Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 PAGANISM IN THE MIDDLE AGES THREAT AND FASCINATION Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_01_Voorwerk.indd I 28/01/13 08:14 MEDIAEVALIA LOVANIENSIA Editorial board Geert Claassens (Leuven) Hans Cools (Leuven) Pieter De Leemans (Leuven) Brian Patrick McGuire (Roskilde) Baudouin Van den Abeele (Louvain-la-Neuve) SERIES I / STUDIA XLIII KU LEUVEN INSTITUTE FOR MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE STUDIES LEUVEN (BELGIUM) Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_01_Voorwerk.indd II 28/01/13 08:14 PAGANISM IN THE MIDDLE AGES THREAT AND FASCINATION Edited by Carlos STEEL John MARENBON Werner VERBEKE LEUVEN UNIVERSITY PRESS Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_01_Voorwerk.indd III 28/01/13 08:14 © 2012 Leuven University Press / Presses Universitaires de Louvain / Universitaire Pers Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 4, B-3000 Leuven/Louvain (Belgium) All rights reserved. Except in those cases expressly determined by law, no part of this publication may be multiplied, saved in an automated data file or made public in any way whatsoever without the express prior written consent of the publishers. ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 D/2012/1869/75 NUR: 684-694 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_01_Voorwerk.indd IV 28/01/13 08:14 CONTENTS Introduction Ludo MILIS The Spooky Heritage of Ancient Paganisms IX 1 Carlos STEEL De-paganizing Philosophy 19 John MARENBON A Problem of Paganism 39 Henryk ANZULEWICZ Albertus Magnus über die philosophi theologizantes und die natürlichen Voraussetzungen postmortaler Glückseligkeit: Versuch einer Bestandsaufname 55 Marc-André WAGNER Le cheval dans les croyances germaniques entre paganisme et christianisme 85 Brigitte MEIJNS Martyrs, Relics and Holy Places: The Christianization of the Countryside in the Archdiocese of Rheims during the Merovingian Period 109 Edina BOZOKY Paganisme et culte des reliques: le topos du sang vivifiant la végétation 139 Rob MEENS Thunder over Lyon: Agobard, the tempestarii and Christianity 157 Robrecht LIEVENS The ‘pagan’ Dirc van Delf 167 Stefano PITTALUGA Callimaco Esperiente e il paganesimo 195 Anna AKASOY Paganism and Islam: Medieval Arabic Literature on Religions in West Africa 207 Index 239 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_01_Voorwerk.indd V 28/01/13 08:14 Hermes Trismegistus lamenting the destruction of Egyptian Religion La Haye, Museum Meermanno-Westreenianum, Ms. 10 A 11, fol. 392 ro © La Haye, Museum Meermanno-Westreenianum Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_01_Voorwerk.indd VI 28/01/13 08:14 Rob MEENS THUNDER OVER LYON: AGOBARD, THE TEMPESTARII AND CHRISTIANITY1 When in the early years of the seventeenth-century Archbishop Jean Papire Masson entered a bindery in Lyon on the lookout for interesting books, he observed the binder just starting to cut a medieval manuscript to pieces. Masson immediately recognized that this was an exceptional manuscript and stopped the binder destroying the book in question. Thanks to this fortunate event, we still possess the literary legacy of Masson’s early ninth-century predecessor in Lyon, Agobard, for that is what the manuscript, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, contained. Masson then published the collected works of Agobard from this manuscript in 1605. Without Masson entering the bindery in Lyon, our knowledge of ninth-century culture and politics would have been much poorer.2 Agobard was, of course, a central figure in the political turmoil in the late 820s and 830s and his works inform us about the ways in which Louis the Pious coped with his sons and bishops in revolt against him.3 Agobard’s work is furthermore important for our knowledge of Christian-Jewish relations in the ninth century and for the discussion over the role of images in Christian worship.4 Moreover, the archbishop of Lyon displayed a specific interest in legal issues, arguing against different kind of laws for different peoples within the Carolingian realm 1. This contribution was also read at the International Medieval Congress in Leeds 2009. I would like to thank the audience for the lively discussion. 2. Ms. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, ms. lat. 2853. For the history of its discovery by Masson, see E. Boshof, Erzbischof Agobard von Lyon. Leben und Werk (Cologne, 1969), p. 1 and C. Booker, Past convictions. The penance of Louis the Pious and the decline of the Carolingians (Philadelphia, 2009), p. 98. 3. On Agobard see the monograph by Boshof, Erzbischof Agobard von Lyon; for his role in the revolt of Louis the Pious’s sons in the 830s, see now Mayke de Jong, The penitential state. Authority and atonement in the age of Louis the Pious (Cambridge, 2009) and Booker, Past convictions. 4. See, for example, J. Heil, ‘Agobard, Amolo, das Kirchengut und die Juden von Lyon’, Francia, 25 (1998), p. 39-76. For Agobard’s role in the iconoclasm controversy, see now T.F.X. Noble, Images, iconoclasm, and the Carolingians (Philadelphia, 2009), p. 313-320. Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_10_Meens.indd 157 28/01/13 08:20 158 R. MEENS and against the use of trial by ordeal in settling disputes.5 A somewhat less well-known text composed by Agobard informs us about ideas among the local population about the weather. It is this short treatise, called Liber contra insulsam vulgi opinionem de grandine et tonitruis, i.e. ‘A book against irrational belief of the people about hail and thunder’ that I want to discuss here.6 Tempestarii In this short treatise, the argumentation of which has recently been carefully investigated by Jean Jolivet, Agobard argues against a belief in the effectiveness of tempestarii.7 Although we find references to these tempestarii in different kind of sources, e.g. in secular legislation, in homilies, penitential books and saints’ lives, Agobard’s text is by far the most instructive one informing us about who these people were and what they were doing. Agobard explains how he encountered people of all ages, in and out of town, who believed that men and women called tempestarii were able to cause thunder- and hailstorms. While Agobard spends most of his energy in a refutation of such a belief in weather magic by adducing a whole array of biblical material stressing the weather control exercised by God, he also provides us with some detail of what people believed tempestarii were capable of and how they dealt with them. This material has recently been analysed by a couple of historians. Monica Blöcker has discussed it in the context of a study of early medieval weather magic.8 Karl Heidecker has devoted a fine article to Agobard and the weather magicians, which unfortunately has appeared only in Dutch and therefore has not often been noted.9 Valerie Flint 5. Boshof, Erzbischof Agobard von Lyon, p. 41-46. 6. Agobard, Liber contra insulsam vulgi opinionem de grandine et tonitruis, ed. L. van Acker, Corpus Christianorum CM 52 (Turnhout, 1981), p. 3-15; it is titled ‘Liber contra insulsam vulgi opinionem de grandine et tonitruis’ in the sole extant manuscript – why the latest editor chose to shorten this to ‘De grandine et tonitruis’ remains a mystery to me; the text is partly translated in P. Dutton (ed.), Carolingian Civilization. A Reader (Peterborough, Ontario 1993), pp. 189-191. 