Modelling, Valuing and Managing
Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for
Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
European Forest Institute
Mediterranean Regional Ofice – EFIMED
Forest Technology Centre of Catalonia
University of Valladolid
Spanish Ministry of
Science and Innovation
Junta de Castilla-León
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems
for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
Publisher:
European Forest Institute
Series Editors:
Risto Päivinen, Editor-in-Chief
Minna Korhonen, Managing Editor
Brita Pajari, Conference Manager
Editorial Ofice:
European Forest Institute
Torikatu 34
FIN-80100 Joensuu, Finland
Cover photos:
Layout:
Printing:
lamax / www.fotolia.com; Marc Palahí; MEDFOREX photo archives
Kopijyvä Oy
Gummerus Printing
Saarijärvi, Finland 2009
Disclaimer:
The papers in this book comprise the proceedings of the event mentioned on the
back cover. They relect the authors’ opinions and do not necessarily correspond to
those of the European Forest Institute.
Phone: +358 10 773 4300
Fax.
+358 10 773 4377
Email: publications@ei.int
http://www.ei.int/
The Ministry of Science and Innovation of Spain has supported the publication of
these proceedings through the Accion complementaria AGL2007-28619-E/FOR
© European Forest Institute 2009
ISSN
ISBN
ISSN
ISBN
1237-8801 (printed)
978-952-5453-27-0 (printed)
14587-0610 (online)
978-952-5453-27-0 (online)
Contents
Executive Summary .......................................................................................... 5
Papanastasis, V. P.
Grazing Value of Mediterranean Forests........................................................... 7
Djema, A. and
Messaoudene, M.
The Algerian Forest: Current Situation and Prospects .................................... 17
Palahí et al.
Modelling the Production of Wild Mushrooms in Scots Pine
(Pinus sylvestris L.) Forests in Catalonia (North-East of Spain) .................... 29
Sebei et al.
Evaluation of Cork Production in Kroumirie Cork Oak Forest, Tunisia ........ 39
Borges et al.
Scenario Analysis Applied to Cork and Holm Oak Forest Ecosystems in
Southern Portugal ........................................................................................... 49
Bonet et al.
Cultivation Methods of the Black Trufle, the Most Proitable
Mediterranean Non-Wood Forest Product; A State of the Art Review ........... 57
Gea-Izquierdo et al.
Acorn Production in Iberian Dehesas ............................................................ 73
Pierrettori, S. and
Venzi, L.
The Chestnuts “Filiere” in Italy: Values and Developments .......................... 85
Baskent et al.
Developing and Implementing the Ecosystem Based Multiple Use Forest
Management Planning Approach (ETÇAP) in Turkey ................................... 97
Bravo, F.
Adaptive Forest Management: Learning by Doing in Forestry .....................111
Saidi, Y. and
Hasnaoui, F.
Contribution to the Sylvester Mushroom Inventory and Estimation of the
Production on Permanent Plots in Kroumirie, Tunisia.................................. 119
Khatib Salkini, A.
and De Pauw, E.
The Role of Medicinal Plants in Oak Forests in Idleb, North-West Syria,
in Improving Incomes of the Rural Poor....................................................... 127
Pettenella, D. and
Maso, D.
The Role of Networks in Non-Wood Forest Products and Services
Marketing in Europe ..................................................................................... 143
El Mokni et al.
Estimating Above-Ground Biomass of Mirbeck’s Oak (Quercus
canariensis Willd.) in Kroumirie, Tunisia .................................................... 157
Mavsar, R. and
Farreras, V.
Economic Evaluation of Forest Fire Prevention Programme in Catalonia,
NE Spain ....................................................................................................... 165
Kazana et al.
Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Modeling for Impact Assessment in the Context of
Sustainable Forest Management: A Greek Case Study ................................. 175
Saidi et al.
Production Potentiality in Fruits, Biomass, Oil, Essential Oil and
Medicinal Properties of the Mastic Tree (Pistacia lentiscus) in Kroumirie,
N-W Tunisia .................................................................................................. 185
Executive Summary
Mediterranean forest ecosystems provide multiple non-timber forest products and services
which are crucial for the socio-economic development of the rural and urban areas of the
Mediterranean region.
On one hand, in the Northern Mediterranean sub-region, the socio-economic changes of
the last decades, triggered by the urbanization of our society and better living standards, have
lead to an increase in the demand of the social and environmental functions of our forests.
This had a positive effect in the economic importance of some non-wood products (pine-nuts,
mushrooms, aromatic plants, etc) and different forest services (CO2 sequestration, recreation,
nature conservation, etc). At the same time, rural areas have experienced a lack of manpower
and a decrease in the proitability of traditional forestry, which has lead to land abandonment
and accumulation of forest fuels. This had a strong effect in increasing the risk of forest ires
in the last decades.
On the other hand, in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean sub-regions, non-timber
forest products still are relevant primary resources, in particular silvopastoralism, for the
subsistence of local economies, while some forest environmental functions (ight against
desertiication, regulation of the micro-climate, regulating water resources, etc) are key for
the sustainable development of these societies.
This framework requires new approaches in forest management and planning as well
as in forest policy and economics to address the complexity and multifunctionality of the
Mediterranean forests.
The international scientiic seminar “Modelling, valuing and managing Mediterranean
forest ecosystems for non-timber goods and services” organized by EFIMED and the
Universidad de Valladolid (Forestry School of Palencia) in 26–27 October 2007 brought
together Mediterranean scientists from relevant disciplines (forest ecology, forest
management, applied economics, operations research, and information technologies, etc.) in
order to discuss and present the latest scientiic methods and results on modelling, valuing
and managing non-timber products and services in different Mediterranean countries.
The papers were organized in ive main topics to tackle the main scientiic challenges in
managing Mediterranean forests for non-timber goods and services:
I. Applications of Modelling to non-timber products and ecosystem services
II. Production and economy of cork oak forests
III: Forest management planning for non-timber products and services
IV: Economic techniques to address the management of non-timber products
V: Production of non-timber products: case studies
Such structure provided a unique opportunity to discuss in a multidisciplinary environment
key challenges of Mediterranean forestry and forest research.
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
Grazing Value of Mediterranean Forests
Vasilios P. Papanastasis
Faculty of Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Abstract
Mediterranean forests have a long history of grazing with most of them having developed
with the presence of livestock. In the past, several Mediterranean foresters blamed domestic
animals, especially goats, for their destruction. Over the last few decades, however, scientiic
evidence has been accumulated showing that livestock grazing is an ecological factor that
can serve the conservation of Mediterranean forests, if properly used. Forage production
in the understory varies widely depending on the type of forest, its crown density, past use
and site potential. Forage quality, on the other hand, depends on species composition of
the understory as well as shade conditions. Removal of understory vegetation by grazing
can enhance tree growth due to the reduction of competition for water and nutrients and
reduce ire risk. Moreover, it can provide additional income to the farmers and contribute to
economic development of a region. Grazing is an important non-timber use of Mediterranean
forests with a great ecological and economic value provided that it is properly integrated in
their management.
Keywords: forage production, quality, improvement, livestock, management
Introduction
Grazing by domestic herbivores is an old practice in the Mediterranean region. Livestock began
to be raised in the eastern Mediterranean in early Holocene, between 10 000 and 6000 BC;
by the Bronze Age (3000 BC), they had already spread to the western part, too (Le Houerou
1981). On the other hand, when livestock arrived at the Mediterranean, they replaced wild
herbivores which were already grazing there since the Middle Pleistocene (700 000 to 128 000
years ago) and became extinct for unknown reasons (Rackham and Moody 1996).
Since their introduction to the Mediterranean region, livestock became part of the
environment with which they evolved together over the centuries. Among ecosystems, forests
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
8
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
were the irst to be affected either by clearing in order to open up grazing lands or direct
grazing to ensure forage in the critical periods of the year. As a result of irrational grazing, a
hostile attitude towards livestock was developed by foresters, who blamed domestic animals,
especially goats, for destroying the Mediterranean forests and causing soil degradation and
desertiication (Thirgood 1981; Tsoumis 1985).
In the meantime, it has been realized that mismanagement rather than the mere presence of
goats is the main reason for the damage of Mediterranean forests (Papanastasis 1986). Goats
as well as other domestic animals can damage forests through uncontrolled grazing (Owen
1979; Huss 1972) and humans should be held responsible for this action (French 1970).
Nevertheless, the ecological role of livestock grazing is not thoroughly investigated yet.
With Mediterranean forests facing numerous threats over the last few decades, from global
climatic changes and drastic human interventions involving alteration of the traditional land
use patterns, overpopulation, abandonment, urbanization and industrialization, livestock
grazing should be reconsidered for its role in maintaining diversity and stability as well as for
ensuring the welfare of the Mediterranean people.
In this paper, the grazing value of Mediterranean forests is reviewed and methods for its
improvement and management are discussed.
Current situation of grazing in forests
The total area of forests in the Mediterranean countries amounts to about 89 million hectares
(Table 1). Not all these forests however are located in the Mediterranean zone. Le Houerou
(1981) deined as Mediterranean zone the proportion of the Mediterranean countries which
has a xenothermic climate with a mean annual precipitation more than 400 mm and a ratio
of summer precipitation to the mean maximum temperature of the hottest month (in °C) less
than 7. Based on this deinition he provided the respective proportions for each country. By
using these proportions, the total area of forests located in the Mediterranean zone (called
from now as Mediterranean forests) was found to be about 28 million hectares or about one
third of the total forest area in the Mediterranean countries (Table 1).
Mediterranean forests may be coniferous or broadleaved. The former include pine (e.g.
Pinus halepensis, P. pinaster, P. brutia, P. pinea), cypress (e.g. Cupressus sempervirens), ir
(e.g. Abies cephalonica, A. pinsapo) juniper (e.g. Juniperus phoenicia, J. excelsa) and cedar
(e.g. Cedrus atlantica, C. libani, C. brevifolia) forests. The latter mainly include evergreen
forests dominated by Quercus ilex,Q. rotundifolia, Q. suber and Q. coccifera, but also
deciduous forests such as Q. pubescens, Q. infectoria, Q. faginea, Q. inthaburensis, etc.
Mediterranean forests are rich in plant species and life forms. Partly because of the light
tolerance of the dominant tree species and partly because of their mismanagement in the
past, these forests have relatively open crowns. This permits the growth of a lush understory
consisting of both herbaceous and especially woody species. The woody plants are mostly
evergreen, which means that green leaves and twigs are available throughout the year. As a
result, Mediterranean forests constitute an important year-round source of feed for livestock.
For this reason, they are also classiied as silvopastoral systems because, in addition to forests
products (e.g. timber), they also provide forage (Papanastasis 1996).
Goats, among all kinds of livestock, make the best use of the understorey vegetation grown
in the Mediterranean forests. This is because, compared to other ruminants, they are superior
in digesting organic matter, crude protein and particularly crude iber, and thus make good
use of low protein, high-iber roughages (Huss 1972).
Grazing Value of Mediterranean Forests 9
Table 1. Goats and forests in the Mediterranean countries.
Goats (thousands)
Country
Albania
Algeria
Cyprus
Egypt
France
Greece
Israel
Italy
Lebanon
Libya
Morocco
Portugal
Spain
Syria
Tunisia
Turkey
Yugoslavia
(Former)1
Total
Forests and woodlands
(thousand ha) in 1994
% change
Goats/ha
1961
2004
Total Mediterranean Total Mediterranean
forests
forests
1104
1946
149
772
1172
5064
165
1381
470
1224
7000
607
3300
439
550
24 632
944
3200
460
3889
1206
5362
75
978
430
1265
5359
502
2833
1018
1380
6772
-15
64
209
404
3
6
-54
-29
-9
3
-23
-17
-14
132
151
-73
1048
3950
123
34
15 012
2620
126
6809
80
840
8970
3102
16 137
484
676
20 199
187
158
123
0
2402
1624
84
2724
80
17
2781
1923
10 328
174
358
4444
0.9
0.81
3.74
114.38
0.08
2.05
0.6
0.14
5.38
1.51
0.6
0.16
0.18
2.1
2.04
0.34
20.25
3.74
0.00
0.50
3.50
0.89
0.36
5.38
74.41
1.92
0.26
0.27
5.84
3.85
1.52
160*
50 134
344
36 017
106
8652
88 862
779
28 186
0.04
0.4
0.44
1.3
FAOSTAST archives from the oficial web page http://faostast.fao.org/site/497/default.aspx
1 Year 1969–71 (FAO Production yearbook, 1978, vol. 32)
There are large numbers of goats in the Mediterranean countries. In 2004, there were about
36 million heads (Table 1). Turkey, Greece and Morocco had the highest numbers and Israel,
Former Yugoslavia, Lebanon and Cyprus the lowest. There was a signiicant decline in the
total goat population in the Mediterranean during the period 1961–2008, mainly caused
by the considerable decrease of goats in Turkey. Out of the 17 Mediterranean countries,
8 showed an increase, with Egypt and Cyprus registering the highest increases (40% and
21% respectively). This means that goats play an important role in the life and nutrition of
Mediterranean people.
