: Neolítico del norte de Italia, hoyos de cocción, tecnología cerámica, arqueología
experimental.
Figure 1. Lugo di
Grezzana, Northern
Italy. ©Google Maps Microsoft Encarta.
INTRODUCTION
Lugo di Grezzana (VR) is located in Northern Italy, at the foot of the Lessini Mountains,
one of the major lint sources of the area (Figure 1). The deposit investigated since the
early nineties by the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici del Veneto in collaboration
with the University of Trento revealed an extended Early Neolithic settlement related to
the Fiorano culture (5500 – 4900 cal BC). Archaeological research at the site has shown
traces of dwelling structures consisting of post holes
and hearths, as well as the foundation trench of a
palisade (Cavulli 2008, Cavulli and Pedrotti 2003). The
role of the site as important supply center for lint
and lint products has been revealed by the presence
of several lint knapping areas. Several iring pits
have been found and a recent study (Costa A. 20092010; Costa et al. in press) evaluated and conirmed
their possible use as pottery iring. Various aspects
concerning their function still need to be investigated
together with new hypotheses related to the pottery
production attested in the site and they will be the
focus of a PhD research currently in progress (Costa,
University of Trento). This paper aims to present the
main features we will investigate with the help of
experimental archaeology during the three years of
the project.
(F.C., A.P.)
Figure 2. Firing pits
at Lugo di Grezzana.
1. ES 473 /03;
2. ES 473 /03, section
and inilling of burnt
beams (US 482-483
/03); 3. ES 473 /03,
rubefaction of the
walls (US 482 /03);
4. ES 473 /03,
potential evidence of
vents.
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FIRING PITS AND POTTERY PRODUCTION
The iring pits are situated in areas X (ES 473/03=920)
and XVI (ES 635/03; 554/03; 541/03) and have been
excavated during the 2003-2005 campaigns. They are
circular or squared, while their dimensions vary from
a minimum diameter of m 0.85 m to a maximum one
of 2.10 m (Costa et al. 2015). Each of them presents speciic features (dimensions, shape,
materials found in the inilling) but all of them may have had vertical walls and lat or
concave bases, with inillings rich in charcoal and ash remains, strong rubefaction of the
walls, oxidized sediments, artefacts and ecofacts modiied by ire such as burnt clay, burnt
planks, lint tools and small sherds. All of these characteristic can be related with the
ire use (Figure 2). Several kinds of materials, as bones, pottery and lint were found in
most of the pits, but their presence cannot be reliably connected with a primary use of
the structures. Although it is dificult to give a functional interpretation, the considered
features have been interpreted as the result of combustion in a reducing atmosphere that,
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
decreasing the circulation of oxygen, preserved charred wooden beams that otherwise
should have turned their cycle into cinders (Costa et al. in press a). Different hypotheses
connected with the use and function of wooden beams need to be evaluated together with
those processes that inluenced thermic alterations of soil. However, we cannot exclude
that the same structure could have been used to cook food, to produce charcoal for heating
and/or to ire pottery. Thanks to experimental tests, the hypothesis of their use as pits to
ire pottery has resulted as the more plausible (Costa et al. in press a;b).
Pottery production in Lugo di Grezzana (Figure 3) is characterized by different classes of
coarse and ine wares with dark-colored or patchy red/black staining surfaces of various
shapes and sizes (Pedrotti and Salzani 2010). Particular interesting is a class of very
ine pottery widely diffused in central Italy, characterized by a pale buff-yellow or grey
untampered, polished paste, usually considered the
result of a iring at high temperatures. This class is
called pseudoigulina, coarse igulina or igulina-type
ware, very similar to “igulina” classes from which
differs for its fabric, and for being slightly coarser.
(Spataro 2009). Some XRD (X Ray Diffraction) and
DTA-TGA analyses (Differential thermal analyses
and Thermogravimetric analyses) carried out on the
Lugo di Grezzana pottery show that pseudoigulina
wares have been shaped using local clays and ired
at temperatures that can be placed between 700°
C to 900° C (Bouvet et al. 2010; Fermo et al. 2013).
Such kind of maximum temperatures are usually
related to iring in a kiln that allows to easily reach
950°/1000° C., however there are no evidences for
such structures in Lugo di Grezzana.
A series of experimental irings we carried out in
a previous work (Costa 2009-2010; Costa et al. in
press a; b), in a covered iring pit similar to those
excavated in the settlement, revealed that maximum
temperatures did not exceed 750° C. However, the
comparison with data from other experimental
irings and from ethnographic evidences (in an open iring or in a covered pit) revealed that
structures of the same type have a wide range of recorded temperatures, varying from 700°
C. to 900° C. (Arnal 1991; Gosselain 1992). New insights could come from another series
of experimental tests we will lead during next months (November 2016, September 2017)
and from some analyses on Lugo di Grezzana iring pits oxidized sediments, currently in
progress, that could help us to identify the temperature range at which sediments were
burned. (The analysis will be held with the collaboration of Dipartimento di Ingegneria
Industriale, Povo, TN).
Figure 3. Pottery
production at LUgo di
Grezzana (after
Pedrotti A., Salzani P.
2010, p. 89, ig.2).
Figure 4. Patchy red/
black pottery from
experimental tests
(ph. after Costa 20092010).
The iring temperature range from experimental tests seems to be the more common for
every day, ordinary pottery. During our irst series of iring tests, similar archaeological
traces of those recorded in the archaeological record and similar patchy red/black pottery
surfaces have been obtained (Figure 4) that is why the structures analyzed at Lugo di
Grezzana have been considered potentially suitable to iring pottery (Costa 2009-2010;
Costa et al. in press a; b). Despite maximum temperature related to iring pits structures
are lower than those reported by archaeometric analyses on pseudoigulina wares, we
wonder if a series of variables as for example a iring in a pit without a cover or the use of
ire vents that could increase temperature in the pit and others listed in next paragraph)
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could have inluenced this result, so that iring pits were suitable to ire also igulina wares.
New experimental tests, that will be part of the experimentation lead for the Phd actually
in progress, would be helpful to answers several questions and test some hypotheses in
order to verify which processes were involved in pottery pyrotechnology.
CAN EXPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY ANSWER TO SOME QUESTIONS?
Experimental archaeology is a valid method to test hypotheses and to evaluate different
variables involved in pottery production. Replication rather than a certainty about the type
of technology used becomes also a method to consider differences and problems that
would be dificult to predict. This concept is well expressed by the deinition “Exploratory
experimentation” (Mathieu 2002, 7): informal studies would allow to explore possible
alternatives related to the production processes.
Several key research questions need to be addressed concerning the iring pits. In
particular, we aim at analyzing the processes that allow preservation of charred wooden
planks and understand if iring was performed in a reducing environment and if the burnt
beams had a speciic function. We would like to understand also how speciic variables
as temperatures, sediments, kind of atmosphere, vents presence, reuses, etc… inluence
thermic alterations of soil (Costa et al. a).
Another variable that need to be tested is the one connected with the use and effect of
introducing oxygen by lues, a practice that could be attested by the two oval holes recorded
in pit ES 473 /03 that could be interpreted as a way to drew air down to the base of the ire
(Figure 2.1 and 2.4). Could this expedient have played a role in obtaining a succession of
oxidizing and reducing phases in a covered pit and to obtain temperatures higher than usual
in order to ire igulina ware? A range of iring experiments for igulina wares reproducing
manufacturing and iring techniques and comparison with archaeometric analyses, could
provide interesting insights on Early Neolithic pottery iring technology and manufacturing
choices involved in northern Italy.
(A.C)
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REFERENCES
Arnal, G. B. (1991). Étude thermique des cuissons de type
préhistorique. In Archéologie Expérimentale. Tome 1. Pp. 237-242.
Bouvet, E., Fronza, G., Della Volpe, C., Gialanella, S., Lutterotti,
L., Pedrotti, A., Siboni, S. (2010). Microstructural and crystallochemical aspect of some igulina ceramic samples from
Neolithic Italian sites. VI Congresso Nazionale di Archeometria
“Scienza e Beni Culturali”, Pavia.
Costa A., Cavulli F., Pedrotti A. (in press b). Firing Pits at Lugo
di Grezzana (VR): evidence of craft activity? Craft & People,
International Conference, 1st-2nd November 2012. British
Museum. London.
Fermo, P., Ischia, G., Di Maggio, R., Pedrotti, A., Zanoni,
E., Gialanella, S. (2013). Microstructural and thermal
characterization on Neolithic ceramics. Applied Physics A,
Material Sciences & Processes. 113, 1089-1100.
Cavulli, F. (2008). Abitare il Neolitico. Le più antiche strutture
antropiche del Neolitico in Italia settentrionale. Preistoria
Alpina 43, Supplemento 1. Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali,
Università degli Studi di Trento.
Gosselain, O., (1992). Bonire of the enquiries. Pottery iring
temperatures, in archeology: what for? Journal of Archeological
Science. 19, 243-259.
Cavulli, F., Pedrotti, A. (2003). L’insediamento del Neolitico
antico di Lugo di Grezzana: la palizzata lignea. Preistoria Alpina
37/2001. Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali. 11-24.
Mathieu, J. R. (2002). Experimental archaeology. Replicating past
objects, behaviours and processes. BAR International Series
1035, Oxford.
Costa, A. (2009-2010). Fosse di combustione neolitiche a Lugo
di Grezzana (VR): un approccio sperimentale. Post graduated
specialization degree (School of Specialization). Inedita,
Università degli studi di Milano.
Pedrotti, A., Salzani, P. (2010). Lugo di Grezzana: un “emporio”
di settemila anni fa sui Monti Lessini veronesi. La Lessinia – ieri,
oggi, domani, Quaderno culturale 33. La Graica Editrice. 87-104
Costa, A., Cavulli, F., Pedrotti, A. (2015). Le strutture di
combustione in fossa dell’insediamento di Lugo di Grezzana
(VR). In Studi di Preistoria e Protostoria 2, Preistoria e Protostoria
in Veneto. IIPP, Firenze.
Spataro, M. (2009). The irst specialised potters of the Adriatic
region: the makers of Neolithic Figulina Wares In A connecting
sea: Maritime Interaction in Adriatic Prehistory. Edited by S.
Forenbaher. Bar International Series 2037. Archaeopress.
Pp. 59-72.
Costa, A., Cavulli, F., Pedrotti, A. (in press a). Firing Pits at Lugo
di Grezzana: an experimental approach. In The Signiicance
of Experimentation for the Interpretation of Archaeological
Processes: Methods, Problems and Projects. BAR International
Series, Oxford.
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39
WHICH WAY? HANDEDNESS
IN CERAMIC DECORATION
¿Para qué lado? Lateralidad
en la decoración cerámica
Aixa Vidal*
*INAPL/UBA. Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamericano
3 de Febrero 1378 (1426, CABA, Argentina).
aixavidal@gmail.com
Abstract
This experimental work aims to identify the laterality of traces and the technological gestures generated
by left- and right-handed people for different decorations, particularly incised and painted motifs as well
as ingermarks. Two- and three-dimensional samples of modelling and motifs were made by both left- and
right-handers from different age groups and then analysed macroscopically. The recording of signiicant
traces (line orientation, deviation, symmetry, incision depth) was fundamental to deine a working model for
these tendencies which could indicate the work of different individuals both in past and modern manufacture.
Keywords: handedness, macrotraces, kinetics, pottery-making, decoration.
Resumen
En este estudio se intentan deinir de forma experimental las orientaciones de los trazos y los gestos
técnicos favorecidos por personas zurdas y diestras en cuanto a diferentes decoraciones, como la incisión,
digitación y pintura. Para ello, se obtuvieron muestras bi y tridimensionales de distintos tipos de motivos y
modelados realizados tanto por personas zurdas como diestras de distintas edades y se analizaron macroscópicamente. El registro de las trazas signiicativas (orientación de la línea, desviación, simetría, profundidad de la incisión) fue imprescindible para deinir un modelo operativo de estas tendencias de utilidad
para postular la obra de individuos diferenciables tanto en el pasado como en la actualidad.
Palabras clave: lateralidad manual, macrotrazas, cinética, alfarería, decoración.
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INTRODUCTION
Despite being a rather vague term, for practical purposes handedness may be deined
as the tendency to use a speciic hand to perform certain activities. People are usually
classiied as right-handed, left-handed, or ambidextrous. Arguably, 2% to 30% of any
human population is left-handed or ambidextrous, with estimates hovering around 10%,
depending on the criteria used (Holder, 1995-2005) and the social acceptance of this
tendency.
Handedness is in turn related to dexterity, and is classiied as a ine motor ability which
develops simultaneously with the rest of our physical and neurological capacities
(Barbizet, 1980). Together with the unquestionable physical manifestation of handedness,
the consequences of living and learning in a predominantly right-hand world have to be
considered. Although nowadays most schoolchildren are not forced to use their right
hand, the direction of writing in many languages has a powerful inluence on left-handers
to draw letter-like decorations in a left-right direction. The production of motifs by young
children and Arabic-litterate potters in our experience seems to indicate a dominance of
physical factors over cultural conditioning in hand preferences for decoration.
Figure 1. Typical
manifestation
of left-handers
in decoration.
Photograph by A.
Vidal.
Figure 2. Deviation
from the vertical and
horizontal axis of
the trace drawn by
a left- and righthanded person.
Arrows: preferred
orientation; dotted
lines: deviation to the
axis. Photograph by
A. Vidal.
No fully accepted methodology for the evaluation of handedness in the archaeological
record has been proposed to date. A number of articles examine laterality in some
animal species, mainly primates, and several evolutionary psychology and learning
studies focus on children’s handedness, but applications of this knowledge to the
identiication of technical gestures and their manifestation in material culture are
almost non-existent.
OBJECTIVES
In order to have a solid starting point for handedness identiication, an experience was
proposed with the participation of both right- and left-handed agents. It basically asked
for the production of different kinds of incised and painted lines as well as ingermarks
to identify the preferred direction. The selection was intended to reproduce the kind of
traces found in the archaeological record as much as to deine their frequency aiming to
generate a reference database for future use in different materials.
MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUES
A series of activities were proposed to cover the
largest number of variables possible. Firstly, a data
base was built, currently accounting for 48 samples
of pencil strokes on white paper produced by lefthanded agents and equal number of right-handed
ones. Secondly, Arabic- and Yiddish-literate women
produced a similar document as well as a sample
of writing in their mother-tongue for comparison.
Thirdly, 2- and 3-year-old children were asked to
decorate strips of clay with ingerprints, to evaluate
the conditioning of education in preferred direction.
Finally, a clay brickette was incised by a left-handed
potter, illustrating the preferred orientation in
different motifs (Figure 1). All the strokes and lines
were measured considering their deviation from the
ideal vertical axis at the beginning and end of the
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trace (Figure 2). Furthermore, statistical means were calculated for the samples included
in the data base.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Identiication of handedness in material culture
As people feel more comfortable using one of their hands, they tend to produce ineficient
traces when the other is used. If some sort of social regulation forces left-handers to use
their right hand (social preference for the left hand is unknown) their work is awkward,
and can be easily confused with an apprentice’s production (Vidal, 2014). Although it is not
always possible to make a difference between these two agents, focusing in some items
such as vertical line deviation or the starting point of a horizontal motif may be indicative
of hand preference.
The use of one hand or the other inluences directionality in drawings and incisions (Figure
1). Thus, when free to choose, a left-hander typically makes both horizontal and vertical
lines in a right-left direction, permitting the deinition of the directionality once the starting
point is identiied. Upward deviations in horizontal lines are noted on the left, while the
central axis of vertical motifs is often rotated up to 20° to the right. The opposite situation
happens with right-handed people. Circles are even more informative: left-handers
consistently go counter-clockwise, particularly if a potter’s calliper is used, as rotation
to the left would be disturbed by their own body. Right-handers, on the opposite, may
follow either a clockwise or counter-clockwise direction -except for the manipulation of
the calliper, when only the clockwise direction is possible for identical reasons-, although
they never alternate directions.
In addition to inger marks, which quite clearly relect the author’s position when
decorating, short incised lines are informative for handedness. Horizontal incisions can
be signiicant as left-handers prefer to push the burin to the left, whereas right-handers
go in the opposite direction. Furthermore, the angle and the direction of short vertical lines
relects a frequent divergence towards the side of the operating hand.
However, identiication is not always straightforward. For instance, sequences of small
decorative elements such as short lines (either horizontal or vertical) or dots are inluenced
by writing. Most Western literate left-handers draw them in a left-right direction, whereas
left-handed preschool children and people from Middle East cultures follow the opposite
direction. Long horizontal lines are also confusing due to both the type of rotation system
(i.e. simple base, slow wheel, potter’s wheel) and the position of the object. Left-handers
prefer to draw them from right to left in the case of ixed elements such as rock art (Vidal
and Ferraro, 2016) or non-rotational pottery. Rotating the vessel in either direction does
not modify the inclination of the vertical lines, but it does affect horizontal ones.
Pottery has an additional disadvantage. When placed on its side or upside down, the
directionality of the motifs may be inverted. The position of the vessel can sometimes
be identiied by the starting point of the motif, but it is usually ambiguous for impressed
elements. However, in the case of small horizontal impressed or incised lines, it is not
possible to ascertain whether the vessel was decorated with the opening facing right or
left, two positions which would invert the direction of the motifs.
ETHNOGRAPHIC AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXAMPLES
Although the number of left-handed individuals in any society is always low, in some
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communities handedness is heavily inluenced by
learning strategies and adaptation to speciic taboos
(Wallaert-Petre, 1999).
Ethnoarchaeological literature has paid little interest
to this issue, except for the seminal paper by WallaertPetre (1999) on learning strategies. More recent
research has not clariied the situation. In fact, ield
research carried out in a number of communities have
only reported one case of a young left-handed potter’s
assistant (Figure 3) in the Amazig Bereber ethnic
group in Siwa (García Rosselló, pers. comm. 2013)
and a Sidi Najam female potter in an urban context
in the Sahel (García Roselló, 2010). In wheel-thrown
manufacturing, left-hand potters are known but
they tend to act like right-handers when modelling,
basically due to their training. The direction followed
when decorating, however, mirrors the one used in
hand-made pottery (Padilla Fernández, pers. comm.
2014). We expect more examples to arise once the
issue of handedness becomes popularised, as was
seen in some rock-art examples in Northwestern
Argentina (Vidal and Ferraro, 2016).
Figure 3. Amazig
Bereber left-handed
potter’s assistant in
Siwa. Protograph by
J. García Rosselló.
Figure 4. (a)
Typical left- and
(b) right-hander’s
directionality
(Cueva del Higuerón
(Málaga); Neolithic.
MAN 73/58/HIG/38
and 73/58/HIG/45).
Photographs by A.
Vidal.
Figure 5. Typical
left (a) and right
(b) hander’s
directionality
(Numancia; Iron
Age). Details of
photographs from
Estaca (2009).
Together with learning lexibility (Wallaert-Petre,
1999), the identiication of handedness in pottery
production has been used to detect different
participants (González Ruibal, 2003; Alday Ruiz,
2009) or to locate the origins of potters, as well as
their communities of practice, kinship and family
organization on the basis of learning strategies
(Sassaman and Rudolphi, 2001). Artistic individuality has also been proposed by Rivero
Vilá (2011) in the case of Magdalenian rock art, following a related argument.
The application of the above-mentioned patterns has been used as a reference for the
deinition of technological habitus acquisition as well as previous authorship and potter’s
identity (Vidal, 2014). For instance, in the sequences identiied on 112 diagnostic vessels
from the Andalucia Neolithic with both ingerprints and incised motifs –edges and bodies
with a clear orientation, repeated elements, vertical discontinuous traces-, we found that
14% of the sample matched the features and directionality preferred by left-handers
described in this experience (Figure 4). This value is slightly higher than the mode in
modern populations, but well within the limits proposed.
A second example regards a speciic vessel from the Iron Age settlement of Numatia. In
this case, the painted igure of the bull includes some calliper-made circles (Estaca, 2009)
which follow a counter-clock-wise direction (Figure 5). Furthermore, some of the lines
deining the motif were drawn from right to left, reinforcing the idea of the participation of
a left-handed artisan in the painting.
CLOSING REMARKS
Archaeological pottery –like all other aspects of material culture- is much more than a
mere container, relecting the identity of both potters and their community. Hence, metric,
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morphological and, most particularly, decorative features present in the clay may embody
a variety of elements which can be interpreted as tendencies deining the technical
gestures, tools and even taboos that make up the habitus and cosmology of the artisan’s
society.
The presence of right- and left-handed people is universal, with different manifestations
in each activity. The preferred direction of a left- or right-hander is rather visible in
some specimens. However, caution should be exercised when reaching conclusions, as
directionality may be inluenced by either physical (e.g. placing the pot upside-down)
or symbolic factors (e.g. representing the sun’s movement) together with the agent’s
handedness.
Work is in progress to deine traces related to handedness more accurately and clarify
problems and ways to overcome them. However, despite the tentative nature of this
presentation of the technique, the associated dificulties and the small sample size, the
presence of certain elements in a normal distribution may indicate the presence of both
right- and left-handed artisans, and hence the lexibility of their communities’ acceptance
of variability, their types of learning strategies and an ever increasing number of elements
that can be used to deine identity in craft.
REFERENCES
Alday Ruiz, A. (2009). Relejos del Neolítico Ibérico. La cerámica
boquique: caracteres, cronología y contexto. EDAR, Arqueología y
Patrimonio. Barcelona. 98 pp.
Barbizet, J. (1980). Introduction et la notion de latéralité. Actes
de les 6me Journée du GRASP, 5-42.
Estaca Gómez, V. (2009). Tecnología y decoración a través
de la imagen en la cerámica numantina. DEA presentation.
Departamento de Prehistoria, Universidad Complutense de
Madrid 182 pp.
García Rosselló, J. (2010). Análisis traceológico de la cerámica:
modelado y espacio social durante el Postalayótico (V-I a.C.)
en la península de Santa Ponça (Calvià, Mallorca). PhD Thesis,
Departament de Ciències Històriques i Teoria de les Arts,
Universitat de les Illes Balears. 1648 pp.
González Ruibal, A. (2003). La experiencia del otro. Una
introducción a la Etnoarqueología. Akal. Madrid. 192 pp.
Rivero Vilá, O. (2011). La noción de aprendizaje en el arte
mobiliar del Magdaleniense Medio cántabro-pirenaico: la
contribución del análisis microscópico. Trabajos de Prehistoria.
68(2), 275-295.
Sassaman, K. and W. Rudolphi (2001). Communities of Practice
in the Early Pottery Traditions of the American Southeast.
Journal of Anthropological Research. 57, 407-425.
Vidal, A. (2014). Cerámica y sociedad: la producción alfarera
neolítica en el sur de la Península Ibérica. PhD Thesis,
Departamento de Prehistoria, Universidad Complutense de
Madrid. 377 pp.
Vidal, A. and Ferraro, L. (2016). Determinación de la lateralidad
manual en el arte rupestre del Parque Nacional Talampaya
(Argentina). Universidad de Buenos Aires. Manuscript.
Wallaert-Petre, H. (1999). Manual Laterality Apprenticeship as
the First Learning Rule Prescribed to Potters. Urgeschichtliche
Materialheite 14. Pp. 185-206.
Holder, M. (1995-2005). What does Handedness have to do with
Brain Lateralization (and who cares?). http://www.indiana.
edu/~primate/lspeak.html. Accessed May 2014.
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Technical and
technological
experimentation,
metallurgy
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40
EXPERIMENTAL RECONSTRUCTION
OF COPPER METALLURGY BASED ON
ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL REMAINS FROM
THE PEÑALOSA BRONZE AGE SITE
Experimentar para reconstruir la
metalurgia del cobre a partir de los restos
arqueometalúrgicos de Peñalosa, un
yacimiento de la Edad del Bronce
Auxilio Moreno Onorato*, Charles Bashore Acero(*,
Alberto Dorado Alejos*, Juan Jesús Padilla Fernández**
*Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología, Universidad de Granada. Campus Universitario
de Cartuja C.P 18071 Granada 18071.
auxiliomonorato@gmail.com
charlesbashoreacero@gmail.com
a.dorado.alejos@hotmail.com
**Departamento de Prehistoria, Facultad de Geografía e Historia, Universidad Complutense
de Madrid C/ Profesor Aranguren s/n 28040.
juanjpad@ucm.es
Abstract
In this paper we present the preliminary results of an experiment aimed at ascertaining the different aspects
of the metallurgical ceramics from the Bronze Age site of Peñalos (Baños de la Encina, Jaén), mainly crucibles, moulds and tuyeres used both for reducing mineral ore and smelting. The reaction of metallurgical
ceramics during these processes was complemented by carrying out a series of analysis using DRX and SEM
which revealed important information about the characteristics of the ceramics that played an important role
in the metallurgical processes carried out at the Peñalosa site.