7. Jean Jolivet, ‘Agobard de Lyon et les faiseurs de pluie’, in M. Chazan, G. Dahan (eds.), La méthode critique au Moyen Âge. Bibliothèque d’histoire du Moyen Âge, 3 (Turnhout, 2006), pp. 15-25. 8. Monica Blöcker, ‘Wetterzauber: Zu einem Glaubenskomplex des frühen Mittelalters’, Francia, 9 (1981), p. 117-131. 9. K. Heidecker, ‘Agobard en de onweermakers. Magie en rationaliteit in de vroege Middeleeuwen’, in M. Mostert, A. Demyttenaere (eds.), De betovering van het Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_10_Meens.indd 158 28/01/13 08:20 AGOBARD, THE TEMPESTARII AND CHRISTIANITY 159 discusses Agobard in her book on medieval magic.10 Most recently Paul Dutton has presented an interesting analysis of Agobard’s text on the tempestarii.11 Let me first briefly summarize their results before asking who exactly these tempestarii might have been. Agobard’s description of these tempestarii is, as I said, the best one we have, but we should remember that the bishop does not try to provide ‘an anthropological description of a set of popular beliefs’. Dutton suspects that Agobard ‘never got inside local beliefs systems, but operated from the outside as their official critic.’12 The bishop’s description does not try to understand the beliefs he is discussing, but to criticize and refute them. In a society with low agrarian surpluses, like the early medieval one, a hail- or thunderstorm could, of course, have devastating consequences. It could lead to substantial losses of crop and thus to hunger, poverty, disease and ultimately death. It was thus of vital importance to avoid such storms from happening, or at least to prevent these from striking one’s own fields, and here the tempestarii came in. They were credited with the power to prevent such storms by means of incantations, but they could also provoke such storms, hence another term by which they were known: inmissores tempestatum. For these services they were paid with part of the agrarian produce, going by the name of canonicum, so Agobard informs us.13 These tempestarii managed to control storms by means of incantations, by which they were able to communicate with the inhabitants of ships flying through the air on top of the clouds. These ships assembled the agrarian products that had been shattered because of the storm and transported them to a land called Magonia. The aerial sailors on board these ships apparently cooperated with the tempestarii, whom they paid a price when collecting grain and other crops.14 Agobard informs us that middeleeuwse christendom. Studies over ritueel en magie in de Middeleeuwen (Hilversum, 1995), p. 171-194. 10. Valerie Flint, The Rise of Magic in Early Medieval Europe (Oxford, 1991), p. 111-115. 11. P. Dutton, ‘Thunder and hail over the Carolingian countryside’, in idem, Charlemagne’s mustache and other cultural clusters of a dark age (New York, 2004), p. 169-188 [originally in J.R. Sweeney (ed.), Agriculture in the Middle Ages: Technology, practice, and representation (Philadelphia, 1995), p. 111-137]; see also the brief discussion by Henri Platelle, ‘Agobard, évêque de Lyon (814-840). Les soucoupes volantes, les convulsionnaires’, in idem, Présence de l’au-delà. Une vision médiévale du monde (Paris, 2004), p. 105-112. 12. Dutton, ‘Thunder and hail’, p. 171-2. 13. Agobard, Liber, p. 14. 14. Agobard, Liber, p. 4. Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_10_Meens.indd 159 28/01/13 08:20 160 R. MEENS he once saw a group of four people – three men and a woman – being caught by an angry crowd that suspected these people of belonging to the crew of such flying ships. The crowd wanted to stone them to death, but the bishop interceded and was after long deliberations able to convince the mob by rational argument. By convincing it of its error, Agobard liberated these four people. These are the main characteristics of the belief in tempestarii that Agobard discusses in his treatise. What kind of text we are dealing with is hard to establish. It is titled a liber in its sole manuscript and Boshof and Heidecker regard it as a sermon while Jolivet regards it as too learned to be preached as a sermon. The latter called it ‘trop éloquent pour un traité, trop savant pour un sermon’.15 In some places the text refers to an audience, when Agobard speaks about ‘your tempestari’ (tempestarios vestros), or when he invites his audience to listen (audite nunc).16 While the text clearly possesses traces of an oral delivery, some parts are, I would think, indeed too learned for a sermon, particularly in chapter three where Agobard discusses the ontological status of a lie.17 The most plausible hypothesis explaining the character of the text, therefore, seems to be that it originated as a sermon, but was then revised into a learned treatise. Perhaps the sermon grew from the ratiocinatio, the argument that Agobard offered to the angry crowd that was prepared to lynch the four people who allegedly had fallen from the airship (in a literal sense) coming from Magonia. Pagan priests? Now we have seen what kind of beliefs Agobard criticized, I would like to turn to my main question. Who were these tempestarii? Most authors dealing with Agobard’s text see them as a kind of pagan priests. Heidecker, for example, regards them as ‘non-Christian weather magicians, partaking in the struggle between Christianity and paganism’.18 According to him ‘the battle between the priest and the weather magician 15. Boshof, Erzbischof Agobard von Lyon, p. 170; Heidecker, ‘Agobard en de onweermakers’, p. 171; Jolivet, ‘Agobard de Lyon’, p. 25. 16. Agobard, Liber, c. 13, p. 12. 17. Agobard, Liber, c. 3, p. 4-5; see Jolivet, ‘Agobard de Lyon’, p. 18. 18. Heidecker, p. 188: ‘Over de macht het onweer te gebieden woedde in de vroege Middeleeuwen een conflict tussen priesters en niet-christelijke weermagiërs. Dit maakte deel uit van de machtsstrijd tussen christendom en heidendom.’ (A conflict between priests and non-Christian weather magicians raged in the early Middle Ages over the Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_10_Meens.indd 160 28/01/13 08:20 AGOBARD, THE TEMPESTARII AND CHRISTIANITY 161 in the ninth century was still far from being concluded…. The pagan weather magicians would in the end lose out, but their practices would not disappear. Often it was priests who took over from the task fulfilled by these magicians.’19 Dutton speaks of ‘pagan middlemen… who stood between the church and its people’ and in the same context of ‘pagan priests’ and even of ‘competing priesthoods’.20 Dutton sees them even as partaking in an institutional structure rivalling the Christian Church.21 Blöcker views them in a less institutional setting, describing the tempestarii as independent village sorcerers.22 The main reason for seeing them as competing pagan priests is the financial reward that Agobard mentions. The bishop makes a big case of the canonicum that people are willing to pay to these impostors, while they are reluctant to pay the tithes owed to the church. He stresses that many who never spontaneously donate the tithes to their priests, nor give alms to widows, orphans or the poor, do not for a moment hesitate to pay these alleged storm protectors, even without someone