Goats, however, are not so great a problem as it is commonly believed. If it is assumed
for the sake of comparison that all 36 million goats graze on all forests of the Mediterranean
countries then the average stocking rate amounts to 0,40 goats/ha/year (Table 1). This is a
rather low igure if it is considered that, for a four-month grazing period, the capacity of
Mediterranean forests is estimated at 1.5 goats/ha/year (El Hamrouni 1978; Papanastasis
1981). Even if we assume that goats graze only in the Mediterranean forests, the average
stocking rate is 1.3, still below the suggested stocking rate (Table 1). Of the 17 countries,
only 6 for total and 8 for the Mediterranean forests exceed this igure, indicating possible
overgrazing. These igures, although general and therefore subject to qualiication, indicate
that goats do not overgraze forests in most of the Mediterranean countries. However, besides
goats sheep are grazing in forests with or without goats and in some countries cattle as well.
If these animals and especially sheep are combined with goats then overgrazing may occur
(Papanastasis 1986).
10
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Forage production and quality
Grazing capacity of Mediterranean forests is affected by the structure, density and
regeneration mode of trees. Structure refers to the age distribution of trees, namely whether
forests are even-aged, uneven-aged or mixed-aged. Even-aged forests are potentially more
compatible with grazing than the mixed-aged and, especially, the uneven-aged ones. This
is because regeneration in the former occurs only in a certain period of their life cycle
suggesting that grazing of the understory vegetation can be applied during the remaining time
without affecting the young seedlings. In the mixed-aged and especially in the uneven-aged
forests, grazing is dangerous to the young seedlings since regeneration is a continuous process
throughout their life cycle. As far as density is concerned, open forests are more compatible
with grazing than dense ones since the former potentially carry more understory vegetation
due to the better light conditions than the latter. Finally, forests regenerated vegetatively
(coppice) are potentially more compatible with grazing than the ones regenerated with seeds
(high forests) because sprouts are more resistant to grazing than seedlings.
Generally, forage production decreases as canopy cover or density increases. Dense stands
carry relatively small amounts of grazable vegetation in the understory. For example, a dense
coppice oak forest composed of Quercus pubescens and Q. frainneto, produced only 1130
kg/ha grazable vegetation consisted of herbs (28%), shrubs (22%) and tree undergrowth
(50%) (Vrettakis et al. 2004). This quantity can be increased by opening up the tree canopy.
Papanastasis et al. (1995) found that open stands of Pinus pinaster with 300 trees/ ha had
signiicantly higher herbage production than medium and high density stands with 600 and
1200 trees/ ha respectively. A signiicant increase of herbage production was also found in
open stands of Pinus nigra plantations and of a coppice forest of Quercus pubescens by
Msika and Etienne (1989) in southern France. Similar results were found by Matzanas and
Papanastasis (2002) in a Pinus brutia plantation and by Pantazopoulos et al. (2006) in a
deciduous oak forest.
Forage production also decreases with increasing age of forest stands although small
increases are seen in early years apparently due to soil preparation for tree planting. For
example, Papanastasis (1982) found increased herbage production until the age 5 in a Pinus
nigra plantation in Greece but thereafter it declined. Without soil preparation however,
herbage production is not affected until about the 10th year after tree establishment in P.
brutia plantations (Platis et al. 1999).
Canopy cover affects seasonal changes of forage production. In a 17 year-old Pinus
pinaster plantation in Greece, herbage yield was decreased from autumn to winter and
increased from winter to spring when it became maximum while the seasonal variation was
more pronounced in the open than in the dense stands (Braziotis and Papanastasis 1995).
Also, Armand and Etienne (1995) found higher forage production during the winter period
under dense (50% crown cover) than open (25% crown cover) stands of Pinus pinea, Pinus
halepensis and Quercus suber in southern France.
Grazing results in reduction of forage production depending on its intensity. In a Quercus
ithaburensis subsp. macrolepis forest, heavy grazing (3.8 sheep/ha) resulted in a 3-fold
decrease of understory vegetation (Pantera and Papanastasis 2001). Similar results were
found in a Q. coccifera forest in Crete where herbaceous and shrubby biomass was decreased
by 62% and acorn yield by 86% under heavy grazing with sheep and goats (Papanastasis
and Mishah 1998). If shrubs are grown in the understory, then grazing can result in their
reduction thus contributing to ire control. In Israel, Gutman et al. (1995) have found that
heavy and moderate grazing by cattle in a Mediterranean oak scrub forest resulted in the
control of shrubs in favor of herbaceous cover. In a Pinus nigra forest in Pyrenees, Casasús
et al. (2007) found that a moderate stocking rate with cattle can prevent shrub encroachment
Grazing Value of Mediterranean Forests 11
and the accumulation of dead material in these forests. Finally, Masson (1999) has found that
grazing in the French cork oak forests can result in the control of lammable shrubs such as
Cistus spp., Ulex parvilorus, Erica arborea and Calycotome villosa.
Botanical composition is also affected by canopy cover. Shade seems to favor species
or groups of species with different photosynthetic pathways. Cool season grasses (e.g.
Dactylis glomerata and Festuca ovina) are beneited by the presence of trees while warm
season species such as Crhysopogon gryllus and Dichanthium ischaemum prefer more open
and lighted areas (Papadimitriou et al. 2004). Also, forbs generally increase under shade
but legumes tend to become reduced. Koukoura and Papanastasis (1995) concluded that D.
glomerata is an ideal species to grow under tree canopy and, among legumes, they suggested
Trifolium subterraneum as the most suitable.
Nutritive quality of understory vegetation in Mediterranean forests depends on the
particular species involved, the kind of forest and its density. Gonzalez-Hernandez and
Silva-Pando (1999) have found that oakwoods provide higher quality forage than conifer or
eucalyptus stands. On the other hand, Dactylis glomerata had a signiicantly higher crude
protein content in the open stands of Pinus pinaster as compared to medium and high density
stands in the autumn, while in the spring the signiicant increase appeared only in the medium
density stands (Braziotis and Papanastasis 1995).
Browse species are also affected by shade. Crude protein content of leaves and twigs of
Quercus coccifera was found higher under Pinus brutia stands during the growing season,
while the concentrations of total non-structural carbohydrates, cell contents and soluble
protein were higher in unshaded than in shaded plants. On the contrary, tannin and lignin
contents were higher in shaded than in unshaded plants (Koukoura 1988).
Overall, although Mediterranean forests have relatively low forage production and quality
compared to the other forage resources, their productivity is more stable and they can be used
as strategic resources to complement animal feeding during the critical periods of the year,
particularly in the summer period (Talemucci et al. 1995).
Role of livestock grazing
Although uncontrolled livestock grazing can contribute to the destruction of Mediterranean
forests, their controlled grazing can be beneicial. The beneits may be ecological, silvicultural
and economic.
In discussing livestock grazing in the Mediterranean forests, Liacos (1980) argues that
domestic animals are instrumental to the functioning of these ecosystems because they
contribute to nutrient cycling and thus to an increase of their productivity. Because of low
temperatures in winter and the lack of suficient moisture in the summer, decomposition
is slow, resulting in the accumulation of organic material on the ground. This can lead to
devastating wildires. Grazing animals can reduce this material and thus prevent forest ires.
The role of livestock in reducing fuel has received special attention in the last few
years (Blanchemain 1981; Calabri 1981). Partly as a result of the change in traditional
social systems and partly because of policies for exclusion of livestock, especially goats,
from the forests in the past decades (Papanastasis 1984), the amount of fuel has increased
considerably, resulting in both a higher number of ires and larger areas burned each year. In
Greece, for example, the mean annual number of wildires in forests increased from 724 in
1960–69 to 1701 in 1990–99, while the mean annual area burned increased from 12 377 to
45 161 ha respectively for the two periods (Dimitrakopoulos 2001). Similar trends exist in
other countries.
12
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Livestock can also beneit forests silviculturally. Liacos (1980) argues that livestock, by
controlling the understorey vegetation, they can reduce the competition with trees for water,
which is the limiting factor to plant growth in the Mediterranean environment. Since goats
are much more capable than other animals of consuming woody species, they are the right
animals to be used. Moreover, they can control sprouts and thus assist in the thinning and
management of coppice forests.
Finally, livestock can play an important role by converting organic matter into products such
as meat, milk and wool. In the Greek island of Thassos, covered by Mediterranean forests,
chiely Pinus brutia, goats and sheep graze uncontrolled for 7.5 months per year. Eleftheriadis
(1978), using shadow prices, evaluated the net value of annual forage production in the forests
and found that, although moderate, it exceeded the one derived from wood products. It follows
that the contribution of Mediterranean forests to the production of meat and milk cannot be
ignored, especially in the poor and densely populated countries of the region.
Improvement and grazing management
Improvement of the grazing value of Mediterranean forests implies manipulation of
vegetation in the understory and especially in the overstory, so that both forage quantity and
quality are increased. Such an improvement may be carried out with several methods, most
of which are also used in rangelands.
1. Thinning and pruning. Opening up the tree canopy by thinning is a very effective way to
increase forage production in silvopastoral systems with high crown density. This is because
more light is allowed to penetrate the crown canopy and reach the understory while the
competition for soil nutrients and water is reduced thus favouring the establishment of more
forage species. By removing 50 and 75% of the original trees of a Pinus pinaster plantation in
Greece aged 17 year-old, herbage production was increased by 480 and 1328% respectively
two years after thinning (Papanastasis et al. 1995). Increases ranging from 150 to 266% were
also found after thinning of Pinus nigra plantations and Quercus pubescens coppice forest
respectively in southern France (Msika and Etienne 1989). Thinning applied in a Quercus
cerris coppice forest in Italy in order to improve its multiple use including grazing by cattle
had very good results (Amorini and Fabbio 1990). If thinning is combined with tree pruning,
more light reaches the understory thus further increasing forage production.
2. Prescribed burning. Prescribed burning to control dense shrubby undergrowth
or accumulated old growth combined with seeding of range grasses and legumes may
rejuvenate the system and increase both the availability and the quality of forage production.
This technique was successfully applied in Pinus brutia forests, both natural and artiicial,
in Greece and resulted in signiicant improvement of the grazing value of forests for goats
(Liacos 1977; Tsiouvaras 2000).
3. Fertilisation. Application of chemical fertilisers in Mediterranean forests may greatly
improve forage production. For example, fertilisation with NPK in a Pinus pinaster plantation
combined with seeding of Dactylis glomerata resulted in 6 times higher herbage production
than in the control (Papanastasis et al. 1995). In NW of Spain, application of sewage sludge
in the understory of a Pinus radiata plantation increased herbage production in the spring but
reduced legumes in favor of grasses (Lopez-Diaz et al. 1999). If legumes need to be established
and enhanced, as should be the case then phosphorous rather than nitrogen fertilisation should
be applied. Mantzanas and Papanastasis (2002), however, have found that nitrogen fertilization
resulted in a higher understory yield of a Pinus brutia plantation than legume seeding and
phosphorm fertilization in a wet year while in a dry year the opposite occurred.
Grazing Value of Mediterranean Forests 13
4. Overseeding. Sometimes overseeding with range species may result in significant
improvement of the range value of Mediterranean forests. Open tree canopy is more
favourable for establishment of a good pasture by overseeding but closed canopies are more
helpful under dry weather conditions (Etienne 1991; Braziotis and Papanastasis 1995).
Trifolium subterraneum was found to be a suitable species for overseeding in ire-breaks of
Mediterranean forests so that a pasture is created for sheep which also control the sprouts of
the spontaneous shrubby species thus reducing wildire danger (Masson and Guisset 1993
5. Fodder shrubs. By establishing fodder shrubs in certain types of silvopastoral systems
feed is ensured for critical periods of the year thus upgrading the forage value of the systems.
