Article
pubs.acs.org/JAFC
Comparison of Isolated Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.)
Proanthocyanidins to Catechin and Procyanidins A2 and B2 for Use
as Standards in the 4-(Dimethylamino)cinnamaldehyde Assay
Rodrigo P. Feliciano,† Michael P. Shea,§ Dhanansayan Shanmuganayagam,§ Christian G. Krueger,§,#
Amy B. Howell,⊗,# and Jess D. Reed*,§,#
†
Department of Food Science, University of WisconsinMadison, 1605 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
Department of Animal Sciences, Reed Research Group, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1675 Observatory Drive, Madison,
Wisconsin 53706, United States
⊗
Marucci Center for Blueberry Cranberry Research, Rutgers University, 125A Lake Oswego Road, Chatsworth, New Jersey 08019,
United States
#
Complete Phytochemical Solutions LLC, 3619 Highway O, Cambridge, Wisconsin 53523, United States
§
ABSTRACT: The 4-(dimethylamino)cinnamaldehyde (DMAC) assay is currently used to quantify proanthocyanidin (PAC)
content in cranberry products. However, this method suffers from issues of accuracy and precision in the analysis and comparison
of PAC levels across a broad range of cranberry products. Current use of procyanidin A2 as a standard leads to an
underestimation of PACs content in certain cranberry products, especially those containing higher molecular weight PACs. To
begin to address the issue of accuracy, a method for the production of a cranberry PAC standard, derived from an extraction of
cranberry (c-PAC) press cake, was developed and evaluated. Use of the c-PAC standard to quantify PAC content in cranberry
samples resulted in values that were 2.2 times higher than those determined by procyanidin A2. Increased accuracy is critical for
estimating PAC content in relationship to research on authenticity, efficacy, and bioactivity, especially in designing clinical trials
for determination of putative health benefits.
KEYWORDS: cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait), 4-(dimethylamino)cinnamaldehyde, procyanidin A2, procyanidin B2,
proanthocyanidins, PAC, elemental analysis, MALDI-FT-ICR MS, MALDI-TOF MS
meta-oriented di- or trihydroxy phenols, as found in PAC.16,17
DMAC does not react with hydroxycinnamic acids, hydroxybenzoic acids, flavones, and flavonols8,12 and is more accurate
and sensitive for PAC than the acid−butanol and vanillin
assays.15
The reaction appears to be limited to the C8 position of the
A-ring of PAC terminal units; therefore, as degree of
polymerization (DP) increases, molar absorptivity decreases.
Thus, the use of monomers and procyanidin dimers as DMAC
standards to estimate the content of PAC oligomers of higher
DP may be inaccurate and may greatly underestimate PAC
content.15,18,19
Recently, a multilaboratory validation study was conducted
to evaluate the use of procyanidin A2 standards in the DMAC
method for the determination of PAC content in cranberry
powders. The results of this study showed intralaboratory
variation of 16% and interlaboratory variations of 32%. The
variations were most evident in cranberry powders containing
higher PAC oligomers. No linear relationship between PAC
content estimated gravimetrically and by the DMAC method
was found.20
INTRODUCTION
Recent research suggests that cranberry proanthocyanidins
(PAC) inhibit tumor cell growth1 and decrease the risk of
cardiovascular diseases,2 periodontal diseases,3 gastrointestinal
diseases caused by Helicobacter pylori,4 and noroviruses.5 In
addition, A-type PAC are the putative bioactive component in
the use of cranberries for prevention of urinary tract infections
because A-type PAC prevent adherence of uropathogenic
Escherichia coli to uroepithelial cells,6 including multidrugresistant E. coli.7
4-(Dimethylamino)cinnamaldehyde (DMAC) reacts with
flavan-3-ols and proanthocyanidins to form a green chromophore that has a maximum absorbance at approximately 640
nm.8 This wavelength effectively excludes the spectra of
anthocyanins, which are a source of interference in other
quantification assays for PAC,9 such as the vanillin and
butanol−HCl assays. Postcolumn derivatizations with DMAC
have been used to detect PAC by HPLC8,10,11 and Sephadex G25 chromatography12 and to detect PAC accumulation in plant
seeds.13 Cell-specific localization of PAC is possible with
DMAC staining in plant tissues.14
In strongly acidic solutions, the DMAC reagent is highly
reactive via the formation of a strongly reactive electrophilic
carbocation.15 Due to the delocalization of the positive charge
on the DMAC molecule and consequently reduced electrophilicity, the reaction is specific for phenolic compounds with
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© 2012 American Chemical Society
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
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equilibrated with ethanol for 45 min at a flow rate of 4 mL/min.