Keywords: archaeometallurgy, metallurgical pottery, XRD, SEM.
Resumen
En el presente trabajo se presenta los resultados preliminares obtenidos tras la primera de las experimentaciones realizadas sobre diversas réplicas de estos tipos cerámicos sometidas a distintos parámetros, con
el objetivo primordial de observar su comportamiento en las fases de reducción, fundición y moldeo como
último proceso en la elaboración de piezas metálicas. Concluida la fase de campo, las muestras fueron
analizadas mediante DRX y SEM y contrastados sus resultados con sus correspondientes arqueológicos
del poblado de Peñalosa a in de esclarecer los procesos físico-químicos involucradas en la producción y
elaboración de objetos de base cobre.
Palabras clave: arqueometalurgia, cerámica metalúrgica, XRD, SEM.
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INTRODUCTION
The research project centered on the study of the Argaric settlement of Peñalosa has
proven the existence of a mining-metallurgical settlement where evidence of metallurgical
processes has been preserved in every structural complex. Peñalosa, located in the heart
of Sierra Morena, in the southern foothills of the Upper Guadalquivir, is settled upon a
promontory only accessible on its eastern side. Its urbanism follows the Argaric pattern
of the South East of the Iberian Peninsula, with different spaces, whether domestic or
common, spread out across the anthropized slopes, both North and South, in up to three
different terrace levels (Contreras, 2000).
Metallurgy at Peñalosa
The quantity and variety of the mining and metallurgical remains of Peñalosa makes it one
of the most important metallurgical sites of the Iberian Peninsula. The whole productive
chain of the metallurgical process has been documented, from the extraction of mineral
in nearby mineral seam to the inal treatments of metal objects, evidenced by the large
number of discarded remains (slag, prills, crucibles and reduction pot fragments, etc.),
inished objects and stone elements related to metallurgy (hammers, anvils, etc.) (Moreno
et al. 2010) (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Ceramic and lithic
elements related
to the metallurgy
process (Contreras,
2000).
EXPERIMENTATION
One of the objectives of the archaeometallurgical investigation that is being carried out
under the Peñalosa Project is an experimental activity aimed at understanding the function
of the difference ceramic vases that are involved in
the productive process of metallic copper, and them
comparing them with the analytical results of the
archaeological ceramics that have been documented
at the site.
Materials and Methods
Once the experiment had been carried out we studied
the metallurgical ceramics using a series of chemical
and mineralogical analyses to determine the reaction
of these elements during the metallurgical process.
The macroscopic analysis of the ceramics was carried
out using a WILD M8 HEERBRUGG stereoscopic
microscope (at 0,5X and 1X). A BRUKER D8
ADVANCE, with a fast detector (Lynxeye), Cu Kα
radiation (coniguration θ - 2θ, Δθ=0,04° at 1 s.
per step, 2θ = 5-70°) and room temperature (25ºC)
was used for XRD by dust samples at 60µ aprox.
(Moore and Reynolds, 1989). The results were
compared with the PDF2 data base of the ICDD.
Scanning Electron microscopy (SEM) was carried
out at the CSIC laboratories at the National Museum
of Natural History in Madrid, using a FEI INSPECT
microscope with detectors for secondary electrons,
retrodispersed electrons and a cathodo-luminiscence
detector MONO CL GATAN, with integrated analysis
system by OXFORD INSTRUMENTS ANALYTICALINCA.
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The experimental design included a series of phases.
The irst one consisted of the collection of local raw
material used to create the ceramic vessels and the
tuyeres. Therefore a few kilograms of local clay were
recovered from the outskirts of the settlement, and
the same was done to retrieve the different clasts that
would be added. The second phase was to replicate
the ceramic elements related to metallurgy that were
documented at Peñalosa. The sample crucibles and
reduction pots contained clasts that were added in
different proportion using both organic and inorganic
elements, mainly straw and quartz. Once the replicas
were modeled, they were baked in a prehistoric-type
oven, consisting of a simple pit dug in the ground and
fed with dry olive tree wood and covered with large
ceramic fragments to maintain the heat.
Development of the Field Experimentation
Once the ceramic elements were ready, the metallurgical
phase began, and was carried out as follows:
- Reduction
The experiment took place in a small pit dug in the
ground with two small channels, one on each side on
the same axis, used to place the tuyeres, adjusting
the bellows by using reeds. The pit was illed with
charcoal and, once the optimal temperature was
reached, a covered by a reduction pot illed with
previously ground mineral, releasing most of its
gangue. Subsequently, the vessel was covered with
coal. The combustion process was carried out by
using both bellows with supplementary blowing,
using at least three reeds with tuyeres at the end
(Figures 2 and 3). At the end, a slaggy material containing copper prills was successfully
obtained, although the mineral used was admittedly rather poor.
- Smelting
To carry out this phase of the experiment, small metal fragments of pure copper were
placed in a small crucible of 11,5 cm in diameter and 3,4 cm tall. After three hours of
combustion, and applying the same process as the previous stage, liquid metal was
obtained and cast in a small ceramic mould with the shape of a rectangular ingot. The
experiment resulted in the creation of a more or less rectangular ingot that weighed
112,43 gr. (Figure 4).
ANALYTICAL RESULTS
The experimental ceramic vessels were all made using clays obtained from the same
geological context, and therefore we had to ind the same mineral components. If not,
we had to focus on the physical and chemical alterations that occurred during the
metallurgical process.
Figure 2.
Experimental
production
space during the
combustion process.
Figure 3. Slag
fragment recovered
after the reduction
phase, with a small
metallic prill shown.
Figure 4.
Experimental
smelting results,
where cooling
liquid metal can be
observed in both the
crucible and the mold.
The XRD results prove the existence of certain differences in the permanence or destruction
of some phyllosylicates and the formation of high temperature phases, which is the cases
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with pyroxens, oxides and sorosilicates, elements that have been contrasted by the analysis
of the main minerals located in the clay (Figure 5). To understand how these changes
occur with respect to the primary clay, we must take in to account:
a. the function of the object and the place that it occupies in the productive chain
is absolutely necessary to obtain credible interpretations of the diffractogram.
b. the time of heat exposure, since a higher or lower amount of neo-phase formations
is directly related to the time the object is exposed to a certain temperature.
After considering these variables, we were able to establish three different groups, clearly
related to the type of clasts used in the manufacturing process and the resistance to
thermal stress suffered during reduction and smelting (Capel et al. 1985; Zuluaga et al.,
2010). Therefore, the ceramic vessels which exclusively contained quarts clasts withstood
700-800º (1-EB-1; 1-EB-2). Those without any clasts did not do much better in resisting
the thermal shock, reaching 800-850º (1-EB-3; 2-EB-5). On the other hand, the ceramics
that contained organic clasts were totally different, reaching temperatures of 900ºC (Crisol
escoriicado; 2-EB-4), though still lower than vessels (2-EB-3) than with mixed quartz and
straw, reaching 1100ºC (Figure 6).
The reason for the formation of fractures and cracks must be sought in the process of
dehydration of the clays, when the water is lost (Calvo et al. 2004). When heated, water,
increases in volume and becomes a gas inside the object, which leads to the movement
of the laminar structures of clay, causing cracks and fractures. Therefore, ceramics with
organic clasts are those that have a better resistance to thermal shock since, when the
organic elements are burned, small cavities are created which are later illed in by the
gases that try to reach the exterior, avoiding cracks and fractures.
Figure 5.
Semi-quantitative
results obtained
by R.I.R.
Figure 6.
Representation of
the resistance to
thermal shock of
the experimental
ceramics.
The SEM results have also led to the gathering of interesting information. Two slag
fragments, the ingot and part of the vessel used for the reduction of mineral, were
analyzed using this technique. The irst thing we observed under SEM was that the
mineral used for reduction contained high percentages of lead, creating a layer of lead
that contained dendritic formations of pure copper. Between the metallic remains and
the ceramic surface, a thin layer of a Cu-Fe sulphide was identiied. We observed how
this phase already began to ilter through the ceramic surface of the vessel with only one
use. The identiication of these kinds of inter-phases can help us to identify metallurgical
ceramics in the archaeological record that do not contain metallic remains. The analyzed
slags presented a heterogeneous matrix that still contained large amounts of minerals
that did not completely segregate from the rest of
material and metallic segregations of Cu and Pb.
The rest of the matrix was made up of lead glass and
a non- piroxenic complex neosilicate. Finally, the
ingot showed very few defects, though some cuprite
segregations formed due to the high amounts of
oxygenation during the process (Figures 7 and 8).
CONCLUSIONS
This initial experiment has yielded results that are
valuable for the reconstruction of the production
process of metallurgical activities that were carried
out at the Peñalosa site, as well as a series of factors
that will be considered in future experiments.
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Figure 7. SEM image of the experimental crucible used for reduction,
where the three main phases can be observed: metallic matrix (white),
inter-phasal sulphide (light gray), and ceramic matrix (dark gray).
Figure 8. SEM image of one of the resulting slags, where copper and lead
segregations can be observed within the silicate matrix.
Thanks to XRD, we were able to contrast the utility of different types of clasts in relation to the function of
metallurgical ceramics. SEM allowed us to observe the quality of the process and the chemical and physic
reactions between the ceramic vessel and the minerals during reduction. On the basis of the results, we
must highlight the use of organic elements in the clay matrix, since they seem to be more eficient during
the metallurgical process thanks to its resistance to thermal shock. Another signiicant fact we were able to
observe is related to the production process of these ceramics. The manifestation of the use of ceramics in a
settlement such as Peñalosa (consumption, storage, cooking, metallurgy, rituals, etc.) can be take the form
of huge output in both shape and number. This suggests that some of these elements, as is the case with
metallurgical ceramics, may have been made by metallurgists, not by a specialized ceramist, since they are
easily made, rarely have any special treatment and are highly functional objects. Another factor that backs
this idea is the constant need for replacements and repairs at the same time as the metallurgical activity is
being carried out.
To sum up, the results of this experiment and the personal experience gained have moved us to continue this
line of research and to expand our investigation to other elements deriving from the metallurgical process to
understand the different phases in the metallurgical production carried out at the Peñalosa site.
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REFERENCES
Calvo, M., Fornés, J., García, J., Guerrero, V. M., Juncosa, E.,
Quintana, C., Salvà, B. (2004). La cerámica prehistórica a mano:
una propuesta para su estudio. El Tall. Palma de Mallorca.
Capel J., Huertas F., Jinares J. (1985). High temperature
reactions and use of Bronze Age pottery from La Mancha,
Central Spain. Mineralogical Petrography Acta. Pp. 563-575.
Contreras, F. (2000). Proyecto Peñalosa. Análisis histórico de las
comunidades de la Edad del Bronce del Piedemonte Meridional
de Sierra Morena y Depresión Linares-Bailen. Arqueología
Monográicas 10. Sevilla.
Moore, D., Reynolds, R. (1989). X-ray diffraction and the identiication
and analysis of clay minerals. Oxford University Press.
274
Moreno, A., Contreras, F., Renzi, M., Rovira, S. & Cortes, H.
(2010). Estudio preliminar de las escorias y escoriicaciones del
yacimiento metalúrgico de la Edad del Bronce de Peñalosa (Baños
de la Encina, Jaén). Trabajos de Prehistoria. 67 (2), 306-322.
Zuluaga, M. C., Ortega, L., Olazabal, A., (2010). Inluencia de la
composición de las arcillas en la estimación de las temperaturas
de cocción cerámicas arqueológicas en base a la mineralogía.
MACLA. Revista de la sociedad española de mineralogía. 13. 229-230.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
41
IRON PRODUCTION IN THE IBERIAN CULTURE
FROM AN EXPERIENTIAL PERSPECTIVE
La producción de hierro en la cultura Ibérica
desde una perspectiva experimental
J. M. Gallego*, M. Gómez**, J. Pou***
* ARTIFEX, conservación y recreación del patrimonio arqueológico
C/ Jansana, 19, bajos 1ª, 08902, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona.
artifex.crpa@artifexcrpa.com
** OAM Fundació Castell de Calafell.
mgomez@calafell.org
*** Ajuntament de Calafell.
jpou@calafell.org
Abstract
The unearthing, between 1996 and 1997, of the Iberian site of Les Guàrdies (El Vendrell, Tarragona) revealed
an iron production centre that yielded a wealth of data on Protohistoric siderurgy. The documentation of a
large number of structures and evidence related to the whole process of Iberian iron metallurgy allowed the
approach of a theoretical framework that in this paper, is subjected to experiential analysis from an empirical
point of view.
Keywords: iron, Iberian Culture, bloomery, experimental archaeology.
Resumen
La exhumación, entre los años 1996 y 1997, del yacimiento ibérico de Les Guàrdies (El Vendrell, Tarragona)
dejó al descubierto un centro productivo siderúrgico que arrojó una gran cantidad de datos sobre la siderurgia protohistórica. La documentación de gran cantidad de evidencias y estructuras relacionadas con el
proceso integral de la metalurgia ibérica del hierro permitieron el planteamiento de un marco teórico que,
con el presente trabajo, es sometido a análisis empírico desde una óptica experimental.
Palabras clave: hierro, cultura Ibérica, reducción directa, arqueología experimental.
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INTRODUCTION
In 1996 construction work on the A-16 ‘Pau Casals’ motorway revealed an Iberian rural
settlement in which intensive iron production had been carried out between the 4th
and 2nd centuries BCE. The ore came from opencast mining of mineralogical seams
of lemonite and goethite in an area today known as Les Guàrdies. Archaeological documentation of an exceptional number of structures related to all stages of pre-Roman
iron working connected to a basic habitat area opened up for discussion the probability
that this was a rural centre of iron production unparalleled in the Iberian Peninsula (Morer and Rigo, 2003). Some researchers then established a hypothetical framework relating to the territorial hierarchical structuring that the Les Guàrdies settlement may have been subordinated to the nearest power centre, the Iberian Citadel of
Calafell (Santacana et al., 2005). This aristocratic site was experimentally reconstructed in the 1990s and today is in the process of developing an important educational
and scientiic task through the
implementation of an activity
program based on Experimental
archaeology (Figure 1). A collaboration between the Municipality of Calafell, by means of the
EU project OpenArch (funded by
the Culture Programme of the
European Commission) and the
private company ARTIFEX, conservación y recreación del patrimonio arqueológico, gave rise to
a project named ‘From evidence
to facts. Iberian bloomery chain
from an experimental perspective’ the aim of which was to reproduce the chaîne opératoire
of ironworking documented in
Les Guàrdies by the functional
re-creation of some of the structures relating to every stage of
the process. This initiative had
the academic endorsement of
the Department of Prehistory, Ancient History and Archaeology, the
Department of Didactics of Social
Sciences, both of the University
of Barcelona (UB), as well as the
Catalan Institute of Classical Archaeology (ICAC).
Figure 1. Map
with the location
of Les Guardies
and La Ciutadella.
Figure 2.
Archaeological plant
of the structures.
276
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The initial phases of that chaîne opératoire documented in Les Guàrdies tally with the extractive phase, that is, those activities related to the ore extraction (goethite and lemonite),
in open-air trenches, probably with a very limited capacity. Two structures (SU- 7072, SU7083) were easily associated with these works. As we were able to test later on, it was not
proitable labour because it required the extraction of a large amount of clay in order to
get to the lemonite-goethite nodules formed by iltration. After four hours, a team of ive
people were able to extract little more than 40 kg. of ore (2kg. per person per hour) which
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
implies a meagre quantity when the low productivity of the protohistoric direct-reduction furnaces and the large quantity of ore required are taken into account.
Figures 3 and 4.
Experimental
interpretation of the
bloomery furnaces.
The production of the combustible, almost entirely from olive-tree charcoal (Olea europaea), could have been carried out in the vicinity of the settlement, despite the fact that
a priori, combustion structures associated to charcoal pits have not been documented.
Nevertheless, the existence of some structures seen in the negative (SU-7022) witch
show signs of thermal alteration in their walls and also containing remains of thermally-altered ore and charcoal from Olive tree (Olea europaea), led to the interpretation that
these were structures for enrichment (or roasting) of the ore. They could have worked
as charcoal pits, as later we were able to demonstrate. Connected to this structure, another one appeared (SU-7020), which was typologically similar and was interpreted as a
forge; one of its sides seemed to have some tuyere or blow-in piece placed there in order
to feed combustion during the works (Figure 2). Due to the fact that the possible tuyere
or biid blowing piece was not found during the excavation, in the experiential reproduction we opted for the implementation of a biid piece like the one found in the nearby and
synchronic site of Mas d’en Gual (El Vendrell) which is only about 5 kms away.
THE EXPERIENTIAL APPROACH
Strictly speaking, the furnaces were of the bloomery variety and were constructed
based on the archaeological record of two structures (SU-7348 and SU-7235), dated
to the 4th and 3rd/2nd century BCE respectively. The interpretation was carried out on
some premises that have already been clearly expounded (Gallego, 2014a and 2014b)
and has a connection between diameter and height, which is necessary in order for the
system to work. In the case of the oldest structure, of more reduced dimensions, an
induction furnace with a capacity of 140 l was built.
Regarding the most modern example (SU-7235), we opted for the construction of a
free-breathing furnace with a capacity of 430 l., fed through various openings in its
perimeter in which some cylindrical tuyeres were distributed. The absence of this element in the archaeological record of Les Guàrdies allowed us to implement documented
examples from the 7th century BCE in the Phoenician site of La Fonteta (Guardamar de
Segura, Alicante), of those named ‘D-sectioned tuyeres’ (Renzi, 2007) (Figures 3 and 4).
The bloomery process, slower in the free-breathing furnace, went on non-stop for 82
hours. A hundred kg. of ore was put into this furnace. This ore came from the mine of
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Rocabruna (Gavà, Barcelona), an area linked to mining since the Iberian
times (Álvarez and Estrada, 2009). During that period a thermal peak of
1283ºC was reached.
The oldest furnace (SU-7348), probably a slag pit furnace type (Cleere,
1972), was of much more modest dimensions, and copying the above examples, an interpretation of a structure with a capacity of 140 l was built.
41 kg. of lemonite and goethite were extracted from the same geological seam worked at Les Guàrdies. Once it became dehydrated, 16 kg.
remained. The combustible was formed by 90 kg. of olive tree charcoal
(Olea europaea) and holm oak (Quercus ilex), 90% and 10% respectively. The bloomery process started after four hours of pre-heating with
dried white pine (Pinus halepensis) wood and occasionally with holm oak
(Quercus ilex). During the free-breathing phase (12 hours) a thermal
peak of 1090ºC was reached. This peak was reduced to 980ºC during
the assisted induction phase (10 hours).
Figure 5. Iron blooms
from the furnaces.
The result was very similar in both furnaces: essentially altered ore nodules in a diversity of alterations, between semi-luids and simply cracked that were not affected by the
highest temperatures. Furthermore, there were different sized blooms, occasionally with
inclusions of charcoal and ore remains (Figure 5).
CONCLUSIONS
In this experience we have proved that the free-breathing system, in furnaces with a basin
diameter over 50 cm, is suitable when the production of ferrous metal from an intense
method is desired because this method requires a lesser investment in human resources
and can produce a large quantity of metal despite the large amount of raw material required. The location of Les Guàrdies in the vicinity of the mineralogical extraction and the
areas of combustible gathering probably respond to this need, as has already been shown
for other settlements of a similar nature.
We were also able to understand and test the nature of the biid tuyere design. It can be
afirmed that its design responds to the need to avoid hot air and embers getting into the
bellows. They work as retention valves. Althoiugh in a previous analysis we considered
them more suitable for forge works (Gallego, 2014a), neither do we discard their use in
speciic reductions in small furnaces of reduction such as the ones found in an urban
context in diverse Iberian and Celtiberian settlements.
It is therefore reasonable to assert that the Iberian peoples in general who lived in intensive production areas could have regularly used the much more proitable and ergonomic bloomery furnaces with a free-breathing system, while induction or blast furnaces,
more limited regarding productivity, were used only for speciic reductions in urban areas where minor amounts of metal were required. The intensive production of the iron,
developed in certain and speciic types of settlements subjected to an important hierarchical structuring of the territory, as some authors have proposed for the Les Guàrdies
case (Santacana et al, 2003), was the response to an upward trend in the demand for
weapons and other iron elements, which probably began in the beginning of the 4th century BCE, when an increase of iron is noticed in the grave goods of the Iberian necropolis
coinciding with the start of the Full Phase of Iberian Arms or Widespread Panoply Phase
(Quesada, 2002).
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Concurrently to this increase in the grave goods when iron weapons appear from the 4th
century BCE, a considerable increase in the number of graves also seems to occur, implying a demographic growth that required an increase in more farming areas and the diversiication of agricultural and livestock production, which would be relected by a bigger
effort to adapt traditionally wooded areas. It is in that period when the ironworks producing
farming tools as well as weapons irst appear. Both events required a larger amount of this
metal to be made in areas of intensive production such as Les Guàrdies for the purpose of
distribution, commerce, and subsequent working in the numerous blacksmith workshops
documented in the Iberian world.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We want to dedicate the present paper to the memory of Jaume Guiu i Forès, archaeologist
of the scientiic team of Atapuerca and IPHES, who suddenly and unexpectedly passed
away on the 4th of December 2014 in Reus, his hometown. Both science and the scientiic
community have lost one of their most outstanding researchers and colleagues. Our deepest condolences to his family and friends.
REFERENCES
Álvarez, R., Estrada, A. (2009): L’explotació de ferro en el
complex miner de Gavà. La mina número 65 en L’arqueologia a
Gavà, homentage a Alícia Estrada, collection “La nostra gent”. 5,
141-160.
Quesada, F. (2002): La evolución de la panoplia, modos de
combate y tácticas de los iberos. In La guerra en el mundo ibérico
y celtibérico (ss. VI- II a. C.). Collection de la Casa de Velázquez,
vol. 78. Madrid. Pp. 35- 64.
Gallego, J. M. (2014): Experimentando con armas ibéricas de
hierro. La producción del metal en hornos de “tiro natural”.
Gladius, vol XXXIV. CSIC. Madrid.
Renzi, M. (2007): Estudio tipológico y funcional de las toberas
del yacimiento de la Fonteta (Guardamar de Segura, Alicante).
Trabajos de Prehistoria. 64 (1) 165- 177.
Morer, J., Rigo, J. (2003) : Les Guàrdies (El Vendrell, Baix
Penedès). Un assentament metal·lúrgic d’època ibèrica. In
Territoris antics a la Mediterrània i a la Cossetània oriental.
Actes del Simposi Internacional d’Arqueologia del Baix
Penedès. Departament de Cultura. Generalitat de Catalunya.
Pp. 327- 338.
Santacana, J., Pou, J., Morer, J., Asensio, D. Sanmartí, J., (2005):
Evidències arqueològiques del procés d’emergència “d’élites”
aristocràtiques a la ciutadella ibérica d’Alorda Park (Calafell,
Baix Penedès). XIII Colloqui Internacional d’Arqueologia de
Puigcerdà. Homena.
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TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
42
SILVER ORE SMELTING PROCESS IN
REVERBERATORY FURNACE (SANTAISABEL MINE, 17TH C., POTOSI, BOLIVIA):
EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH TO A SOUTH
AMERICAN INVENTION
La fundición de minerales de plata en hornos
de reverbero (mina de Santa-Isabel, siglo XVII,
Depto. de Potosí, Bolivia): experimentación
funcional de una innovación sudamericana
F. Téreygeol*, P. Cruz**, I. Guillot***, J.C. Méaudre*
* CNRS, UMR 5060 IRAMAT-LMC, Belfort et NIMBE-LAPA CEA, France.
tereygeol@cea.fr
** CONICET-FUNDANDES, Tilcara, Jujuy, Argentina
saxrapablo@gmail.com
*** Université Paris-Est, ICMPE (UMR 7182) CNRS, UPEC, France.
guillot@glvt-cnrs.fr
Abstract
Mining and metallurgical remains are numerous in Bolivia. In this paper, we focus on a special kind of reverberatory furnace used for smelting non-ferrous ore and reining silver. At Santa-Isabel, an archaeological site
in the Potosi Department, we found two of these furnaces in a well-preserved workshop. Potsherd dating shows
that this site dates from the irst quarter of the 17th century. However, according to the bibliography, reverberatory furnaces for ore smelting only appeared in England at the end of the 17th century and spread throughout
Europe during the 18th century. Thus, these furnaces were a technical innovation of primary importance because this process based on separating fuel from ore facilitated the true development of modern metallurgy.
Experimental sessions were conducted from 2010 to 2014 at the metallurgical platform in Melle (France).
Following Schnable’s description, we decided to work with non-roasting ore to reproduce the operation
known as “roasting and reaction”. Numerous runs using galena gave us the know-how to operate this type
of furnace correctly. These experiences led to a functional hypothesis about the different components of this
irst reveberatory furnace. They also allowed us to distinguish ield furnaces used for smelting from furnaces
used for reining, even when the evidence was not so clear.