This technique has been applied experimentally in the dehesas with very promising results
(Olea et al. 1992). Further research is needed as to what extent this method can be applied in
Mediterranean forests and at what cost, since establishment of fodder shrubs is an expensive
operation.
Grazing management of forests
Integration of livestock in the Mediterranean forests requires the application of proper
grazing management. Such a management involves proper stocking rate, right species or mix
of animals and suitable grazing system.
Application of proper stocking rate requires information about the grazing capacity of the
forests. Such information though is very limited. Although some forests are highly productive
(Leouffre and Meuret 1990; Pantazopoulos et al. 2006), the majority of them have lower
grazing capacity than other types of rangelands, particularly grasslands and shrublands (El
Hamrouni 1978; Le Houerou 1981). On the other hand, although the dual use of rangelands
by sheep and goats results in better utilisation of vegetation, mixed locks in Mediterranean
forests, may not be the best solution (Papanastasis 1986). However, local breeds are more
effective users of natural vegetation and they should be promoted in Mediterranean forests.
Proper grazing management in Mediterranean forests is not that easy because of two main
dificulties (Papanastasis 1986). One is the need to co-ordinate livestock grazing with forest
management which requires that animals should be allowed to graze only a few months each
year and perhaps not in all years thus necessitating supplemental feed from other resources.
Another dificulty is related with the people who own the animals because they are not
always willing to comply with a certain management plan, particularly in the communally
grazed areas. To overcome these dificulties, a close co-operation among foresters, range
managers, animal scientists and shepherds is needed.
References
Amorini, E. and Fabbio, G. 1990. Notes on the results of a multiple use forestry experimental trial. In: Proc. 6th
Meeting FAO on Medit. Pastures and Fodder Crops, Bari, Italy. Pp. 211–214.
Armand, D. and Etienne, M. 1995. Effet du couvert arbore sur la production de sursemis de trele souterrain dans
le sud-est de la France. In: Silvopastoral systems – Environmental, agricultural and economic sustainability.
Cahiers Options Mediterraneennes 12, CIHEAM Saragosse, Espagne. Pp. 95–98.
Blanchemain, A. 1981. Paturage en foret: quel est le probleme? Foret Mediterraneenne III (1): 69.
Braziotis, D.C. and Papanastasis, V.P. 1995. Seasonal changes of understorey herbage yield in relation to light
intensity and soil moisture content in a Pinus pinaster plantation. Agroforestry Systems 29: 91–101.
Calabri, G. 1981. Le paturage et les incendies de forets en Italie Foret Mediterraneenne III (1): 61–64.
14
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Casasùs, I., Bernués, A., Sanz, A., Villalba, D., Riedel, J.L. and Revilla R. 2007. Vegetation dynamics in
Mediterranean forest pastures as affected by beef cattle grazing. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 121:
365–370.
Dimitrakopoulos, A. P. 2001. Descriptive analysis of forest ires and area burned in Greece during the period
1955–1999, In: 9th Panellenic Forestry Congress, Kozani.Hellenic Forestry Society. Thessaloniki. Pp. 85–90. (In
Greek with English summary).
Elefteriadis, N. 1978. Economic criteria for multiple-use management of forests. The case of Thassos. M.Sc. thesis,
Oxford Univ., UK.
El Harmouni, A. 1978. Etude phyto-ecologigue et problemes d’utilisation et d’ amenagement dans les forets de pin
d’Alep de la region de Kasserine (Tunise centrale). Thesis, Faculte des sciences et techniques ST. Jerome, Aix,
Marseilles.
Etienne, M. 1991. Sursemis sur parcours debroussailles dans le Sud-Est de la France. Fourrages 127: 321–334.
French, M.H. 1970. Observations on the goat. Rome, FAO.
González-Hernández, M.P. and Silva-Pando, F.J. 1999. Nutritional attributes of understory plants known as
components of deer diets. Journal Range Management 52: 132–138.
Gutman, M., Henkin, Z., Holzer, Z. and Seligman, N.G. 1995. Plant and animal responses to beef cattle grazing in
a Mediterranean oak scrub forest in Israel. In: Silvopastoral systems - Environmental, agricultural and economic
sustainability. Cahiers Options Mediterraneennes 12, CIHEAM Saragosse, Espagne. Pp. 213–216.
Huss, D.L. 1972. Goat response to use of shrubs as forage. In McKell, CM. et al. (eds.) Wildland Shrubs-their
Biology and Utilization. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report INT-1.Washington D. C. Pp.331–338.
Koukoura, Z. 1988. Composition of kermes oak browse as affected by shade and stage of maturity. Animal Feed
Science & Technology 21: 1–9.
Koukoura, Z. and Papanastasis, V. 1995. Establishment and growth of seeded Dactylis glomerata in a Pinus
pinaster silvopastoral system. In: Silvopastoral systems- Environmental, agricultural and economic
sustainability. Cahiers Options Mediterraneennes 12, CIHEAM Saragosse, Espagne. Pp. 91–94.
Le Houerou, H.N. 1981. Impact of man and his animals on Mediterranean vegetation. Mediterranean-Type
Shrublands. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co. NY. Pp. 479–521.
Leouffre, M.C. and Meuret, M. 1990. Available edible biomass in a mixed Quercus ilex and Quercus pubescens
coppice and intake by lactating goats. In: Proc. 6th Meeting FAO on Medit. Pastures and Fodder Crops, Bari,
Italy. Pp. 197–200.
Liacos, L.G. 1977. Fire and fuel management in pine forest and evergreen brushland ecosystems of Greece.
In: Proceedings Symposium Environmental Consequences Fire and Fuel Management in Mediterranean
Ecosystems, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report WO-3, Washington, DC. Pp. 289–298.
Liacos, L. 1980. Livestock grazing in Mediterranean forests. In: Incontri Internazionali: Problemi della
Conservazione e ricostituzione della coperturaforestale, Palermo, Italy.
Lopez-Diaz, M.L., Mosquera-Losada, R. and Rigueiro-Rodriguez A. 1999. Mixed prairie production under pines
growing with different sewage sludge doses in lowlands. In: Papanastasis, V.P., Frame, J. and Nastis, A.S., (eds).
Grasslands and Woody Plants in Europe Grassland Science in Europe 4: 383–386.
Mantzanas, K.T. and Papanastasis, V.P. 2002. Effects of thinning, N fertilization and legume seeding on the
understory production of a Pinus brutia plantation in northern Greece. In: Platis, P.D. and Papachristou, T.G.
(eds). Range Science and Development of Mountainous Regions Proceedings of the 3rd Panhellenic Rangeland
Congress, Athens. Pp. 427–433 (In Greek with English summary).
Masson, P. 1999. Shrub management by grazing animals in French cork oak forests. In: Papanastasis, V.P., Frame,
J. and Nastis, A.S., (eds). Grasslands and Woody Plants in Europe Grassland Science in Europe 4: 199–203.
Masson, P. and Guisset, C. 1993. Herbaceous and shrubby vegetation evolution in grazed cork oak forest ire breaks
sown with subterranean clover and perennial grasses. In: Management of Mediterranean Shrublands and Related
Forage Resources. REUR Tech. Series 28, FAO, Rome. Pp. 201–205
Msika, B. and Etienne, M. 1989. Modiication des facteurs abiotiques par la presence d'arbres en region
mediterraneenne francaise : effets sur la production herbagere. XVI Congress Internal des Herbages, 4–11/10/89,
Nice, France. Pp. 1619–1620.
Olea, L., Paredes, J.Y. and Verdasco, M.P. 1992. Perspectives deutilizacionde arbustos forrajeros en la dehesa del
SO. de Espana. In: XXXII Reunion Cientiica de la SEEP, Pamplona, Espafta. Pp. 152–156.
Owen, D.F. 1979. Drought and desertiication in Africa: Lessons from the Nairobi conference. Oikos 33: 139–151.
Pantazopoulos, Ch., Yiakoulaki, M.D. and Papanastasis, V.P. 2006. Correlation of productivity and nutritive value
of the herbaceous vegetation with the tree cover of oak and beech trees in Lagadas county of Thessaloniki. In:
Platis, P.D., Sfouggaris, A.I., Papachristou, T.G. and Tsiontsis, A. (eds). Rangelands of Lowlands and Semimountainous Areas: Means of Rural Development Proceedings of the 4th Panhellenic Rangeland Congress.
Thessaloniki. Pp. 155–160 (In Greek with English summary).
Pantera, A. and Papanastasis, V.P. 2001. Grazing effects on forage production and botanical composition in a
valonia oak silvopastoral system. Proceedings of the International Conference: Forest Research: A Challenge for
an Integrated European Approach. Pp. 681–687.
Papadimitriou, M., Y. Tsougrakis, I. Ispikoudis and V.P. Papanastasis. 2004. Plant functional types in relation to
land use changes in a semi-arid Mediterranean environment. In: Arianoutsou, M. and Papanastasis, V.P. (eds).
Proceedings 10th MEDECOS Conference, April 25- May 1, 2004, Rhodes, Greece Millpress, Rotterdam Pp. 1–6.
Papanastasis, V.P. 1981. The rangelands of Greece. Rangelands 3 (6): 241–242.
Papanastasis, V.P. 1982. Effects of cattle grazing on young pine plantations in Kilkis, northern Greece. Dassiki
Erevna 3: 215–241 (In Greek with English summary).
Grazing Value of Mediterranean Forests 15
Papanastasis, V.P. 1984. Forestry and livestock grazing: a policy perspective, In: Policy Analysis for Forestry
Development, IUFRO Division 4, Volume I; Thessaloniki. Pp. 479–488.
Papanastasis, V.P. 1986. Integrating goats into Mediterranean forests. Unasylva 154: 44–52.
Papanastasis, V. 1996. Silvopastoral systems and range management in the Mediterranean region, In: Etienne, M.
(ed.).Western European Silvopastoral Systems INRA, Paris, France. Pp. 143–156.
Papanastasis, V.P., Koukoura, Z. Alifragis, D. And Makedos, I. 1995. Effects of thinning, fertilisation and sheep
grazing on the understory vegetation of Pinus pinaster plantations. Forest Ecology & Management 77:181–189.
Papanastasis, V.P. and Misbah, D. 1998. Effects of livestock grazing on productivity of kermes oak silvopastoral
system in the Psiloritis mountain at Crete (Greece). Ann. Rech. For. Maroc. T(31): 51–65.
Platis, P.D., Mantzanas, K.T. and Papanastasis, V.P. 1999. Effects of tree spacing and annual cutting on herbage
production in a young Pinus brutia plantation. In: Papanastasis, V.P., Frame, J. and Nastis, A.S., (eds).
Grasslands and Woody Plants in Europe Grassland Science in Europe 4: 221–225.
Poupon, J. 1980. L'amenagement et 1'amelioration des parcours forestiers au Maroc. Foret Mediterraneenne, I (2):
141–150 (1st part) and II (1): 53–60 (2nd part).
Rackham, O. and Moody, J. 1996. The Making of the Cretan Landscape. Manchester University Press. Manchester.
Talamucci, P., Pardini, A. Argenti, G. and Stagliano, N. 1996. Theoritical silvopastoral systems based on seasonal
distribution of diversiied resources in an Italian Mediterranean environment. In: Etienne, M. (ed.). Western
European Silvopastoral Systems INRA, Paris, France. Pp. 183–193.
Thirgood, J.V. 1981. Man and the Mediterranean Forest. Academic Press, New York.
Tsoumis, G. 1985. The depletion of forests in the Mediterranean region – A historical review from the ancient times
to the present. Scientiic annals of the Department of Forestry and Natural Environment, Vol KH (11): 281–300.
Tsiouvaras, C.N. 2000. Silvopastoral management of Pinus halepensis and P. brutia forests in Greece. In: Neeman,
G and Trabaud, L. (eds). Ecology, Biogeography and Management of Pinus halepensis and P. brutia Forest
Ecosystems in the Mediterranean Basin Backhuys Publ., Leiden. Pp. 369–375.
Vrettakis, G, Mantzanas, K. Pantazopoulos, H. and Papanastasis, V.P. 2004. Estimate of grazing capacity in the
coppiced oak forest “Laimos” in Bourazani area of Konitsa. In: Platis, P.D., Sfouggaris, A.I., Papachristou, T.G.
and Tsiontsis, A. (eds). Rangelands of Lowlands and Semi-mountainous areas: Means of Rural Development
Proceedings of the 4th Panhellenic Rangeland Congress, Athens. Pp. 337–341. (In Greek with English summary).