Preliminary work had shown that a combination of three solvents was
sufficient to achieve a PAC fraction that was devoid of other classes of
polyphenols. The resin bed was sequentially eluted with ethanol,
ethanol/methanol (1:1), and 80% aqueous acetone (v/v). The 80%
aqueous acetone fraction that contained PAC was evaporated as
described above and solubilized in absolute methanol and abbreviated
c-PAC. c-PAC (82.6 g dry matter L−1) was diluted into six aliquots
(C1−C6, 16.3, 32.6, 48.9, 65.2, 81.5, and 97.8 mg dry matter L−1,
respectively) for the DMAC assay.
Stability and Characterization of c-PAC. The Folin−Ciocalteu
method was used to evaluate c-PAC stability over 12 consecutive
months. Results are expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE). c-PAC
characterization was accomplished with high-performance liquid
chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD), formaldehyde−HCl precipitation, elemental analysis, matrix-assisted laser
desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF
MS), and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization−Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (MALDI-FT-ICR
MS). Folin−Ciocalteu22 and formaldehyde−HCl23 methods were
based on previous works without modifications.
Prior to characterization by HPLC-DAD, c-PAC was diluted 10-fold
to reduce the amount of methanol to 10%. One hundred microliters
was injected onto a Waters Spherisorb 10 μm ODS2 RP-18 column
(4.6 × 250 cm). The solvents for elution were 0.1% trifluoroacetic
acid/water (solvent A) and methanol (solvent B). The HPLC elution
program was as follows: the first 10 min isocratic at 10% B; 10−25
min, B increased linearly from 10 to 28%; 25−45 min, B increased
linearly from 28 to 55%; 45−50 min, B increased linearly from 55 to
99%; and isocratic at 99% B for 5 min, followed by reconditioning of
the column. The HPLC system consisted of a Waters automated
gradient controller, two Waters 501 HPLC pumps, and a Rheodyne
7125 manual injector. The flow rate was maintained at 2 mL/min, and
the elution was monitored by a Waters 996 diode array detector using
Waters Empower software for collecting and analyzing threedimensional chromatograms.
Elemental analysis of c-PAC was performed on a Perkin-Elmer 2400
II elemental analyzer (carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen) and a LECO
CHNS 932/VTF 900 (oxygen) (Atlantic Microlab, Norcross, GA,
USA). Positive ion linear mode mass spectra were collected on a
Bruker Reflex II MALDI-TOF mass spectrometer (Billerica, MA,
USA) equipped with delayed extraction and a N2 laser (337 nm). Mass
spectra were calibrated with bradykinin and glucagon as external
standards. The analyte (0.5 μL) was first deposited onto a stainless
steel target followed by deposition of 1.0 μL of DHB matrix (50 mg/
mL). Three hundred shots were acquired, and [M + Na]+ and [M +
K]+ ion adducts were detected. Only the sodium adducts were used for
assigning peak m/z to each PAC DP. Positive mode MALDI-FT-ICR
spectra were collected on an IonSpec ProMALDI FT mass
spectrometer equipped with a MALDI source with hexapole ion
accumulation. Mass spectra were calibrated with angiotensin II as an
internal standard. The analyte (0.3 μL) was mixed with 0.3 μL of DHB
(100 mg/mL) and deposited on a stainless steel target. Fifty shots
were collected, and [M + Na]+ and [M + K]+ ion adducts were
detected.
DMAC Assay. Standard Preparation. Stock solutions of catechin
(510 mg L−1), procyanidin A2 (480 mg L−1), and procyanidin B2 (360
mg L−1) were prepared by dissolving the standard in methanol. Stock
solutions were subsequently diluted with methanol to produce six
levels of concentrations (C1−C6): 2.6, 5.1, 7.7, 10.2, 12.8, and 15.3
mg L−1 for catechin; 4.8, 9.6, 14.4, 19.2, 24.0, and 28.8 mg L−1 for
procyanidin A2; and 5.0, 10.1, 15.1, 20.2, 25.2, and 30.2 mg L−1 for
procyanidin B2.