From a methodological point of view, this long-term experience shows the importance of working on a used
furnace in order to take stock of such types of production.
Keywords: reverberatory furnace, silver metallurgy, galena, long-term experience.
Resumen
Bolivia es un país rico en vestigios de antiguas metalurgias. Entre ellos, retuvo nuestra atención un tipo
particular de horno. Se trata de hornos de reverbero que sirvieron tanto para la fundición de minerales
polimetálicos, como para el reinado de plata. Un sitio cercano de la mina de Santa-Isabel, en la región de
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Sud-Lípez (Depto. de Potosí) brindó un conjunto de hornos particularmente bien conservados bajo un abrigo
rocoso. A partir de los materiales arqueológicos presentes in situ, este establecimiento fue datado en el primer cuarto del siglo XVII. Ahora bien, tal tipo de hornos destinado a la fundición de minerales aparecen en
Inglaterra recién hacia inales del siglo XVII y se difunden por Europa durante el curso del siglo XVIII. Así, en
un contexto colonial, nos encontramos frente a una importante innovación técnica, dado que este procedimiento consistente en separar el combustible de la materia a fundir, que permitirá el formidable desarrollo
de la metalurgia moderna.
La aproximación experimental fue conducida durante los años 2010 y 2013 en la plataforma de experimentaciones de Melle (Francia). Las diferentes fundiciones realizadas con galena permitieron adquirir las bases de
la conducción del fuego para el funcionamiento de este tipo de estructura. Trabajando directamente a partir
de un mineral noquemado, se procuró alcanzarsu fundición según un proceso descrito más tardíamente por
C. Schnabel (1898) bajo el nombre de “quemado y reacción”. Esta serie de experimentos permitió igualmente
la formulación de hipótesissobre la función de los diferentes elementos que componen este tipo de horno de
reverbero, ofreciendo al mismo tiempo un cuerpo referencial que permite distinguir rápidamente los hornos
de fundición de los hornos de ainado presentes en otros sitios con vestigios menos conservados. En el plan
metodológico, la realización de estos experimentos durante varios años consecutivos puso en evidencia la
importancia de reutilizar una misma estructura para comprender el balance material y aplicarlos a los casos
de estudios arqueológicos.
Palabras clave: horno de reverbero, metalurgia de plata, galena, larga experiencia.
INTRODUCTION
The issue of knowledge dissemination that underlies this experience connects directly to
the theme of technical syncretism in South American societies after the period of initial
contact. Several devices and production lines beneited from this period, during which autochthonous populations and newcomers became committed to cohabitation. It was a time
when the existent was adapted for new purposes, as in the case of the quimbalete, and
invention of new production techniques such as the use of quicksilver for silver production.
Figure 1.
Reverberatory
furnace, Vila Punku
(Santa-Isabel,
Bolivia).
282
The example of non-ferrous ore smelting process in reverberatory furnaces raises both
historiographical and technical questions. According to French (Brûlé, 1994), and English
authors (Tylecote, 1992), this production method appeared at the end of the 17th century in England before spreading throughout the rest of Europe. Nevertheless, the Treaty
of Biringuccio (Biringuccio, 1540) suggests that such a system was already functional
in the 16th century. But the description of the engravings show his ignorance of this
production mode. In contrast, Alonso Barba’s description of his passage in Lipez from
around 1620 (Carracido, 1911, p.355), includes an exact, faithful description of this type
of furnace (Barba, 1640). In parallel, our surveys in Bolivia allowed us to see the ubiquity
of this furnace, easy to locate in installations dating
from the 17th up to the 19th centuries, regardless of
the sulphurized ore handled at the site. One workshop in particular caught our attention because the
state of preservation of the 17th century structures
adduced an experimental reconstruction. That site
was Vila-Cueva-Punku (21°37’ 51.6”, 66°26’ 45.5” O)
at altitude 4328m, in the Santa-Isabel mining zone
in Lipez, where Barba held his irst parish post in
1624 (Figure 1). The very good state of preservation
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of the structure allowed us to
produce an accurate plan of the
structure. Our only uncertainty
regards the height of the chimney. This furnace had two important advantages. It separated the
source of heat from the ore to
be melted, thereby avoiding the
sometimes-fatal interactions between ore and fuel, and permitted
continuous operation. The second
advantage was the natural air
low, which economised operations reduced construction costs.
The experiences took place at the
Melle experimental precinct (see
http://www.mines-argent.com/
carte-interactive.html ) between
2010 and 2014. During that time
we carried out 9 functional experiences, the synthetic results of
which are presented below.
Figure 2. Plan of
experimental furnace
with location of
thermocouples.
Figure 3. Experiment
in progress (Melle,
july, 2014).
Many questions arose. How to
reach the temperatures necessary
for smelting ore (1000-1100°C)?
What is the utility of furnace openings which cap the dome? In what
form must the ore be loaded?
Does the furnace work continuously, or is it limited to a single one
per operation?
MATERIALS AND METHODS: A REVERBERATORY FURNACE MODEL
For technical and experimental reasons, the model recreated at Melle was a 1:3 scale reproduction of the archaeological structure observed in South Lipez (Figure 2). Smaller reverberatory furnaces found at other sites in Lipez provided evidence of the features of the
structure at a smaller scale. The dimensions of the furnace were 2.5m long (3.6m in the
original) and 1.3m wide (2.3m in the original). The furnace consisted of three spaces interconnected by small ducts 25 cm wide and 15cm high. The irst space was the ire chamber,
which consisted of two levels: the upper one containing the actual ire and a lower one, an
ash holder open to the outside to insure ventilation of the unit. Stony blades were arranged
on the interface between the two levels. Logs were inserted laterally through a 25x15cm
opening. The second space was the reverberatory room, set beneath a dome with an internal diameter of 0.75m and a height of 55cm. In the dome, a top opening of 40cm in diameter
permitted the cold ore to be fed in. It was closed for the beginning of stoking. Laterally, on
the axisw of the chambers, there was a door at the base of a casting hole (4cm in diameter).
Opposite this door we noted the presence of 3 windows. The fourth one was above the door.
All were 10x10cm. The loor was lat with a deliberate, set angle of 20° running towards the
casting hole. The chimney was 100cm high, with a conical shape and a base with an internal
diameter of 40cm.
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To check the temperature during operations, a series of 5 thermocouples
were located in the reverberatory
chamber in the following locations
(Figure 2).
Every thermocouple took up 1cm
in the atmosphere of the reverberatory chamber and recordings
were made every 15 minutes. In
parallel, occasional additional information was added to the
graph.
Figure 4. Thermal
data collected during
9 experiences (6
sensors each time).
Figure 5. Lead casting
(bottom, working
lead; middle, matte;
top, slag).
RESULTS OF EXPERIENCES
Recordings of 9 experiences conducted with galena (87 hours and
20 minutes of stoking), led to our
proposed operation model for this
kind of furnace (Figure 3). On the
basis of historical data, this furnace seems to have worked with
the “roasting and reacting” method, during only one stoking. The
aim is to desulfurize the ore in a
temperature range around 750°C
while the atmosphere is oxidizing,
then the temperature must rise
to 1050°C in passing to a reducing atmosphere. However, the reaction is complex and brings on reversible formations
of lead, lead oxide and lead sulfate.
The typical way to smelt in this kind of furnace is shown as follows (Figure 4). Before
heating, the ore is placed in the high part of the sole, forming a mass close to the base
of the three air vents. Hazelnut-sized ore seems to be the right sized grain. The temperature rises more or less quickly, depending on the degree of drying in the furnace.
We noted a mean time of 2 hours for all the thermocouples to pass a temperature of
700°C, which marks the beginning of the roasting phase. This stage is marked by the
appearance of white smoke and an obvious release of a sulphide odour. This phase is
maintained for at least two hours.
In our experience, we then increased the intensity of the ire is then increased by modifying the shape of fuel, changing from small logs to small wooden sticks. Two hours were
required to gain 250°C, to 1000°C in the reverberatory chamber. A irst lead casting can
occur at this moment by unblocking the front door casting hole. At the same time, the
lead reacts with the clay, producing vitreous black slag and vitriication on the furnace
walls. The temperature is maintained in the range of 1000°C for almost 3 hours, allowing
the accumulation of lead against the door. This irst cycle concluded the majority of our
experiences. During our inal attempt, we tried to reproduce the cycle. After the irst lead
casting, we reduced the temperature back to the “roasting range”. We then added galena
through three holes in the upper part of the sole. The cycle was reproduced, and once
again led to a lead casting. The same sequence was repeated once again before stopping
the experience.
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CONCLUSIONS
Through this series of experiences, we show that reverberatory furnaces worked effectively by “roasting and reacting”, producing working quality lead ready to be reined in
every cast. The lead accumulated cleanly. The slag equivalent of lead glass could also be
removed without disrupting the lead casting, covering the metal but easily removed when
cold. The experience also showed that this furnace can work with “roasting and reacting”
cycles during the same stoking. The know-how of the metallurgist is what matters here.
The irst cycle is relatively simple to master, but its reproduction, while the structure is hot,
is more delicate. In particular, maintaining a low temperature in the reverberatory chamber to permit desulfurization without melting the galena from the moment it is inserted is
particularly delicate. The generation of matte (liquid lead sulphide) in this process must
be avoided because it affects the whole load and the process cannot be resumed once it
builds up against the door. If this happens, it must then be poured and then split under cold
conditions before being returned to the furnace (Figure 5).
It is always dificult to estimate the yield. In our experiences, this one seems to be around
30% mass of the available lead. The rest of the metal is lost, partly in smoke and more so
during reactions with the furnace loor. The experimental slag glass compound was found
to be quite similar to the archaeological material (lead glass with around 70wt% Pb), but
not equivalent for the simple reason that we did not use the same ore as the ancient metallurgists in Santa-Isabel.
The experimental smelting non-ferrous ores in the reverberatory furnace allowed us to
characterize the operation of the various openings: three windows at the top of the sole
serve for reloading. Opening them during heating encouraged the production of an oxidizing atmosphere and a reduction in temperature. The fourth window above the door
permits visual checks on the level of the bath, which dictates the moment of pouring out.
Finally, the top opening is useful during the “cold” phases of repair and reloading.
Apart from the question of human endurance, there is no limit to the duration of the roasting - reaction cycles after every drainage of the reverberatory chamber.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was carried out as part of the French-Argentine program ECOS-Sud and the
Collective Project of Research “paléométallurgie expérimentale” (http://www.mines-argent.com/carte-interactive.html).
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REFERENCES
Barba, A. (1640). El arte de los metales. Madrid. 192 pp.
Biringuccio, V. (1990). De la Pirotechnia, 1540, réed., trans.
Stanley (C.S.) and Gnudi (M.T.), New-York. 477 pp.
Brulè, A. (1994). L’introduction en France du four à réverbère:
l’apport de l’analyse historique. In Mines et métallurgie. Edited
by Benoit, P. Les chemins de la recherche. 21. Lyon. 310 pp.
286
Carracido, J. R. (1911). Alvaro Alonso Barba. In Bulletin Hispanique. Tome 13, N°3. Pp. 352-360.
Tylecote, R. F. (1992). A history of metallurgy. 2nd ed. Institute of
materials. 205 pp.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
Technical and
technological
experimentation,
agriculture and
architecture
287
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
43
REPRODUCING CATO: EXPERIMENTAL
PREPARATION OF A SULPHUR MIXTURE
FOR VINICULTURE
Reproduciendo Cato: una preparacion
experimental de una mixtura de azufre
por vinicultura
Claudia Speciale*, Luca Zambito**
*PhD Student, Science of Cultural Heritage, University of Salento;
Piazza Verdi 29, Palermo, 90138.
claudiaspeciale@gmail.com
**PhD, Independent Researcher.
Via Sen. Sammartino 37/E, Cnicattì 92024.
lucazambito@libero.it
Abstract
Sulphur was one of the main raw materials to be traded in the Roman period. The high request had to encourage the production of the mineral industry of Agrigento. To have an approximate estimation of sulphur
need for a vineyard, we tried and reproduce Cato’s recipe of a sulphur mixture, used to defeat some insect attack. In Marcus Porcius Cato, De Agricultura, 95, written in 160 BC c., we can ind the exact recipe to produce
a mixture used on the grape plants to defeat an insect. As irst result, we can say that 8,5 liters of mixture (1
kg of sulphur) was enough for about 25-30 plants; we can evaluate that you need about 250 kgxhectare. It is
quite evident that the request of sulphur had to be very consistent, as much as the one of bitumen, especially
from the areas with the higher wine production.
Keywords: sulphur, viniculture, bitumen, Cato, Sicily.
Resumen
El azufre era una de las materias primas principales a ser negociadas en el período romano. La alta demanda tuvo que fomentar la producción de la industria minera de Agrigento. Para tener una estimación
aproximada de la necesidad de azufre para un viñedo, probamos y reproducimos la receta de Catòn de una
mezcla de azufre, usada para derrotar algún ataque de insectos. En Marcus Porcius Cato, De Agricultura, 95,
escrito en 160 a. C., podemos encontrar la receta exacta para producir una mezcla utilizada en las plantas
de uva para derrotar a un insecto. Como primer resultado, podemos decir que 8,5 litros de mezcla (1 kg de
azufre) fueron suicientes para alrededor de 25-30 plantas; podemos evaluar que necesitas alrededor de 250
kgxhectare. Es bastante evidente que la solicitud de azufre tenía que ser muy consistente, tanto como la del
betún, especialmente de las zonas con mayor producción de vino.
Palabras clave: azufre, vinicultura, betún, Catón, Sicilia.
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INTRODUCTION
Sulphur was undoubtedly one of the main raw materials to be traded in the Roman period.
However, despite its many and varied applications, there is little archaeological evidence
for its extraction and processing in Ancient world. Sulphur was one of the main ingredients
in several agricultural preparations. This is in addition to its use as a fumigant in the course
of religious ceremonies, the making of iring weapons (Figure 1) and in the fullonicae for
wool puriication. Its disinfectant and fungicidal properties made sulphur very adaptable
and highly requested in the country. Written sources of renaissance epoque testify that the
mineral was used in leather tanning. Its use for agricultural purposes has a long continuity
until nowadays. Even today barrels are disinfected before being re-used; especially during
the production periods of the grapevines, they’re sprayedwith sulphur powder against
parasites and downy mildew in particular.
The high request had to encourage the production of the mineral industry of Agrigento.
Sicily was the main sulphur-productor in Ancient times and – for the whole Roman times
- Agrigento’s area had the monopoly above all (Figure 2), but for a small productive area
in Latium and a secondone in Melos. The mineral, extracted through tunnels, was puriied
by self-combustion and exported until productive areas where it was inally used. Even in
contemporary history, its use for soda production and agriculture induced a strong request
since the middle 800s; the beginning of the big extractive industry in Sicily left a mark for a
century on the landscape, the economy and the social history of this long period.
AIMS
Aim of this experience is to try and evaluate the volumes generated by sulphur request in
viticulture during Roman times. We tried and reproduce Cato’s recipe of a sulphur mixture,
used to defeat some insect attack, in order to have an approximate estimation of sulphur
need for a vineyard.
DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE
Cato and its description
In Marcus Porcius Cato, De Agricultura, 95, written in 160 BC c., we can ind the exact
recipe to produce a mixture used on the grape plants to defeat an insect.
Convolvolus in vinia ne sit. Amurcam condito, puram bene facito, in vasum heneum indito
congios II. Postea igni leni coquito, rudicula agitato crebro usque adeo, dum iat tam crassum
quam mel. Postea sumito bituminis tertiarium et sulpuris quartarium. Conterito in mortario
Figure 1. Sulphur
trigger cannon.
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seorsum utrumque. Postea infriato quam minutissime in amurcam caldam
et simul rudicula misceto et denuo coquito sub dio caelo. Nam si in tecto
coquas, cum bitumen et sulpur additum est, excandescet. Ubi erit tam
crassum quam viscum, sinito frigescat. Hoc vitem circum caput et sub
brachia unguito; convolvus non nascetur.
<< To keep caterpillars off the vines: strain stored amurca and pour
2 congii into a copper vessel; heat over a gentle ire, stirring constantly
with a stick until it reaches the consistency of honey. Take one-third
sextarius of bitumen, and one-fourth sextarius of sulphur, pulverize each
in a mortar separately, and add in very small quantities to the warm amurca, at the same
time stirring with a stick, and let it boil again in the open; for if you boil it under cover it
will blaze up when the mixture of bitumen and sulphur is added. When it reaches the
consistency of glue let it cool. Apply this around the trunk and under the branches, and
caterpillars will not appear>>.
Figure 2. Tegula
sulphuris ANNIORUM.
Agrigento. Museum
P. Griffo.
Cato is also mentioned in Plinius, Naturalis Historia, XVII, 47, 264 (About this topic, it’s
interesting to observe that Pliny doesn’t write about agricultural uses when referring
to sulphur in his 35th book; however, when he describes vineyard agriculture he does
mentions sulphur):
Ne convolvolus iat in vinea, amurcae congios duos decoqui in crassitudinem mellis, rursusque
cum bituminis tertia parte et sulpuris quarta sub diu coqui, quoniam exardescat sub tecto.
hocvites circa capita ac sub bracchiis ungui; ita non fore convolvolum. Quidam contenti sunt
fumo huius mixturae sufire vineas secundo latu continuo triduo.
<< In a similar manner to prevent a vine from breeding leaf-rolling caterpillar he advises
boiling down two gallons of lees of olive-oil to the thickness of honey, and boiling it
again mixed with a third part of bitumen and a fourth part of sulphur, this second boiling
being done in the open air because the mixture may catch ire indoors; and he says this
preparation is to be smeared round the bases and under the arms of the vines, and that
will prevent caterpillar. Some growers are content with submitting the vines for three days
on end to the smoke from this concoction boiled to the windward of them>>.
Convolvolus
Interpretation of the word ‘convolvolus’, the insect- to ight, is not unambiguous: it could
be any kind of grape leaf folders with their caterpillars; or something (a phytofagus insect,
leaf-eater) similar to the well-known phylloxera (coming from North America in the 19th
c.) or even a fungal disease (for example the Anthracose, that Teophrastus describes);
inally, it could be also a coleopteron such as Byctiscus betulae, an insect that involves?
into a leaf. And unfortunately, we don’t have any information from the ancient sources
about convolvulus seasonality, and then if there were speciic moment of the year to protect
the plants.The Greek sources mention it as ka/nphn or i)/c. Theophrastus speaks about
it as well and whose destructive action is exorcised in late Antique agrarian epigraphs
(Beavis, 1988).
Amurca
Sludge (amurca) is a derivative of olive oil processing, used as a substitute of more noble
greases. Using the sludge, wood was greased and storing vases were sealed. Plinius,
Naturalis Historia, XV, 9: “amurca is a olive bitter juice: it is derived from water and then
it’s scarce in case of drought, abundant in case of moisture”. Columella, XII, 52, 4-6 says“
sludge, actually, is a terrible enemy of oil and if it lasts in the berries can waste oil’s lavour
[…]. In the part where sludge lows, under the ducts, it’s important that the pavement is
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Figure 3. A. Bonura
Cave (Cattolica
Eraclea, Ag), bitumen
outcrops; B-C.
Processing of Cato’s
recipe; D. Application
on vinegrapes with
a brush; E. Roman
cultivation system,
according Columella
(Photo M. Indelicato).
concave to create many small pools, or that a logline is made for the collection of the
liquid. Furthermore, it’s necessary to have some vats to collect all the sludge in two
different qualities: the pure one and the salted one, useful for different purposes” (Other
sources are Cato, De Agricultura, 67, 2 on oil settling and Varro, Rerum rusticarum, I, 64 on
sludge working).
Bitumen
In addition to sulphur, bitumen is a second ingredient for the mixture against convolvolus,
probably as an excipient to give the consistence of glue; sources speak about it, as easily
collectable in campi agrigentini, next to the old city. The fact that it is associated to sulphur,
also for other applications as well, give space to the hypothesis that there was a parallel
commerce of bitumen.
It is a natural mixture of hydrocarbons, naturally solid or semi-solid. Plinius, XXXV, 179:
“gignitur et pingue oleique liquoris in Sicilia …”. Bitumen is frequently associated to sulphur
for veterinary preparation as excipient. Another ield where this important resource was
used is boats’ waterprooing and caulking. Solinus and Plinius testify its presence near
Agrigento and explain how to collect it using reed inlorescences.
The vineyard
Columella,V, 3 gives a detailed description on how to lay out a vineyard. As an advocate
of intensive cultivation, he suggests that vines need to be planted at a distance of 5 feet
from each other within the row and 5 feet between each row (Figure 3E). Then, on a
1200x120- square feet plot, 6025 grapevines should be planted; or 4221 if the distance
is 6 feet. Evidence for such an intensive system of cultivation comes from archaeological
excavations of urban vineyards of Pompei (Regio II, Insula V).
THE EXPERIMENT
Following Cato’s recipe, if we consider congius as basic unit of measurement, we obtained
about 8 liters and a half of mixture. As irst attempt, we decided to obtain only a quarter
of it, easier to prepare and to manage. Bitumen can be found in several Mediterranean
sites. We collected bitumen in two sites at about 30 km from Agrigento. First One is
Grotta Bonura, a karst cave in the “gessoso-solifero” deposit, about 3 km north east from
Cattolica Eraclea (Figure 3A). In an area signiicantly called Valanghe dell’Oglio (literally
“avalanche of oil”) we found bitumen. The other site we went to is Madonna dell’Olio, in
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the territory of Bivona where there is an outcropping of bitumen. During the collection
process, we noticed that the amount of the hydrocarbon increases during the summer,
when the creek is dry and bitumen is not trailed by water; this hypothesis was conirmed
by the peasants who live there and let us think about a speciic gathering season.
We made everything open-air, as Cato recommends, because of the unhealthiness of the
smoke and the explosive potential of the mixture (Figure 3B). We took 1,5 l of Olive oil
mixed to sludge (oil deposit) and cooked it on ire in a metal pot for about one hour and a
half; then we added about 200 ml of sulphur powder and 250 ml of natural bitumen; after
another hour and a half, the mixture reached the consistence of glue, as Cato prescribed
(Figure 3C). Letting it cool for about two hours (external temperature 18°, quite windy), it
was ready to be used.
RESULTS
We didn’t calculate the inal amount, but it was less than 1 liter (the heaviest part of bitumen
was at the bottom of the pot).The mixture was enough to be spread on the branches of 6
plants of a modern vineyard, each one with 4 branches of 60-70 cm (Figure 3D). We used
a homemade palm brush.
PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS
As irst result, we can say that 8,5 liters of mixture (1 kg of sulphur) was enough for
about 25-30 plants; we can evaluate that you need about 250 kgxhectare. Not accounting
for all the quantiiable (humidity, ambient temperature) and unquantiiable parameters
(the approximation- what do you mean by that? of every peasant in the making of the
mixture, the ability of the spreader, etc.), we can’t nevertheless ignore other parameters
that affected this irst attempt; these must be fully evaluated in order to arrive at a more
reliable estimate of the sulphur amounts required. These can be outlined as follows:
- The “interpretation” of the measures, as we considered everything in proportion to the
congius.
- The repetition of the application (Only once? Only when the peasant noticed the disease?
Once per year? More than once per year?).
- Different ways of cultivation and pruning, depending on the plant, the agricultural
traditions, the latitude, etc.
- The vineyard density (how many plants in one area?).
- The possible misinterpretation of the spreading method (it is not totally clear if the trunk
had to be oiled as well, even if it looks unlikely); how can we interpret Cato’s phrase
«hoc vitem circum caput et sub brachia unguito».
It is anyhow quite evident that the request of sulphur had to be very consistent, as
much as the one of bitumen, especially from the areas with the higher wine production.
Archaeological evidences cannot conirm this frame reconstruction so far. The catchment
process was complicated as the geographical areas that have bitumen and sulphur are
very restricted. Seasonal aspects have to be considered, as dry periods were probably
more favourable for the collection. Even if since the III c. BC sulphur was used, it is only
from the I c. AD on, that productive areas were reassigned and progressively moved to
Gaul, then probably the request of the mineral increased exponentially.
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REFERENCES
Salmeri, G. (1992). Miniere di zolfo in Sicilia ed in Grecia in età
imperiale. In: Idem, Sicilia romana. Storia e storiograia. Catania,
Italia. Pp. 29-43.
294
Zambito, L. (2014). Produzione e commercio dello zolfo ad
Agrigentum e nel suo territorio. In: Le opere e i giorni. Lavoro
produzione e commercio dall›antichità ai nostri giorni. Edited by V.