The Algerian Forest: Current Situation and Prospects
Arezki Djema and Mahand Messaoudene
Institut National de la Recherche Forestière, Tizi-Ouzou, Algeria
Abstract
The Algerian forest in its totality covers about 4.1 mill. hectares. Conined to the humid,
subhumid, semi-arid and arid bioclimatic stages, it accounts for only 11% of the northern
part of the country (tellian and steppic areas) where the productive forest occupies 124 900
hectares. In this unit, the cork oak and pine forest with Pinus halepensis occupy the majority
of the forested areas.
Over the last decades, the effects of drought combined with a demographic explosion and
the lack of traditions in forest management and silviculture are the principal causes of forest
degradation. Repeated ires, pest and diseases and illegal cuttings caused huge losses to this
patrimony, already weakened by the supposed effects of climatic changes. The deterioration
of the Atlas cedar forest in Algeria (Aurès mountains, National Parks of Theniet el Had,
Djurdjura and Chréa) is one example; it constitutes in itself a major concern for the Algerian
foresters and ecologists. Today, research programs are initiated with a view to identify the
factors causing and worsening this phenomenon, which affects more than 50% of the cedar
forest in the Aurès. Moreover, the over-running of natural cork oak forest, in particular by
Pinus halepensis in the centre and in the west of Algeria, and by Pinus pinaster in the coastal
and eastern parts.
Many actions are carried out by the forest administration aimed at protecting the forest and
conserving its biodiversity, such as the creation of national parks, regional nature reserves and
the so called integral reserves. In parallel, ambitious national programs of afforestation were
initiated, at a rate of 60 000 hectares per annum. In addition, the propagation of exceptional
and rare species is tested for their preservation and conservation.
Keywords: Algerian forest; biodiversity; deterioration; afforestation; climate change
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
18
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
1. Introduction
The future of our forests constitutes a major stake for the country. The current mobilization of
the civilian society, through many associations aiming at protecting the environment, clearly
relects the interest of the population for its forest patrimony and environment.
The principal functions assigned to our forests are as follows: protection and soil
conservation, regulation of climate and water courses, reduction of pollution, the creation of
wealth by the socio-economic development of the forest-related populations, etc. The forest
constitutes also the last habitat for various and exceptional animal species, and an area for
recreational activities increasingly requested by the citizens. The fact that the Algerian forest
is subject to constant human and pastoral pressure, combined with the increasingly severe
climatic conditions (in particular the drought of these last year), makes it more fragile and
vulnerable. In Europe, it is quite the opposite which occurs, as the Mediterranean forests tend
to re-settle territories abandoned by rural activities (Bonnier 2005).
Although the Algerian forest accounts for only 2% of the surface of its territory, it is the
only ecological and loristic barrier which protects us from the advance of the desert.
The Algerian forest and woodlands cover 4.1 mill. hectares, of which 1 902 000 hectares are
maquis and shrubby land accounting for 46% of the total surface. The forest sector is under
the authority of the forest administration (Directorate-General of the Forests: DGF) which is
in charge of preserving, conserving and sustainably managing forest and woodlands for the
present and future generations. Research activities are coordinated by the National Institute
of Forestry Research (INRF). Many programs and initiatives are implemented for providing
the bases of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM), with the objective to meet the social and
economic needs, in particular of the populations depending directly on the forest patrimony.
The management and use of our forests on the short, average and long term will depend
on an increasing range of users (dwellers, users of the dead wood, timber and cork, farmers,
public sector, etc.). The main question which will be necessary to know is how to conciliate
the various interests without damaging the natural resource.
2. Distribution of the Algerian forest
Algeria is divided into three great geographical sets: chains of the Tellian Atlas in the
North and the Saharan Atlas in the South separated by the zone of the Higher -plateaus.
The Algerian forest is distributed especially in the northern part of the country where the
ecological conditions, especially climatic conditions, are favorable and allow the occurrence
of various woody species. In general, the Tellian Atlas beneits from a Mediterranean climate
with soft winters and a period of summer drought during three or four months (Zéraia 1981;
Barbéro et al. 2001; Messaoudene 1989; Merbah 2005). The Higher-plateaus and the Saharan
Atlas are characterized respectively by semi-arid, arid and Saharan bioclimates marked by
long periods of aridity with great thermal variations. The temperatures of the Tellian zone
oscillate between 5 and 15°C in winter and 25 to 35°C in summer, whereas in the South the
temperature can reach more than 45°C.
The forest is primarily composed of conifers such as Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), cedar
of Atlas (Cedrus atlantica), maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), thuja (Tetraclinis), juniper-trees
(Juniperus) and of leafy -trees represented by cork oak (Quercus suber), holm oak (Quercus
ilex), zeen oak (Quercus canariensis) and afares oak (Quercus afares), and many species of
eucalyptus and ash (Fraxinus), etc. (Table 1).
The Algerian Forest: Current Situation and Prospects
19
Table 1. Principal forest types and areas in Algeria.
Species
Aleppo pine
Surface (ha) Rate (%)
References
881 000
21
Cedar
16 000
1
45 000 ha (Boudy 1955), 23 000 ha
(Bentouati and Barriteau 2006)
Maritime pine
31 000
1
38 000 ha (Khelii 2002), 57 727 ha (DGF
2005)
Cork oak
230 000
6
480 000 ha (Saccardy 1937; Boudy 1955)
Holm oak
108 000
3
354 000 to 680 000 ha (Boudy 1955; Kadik
1983; Letreuch 1991; Dahmani 1997).
Zeen and Afares oak
48 000
1
65 000 ha (Messaoudène 1989)
Eucalyptus
43 000
1
717 000
17
1 902 000
46
124 000
3
S/total Forests
4 100 000
100
Alfa (esparto) lands
2 600 000
100
General Total
6 700 000
100
Afforestation for protection
Maquis and bushwoods +
empty areas
Other items (thuya,
juniper-trees and ash-trees)
1 863 858 ha (DGF 2005), 852 000 ha
(Boudy 1955), 1 082 000 ha (PNDF 1984)
Because of the absence of recent forest national inventory, it is difficult to know the
exact state of the Algerian forest formations and their production. The available data differ
from author to author. However, the comparison between the current data of the forest
administration (DGF 2005) and the data of the old and recent literature shows that the area
of Algerian forest has signiicantly decreased, and the principal forest types, except the pine
forest with Pinus halepensis and Pinus pinaster, show regressive dynamics. It appears that
Holm oak forests, according to the data of Boudy (1955), Kadik (1983), Letreuch (1991),
Dahmani (1997) and Khelii (2002) has lost between 15% to 30% in area, and the cork oak
compared to Saccardy (1937) and Boudy (1955) 52%. The degradation of cork oak forest
has resulted in the extension of Aleppo pine forest (Pinus halepensis) in the middle-west
of Algeria and maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) in the center-east, and in the coastal area
stretching from Jijel to Oum Tboul (El-Tarf), with an increase from 38 000 ha (Khelii 2002)
to 57 727 ha (DGF 2005). The rate of loss in area of cedar stands exceeds 60% if one refers to
Boudy (1955) and 30% if one refers to Bentouati and Bariteau (2006) who mention surfaces
of 45 000 ha and 23 000 ha respectively. The regression rate is at present more important
if one takes into account the important decline in the Aurès and the surfaces devastated by
recent ires in Djurdjura. The zeen oak and the afares oak regressed 26.6% compared to the
surface given by Boudy (1955) and Messaoudène (1989).
Since the 1980s, Algeria has reforested many areas with Aleppo pine, several species of
eucalypts, maritime pine and pine of Canary Islands, totaling 760 000 ha.
20
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Although it is subject to continual aggressions related to man and climate, the Algerian
forest has resisted in some areas. Today, the forest patrimony contains very beautiful forests
with, in general, a regular structure and a high stocking. This is the case with deciduous
oak stands (Akfadou, Aït Ghobri, Béni-Salah, Ain Zana, Taza, etc.), of cedar stands (Tikjda
and Tala Guillef in Djurdjura, Belezma (Aurès), Chréa, Thaniet El Had and Babors), of
many pine forests (Khenchela, Djelfa, Telagh) and of cork oak forests in Mechrouha (SoukAhras), Tizi-Oufellah (Aït Ghobri), El-Tarf, Bouchegouf, Collo, Skikda and Jijel). The
productive forests with a signiicant economic role are composed of the following species:
Aleppo pine, maritime pine and cedar for the coniferous trees, zen oak and afares oak, cork
oak, eucalyptus, alder, poplars and ash for the deciduous trees. The protective forests are
composed of holm oak, kermes oak, thuja and juniper trees.
3. Production and products of the Algerian forest
If we consider only the productive stands, the Algerian forests have a low productivity: it is
about 1m3/ha/year, corresponding to an annual increment of 1.2 m3 for all species, of which
Aleppo pine alone contributes 80%. The national inventory of 1984 provides an estimated
standing volume of 54 955 000 m3 of which 30 437 000 m3 is of Aleppo pine. The annual
production of wood (harvest) has been very irregular since the independence of the country. It
has been very low from 1963 to 1990. On the other hand, It has increased signiicantly since
1991 culminating in 1993 with 240 000 m3 (FAO 2007). Because of the small productivity,
the state imports more than 85% of its wood requirements, material intended for multiples
uses: construction, joinery, cabinet work, etc. The objective of the forest administration is to
encourage the exploitation of the local resources and to annually mobilize more than 500 000
m3 of timber in the coming years.
The degradation of the cork oak forest has considerably inluenced the production of cork
and its market in Algeria. For 2006, the production of various category of cork is of 72 952
quintal, which remains very far from the evaluated national potential of 200 000 quintal/
year (Metna 2003). Though this fall of production is due to the reduction in the surface of
the productive cork oak stands, it is also related to the lack of proper management of the
remaining forest, the inaccessibility of the areas subject to exploitation, the lack of skilled
manpower in the sector and the absence of technical knowledge of the owners.
In Algeria, the development of the cork industry has expanded remarkably since 1990.
Cork has become a highly demanded and multipurpose material: the stopper industry, interior
furniture, decoration, shoes and insulation industry. The new uses and the great demand
have considerably inluenced the cork market. As an indication, the price of one quintal
cork luctuated between 41 euros for burned cork and 150 euros for the healthy so-called
reproduction cork in 2007. Till now, more than 20 units of cork transformation have been
created in Algeria whereas before, the monopoly was held by only one oficial company
(ENL: National Company of Cork). The recent rising interest for cork has caused turmoil
in the market and increased unfair trading. In order to improve the rational management
and sustainable development of cork oak stands, the standardization, classification and
certiication of its products, the Inter-professional National Commission of cork (CNIL) has
been installed in 2007.
The stands of zeen oak and afares oak with an surface area of 48000 hectares could
alone provide an annual harvestable production of more than one million m3 (Messaoudène
2006). The improvement of production and of quality of their wood is possible if adequate
silvicultural treatments are applied. The objective is to eliminate the growth stresses which
The Algerian Forest: Current Situation and Prospects
80
21
67.3
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
14.5
11.5
0
wood
cork
1
3.1
esparto grass
others
2.6
state land
renting
finess
Figure 1. Incomes in percents of the Algerian forest (FAO 2003)
impact negatively on the physical and mechanical properties of their wood (Tafer 2000). This
could be achieved if sound research is undertaken. So from immemorial times, the wood of
these two oaks is considered as of poor technological quality just because these forests were
never managed, nor received a necessary silvicultural care. This has led to a restriction in
the use of these oaks to railroad sleepers, poles and construction material. However, certain
craftsmen could use these oaks as parquet loor, circumference of sieves, joinery and craft
industry. It can also be engineered into laminated materials. The wood of other oaks (green
and kermes) is used more as irewood. There are still some charcoal manufacturers who
supply ironworkers and restaurants.
In addition to the woody products, the forest offers other goods and services which are still
badly marketed either due to ignorance or cultural tradition. This is the case of mushrooms,
for no less than 54 species of edible mushrooms have been inventoried just for the forest of
Akfadou (Kabylie) made up mainly of oaks (Ferrahi 2004). However, the gathering activities
are done only by some experts, leaving this fungal potential unexploited. An emerging
activity which is practiced on a small scale is the collection of condiment, aromatic or
decorative species like the noble bay-tree (Laurus nobilis), thyme (Thymus numidicus), the
origan (Origanum glandulosa), the young and adult asparagus stems (Asparagus acutifolius).
The stump of Erica arborea is especially used for irewood or for pipes handicraft.