Preparation of Samples. Approximately 100 mg of each cranberry
powder was solubilized in 20 mL of a PAC extraction solution (75%
acetone/24.5% H2O/0.5% acetic acid (v/v)), placed in an ultrasonic
bath for 30 min at 22 °C, placed on a shaker for 1 h, and finally
centrifuged at 1840g for 10 min at 20 °C.20 These extracts were diluted
4-, 10-, or 50-fold, and juices were submitted to 2-, 10-, or 50-fold for
DMAC analysis.
Increasing the accuracy of the DMAC assay through
development of a more robust standard will improve the
marketing and regulation of cranberry products. Ideally,
standards should express the complex nature of the specific
food component being assayed. Commercially available flavan3-ols and procyanidin dimers are not representative of the
structural heterogeneity of PAC found in cranberries. As PAC
with higher DP are not commercially available, isolation of PAC
from the food being studied is recommended to obtain accurate
results.15 For this specific application, a standard for the DMAC
assay would be most accurate when based on purification of
PAC oligomers from cranberries.21
A similar problem existed in which the use of gallic acid as a
standard in the Folin−Ciocalteu assay resulted in the total
polyphenol content of pomegranate powders being underestimated by up to 30%. We addressed this issue by developing
and validating a novel pomegranate standard.15 The pomegranate standard was reflective of the complex nature of
oligomeric ellagitannins found in pomegranate source material,
and it was an improvement over the gallic acid standard for
accurately quantifying polyphenols in pomegranate powders.
In this work, we investigated the suitability of PAC that were
isolated from cranberry (c-PAC) press cake for use as a
standard in the DMAC assay to more accurately quantify PAC
in cranberry powders and juices. Mass spectrometry analysis
corroborated PAC composition and confirmed cranberryspecific structures, that is, A-type proanthocyanidins. This
method can be easily applied to the generation of PAC from
other food sources (chocolate, grapes, etc.) and further applied
to other food industries.
■
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Chemicals and Reagents. Water, methanol, acetone (HPLC
grade), hydrochloric acid (37.4% v/v), sodium carbonate, and
formaldehyde solution (37% w/w) were purchased from Fisher
Scientific (Fair Lawn, NJ, USA). Ethanol (200 proof) was obtained
from Decon Laboratories Inc. (King of Prussia, PA, USA). The reagent
4-(dimethylamino)cinnamaldehyde was purchased from Acros Organics (Geel, Belgium). The standards procyanidins A2 and B2 were
purchased from Indofine Chemical Co. Inc. (Hillsborough, NJ, USA).
(+)-Catechin hydrate, bradykinin, 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB),
gallic acid, glucagon, angiotensin II, and the Folin−Ciocalteu reagent
were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Sephadex
LH-20 was purchased from GE Healthcare (Uppsala, Sweden).
Samples. Cranberry press cake was obtained from Ocean Spray
Cranberries, Inc. (Wisconsin Rapids, WI, USA) from a nondepectinized production line of North American cranberries (Vaccinium
macrocarpon Ait.). The press cake was ground to a fine powder with
liquid nitrogen and frozen at −80 °C until further use. Cranberry
powders (powders A, B, and C) were commercially sourced. One
hundred percent cranberry juice (juice B) and three different brands of
cranberry juice blends (juices A, C, and D) were purchased from a
local supermarket.
Preparation of c-PAC. Frozen cranberry press cake powder (100
g) was extracted with 70% aqueous acetone (v/v; 400 mL) in an
ultrasonic bath for 15 min. The extract was centrifuged at 400g at 15
°C for 10 min and the supernatant collected. The extraction was
repeated twice, and the supernatants were combined. After filtration
with cellulose paper, acetone was removed by rotary evaporation
under vacuum at 35 °C, and the remaining suspension was solubilized
in ethanol. The extract was then centrifuged at 13416g at 0 °C for 10
min to eliminate insoluble material. The supernatant was used to
isolate PAC by chromatography on Sephadex LH-20.
The ethanolic cranberry press cake extract was loaded on a glass
column (2.5 cm i.d. × 60 cm length, Kontes, Chromaflex) packed with
Sephadex LH-20 that was previously swollen and washed in water and
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Protocol. The procedure used in this experimental work was based
on the previously published DMAC protocol.20 An acidified ethanol
solution was prepared by adding 12.5 mL of hydrochloric acid (37%)
to 12.5 mL of deionized water and 75 mL of ethanol. A 0.1% (w/v)
DMAC reagent solution was prepared immediately prior to use.