Caminneci. Agrigento, Italia. Pp. 225-246.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
44
ARCHITECTURAL AND AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENTATION (2012-2013) AT THE
EXPERIMENTAL CAMP OF PROTOHISTORY
(CEP) (VERDÚ, URGELL, CATALONIA)
Proyecto de arqueología experimental
(2012-2013) en el Campo Experimental de la
Protohistoria (CEP) (Verdú, Urgell, Cataluña)
Ramon Cardona Colell*, Borja Gil Limón*, Jordi Morer de
Llorens**, David Asensio Vilaró**, Josep Pou Vallès***
*Centre d’Estudis Lacetans, Plaça Palau 1, 25280 Solsona. Catalonia.
rcardona@xtec.cat
b.gil.limon@gmail.com
**Món Iber ROCS, SL. C/Santa Anna 25, 08800 Vilanova i la Geltrú, Catalonia.
jmorerdellorens@gmail.com
david.asensiovilaro@gmail.com
***Universitat de Lleida. Plaça de Víctor Siurana, 1, 25003 Lleida. Catalonia.
jpou@historia.udl.cat
Abstract
The experimental project consisted of reconstructing Houses 15 and 16 of the Iron Age Iberian Culture settlement of Estinclells. This required building a section of the settlement rampart before raising the walls of
the two houses leaning against it. The foundation was built with stones recovered from the demolition levels
of the Iberian village. Adobe bricks identical to those observed in the excavation were then fashioned. Anthracological analyses of archaeological remains indicate the type of wood beams serving for the roofs. Other
organic features of the roof’s construction were identiied by imprints in hardened clay. Since the Iron Age
site was destroyed by a ire, analyses generously undertaken by ire ighters of the Generalitat de Catalunya
(laboratori del foc) served to deine the internal spatial organisation.
Finds in Houses 15 and 16 suggest the feature served as a wine press and possibly an oil press. Furthermore,
carpological analyses bolster this notion by identifying a large amount of traces of vitis vinifera. Comparisons
with features from other excavations interpreted as oil presses suggest that the structures served for the
production of both wine and oil. The original elements of these structures were reconstructed with stone and
some experimentation was conducted as to their function.
Keywords: reconstruction, architecture, ethnography, anthracology, carpology.
Resumen
El proyecto de arquitectura experimental ha llevado a término la construcción de los recintos 15 y 16 del
poblado de Estinclells. Para ello se ha replicado el tramo de muralla y los cimientos de ambos recintos con
piedras procedentes de los niveles de derribo del poblado y se han elaborado los adobes de tierra con las
mismas medidas que los originales recuperados durante las excavaciones arqueológicas. A partir de los
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análisis antracológicos se ha podido establecer el tipo de madera usada en las techumbres. Otros elementos
vegetales se han podido determinar por las improntas dejadas por éstos en las arcillas que formaban las
cubiertas. Con todos estos datos se ha realizado la construcción de ambos recintos. Al tratarse de espacios
que sufrieron un incendio, el análisis realizado por el laboratori del foc de los bomberos de la Generalitat de
Catalunya ha ayudado a interpretar la compartimentación interna de éstos.
En los recintos 15 y 16 del poblado de Estinclells se identiicaron unas estructuras que permiten pensar que
se trata de un espacio de prensado de uva y, posiblemente, obtención de aceite. Los análisis carpológicos
conirman la presencia de vitis vinifera en gran cantidad. Por otro lado, los paralelismos con espacios interpretados como almazaras nos inclinan a pensar que la instalación fue usada para la obtención de vino y
aceite. Se han reproducido los elementos originales en piedra y se ha experimentado sobre la funcionalidad
de la instalación. Los resultados de esta experimentación se presentan en este congreso.
Palabras clave: reconstrucción, arquitectura, etnografía, antracología, carpología.
INTRODUCTION
The excellent state of preservation of the stone and the adobe features of the Iberian Culture
settlement of Estinclells combined with modern excavation techniques and analyses has
resulted in data allowing reconstruction of some of the site’s architectural features. In
addition, certain inds were subject to analyses so as to determine their composition,
density and other characteristics that have been useful for the experimentation.
PREVIOUS CONSIDERATIONS
Although the data gathered during the excavation is behind a large part of this project,
they did not always offer solutions to the problems confronted during the reconstruction.
Solutions to certain issues were solved by consulting the indings from other similar
archaeological sites or, in the case of certain construction dynamics, turning to recent
ethnographic data (April 2008, December 2009 and February 2011) collected in the Atlas,
Anti-Atlas and the Maghreb Rif Mountain ranges of North Africa where constructions are
raised with materials similar to those of Estinclells.
RECONSTRUCTION PROCESSES
The architectural experimentation undertaken throughout 2012-2013 focused on
reconstruction of Houses 15 and 16 (Figure 1) leaning against the settlement rampart.
Due to the features they contain (Figure 2), the houses are interpreted as a workshops for
wine and oil production. The season also saw the beginning of the reconstruction of House
1. Yet this work was limited to laying its stone foundation.
The irst step of the reconstruction process was the manufacture the building materials,
notably the 4,000 adobe bricks of which 2,500 served for the rampart and 1,500 for the
houses. This consisted of a mixture of clay, water and straw placed in wooden moulds and
dried them in the sun (Figure 3). Their dimensions (40 x 20 x 15 cm) are consistent with
those observed during the excavation.
The brick manufacture was followed by laying the stone foundations of the houses. The
function of the foundations was twofold: to strengthen the structure and to isolate the
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Figure 1. Aerial view of the Experimental
Camp of Protohistory (CEP) with reconstructed
Houses 15 and 16 leaning against a
reconstructed segment of the rampart. To
the left of the reconstructions is the stone
foundation of House 1. In the background is the
Iberian Culture archaeological site.
Figure 2. View of Houses 15 and 16 during the
excavation. The features discovered in these
houses indicate the presence of a workshop for
wine and oil production.
Figure 3. Adobe bricks drying in the sun beside
the reconstruction of Houses 15 and 16.
Figure 4. Reconstruction of the walls leaning
against the rampart segment. The foundation
of the wall is of stone while the elevation is of
abode.
Figure 5. Oak beams placed in sockets for the
roof of Houses 15 and 16.
Figure 6. Interlacing of branches
on the roof beams.
bricks from the moisture of the soil. The main parameters taken into account in these
reconstructions are the dimensions and the orientations of the original Iberian Culture
houses.
Following the order of construction as that of the Iron Age settlement, the irst reconstruction
was the rampart segment which served to connect the walls of the two houses. This
rampart segment measures 20 m in length and between 1 to 1.5 m thick. As in the case of
the original Iberian feature, larger stones were chosen to assure its sturdiness.
Once the rampart segment was constructed, work turned to the foundations of the
houses, 40 cm wide, attached perpendicularly to the rampart. The foundations consisted
of limestones bound with clay. This was followed by raising the brick walls of the houses
(Figure 4). The bricks were staggered, a technique assuring more stability. As in the case
of the foundation, clay served to bond the bricks.
An essential process after raising the walls was coating their internal and external surfaces
with clay and straw to insulate them from moisture. It is worth noting that we did not raise
a wall separating the two houses. This is due to observations of the ire level carried out by
the Fire Fireighters of Reus indicating that the houses were not separate and must have
shared a passage.
The next step in the reconstruction was building the roof. Oak beams were chosen to
support the structure as 90% of the samples of carbonised wood collected during the
excavation were of this species. The wood was brought from France because oak is a
protected species in Spain. The beams were set in sockets into the adobe wall at intervals
of about 50 cm (Figure 5). The gaps between the beams were illed with interwoven
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Figure 7. Reeds placed over the branches for the roof.
Figure 8. Aerial view of the reconstruction of Houses 15 and 16. The roof
and walls are lined with clay to assure impermeability.
Figure 9. Replica of the wine press.
Figure 10. Replica of the pit interpreted as a wine basin to ferment grapes.
branches and reeds (Figure 6). This roof technique was conirmed by hardened clay inds
bearing imprints of branches and reeds. The reeds (Figure 7) are of a variety (Imperata
cylindrica) that still exists in the area and are popularly known as “Xisca”.
The inal coat of clay on the roof took place once the reed framework was in place (Figure
8). The clay to waterproof the roof was collected regionally at deposits known for their iner
content. Despite the lack of analyses of roof fragments recovered in the archaeological
excavations, it is logical to assume that clay deposits near the site served as sources of
construction material for the settlement. To prevent cracking, the clay was mixed with
straw. Two layers were applied to the roof. The irst was to regularise the surface while the
a second was meant to waterproof and drain the rainwater to a speciic point.
Reconstruction was not limited strictly to the architecture. The two features under the
roof brought to light in the excavation were also reconstructed. The irst is a stone press
serving for wine or oil production (Figure 9) while the second (Figure 10) is a deep basin
where the product of the press was collected.
CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
Adobe architecture is used throughout the world today by about 30% of the earth’s
population (Sánchez, 1996). Ethnology and architecture (Mimó, 1996; Guidoni, 1989) are
therefore potential sources for experimental archaeology. Despite the problems and
reluctance inherent to comparing archaeological and ethnographic data, at least in the
ield of adobe architecture, the current collaboration - yet to be fully exploited - has proven
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to be fruitful. Thus, as numerous adobe construction techniques from the pre-Roman
period are still in use today (kneading, brick making, mud walls, etc ...), it is logical to resort
to ethnological comparisons. In fact, ethnology in this speciic context is a methodological
tool of irst order that provides important documentation to the technical operations that
result in material evidence similar to that of the archaeological record (Morer, 2005).
Future experimental work at Houses 15 and 16 will focus on experimenting with the
different features of the workshop such as the replicas of the stone press, the channel
cut through the loor attaining the basin where the product was collected, the oak lever
applying the pressure to the press, as well as study the function of the wine vat. We plan
to multiply experiments of both the wine and oil press to attempt to understand how they
functioned.
Regarding the houses, future work will tackle the problem of indoor humidity, observing the
state of the roof and walls over time, in particular the resistance of their outer coatings and
roof to harsh climatic conditions. We also contemplate ultimately setting the reconstructed
house on ire to attempt to compare the archaeological and experimental data.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was assisted of the following projects: 2011ACUP00230, and HAR2012-36877.
English translation by Timothy J. Anderson.
REFERENCES
Asensio, D. Cardona, R., Ferrer, C., Morer, J., Pou, J., Saula,
O. (2003). El jaciment ibèric dels Estinclells (Verdú, Urgell):
un assentament fortiicat ilerget del segle III aC, Revista
d’Arqueologia de Ponent, 13, 223-236.
Cherradi, F.. (1993). Architecture vernaculaire des oasis du
sud du Maroc. Vallée du Draa. Memòria mecanograiada. École
d’Architecture de Normandie.
Guidoni, E. (1989). Arquitectura primitiva. Aguilar. Madrid.
Asensio, D., Cardona, R., Ferrer, C., García, C., Morer, J., Pou, J.,
Saula, O. (2009). L’arquitectura domèstica en el nucli fortiicat
ilergeta del Estinclells (Verdú, Urgell) segle III aC. In L’espai
domèstic i l’organització de la societat a la protohistòria de la
mediterrània occidental (Ier Mil·leni aC). Actes de la IV Reunió
Internacional d’Arqueologia de Calafell. (Calafell, 6 al 9 de març de
2007). Arqueomediterrània. 11, 125-142.
Asensio, D. Cardona, R., Ferrer, C., Morer, J., Pou, J., Saula, O.,
García, C. (2010). Una Almàssera del segle III aC dins del nucli
ibèric dels Estinclells (Verdú, Urgell). Urtx. 24, 55-76.
Mimó, R. (1996). Fortalezas de barro en el sur de Marruecos.
Compañía literaria SL. Madrid.
Morer de Llorens, J. (2005). La construcció amb terra en època
ibèrica, L’arquitectura de Terra. 6é curset d’estiu d’arquitectura
popular. Amics de l’Arquitectura popular. Barcelona.
Sánchez, A. (1996). La problemática de las construcciones con
tierra en la prehistoria y en la protohistoria peninsular. Estado
de la cuestión. Actas del XXIII C.N.A. Elche. Pp. 349-358.
Belarte, C., Morer, J. (2005). Estudi dels materials constructius
elaborats amb terra del jaciment dels Estinclells Campanyes 20002004 (unpublished).
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45
L’ESQUERDA, ARCHAEOLOGICAL
EXPERIMENTS IN MEDIEVAL
AND ANCIENT BUILDING TECHNIQUES
L’Esquerda, Experimentación arqueológica
en técnicas de construcción de época
antigua y medieval
Imma Ollich-Castanyer* ***, Montserrat de Rocaiguera** ***,
Joan-Albert Adell***, David Serrat *** ****, Maria Ocaña** ***,
Oriol Amblàs** ***, Carme Cubero ** ***
*Departament d’Història i Arqueologia, secció Història Medieval, Universitat de Barcelona.
imma.ollich@ub.edu
**Fundació Privada l’Esquerda-Museu Arqueològic de l’Esquerda.
m.a.esquerda@rodadeter.cat
***Grup de Recerca d’Arqueologia Medieval i Postmedieval (GRAMP-UB),
Universitat de Barcelona
****Departament de Dinàmica de la Terra i de l’Oceà, Universitat de Barcelona.
david.serrat@ub.edu
Abstract
This paper presents some experiments on ancient building techniques made recently in the AREA of l’Esquerda: the medieval granary, the silos, the smithy and forge, the hay-stacks. However, the main target here
is to present the new project that we are working on: the experimental building of a wooden watchtower
dated at late 8th. century AD, following the probably Carolingian patterns founded through archaeological
remains and medieval iconography. All these projects have been funded by the Dirección General de Investigación Cientíica y Técnica (DGICYT) of the Spanish Ministry of Culture.
Keywords: experimental archaeology, Carolingian period, ancient building techniques.
Resumen
El presente artículo contiene un resumen de los experimentos sobre construcción realizados recientemente
en el AREA de l’Esquerda: el granero medieval, los silos, la herrería, los pajares. Pero el objetivo principal es
la presentación del nuevo proyecto, la construcción experimental de una torre de vigía de madera de inales
del siglo VIII dC, siguiendo los posibles modelos de época carolingia rastreados a partir de los vestigios arqueológicos y la iconografía medieval. Todos los proyectos han sido inanciados por la Dirección General de
Investigación Cientíica y Técnica (DGICYT) del Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia (MEC).
Palabras clave: arqueología experimental, carolingios, construcción, técnicas antiguas.
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THE EXPERIMENTAL AREA of L’ESQUERDA
The Experimental AREA is a zone of about 3.500 m2 next to the Iberian and medieval site
of l’Esquerda (Roda de Ter, Catalonia), completely devoted to experiment and to verify
hypotheses from the data obtained during the archaeological research. There are some
little ields where ancient cereals and other vegetable species are planted to experiment
with ancient agriculture, and some places for experiments with ancient construction. All
this began with the discovery in 1985-1986 of a medieval granary that was burned full of
seeds, in the late 13th. Century AD. The palaeocarpological identiication of these ancient
seeds allow us to know a lot of details on ancient agriculture. So in 1990, we began a longterm project with Dr. Peter J. Reynolds, director of Butser Ancient Farm in England. He
helped us to obtain the irst ancient seeds to plant and with other experimental projects
like earthworks, construction, metalwork and ethnoarchaeology. Here we will explain
only the construction experiments, and the current project: the building of a wooden
Carolingian watchtower.
Figure 1. Experimental granary at l’Esquerda. Building the stone base of
the structure.
Figure 3. The medieval granary reproduced in the AREA,
with a haystack in front of it.
Figure 2. The walls made by stone and clay, and wood timbers
for the roof.
Figure 4. Dr. Peter J. Reynolds building
a wooden fence at l’Esquerda.
NATURAL RESOURCES AND BUILDING MATERIALS
The materials we use in the experiments must fullil two conditions: they must have been
documented at the site during the archaeological excavation; and they must be natural
materials from the neighbourhood of the site. Therefore, the natural resources are very
signiicant in all the processes: the kind of soil, stone, wood, plants, even metals, must be
carefully selected for every experiment we want to do.
Another critical aim of the project is to understand the techniques that were used in medieval
and ancient times. For this matter iconographical and historical sources are most useful.
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BUILDING EXPERIMENTS
IN STONE, WOOD AND CLAY
In the AREA of L’Esquerda we have
ready carried on some building experiments about agriculture and
storage, like a granary, some underground silos, two earthworks,
a fence and three haystacks (projects MEC-DGICYT PB 90-0430 and
PB94-0842).
al-
Figure 6. Archaeological remains carved in the
bare rock at l’Esquerda.
In 1995-1998 an experimental granawas built in the area, replicating
the one found on the site. We used
local materials: the stones for the
basis of the wall came from the
site itself, and clay and wood were
also obtained from the neighborhood (Figure 1 and 2).
ry
Figure 5. Experimental forge for iron at l’Esquerda.
Figure 7. Post-holes at l’Esquerda.
A haystack was built later in front
of the granary, using a 3 meters long wooden log in a hole and stacking the straw all
around it. Once disappeared by ire or time, the only remaining part of this structure will
be a post-hole in the soil (Figure 3).
We built also subterranean silos, to store seeds or grain. When opening, we can see how
much the seed had been conserved and for how much time it is useful to saw again, or if
it can be used only just for eating.
A wooden fence was constructed near the granary, as was usual in medieval times: it was
built with some young very lexible hazel shoots. These branches can be used also into a
house to construct walls or even, covered with a thin layer of plaster, some containers to
keep the grain, as we did into the experimental granary (Figure 4).
Another experimental project was on medieval metallurgy, as we have found a medieval
smithy’s with a forge and a kiln at the site. So, between 2005-2011 (Projects MEC-DGICYT
HUM2004-5280/HIST and HAR2008-00871) we experimented about medieval technology.
The forge is very simple, made with only some stones on the soil all around a little ire,
feed by a manual air pump. The kiln was made with clay, and it can melt copper and other
metals (Figure 5).
THE NEW RESEARCH PROJECT: THE EXPERIMENTAL BUILDING OF
A CAROLINGIAN WOODEN TOWER
Precedents: Archaeological Data and Iconography
The main objective of the project MEC-DGICYT HAR2012-36497 (2013-2015) is to
construct a wooden watchtower, like it probably was in Carolingian times. The
archaeological remains at l’Esquerda provide us some data about this, and so do its
neighborhood along the river Ter: mostly are negative evidences, like post-holes and
marks carved in the rock. In this particular instance, at l’Esquerda there are some
spaces worked in the bare rock conforming a diameter of near 5 squared meters
(Figure 6).
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Although archaeological data are very dificult to
perform, as we only have post-holes or some marks
in the bare rock, with no other remains at all, we can
imagine what kind of structure was built there. And,
if we think there was a wooden-watch tower, how can
we know its shape, its height and other details of
its structure? Here the role of etnoarchaeology and
iconography is critical and can be used to know how
the ancient wooden buildings that are completely
disappeared were (Figure 7).
Figure 8. A wooden
tower in the Bible of
Sant Pere de Rodes,
Catalonia.
Figure 9. Wooden watchtower
building. Hypothesis A, by
P.J. Reynolds and the team of
l’Esquerda.
To design our project we have used the Trajan’s
Column in Rome (1st. Century AD), and some
drawings in the Bible of Sant Pere de Rodes from 9th
Century AD. In the irst case, carved in bas-relief in
the stone, we can see a tower of two loors, with a roof
and a balcony around the irst loor, and a fence that
protect all the structure. This is the kind of wooden
towers that Romans constructed on the river Danube
to control the north of the limes in 1st. century AD.
They could be the precedent of Carolingian towers
that will be constructed some centuries later by
Franks.
The second model, drawn on a medieval parchment,
shows a wooden tower constructed in two plains
without roof. This is the simplest pattern used by
Carolingians in 8th.Century AD to watch and control
and to advance their frontier area (Figure 8).
Some building hypothesis
In 2000 Peter J. Reynolds made the irst hypothesis
about how the Carolingian wooden tower at
l’Esquerda could have been constructed. This could
have been a round tower of only one loor, about 5
meters high, built on some logs or wooden-posts put
into the post-holes carved in the bare rock. Reynolds
followed the works done by Manuel Riu in some sites
of Catalonia (Riu, 1962) (Figure 9).
Figure 10. Wooden
watchtower building.
Hypothesis B, by J.-A.
Adell and the team of
l’Esquerda.
In the present project, we have reviewed all the ancient data, and we have added the latest
archaeological inds made at the site. Following also iconographical data, the hypothesis
we present now here is not a round tower, but a squared tower built in a round basis
on the bare rock. These drawings show, in plant and section, how a Carolingian wooden
watchtower in the frontier of Marca Hispanica could have been like, with and without roof.
Our proposal is to build a life size wooden tower, using a construction’s system based in
Carolingian measures (1 foot: 30 cm). We will use wooden logs shaped both 8 Carolingian
feet (2,40 m) and 4 Carolingian feet (1,20 m). First, we will prepare a round or half-round
base of 16 feet (4,80 m) diameter, carved in the bare rock (1 foot high), to hold around the
squared wooden-base into it (7 x 7 feet). On this base the logs will be placed in horizontal
line one upon each other until 2 loors high, with 8 feet per loor. So, we have a high of
16 feet (4,80 m), and with an upper protection fence of 4 feet the complete tower’s high
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is 20 feet or 6 meters. After this a wooden fence of 4 feet all around the tower will be
constructed (Figure 10).
DISCUSSION
Here are some points to discuss, that we expect the next construction of the tower will
clarify:
- To construct this kind of tower no specialists would be needed. The Carolingian army
could have done it themselves, felling neighbouring trees and cutting logs in modules (8
feet, 4 feet) to be easily carried/logged.
- Any kind of local species of wood can be used (Pinus sp., Ulmus minor, Fagus sylvatica).
- The logs must not be put into the rock, only the base’s squared structure, so we do not
spend a lot of time making a lot of post-holes. This system leaves only few archaeological
remains (just like in the original excavations?).
- The upped carved rock of the base provides no water in it and protects wood from
humidity.
Once the wooden watchtower will be constructed, we could compare and check all the
data obtained and could begin the empirical veriication of the building.
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REFERENCES
Adell, J. A. (1982). Notes per a l’estudi de la tecnologia constructiva
de l’hàbitat en el poblament medieval de l’Esquerda. Ausa. 10 (102104). 345-352.
Amblàs, O.; Molera, J.; Ollich, I. (2008). Estudio
arqueometalúrgico: la herrería medieval de l’Esquerda,
siglos XII-XIII dC (Roda de Ter, Catalunya). VII Congreso Ibérico
de Arqueometría, Madrid, 8-10 octubre 2007. Actas CSIC-S3:
Metales. Pp. 500-509.
Cubero, C.; Ollich, I. (2008). La madera y las ibras vegetales
en la vida cotidiana medieval. El ejemplo de la habitación 34
de l’Esquerda (Masies de Roda-Roda de Ter, Barcelona). VII
Congreso Ibérico de Arqueometría, Madrid, 8-10 octubre 2007.
Actas CSIC-S1: Biomateriales. Pp. 180-189.
Ollich, I.; Reynolds, P.J.; Rocaiguera, M. (1993). L’Earthwork de
l’Esquerda. Un experiment sobre processos de formació. Procesos
Postdeposicionales. Arqueología Espacial, 16-17, 341-352.
Ollich, I.; Ocaña, M.; Rocaiguera,M.;
Experimentació arqueológica sobre
l’Esquerda, 1991-1994. Monograies
i Postmedieval, 3. Universitat de
Pp. 1-234.
Reynolds, P.J. (1998).
conreus medieval a
d’Arqueologia Medieval
Barcelona. Barcelona.
Ollich, I.; Rocaiguera, M.; Ocaña, M.; Cubero, C.; Amblàs, O.
(2012). Experimental Archaeology at L’Esquerda. Crops, Storage,
Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times. In
Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques. Edited
by Ollich-Castanyer, I. InTech, University of Rijeka (Croatia). Pp.
205-228.
Ollich, I.; Rocaiguera, M.; Ocaña, M.; Cubero, C. (2013).
L’Esquerda, 20 anys de conreu experimental. Actes Congrés
EXPERIMENTA (Banyoles 17-19 octubre 2011) a: Experimentación
en arqueología. Estudio y difusión del pasado. Edited by
A. Palomo, R. Piqué y X. Terradas. Sèrie Monogràica
del MAC-Girona. 25(2). Girona 2013. Pp. 347-354.
Ollich, I.; Rocaiguera, M.; Amblàs, O.; Pratdesaba, A.; Pujol,
MA.; Robles, D. (2013). La muralla de Roda Ciutat. Visigots i
carolingis al jaciment de l’Esquerda. Departament de Cultura,
Generalitat de Catalunya. Tribuna d’Arqueologia 2012-2013.