The esparto (Stipa tenacissima) production, with an average harvest of 30 000 t/year in the
early 1990's, is only of 10 000 t/year since 1994 (FAO 2003). The cause of this regression
is mainly due to the degradation of the alfa area by the pastoralism, the disaffection of the
operators and the rarefaction of the manpower. This fall has a considerable impact on certain
activities, in particular the craft industry of alfa and paper industry. This latter uses in parallel
the wood of eucalyptus (E. camaldulensis, E. globulus, E.grandis, E. gomphocephala, E.
leucoxylon), a species introduced for this purpose. The intensive afforestation programmes
of eucalyptus in Algeria began around 1975 especially in the regions of Annaba (16 310 ha),
Guelma (3940 ha), Skikda (2845 ha), Tizi-Ouzou (6070 ha). With a total area of 43 235 ha,
these stands can provide an annual production of 144 800 m3/year.
The income obtained from the Algerian forest is estimated at more than 640 million DA for
the year 1999. The share of cork and wood accounts for 78.8 % of the total income (Figure
1). Even if this income is signiicant for the local economy, it is still low when compared
with the GDP of the country which was 3168 billion DA. We think that this income can be
increased by the valorization of other products and by-products of the forest.
22
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
4. Conservation and protection of resources and ecosystems of interest
Algeria is a country rich in plant resources, and no less than 3200 species were indexed in
its lora, of which 640 are rare and 168 species are endemic. Among the threatened species
registered on the red list of IUCN (the international organization for nature conservation),
some remarkable species are to be found: the Tassili Cypress (Cupressus dupreziana),
endemic species of the central Sahara which is represented by a few hundred of individuals
in the national park of Tassili, the thuriferous juniper (Juniperus sabina) and the black pine
(Pinus mauritanica) in Djurdjura and the ir tree of Numidie (Abies numidica) in Babors.
Other species such as yew (Taxus baccata), Acer campestris, Acer monspessulanum, Acer
obtusatum, Acer opalus, Populus euphratica, Sorbus torminalis, Pistacia atlantica and Olea
laperrini are also protected.
In addition to traditional protection of the forest and the vegetation types trough
conventional forest management, protected areas are created in order to preserve and protect
valuable plant and animal habitats from the strong demographic pressure and from all forms
of aggression. These ecosystems are of great interest because of their biodiversity, originality
of landscapes and vulnerability. Since 1970, the country has paid a very particular attention to
the protection of these areas. This policy continues today based on national texts, conventions
and international agreements that Algeria ratiied, concerning the protection and conservation
of natural resources.
There are actually three types of protected areas: National Parks, hunting areas and natural
reserves. It is also envisaged to create natural parks, another category of protected areas
which will ensure the socio-economic development of populations and environmental
protection. The forest of Akfadou in the wilaya of Béjaia and Tizi-Ouzou, the complex of
wetlands of Guerbès/Sanhadja in the wilaya of Skikda and the forest of Zana in the wilaya of
Souk Ahras are currently subject to studies for their classiication as natural parks.
Currently, the forest administration manages 10 national parks which total 165 362 ha, that
is to say 0.07% of the national territory. They are mainly located in the northern part of the
country. Five of them are classiied as reserves of biosphere. As for the natural reserves, six
sites of 67 000 ha are proposed to be classiied.
Other zones are also put under the state protection, they relate to all the wetlands of
Algeria such as lakes, sebkha, gueltas, marsh, oasis. Since its adhesion to the convention
of RAMSAR in 1982, Algeria has recorded thirteen wetlands of international importance
particularly for the protection of the sites of passage, rest and reproduction during the water
birds migrations. It is more than 1.8 million hectares of surface (DGF 2001). As for the
hunting areas, created mainly for the protection and the development of the local wildlife
potential, there are four reserves with an area of 50 700 ha.
In addition to these few types of protection, a number of arboreta were created to enrich the
forest with new indigenous species able to adapt to our areas and mainly, to meet the needs
for the programs of afforestation initiated by the forest sector. All these various measures
taken in favor of the biodiversity preservation are expected to increase in the years to come.
5. Factors of degradation
Like in other Mediterranean countries, the Algerian forests are subject to various hazards
and more particularly those related to human activities. Impact of man on the Algerian
forest ecosystems has dramatically increased over the recent years. It has led to an alarming
regression of forest stands and thus of their biodiversity. Obviously, other factors such as
climatic changes and aridity of the climate since the 1980s threaten the Algerian forest. This
The Algerian Forest: Current Situation and Prospects
23
aridity could be the causing factor of the deterioration of cedar forest in the Aurès and is
obviously linked to ire occurrence. The drought increased the level of combustibility and
lammability of plants, the particular topographic conditions of most of Algerian forests
which are situated on steep slopes and with a limited road network increased ire propagation.
Though these natural factors played a role, one could recognize that the degradation of our
forests results also from the absence of a forest policy in Algeria, aggravated by the absence
of management and silviculture and the absence of modern means of ire control.
The ires are undoubtedly the most important factor of forest degradation. The analysis
of data on ires evolution in Algeria from 1963 to 2007 (Figure 2 and Figure 3), shows that
the average burnt surface per year is of 33 111 ha. Globally, the surface burnt each year
varies from 2503.43 ha (1966) to 271 597.79 ha (1995). The 1980s and 1990s were affected
severely by forest fires with burnt surfaces of 380 588.38 ha (1980) and 521 503.38 ha
(1990). The total burnt surface from 1963 to 2007 reached 1 490 032.19 hectares.
Another cause of forest degradation in Algeria is overgrazing. One can estimate that the
load of domestic animals quadrupled in forest stands between the 1950s and 1980s; the
problem is that the herds’ needs are higher than the fodder availability in the zones of pasture,
especially in summer. This situation leads the shepherds to use the foliage of woody species
as food complement.
In relation to plagues, principal destroyers are the processionary caterpillars (Taumétopea
pityocampa) on the pines and Taumétopea bonjeani on the cedars, Phoracanta semi punctata
on the eucalyptus and Lymantria dispar for the oaks. These insects weaken the trees if the
attacks are repeated, but the effects are visible only several years afterwards. In Algeria, the
Directorate-General of the Forests in collaboration with the National Institute of Forestry
Research has set up a national forest health survey service in charge of observing and warning
of the devastators of the forests. The principal missions are: the selection and installation of
observation plots in the forests which present risks; the regular assessment of the plots, and
infested areas, the recommendation of the methods of control appropriate to each type of
pest, and the planning and supervision of chemical treatment operations.
The other factors of forest degradation are the illegal cuttings and some housing on forest
lands. To satisfy their wood requirements for construction and ire (wood alive or dead),
neighboring populations quite often use the forests. In addition to the volumes of wood
oficially sold or yielded free, the volume of illegal cuttings in the forest can be evaluated as
double.
The use of the forests as uncontrolled waste disposals and dumps, the anarchistic
exploitation of the stone quarries inside the forests are new factors worsening the degradation
of forest lands and landscapes. In general, these dumps are the starting points of ires in
forests.
6. The Algerian forest: challenges and prospects
The Algerian forest is subject to various forms of exploitation and uses. Degradation and loss
of forest ecosystems are exacerbated by the growing demand and need of a developing. In
order to preserve and reconcile the various forms of use of the forest, the main challenges are
to:
- develop the multi-functions assigned to the forest in order to reinforce its role of
protecting the environment and allowing local development;
- ind the mechanisms which will allow to reconcile; economic development, well-being of
populations and conservation of the forests;
24
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
Moy = 33 111.83 ha
50000
0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
-50000
Figure 2. Annual area (ha) burnt in Algeria from 1963 to 2007, the annual average is 33 112 ha (DGF
2007)
- guide and help the population in developing programs to upgrade the value of forest
products and by-products;
- reinforce the knowledge on the productive and protective capacities of our forests by
studies of inventory and reasonable and durable forest management;
- develop ecotourism activities in forest areas; and
- develop the wood and cork industry and to make it economically eficient, by the creation
of a commission composed of the forest administration and various private users.
In addition to the importance of protection and maintenance of the existing forest capital, the
plans of the forest sector (DGF 2004) for next years are as follows:
- Establishment of National Forest Land Register.
- National Forest Inventory: complement and correction of computerized data bank from
1978 to 1984, using data from forest formation maps, development of computerized
cartography and national plan for forest development.
- National Afforestation Plan (PNR): it is designed for a period of 20 years and will aim at
the conservation and extension of the forest patrimony, the treatment of the watershed in
mountainous zones, the ight against soil degradation in arid and semi-arid regions and the
creation of jobs. These are thus 1245900 hectares which will be concerned with various
actions (afforestation, ixing of banks, installation and opening of tracks and forestry
infrastructure, etc.) which will be carried out over the next 20 years and which will change
the proportion of forest cover from 11 to 13%. Between 2000–2006, 112 551 ha were
planted i.e. 18 758 hectares per year.
- Development of a strategic plan of sustainable management of forests, treatment of
watersheds and development of mountain areas.
- Rehabilitation of the Algerian cork forests.
- Development of esparto on an area of 2.6 million hectares.
- Intensiication and improvement of infrastructure network and forest equipments.
- Fight against erosion, desertiication and drought, in particular by consolidation and
extension of the Green Dam (Barrage Vert) on an area of 3 million hectares.
- Development of local forest police close to rural communities and integration of the
citizens in management and sustainable forest development: inancial assistance to local
The Algerian Forest: Current Situation and Prospects
25
600000
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
]63-70]
]70-80]
]80-90]
]90-2000]
]00-07]
Figure 3. Surface (ha) burnt in Algeria per decade from 1963 to 2007 (DGF 2007).
populations through the National Fund FNDRA and sensitizing the population to ires and
its effects on the environment.
- Search for partnership with the countries presenting the same concerns of conservation
and forest development.
7. Priorities for forestry research
Taking into account the forest context and environmental changes which take place at the
scale of the Mediterranean Basin, the priority topics of the Algerian forest research lie
within the scope of many national and international research agendas. The programs under
consideration by the three units of research of National Institute of Forestry Research (INRF),
until 2010 will address the following topics:
- Functioning and spatio-temporal dynamics of the steppe, saharan and tellian forest
ecosystems.
- Installation of a monitoring network on climatic changes and on main forest insects and
diseases.
- Study and research on the causes of deterioration of the Algerian cedar forests and on the
prospects for restoring degraded stands.
- Search of strategies and approaches for the rehabilitation of cork oak forests.
- Promotion of forest products, by-products and non-wood forest products.
- Management and silviculture of coniferous and deciduous stands.
- Improving the techniques of seedling production and plantation.
- Creation and organization of a certiied seed bank.
- Selection and improvement and multiplication of species of economical interest.
- Searching, testing the local seed source resistant to drought.
- Assessing and monitoring the desertiication.
- Quantiication of erosive phenomena and control methods.
- Planning and improvement of production systems in mountains.
- Sustainable management of agro-pastoral resources in steppes.
26
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
8. Conclusion
Like all the countries of Mediterranean basin, the Algerian forests will be subject more and
more to the climate risks, characterized by irregular rains which are unevenly distributed
in time, and by increasingly rising temperatures, mainly in autumn and winter. In addition,
the important population pressure, characterized in the case of the forest settlements by an
important urbanization and a socio-economic development of the populations, will generate
pronounced degradations of the already weakened forest patrimony. In spite of the efforts
and inancial means engaged in the conservation of our forests, signiicant forest areas of
great importance for the ecological balance of the country are lost year after year. The forests
managers, the organizations in charge of the environmental protection must work in concert
in order to sensitize and educate the civilian society, as this is the only guarantee for the
protection of our forests.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank particularly Dr. Carlos Gracia (CREAF, University of Barcelona) for
checking this paper and for all his help before and after the 1st Annual Seminar of EFIMED
and the EFIMED organization.
References
Barbéro, M., Medail, F. and Quezel, P. 2001. Signiication biogéographique et biodiversité des forêts du bassin
méditerranéen. Bocconea 13: 11–25.
Bentouati, A. and Barriteau, M. 2006. Rélexions sur le dépérissement du cèdre de l’Atlas des Aurès (Algérie).
Revue Forêt Méditerranéenne.XXVII(4): 317–322.
Bonnier, J. 2005. Les forêts méditerranéennes dans les territoires. In: Forestry sector and sustainable development
in the Mediterranean: challenges, policies and governance. Rabat, 24–26 novembre.
Boudy, P. 1955. Economie forestière Nord Africaine, tome 4, Edition Larose. 247 p.