preaching to them, admonishing or urging them. This must surely be the work of the devil.23 That people regarded hail and thunder as something supernatural, of course, does not come as a surprise, since the control of weather is one of the most traditional topics in popular religion.24 It is as well attested in antiquity as it is in nineteenth-century Carinthia or twentieth-century Italy.25 That the practices which Agobard describes had pre-Christian, or non-Christian roots, is only natural and that episcopal control over the countryside was all but total is to be expected, yet I find it hard to believe that in early ninth-century Lyon there would still exist a pagan priesthood in an institutional setting, acting as a formidable rival of the Christian Church. Lyon was, of course, an important ecclesiastical centre power to command bad weather. This was part of the power struggle between Christianity and paganism’) 19. Heidecker, p. 180: ‘Het conflict tussen de priester en de weermagiër is in de negende eeuw nog scherp en verre van beslist (…). De heidense weermagiërs gaan ten onder. Maar dat betekent niet dat hun praktijken verdwijnen. Het zijn priesters die vaak de praktijk van de weermagiërs overnemen.’ (‘In the ninth century the conflict between priest and weather magicians was still sharp and far from resolved. (…) The pagan weather magicians may be disappearing from the scene, but not necessarily their practices. It is priests who frequently take over the weather magicians’ practices.’) 20. Dutton, ‘Thunder and hail’, p. 174 and 188. 21. Dutton, ‘Thunder and hail’, p. 175. 22. Blöcker, ‘Wetterzauber’, p. 125: ‘Unabhängige Dorfzauberer’. 23. Agobard, Liber, c. 15, p. 14. 24. Dutton, ‘Thunder and hail’, p. 175; Blöcker, ‘Wetterzauber’. 25. Heidecker, ‘Agobard en de onweermakers’, p. 177-8. Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_10_Meens.indd 161 28/01/13 08:20 162 R. MEENS already in the second century under Irenaeus of Lyon. In the Merovingian period Lyon was the centre of a rich conciliar tradition, with two councils in the second half of the sixth century and two in nearby Mâcon.26 In the early seventh century it was an influential centre for the study of canon law, producing the systematically arranged canon law collection known as the Collectio Vetus Gallica.27 In a well known letter Agobard’s predecessor Leidrad, bishop of Lyon from 797 to 816, wrote that the church of Lyon was ‘in many aspects destitute, internally and externally’, but it seems wise to interpret these words as part of the bishop’s rhetoric of reform rather than as a description of actual affairs.28 It is significant that when Leidrad wrote about dissenters, he referred to heretics, not to paganism. Paganism is no theme in his letter to Charlemagne.29 The term with which Agobard refers to the payment that the tempestarii receive, the canonicum, might refer to a form of levy or taxation but it does not sound very pagan and does, of course, have strong ecclesiastical connotations.30 Dutton came up with an ingenious interpretation of the payment of the canonicum, in which he gave more agency to the Lyon peasants. According to him peasants might be using the canonicum as a pretext in order to avoid paying the tithes to Agobard. They could have told the learned Archbishop that they were unable to pay the tithes because they had already paid the tempestarii and therefore were no longer capable of paying the bishop and his clerics. This is an intriguing suggestion, but even in this interpretation the tempestarii need not necessarily be pagans. The fact that handbooks for confession regularly refer to tempestarii suggests that we are dealing with Christians – at least in the sense that they were baptized and therefore could be admitted to 26. See for these councils, C. De Clercq, Concilia Galliae A.511-A.695, CC SL 148A (Turnhout, 1963), p. 200-250 and O. Pontal, Die Synoden im Merowingerreich (Paderborn, Munich, Vienna and Zurich, 1986), p. 137-167. 27. For this collection and its huge influence, see H. Mordek, Kirchenrecht und Reform im Frankenreich. Die Collectio Vetus Gallica, die älteste systematische Kanonessammlung des fränkischen Gallien. Studien und Edition, Beiträge zur Geschichte und Quellenkunde des Mittelalters, 1 (Berlin- New York, 1975). 28. Leidrad, MGH Ep. IV, pp. 542; see M. de Jong, ‘Charlemagne’s Church’, in J. Story (ed.), Charlemagne. Empire and society (Manchester, 2005), p. 103-135, with a discussion of Leidrad’s letter on p. 103-104. 29. Leidrad, MGH Ep. IV, p. 544. 30. A. Blaise, Dictionnaire latin-français des auteurs du Moyen Âge (Turnhout, 1975), p. 136 contains s.v. canonicum the description ‘pension annuelle, taxe annuelle’, but possibly this is only based on Agobard’s text. Du Cange, Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis (Paris, 1850), vol. 2, p. 93 also provides the denotation ‘periodic payment’ and refers to Agobard’s treatise and to Irmino’s polyptique of St. Germain. Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_10_Meens.indd 162 28/01/13 08:20 AGOBARD, THE TEMPESTARII AND CHRISTIANITY 163 confession and penance to atone for their sins.31 The heavy penances that these texts assign – usually between 5 and 7 years of fasting – and their inclusion among other sentences concerning improper religious rituals sometimes associated with paganism, may be an indication of the pagan character ascribed to tempestarii. Penitential sentences, like so many other texts describing pagan practices, should, however, not be taken at face value. Such catalogues of pagan practices often have a strong literary character and the use of the term paganism in such contexts is more of a topos than a proper description of an actual state of affairs.32 It has furthermore been suggested that clerics may have been particularly interested in magical practices.33 Early medieval charms that survive exist in Latin manuscripts that were written in an ecclesiastical environment and in all probability these were consulted by priests in an ecclesiastical setting.34 Christian clerics surely took on a role as protectors against hail and thunder, as is indicated by the inclusion of prayers aiming to do just that in sacramentaries.35 In the eleventh century Pope 31. For an overview of such references in penitential books, see Heidecker, ‘Agobard en de onweermakers’, p. 189-191. 32. D. Harmening, Superstitio. Ueberlieferungs- und theoriegeschichtliche Untersuchungen zur kirchlich-theologischen Aberglaubensliteratur des Mittelalters (Berlin, 1979); Y. Hen, Culture and religion in Merovingian Gaul A.D. 481-751 (Leiden, 1995); see also I. Wood, The missionary life. Saints and the evangelization of Europe, 400-1050 (Harlow, 2001) and J. Palmer, ‘Defining paganism in the Carolingian world’, Early Medieval Europe 15 (2007), p. 402-425. 33. Harmening, Superstitio, even goes so far to argue that all early medieval texts dealing with superstitious practices are a reflection of clerical literary interests rather than of existing practices; a more positive involvement of clerics in magical practices is assumed in Flint, Rise of Magic, passim; for their involvement in weather magic, see ibidem, p. 115; cf. R. Meens, ‘Magic and the early medieval world view’, in J. Hill, M. Swann (eds.), The Community, the Family, and the Saint. Patterns of Power in Early Medieval Europe (Turnhout, 1998), p. 285-295, at p. 287. 