Polystyrene 96-well plates were utilized in conjunction with a
Thermo Scientific Varioskan Flash plate reader (Hudson, NH, USA)
to measure absorbance. Seventy microliters of blanks (80% ethanol),
calibration standards, and samples was dispensed into individual wells.
A multichannel pipet was used to dispense 210 μL of DMAC reagent
solution into each well, excluding blanks. Immediately after the
addition of DMAC reagent, the plate was placed into a plate reader
and shaken for 10 s at 600 shakes min−1. Absorbance readings at 640
nm were taken every 30 s for 1 h. The corresponding blank absorbance
readings at each time point were subtracted from those from the
standard and sample wells. For powders and juices, sample blanks
(diluted samples only) were also analyzed to correct for interference
from sample color.
Data and Statistical Analysis. All data were reported as the mean
± standard deviation of at least three replicates. mMass version 3.9.024
was used for mass spectra analysis.
Figure 2. MALDI-TOF MS spectrum in positive linear mode, showing
PAC oligomers with degree of polymerization between 3 and 26.
(Inset) Enlarged spectrum after a Savitzky−Golay smoothing function
was applied to assist with visualizing the peaks for m/z >4900.
RESULTS
The stability of c-PAC was evaluated monthly over the course
of a year (70.9 ± 5.2 g GAE/L), and the results showed a
coefficient of variation of <7.5%. Over that same period,
MALDI-TOF MS spectra did not show any new peaks arising
from degradation reactions (data not shown).
Results from HPLC-DAD showed two unresolved humps,
characteristic of PAC. Absorbance at wavelengths higher than
280 nm that would be typical of other cranberry polyphenols
such as hydroxycinnamic acids (320 nm), flavonols (360 nm),
and anthocyanins (520 nm) was low compared to absorbance
at 280 nm (Figure 1). The purity of c-PAC was estimated to be
99.0 ± 1.3% by the formaldehyde−HCl precipitation test, and
elemental analysis showed 58.2% C, 4.7% H, and 37.3% O.
■
Figure 1. HPLC chromatogram recorded at 280, 320, 370, and 520
nm of c-PAC.
know this is the first report of the application of MALDI-FTICR MS to the study of PAC from cranberries.
Standard curves were produced for catechin, procyanidin A2,
procyanidin B2, and c-PAC. Intercept coefficients were very
small compared to the slope values, and therefore their impact
on estimating PAC content was negligible. The slope of the cPAC standard curve was 2.5 times lower than those of
procyanidins A2 and B2 and 7.1 times lower than that of
catechin (Figure 4), indicating that c-PAC content would be
underestimated by 7.1- and 2.5-fold if these standards were
used for the DMAC assay.
The theoretical detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ)
limits of the method were calculated as described previously.28
As an example, for procyanidin A2, LOD was 1.94 mg/L and
LOQ was 6.47 mg/L. To determine if these values were
detected above the equipment noise level, a lower linear range
between 1.0 and 6.0 mg/L of procyanidin A2 was prepared.
The results showed a very similar regression curve fit to the
linear range shown in Figure 4 (data not shown), suggesting
that the DMAC method is sensitive enough to detect c-PAC
concentrations of 1−6 mg/L.
A 96-well plate reader increased efficiency and output and
allowed for monitoring reaction kinetics (Figure 5). Our results
show that procyanidin B2 reaches its maximum absorbance
more quickly than the other standards and 6.5 times more
quickly than procyanidin A2 (Figure 6). These times required
to reach maximum absorbance (tmax) were consistent across
different days of analysis (data not shown). When using the cPAC standard, cranberry powders and juices had on average 2.2
more PAC than if procyanidin A2 standard was used (Table 1).
The MALDI-TOF MS spectrum in linear mode showed a
wide range of PAC with DP between 3 and 26 (Figure 2).