Ollich, I.; Rocaiguera, M.; Serrat, D. (2014). The Origins of
Experimental Archaeology in Catalonia. The Experimental Area
of l’Esquerda. In Experiments Past: Histories of Experimental
Archaeology. Edited by R. Paarderkooper. Sidestone Press.
2321. KA Leiden (Netherlands). Pp. 205-214.
Ollich, I.; Rocaiguera, M.; Ocaña, M. (2015). The Southern
Carolingian Frontier in Marca Hispanica along the river
Ter: Roda Civitas and the archaeological site of l’Esquerda
(Catalonia). In Defended Communities: Fortiied Settlements of
the 8th-10th Centuries (International Mediaeval Congress, Leeds,
UK, july 1st-4th 2013). Oxbow Publishers, Oxford, UK.
Reynolds, P.J. (1988). Arqueologia Experimental. Una
perspectiva de futur. Eumo Editorial. Vic. Referències, 4.
Pp. 1-229.
Reynolds, P.J. (1997). Comparative cereal yields from Catalonia
and Britain. The result of experimental probability trials. Acta
Historica et Archaeologica Mediaevalia. Universitat de Barcelona.
Pp. 495-507.
Riu, M. (1962). Probables huellas de los primeros castillos de
la Cataluña Carolingia. Barcelona. Revista San Jorge. 47, 34-39.
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46
LOOKING FOR A SCIENTIFIC PROTOCOL IN
PREHISTORIC DAUB EXPERIMENTAL PROJECT
Buscando un protocolo cientíico para un
proyecto internacional de barro prehistórico
Alessandro Peinetti*, Giorgia Aprile**, Kati Caruso***,
Claudia Speciale****
*UMR 5140, Archéologie des Sociétés Méditerranéennes (Université Montpellier 3, CNRS,
MCC); Labex ARCHIMEDE (ANR-11-LABX-0032-01); Università di Bologna.
alessandro.peinetti@gmail.com
**Dipartimento di Beni Culturali. Università del Salento. via Birago 64.
giorgiaprile@gmail.com
***Indipendent researcher. Via F. Crispi, n. 34. 90010 Pollina. Italy.
kati.caruso@yahoo.it
****PhD Student, Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology, University of Salento.
claudiaspeciale@gmail.com
Abstract
Earthen materials are deeply present in the building traditions. Their study typiies a key analysis, not only
for the history of architecture and technology but also for the investigation of social and economic dynamics.
There is no experimental reference system for the technological and morphological variability in wattle and
daub. It is possible to identify four main categories of experimental variables related to: raw materials, frame
technology, daub technology and iring/decay processes. These variables are veriiable and can be documented by a settled protocol. In order to obtain a large amount of information, we opted for a prototype made of
portions of full-scale walls.
Keywords: wattle and daub, earthen architecture, ire, prehistoric technology, experimental protocol.
Resumen
La tierra es un material muy presente en las tradiciones constructivas. Su estudio supone un análisis clave,
no sólo para la historia de la arquitectura y la tecnología, sino también para la investigación de la dinámica
social y económica. Se puede señalar la ausencia de un sistema de referencia experimental para la variabilidad tecnológica y morfológica de los rebocos y muros. Es posible identiicar cuatro categorías principales de
variables experimentales relacionadas con este tipo de edilicia: las materias primas, la tecnología de muros,
la tecnología del barro o lodo y los procesos de quemado / desintegración. Estas variables son veriicables
y pueden ser documentadas mediante protocolo establecidos. Con el in de obtener una gran cantidad de
información, optamos por un modelo de prototipo hecho por partes de paredes a una escala completa.
Palabras clave: bahareque, construcción de tierra, tecnología prehistórica, fuego, protocolo experimental.
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INTRODUCTION
Burned daub fragments are frequently found in archaeological contexts. The partial
conservation and the different shape of these remains, as well as the various use that
earth materials had for ancient communities, complicate their interpretation. Daub,
especially when the fragments show the frame imprints, is often related to the wattle
and daub technique. To obtain this material, sediments are mixed with water, sometimes
also adding vegetal or mineral tempers. Rammed earth, cob, mudbrick and other hybrid
techniques are part of the technological choice since prehistoric times (De Chazelles, Klein
2003). Earthen materials are deeply present in the building traditions from Prehistory until
nowadays and therefore in the archaeological record. So their study typiies a key analysis,
not only for the history of architecture and technology but also for the investigation of
social and economic dynamics.
This paper focuses on daub and wattle and daub technique. It represents a topic of primary
relevance for the study and interpretation of building techniques in ancient times and one
of the main archaeological proxies for the interpretation of single dwellings.
Experimental archeology on architecture often concerns woodworking and general
structural problems (i.e. Drury, 1982; Petrequin, 1991), iring dynamics (Shaffer, 1993;
Apel et al. 1997; Gheorghiu, 2005; Rasmussen, 2007; Tipper 2012) or the amount of
daub preserved after a iring event (Bankoff, Winter, 1979; Cavulli, Gheorghiu, 2008). An
experimental reference system for the technological and morphological variability in wattle
and daub and other earth building technologies is so far absent. The aim of this project is to
test this variability and to provide more elements for its identiication in the archaeological
record. For the irst stage of the research, we want to focus the experimentation mainly on
burned daub fragments.
QUESTIONS
Several questions are raised during the analyses of archaeological daub, irst of all about
the nature and provenance of earthen raw materials and their selection or preparation.
Investigations on the processing strategies relate to the identiication of intentional or
random inclusions (vegetal and mineral tempers, anthropogenic features intentionally
added or different kinds of random inclusions), daub moisture (water ratio) and the
accuracy of the mixture. The estimation of volume of the different components represents
a relevant issue for the lines of research.
In terms of wattle and timber framework technologies, the identiication of the materials
and their assembly strategies are mainly based on the morphological analysis of
burned fragments, especially their imprints. Is it possible, through the print analysis, to
recognize different classes and species of timber or other organic materials employed
for the structure? What about their processing (i.e. debarking) and their assembling
strategies? How can we ind the correct orientation of the prints and the original position
of the imprinted elements in the dwelling? Why did researchers ind a low number of
fragments with cross-prints in prehistoric contexts? These are just a few questions about
the morphology of dwellings and frames.
It is also dificult to identify the daub installation techniques, especially to recognize the
movements used setting the earthen materials on the wall surfaces and the inishing
processes. This technological study could be helpful for the correct orientation of
fragments as well.
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Figure 1. Variables
and guidelines
for description,
concerning raw
materials and
building technology.
Figure 2. Variables
and guidelines
for description,
especially concerning
ire dynamics and
decay.
Finally, the identiication and recognition of iring, decay and taphonomic processes is
essential for the correct reconstruction of archeological structures.
PROTOCOL
Our experimental protocol is only a irst suggestion and a starting point for all the scholars
who study daub technology. It is possible to identify four main categories of variables
related to:
1. Raw materials (employed for daub and for the frame).
2. Frame technology (processing and assembling of materials; inal structure of the
frame).
3. Daub technology (processing and installation of daub; inal appearance of the wall).
4. Firing and decay processes (building and daub).
Each category is composed by several different speciic variables, wich can be documented
during the experimentation (Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 3.
Experimental model
exposed to a inal ire
event.
But how is it possible to test the variety of building
techniques? The experimentation on new real scale
buildings can give very complete and accurate data,
but it takes a lot of time and resources. Moreover,
dwellings in Archaeological Open Air Museums or
other real scale buildings are rarely constructed to
be burned, except in exceptional cases of accidental
burning or experimental projects focused on burned
buildings (i.e. Apel et al. 1997; Bankoff, Winter 1979;
Cavulli, Gheorghiu 2008; Gheorghiu 2005; Rasmussen 2007; Shaffer 1993; Tipper 2012). In order to
obtain a large amount of information, for our set of
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experiments we opted for a prototype made by portions of fullscale walls. Each model is exposed to a inal and unique iring
event (Figure 3). It represents the
only way to obtain reliable data
and testing very different hypothesis in controlled conditions without building a whole dwelling. The
approach we adopted can give a
considerable quantity of data, but
less complete and more general
observations. Our experiments
are not an alternative but a complementary study to the experiments on the full-scale buildings.
Figure 4. Different
steps of the
experimental
protocol, according to
the aim of the project.
Question marks are extremely
complex. The irst points to be
evaluated concern raw materials
and building technology. These
variables are veriiable and can
be documented by the settled
protocol at the irst step of the experimental process (Figure 4). On
the other hand, issues regarding the lifespan of the dwelling and the decay processes
require long experimental procedures (in terms of time, at least months or years) and
are extremely variable. Furthermore, iring dynamics for the models can be too different from the full-scale ones, so at this moment it is hard to ind answers for this topic.
Experiments with models can be complete in term of technological and morphological
analyses of the structure, but data on ire dynamics and conservation of remains are just
approximate.
Each experimental model, based on archaeological data, is composed by two parallel
walls, that are 2 metres long and 1,5 metres high, and a light-weight roof to protect
them (Figure 5). Two of the three main variables are constant for both walls. Just one of
the variables changes and this allows the comparison between two different sets of raw
materials, two speciic frames or two techniques of the daub installation. Measurements
and records have to be done before and after the iring event. Particular care must be
paid to the technical process (Figure 6). All the morphometrical and morphological data
about the frame and the earthen construction are recorded. After the ire event and a
short period of abandonment, the experimental model can be analyzed by archaeological
methods and all the burned daub fragments are collected. They are studied from a
macroscopic point of view, with the same protocol generally reserved to archaeological
materials, in particular: quantiication and size recording; description and measurements
on surfaces and prints; recording of the shape of the fragments by correlating imprints
and surfaces; cross-section of fragments to observe the composition, the granulometry
and the pattern of the constituent features; colour recording; esteem of hardening rate
of fragments; further analyses (i.e. paleoethnobotany or soil micromorphology) can be
realized to answer speciic questions. Then the experimental materials can be compared
with archaeological ones. In a second phase, it is necessary to relate every experiment
to each other. Thus we hope to identify speciic markers that explain technological
behaviors and contribute to a better understanding of the archaeological record.
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Figure 5. Experimental model after its realization, waiting
for the ire event.
Figure 6. Recording the hand movements during the placing
of the daub.
CONCLUSIONS
It is as yet too early to answer the initial questions and to compare the data between the
different models, as we need to proceed at least to collect the data on the fragments.
There are several prospects to strengthen the experimental research on different scales;
the main aim is to estimate the reliability of the models. In the meanwhile, we want to
test and verify the reliability of the protocol. The irst steps are to obtain and process the
data of every single model compared to its own archaeological context and to create an
experimental collection. All the results of the experiments will be compared to identify
analogies and differences that can help the archaeologist to recognize architectural
technologies and behaviors through daub analysis. The second step is to cross the data
to have answers from different models, in order to obtain a reference system for daub
analysis and earthen structures (Figure 3).
The seeds we want to sow in experimental dwelling makers’ minds are to evaluate and
record all the possible information about daub, in the archaeological openair museums or
in any other kind of rebuilding projects. The protocol here proposed is effectively adaptable
to every kind of experimental project on earthen architecture (on both real scale dwellings
and scale models). The inal purpose is to create an international network of experimental
daub researches, collecting more and more data to compare and to share and regulate the
vocabulary and the protocol for daub analyses in archaeology.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sara Bauducco (translation), Filippo Iannì, Enrico Giannitrapani, Rino Scarano, Marica
Venturino Gambari, Labex ARCHIMEDE (“Investissement d’Avenir” program ANR-11LABX-0032-01).
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EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
REFERENCES
Apel, J., Haderik, C., Sundström, L. (1997). Burning down the
house. Transformational use of ire and other aspects of an Early Neolithic TRB site in Eastern Central Sweden. TOR-Journal of
Archaeology. 29, 5-47.
Bankoff, A. H., Winter, F. (1979). A House Burning in Serbia.
What do burnt remains tell an archaeologist?. Archaeology. 32
(5), 8-14.
Cavulli, F., Gheorghiu, D. (2008). Looking for a methodology
burning wattle and daub housing structures – a preliminary report on an archaeological experiment. Journal of Experimental
Pyrotechnologies. 1, 37-43.
De Chazelles, C.-A., Klein, A. (2003). Terre modelée, découpée
ou coffrée. Echanges trandisciplinaires sur les constructions en
terre crue, 1. Actes de la table ronde de Montpellier (17-18 novembre 2001). l’Espérou. Montpellier. 460 pp.
Drury, P. J. (1982). Structural reconstructions: approaches to the
interpretation of excavated remains of buildings. British Archaeological Reports. 114 pp.
312
F.A.O. (2006). Guidelines for soil description. Fourth edition.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome.
Gheorghiu, D. (2005). The house as a macro-pyroinstrument.
Experimental Pyrotechnology Group Newsletter. 2005, 12-24.
Houben, H., Guillaud, H. (1989). Traité de construction en terre.
3rd edition. 2006. Éditions Parenthèses. Marseille. 355 pp.
Petrequin, P. (1991). Construire une maison 3000 ans avant J.-C.
Le Lac de Chalain au Néolithique. Éditions Errance. Paris. 75 pp.
Rasmussen, M. (2007). Iron Age houses in lames. Testing house
reconstructions at Lejre. Studies in Technology and Culture 3. Lejre Historical-Archaeological and Experimental Centre. 192 pp.
Shaffer, G. D. (1993). An Archaeomagnetic Study of a Wattle and
Daub Building Collapse. Journal of Field Archaeology. 20(1), 59-75.
Tipper, J. (2012). Experimental Archaeology and Fire: The Investigation of a Burnt Reconstruction at West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village,
Suffolk County Council. Archaeological Service. 200 pp.
TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
47
ROMAN TEGULAE AND IMBRICES
MANUFACTURING WORKSHOP
Workshop sobre creación de tégulas
e ímbrices romanas
Joaquim Tremoleda*, Joseina Simon*, Pere Castanyer*,
Andrea Ferrer*, Adriana Clé*, Josep Matés*
*Grup de Recerca Arqueològica del Pla de l’Estany (GRAPE).
jtremoleda@gencat.net
joseina.simon.reig@gmail.com
pcastanyer@gencat.cat
This article has been done in the framework of Projecte quadriennal d’Arqueologia
de la Generalitat de Catalunya (2014-2017), entitled “Dinàmica del poblament rural a l’àrea
del Pla de l’Estany entre els segles II-I aC als segles VII-VIII dC”.
Abstract
The archaeological site of Ermedàs, a roman pottery (1st – 3rd centuries AD), is located in the village of Cornellà del Terri, (Pla de l’ Estany, Catalonia).
The contact of the archaeologists team with a working group operating a ceramic kiln according to the traditional technique in the village of Forallac led to the suggestion of a reconstruction to better understand the
entire process of manufacturing of Roman tiles, from the creating of wood moulds and mud mix to the inal
cooking.
The main aim was to recreate the ethno-technological experimentation: the productive capacity of the workshop based on manual labour, and the volume of material required and their behaviour to create a group of
material amounting to 150 pieces: the tegulae and the imbrices.
Keywords: tegulae, imbrices, kiln, manufacture, Roman.
Resumen
El yacimiento arqueológico de Ermedàs es una alfarería romana (siglo I – III dC), que se halla situada en el
actual municipio de Cornellà del Terri, (Pla de l’Estany, Catalunya).
El contacto del equipo de arqueólogos con un grupo de trabajo pone en funcionamiento un horno cerámico
según la técnica tradicional en el municipio de Forallac, llevó a plantear una experiencia orientada a la recreación de todo el proceso de fabricación de tejas romanas, desde la creación de moldes de madera y la
mezcla del barro, hasta la cocción inal.
La motivación principal consistía en la experimentación etno-tecnológica que permitía valorar tanto la capacidad productiva del taller en base al trabajo manual, así como el volumen de material necesario y su comportamiento para la creación de un estoc de material que ascendió a unas 150 piezas: las tegulae y de imbrices.
Palabras clave: tegulae, imbrices, horno, manufactura, romano.
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INTRODUCTION
The “Roman tegulae and imbrices manufacturing workshop” is part of the various actions
undertaken within the framework of the archaeological research project that aims to study
the dynamics of the rural population of the Pla de l’Estany local region between the 2nd
and 1st centuries BC and the 7th and 8th centuries AD. This is a proposal to make a microregional study of a territory strongly inluenced by lakeside conditions, which constitutes
the decisive factor in transforming the landscape.
Figure 1. Map
showing the
geographical
location of the
Ermedàs pottery
archaeological site
(Cornellà del Terri,
Pla de l’Estany).
The consolidation of the project in
The Roman villa of Vilauba (19782014) (Jones et al., 1984) led to
interventions at other sites found
during the prospecting to enable
the creation of an archaeological
map of the ancient settlement
in its immediate environment
(Castanyer and Tremoleda, 1999,
31-34 and Fig. 18). Among those,
Ermedàs pottery was undoubtedly
the one arousing greater interest.
It allowed to delve into different
aspects such as (1) the supply to the different villages, (2) the agricultural production
of the villas of the territory, (3) the evolution of the material culture throughout the
different centuries, (4) the dissemination of the manufactured products (Tremoleda,
2000, 210; Castanyer et al., 2000, 132;. Castanyer et al., 2005). Initially, the work was
focused on discovering different craft facilities, on uncovering the structure of the
workshop and on developing the typology of the manufactured materials, as well as its
corresponding archaeometric characterization (Figure 1).
The research progress made in the Ermedàs pottery was possible thanks to three
types of systematic actions: the collection of surface material on a grid, the magnetic
survey of the land and the programmed archaeological excavation. Today, we know an
area of about 3,000 m2, which include the entire building with 15 kilns (Tremoleda and
Castanyer, 2012). Archaeological works recovered a large number of parts produced in
the same workshop. Archaeolisgists found construction materials: (1) large containers
for the harvest (dolia), (2) pottery for kitchen use (pots, pans, lids, mortars), (3) common
pottery for use as tableware and for serving (plates, cups, jugs, bottles), (4) pottery
imitating the productions of the time, (5) mould-made decorated and varnished pottery
and (6) amphorae. Other parts for various uses were also produced.
This wide range of products were intended for an immediate market, especially
agricultural villas working the land, and for urban centres within the Gerunda/
Emporiae/Besalú triangle (Tremoleda et al., 2007). The activity of this centre can be
located between the second half of the irst century AD and the late second century or
early third century AD.
The work presented here, which focuses on the manufacturing workshop of tiles and
imbrices. For this workshop we have the invaluable help of a work group operated
a pottery kiln using the traditional technique in the municipality of Forallac (Baix
Empordà, Girona). This experience recreates the entire manufacturing process of
Roman tiles, from creating the wooden moulds and mixing the clay, to the inal iring.
The data obtained in this irst ethno-technological experimentation workshop allowed us
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to establish certain parameters and the volume of necessary material, its behaviour in
manufacturing a small amount of tegulae and imbrices.
EXPERIMENTAL MANUFACTURING OF THE TEGULAE AND IMBRICES
The Ermedàs pottery, like most highly specialized workshops, made a complex and diverse
range of ceramic products.
The structure of the workshops, the technique and the use of the same materials,
have caused frequent referral to the ethnological study as a comparative method that
approximately or relatively faithfully reproduces the conditions that supposedly ruled
in a Roman pottery industry, to study aspects of productivity and its ancient technology
(Peacock, 1997; Romero and Cabasa, 1999).
Thirdly and most recently, developed studies incorporate the most advanced analytical
study techniques of the iring processes to allow the archeometric characterisation of the
pieces (Cuomo di Caprio, 2007; Cuomo, 2007).
The experimental work consisted of reproducing the working conditions that existed in
an ancient pottery that manually made tegulae and imbrices. These were the elements
commonly used for rooing in Roman times.
Preparation of the clay
The irst step in preparing the clay was to dig a pond to mix the clay with water. In a pool of
15 m. in length and 6 m. of wide, 3,000 kilos of prepared clay was poured with water (Figure
2). It was allowed to stand to absorb the water before the clay was trodden with feet. It was
well mixed and kneaded, obtaining an optimal consistency. The next step was to remove it
manually to bring it to the workplace where the pieces were made.
Figure 2. Mud pool.
Figure 3. Tegulae
production.
Figure 4. Smoothing
of the imbrex with
water while still in
the mould.
Figure 5. Appearance
of tiles arranged in
the manufacturing
area.
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Figure 6. Stacking
to complete drying
before iring.
Figure 7. Layout of
tegulae in the kiln
laboratory.
Piece manufacture
Three basic elements are needed to make the pieces: the workspace, the raw material and
the tools, fundamentally the moulds.
Since tegulae were created in a mould, they had to be created from the positive, i.e. the real
pieces, the steps and shape of which we know because we did not have original specimens
to our disposal. The standard sizes of Roman tegula are 2 Roman feet long and 1.5 wide,
i.e., 59.2 cm. and 44.4 cm. (based on a Roman foot of 29.6 cm). The mould sizes were
calculated following this proportion, also considering that the iring shrinks the soft pieces
in a proportion of 10/12%. This 2 x 1.5 foot rectangle was given a thickness of 3 cm. and to
enable the side wings and ixtures, the sides had to be left higher and rounded mouldings
had to be placed, always outside the rectangle. So when the wooden stick was passed to
remove the leftover clay, the pieces were made in the right shape.
The traditional pottery pieces were used for the parts to create imbrices, and they are still
made the same way today. For that, a slightly trapezoidal metal mould measuring 1 and
a half foot in length and only 1 cm thick is required. In this case, for making the tile with
the required curvature, a trapezoidal wooden instrument with a semicircular section and
a handle, called the horn, was needed.
Manufacturing tegulae
The production sequence of making tegulae includes several stages. First, you need a
suficiently large space in which to spread the tegulae. Usually there were extensive lowroofed porches. The air circulation accelerated the drying process and, in turn, protected
the soft pieces from the weather. The function of the porches repelled the sun, which could
cause faster drying and cracking, and also possible rain, which would also harm the tiles.
In our case, a lat outer surface clear of grass, roots and stones was set up in the absence
of covered space.
The irst step is to spread ine sand in the area where you will place the tegula mould
to prevent that the soft clay does not stick to the ground. After placing the mould, two
triangular wooden wedges are placed at the bottom of the clay so as to create two ittings
for the tegula. Then, it is illed with a mass of clay spread evenly in the mould. It is pressed
inside the mould, with the aid of a wooden bar, creating the tegula wings, the top is
smoothed and the extra clay is removed (Figure 3). The impurities are removed with wet
hands. The vacuoles are eliminated and the top surface is smoothed. At this point, the
decorations are made with the ingers and, if necessary, marks or seals are stamped.
Finally, it is stripped using a wire to separate the clay from the mould and to facilitate the
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removal of the tegula from the wooden frame. The
pieces are left in the same place to start the drying
process. A very good example was found in the
roman site of Llafranc (Palafrugell), where formed
by an extension of raw tegulae waiting to be ired in
the kilns, where a unique document was found (Nolla
et al., 1982, 152-156).
Manufacturing imbrices
The workspace to manufacture imbrices is a bench.
Ash is spread, the mould is placed and the clay is
spread to occupy the whole mould surface. It is
smoothened with a wooden press and the dough is
spread. The wire is passed and the mould with the
clay is moved to the end of the table to transfer the
clay onto the horn to give it the curved shape. On the
horn, the piece is inally moulded, the impurities are
removed with wet hands (Figure 4) and inally, the
piece is moved with the horn to the place where it
is dried.
Drying
Once the pieces have been made, a drying process starts to allow them to lose the excess
water. First, the tiles are left spread on the ground (Figure 5) and then they are lifted and
placed in a row against each other, leaving plenty of room for air circulation and good
ventilation. This is also the time to repair the cracks. Finally, they are stacked ready for the
kiln (Figure 6).
Figure 8. Wood
combustion in the
kiln.
Along with the irst shrinkage, there is also the irst weight loss. A complete tegula weighs
about 27/28 kilos; after the drying process, it loses around 2 kilos and therefore weighs
about 25-26 kilos. The last shrinkage occurs in the iring, leaving a inal weight of 22-23
kilos.
Placing the pieces in the kiln
The drying process, with its various positions, took place over 20 days before the kiln was
loaded. This is a traditional square chamber kiln, 4 x 4 m. The double mouth to feed the
combustion chamber was on a low terrace.
The tegulae were loaded on the grill, creating several layers placed vertically against each
other to create a compact mass, but also to allow a circulation of warm air to all parts. For
stacking in the kiln, various rolls were made to place at the contact points between the
rows and to prevent the tiles from becoming welded together. Intermediate sills were also
made with already-ired bricks (Figure 7). The tegulae were placed at the bottom and the
imbrices at the top (i.e. the heavier at the bottom and the lighter at the top).
Firing and cooling
The iring was done by burning irewood in the combustion chamber of the kiln, for which
about 2.000 kilos of dry wood was used. Prior to lighting, the burning chamber was illed
with wood and loaded so the heat would increase gradually to the indicated temperature.