34. See, for example, K.L. Jolly, Popular religion in late Anglo-Saxon England. Elf charms in context (Chapel Hill – London, 1996), p. 170: ‘The diverse origins of these practices, as we understand them, did not concern late Saxon Christians because the accompanying Christian words sanctified and validated the practices. These remedies suggest that, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, elf disease was treatable but only with the use of a church and the help of a priest who could exorcise the evil being through the power of his words and actions.’ 35. See for example, the mid-eighth century Old Gelasian Sacramentary, ed. L.C. Mohlberg (in Verbindung mit L. Eizenhöfer und P. Siffrin), Liber Sacramentorum Romanae Aecclesiae Ordines Anni Circuli (Cod. Vat. reg. 316/Paris Bibl. Nat. 7193, 41/56) (Sacramentarium Gelasianum), Rerum Ecclesiasticarum Documenta, Series Maior: Fontes IV (Rome, 19682), p. 204-5: ‘orationes ad poscendam serenitatem’ and ‘orationes post tempestate et fulgore’; see also A. Franz, Die kirchliche Benediktionen im Mittelalter (Graz, 1960) [reprint of the edition of 1909 published in Freiburg im Breisgau], p. 45-123. Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_10_Meens.indd 163 28/01/13 08:20 164 R. MEENS Gregory VII threatened King Harold of Denmark with an interdict if people continued to blame priests for bad weather and thunderstorms, suggesting that priests were involved in and held accountable for controlling the weather.36 Clerics in the early Middle Ages were therefore clearly involved in protecting harvests against the devastating consequences of hail and thunderstorms. Would it not be possible that Agobard was aiming his criticism not at pagan priests but rather at rivalling clerics, who were providing protection against meteorological disasters and in return receiving part of the harvest? This would certainly better explain the use of a term like canonicum for the payment to tempestarii. In the Vita of St. Riquier, the seventh-century author relates how two Irish monks arrived in the northern Frankish region of Siccambria and were attacked by an angry crowd. They were accused of being dusi, whom they called hemaones – with the variant reading maones –, trying to steal the harvest from the land.37 The term hemaones has been interpreted as a textual corruption for daemones,38 but it possibly refers to the land of Magonia. When discussing tempestarii, the eighth-century catechetical instruction known as the Scarapsus Pirminii speaks of maones able to steal crops and a late eighth-century sermon mentions mavones, doing the same kind of thing.39 It seems therefore that ma(v)ones was used as a technical term for people who were held capable of stealing harvests by some kind of supernatural means. The two Irish monks who were intimidated by an angry crowd were probably seen as the sailors from Magonia, who had fallen from their ship flying through the air, just like the unlucky men and women that Agobard had to save. Just as 36. Registrum Gregorii VII,21, ed. MGH Ep. Selectae II,2 (Berlin, 1923), ed. E. Caspar, p. 498; cf. Heidecker, p. 182. 37. Vita Richarii, ed. B. Krusch, MGH SS rer. mer. VII, p. 445. 38. C. Veyrard-Cosme, L’oeuvre hagiographique en prose d’Alcuin. Vitae Willibrordi, Vedasti, Richarii. Édition, traduction, études narratologiques (Florence, 2003), p. 14, n. 3 and E. Hauswald, Pirmins Scarapsus. Einleitung und Edition (Dissertation Universität Konstanz, 2006), p. xvii. 39. Pirminus, Scarapsus c. 22, ed. Hauswald, Pirmins Scarapsus. Einleitung und Edition, p. 83 who prints maones in the main text, where the earlier edition by G. Jecker, Die Heimat des hl. Pirmin, des Apostels der Alemannen, Beiträge zur Geschichte des alten Mönchtums und des Benediktinerordens, 13 (Münster, 1927), p. 55 chose to put manus in the text and to relegate maones to the apparatus criticus. Since maones is clearly a lectio difficilior Hauswald is surely right here. The eighth-century sermon is edited in W. Levison, England and the Continent in the eighth century. The Ford lectures delivered in Oxford in the Hilary term, 1943 (Oxford, 1946), appendix X, p. 311. See Blöcker, ‘Wetterzauber’, p. 122. Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_10_Meens.indd 164 28/01/13 08:20 AGOBARD, THE TEMPESTARII AND CHRISTIANITY 165 Agobard saved the suspected ‘air sailors’ near Lyon, so Richarius saved the two Irish monks, who then converted him. This episode from the Vita Richarii does not prove that monks were acting as tempestarii, but it at least demonstrates that they were sometimes regarded as being related to the storm makers, who after all had to have a good working relationship with the aerial sailors from Magonia. Conclusion Agobard’s treatise nowhere speaks of paganism and while other texts often associate weather magic with paganism, I think it is difficult to accept that the tempestarii Agobard argued against with so much labour were pagan priests in the sense that they were representatives of an institutional religious structure competing with the Christian Church. While the concepts and ideas with which the tempestarii were able to convince their audience almost certainly had pre-Christian, pagan roots, it is hard to believe that there were still fully fledged pagans around in a centre of ecclesiastical life such as Lyon under that most Christian emperor Louis the Pious. The tempestarii were possibly local men and women who were dabbling in magic, the ‘unabhängige Dorfzauberer’, the independent village sorcerers, as Monica Blöcker called them. I think there is no reason to assume that such men and women were not Christian. They probably belonged to the Christian community, were baptized and participated to some degree in the activities of the church. That their actions were often associated with paganism was probably meant to discredit them. While Agobard’s tempestarii may have been such independent village sorcerers, there still is a possibility that, although they probably were not competing pagan priests, yet they still could be competing priests. Carolingian bishops had to cope with a great variety of clerics, monks and priests in their bishoprics and Carolingian rulers and bishops did their best to control this variety by cataloguing all different sorts of clerics and assigning to each one their specific role. Monks, for example, should be clearly distinguished from canons and should live their lives according to one specific monastic rule, that of Benedict.40 Moreover, 40. J. Semmler, ‘Benedictus II: una regula – una consuetudo’, in W. Lourdaux – D. Verhelst (eds.), Benedictine culture, 750-1050, Mediaevalia Lovaniensia, Studia (Leuven, 1983), pp. 1-49 and idem, ‘Monachus – clericus – canonicus: Zur Ausdifferenzierung geistlicher Institutionen im Frankenreich bis ca. 900’, in L. Sönke, T. Zotz (eds.), Frühformen von Stiftskirchen in Europa: Funktion und Wandel religiöser Gemeinschaften Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_10_Meens.indd 165 28/01/13 08:20 166 R. MEENS Carolingian bishops devised a whole new genre of texts in order to better control their clergy: the capitula episcoporum, episcopal statutes.41 Given such a variety of clerics and probably clerical behaviour, I think