Peaks consistent with anthocyanidin moieties bound to PAC
(antho-PAC) were also detected.25 However, the MALDI-TOF
MS spectra did not have high enough resolution to assign
accurate masses to these peaks, so MALDI-FT-ICR MS was
used to characterize these compounds. The major peaks seen
between each PAC series correspond to anthocyanin−
polyflavan-3-ol oligomers that have previously been described
in cranberries (Figure 3).25−27 High-resolution mass spectrometry techniques have been used in proteomics, but as far as we
DISCUSSION
In this work, we isolated PAC from cranberry press cake for use
as a standard in the DMAC assay for quantifying PAC content
in cranberry products. This strategy may also be applied to
whole fruit and juice. The isolation of standards for use in
colorimetric assays has already been pursued in other food
sources such as carob pods29 and pomegranates.22
Characterization of c-PAC. The HPLC chromatogram of
c-PAC at 280 nm showed two unresolved humps and minor
absorbance at 520 nm due to the presence of antho-PAC. The
poorly resolved chromatogram at 280 nm reflects the large
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Figure 3. MALDI-FT-ICR MS spectrum, showing PAC and antho-PAC: m/z 1017, pyranocyanidin-arabinoside-A2; m/z 1019,
pyranoanthocyanidin-arabinoside-DP2B; m/z 1021, A2-ethyl-cyanidin-arabinoside; m/z 1023, DP2B-ethyl-cyanidin-arabinoside; m/z 1031,
pyranopeonidin-arabinoside-A2; m/z 1033, pyranopeonidin-arabinoside-DP2B; m/z 1035, A2-ethyl-peonidin-arabinoside; m/z 1037, DP2B-ethylpeonidin-arabinoside; m/z 1047, pyranocyanidin-hexoside-A2; m/z 1049, pyranocyanidin-hexoside-DP2B; m/z 1061, pyranopeonidin-hexoside-A2;
m/z 1063, pyranopeonidin-hexoside-DP2B; m/z 1065, A2-ethyl-peonidin-hexoside.
Figure 5. Absorbance at 640 nm over 60 min after reaction of 4(dimethylamino)cinnamaldehyde with four different standards:
catechin (1.07 μg); c-PAC (1.14 μg); procyanidin A2 (1.09 μg);
procyanidin B2 (1.06 μg).
Figure 4. Regression curves for catechin, procyanidin A2, procyanidin
B2, and c-PAC after reaction with 4-(dimethylamino)cinnamaldehyde.
structural heterogeneity of c-PAC.25 Reverse-phase HPLC is
unable to separate PAC higher than trimers due to the large
number of possible isomers that increase exponentially with
PAC chain length; more than a trillion PAC molecules can exist
for DP above 21.30 No peaks with an absorbance maximum that
is typical of the other classes of cranberry polyphenolic
compounds (anthocyanins, hydroxycinnamic acids, and flavonols) were observed, and the UV spectrum during the entire
HPLC elution was identical to that of PAC. These initial
chromatographic data suggest that c-PAC did not contain other
classes of flavonoids.
An absolute measurement of PAC was done gravimetrically
by using the formaldehyde−HCl precipitation test. Under
acidic conditions, formaldehyde reacts with flavonoids, leading
to polymerization and precipitation.31 PAC purity is estimated
by weighing the lyophilized supernatant that contains nonflavonoid components.23 Applying this methodology, the
present work suggested that c-PAC had a purity of 99.0%,
reinforcing the chromatographic data that indicated the absence
of other flavonoids. This value is higher than in previous works
in which the purity of grape seed PAC obtained by RP-18
chromatography was 93%.23
Elemental analysis was utilized to determine the purity of
PAC similar to the approach taken for PAC isolated from
grapes and highbush blueberries.32,33 The percentages of C, H,
and O are not altered with an increase in DP, as the addition of
one repeating flavan-3-ol unit does not change the elemental
analysis. Calculated elemental analysis for cranberry PAC
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in the reflectron mode. MALDI-TOF MS linear mode spectra
had m/z peaks that corresponded to PAC with a range of 3−26
DP. Our previous works have shown PAC from cranberry press
cake with DP up to 23,25 so the present work shows the highest
DP reported in the literature using MS techniques. Spectra in
linear mode also displayed m/z peaks that correspond to anthoPAC molecules. Accurate mass assignment of these peaks was
possible only in reflectron mode and with the use of FT-ICR
MS, which provides increased mass resolution and accuracy.34
Antho-PAC are thought to be derived from ripening and
postharvest processing and storage steps26 and can account for
up to 10% of sample weight.35 Antho-PAC, in which an
anthocyanin moiety occupies the C8 position of the terminal
catechin molecule, cannot react with DMAC because the C8
position is not avaiable for the reaction. The presence of anthoPAC also contributes to an underestimation of PAC when
using standards such as catechin and procyanidins A2 and B2 in
the DMAC assay.