Firing was continuous for three days, keeping a constant temperature of around 800°C
(Figure 8). The lame could be observed through a peephole in the back of the oven for the
expert to check the heat and the colour of the lame.
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Figure 9. Timeline.
Figure 10. Placing ired tegulae and imbrices simulating a Roman roof.
After the iring, the pieces in the kiln need to cool down. This process takes a couple of
weeks before the pieces can be removed from the kiln.
CONCLUSIONS
The end result of the experimental manufacturing project performed through the autumn
of 2013 was of 150 tegulae and 50 imbrices made, all according to the dimensions,
materials and technique used in in Roman times. We have summarized the timescale of
this manufacture in a table (Figure 9).
The ethno-technological experiment provided a better understanding of the process of
making tegulae and imbrices in Roman times. This would include: the work involved in
building the elements forming a roof (Figure 10); the process the craftsmen had to follow;
the supply of raw materials; the problems they most certainly found; the importance of
the use of degreasing; consistency in iring; the possibilities of specializing the various
tasks in the workshops; the internal organization in the potteries and many other factors.
Finally, we should also note that this workshop has provided material that will be useful for
the restoration work on the site itself or for recreating a Roman type roof for the purpose
of education.
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REFERENCES
Castanyer P., Tremoleda J. (1999). La vil·la romana de Vilauba.
Un exemple de l’ocupació i explotació romana del territori a la
comarca del Pla de l’Estany. Girona. 394 pp.
Castanyer, P., Tremoleda J., Dehesa R., Puigdevall I., Pi M.
(2005). L’estudi del món rural d’època romana a la comarca del
Pla de l’Estany: la vil·la de Vilauba i la terrisseria d’Ermedàs.
Tribuna d’Arqueologia. 2002-2003. 7-21.
Cuomo di Caprio, N. (2007). Ceramica in archeologia 2. Antiche
tecniche di lavorazione e moderni metodi di indagine. Studia
Archaeologica 144. “L’Erma” di Bretschneider. Roma. 752 pp.
Cuomo, S. (2007). Technology and Culture in Greek and Roman
Antiquity. Key Themes in Ancient History. Cambridge University
Press. Cambridge.
Jones, R. F. J., Keay, S. J., Nolla, J. M., Tarrús, J. (1984). Landscape,
ancient settlement and survey aechaeology in Catalunya. In Papers
in Iberian archaeology. BAR International Series, 193. Oxford.
460-464.
Peacock, D.P.S. (1997). La ceramica romana tra archeologia ed
etnograia. Edited by G. Pucci. Edipuglia. Bari. 242 pp.
Romero A., Cabasa S. (1999). La tinajería tradicional en la
cerámica española. Barcelona. 400 pp.
Tremoleda, J. (2000). Industria i artesanado cerámico de
época romana en el nordeste de Cataluña. (Época augústea y
altoimperial). BAR International Series, 835. Oxford. 341 pp.
Tremoleda J., Castanyer P. (2012). El alfar romano de Ermedàs.
El taller y su producción (Cornellà del Terri, Girona). Actas del I
Congreso Internacional de la SECAH – Ex oficina Hispania, Hornos,
talleres y focos de producción alfarera en Hispania. Universidad
de Cádiz. Cádiz. 275-293.
Tremoleda J., Castanyer P., Puigdevall, I. (2007). La bòbila
romana d’Ermedàs i l’ocupació rural del seu entorn. In Pottery
workshops and agricultural productions, Studies on the rural
world in the Roman period, 2. Girona. 9-30.
Nolla, J. M., Canes, J. M., Rocas, X. (1982). Un forn de terrissa
a Llafranc, Palafrugell, Baix Empordà). Excavacions de 19801981. Empúries 44. Barcelona. 147-183.
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48
THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF WINE IN ITALY:
A SICILIAN EXPERIMENT
La arqueología del vino en Italia:
un experimento siciliano
Mario Indelicato*, Daniele Malitana**, Giuseppe Cacciaguerra**
*Scuola di Specializzazione in Beni Archeologici dell’Università di Catania.
**Istituto per i Beni Archeologici e monumentali del Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche
Abstract
This experiment aims to reproduce experimentally Roman techniques of wine production, from pruning to
harvest. The process has carefully followed the “instructions” reported in historic texts dated between the 1st
century BC up to the 4th century AD, mainly in Columella’s “De Re Rustica”.
A rich variety of archaeological, historical, literary and artistic testimonies throughout the Mediterranean
cultures reminds us the material and symbolic value of wine in various civilizations over the centuries. The
aim of the present research is to verify the feasibility of the instructions of ancient agronomists and to ascertain whether such knowledge may be useful for modern viticulture. Finally, we aim for a better interpretation
of the archaeological record. The comparison of experimental results with archaeological investigations and
archaeometrical and archaeobotanical analyses of archaeological remains related to agricultural constructions will allow us to clarify the settlement dynamics of the Mascali Plain near Catania from the Greek period
up to Medieval times.
The authors carried out experiments in a vineyard planted on the slopes of the Etna in the Mascali zone. In
this irst phase, has been studied the plantation methods used in the early Roman Empire. Thanks to the
instructions of Columella, we were able to identify and reconstruct numerous agricultural tools.
Keywords: experimental archaeology, Roman viticulture, experimental Roman vineyard, ethnography,
Sicilian viticulture.
Resumen
El objetivo de este estudio es reproducir experimentalmente técnicas romanas de producción de vino, desde
la poda a la cosecha. El proceso ha seguido cuuidadosamente las “instrucciones” recogidas en textos históricos datados entre el siglo I a.C. hasta el siglo IV d.C., principalmente en “De Re Rustica” de Columela.
Una rica variedad de tertimonios arqueológicos, históricos, literarios y a rtísticos por todas las culturas
mediterráneas nos recuerdan el valor material y simbólico del vino en varias civilizaciones a lo largo de los
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siglos. El objetivo de este studio es veriicar la viabilidad de las instrucciones de los antiguos agrónomos
y determinal si dicho conocimiento puede ser útil para la viticultura moderna. Por ultimo, buscamos una
major interpretación del registro arqueológico. La comparación de resultados experimentales con estudios
arqueológicos, análisis arqueométrios y arqueobotánicos de los restos arqueológicos relacionados con la
construcción agrícola nos permitirá aclarar la diámica de asentamiento en la llanura de Mascali, cerca de
Catania, desde la época griega a tiempos medievales.
Los autores han llevado a cabo experimentos en un viñedo plantado en las laderas del Etna, en el área de
Mascali. En esta primera fase se han estudiado los métodos de plantación usados en el Alto Imperio Romano. Gracias a las instrucciones de Columela, hemos sido capaces de identiicar y reconstruir numerosas
herramientas agrícolas.
Palabras clave: arqueología experimental, viticulture romana, viñedo experimental romano, etnografía,
viticulture siciliana.
INTRODUCTION
The idea of this project is based on a Master thesis in Archaeology. This experimental
project involved the creation of a small Roman vineyard (Figure 1) following the instructions
of ancient agronomic sources and exclusively using manual tools and techniques
congruently with this particular historic period (1st century A.D., when Roman agronomist
Columella lived). We used Sicilian archaeological
data, related to traces of ancient winegrowing as
well as ethnographic documentation of the Sicilian
countryside to support the experiment.
Figure 1. Two rows of
the Roman vineyard.
During the Roman period the wine growing techniques
reached a peak. A rich variety of sources throughout
Mediterranean cultures reminds us of the value of
wine among various civilisations over the centuries.
Strabo, a geographer who lived between the 1st
century BC and the 1st century AD, mentioned the
high soil quality near the Etna in Sicily (Geographia,
VI, 2, 3). He cited Catania and especially Naxos for the
production of good grapes and great wine. Also Pliny
the Elder and the poet Martial talked about the island as a place of production of excellent
wines. There is archaeological evidence from the same period of many production facilities
including fragments found in the riverbed of Torrente Macchia in Giarre belongs, probably
from a dolium.
The aim of the project is to experimentally verify ancient Roman techniques for wine
production, from planting the rooted vines to the grape harvest, the digging of pits, and the
use of reconstructed tools.
AGRICULTURAL TOOLS: BETWEEN ETHNOGRAPHY AND RECONSTRUCTIONS
Technical knowledge requires an empirical comprehension of reality (MannoniGiannichedda 2003b). Keeping in mind that, obviously, experimental archaeology has
the same theoretical basis and methods of any archaeological scientiic research and
must be similarly quantiied and demonstrated (Reynolds, 1999; Outram, 2008), we could
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Figure 2. How to use the “ciconia” to
measure depth and width of planting
trenches.
Figure 3. (a) The “bidens” by White (1967); (b) The “bidens”
used in the experiment.
Figure 4. The “falx vinitoria” used
in the experiment.
say that empirical knowledge, especially about ancient times, can be gained thanks to
attempts, errors and experiences. It is different from scientiic knowledge, which explains
the “why” of facts instead of “how” they happen (Mannoni-Giannichedda, 2003a). Amongst
the scholars dealing with antiquity, the experimental archaeologist comes closest to this
knowledge because on the one hand, he or she maintains scientiic rigour and, on the
other, has knowledge of the materials and expertise of the artisan. Apart from written
sources, it is necessary to use a coherent archaeological and ethnographic base.
Using Columella’s instructions, it was possible to identify and reconstruct several
agricultural tools (hoes and sickles), including the “ciconia” (Figure 2). Reconstructed with
ir wood based on the text of Columella (De re rustica, III, 13, 6-10). This was a work control
tool used by landowners to measure the width and depth of the plantation trenches dug
by farmers.
Furthermore, cross-comparison between written sources, studies on the subject (White
1967), oral testimony and casual indings also permitted the identiication and use of
agricultural tools whose elaboration may be traced back to the Roman period. The tools
we identiied and used for the experimental work included: “rastrum bidens” (De re rustica,
III, 13 and IV,14: a bidens was found in a modern warehouse and used in the experiment)
(Figure 3); falx vinitoria; (De re rustica, IV, 25: a falcula was found in a modern lea market
and used in the experiment) (Figure 4).
EXPERIMENTAL VINEYARD PLANTATION
The most important section of this work consisted of experimental practices carried out in
the vineyard planted on the slopes of Etna in Mascali. The ground used for the experiment
was lat and about 300 m above sea level, in the Mascali territory. The experimental ield
lay on a secondary branch of the 1928 lava low.
Columella describes a technique called pastinatio, (De Re Rustica, III, 11-13) which involves
deep trenching in order to prepare the soil where the rooted vines will be planted. Trenching
is an agricultural technique still used, in which shaking and breaking down the soil makes
it aerated and suitable for planting new crops. In fact, also ethnographic sources (i.e.
Sicilian agronomists in the 19th century AD, Pastena, 1993) refer to this practice (Figure
5). The plantation trenches were dug in early March 2013 using the pastinatio technique.
The exposure of ive excavated rows and the plating density are suggested by the accurate
Columella (De re rustica, III, 12, 4), applied as such during the experiment. The Iberian
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agronomist suggested us South
orientation and a width, between
rows, of 4,5-5 Roman feet (one
pes was about 30cm) – that is
about 1.40/1.50 m on lat ground.
Figure 5. The ground of the experiment after the “pastinatio”.
CULTIVATION PROCEDURES
An ancient Sicilian proverb
says: “Cu havi vigna havi tigna”
(in Sicilian language: who has a
vineyard, has nuisance) (Pastena,
1993). After planting the cuttings,
an incessant series of tasks begin
that accompany the winemaker
and his vineyard throughout the
life of the latter. In this regard,
Columella recommended for
new vines a thorough monthly
weed control and frequent hoeing
(De re rustica, IV, 5-6). All these
operations were carried out
monthly in our experimental
vineyard.
In his text Columella says: «It
is very important the type of tie
employed to ix the small plants.
Until the vine is tender, in fact,
you have to tie it with very lexible
material [...]. The best is therefore
broom, [...]. Cane leaves dried in
the shade also serve well for this
Figure 6. Experimental use of “bidens” for
Figure 7. Experimental use of “falx vinitoria”
purpose» (De Re Rustica, IV, 13).
baring the roots of young vines.
for pruning the vines.
Then, in early July 2013, pruning
and binding of the small vines were done using strings made of cane (Arundo donax) and
broom leaves (Genista aetnensis). Both were easily found on site as they are part of the
spontaneous Etna lora. In this regard, during the experiment it was possible to verify
the high resistance and great tightness of broom leaves also about six months later the
irst use.
In the beginnings of December 2013, we bared the roots of the vines, as described in
detail by Columella (Figure 6). In fact, as the Latin text says (De Re Rustica, IV, 8), we
dug about 30cm around every young vine and then cut the supericial roots, when they were
present and of considerable dimension, at the distance of one Roman inger (one digitus was
about 1.85cm) from the trunk to avoid the proliferation of new small roots from the wound.
This is an important operation in the irst years of the vines. Depriving them of supericial
roots forces the plant to produce deeper roots in order to be less exposed to cold in
winter and drought in summer.
At the end of January 2014, we proceeded to prune, with the experimental use of the falx
vinitoria (Figure 7).
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CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
At the time of writing, the work at the vineyard has stopped. Although the project has
ended, it has also permitted the vineyard to grow. The irst harvest useful for winemaking
will come after a three-year period during which, as mentioned before, all the other
techniques of Roman viticulture will be used for the maintenance and care of the vineyard.
We hope that this study will attract the attention of archaeological researchers in
this area, which has a very important agricultural past. The data obtained from the
experiment -especially related to the wine– should be compared with archaeometric and
archaeobotanical analyses of archaeological evidence. These research methods would
enable us, once and for all, to clarify the dynamics of the settlement of the Plain of Mascali
from the Greek period up to Medieval times.
REFERENCES
Brun, J.P. (2004). Archeologie du vin et de l’huile dans l’empire
romain. Parigi.
Outram, A. (2008). Introduction to experimental archaeology.
World Archaeology. 40 (1), 1-6.
Columella, L. G. M., De Re Rustica, Calzecchi Onesti, R. (trad.)
(1977). Columella. L’arte dell’agricoltura, Torino.
Pastena, B. (1993) Bibliograia viti-vinicola siciliana: dalle origini
della stampa al 1990: primo contributo. Palermo.
Mannoni, T., Giannichedda E., (2003a). Archeologia della produzione.
Torino.
Plinius, G. S., Naturalis Historia XIV, AA. VV. (trad.) (1982) Plinio.
Storia Naturale. Torino.
Mannoni, T., Giannichedda E., (2003b). Archeologia
sperimentale e archeologia della produzione. In Archeologie
sperimentali: metodologie ed esperienze fra veriica, riproduzione,
comunicazione e simulazione. Atti del convegno (Comano terme Fiavè 13-15 settembre 2001). Edited by Bellintani, P. Moser, L.
Trento. Pp. 33-39.
Reynolds, P. (1999). The Nature of Experiment in Archaeology.
In Experiment and design. Archaeological studies in honour of
John Coles. Edited by Harding, F. Oxford. Pp. 156-162.
Olivier de Sardan, J. P. (2009). La politica del campo. Sulla
produzione di dati in antropología. In Vivere l’etnograia. Edited
by F. Cappelletto. Firenze. Pp. 27-63.
Strabo, Geographia VI, Biraschi, A.M. (trad.), (1988) Geograia.
L’Italia. Libri 5º-6º, Milano.
White, K.D. (1967) Agricultural implements of the Roman world.
Cambridge.
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Experience and
experiment in
learning, teaching
and heritage
interpretation
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49
CLAYS, FIRE AND WAIT! PREHISTORIC
CERAMIC PRODUCTION EXPLAINED
TO CHILDREN 5 TO 14 YEARS OLD
Arcillas, fuego y ¡a esperar! La producción
cerámica prehistórica explicada a niños
y niñas de 5 a 14 años
Alberto Dorado Alejos*
*Departament of Prehistory and Archaeology, Faculty of philosophy and letters,
University campus of Cartuja, University of Granada, 18071 Granada (Spain).
a.dorado.alejos@hotmail.com
Abstract
The increase in studies related to experimental archaeology manifests openness to a new perspective in the
interpretation of data from the archaeological record. Moreover, this change has caused some variations in
teaching models related to Prehistory and Archaeology. Thus, through the reproduction of various items such
a ceramics, lint knapped elements or metallurgy, this establish a new model which breaks the industrial
regime, that is, the teacher (active) - student (passive) binomial.
Keywords: archaeological experience, pedagogic methods for Prehistory and Archaeology, pottery workshop.
Resumen
El aumento de los estudios vinculados a la Arqueología Experimental maniiestan una apertura hacia nuevas perspectivas en la interpretación de los datos del registro arqueológico. Esta praxis, cuya obtención de
conocimientos se basa en la reproducción de la cadena operativa ha provocado ciertas transformaciones
en el modelo de enseñanza de la Prehistoria y la Arqueología, un modelo que rompe con el régimen industrial establecido hasta el momento: el binomio profesor (activo) - alumno (pasivo), convirtiendo a éste en el
actor de su propia educación.
Palabras clave: experiencia arqueológica, enseñanza de Prehistoria y Arqueología, taller de cerámica.
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INTRODUCTION
The theoretical umbrella under which the workshop took place is Experimental
Archaeology, born in the 60’s in hand with the New Archaeology background. It attempted
to interpret the archaeological evidence through the reproduction of their socio-cultural
context, so by reproducing their same productive techniques we could have a better
understand of the modus vivendi of those societies that are a case of study. In Spain there
are several centers dedicated to carry out experimental archeological activities, using
it as a didactic method, such as the Research Center of Altamira, Monte Urgull (Noain,
2002/03) or the Laboratori d’Arqueologìa Experimental (Alorda Park, Baix Penedés)
(Morer et al., 1999). This application is then extended to universities (Rovira, 2011/12;
Olària i Puyoles: 1994; Moreno et al., 2007), museums (Velázquez et al., 2004; Martín y
Cuartero, 2008) and high-schools (Gil et al., 1996).
Thus, if Experimental Archaeology has traditionally been understood as a mean for
obtaining scientiic data, now a day it can also serve as a vehicle for the transmission of
knowledge through a dynamic education, in which the player acts as a receptor of the
past elements and, through empathy, can understand some of the needs of the people
who used those elements. Therefore, when experimental archeology exceeds its positive
phase and becomes a didactic element, its functionality increases to transcend that for
which it was conceived.
In the following pages we do not intend to make a defense of Experimental Archaeology
as a tool for the creation of scientiic knowledge, fact that been well defended by other
authors (Coles, 1973; Reynolds, 1988-89), but rather to focus on some of the didactic
virtues of this method, such as serving other researchers, teachers, and so on, as a
basis for future projects of the same nature.
THE WORKSHOP
The workshop was carried out
during three days. The irst day
would was oriented towards
explaining how clays are formed,
deining them as a series
aggregates of aluminum silicates
from the decomposition of rocks,
which reach a size of 0,002 mm (2
microns).
Figure 1. Appearance
of clays obtained
from the quarry just
before the purifying
process (Photo:
Javier Vivas Ávila).
The clays used for the workshop
were obtained form an old
quartzite quarry with large
amounts of Fe2O3 situated a
few kilometers from Valencia de
Alcántara (Cáceres) (UTM: 29S
654621E-4371716N), place where the workshop was held. This irst step had to be done
by adults associated to the workshop, obtaining a total of 42 kg. This measurement was
carried out once all clays were sieved (with 3 mm. mesh), eliminating all large clasts
that can alter the cooking of the ceramics (Figure 1).
This process was carried out over most of the extracted clay; we decided to keep several
kilograms of natural clays for children so they could be responsible of separating large
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clasts in order for them to learn the process from
the beginning. After the brief explanation on the
morphogenesis of clays, soon we began to give clay
to the children then, to hydrate and model them,
understanding that the excess or lack of water may
result in defective manufacturing (Figure 2).
The method by which the vessels were to be made
would be by hollowing, consisting in making a
lump of clay and then pushing from the center
out, forming a container that slowly is going to
obtain the desired shape. The forms chosen for the
workshop would be Neolithic productions, because
Valencia de Alcantara is a town where there are
dozens of dolmens which presents chronologies
that come near to this cultural moment (Bueno,
1988), using forms similar to those found in sites
from Extremadura such as Castillejos (Badajoz)
(Cerrillo et al., 2010: 438, Figure 4) or Los Barruecos
(Caceres) (Cerrillo et al., 2002: 105, Figure 3).
Upon shaping ceramics the next phase was to treat the
surfaces. To do this simply the children had to moisten
their hands with water and gradually overpass the
surfaces of their vessels for them to remain perfectly
slickened, and then performing the decoration of the
vessels, though cardium edule was not used, while
punches and combs. In this sense, although they
tried to emulate Neolithic pottery, each child had
the freedom to make the decoration he/she wanted,
because somehow they would be printing part of them
on their vessels, allowing them to develop a special
relationship with the produced object.
This being done, the vessels were placed in a location where they did not receive direct
sunlight for a full day, since this could cause the fracture of the vessels due to rapid loss
of water, although, as we shall see, it was not enough to prevent fractures that derive
from the volumetric increase due to water evaporation.
The second day the kiln in which the vessels were to cook, which corresponds to the
traditional hole in the ground in which they built the ire (Rye y Evans, 1976). We made
a small ire upon a bed of dry sand and placed the ceramics around the ire in order to
temper them and avoid thermal shock (Figure 3). After two hours we made a ire with
more calories for the remaining water inside the clay to evaporate before direct exposure
of the ceramics to the ire. When the ire dwindled leaving only embers, the vessels were
placed and, after an hour, another ire was made this time over the ceramics.
Figure 2. Examples of
highly hydrated clays
that are not suitable
for the manufacture
of ceramic vessels.
(Photo: Carlos
Gadella García).
Figure 3. Ceramics
placed around the ire
in order to temper
them, thus avoiding
thermal shock
fractures. (Photo:
Carlos Gadella
García).
When decreased the intensity of the second ire, the coals were covered with sand to
create a reducing chamber to keep the heat overnight. The next day we were inally able to
observe the result, where at least 30% of the ceramic had suffered fractures: transverse
fractures, carbonate vacuoles, and so on. These cooking errors can be explained by
several reasons: irstly, though a minimum number of clasts still existed, these were not
enough to reduce thermal shock. Secondly, the drying time was not suficient enough to
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remove all the water from inside the clay, causing
the fractures resulting from the expansion of water
and internal gas (Figure 4).
The third and inal day of the workshop, all the
ceramic were removed from the coals and their
surfaces were painted with acrylic paint in lack of
natural dyes. In this case we also used Neolithic
stylistic canons, but their own creativity led them to
reinterpret.
Figure 4. Some of
the cooked ceramics
where we can
observe both the
fracturad ceramics
and the ones that
had been correctly
cooked. (Photo:
Carlos Gadella
García).
CONCLUSION
The workshop developed in Valencia de Alcantara
(Caceres) was aimed at teaching thirty children
the complete productive process of prehistoric
handmade pottery. At the beginning we tried to
explain the different uses of ceramics throughout
prehistory, who were the people who created them, where they lived and other aspects
of the modus vivendi. Therefore, we tried to contextualize the pottery and because we did
not want the ceramics to be perceived as a mere artifacts created spontaneously from
nothing. So at the end of the workshop, when we asked about the different steps that
had been followed, we noted that all the children perfectly understood what had been
explained.
Therefore, these types of experiences are appropriate teaching method aimed at
explaining the operational chain of handmade pottery as well as Prehistory and
Archeology. In addition, we consider that this model of education is more adapted to a
dynamic conception of educational processes and, therefore, more accommodated to the
new educational perceptions that exist in the XXI century, where the concept of passive
student in his own education is broken, And in which teacher and student feedback in
this process. In this way, knowledge developed in an academic environment that will
help in the future to assess the archaeological and cultural heritage and will help also
to understand the work of the archaeologist.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the Instituto de la Juventud of Extremadura (InJuve) which has
funded this workshop, as well as allowing the use of the Espacio de Creación Joven
of Valencia de Alcantara (Caceres), Daniel Cárceles for his entire disposal and the
members of the Cultural Association ‘En la Brecha’ Fernando Corbacho, Carlos Gadella
Maria Mogollon, Begoña Lozano, Javier Vivas, Alberto Gazapo and Laura Picado for their
participation. Thanks to all.
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REFERENCES
Bueno, P. (1988). Los Dólmenes de Valencia de Alcántara. Madrid.
Cerrillo, E., Fernández, J.M., Heras, F., Prada, A. y López, J.A.
(2010). Cambios y permanencias en el entorno de Castillejos
(Fuente de Cantos, Badajoz, España): de inales del Neolítico a
comienzos de la Edad del Bronce. Transformação e Mudança no
Centro e Sul de Portugal: o 4º e o 3º milénios a.n.e. 2. Pp. 433-451.