that it is surely possible some clerics were involved in questionable ways – questionable at least in the eyes of a bishop like Agobard – controlling the weather and exacting a kind of payment for their activities in return. This scenario would certainly fit the term canonicum much better than a ‘pagan scenario’. Agobard when preaching against these tempestarii may therefore not only have been confronting local village sorcerers, but also fellow priests and monks who tried to meet the demand for protection against the disastrous consequences of hail- and thunderstorms. As such they were not only undermining the authority of the bishop but also his financial footing. Agobard responded as a Carolingian bishop should. He preached to his flock against the stupidity of believing that humans are capable of controlling the weather and later turned this sermon into a learned treatise setting out the biblical foundations for the view that only God himself had control over the weather. We do not know whether Agobard ever published his work, but if so it does not seem to have been widely read. We would not know anything about his views, and a lot less about meteorological magic, had not his seventeenth-century successor Masson stumbled upon a remarkable manuscript in the process of being destroyed. vom 6. bis zum Ende des 11. Jahrhunderts; Festgabe für Dieter Mertens zum 65. Geburtstag; Vorträge der Wissenschaftlichen Tagung des Südtiroler Kulturinstituts in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Institut für Geschichtliche Landeskunde und Historische Hilfswissenschaften der Universität Tübingen und der Abteilung Landesgeschichte des Historischen Seminars der Universität Freiburg im Breisgau im Bildungshaus Schloß Goldrein/ Südtirol, 13.-16. Juni 2002 (Leinfelden – Echterdingen, 2005), p. 1-18. 41. Edited in MGH Capitula episcoporum, 4 vols; see also C. van Rhijn, Shepherds of the Lord. Priests and episcopal statutes in the Carolingian period (Turnhout, 2007). Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_10_Meens.indd 166 28/01/13 08:20 INDEX Abbo of Fleury Vita S. Eadmundi: 143, 144 Absolom, biblical figure: 174 Abubacer, Arabic philosopher: 63 Acdestis, pagan god: 152 Acharius, bishop of Noyon-Tournai: 114 Achilles, Greek hero: 171 Acta Philippi: 155 Acta SS. Bertarii et Ataleni: 147 Adhils, Swedish king: 93 Ado of Vienne, archbishop: 121 Adonis, pagan god: 153, 155 Agobard, archbishop of Lyon Liber contra insulsam vulgi opinionem de grandine et tonitruis: 157166 Ágrip af Nóregskonunga sogum: 92 ahl al-dhimma (concept of -): 217, 229, 237, 238 Ahmad Baba Mi¨raj al-∑u¨ud: 233, 234 AÌmad ibn ¨Abd al-∑amad al-Khazraji al-AnÒari al-Qur†ubi: 215 Ajax, Greek mythological figure: 153 Akhbar al-zaman wa-man abadahu ’l-Ìidthan (History of the Ages and Those whom Events have Annihilated): 225, 228, 230 Alain de Lille: 170 Al-Andalus (Spain): 219 Al-Bakri Kitab al-masalik wa’l-mamalik (The Book of the Highways and Kingdoms): 225, 229, 230, 232 Albert the Great De anima: 62, 66, 76, 79, 80 De bono: 56, 57, 83 De caelo et mundo: 62, 66, 73 De causa et processu universitatis a prima causa: 63, 64, 66, 70, 74, 76 De causis proprietatum elementorum: 60 De corpore Domini: 63 De generatione et corruptione: 74 De homine: 65, 73, 77 De intellectu et intelligibili: 82 De IV coaequaevis: 64, 73, 77 De natura boni: 56 De natura loci: 58 De principiis motus processivi: 62 De resurrectione: 61 De vegetabilibus: 63 De XV problematibus: 63, 80 Liber de natura et origine animae: 59, 60, 63, 74, 75, 77-80, 82 Metaphysica: 63-68, 75, 82 Meteora: 61, 66, 67, 74 Mineralia: 67 Physica: 61-63, 70-72, 76 Quaestio de dotibus sanctorum in patria: 77 I Sent.: 65 II Sent.: 64 IV Sent.: 61 Summa theologiae: 47, 65, 78, 81-83 Super Dionysii Epistulas: 59 Super Dionysium De caelesti hierarchia: 57 Super Dionysium De divinis nominibis: 57, 58, 63 Super Ethica: 57, 61, 63, 77, 78, 83 Super Isaiam: 56-58 Super Matthaeum: 56, 57, 59 Super Porphyrium De V universalibus: 76 Albertanus of Brescia De amore et dilectione Dei: 172 Al-Biruni, Muslim scholar: 215, 221 Albrecht of Bavaria, duke: 167, 174 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 239 28/01/13 08:23 240 INDEX Al-Dimashqi Nukhbat al-daÌr fi ‘aja’ib al-barr wa’l-baÌr (Chosen Passages of Time regarding the Marvels of Land and Sea): 227, 228 Alexander the Great: 171, 175-177, 180-181, 220 Alexander of Hales, theologian: 61 Algazel, Persian philosopher: 70, 75, 78 Al-Hamdani ∑ifat Jazirat al-¨Arab (Description of the Arabian Peninsula): 222226 Al-Idrisi: 217, 221, 222, 226, 229 Nuzhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq alafaq (The Book of pleasant Journeys into foraway Lands): 226 Al-Juwayni, Muslim scholar: 217 Al-Maghili, Muslim scholar: 231, 234, 237 Al-Maˆmun, Muslim ruler: 214 Almohads (The -): 219, 236, 237 Almoravids (The -): 219, 236 Al-Muhallabi, Muslim scholar: 230 Al-Mu†ahhar ibn ™ahir al-Maqdisi Kitab al-badˆ wa’l-tarikh (Book on Creation and History): 224 Al-Qazwini, Muslim scholar: 215 Ambrose of Milan: 168, 169 Epistulae: 141 Amiens (France): 114, 121, 127, 128, 131 Amphusus (Pseudo-): 176, 177 amulets: 10, 11, 16 Anaximander, Greek philosopher: 61 Angelrammus, abbot of St.-Riquier Relatio S. Richarii: 150 Ansbert of Rouen, saint: 149, 156 Anselm of Canterbury: 72 De conceptu virginale: 73 Antichrist: 168 Antonius of Bergen op Zoom, copyist: 178 Apollo: 119 Arabia: 226 Arbeo of Freising Vita S. Corbiniani: 142 Vita Haimhrammi episcopi: 145, 146 Aristippus, Greek philosopher: 197 Aristotle: 28, 35-37, 43, 53, 60, 64-66, 67, 70, 71, 75, 76, 81, 169, 170, 174, 175, 178, 214, 215 Aristotle (Pseudo -): 25 Arna (non-Muslim population): 229 Arnobius Adversus nationes: 152, 153 Arnold of Liège, author of exempla: 176 Arras (France): 114, 138 Artold, archbishop of Rheims: 129 Aser, pagan god: 92 Asia: 213 Askia MuÌammad I, emperor: 232, 234, 237 Assuerus, biblical figure: 171 Atalenus, martyr: 147 Athena: 28 Atrebati (The -): 114 Attalus, stoic philosopher: 61, 63 Attis, Greek mythological figure: 152, 155 Audoenus of Rouen Vita S. Eligii: 132-134, 136, 137 Augustine: VII, 8, 10, 11, 13, 17, 26, 32, 33, 35-37, 43, 72, 73, 82, 174 Confessiones: 25, 31 De civitate Dei: VII, 27, 29, 31, 49, 193 De doctrina Christiana: 24 De vera religione: 27-30, 36 Augustus, emperor: 171 Aunacharius, bishop of Auxerre: 120, 127 Aurelius, martyr: 154 Aureus, saint: 154 Auxerre (France): 128, 149 Averroes: 63, 76, 77, 78, 171 Avicenna: 63, 76, 78 Awdaghost (oasis town): 226, 237 Awrangzeb, muslim ruler: 217 Baldr, pagan god:87 Bartholomew, apostle: 155 Bartola, saint: 149, 150 Bassari (The -): 232 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 240 28/01/13 08:23 INDEX Baudilus, martyr: 145 Bavay (France): 111, 114 Bazoches-sur-Vesle (France): 123, 126, 127, 129, 130, 137 Beauvais (France): 15, 114, 122-124, 126-128, 130-132, 134-137 Beccadelli, Antonio Hermaphroditus: 201 Bede the Venerable Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum: 145 Bellovaci (The -): 122 Berber (The – people)): 223, 224, 235 Bernard of Clairvaux: 174 Bernard of Clairvaux (Pseudo-) Epistula de cura rei familiaris: 192 Bertaire, martyr: 147, 156 Bertulf of Flanders: 14 Bianco, Giovanni (ambassador of Milan): 202 Boethius Consolatio Philosophiae: 33-35 Bonaventure: 169 Centiloquium: 171 Bori (rituals of -): 