Dahmani-Megrerouche, M. 1997. Le chêne vert en Algérie. Syntaxonomie, phytoécologie, dynamique des
peuplements. Thèse de Doctorat Es. Sciences, USTHB Alger. 310 p.
DGF 2001. Atlas des zones humides algériennes d’importance internationale. Editeur Ministère de l’Agriculture
Algérien.
DGF 2004. Forum national des nations unies sur les forêts, rapport national.
DGF 2005. Programme d’action national sur la lutte contre la désertiication. Document interne.
DGF 2007. Recueil de données sur les incendies, document interne.
FAO 2003. Document national de prospective- l’Algérie.
Ferrahi, M.O. 2004. NWFPs in the forest region of Yakouren. Non Wood News 8, March 2004.
Kadik, B. 1983. Contribution à l’étude du pin d’Alep (Pinus halepensis Mill) en Algérie: Ecologie, dendrométrie,
morphologie. Thèse de Doctorat Es Sciences, Université d’Aix Marseille, 310 p.
Khelii, H. 2002. Les formations forestières et préforestières des montagnes d’Algérie: diversité et sensibilité.
Document interne, INA.
Letreuch Belarouci, N. 1991. Les reboisements en Algérie et leurs perspectives d’avenir. O.P.U., Vol 1: Pp 108–260.
Messaoudène, M. 1989. Dendroécologie et productivité de Quercus canariensis Wild et de Quercus afares
Pomel dans les massifs forestiers de l’Akfadou et de Béni-Ghobri en Algérie. Thèse de Doctorat en Sciences,
Université. d’Aix Marseille III, Faculté St. Jérôme, 123 p.
Messaoudène, M. 2006. Stratégie d’aménagement et de développement durable de la forêt d’Akfadou. Forum de
Rabat, Maroc, 24–27 novembre. Bulletin de Silva mediterranea et Plan bleu. 12 p.
Merbah, F. 2005. Contribution à l’étude de la biodiversité des massifs montagneux du centre-est algérien. Thèse de
Magister, USTHB (Alger), 162 p.
Metna, B. 2003. Caractérisation physique et chimique du liège de reproduction de la subéraie orientale de la wilaya
de Tizi-Ouzou. Thèse de Magister, U.M.M. de Tizi-Ouzou. 103 p.
PNDF 1984. Document interne.
The Algerian Forest: Current Situation and Prospects
27
Saccardy, L. 1937. Notes sur le chêne liège et le liège en Algérie. Bulletin de Recherche Forestière. Nord de
l’Afrique 2: 271–360.
Tafer, M. 2000. Etude de la variabilité stationnelle de la qualité du bois de Quercus canariensis Willd. dans la forêt
domaniale de Béni Ghobri (Tizi-Ouzou). Thèse Magister, UMM Tizi-Ouzou, Institut d’Agronomie. 92 p.
Zéraia, L. 1981. Essai d’interprétation comparative des données écologiques, phénologiques et de production
subéro-ligneuse dans les forêts de France méridionale et d’Algérie. Thèse Doctorat Es. Sciences, Université d’
Aix Marseille
Modelling the Production of Wild Mushrooms
in Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Forests
in Catalonia (North-East of Spain)
Marc Palahí1, José Antonio Bonet2, Timo Pukkala3, Christine R. Fischer2, Juan
Martínez de Aragón2 and Carlos Colinas2
1
EFI Mediterranean regional Ofice – EFIMED, Barcelona, Spain
2
Centre Tecnologic Forestal de Catalunya, Solsona, Spain
3
University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Finland
Abstract
Mushroom picking has become a widespread autumn recreational activity in the Central
Pyrenees and other regions of Spain. Predicting mushroom production based on forest
stand and site characteristics is required if mushroom production needs to be considered
as a management objective in forest planning. This study used mushroom production data
from 24 Scots pine plots over 3 years to develop an empirical model that could facilitate
forest management decisions when comparing silvicultural options in terms of mushroom
production. Mixed modelling was used to model the dependence of mushroom production
on stand and site factors. The results showed that productions were greatest when stand
basal area was approximately 20 m2 ha-1. Increasing elevation and northern aspect increased
total mushroom production as well as the production of edible and marketed mushrooms.
Increasing slope decreased productions. The annual variation in mushroom production
correlated with autumn rainfall.
Keywords: multiple-use forestry; forest management; non-wood forest products;
mixed models; Lactarius deliciosus
1. Introduction
Traditionally, forests have always provided multiple products and services for society.
However, with the increasing exodus from rural areas and urbanization of society, the rising
incomes and environmental awareness of society, the importance of non-wood forest products
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
30
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
and of the social and environmental functions of forests have increased as never before while
the proitability of traditional forestry have dramatically decreased (Mogas et al. 2006).
In this context, wild edible and medicinal mushrooms represent an important non-wood
forest product world-wide (Boa 2004) to the extent that the commercial value of forest
fungi may equal or even surpass the value of timber (Alexander et al 2002; Arnolds 1995;
Oria-de-Rueda 1991). Consequently, there is a growing interest on the part of forest owners
and managers to inventory, predict, and manage to improve the production of marketed
mushrooms (Pilz and Molina 2002).
Recent inventories of wild mushrooms from Pinus sylvestris forests of the Prepyrenees of
Catalonia report productions of approximately 60 kg ha-1 fresh weight (Mártinez de Aragón
et al. 2007) of which 54% are edible species, 29% are marketed species and the other 25%
are edible but not marketed species (Bonet et al. 2004).
Mushrooms are not only a source of income for the collectors and tourism businesses
but may soon provide an economic incentive for the forest landowners. A recent survey
demonstrated that Catalonians are willing to pay for the experience of picking wild
mushrooms (Mogas et al. 2005). Consequently we could expect incentives for improved
forest management.
Site and growing stock characteristics are the most reasonable predictors when developing
an empirical mushroom production model for forest planning because the site and stand
characteristics are known factors. In addition, stand characteristics can be altered through
forest management. However, mushroom productions also depend on weather conditions
such as the timing and quantity of rainfall, which are not equally useful in forest planning
because they cannot be accurately predicted beyond a few weeks.
The construction of reliable models for predicting mushroom productions requires
collecting large quantities of empirical data over several years because there are multiple
factors responsible for high temporal variation in mushroom productions. These include
variations in precipitation, temperature, frost, evapotranspiration, relative humidity, and
water deicits (Mártinez de Aragón et al. 2007, O’Dell et al. 1999; Ohenoja 1993; Straatsma
et al. 2001; Wilkins and Harris 1946).
This paper presents empirical models for predicting the production of wild mushrooms
in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests in the Central Pyrenees based on mushroom
production data from three consecutive years. A mixed model technique was used to account
for random annual variation of mushroom productions.
2. Material and methods
2.1 Mushroom plots
In 1995, 36 plots of 10 × 10 meters were established in Pinus sylvestris plantations of the
Central Pyrenees in order to evaluate the productivity and diversity of ectomycorrhizal and
edible fungi in this forest community. These plots, randomly selected from a total of 118
plantations, ranged from 5 to 84 years in age. The plots represent different Scots pine stand
conditions with respect to site and density (see Table 1), and management practices. The site
index (dominant height at 100 years) ranged from 13 m to 27 m.
The plots were sampled at 1-week intervals from September through November during
the 1995, 1996 and 1997 autumn seasons. The mushroom production data were obtained by
species and are expressed as fresh weight per hectare. Table 1 shows two main groupings: all
species and the marketed edible species. Additional information on the sampling sites, the
fungal species list and inventory methodology can be found in Bonet et al. (2004).
Modelling the Production of Wild Mushrooms in Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Forests...
31
Table 1. Summary of stand variables and mushroom productions for the 24 plots used for modelling the
production of mushrooms. The stand variables are given for the irst year of the mushroom production
measurements (1995). The mushroom productions are the averages of the 3-year measurement period.
Variable
Mean
Standard deviation
Minimum
Maximum
10.4
3.3
1.0
717.2
4.9
13.3
846.0
4.0
7.0
55.3
20.0
54.8
2196.3
34.2
27.5
1528.0
356.0
38.0
0.2
0.2
466.6
153.4
Stand variables
T (yr)
Hdom (m)
G (m2 ha-1)
Ntrees (trees ha-1)
Dm (cm)
SI (m)
Elevation (m)
Aspect (degrees)
Slope (%)
27.9
12.3
20.6
1171.7
17.2
22.3
1238.8
179.9
24.1
12.4
4.4
13.6
392.3
7.0
2.9
220.2
130.4
7.2
Mushroom productions
Total (kg ha )
Marketed (kg ha-1)
-1
123.7
25.6
135.2
39.1
a
T: stand age; Hdom: dominant height; G: stand basal area; Ntrees: the number of trees per hectare;
Dm: mean diameter; SI: site index at a reference age of 100 years.
2.2 Forest plots
To determine mushroom productivity, 24 forest plots were established in 2006 within the
mushroom plots to measure relevant site and growing stock variables. The other plots had
either been cut or significantly transformed through management actions. The plot area
varied between 0.04 and 0.16 hectares. Plots were established so that at least 100 trees with
dbh> 7.5 cm were within the plot. For each plot, tree diameter at 1.3 meters height (dbh) and
the growth for the last ten years were measured for all trees. In addition, tree heights, tree age
and bark thicknesses were recorded from a sample of at least 20 trees per plot.
2.3 Methods
2.3.1 Modelling
The forest stand measurements taken in the winter 2006 correspond to the stand
characteristics of these plots at the end of the 2005 tree-growing season. The mushroom
production data were collected in the autumns of 1995, 1996 and 1997, also at the end of
the tree-growing season (September through November). Before modelling mushroom
productions based on forest stand characteristics (Table 1), stand measurements for 1995,
1996 and 1997 were back transformed from the conditions in 2006.
The predicted variable in the mushroom production model was the logarithmic
transformation of the yearly production. The predictors were chosen from stand and site
variables as well as their transformations. Due to the hierarchical structure of the data,
mushroom measurements of the same year were correlated observations as were the
measurements on the same plot, the generalised least squares (GLS) technique was applied
to it mixed linear models. The linear models were estimated using the maximum likelihood
32
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
procedure of the computer software SPSS (SPSS Inc. 2005). The following random parameter
model (also called mixed model) was the basic model:
y ij = f ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) + μ i + μ j + ε ij
(1)
where yij is the mushroom production of plot i n year j, f(.) is the ixed part of the model, x1,…
xn are predictors, μi is random plot factor, μj is a random year factor and εij is residual (that
part of the production which is not explained by the ixed part, plot factor and year factor).
The model was itted for the total production, production of edible species, production of
marketed species, and productions on individual species or species groups.
3. Results
3.1 Models for mushroom production
The regression analyses showed that stand basal area, elevation, aspect and slope were the
most signiicant predictors of mushroom productions. No other variables had a signiicant
contribution to the itting statistics after these variables had been included in the models.
Therefore, the model set prepared to describe the dependence of mushroom productions on
stand and site variables was as follows:
Total production
ln(yij) = 0.981 +2.483ln(G) -0.128G +0.934cos(Asp) -0.0135Slo1.5 + ui + uj + eij (2)
Marketed mushrooms
ln(yij) = -6.236 +1.246ln(G) -0.0599G +0.00459Alt + ui + uj + eij
(3)
, where yij is the production of plot i in year j, G is stand basal area (m2 ha-1), Asp is aspect
(rad), Slo is slope (%, i.e. 45 degrees is equal to 100%), Alt is elevation (m above see level),
ui is random plot factor, uj is random year factor, and eij is residual. All random factors (ui, uj
and eij) are assumed to be normally distributed with mean equal to zero. The variances of the
random factors are given in Table 2 together with some itting statistics.
All the regression coeficients of predictors were signiicant (p < 0.05).
When only the ixed part of the model is used for predicting (as is usual), the Snowdon
correction factor should be used (Snowdon 1991). The exponentiations of the predictions of
the ixed model part should be multiplied by the Snowdon factors shown in Table 2 rather
than adding (ui+uj+eij)/2 to the logarithmic production.