Morer, J., Belarte, M.C., Sanmartí, J., Santacana, J. (1999). El
laboratorio d’arqueologia experimental del Vendrell (Baix
Penedes). Primers resultats. Pyrenae. 30, 123-145.
Noain, M.J. (2002/03). El taller de verano “Arqueología y
Arquitectura”, Monte Urgull, Donostia - San Sebastián. Boletín
de Arqueología Experimental. 5, 10-14.
Cerrillo, E., Prada, A., González, A., Heras, F. (2002). La
secuencia cultural de las primeras sociedades productoras
en Extremadura: una datación absoluta del yacimiento de
Los Barruecos (Malpartida de Cáceres, Cáceres). Trabajos de
Prehistoria. 59-2, 101 - 111.
Olaria i Puyoles, C.R. (1994). La prehistoria de la cerámica.
Millars: Espai i historia. 17, 171-184.
Coles, J. (1973). Archaeology by experiment. Londres.
Rovira, S. (2011-12). Arqueometalurgia experimental en el
departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología de la U.A.M.
Cuadernos de Prehistoria y Arqueología de la Universidad
Autónoma de Madrid. 37-38, 105-120.
Gil, A., Izquierdo, M.I., Pérez, C., Fierrez, S. (1996). Taller
de arqueología 4: experiències didàctiques en simulació
arqueològica. Treballs d’Arqueologia. 4, 143-161.
Martín, D., Cuartero, F. (2008). Los talleres didácticos de
Prehistoria y Arqueología Experimental del Museo de los
Orígenes (Casa de San Isidro). Apuntes de Arqueología. 24, 12-18.
Moreno, F., Sánchez, M., Afonso, J., Martínez, G., Morgado,
A., Moreno, J.C., Terroba, J. (2007). Un proyecto integral de
Arqueología Experimental: el poblado de la Algaba (Ronda,
Málaga). In Arqueología experimental en la Península Ibérica:
investigación, didáctica y patrimonio. Edited by Ramos, M. L.,
González, J. E. y Baena. J. Asociación Española de Arqueología
Experimental. Pp. 37-44.
Reynolds, P. (1988-89). L’experiment en arqueologia i l’antiga
granja Butser. Tribuna d’Arqueologia. 131-138.
Rye, O., Evans, C. (1976): Traditional pottery techniques of
Pakistan. Smithshoniam Contribution to Antropology 21.
Washington.
Velázquez, R., Conde, C., Baena, J. (2004). La Arqueología
Experimental en el Museo de San Isidro. Talleres didácticos
para escolares. Estudios de prehistoria y arqueología madrileñas.
13, 3-17.
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50
SHARING ARCHAEOLOGICAL PRACTICE
AMONG SCHOOLCHILDREN: THREE GROUPS,
ONE EXPERIENCE
Divulgación de la práctica arqueológica
entre escolares: tres colectivos, una misma
experiencia
Aixa Vidal*, Paola Silvia Ramundo**, Sol Mallía-Guest***
*INAPL/UBA. 3 de Febrero 1378 (1426, C.A.B.A., Argentina).
aixavidal@gmail.com
**CONICET, UCA / UBA, FFyL. A. M. de Justo 1500 (1107, C.A.B.A, Argentina).
paolaramundo@conicet.gov.ar
***UCD/UBA. Belield (Dublin 4, Ireland).
sol.mallia-guest@ucdconnect.ie
Abstract
The need as well as the beneits of cooperating with society in preserving and understanding archaeological
heritage has recently come to light. Together with oficial institutions, the role of individual archaeologists
is particularly important to certain groups which, given their “distinctive” identity, have dificulties accessing
conventional institutions. Here we present three experiences in which material culture engagements and
knowledge about past lifestyles is shared with speciic groups: aboriginal schoolchildren residing in an archaeological complex, schoolchildren from a disadvantaged urban context and children with special-needs.
The experience combines archaeologists’ irst-hand experiences with the manipulation and creation of material culture. The aim of preserving common heritage is thus presented from a practical and integrating
perspective which creates a reciprocal relationship, where society and academics are active agents in knowledge production.
Keywords: public archaeology, aboriginal community, social marginality, children with special-needs.
Resumen
Últimamente se reconoce tanto la necesidad como los beneicios de actuar con la sociedad para proteger
y entender los bienes arqueológicos. Junto con las instituciones oiciales, los arqueólogos independientes
son fundamentales para acercar a colectivos que no pueden acceder por las vías tradicionales debido a sus
peculiaridades. Presentamos aquí tres experiencias donde compartimos la cultura material de pueblos pasados y su explicación con distintos grupos: indígenas residentes en una zona arqueológica, escolares en
un contexto urbano marginal y estudiantes con necesidades especiales. En las actividades, la experiencia
de primera mano del arqueólogo se conjuga con la manipulación y creación de cultura material. Así, se enfatiza la importancia de la preservación del patrimonio desde una visión práctica e integradora que apunta
al fortalecimiento de una relación recíproca donde los académicos y la sociedad son agentes activos en la
producción de conocimiento.
Palabras clave: arqueología pública, comunidad indígena, marginalidad, estudiantes con discapacidad.
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INTRODUCTION
Archaeology has gone beyond the boundaries of excavation and laboratory to actively
participate with the whole society. Understanding that not only past societies but also
present-day ones shape the archaeological discourse has shifted the research focus
to knowledge transfer and exchange practices with different groups in the framework
of Public Archaeology (e.g. Okamura and Matsuda, 2011), considering the relationship
between archaeology and society in social, economic and political aspects.
Hence, the original idea of generating knowledge about the past was redeined to that of
sharing this knowledge. Only occasionally does this initiative reach the ideal of exchanging
knowledge from which to interpret our own history.
WE ARE NOT ALL ALIKE
Public archaeology encourages the creation of a link between archaeologists and local
communities regarding research, preservation, valuation and dissemination of heritage.
Despite the broader spectrum of strategies presently in use –from more interactive
museums to scientiic, yet jargon-free publications for a general audience– there is a
tendency, frequently unintentional, to generate an institutionalised message and reproduce
inequality in access to both economic and cultural resources.
It is essential to build a “reciprocal dialogue” between archaeology and the public
(Capriles-Flores, 2003). We believe that this can only be achieved if the past is built – or
rather, rebuilt – from multiple viewpoints and voices, but also if the relationship between
archaeologists and community is understood as integrative and participative, involving
those groups which, due to their geographical, economic or personal circumstances, have
traditionally been neglected in scientiic outreach.
We had the opportunity, as teachers and archaeologists, to participate with different groups
(mainly schoolchildren) in activities related to archaeology and heritage management.
Here we present three experiences where our social partners cannot be deined as a
conventional “general audience”, but rather as children with speciic needs who have no
access to standard academic channels and are thus excluded from the habitual context of
knowledge exchange.
While the three experiences required different contents and activities -according to the
possibilities and interests of the working group- they all rested on the notion of continuous
feedback, where the schoolchildren expressed their ideas about archaeology and heritage
and we provided the scientiic perspective. Finally, we all proposed to “rewrite” an inclusive
discourse with reinterpretations of ancient wisdom and new knowledge.
FIRST EXPERIENCE: ABORIGINAL SCHOOLCHILDREN RESIDING WITHIN AN
ARCHAEOLOGICAL COMPLEX
The irst experience took place in La Cueva Gorge (Jujuy, Argentina), involving three
multigrade, single-classroom elementary schools for aboriginal children aged 4 to 12.
These schools are adjacent to an archaeological site complex, dated to pre-Hispanic and
post-Hispanic times.
This school community was not unknown to the archaeologists working in the area (La
Cueva/El Chorro, Pueblo Viejo de La Cueva and Casillas), and the schoolchildren were not
at all ignorant about their presence, although no previous collaboration was known. Active
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participation with local populations included visits to the schools
to identify their knowledge about
the local past and archaeological
practice to build an integral approach to heritage as a multi-vocal experience in the construction
and study of the past (Figure 1).
Furthermore, the need for information on the area, expressed by
the aboriginal community’s representative, inspired a dynamic
book adapted for local students
and teachers. Similarly, interactive
artefact-based workshops and
posters were organised to open
the door to the re-appropriation
and re-signiication of history and Figure 1. a. Multiparticipant experience at Escuela N° 116, Jujuy; b. Artefact-based interactive
heritage. Following classroom ac- workshops in La Cueva Gorge; c. Site visit to the Pukara de La Cueva archaeological site; d.
of archaeological and traditional knowledge by the school community; e) Reference
tivities, a visit to the on-going site Resigniication
book adapted for schoolchildren and teachers from La Cueva Gorge (Photographs: P. Ramundo
excavation took place after per- 2010, 2011, 2013).
forming the rituals demanded by
local beliefs. This provided the background to visualise the concepts discussed and to
narrate the participants’ versions of the site and previous knowledge about “the ancient
forebears”, enriching the experience with traditional concepts and vocabulary which, in
turn, would eventually be represented in a site museum at the school.
Beyond the didactic experience, schoolchildren participated as active agents in the
creation of the historical discourse providing a syncretism of local and archaeological
terms. Furthermore, they acted as cultural bridges between researchers, peers, adults
and tourists, recovering their native roots while valuing heritage and tradition. Based
on the book written by one of the authors (Magallanes and Ramundo, 2010) for the
occasion and the knowledge generated in the exchange of experiences the children
introduced their families to the research in work. They also transmitted this knowledge
to other groups in science fairs by exhibiting posters, models and reproductions on many
supports.
SECOND EXPERIENCE: SCHOOLCHILDREN IN A SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED
URBAN CONTEXT
The second experience was located in Buenos Aires City (Argentina), in an urban area with
a large lower-class population living in a socially underprivileged context.
Due to the dire socio-economic background of their families, schoolchildren received
complementary services at school to compensate for malnutrition, as well as medical
control and assistance.
The school was often the only institutional, socialisation and participation space available,
apart from their often-dysfunctional family. Most of these schoolchildren (aged 9 to 11)
had never had the opportunity to visit a museum or a heritage/historical site. Nor had
they attended theatres or amusement parks for leisure. Thus, the idea was to create an
experience that would be both educational and entertaining.
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Figure 1. a. Schoolchildren and teacher from Escuela Nº 3, D.E. 21, C.A.B.A. presenting their production
to the audience; b, c, and d. Artwork inspired by archaeological pottery motifs; e. Recording, measuring
and drawing a simulated excavation; f. Explaining the idea behind the drawing and its signiicance;
g. Excavation records produced during the activity (Photographs: S. Mallía-Guest 2001).
The original proposal was to debate the role of archaeology in understanding and valuing social diversity and heritage and, through
the children, reach the whole
school community and their
families. The aim was to create
a dynamic interaction by resorting to identiication, classiication and explanation of ethnographic material culture and the
participation of a group who felt
undervalued and marginalised.
Hence, the experience relied
on a non-structured dialogue,
where interpretation rather than
explanation was the rule, with
the assistance of archaeological
replicas (Figure 2).
Previous observations had revealed stereotyped conceptions regarding archaeology and
heritage, understood as static entities devoid of participation. Furthermore, some of the
children reproduced discriminatory attitudes regarding their own (denied) ethnic origin, as
expressed in the same social discourse which marginalised them, and did not acknowledge
diversity or aboriginal cultures as positive values to feel proud of.
Formal discourse was regarded as counter-productive. Instead, the explanation and
exchange of ideas was based on the manipulation of archaeological replicas. Children
were moved to the schoolyard to participate in a simulated excavation, reinforcing the view
of this activity not as a lesson to be tested but an experience to be enjoyed. They were given
measuring and writing materials, and by resorting to previous knowledge from different
subjects, they described, analysed, proposed conclusions and created new materials from
their own experience which were later openly shared. Key concepts for the understanding
and appreciation of archaeology and heritage were introduced, aiming to review false
conceptions such as the disarticulated, distant, elitist and meaningless view of heritage.
As a closure exercise, they participated in a discussion about history as an interactive
discourse creating knowledge through narration rather than data accumulation.
THIRD EXPERIENCE: SCHOOLCHILDREN WITH SPECIAL-NEEDS
The third experience was based on the pottery workshop of children with special-needs
in an elementary school in Madrid, with the participation of adolescents with different
physical and mental impairments ranging from Down syndrome to hemiplegia. While
their biological age ranged between 16 and 21, their mental age rarely reached 12. Due
to the particular needs of this group, the teaching strategies were intensively adapted.
Originally thought to be a mere observation of potters’ capabilities, the frequent visits to
the workshop established a closer interaction, allowing for the exchange of knowledge
regarding technology (Figure 3).
The dificulty in assimilating information –particularly abstract concepts such as
technology, organisation, time– demanded a well-known activity context. In the workshop
they practiced pottery-making techniques, although they mostly used moulds and cutters
to stimulate ine motor skills whilst carrying out a gratifying activity they could control.
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The proposal was to make “pots
like the great-grandparents” to
reinforce coil-pottery making
instead. They were shown the
technique and helped along the
process, while listening about the
importance and antiquity of this
technology. They were also told
that their work would be seriously
considered to understand how
people like them could have
modelled pottery in the past.
Due to their particular working
times, visits took place monthly. On one occasion, following the
reading of a children’s book about Figure 1. a. Making pottery by coiling; b. Correcting mistakes; c. Using tools and explaining
the origins of pottery, most stu- their beneits; d. Pottery productions following the explanation of archaeological techniques at
de Educación Especial Goyeneche, Madrid; e. Picture from the children’s book read to the
dents went on to do a coiling exer- Escuela
schoolchildren (Photographs: A. Vidal 2012, 2013).
cise. They had also ired the pots
from the previous visit and proudly donated them to be used in research. The materials
were actually used to develop a model of potters’ proiles and the students were shown a
graphic presentation where their work was highlighted, appreciating their role in present
and ancient society as well as the collective nature of the explanations about the past.
CONCLUSIONS
We had the opportunity to share knowledge about the life and material culture of ancient
populations with these three groups by building up a discourse where their views were
combined with irst-hand archaeological experience and heritage management as a
common good. These experiences adopted a practical and integrative perspective, where
participation and exchange were the main interests and replicas of past objects and
archaeological practice were used, together with didactic material speciically designed
for the groups in question. Occasionally, schoolchildren collaborated in making replicas
for research, demonstrating the social nature of knowledge production.
The knowledge provided by “others”, by certain groups that are usually invisible to academia,
has proven to play a key role in heritage management practices and in redeining our
general concept of the “standard cultural partner”.
This multi-voice, inclusive approach overcomes the idea of transmission of a monolithic
discourse (Merriman, 2000). It implies recognising multiple voices and interests, both
in the past and the present, rather than just the archaeologist’s view (Gnecco, 1999).
Local communities and minority groups should be given opportunities for greater larger
participation, as archaeology is only just one of the multiple ways to open our eyes to
the past (Holtorf, 2005; Haber, 2007), a much more complex and richer past than the
homogeneous model described in many academic generalisations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To the schoolchildren, teaching staff and local community of Escuela Nº 116 (Quebrada
de la Cueva, Jujuy); Escuela Nº 3, D.E. 21 (C.A.B.A.); Escuela de Educación Especial
Goyeneche (Madrid).
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REFERENCES
Capriles-Flores, J. (2003). Arqueología e identidad étnica: el
caso de Bolivia. Chungará. 35(2), 347-353.
Gnecco, C. (1999). Multivocalidad histórica: hacia una cartografía
postcolonial de la arqueología. Universidad de Los Andes.
Bogotá. 120 pp.
Magallanes, J. and Ramundo, P. (2011). Arqueología y educación
en la Quebrada de la Cueva, Humahuaca, Jujuy. Author edition.
Buenos Aires. 20 pp.
Haber, A. (2007). Reframing social equality within an
intercultural archaeology. World Archaeology. 39(2), 281-297.
Merriman, N. (2000). The crisis of representation in
archaeological museums. In Cultural Resources Management in
Contemporary Society. Perspectives on Managing and Presenting
the Past. Edited by F. McManamon & A. Hatton. Routledge.
London. Pp. 300-309.
Holtorf, C. (2005). Beyond crusades: how (not) to engage with
alternative archaeologies. World Archaeology. 37(4), 544-551.
Okamura, K. and Matsuda, M. (2011). New Perspectives in Global
Public Archaeology. Springer. London. 275 pp.
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TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
51
THE EDUCEP PROGRAMME : A DIDACTIC
INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD DRAWING ON
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY
PROGRAMA EDUCEP: Un enfoque didáctico
interdisciplinario al método cientíico de dibujo
en Arqueologia Experimental
Natàlia Alonso*, Ramon Cardona**, Victòria Castells***,
Borja Gil****, Rafel Jornet*****, Daniel López******,
Jordi Morer*******, Ariadna Nieto********
*Grup d’Investigació Prehistòrica, Departament d’Història, INDEST,
Universitat de Lleida. Pl. Víctor Siurana, 1. 25003 Lleida, Catalonia (Spain).
nalonso@historia.udl.cat
**Centre d’Estudis Lacetans, Museu Diocesà i Comarcal de Solsona,
Pl. Palau, 1, 25280 Solsona.
rcardona@xtec.cat
***ZER GuiCiVerVi, Escola de Ciutadilla, C/Afores, sn., 25341 Ciutadilla.
vcastel1@xtec.cat
****Carrer Indústria, 134, 08025 Barcelona.
b.gil.limon@hotmail.com
*****Món Iber ROCS, SL. C/ Santa Anna, 25. 08800 Vilanova i la Geltrú.
rafeljornet.rocs@gmail.com
******Av. del Pèlag, 17, esc. A, 3er 1a, 43700 El Vendrell, Catalonia (Spain).
danilopezreyes@gmail.com
*******Món Iber ROCS, SL. C/ Santa Anna, 25. 08800 Vilanova i la Geltrú.
jmorerdellorens@gmail.com
********Grup d’Investigació Prehistòrica, Departament d’Història, Universitat de Lleida.
Pl. Víctor Siurana, 1. 25003 Lleida, Catalonia (Spain).
nevolote@hotmail.com
Abstract
Archaeology is a science that permits an interdisciplinary approach to the past. It includes a number of aspects that make up the human experience and its relationship with the natural environment. Both archaeology and experimental archaeology explore and apply research techniques, methods and procedures from a
variety of disciplines, an approach that is precious for the teaching-learning process.
The experiment conducted during the 2012-2013 school year at the Camp d’Experimentació de la Protohistòria
(CEP) at the archaeological site of Verdú (Urgell, Catalonia) by pupils and teachers of the ZER GuiCiVerVi
school combined elements of both disciplines. Experimentation fell in the framework of a larger project exploring agriculture, nutrition, construction techniques and ceramic manufacture during the Iron Age Iberian
Culture. A goal of the EduCEP (Education at the CEP) was to introduce the scientiic method to pupils from a
practical perspective fostering a scientiic vocation through direct collaboration with researchers.
Keywords: teaching, experimental archaeology, experiment, scientiic method, interdisciplinarity, Iron Age,
Iberian culture.
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Resumen
La Arqueología es una ciencia que permite una aproximación interdisciplinar a las formas de vida del pasado,
comportando el estudio de múltiples aspectos que conforman la vida humana y su relación con el entorno
natural. Su metodología, y la de la llamada Arqueología Experimental, abarcan una gran variedad de disciplinas que utilizan técnicas de investigación de diversas ciencias y comportan la aplicación de métodos y procedimientos variados. Son, pues, unas herramientas preciosas para el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje
desde un punto de vista interdisciplinar.
La experiencia llevada a cabo durante el curso 2012-2013 en el CEP (Camp d’Experimentació de la Protohistòria) del yacimiento ibérico de Verdú (l’Urgell, Catalonia) ha permitido compartir con el alumnado y el
profesorado de la ZER GuiCiVerVi el método arqueológico y experimental llevado a cabo de manera paralela
en el proyecto cientíico planteado sobre diversos aspectos de la cultura ibérica principalment: agricultura,
alimentación, construcción y producción cerámica.
En el proyecto EduCEP (Educació al CEP) se pretende, además, una introducción del público escolar al
método cientíico desde una experiencia práctica y un acercamiento directo a la investigación, fomentando
vocaciones cientíicas desde la proximidad con investigadores e investigadoras.
Palabras clave: didáctica, arqueología experimental, experiencia, método cientíico, interdisciplinariedad,
Edad del Hierro, Ibérico.
INTRODUCTION
For a number of years, research has expounded the didactic beneits of teaching by means
of the archaeological method. The application of this method has a strong impact on the
procedures both inside and outside the classroom (Santacana-Hernández, 1999; Masvidal
et al., 2001; Prats-Santacana, 2001; Bardavio-Gonález, 2008). This current project therefore
succinctly presents the teaching experience carried out during 2012 and 2013 in the
framework of the “Experimental Archaeology in the Experimental Camp of Protohistory
of Verdú (CEP): Research and Educational Services” (Arqueologia Experimental en el Camp
d’Experimentació de la Protohistòria de Verdú (CEP): investigació i serveis educatius).
Figure 1. The Experimental Camp (Camp d’Experimentació de la
Protohistòria – CEP) is adjacent to the Els Estinclells archaeological site
(a). The workshops at the camp include a threshing area (b), a storage
area with pits (c), pottery ovens (d), a wine press (e), an area reserved for
construction (f) and plots for planting cereal (g).
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AN EDUCATIONAL PROJECT WITHIN
THE FRAMEWORK OF A RESEARCH PROJECT
The aim of the project carried out at adjacent to
the archaeological site of Els Estinclells was to
consolidate an experimental archaeology camp
for Protohistoric research and reinforce contact
with schools and the public through information
dissemination (Figure 1). The two most relevant focal
points were scientiic experimental archaeology,
and outreach to schools and society through close
collaboration with local institutions. The irst line
focused on three major aspects of the Iberian
Culture: agriculture and archaeobotany, craftwork
and construction. Subjects from these areas steered
the didactic programme.
PLAYING WITH THE TIME
EXPERIMENTAL ARCHEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF THE PAST
Figure 2. Early agriculture: educational
and research activities.
Figure 3. Early animals: educational
and research activities.
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Figure 4. Manufacturing ancient pottery:
educational and research activities.
Figure 5. Early life and society: educational
and research activities.
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Experimentation was carried out with the ZER GuiCiVerVi (ZER = Zona d’Escola Rural,
Rural School Zone), an association of schools in the towns of Guimerà, Ciutadilla, Verdú
and Vilagrassa (Urgell, Catalonia). It was designed for pupils from pre-school (P3, P4 and
P5, 3-5 years old) and primary school (Initial level, 6-7 years old; Middle level, 8-9 years
old, and Upper level, 10-11 years old). The project also offered a training programme for
teachers, providing them with tools to work independently from archaeologists in their
classrooms and to support the practical experiments undertaken by the archaeologist in
the workshops.
The training programme was structured along four basic lines, three of which correspond
to the research project. The initial three were Iron Age construction, handicrafts and
agriculture. The fourth was a general introduction to the chronology and geographical
range of the Iberian Culture. Pupils worked on each of the subjects independently under
teacher leadership. In the workshops, however, pupils and teachers were joined by the
archaeological team and took part in the same activities as the research team. Moreover,
the work was tailored to each educational level, taking advantage of the interdisciplinary
perspective to include concepts and procedures in the curriculum, in particular in the
areas of environmental, social and cultural studies.
RESEARCH AREAS AND TEACHING SUBJECTS
The general aspects of the different subjects are set out below. Additional information is
presented in the igures.
(Figure 2) The objectives of this study are twofold. The irst is general and directed toward
reconstruction of the Iron Age agricultural system, while the second is linked speciically
to testing hypotheses generated by archaeobotanical research (Alonso et al., 2013).
Research on agriculture, the economic base of the Iberian Culture, is based mainly on the
study of seeds and fruits that enable identiication and interpretation of ancient cropping
practices. The interdisciplinary experimental approach leads to the formulation of working
hypotheses about crop systems and management, the role of weeds and plant processing,
as well as relections on ancient food management.
(Figure 3) Although the research project did not foresee direct archaeozoological
experimentation, it did introduce the discipline to the pupils. Combined with the passion
of children for animals, these analyses were highly appreciated. The particularity of these
workshops was that they studied the anatomy, taxonomy and nutrition of livestock from
observations of archaeozoological remains.
(Figure 4) Pottery is an essential element of the Iron Age material culture. Knowledge of
pottery production techniques, either by hand or wheel, is essential to deepening knowledge
of these societies. In this aspect, the project centred on three points. Two comprised the
raising of pots with a potter’s wheel followed by iring of replicas in Iron Age kilns. The
other was raising vessels by hand and iring them in open bonires (Jornet and Miguel,
this volume; Cardona et al., 2014). Although the educational activity focused primarily on
the second technique, the pupils visited a potter’s wheel in and replicas of Iron Age kilns.