Influence of Different Standards on the DMAC
Reaction Kinetics. Catechin was used in this work because
it has historically been the standard of choice9,36−38 for the
DMAC reaction. Procyanidin A2 was investigated, as it has
recently gained acceptance as an improvement over the
catechin standard for the quantification of cranberry PAC.20
Procyanidin B2 was investigated to determine if the nature of
the interflavan bond influences reaction kinetics. Finally, c-PAC
was investigated to determine the reaction kinetics of a
standard that represents the structural heterogeneity of PAC
found in cranberry.
Catechin had a much greater slope (y = 0.9982x − 0.0289)
than the other standards, which agrees with recently published
research.16 The slopes of procyanidins A2 (y = 0.3538x −
0.0024) and B2 (y = 0.3568x − 0.0084) regression curves were
very similar and about 2.8 times lower than that of catechin. A
previous publication indicated slightly different slopes for
procyanidins A2 and B2. However, absorbance was read after
30 min instead of at tmax in that study;11 as regression equations
were not provided in that publication, no quantitative
comparisons to our results can be made.
The slope of the c-PAC regression curve (y = 0.1406x +
0.0101) was 7.1 times lower when compared with catechin and
2.5 times lower when compared with procyanidin A2 and B2
standards (Figure 4). Prior et al.20 previously speculated that
large polymeric PAC compounds may have a lower response
per unit weight than monomers or dimeric procyanidins. The
use of PAC oligomers as standards was suggested as a better
approach for estimating chocolate content and confectionary
products rich in PAC with high molecular weights.16 The
reduced response of c-PAC is likely due to the proportion of C8
reactive sites on the PAC that are available to participate in the
DMAC reaction. If, as previously reported, the C8 terminal unit
is the only position available for DMAC reaction, then as the
PAC grows linearly in polymer length, each additional DP adds
weight but no additional DMAC reactivity. Thus, it is not
unexpected that when c-PAC, which represents the structural
heterogeneity and oligomeric dispersion (DP 3−26) of
cranberry PAC, is used as a standard in the DMAC reaction,
the response will be lower than that of the currently accepted
procyanidin A2 standard. This is precisely the justification for
investigating the development of robust standards, consisting of
the natural structural heterogeneity of PAC found in the source
material. It is imperative that the standard of choice has similar
Figure 6. Variation of time required to reach maximum absorbance
(tmax) with increasing levels of concentration (C1−C6, see Materials
and Methods) for catechin, procyanidin A2, procyanidin B2, and cPAC.
Table 1. PAC Content Estimated with the 4(Dimethylamino)cinnamaldehyde Method in Cranberry
Powders and Cranberry Juices Using Procyanidin A2 and cPAC as Standardsa
powder A
powder B
powder C
juice A
juice B
juice C
juice D
procyanidin A2
c-PAC
198.8 ± 3.5
123.0 ± 13.6
146.2 ± 9.1
174.3 ± 16.5
777.2 ± 79.9
95.5 ± 9.1
43.9 ± 4.6
421.8 ± 51.2
271.7 ± 37.0
316.9 ± 22.1
381.1 ± 11.3
1716.2 ± 107.6
207.4 ± 3.1
94.3 ± 0.6
a
Results are expressed as the average of three independent replicates
and standard deviation in mg/g for powders and mg/L for juices.