Even though plot and year factors are rarely used in prediction, it is interesting to note that
the year factors of 1995, 1996 and 1997 correlate with the September–October rainfall of those
years (Table 3). This suggests that the year factor may be partly predicted from climatic data
and in this way the mushroom production prediction of the current year could be improved
(after knowing the amount of autumn rains). If the ixed model part predicts a total production
of 100 kg, more accurate production predictions for 1995, 1996 and 1997 would be as follows:
• 1995: Production = exp(ln(100)+0.0063) = 101 kg ha-1
• 1996: Production = exp(ln(100)+0.5644) = 176 kg ha-1
• 1997: Production = exp(ln(100)-0.5707) = 57 kg ha-1
These calibrated predictions vary in the same way as the measured mean productions, which
were 118, 177 and 77 kg ha-1, respectively, in 1995, 1996 and 1997.
Modelling the Production of Wild Mushrooms in Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Forests...
33
Table 2. Variances of random factors, fitting statistics and the Snowdon correction factor for the
mushroom production models. Low values of residual variance, -2 × Log likelihood and Akaike’s
information index (AIC) imply good it.
Variance of
• plot factor (uj)
• year factor (uj)
• residual (eij)
Total variance
-2 × Log likelihood
AIC
Snowdon correction
Total production
Marketed mushrooms
0.216
0.353
0.805
1.374
223.6
229.6
1.511
1.929
0.854
1.105
3.888
294.0
300.0
3.011
Table 3. Year factors of the model for total mushroom production (Equation 2) and rainfall for
September–November in the Central Pyrenees
Year
Year factor
1995
1996
1997
0.0063
0.5644
-0.5707
Rainfall (mm)
60.0
72.6
33.2
According to the models, mushroom productions are the highest when stand basal area
is 10 – 20 m2 ha-1 (Fig. 1). Aspect is another factor which strongly affects the predicted
production so that northern aspects have the highest productions and southern the lowest.
Aspect has a similar effect also on the production of marketed mushroom (Equation 3) but in
this model the effect of aspect was not statistically signiicant.
Increasing altitude improves the total and marketed mushrooms production and increasing
slopes decreases the total mushroom production. In fact, all the used predictors (basal area,
altitude, aspect and slope) have a similar effect for the total and marketed production but
not all predictors were statistically signiicant in both models. Figure 2 depicts the effects of
stand basal area, slope and aspect on total mushroom production.
The predictions have a rather good correlation with the measured productions, especially
when the plot and year factors are used in prediction (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 shows the mean
productions of the 3-year measurement period indicating that the models predict the overall
level of the mushroom production of Scots pine dominated stands in Central Pyrenees fairly
well.
4. Discussion
Mushroom pickers typically look for precise weather forecasts to predict when and where
to search for wild mushrooms each year. However, for forest managers, who are interested
in maximising the production of this non-timber product, predictions must go beyond
annual weather conditions to develop management programs that can enhance mushroom
34
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Altitude 1240m, Slope 24%
North
Total fresh weight, kg ha-1
400
EastWest
350
South
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
10
20
30
40
Basal area, m2ha-1
Figure 1. Mushroom production as a function of stand basal area and aspect according to Equation 2.
Elevation and slope are equal to their mean values in the modelling data.
production. Of the traditional forest stand variables we found that stand basal area, elevation,
aspect and steepness of slope were important predictors of mushroom productions.
Stand basal area is correlated with site conditions such as soil quality, water availability,
temperature and overall forest health. It is logical that this variable can predict mushroom
production given that carbon allocation to all ectomycorrhizal fungi is derived from the live
standing biomass. Approximately 90% of fungi in the 3-yr inventory were fruitbodies of
ectomycorrhizal species.
In this study, stand basal area was correlated with several other stand variables including
site index, stand age, growing stock volume, and tree size. Estimation of the effects of other
variables would require more plot measurements or a population in which stand variables are
less correlated.
An important observation is that the highest mushroom production coincides with the stage
of stand development where forest volume growth is the highest. This supports the study
from Nara et al. (2003) which demonstrated that formation of mycorrhizal sporocarps was
correlated with the growth and photosynthetic rate of the host trees.
The lower mushroom production observed at lower stand basal area could be a relection of
the lower forest stand photosynthesis with less carbon available for belowground allotments.
These sites are usually warmer and dryer. In contrast, in our overstocked forests with high
basal areas, mushroom production, as well as photosynthesis, may be limited by decreased
water availability to support the high leaf area. In these stagnated stands, photosynthates are
directed at maintenance rather than belowground assimilation and respiration.
Elevation, aspect and slope, in the Prepyrenees range, also relect water availability, and
soil quality. Elevations ranged from 900-1500, and forests located near 1200 m typically
have higher rainfall and cooler temperatures than at 900 m. At the very highest elevations,
temperatures may be too low for abundant mushroom production. Northern-facing slopes
are characteristically more shaded and protected from the intense afternoon solar exposure
Total yield, kg ha-1
Modelling the Production of Wild Mushrooms in Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Forests...
35
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
40
20
2
Basal area, m ha
60
-1
700
Total yield, kg ha-1
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
Slope,%
500
Total yield, kg ha-1
400
300
200
100
0
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
CosAspect ("Northness")
Figure 2. Dependence of total mushroom production (kg ha-1) on stand basal area, slope and aspect.
The dots indicate the means of the measured productions of the plots (3-year averages) and the curves
are predictions of Equation 2.
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Measured yield, kg ha-1
500
Fixed part
400
300
200
100
-100
0
100
Full model
500
Measured yield, kg ha-1
36
300
Predicted yield, kg ha
500
-1
400
300
200
100
0
0
100
200
300
400
Predicted yield, kg ha
500
-1
Figure 3. Correlation between predicted (Equation 2) and measured mean annual production of
mushrooms calculated with the ixed part on the model (left) or by using the plot and year factors in
prediction (right).
that south-facing slopes experience in late summer and early autumn months. Increasing
slope has been shown to have a negative impact on mushroom production, most likely due to
increasingly thinner soils associated with steep grades and greater water runoff than in forests
with a less steep gradient.
The results of this study are encouraging because they demonstrate that mushroom
productions are related to stand characteristics that can be influenced by silvicultural
interventions. However, a larger data set would also make it possible to model the
dependence of mushroom production on stand variables other than basal area, for instance
stand age, species composition, and vertical structure of the canopy. Currently, a new set of
mushroom plots is being inventoried in order to expand the data set to other tree species and
stand conditions.
A future research need is to evaluate the effects of silvicultural interventions on mushroom
productions. In this context, Pilz et al. (2006) found that forest thinning signiicantly reduced
fruitbody production of the economically important ectomycorrhizal fungus, chanterelle
(Cantharellus formosus), in the irst year after light and heavy thinning treatments, but that
these differences disappeared within 2–6 years. Reduction of basal area in our overstocked
forests could potentially result in decreased mushroom production immediately after thinning,
with a potential for increased fruitbody production when tree density matches levels that
promote vigorous growth.
Acknowledgements
This study has been funded by the research project AGL2004-00382 (Ministerio de
Educación y Ciencia of Spain, Secretaria de Política Cientíica y Tecnológica) and by the
Departament de Medi Ambient i Habitatge of the Generalitat de Catalunya. We are also
grateful to the inventory group of the Forest Technology Centre of Catalonia for valuable
assistance in the characterization of forest plots. We thank the anonymous reviewers for their
helpful comments.
Modelling the Production of Wild Mushrooms in Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Forests...
37
References
Alexander, S.J., Pilz, D., Weber, N.S., Brown, E. and Rockwell, V.A. 2002. Mushrooms, trees, and money: Value
estimates of commercial mushrooms and timber in the Paciic Northwest. Environ. Manage. 30: 129–141.
Arnolds, E. 1995. Conservation and management of natural populations of edible fungi. Can. J. Botany. 73:
987–998.
Boa, E. 2004. Wild edible fungi: A global overview of their use and importance to people. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Bonet, J., Fischer, C. and Colinas, C. 2004. The relationship between forest age and aspect on the production of
sporocarps of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Pinus sylvestris forest of the central Pyrenees. Forest. Ecol. Manag. 203:
157–175.
Bonet, J.A., Pukkala, T., Fischer, C.R., Palahi, M., Aragón, J.M. and Colinas, C. 2008. Empirical models for
predicting the production of wild mushrroms in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests in the Central Pyrenees.
Forthcoming in Annals of forest sciences.
Martínez de Aragón, J., Bonet, J.A., Fischer, C.R. and Colinas, C. 2007. Productivity of ectomycorrhizal and
selected edible saprotrophic fungi in pine forests of the pre-Pyrenees Montains, Spain: predictive equations for
forest management of mycological resources. Forest. Ecol. Manag. In press. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2007.06.040
Mogas, J., Riera, P. and Bennett, J. 2005. Accounting for afforestation externalities: a comparison of contingent
valuation and choice modelling. European Environment 15: 44–58.
Mogas, J., Riera, P. and Bennett, J. 2006. A comparison of contingent valuation and choice modelling with secondorder interactions. J. Forest Econ. 12: 5–30.
Nara, K., Nakaya, H. and Hogetsu, T. 2003. Ectomycorrhizal sporocarp succession and production during early
primary succession on Mount Fuji. New Phytol. 158: 193–206.
O'Dell, T.E., Ammirati, J.F. and Schreiner, E.G. 1999. Species richness and abundance of ectomycorrhizal
basidiomycete sporocarps on a moisture gradient in the Tsuga heterophylla zone. Can. J. Botany. 77: 1699–1711.
Ohenoja, E. 1993. Effect of weather conditions on the larger fungi at different forest sites in Northern Finland in
1976–1988. Scientiae Rerum Naturalium. 243: 11–69.
Oria-de-Rueda, J.A. and Martínez de Azagra, A. 1991. Ecología y productividad de Pleurotus eryngii (Dc.:Fr.)
Quél. y Cantharellus cibarius Fr. en España. Boletín Sociedad Micológica de Madrid 15: 5–12.
Pilz, D. and Molina, R. 2002. Commercial harvests of edible mushrooms from the forests of the Paciic Northwest
United States: Issues, management, and monitoring for sustainability. Forest. Ecol. Manag. 155: 3–16.
Pilz, D., Molina, R. and Mayo, J. 2006. Effects of thinning young forests on chanterelle mushroom production.
Journal of Forestry 104: 9–14.
Snowdon, P. 1991. A ratio estimator for bias correction in logarithmic regressions. Can. J. Forest Res. 21: 720–724.
SPSS Inc. 2005. SPSS Base system syntax reference Guide. Release 14.0.
Straatsma, G., Ayer, F. and Egli, S. 2001. Species richness, abundance and phenology of fungal fruit bodies over 21
years in a Swiss forest plot. Mycol. Res. 105: 515–523.
Termorshuizen, A.J. 1993. The inluence of nitrogen fertilizers on ectomycorrhizas and their fungal carpophores in
young stands of Pinus sylvestris. Forest. Ecol. Manag. 57: 179-189.
Wilkins, W.H. and Harris, G.C. 1946. The ecology of the larger fungi. V. An investigation into the inluence of
rainfall and temperature on the seasonal production of fungi in a beechwood and a pinewood. Ann. Appl. Biol.
33: 179–188.
Evaluation of Cork Production in Kroumirie
Cork Oak Forest, Tunisia
Houcine Sebei1, Ali Khouaja2, Riadh Mahmoudi3, Ridha Mokni3 and
Mohamed Hédi El Aoun3
2
1
Ecole Supérieure d’Agriculture de Mograne, Tunisia
Institut National Agronomique de Tunis, Cité Mahrajène, Tunisia
3
Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Jarzouna, Tunisia
Abstract
Cork production weight and volume were measured within one harvesting period (12 years)
in six plots representing variable damage stages of Cytisus sp cork oak overstorey in the
Kroumirie forest area. Eight trees were sampled in these plots to evaluate the cork production.
The results were used to estimate the whole Khroumirie cork oak forest. Those values were
compared to those of the national forest inventory and of the real cork weight extracted by
the Forest Harvesting Administration (Regie d’exploitation forestiere). The experimental
values showed large variabilities between the best site (3985 kg dry weight ha-1 period-1) and
the worst site (15 kg dry weight ha-1 period-1). The cork volume estimated by the regression
line showed a value 8% lower than that of the national inventory data (45 851 vs 42 126 m3
year-1). However, the cork biomass extracted by the forest harvesting administration was
11.2% lower than that of value estimated by this study (9773 vs 11 002 tons year-1). The
cork oak productivity in cork was divided into homogeneous production classes. The results
showed that in 14.5% of the whole cork oak forest area harvest was more than 1500 kg dry
weight ha-1.period-1 while 56% is between 1500 and 500 kg dry weight ha-1 period-1. The
lowest biomass potential values were produced in 29.5% of the whole Kroumirie cork oak
forest area (less than 500 kg dry weight year-1 period-1).