(Figure 5) The subject of clothing in the Iberian Culture also formed part of the project. This
approach, however, was not from the standpoint of textile production, but from designing
clothes for the children with Iberian Iron Age materials. Scarecrows were also dressed
to represent characteristic members of Iberian Culture society, an activity that raised the
issue of ancient social classes.
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Furthermore, wheat grains were
milled with ethnographic rotary
handquerns (Alonso et al., 2014)
and the lour kneaded and baked
as cakes in “tabouna type” clay
ovens built by the children.
(Figure 6) Iron Age building materials and construction systems
are known from excavations of
archaeological settlements. Yet
certain architectural techniques
remain hypothetical and require
testing The project in this sense
worked primarily on a scaled
reconstruction of a feature unearthed at Els Estinclells interpreted as a wine press (Pou et al.,
this volume).
Figure 6. Early
construction:
educational and
research activities.
In addition, the construction of an adobe brick wall followed by the rendering of its surface
with clay brought the pupils into contact with the ancient construction techniques of the
Iberian Culture, as well as the traditional rural architecture of Western Catalonia.
(Figure 7) The highest percentage of learning in the didactic pyramid model is attained when
teaching others (Baug-Løland, 2011). The pupils therefore described what they learned in
the course the project to their families in an “Iberian Culture fair”. The didactic concept
was therefore reversed, and the experimental workshops were no longer considered to
be “for children”, but taught “by children”. Additionally, higher level pupils were trained to
lead guided visits to the archaeological site and the reconstructed wine press.
On several occasions, these children described the project and their own personal
experience to visiting students from the Education Faculty at the University of Lleida, an
activity that proved useful both to pupils and future teachers.
CONCLUSIONS
The didactic objectives achieved by this experimental archaeology experience are
varied and wide ranging. They stretch from the development of critical analytical work
to application of the hypothetical and deductive method. They also achieved application
of the inductive and discovery methods, as well as developing skills to resolve problems
faced during experimentation In addition, they triggered the creation of teams to address
common objectives. Finally, they fostered the development of individual mechanisms and
the increase of stimulation and self-motivation when confronted with problems.
Using objectives like these, experimental archaeology can transmit knowledge and
information originating in an action. This action method, contrary to traditional (mainly
receptive and passive) education, promotes the ability to learn independently. Furthermore,
the interdisciplinary nature of archaeology drawing from Natural (Ecology, Botany, Zoology,
Geology...) and Social Sciences (Ethnography, Anthropology and obviously History), leads to
another basic objective of the project: adapting the diverse activities to a school curriculum.
To conclude, it is noteworthy that a second analogous university project based on the spirit
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Figure 7. Teaching
experience.
of this scheme was carried out in 2013-15 with pupils of the Education Faculty of the
University of Lleida (Alonso et al. 2017).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the enthusiasm and desire to learn of the entire educational community
of the ZER GuiCiVerVi (management, teachers, families and especially children). We also
thank the archaeologists who have contributed to the many interesting activities.
The programme was assisted by the following projects: 2011ACUP00230, 2012ACDC00076,
HAR2012-36877, HAR2016-78277-R and SGR2014-273. English translation: Timothy J. Anderson.
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REFERENCES
Alonso, N., Antolín F., López, D., Cantero, F.J. y Prats, G.
(2013). The effect of dehusking on cereals: experimentation for
archaeobotanical comparison. In Regards croisés sur les outils
liés au travail des végétaux. An Interdisciplinary focus on plantworking tools. XXXIIIè Rencontres Internationales d’Archéologie
et d’Histoire d’Antibes. Edited by Anderson, P.C., Cheval, C. y
Durand, A. Éditions APDCA. Antibes. Pp. 155-168.
Alonso, N., Cantero, F.J., Jornet, R., López, D., Montes, E., Prats,
G., Valenzuela, S. (2014). Milling wheat and barley with rotatory
querns: the Ouarten women (Dahmani, Kef, Tunisia). In Seen
through a millstone. Museum of Archaeology. Edited by Selsing,
L. University of Stavanger, Pp. 11-30.
Alonso, N., Cardona, R., Castells, V., Llonch, N. (2017).
Converging Research, Schoolchildren’s and Teachers’
education: an interdisciplinary experience based on
Experimental Archaeology. Antrope. 6. Instituto Politécnico de
Tomar. Portugal. 126-145.
Baena, J., Terradas, X. (2005). ¿Por qué experimentar en
Arqueología?, In Cursos sobre Patrimonio Histórico, 9. Actas de
los XV cursos monográicos sobre el Patrimonio Histórico (Reinosa,
julio 2004). Edited by Iglesias Gil, J. M. Servicio de Publicaciones
de la Universidad de Cantabria. Santander. Pp. 141-160.
Baug, I., Løland, T. (2011). The millstone quarries in Hyllestad:
an arena of research and education, In Bread for the People: The
Archaeology of Mills and Milling. Edited by Williams, D., Peacock,
D. Archaeopress, Southampton, BAR International Series 2274.
Pp. 349-356.
348
Bardavio, A.; González, P. (2008). El Campo de Aprendizaje de la
Noguera: un proyecto integrado de arqueología experimental. Iber:
Didáctica de las ciencias sociales, geografía e historia. 57, 25-38.
Cardona, R., Pou, J., Calduch, N., Gil, B., Gallego, J. M., Castillo,
L. (2014). The Iron Age Iberian Experimental Pottery Kiln of
Verdú, Catalonia, Spain. EXARC-Journal. Online Issue 2014/4.
Masvidal, C. et al. (2001). Arqueologia experimental i les seves
aplicacions didàctiques: projectes entorn a l’arquitectura
prehistòrica al Vallès (Barcelona). In: Belarte, C. et al. (coords.),
Tècniques constructives d’ època ibèrica i experimentació
arquitectònica a la Mediterrània. Actes de la I Reuniò Internacional
d’ Arqueologia de Calafell, Barcelona: Departament Prehistòria,
Història Antiga. Arqueologia UB. Pp. 43-58.
Prats, J., Santacana, J. (2001). Enseñar Historia: Notas para una
didáctica renovadora. Mérida: Junta de Extremadura.
Reynolds, P. J. (1988). Arqueología experimental. Una perspectiva
de futur. Eumo, Vic.
Santacana, J., Hernàndez, X. (1999). Enseñanza de la Arqueologia
y la Prehistoria. Milenio Editorial. Barcelona.
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52
EXPERIMENTAL AND EXPERIENTIAL
ARCHAEOLOGY IN SPAIN: ATAPUERCA (BURGOS)
AND ARQUEOPINTO (MADRID)
La Arqueología experimental y experiencial
en dos centros pioneros de la didáctica de
la Arqueología y el patrimonio: Atapuerca
(Burgos) y Arqueopinto (Madrid)
Raúl Maqueda García-Morales*, Manuel Luque Cortina*
*Paleorama, S.L. Ctra., Madrid - Irún Km 233
Polígono Industrial “Gromber”, Burgos, Spain.
raulmaqueda@paleorama.es
mluque@paleorama.es
Abstract
Over 20 years have passed since Paleorama embarked on the teaching of heritage through experimental
archeology in Spain. Based on our experiences and actions, we will examine the needs, values and teaching
strategies that we have developed in these two renowned pioneering open-air Spanish museums.
Many activities are done at both museums, where reconstruction of objects, techniques and lifestyles from
lower Paleolithic to Roman times, set the central thrust of our itineraries, allowing us to generate immersive
experiences for our visitors with a logical discourse of human evolution, their livelihoods, habitats and associated technology.
Keywords: experimental archaeology, education, dissemination, open-air museum, didactic museography.
Resumen
Hace ya más de 20 años que Paleorama se embarcó en la didáctica de la Arqueología y el patrimonio a través
de la Arqueología experimental en España. Basándonos en nuestras experiencias y acciones, examinaremos
las necesidades, valores y estrategias didácticas que hemos desarrollado en estos dos reconocidos centros
pioneros de la Península.
En Atapuerca (1994-2009) y en Arqueopinto, desde hace más de 17 años, se realizan actividades donde las
reconstrucciones de objetos, técnicas y formas de vida desde el paleolítico inferior hasta época romana,
marcan el eje central de nuestros itinerarios, permitiendo generar experiencias inmersivas a nuestros visitantes, desarrollando un discurso lógico de la propia evolución del hombre, sus formas de subsistencia,
hábitats y tecnología asociada.
Palabras clave: arqueología experimental, educación, divulgación, museo al aire libre, museografía
didáctica.
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OUR ORIGINS
We are a company formed by archeology and education professionals with extensive
experience in archaeology, experimental archaeology, education, pedagogy, scanning and
digital processing. This background deines us as an absolutely solvent, professional group
with a long experience, pioneers in this ield in Spain since 1993.
Primitivos was a pioneering idea that emerged in Spain in 1993 under Paleorama, when
almost no-one was doing heritage revitalization activities based on personal experience.
The courses were held in a wild natural setting where the participant, in an interesting,
participatory and dynamic way, came directly in contact with original raw materials used
in the past: lint, wood, bone, vegetable iber, ocher, and metamorphic rocks and a long
list of items, usually commonplace, which the visitors would convert by themselves into
prehistoric tools, fuel or food, using processes and techniques reconstructed from the
archaeological and ethnographic record. This was the irst prehistoric leisure activity
conducted in Spain, a program of revitalization of the prehistoric environment as the main
resource, in operation between 1993 and 2002.
The courses and activities were not intended to train specialists in prehistory or
experimental archeology, just to interest the participants in their past, shape new attitudes
of preservation and respect for the natural and archaeological heritage and stimulat their
desire to know more about themselves. These and not others were the goals of Primitives.
During their ‘training’, the participant had the opportunity to become the protagonist,
taking home a genuine, real experience of ancient survival techniques.
The typology of the groups was varied, graduates in architecture, archaeology, biology,
computer science, students and amateur prehistory enthusiasts. The recurrence rate for
the courses (people who repeated), was over 40%, and the groups were full in a year in
advance. The groups were limited to a maximum of 25-30 people (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Primitivos,
the seeds of our
interaction with the
participants.
ATAPUERCA AND ARQUEOPINTO OPEN AIR MUSEUMS
Over time, professional and company development led to the creation of two open air
archaeological parks from scratch.
These are open air archaeological parks, whose objective is the dynamization of the
archaeological heritage, in which Spain is full of examples, from the earliest Paleolithic to
modern times.
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The revitalization project that we designed for Atapuerca (Burgos) and Arqueopinto (Madrid)
required several years to generate sustainable or self-funded management programs
(Maqueda et al, 2013).
These projects are based on:
• A hard and deep analysis of the environment, needs and possibilities for this type of
activity (potential communications, villages nearby, accessibility, etc…)
• Study and forecast maintenance costs. This section was a main key in managing
spaces because poor planning could mean an increase in the economic needs of
the project, sometimes unaffordable, causing the deterioration of the proposed
educational quality.
• Recognition of the quality of the education provided. What seems important is not the
quantity, but also quality as a main key.
• Therefore, it was necessary to present a clear quality educational offer in response to
the needs of the environment in terms of both the type of the offer and the potential
responsiveness and adaptation to the context.
Both the Atapuerca and the Arqueopinto Open Air Museums have needed years of
analysis and in-depth knowledge to implement this system and evaluation of system selfsustainable and quality management.
In both centres we have clear preferences, imagination (originality), innovation
(singularity), and training (rigour and professionalism), as keys to coordinate the offer.
Their quality depends not only on the investment in infrastructure, the budget, the prestige
of the place we are associated with, or even national and international recognition, but
also their ability to teach values to provide an emotional experience to the visitor (which
contributes something meaningful to his or her life), its ability to meet the public needs
and establish new perceptions and attitudes towards something or promote actions in
favour of something (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Archaeological
reconstructions
and reenactments.
VISITOR’S EXPERIENCE
The attendees who come to these type of centres have a clear desire: to have an enjoyable
experience of an educational nature. However, the varied proile of the visitors means that
the keys and resources must be fully adapted in order to ensure that the results meet the
targets in an effective way: providing all citizens with a rigorous, engaging and interesting
interpretation of lifestyles from prehistoric to Roman times, so that this new knowledge
will be helpful to analyze and understand the current reality.
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Most of the visitors who come to
our centres are school groups
that generally have the expertise
related to the particular group.
However, adults and families are
another proile with speciic needs
in each case (Figure 3).
During the visit, we aim to achieve
speciic goals: the acquisition and
reinforcement of concepts and
spatiotemporal notions related
to prehistory and history in
general, applied to the immediate
environment of the participants.
To reach this goal, we make a
contextualization of the materials,
presented in different prehistoric
and historic periods, that illustrate
lifestyle, customs, innovations
and of course the most important
technology in each of these
periods.
Figure 3.
Visitors proile.
Figure 4.
Experimental
archaeology
structures.
The object is therefore a tool that
allows us to link speciic goals
and needs of each group (García
Blanco, 1988). The discourse
therefore focuses on the material
culture itself, how it represents
our memory of history and how
each object is characterized by a date, a place, an action, a culture evolution, a story, etc.
In these cases, experimental archaeology has allowed us to successfully combine all these
educational premises. It is nothing new that experimental archaeology has revealed itself
as a powerful tool to achieve different degrees of knowledge (Baena, 1997).
In our case, experimental archaeology is directly present in all our activities: many of the
resources used in the outdoor activities are made from archaeological parallels based
on experimental reconstruction (as in the case of Palaeolithic and Neolithic huts, lithic
knapping, production and ire management, etc.) (Figure 4).
EXPERIENTIAL ARCHAEOLOGY
Actually, what visitors want is a journey through time focused on having a unique, personal
experience. We know that knowledge is not acquired by merely memorizing, but actively
participating in the process of developing them. These guided activities transmit knowledge
about material culture from a personal discovery, developing the activity on the basis of a
particular action.
The activities the visitors perform are therefore adapted by motricity, dificulty or the
content itself ... but this is only the serious part of learning.
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Ultimately, what we pursue is that the public understands technical, evolutionary and
cultural processes from a personal experience. Participants do not become scientists, but
by means of the adaptation of materials and contents, we achieve their understanding of
the object and what it means in a particular historical period, in its context.
The relationship with the participants in any case is two-way: there must be a mutual
discourse between sender and receiver, using all the didactic tools available to manage
both data and the way they are displayed, in a correct way (Santacana, 2005).
Learning to learn through personal achievements and group activities. They construct
their own knowledge and develop cognitive skills. These are the premises for converting
experimental archeology into experiential archeology.
REFERENCES
Baena, J. (1997). Arqueología experimental, algo más que un
juego. Boletín de Arqueología Experimental. Nº 1. Madrid.
Pp 2-5.
García Blanco, A. (1988). Didáctica del Museo. El descubrimiento
de los objetos. Ediciones de la Torre. Madrid.
Maqueda, R. y Luque, M. (2013). Dynamization of archeological
heritage in Spain. Perspectives from our experiences in Atapuerca
(Burgos) and Arqueopinto (Madrid).. Archaeology and Science 9
119-125.
Santacana Mestre, J. (2005). Museografía didáctica, museos
y centros de interpretación del patrimonio histórico. In Joan
Santacana Mestre y Núria Serrat Antolí (coords.). Museografía
didáctica. Editorial Ariel. Barcelona. Pp. 63-101.
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TÍTULO DEL LIBRO
53
THE ROLE OF EXPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY
IN THE SCIENTIFIC SPREADING AS DEVELOPER
OF PREHISTORICAL EMPATHY
El papel de la arqueología experimental en la
divulgación cientíica como desarrolladora de
empatía prehistórica
M. Pilar López-Castilla*, Marcos Terradillos-Bernal*,
Rodrigo Alonso Alcalde**
*Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales,
Universidad Internacional Isabel I de Castilla, C/Fernán González, 76, 09003 Burgos.
mpilar.lopez@ui1.es
marcos.terradillos@ui1.es
**Área de Didáctica y Dinamización, Museo de la Evolución Humana.
Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca nº2, 09002, Burgos.
ralonso@museoevolucionhumana.com
Abstract
The new discoveries developed in Prehistory are increasing exponentially. The research on these subjects is
becoming more technical by leaps and bounds. The scientiic disciplines involved in these researches multiply rapidly. To support a luid relationship between society and those scientists who work on Prehistory we
have to socialize accurately the different knowledge obtained. In this way, population not only will know but
will take part in the decisions. On the other hand, they will enjoy cultural beneits of great discoveries.
To socialize these advances in Prehistory we must develop attractive methodologies which catch the attention of the society and make easier the understanding of contents. Among the different methodologies that
can be applied, experimental Archaeology makes easier the comprehension of the activities developed by
human being along Prehistory.
Dynamism, visual stimulation and playful factor are all features of experimental Archaeology which makes
this methodology perfect to bring prehistorical daily life to general public. On this paper we will address its
relationship with the prehistorical Empathy.
Keywords: experimental archaeology, Prehistory, scientiic spreading, historical empathy.
Resumen
Los nuevos descubrimientos desarrollados en Prehistoria están creciendo exponencialmente. La investigación en estos campos esenciales se está tecniicando a pasos agigantados y se multiplican las disciplinas
cientíicas implicadas en estas investigaciones. Para mantener una relación luida entre la sociedad y los
cientíicos que trabajan en la Prehistoria debemos socializar correctamente los diferentes conocimientos
obtenidos. De esta forma, la población no sólo conocerá sino que participará en las decisiones y, al mismo
tiempo, disfrutará de los beneicios culturales de los grandes descubrimientos.
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Para socializar estos avances desarrollados en la Prehistoria debemos disponer de metodologías atractivas
que atraigan la atención de la sociedad y faciliten la comprensión de los contenidos. Dentro de las diferentes
metodologías divulgativas que se pueden aplicar, la Arqueología experimental facilita la comprensión de las
diferentes actividades desarrolladas por el ser humano a lo largo de la Prehistoria.
El dinamismo, la visualidad y el factor lúdico de la Arqueología experimental hacen que esta metodología
acerque al público general la vida cotidiana en la Prehistoria. En este artículo trataremos su relación con la
Empatía prehistórica.
Palabras clave: arqueología experimental, Prehistoria, divulgación cientíica, empatía histórica.
INTRODUCTION
Scientiic and technological advances increase every time faster. From the social
perspective there is no point in highlighting that the technological and scientiic innovations
are changing the way of our daily life develops. In this way, all citizens must be provided
with adapted tools to take part in decisions related with scientiic development and to
increase our personal growth. Among the different tools and instruments of Prehistory
spreading, experimental Archaeology stands out.
Experimental Archaeology is a scientiic discipline that makes easier the spreading of
the activities developed by the hominids along the Prehistory. This methodology has been
revealed as an excellent tool to understand the different features of life in the past.
Using experimental Archaeology people are not just a passive subject who gets only
theoretical concepts, rather to be an active subject in their experimentations, putting in
the role of these human being, that is to say, developing empathy prehistory (Figure 1).
SCIENTIFIC SPREADING AND EXPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY
Scientiic Spreading is one of the most important social disciplines due to the essential role
that represents as an intermediary between scientiic advances and society. Generating
knowledge Society (Krüger, 2006) implies creating an effective and luid communication
between the institutions which generate new scientiic advances (in our case on Prehistory)
and general public.
Scientiic spreading has to allow society to know the main advances of research, the ways
to which those go. It has a special duty on breaking the separation (partially at least)
between people who have had few opportunities on scientiic training, politicians who
manage the society resources and the researchers. Scientiic spreading has to establish
a bond of communication between these status and roles. This will allow us to live in a
closer, equal, respectful, formed, communicative, critical, demanding, participative, fair,
educated, social, democratic, humane society and to have a wider vision of our context.
That the population acknowledged of scientiic advances allows them to take part in the
scientiic and technological revolution. Knowledge means valuing, preserving, feeling consider
your own the development of knowledge, as well as to prevent certain groups from using and
manipulating different interpretive theories. When the societies have a basic knowledge they
can take part in the decisions that are made from scientiic and political spheres.
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Figure 1.
Experimental
knapping process
and Homo habilis
knapping (copy
from Museo de la
Evolución Humana,
Junta de Castilla y
León).
The development of a communication setting between scientiic world and the social fabric
must allow us to create a social conidence in the handling of scientist’s technical skills.
The role of the spreader is as important as the scientist who generates questions and
discoveries, or as those politicians who determines what research they support and
inance with public funds. As socializing agent of knowledge, spreaders must promote a
democratization of scientiic advances and its beneits (Sanchez Ocaña, 2000; Rebolloso
Gallardo, 2011).
Those researchers involved in the investigation of Prehistory also should reach a training
as spreaders, because “researchers should ensure that their research activities are made
known to society at large in such a way that they can be understood by non-specialists,
thereby improving the public’s understanding of science “ (European Commission, 2005: 15).
Among the different tools and instruments to do so, one of the most effective on Prehistory
spreading is experimental Archaeology.
Experimental Archaeology is a scientiic, didactic and spreading methodology which
allows to know technical past procedures. This methodology implies “try to put yourself in
somebody´s place “, in our case in the place of prehistorical women, men and children.
This methodology turns out to be more accessible to approach to understand activities
developed by the human beings of the past (Baena, 1998; Alonso et al., 2010; Gilding Alejos,
2014; Cuartero-Monteagudo et al., 2016).
Using experimental Archaeology give us a way to see and “to live”, in a practical and
participative form, the different activities of the prehistorical daily life. Doing so we achieve
a more complete, deep and personal knowledge of the prehistorical culture.
This essential feature of experimental Archaeology: the personal participation with the
experiences experience it is which implies the development of a Prehistorical Empathy
(Figure 2).
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Figure 2.
Prehistorical hunting
workshop (Centro
de Arqueología
Experimental de
Atapuerca, CAREX,
Junta de Castilla
y León).
PREHISTORICAL EMPATHY
In order to spread the prehistorical past is necessary to overcome, or at least to complete,
the memorization of stages and typologies. To that end, experimental Archaeology sets
out personal participative and attractive experiences which generate an empathy with the
human being of this period.
Prehistorical Empathy is known as the skill to put oneself in the place of historic people.
Using empathy develops a well contextualized historic imagination, which implies that the
subject is able to reconstruct in his mind historical facts and background. In the case of the
Prehistorical Empathy the subject does not have written text (as it happens with historical
empathy) but it is used the reproduction of cultural elements, mostly the technological
ones.
This way, Historical Empathy (prehistorical in our case) means a renovation of the
spreading and of the teaching of History. This perspective goes after people develop
cognitive skills, not only affective and emotional ones, but principally those which allow
them to put themselves in the place of groups and historical prominent igures (controlled
historical imagination). In case of the prehistorical empathy it would not be explored
ethical dilemmas faced by the protagonists (since we do not know them), but the technical
and cultural experiences.
This ield has been developed from the 80s (Shemilt, 1984; Briant and Clark, 2006; Gonzalez
et al., 2010; Santiesteban et al., 2010). The analogies between facts of the past and our own
experience (without falling down in the presentism) promote historical empathy.
Prehistorical Empathy supposes the development of an active methodology that involves
general public in the development of technical features identiied in the Prehistory.
Experimental Archaeology and Prehistorical Empathy are intimately related ields due to
henceforth the irst one generates some kind of empathy and a projection into the past
which reconstructs different prehistorical contexts in a practical and imagined way. These
simulations of cultural activities of the prehistory make easier to people assuming some
roles of the hominids of the past in order to promote the prehistorical empathy and to
develop more signiicant knowledge.
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CONCLUSIONS
Experimental Archaeology, connected to scientiic Spreading, is a dynamic, visual,
attractive, practical and participative methodology. This feature turns it into an excellent
tool to bring the knowledge generated in the Prehistory (the daily life of the human groups
of the past) closer to society.
When showing in a practical and participative way the methods, technologies, strategies
and raw materials used in the production of a tool or a structure we acquire prehistorical
empathy. This perspective generates a more complete, attractive and signiicant knowledge
on how human being were living in the most remote past.
Betting for the development of a prehistorical empathy through experimental Archaeology
contributes to an active participation of general public, to a semiautonomous learning
and to a personal satisfaction for the achievements accomplished on different practical
activities. This methodology has a igure which stands out: as it is a very practical and
visual activity it only requires a minimal adjustment of the spreader speech.
Using experimental Archaeology connected to empathy, general public happens to go
over from being a passive subject who assimilates concepts (principally memorization), to
being an active subject of his own experimentations and of the acquisition of knowledge.
This way of learning is more exciting, practical, entertaining and personal and it will help
us to acquire a major respect for the prehistorical heritage which belongs to all the society
members.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Dr. Carlos Díez Fernández-Lomana (UBU), Felipe Cuartero Monteagudo (UAM)
and Miguel Ángel Pérez (MEH). M.T.B. has been a scholarship holder of Cátedra Atapuerca
(Fundación Atapuerca and Fundación Duques de Soria). The authors of this paper belong
to the Atapuerca Research Project, supported by MINECO/FEDER projects
CGL2015-65387-C3-1-P.
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OF THE PAST