dimers showed 62.4% C, 4.3% H, and 33.3% O. For dimeric
antho-PAC, 60.9% C, 4.4% H, and 34.7% O were calculated. In
antho-PAC the amount of C is slightly lower and the
percentage of O is slightly higher than in PAC due to the
increase in O/C ratio with the introduction of anthocyanin
moieties. c-PAC showed the following elemental composition:
C, 58.2%; H, 4.7%; O, 37.3%. Nitrogen detection was 0.1%,
leading to the conclusion that few, if any, nitrogenous
compounds were present in c-PAC. In addition to the lower
amount of C and slightly higher amounts of H and O obtained
experimentally, a weight loss of 11.7% was observed when cPAC was evaporated under nitrogen and dried overnight at 100
°C, suggesting that c-PAC contained water. Previous works
with purified polymeric PAC fractions from different sources
have shown a 13−15% weight loss upon drying and that
anhydrous PAC polymers are highly hygroscopic.33 Assuming a
molecule of water per each flavan unit, PAC would have 58.9%
C, 4.6% H, and 36.6% O and antho-PAC would have 59.2% C,
4.6% H, and 36.2% O. The discrepancy between these values
and the experimental values is ≤1.1%. Other authors have
reported PAC fractions with 2.5−3 mol of water per
monomeric unit.33 The deviation of our elemental analysis of
c-PAC from theoretical values is lower than published results
for purified grape seed PAC, in which the error for C content
was 7%.23
In this research, we used both linear and reflectron MALDI
MS modes because they provide complementary information;
high sensitivity was obtained in the linear mode, particularly at
high molecular weights, whereas high resolution was achieved
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reported PAC content will be higher when using a PAC
standard that was isolated from a similar product matrix.
The development of new standards for the measurement of
polyphenols in pomegranate samples has shown that using a
commercially available standard in the Folin−Ciocalteu can
underestimate the polyphenolic content up to 30%.22 The use
of c-PAC in the DMAC assay showed a more pronounced
effect on PAC estimation because cranberry powders and juices
were underestimated up to 47% compared to procyanidin A2
results. The daily dosage of 36 mg would correspond to almost
80 mg by using the c-PAC standard. However, within a clinical
study the actual amount of cranberry product that was used to
obtain an effect would not be different. However, the accuracy
problem becomes more important when cranberry products are
compared across clinical studies and is a serious problem in
meta analysis of the efficacy of cranberries in clinical studies on
urinary tract infections.45 Accurate estimation of PAC content
is important for standardizing products for use in clinical
research and in compositional analysis of products for GRAS
approval. Underestimation of PAC content by 40% would lead
to a large amount of unidentified components in a cranberry
powder supplement.
We developed a c-PAC standard from cranberry press cake as
a first step toward better understanding the influence PAC
oligomer length and PAC structural complexity have on the
kinetics of the DMAC reaction. A potential problem may exist
in the choice of press cake as the source material for the
isolation of cranberry PAC for use as a standard, as PAC
composition may differ between fruits, juices, and press cake.
Low molecular weight PAC are water-soluble, whereas higher
molecular weight PAC are partially insoluble in water. Because
water-soluble PACs are easily extracted during juicing, the press
cake is relatively enriched in higher molecular weight PAC. The
differences in the reaction kinetics of PAC standards derived
from whole fruit, juice, and press cake are currently being
researched in our laboratory. It may be necessary to develop
several PAC standards derived from different cranberry
products to accurately measure PAC content in products with
variable PAC structural profiles, along with mass spectrometry
techniques. Preliminary MALDI-TOF MS data indicate that the
range of DP of standards prepared on different days is very
similar.
Although c-PAC is a complex mixture of closely related
oligomers, analysis by several analytic techniques showed that
the standard may be reliably reproduced and represents the
structural heterogeneity of cranberry PAC from press cake
including degree of polymerization, A-type interflavan linkages,
and antho-PAC. The DMAC method as it stands is extremely
rapid as all samples (juices and powders) and standards reach
their tmax before 15 min and no temperature control is
necessary. The use of c-PAC as a standard improves the
accuracy of PAC quantification when compared to the use of
the procyanidin A2 standard. A reference standard for the
DMAC assay is most accurate when based on the partial
purification of a PAC from the food source, which could
constitute a hurdle for the implementation of this methodology
as routine. However, due to the long-term stability of c-PAC
standard, it seems that the work involved in preparing the
standard is warranted and will result in an invaluable tool for
estimating PAC in complex samples such as cranberries.
The intent of this paper is not to advocate the use of the cPAC standard that was developed in this research as the
reference standard to be used for the DMAC assay, but rather
reaction kinetics to the product for which accurate
quantification of PAC content is desired.