228 Brethren of Purity (Ikhwan al-Òafaˆ): 212, 213 Buddha (The life of -): 216 Buddhists: 209 Buja (The -): 231, 232 Buonaccorsi, Filippo vide Callimachus Esperiens Burchard of Worms Corrector sive Medicus: 5, 11, 16 Caecina, philosopher: 61, 63 Caecus, Appius Claudius (Roman politician): 170, 177, 179 Cain: see Ham Calceopulo, Atanasio (pontifical delegate): 198 Callimachus Esperiens, Philippus: 195-205 Carmina: 204 De peregrinationibus: 199 Epigrammata: 201-204 Fanietum: 203, 204 241 Quaestio de daemonibus: 200 Quaestio de peccato: 200 Praefatio in Somniarum Leonis Tusci philosophi: 200, 201 Vita Gregorii Sanocei: 199, 200 Cambrai (France): 114, 138 Cambyses II, king: 175 Campano, Settimuleio (member of the Academy of Rome): 201 canonicum (ecclesiastical tax): 159, 161, 162, 164, 166 Carthage: 171 Casmir IV Jagiellon: 200 Cassel (battle of -): 15 Cato: 175, 184 Catullus (Gaius Lutatius): 201, 204 Celsus, Greek philosopher: 21 Châlons-sur-Marne (France): 114 Chanson des Quatre fils Aymon (La): 108 Charlemagne: 90, 108, 144, 162 Charles the Bald, emperor: 130 chefera (stateless non-Muslim people): 232 Childeric I, king: 89 Christians: 19-23, 30, 31 - in relation to Muslims: 209-212, 214, 215, 217-219, 228, 229, 231, 234, 236, 238 Cibele, Greek mythological figure: 152 Cicero, Marcus Tullius: 64, 66, 67, 169, 171 De Inventione: 171 De natura deorum: 70 De officiis: 169 Somnium Scipionis: 57, 181 Clemens of Alexandria: 19, 20, 26 Stromata: 20 Clementia, countess of Flanders: 12 Clovis, king: 89, 142 Collectio Vetus Gallica: 162 Coloman of Melk, saint: 139, 140, 154, 156 Columba, saint: 136 Condulmer (Glauco), Lucio (member of the Academy of Rome): 201 Corbie (Abbey of -): 119, 124 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 241 28/01/13 08:23 242 INDEX Corbinian, saint: 142 Crispinianus, saint: 117, 119, 120, 122, 124, 127, 131, 132, 134, 135 Crispinus, saint: 117, 119, 120, 122, 124, 127, 131, 132, 134, 135 Cupid, pagan god: 183 Cyparissus, mythological figure: 153 Dagobert, king: 114, 154 dakakir (idols): 229 Damascius, philosopher: 26 Damdam (land of -): 230 Dante Alighieri La divina commedia: 39-42, 44, 45, 47-49, 51-54, David, biblical king: 174, 186, 191 Declamationes Senece moralizate: 178 demons: 31, 34 Denys, saint: 134 De partibus Saxoniae: 90, 108 De Rossi (De Rubeis), Agostino (ambassador of Milan): 197 De S. Aureo et sociis: 154 Descriptio qualiter Karolus magnus clavum et coronam domini a Constantinopoli Aquisgrani detulerit: 144 Desiderius, martyr: 142, 147 Diana, Roman goddess: 119 Die geesten of geschiedenis van Romen: 180 Dietsce Doctrinale: 172, 173 Dietsche Cathoen: 171 Diogenes Laertius, Greek biographer: 175 Dionysius the Areopagite: 25, 26, 65 Dionysius I, tyrant of Syracuse: 171 Dirc van Delf Tafel van den kersten ghelove: 167-194 Disier, saint: 147, 156 Disticha Catonis: 181, 187 Drogo Vita Godeliph: 14 Durandus of St.-Pourçain, theologian: 47 dusi: 164 Edda: 87 Edmund, king: 142, 143, 156 Egypt: 217, 218, 220 Eligius of Noyon, saint: 119, 132-137 Emmeram, martyr: 145, 146, 156 Emo, abbot of Bloemhof Chronicon abbatum in Werum: 1, 2 Empedocles, philosopher: 72 Enigmata Aristotelis moralizata: 178 Epaone (Council of -): 125 Epicurus, Greek philosopher: 32, 33, 197, 200, 201 Essouk (Mali): 226 Ethiopians (The -): 222 Eulalia of Merida, martyr: 145 Eusebia, noble woman: 131, 133 Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea: 155 Evermarus of Tongres, saint: 146-147, 156 Exemplaer (Dat Boec -): 172 falconry (treatise on -): 207 Fasciculus morum: 183 Felix of Nola, saint: 141, 155 Ferdinand II, king of Naples: 196, 198 Feuillen, saint: 156 Firmicus Maternus, Julius (Latin writer): 155 Firmin of Amiens, saint: 148 Fismes (France): 123, 128, 129, 137 Flodoard Annales: 129 Capitula in synodo…: 129 Historia ecclesiae Remenis: 118, 119, 123, 129, 130 Florus of Lyon, ecclesiastical writer: 121 Foillan, saint: 142 Folcuin, bishop of Thérouanne: 98 fortune-telling: 7-9, 10, 11, 13, 15 Francheschini (Asclepiade), Marco (member of the academy of Rome): 201 François (maître), illuminator: VII Frederic, emperor (Pseudo-): 192 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 242 28/01/13 08:23 INDEX Freia, Norse pagan goddess: 16 Freyr, Norse pagan god: 87, 95 Frontinus, Julius (Roman scholar): 176 Fulgentius, Fabius Planciades: 180, 183, 185-188 De ornatu orbis: 177, 179, 185, 186, 189, 190 Mythologiae: 179, 190 Fuscianus, martyr: 118-120, 122, 124127, 132, 134 Fylgja, Norse mythological figure: 86 Galbert of Bruges De multro, traditione, et occisione gloriosi Karoli comitis Flandriarum: 15 Gall, saint: 95 Gao (Mali): 237 Genesius of Arles, martyr: 144 Genesius of Bigorre, martyr: 144, 145 Geneviève, saint: 89, 136 Gentianus, martyr: 118, 122, 126 Gerard Leeu, Dutch printer: 180 Germanus, saint: 136 Gervasius, martyr: 141 Gesta pontificum Cameracensium: 138 Gesta romanorum: 174-176, 180, 181, 183-186, 188-193 Ghana: 219, 220, 227, 232 Ghent (Blandinium): 149, 156 Gobir (Nigeria): 235 Godelieve, saint: 14 Gomez Eannes de Azurara Chronica do Descobrimento e Conquista de Guiné (Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea): 207, 208 Gonzaga, Francesco, cardenal: 202, 203 Gotland (Sweden): 86 Gratian Decretum Gratiani: 7, 8, 10, 11, 13 Greek legacy (in Islam): 214, 215, 220, 222, 224, 230 243 Gregory VII, pope: 163, 164 Registrum: 163 Gregory the Great, pope: 45-48, 51, 53, 73, 91, 174, 182 Dialogi: 142 Gregory of Nyssa: 26 Contra Iulianum: 141 Gregory of Sanok (Leopoldus Gregorius), bishop: 199 Gregory of Tours: 109, 122, 127 De gloria confessorum: 143, 148, 154 De gloria martyrum: 120, 143145 Historia Francorum: 120 Libri historiarum: 120 Gryse, Nicolaus (preacher): 96 Gudbrand of Norway: 1 Guibert of Nogent De vita sua: 6, 7, 11, 15, 16 Haakon the Good, king: 92 Habakkuk, biblical prophet: 174 Hauza (-land): 219, 228, 229 Häggeby (Stele of -): 96 Ham (The Curse of -): 208, 233 Hamburg (Germany): 97 Îamid al-Din al-Kirmani RaÌat al-¨aql (The Repose of the Intellect): 223 Hariulf Chronicon Centulensis abbatiae seu Sancti Richarii: 150, 151 Harold, king of Denmark: 164 Hartlieb, Johann Das Buch aller verbotenen Künste: 102 haruspicy: 7, 8, 11 Helinand of Froidmont De bono regimine principis: 175 Hellequin (the compagny of -): 6 hemaones: 164 Herculanus, martyr: 142 heresy: 33 Herman of Tournai Liber de restauratione monasterii Sancti Martini Tornacensis: 12, 135 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 243 28/01/13 08:23 244 INDEX Hermes, pagan god: 218 Hermes Trismegistus, pagan god: VII, 63, 67, 69, 76 Hesiod, ancient Greek poet: 60, 61, 63, 64, 66, 68, 78 Hildegard of Bingen, mystic: 9 Hillinus Miracula S. Foillani: 142 Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims: 129 Hindus (The -): 209, 210, 216, 217, 227 Hippocrates, Greek physician: 215 Homer: 62 Hordain (Northern France): 97 Hornhausen (Stele of -): 106, 107 horse (the): 10, 85-103 Hrabanus Maurus De rerum naturis: 95, 96 Hugh, abbot of Saint-Quentin: 131 Hugh Capet, king: 150 Hugh Ripelin of Strasbourg Compendium theologiae veritatis: 171, 192 Humbert of Romans, Master General of the dominicans: 176 Hyacinth, Greek mythological figure: 152 Iamblichus De mysteriis: 22 Ibn ¨Arabi, Andalusian Sufi: 217, 233 Ibn Ba††u†a, Muslim explorer: 221, 226 Ibn Fa∂lan, Muslim explorer: 225, 227, 231 Ibn Îawqal Kitab