The end point of the DMAC reaction that was previously
used varied from 5,37,39 to 2040 and to 35 min.11 However, the
chromophore generated in the DMAC reaction is not stable15
and reaches its maximum absorbance at different time points,
depending on the flavan-3-ols used in the reaction.16,20 Our
kinetics for procyanidins A2 and B2 have similar shapes as in a
previous work; tmax was not described in that research.11 For the
same concentration of procyanidins A2 and B2, similar
maximum absorbance values were attained, but procyanidin
B2 reached maximum absorbance more quickly than
procyanidin A2 (Figure 5). PAC with A-type bonds have less
freedom to rotate around their bond and therefore may have
more steric hindrance when interacting with the DMAC
molecule. Differences in spatial configuration between A- and
B-type bonds may only affect the rate of the reaction, making
the reaction faster for PAC with B-type bonds. Our results also
show differences between the four standards used in this work
in terms of tmax. However, tmax does not change with increasing
concentrations of each standard (Figure 6).
Whereas some authors have reported that concentrations of
DMAC reagent ≥2.0% should be used to prevent underestimation of PAC content,9 other authors have used
concentrations as low as 0.1%.20 Our results showed that a
DMAC concentration of 2.0% greatly decreased tmax. In fact, all
of the standards analyzed with DMAC concentration of 2.0%
reached tmax between 0.5 and 0.7 min, suggesting that the
colorimetric reaction occurred quickly, contradicting the
suggestion by Wallace et al. that absorbance should be read
between 15 and 35 min for monomeric PAC and between 20
and 35 min for oligomeric and polymeric PAC to achieve
maximum color development and the lowest standard
deviation.9 Applying this rationale to our data would bias the
estimation of PAC content as the absorbance at 35 min is 30,
48, 47, and 44% of the maximum absorbance registered at tmax
for catechin, procyanidin A2, procyanidin B2, and c-PAC,
respectively (Figure 5). Furthermore, our data show that
between 15 and 35 min after the onset of the DMAC reaction,
the coefficient of variation is actually higher than at the tmax,
undermining the lowest standard deviation criterion chosen by
Wallace et al.9
Implications of the Use of c-PAC as a Standard. Most
clinical studies with cranberries have used juice, with intake
based on volume consumed41−43 and with no proper qualitative
or quantitative characterization of the PAC consumed. On the
basis of efficacy in clinical trials, a daily dosage of 36 mg of PAC
measured by DMAC has been proposed as prophylaxis against
urinary tract infections.20 The accuracy with which the PAC
content of cranberry products is determined is critical for
comparing the efficacy of the products in laboratory and clinical
research.
The accurate determination of PAC content is dependent on
the standard utilized for the DMAC assay. A previous DMAC
method (DMAC/PAC003) using a commercially unavailable
proprietary standard yielded the same PAC content as the
DMAC method using procyanidin A2 as a standard.20,44
However, PAC contents in cranberry powders and juices were
2.2 times higher in our method using c-PAC. Although the
biological efficacy, including antiadhesion activity of a dose of
cranberry powder or juice (with 36 mg PAC as measured by
DMAC with the A2 standard) will not change, only the
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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
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(27) Krueger, C. G.; Vestling, M. M.; Reed, J. D. Matrix-assisted laser
desorption-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry of anthocyaninpoly-flavan-3-ol oligomers in cranberry fruit (Vaccinium macrocarpon,
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(28) Standardization, I. I. O. f., Water quality − Calibration and
evaluation of analytical methods and estimation of performance
to present the necessary approach and tools to investigate the
kinetics of a complex standard and compare the reaction
kinetics to single compounds such as procyanidins A2 and B2
and catechin, which are currently used by industry for assessing
PAC content in food and dietary supplements. More research is
required to determine the variability in DMAC reaction kinetics
for PAC isolated from fruit, juice, press cake, and powders to
determine the most appropriate standard.
■
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*Phone: +1 (608) 263-4310. Fax: +1 (608) 262-5157. E-mail:
jdreed@wisc.edu.
Funding
This research was funded by a HATCH grant (WIS01519)
from the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (U.S.
Department of Agriculture) and the Reed Research Group
Multi-Donor Fund. R.P.F. is the recipient of BD fellowship
(SFRH/BD/73067/2010) from Fundaçaõ para a Ciência e a
Tecnologia, Portugal.
Notes
The authors declare the following competing financial
interest(s):Jess D. Reed, Amy B. Howell and Christian G.
Krueger have ownership interest in Complete Phytochemical
Solutions, LLC and in full disclosure their affiliation with this
company is acknowledged in the author affiliation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the United Cranberry Growers Cooperative for their
input as to the relevance of accurate authentication of cranberry
products to the industry.
■
■
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