Òurat al-ar∂ (The Face of the Earth): 226, 227 Ibn Khaldun, Muslim scholar: 233 Ibn Rushd FaÒl al-maqal (Decisive Treatise): 218 Ibn Sa¨id Kitab bas† al-ar∂ fi ’l-†ul wa’l-¨ar∂ (The Book of the Extension of the Land on Longitudes and Latitudes): 230 Ibn Wa∂∂aÌ al-Qur†ubi: 213, 235 Icarus, Greek mythological figure: 171 Imagines Fulgentii moralisatae: 178, 180, 184 immisores tempestatum: 159 India: 215-217, 220, 231 Innocent III, pope: 1, 9 Iraq: 218 Irenaeus, bishop of Lyon: 162 Irmino, abbot of Saint-Germain-desPrés: 162 Isaak Israëli, philosopher: 63 Isidore of Seville: 7, 184, 185, 187 Isis, Egyptian goddess: 152 Islam: 41, 62, 207-238 IÒ†akhri Kitab al-masalik wa’l-mamalik (Book of the Highways and Kingdoms): 231, 232 Jacob, the patriarch: 186 Jacob van Maerlant Alexanders Yeesten: 171 Spiegel Historiael: 171, 172 Jacobus de Voragine Legenda aurea: 47, 53, 95 Sermones: 176 Jahiliyya (concept of -): 226, 230, 234, 235, 237, 238 Jan van Boendale Lekenspiegel: 173 Jan van Ruusbroec, Flemish mystic: 9 Jan-i Janan, Muslim writer: 216, 217 Jean Gobi: 176 Scala caeli: 95 Jehan Mansel, Burgundian chronicler: 176 Jeremiah, biblical prophet: 191 Jerome Epistulae: 23 Jesus Christ: 19, 26, 29, 31, 32, 35, 155, 168, 174, 186, 197, 209-212 Jews (The -): 41, 52, 62, 57, 209-212, 214, 217, 219, 236-238 Johannes Scotus Eriugena De predestinatione: 35, 36 Periphyseson: 36 John of Damascus (Pseudo-): 46 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 244 28/01/13 08:23 INDEX John of Wales (Johannes Valensis): 193 Breviloquium de virtutibus antiquorum principum et philosophorum: 172, 173 John Ridevall Fulgentius metaforalis: 179, 182, 193 Yamigines Fulgentii: 190 John the Deacon Vita s. Gregorii: 51, 52 Jonathan, biblical figure: 186 Joscelin, bishop of Soissons: 129 Joseph (biblical): 218 Julian the Apostate, emperor: 22, 23 Julianus, martyr: 126, 136 Jupiter: 16, 119, 190, 224 Justianian, emperor: 24 Justin, martyr: 19 Justine, martyr: 154 Justus of Beauvais, martyr: 118-122, 124, 126-128 Kafir (unbelievers): 207 Kitab al-istibÒar: 220, 226, 229, 230232 Kitab al-shifaˆ bi-ta¨rif Ìuquq al-MuÒ†afa (Healing by the Recognition of the Rights of the chosen One): 239 Konkomba (stateless etnic group): 232 Koran: 209-212, 216, 217, 224, 225, 234, 237 Kristnisage: 92 kuhhan (soothsayers): 231 kufr (unbelief): 209-212, 231, 233, 234, 237, 238 Kugha (town of -): 220, 227 Lactantius Divinarum institutionum libri VII: 30 Lambert of Ardres Historia comitum Ghisnensium: 15 Lamlam (The -): 230 Laon (France): 114 Laurent of Amalfi 245 Vita S. Zenobii: 148 Leidrad, bishop of Lyon: 162 Leo IX, pope: 6, 7, 12 Leto, Pomponio: 201 Defensio in carceribus: 196 Lex Salica: 11, 12 Liber de causis: 25, 70, 72, 75 Livy (Titus Livius): 184, 185, 190 Lolianus, martyr: 136 Louis the Pious, emperor: 157, 165 Luc, evangelist: 5 Lucianus, martyr: 118, 119, 121, 122, 124, 126, 127, 131, 132, 134-136 Lucius, saint: 136 Lupus, bishop of Soissons: 130 Lyon (France): 157-166 Ma(v)ones: 164 Macra, martyr: 118-123, 129 Macrobius, Ambrosius Theodosius In Somnium Scipionis: 171, 181 Saturnalia: 181 Madasa (The -): 230 Maffeus, Augustus: 202 magic: 14, 15, 98-101, 158-164 (wheather magicians), 209, 234 Magonia (land of -): 159, 160, 162, 164, 165 Magusoi (Magi): 59 Maguzawa (non-Muslim population): 228, 229 Mahdi ‘Ubayd Allah: 230 Maheshvara (Shiva), supreme god: 216 Mahmud of Ghazná, ruler of the Ghaznavid empire: 217 Maimonides Dux neutrorum: 63 Majus (Zoroastrians): 227-229 Majusiyya (local religious traditions): 227, 229 Malal (land of -): 225 Malastesta, Sigismondo (Italian condotiero): 196 Mali: 226 Marcel, saint: 15, 135 Marciocurius (Manius Currius), roman patrician: 176 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 245 28/01/13 08:23 246 INDEX Marinus Vita Procli: 22 Marrasio, Giovanni Angelinetum: 203 Mars, Roman god: 16, 223 Marsilio Ficino, humanist philosopher: 37, 200 Martialis, Marcus Valerius (Latin poet): 201 Martin, archbishop of Tours: 149, 156 Martin of Braga De quatuor virtutibus cardinalibus (Formula honestae vitae): 172 Martyrologium Hieronymianum: 120, 121, 127 Mary, the Blessed Virgin: 181, 191 Mason, J.P., archbishop of Lyon: 157, 166 Mas¨udi Muruj al-dhahab (Meadows of Gold): 223 Maugis, romance hero: 108 Maurinus, royal cantor: 133 Maximianus, martyr: 136 Maximus Confessor, theologian: 26 Mecca: 211, 226 Mecklenburg (Germany): 96 Medardus, bishop: 122 Memphis (Egypt): 218 Mercury, Roman god: 119 Michael Scotus Metaphysica: 63 Michol, biblical figure: 186, 191 Milan (Italy): 141 Mithra, pagan god: 151 Monelli, Antonio: 197 Moses (biblical): 73, 173, 197, 217 Muhammad: 197, 213, 217, 224 Münster in Westfalen (Germany): 97 Mushrikun: 211, 212 Muslims: 207-238 Naomi biblical figure: 186 Narcissus, Greek mythological figure: 152 Nazaire, martyr: 141 Nero, emperor: 174 Nervii (The -): 114 Nicholas IV, pope: 196 Nicholas, saint: 96 Nicholas Trevet, Anglo-Norman chronicler: 193 Niger: 219, 234 Njáls saga: 100 Noah, biblical figure: 208 Notitia dignitatum: 116 Noyon (France): 114, 122, 132, 134, 136 Nubians (The -): 222 Numenius, Greek philosopher: 26 nyk(u)r (a horselike creation): 86 Odin, pagan god: 87 Odo of Beauvais: 130 Passio S. Luciani, Maximiani atque Iuliani: 118 Odo of Cluny (Pseudo -) De reversione beati Martini a Burgundia: 149 Ogier d’Anglure Le saint voyage à Jérusalem: 144 Olaf Haraldsson, king of Norway: 1-3 Olaf Helgi, king: 02 Olaf Tryggvason, king: 92 Old Gelasian Sacramentary: 163 Omer, bishop of Thérouanne: 114 On Those who have Died in the Faith: 46 Origin, theologian: 26 Osiris, Egyptian god: 152 Oswald, king of Northumbria: 145, 146, 156 Oswy (Oswiu), king: 146 Otto of Freising, chronicler: 172 Ovid (Publius Ovidius Nasa): 43, 61, 62, 204, 205 Metamorphoses: 152, 153 Paris (France): 110, 126, 136 Paschasius Radbertus De passione SS. Rufuni et Valerii: 117, 123, 126 Passio S. Cholomanni: 139, 140 Passio SS. Crispini et Crispiani: 117, 119, 120, 122, 124, 127, 131, 132, 134, 135 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 246 28/01/13 08:23 INDEX Passio SS. Desiderii et Reginfridi martyrum Alsegaudiensium: 142, 147 Passio et inventio S. Fusciani: 118120, 122, 124-127, 132, 134 Passio S. Iusti: 118-122, 124, 126-128 Passio S. Iustini: 118 Passio S. Luciani: 118, 119, 121, 122, 124, 126, 127, 131, 132, 134-136 Passio et translatio S. Macrae: 118123, 129 Passio S. Piati: 132, 134-136 Passio et inventio S. Quintini: 117128, 131-136, 142 Passio SS. Rufini et Valerii: 117, 118, 120, 122-127, 130, 131, 134, 135 Passio et inventio SS. Victorici et Fusciani: 118-120, 122, 124, 125, 134 Patrizi, Agostino (papal adviser): 197, 201 Paul, apostle: 174 Paul II, pope: 195-198, 202 Paulinus of Nola Carmina: 141, 143, 145, 154, 155 Vita Ambrosii: 141 Pausanias, Greek geographer: 153 penitentiaria (Penitential books): 8, 10, 11, 162, 163 Persians (The -): 218 Peter Abaelard: 42, 44 Problemata Heloissa: 50, 51 Theologia Christiana: 51-53 Peter, bishop of Beauvais: 130 Petrach, Francesco (Italian scholar and poet): 172 Petrus Alphonsi, Jewish-Christian scholar: 176 Petrus de Chambly, canon: 121 Petrus of Cluny De miraculis libri duo: 6 Philipp the Chancellor, theologian: 61 Philipp II, king of Macedon: 175 Philoponus, philosopher: 34 Philosophi theologantes: 60-81 Phoebus, pagan god: 152 Piatus, martyr: 132, 134-136 Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni (Renaissance philosopher): 200, 203 247 Pietro de’ Crescenzi, writer on agriculture: 171 Pirminus Scarapsus: 164 Pisces (constellation of -): 224 Platina: see Sacchi Plato: 19, 20-37, 43, 62-67, 69, 76-78, 81, 171, 174 Phaedo: 31 Timaeus: 34 Plinius the Elder Historia naturalis: 151 Plotinus, philosopher: 21, 25, 26, 35 Plutarch, Greek historian: 152 Politracum: 174 Pomponius Laetus, Julius: see Leto Pontano, Giovanni Parthenopeus sive Amores: 203, 204 Porphyry, philosopher: 21, 25, 27, 31, 76, 155 Proclus, philosopher: 22, 25, 26, 32, 34, 35 Propertius, Latin poet: 204, 205 Protasius, martyr: 141 Prussians (The -): 90 Ptolemy Tetrabiblos: 222-224, 230 Pyramus and Thisbe, Roman mythological figures: 153 Pythagoras, philosopher and mathematician: 173-175, 177-179 Qa∂i ¨Iya∂: 233, 234 Qara Khitai (people of -): 217 Quintinus, martyr: 117-122, 124-128, 131-136, 142, 156 Raetobarii (The -): 116 Rashid al-Din Jami¨ al-tawarikh (Compendium of Chronicles): 216 Raul de Presles, medieval French translator: VII Reginald of Coldingham Vita S. Oswaldi regis et martyris: 146 Reginfrid of Danmark, martyr: 142, 147 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 247 28/01/13 08:23 248 INDEX Registrum Gregorii: 163 Regulus (Rieul), bishop of Senlis: 142, 156 Regulus, martyr: 135 Rehoboham, biblical king: 174 Remigius, archbishop of Rheims: 114, 130 Rheims (France): 114, 123, 126, 128, 129 Rheims (archdiocese of – ): 111-138 Richildis, countess of Flanders: 15 Rictiovarus (Cycle of -): 116, 117, 119, 121, 124, 127, 128, 132, 133, 136, 137 Rictiovarus, Roman persecutor: 116119, 125 Riculfus, bishop of Soissons: 130 Riquier (Richarius), saint: 150, 156, 64, 165 Robert Friso: 15 Robert Holcot: 177-194 Moralizationum historiarum liber (Moralitates sive Allegoriae historiarum): 177-186, 189, 190, 193194 Super libros sapientiae: 178, 179 Ymagines Fulgentii moralizate: 178, 180, 184 Robert, count of Flanders: 12 Romanus, archdeacon: 129 Rome (Academy of -): 195-201 Romulus: 181 Rufina, martyr: 127 Rufinus, martyr: 117, 118, 120, 122127, 130, 131, 134, 135 Rus (people of -): 227, 231 Ruth, biblical figure: 186 Sabians (The -): 209, 214 Sacchi (Platina), Bartolomeo: 196, 201 De falso et vero bono: 198 Epistolae: 195 Sacramentarium Gelasianum: 163 saÌara (sorcerers): 229, 234 ∑a¨id al-Andalusi ™abaqat al-umam (Book of the Categories of the Nations): 222, 223 Sains-en-Amienois (France): 122, 126, 127, 131, 132, 137 Saint-Crépin-le-Grand (abbey of – ): 131 Saint-Fuscien (abbey of -): 122, 131, 132 Saint-Just-en-Chaussée (France): 122, 123, 124, 128-130, 137 Saint-Quentin (France): 121-123, 126128, 131, 134-137 Salimbene di Adam Chronica: 8, 9 ∑anghana (Senegal): 229 ∑anhaja (people of -): 230 sapientes gentilium: 56, 81 Saturn: 119 Saul, biblical king: 186 Sauve (Salvius), bishop of Amiens: 148 Scipio the African, Roman statesman: 171 Scorpio (constellation of -): 223 Seclin (France): 132, 134-137 Seiör (rite of -): 99 Seneca: 171, 174, 175, 178, 184 Declamationes: 178 Epistulae: 154 Quaestiones naturales: 61 Seneca (Pseudo -): 172 Senegal: 219 Senlis (France): 114, 121, 122 Sermo de adventu sanctorum Wandregisili, Ansberti et Vulframni in Blandinium: 149 Severinus, saint: 136 Severus, saint: 148, 154 Sforza, Galeazzo Maria, duke of Milan: 197, 202 Shafi¨i Risala: 209 Shahrastani (The -): 221 Sheba, Queen of -: 168 shirk (idolatry): 210-211, 237, 238 Siccambria (Frankish region of -): 164 Sigrdrífumál: 87 snakes (worship of -): 230, 231 Snorri Sturluson Heimskringla: 1-3, 92, 93 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 248 28/01/13 08:23 INDEX Spain: 219, 234, Socrates: 19, 28, 64, 66, 69, 176, 214 Soissons (France): 114, 120-124, 127132, 134-137 Solignac (France): 136 Solomon, biblical king: 168, 174, 190 Songhay, state of -: 219, 233, 234 soothsayers: 7, 231, 234 Speculum laicorum: 176 Stephan of Bourbon, author of exempla: 176 Sturla ≠ór∂arson, saga writer: 91,92 Sudan: 225, 227, 229-231 Sufism: 215-218 Sybil (oracular seeress): 9 Syrianus, Greek philosopher: 22 Tacitus, Publius Cornelius Germania: 87, 93 Tadmakka (medieval town in Mali): 226 Tajuwa (people of -): 229 ™ariq ibn Ziyad: 213 Tedaldi, Jacopo (adviser of Mohammed II): 199 tempestarii: 157-166 Tertullian Apologeticus pro Christianis: 155 Theodosius, emperor: 177, 179-181 Thérouanne (diocese of -): 138 Thietmar of Merseburg Chronicon: 140 Thisbe, Roman mythological figure: 153 Thomas Aquinas: 169, 178, 179 De veritate: 47, 50, 51 Sententiae: 47, 48 Summa Theologiae: 14, 47 Thomas Waleys, theologian: 193 Thor, pagan god: 16 Titus, emperor: 171 Toledo: 9 (necromancer of -), 215 Tongres (Belgium): 146, 188 Toscano, Leone Oneirocriticon Achmetis: 200, 201 Tournai (Belgium): 114, 132, 135, 138 Trajan, emperor: 44-48, 51-54, 174 249 ≠rándheimr (Norweg): 92 Trier (Germany): 101-105 ≠ulr (magicians): 98 Turks (The -): 223, 224 Ugolini, Francesco: 199 Ugolini, Niccolò: 199 Ulrich Molitor, legal scholar: 101 Ulrich Richental Chronik des Konzils von Konstanz: 93, 94 Umayyads (land of the -): 224 Usuard Martyrologium: 121, 135 ¨Uthman dan Fodio Al-Farq bayna wilayat ahl al-islam wa-bayna wilayat ahl al-kufr (On the Difference between the Governments of the Muslims and the Governments of the Unbelievers): 235, 236 Vaderboec (Vitae Patrum): 168 Vaf∫rudnismál: 86, 87 Valerius, martyr: 117, 118, 120, 122127, 130, 131, 134, 135, 150, 156 Valerius Maximus, author of historical anecdotes: 175, 176, 178, 184 Valla, Lorenzo: 196 Elegantiae linguae Latinae: 198 Varro, Marcus Terentius (Roman scholar): 28, 31, 184, 188 vatnakest(u)r: 86 Vatnsdoelasaga: 86 Vedastus, saint: 114 Vegetius (Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus), Roman scholar: 171, 176 Velleius Paterculus, Marcus Historia romana: 176 Venus, Roman goddess: 16, 119, 153, 223 Vermand (France): 114, 121, 122, 124-126, 128, 131, 134, 135 Veronica, saint: 5 Victoricus, martyr: 118-120, 122, 125-127,134, 135 Victricius of Rouen Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 249 28/01/13 08:23 250 INDEX De laude sanctorum: 141 Vikings (The -): 106, 227, 228 Vincentius of Beauvais Speculum historiale: 171, 172, 189 Virgil (P. Virgilius Maro): 39, 43 Aeneid: 48, 49 Vita S. Corbiniani: 142 Vita S. Eligii: vide Audoenus Vita et passio S. Evermari: 146-147 Vita S. Gregorii: 45, 46, 51, 52 Vita S. Reguli: 142 Vita S. Richarii: 164, 165 Vita S. Salvii: 148, 149 Vita S. Zenobii: 148 Völva (pagan Norse shaman): 99, 100 Walafrid Strabo Vita S. Galli: 95 Wandregisel, saint: 149, 156 West Africa: 207-238 Widukind, Saxon leader: 108 Wilhelm VI, count of Holland: 167, 192 William Langland Piers Plowman: 53, 54 William of Auxerre, theologian: 61 William of Conches Moralium dogma philosophorum: 168, 175 witchcraft: 86, 99-105 Wodan, pagan god: 87, 95, 96, 106 Wulfram, saint: 149, 156 Wycliff, John: 44 Xenocrates, Greek philosopher: 31 Xerxes I of Persia: 171, 175, 176 Yaqut Mu¨jam al-buldan (Dictionary of the Countries): 226, 231 Yeavering (Great Britain): 91 Zafqu (nation of -): 230 Zaghawa (kingdom of -): 231 Zaghawa (The -): 227, 228 Zanj (The -): 222-224, 231, 232 Zenobe of Florence, saint: 142, 148 Zeus: 28 Zoroastrianism: 209, 227-229, 237 Reprint from "Paganism in the Middle Ages" - ISBN 978 90 5867 933 8 - © Leuven University Press, 2013 95923_ML_XLIII_14_Index.indd 250 28/01/13 08:23