Keywords: cork; cork oak; cork production; Kroumirie; Tunisia
1. Introduction
Cork production has high economic and ecological importance. In the southern Mediterranean
area it is also of social basis. World cork production has shown continuous regression during
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
40
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Main cities
Roads
Limits of Kroumirie
Study stations (CR: Collar of the Ruins; BM: Ben Métir; AD: Ain Debba)
Figure 1. Experimental stations in Kroumirie cork oak forests.
(CR: Collar of the Ruins; BM: Ben Métir; AD: Ain Debba) (Sebei et al, 2001).
the last decades. This decline is due particularly to increasing mortality rates caused by insect
and fungi attacks (Ben-Jamaa et al. 1992; Et Tobi 1996). This trend is also aggravated by
climatic changes, mainly droughts (Rognon 1997).
The anthropozoic action and the signiicant reduction in the area have also accentuated the
regression of the Tunisian cork oak forest area. Indeed, the clearing, overgrazing and illegal
cuttings are other factors also contributing to the degradation and regressive dynamics of the
oak forests and therefore to a decline of cork production in cork oak areas (Saoudi 1983; El
Hamrouni 1992).
Some research results in Tunisia have evaluated the biomass of cork oak trees and undercovered vegetation as well as the productivity of cork oak (Sebei et al. 2001 and 2004). Other
studies have estimated the volume of cork production in Kroumirie (I.F.N. 1995 and 2005).
The objective of this work is to evaluate and compare the cork yield to the values of the
national forest inventory and the data measured by the forest harvesting administration.
The cork produced was estimated based on eight trees in a rotation period (12 years).
Allometric relations were determined in order to evaluate the production within a rotation in
the different experimental plots. Productivity results were used to establish cork production
classes based on damaging sequence of Cytisus cork oak forests per rotation and hectare.
Based on the findings of the experiment we were able to estimate the proportion of the
relative area to different degradation stages of Kroumirie cork oak forest.
2. Material and methods
The present study relates to six areas of one hectare each, at the end of the rotation and
localised in three stations in the suberaie (Quercus suber) with laburnum (Cytisus villosus)
of Kroumirie, in the North-West of Tunisia. They are located at the Collar of the Ruins (CR),
Ben Métir (BM) and Ain Debba (AD) (Figure 1).
In each station, two plots were selected depending on the state of the raised and shrubby
layers.
Evaluation of Cork Production in Kroumirie Cork Oak Forest, Tunisia 41
• Preserved plot (noted 1)
• Damaged plot (noted 2)
The localization of the stations and the climatic, edaphic and syntaxinomic characteristics of
the plots were described by Sebei et al. (2001).
From eight trees samples at the end of the rotation, we measured the height (H) of stripping
of cork, the DBH under cork and the thicknesses of cork at the base and the height of
stripping of cork (eb and eh), respectively, of each tree.
The volume of cork of reproduction per tree was calculated by applying the formula:
b
=VV11 *=dπ.h.DBH.
eb + eh
(1)
2
DBH, eb and eh are respectively diameter at breast height; the thickness of cork at basal area
and at the height of cork stripping of the tree
The biomass of the cork of reproduction of each tree was given using the following relation:
b
= V1 * d
(2)
d is the density of air dried cork
Δb
Annual production out of cork of reproduction
for each tree sample was obtained by
Δt
dividing the biomass (b) by the period of a rotation (12 years)
This annual production per tree was correlated with the DBH under cork and this relation
was applied to DBH classes in order to calculate the exploitable cork productivity according
to the formula:
ΔB
Δt
= ∑ ni
q
i=1
Δbi
Δt
(3)
Δbi is the productivity of the tree means of class i, while n is the number of trees in
i
Δt
the class i. For each class of DBH, Δbi was deduced from its mean DBH (Di) class using
Δt
Where
the relation between
Δb and the DBH.
Δt
The density of cork on the stump was measured using a mercury voluminometer (standard
Amisler 9/573) out of 13 samples taken out of seven trees of various diameters.
The density of the air dried cork was measured in a cork storage area. The cork (21
samples) was taken from the storage stack at various heights and exposures.
A correlation between the basal area and the production of exploitable cork was given in
the study plots. Indeed, this dendrometric parameter (basal area) showed as being the best
explanatory variable of the biomass (Sebei et al. 2001) and of the primary productivity (Sebei
et al. 2004) on the level of a tree.
The estimation of the production of exploitable cork on trees with girth with cork at breast
height (C1.30) higher or equal to 70 cm (Motte, 1960) (DBH of 22.28 cm) limit applied in
the extraction of cork in the Tunisian cork oak population (Forest Harvesting Administration)
(Figure 2).
Based on the work of Sebei et al. (2001) the measurements were made on 6 plots (1 ha
for each plot) according to the histogram distribution of the trees related to the DBH classes
below cork (Figure 3).
42
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Number of trees (x106)
6
Limit of exploitable cork oak
4
2
0
5
25
45
65
85
105
125
Classes of DBH on cork (cm)
Figure 2. Number of cork oak trees related to the DBH on cork in Kroumirie forest (IFN 1995).
The estimation of extractable cork production in studied plots was evaluated on trees with
DBH greater than 17 cm (below cork) (Sebei et al. 2001).
Mathematical relationships between cork biomasses and DBH, exploitable cork and Basal
area parameters were performed using Microsoft® Excel 2000® software. The best it was
selected by considering the correlation coeficient (Dagnelie 1975).
3. Results and discussion
The exploitable cork Y (kg.tree-1) is in a power relation to the DBH X (cm) of the trees below
cork
Y = 0.0123 X 1.6843 r=0.987*** (n=8)
(4)
This equation was applied to exploitable cork oak trees for each plot of experimental stations
in Figure 3, then we estimated extractible cork on trees (based on density of humid cork and
air dried extractible cork (Table 1)
Figure 4 shows the relationship between the basal area (X in m².ha-1) and the production
of cork on tree or air dried (Y in t.ha-1.yr-1). The regression equations are linear with high
correlation coeficient.
The regression equations (5) and (6) estimate the total cork productivity on tree and air
dried cork. They are based on total basal areas of the various classes of DBH cited in the
Evaluation of Cork Production in Kroumirie Cork Oak Forest, Tunisia 43
Number of trees
150
Number of trees
100
a- Col des Ruines 1
50
0
b- Ben Métir 1
100
50
0
0
20
0
40
20
Number of trees
100
Number of trees
100
40
d-Ain Debba 2
c- Ain Debba 1
50
50
0
0
0
20
Number of trees
100
40
e-Ben Métir 2
50
0
20
Number of trees
100
40
f-Col des Ruines 2
50
0
0
0
20
40
DBH classes under cork (cm)
0
20
40
DBH classes under cork (cm)
Figure 3. Distribution of trees related to DBH in 6 plots (1 ha each) representing variable damage
stages of cytisus cork oak forest in Kroumirie region (Sebei et al. 2001)
44
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 1. characteristics of the cork oak population and the cork production on trees and air dried cork.
Plots
Number of trees per hectare
Extractible Non extractible
cork oak
cork oak
CR1
BM1
AD1
AD2
BM2
CR2
354
239
150
79
9
2
174
484
172
179
292
221
Total
528
723
322
258
301
223
G
EC on tree1
m².ha-1
Kg/ha-1
26.59
13.82
10.35
5.01
0.38
0.11
6992
3649
2695
1322
103
27
EC air dried2
3973
2075
1533
752
59
15
G: basal area of extractible cork oak trees per rotation, EC: Extractible cork, 1: density of cork on tree = 0.422 ± 0.102,
2: density of air dried cork = 0.240 ± 0.068 CR: Collar of Ruins; BM: Ben Métir; AD: Ain Debba
y = 27.376x r=0.999***(5)
y = 13.589x r=0.999***(6)
Production cork (Kg.ha-1.yr-1)
800
600
400
200
0
0
10
Basal area (m².ha-1)
20
Figure 4. Relations between basal area and cork productivity in cork on tree (•) or air dried cork (o) in
6 plots (1 ha each) representing variable.
Figure 2. The coeficient 27.376 of the equation (5) is lower than that of Montero et al.
(1991) (36.128) in Spain. The cork in Spain is more humid before extraction (42% in Tunisia
and 49% in Spain).
The estimated cork production by the regression was compared to the values published by
the National Forest Inventory (IFN). (1995) and with cork harvests carried out by the R.E.F.
between 1986 and 2000 (Table 2). The productions in volume in this work were obtained by
dividing the biomasses by the density of cork on tree.
Table 3 and Figure 5 illustrate the estimated cork production (kg.ha-1.rotation-1) in the total
forest area (101.011 ha) in Kroumirie (Tunisia) (REF). The results showed that 14.5% of the
whole cork oak forest area yields more than 1500 kg dry weight ha-1.period-1 while 56% is
between 1500 and 500 kg dry weight.ha-1.period-1. The lowest biomass potential values were
produced in 29.5% of the whole Kroumirie cork oak forest area (less than 500 kg dry weight
ha-1.period-1).
Evaluation of Cork Production in Kroumirie Cork Oak Forest, Tunisia 45
Table 2. Comparison of the results of the IFN (*) and REF (**) of cork extracted in a rotation and those
estimated in this work.
Source
I F N*
Cork on trees (m .yr )
Cork on trees (t.yr-1)
Air dried cork (t.yr-1)
Live trees
Dead trees
3
-1
42 126
-
R E F**
Present work
-
45 851
22 192
8169
1604
11 002
*: National Forest Inventory (IFN)
**: cork extracted from1986 to 2000 by the Forest Harvesting Administration (REF)
Table 3. The estimated cork production (kg.ha -1.rotation-1) in a rotation and in a cork oak forest
area 101 011 ha in Tunisia (according to the data of the REF); those limits of production cork were
determined in the study plots.
Classes of exploitable cork
(kg.ha-1.rotation-1) (REF)
3500–4000
3000–3500
2500–3000
2000–2500
1500–2000
1000–1500
500–1000
0–500
Area of Kroumirie
cork oak forest (%)
Exploitable cork
(kg.ha-1.rotation-1)
Cumulated cork
oak forest area (%)
0.61
0.76
2.07
2.90
7.99
18.50
37.38
29.78
More than 3500
More than 2000
More than 1500
More than 500
Less than 500
0.61
6.34
14.33
70.22
29.78
4. Conclusion
Our results showed that the amount of cork estimated in this work were closer to those
evaluated by the National Forest Inventory; however the real quantity of the cork measured
by The Forest Harvesting Administration (REF) showed lower values (11%). This over
estimation may be due either to an error of estimation or to the quantity of the residues not
measured by the REF.
Previous data showed that 14% of the cork oak forest produced the highest amount of cork
(higher than 1500 kg ha-1 rotation-1) while the area (29%) producing the lowest quantity of
cork within a period was less than 500 kg ha-1 rotation-1. These results showed that the cork
produced by Kroumirie forest was decreasing because of the forest degradation; thus we
recommend reviewing the process of the management in an integrated manner (antropozoic
and natural factors). More research and modeling work should be done for more precise
estimation especially as the strategy of the REF is to sell the cork on standing trees.
46
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Production of AD2 (753 kg.ha-1.rotation-1)
Pourcent of cork oak area per production classes of cork in tota
area of Kroumirie cork oak
40
Production of BM2 (59 kg.ha-1.rotation-1)
20
Production of AD1 (1536 kg.ha-1.rotation-1)
-1
-1
Production of BM1 (2079 kg.ha .rotation )
Production of CR1
(3985 kg.ha-1.rotation-1)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
3000
3500
2500
Classes of production (Kg.ha-1.rotation-1)
4000
Figure 5. The estimated cork production (kg.ha-1.rotation-1) in a rotation and in a cork oak forest area
101 011 ha in Tunisia (according to the data of the REF); the arrows show the estimated production in
our experimental plots.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the Agricultural Research and Higher Education Institute (IRESA)
of the Tunisian Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulic Resources as a research project in
the ield of forestry. We would like to thank the Tunisian Forest Harvesting Administration
(REF) for they provided all the data needed to undertake this work. Our thanks go to the
General Direction of Forestry (DGF) of the Tunisian Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulic
Resources.
References
Ben Jemaa, M.H. and Hasnaoui, B. 1996. Le dépérissement du chêne liège (Quercus suber L.) en Tunisie. Coll.
Nat. sur le dépérissement des Forêts au Maroc. CNRF Rabat-Maroc 28 et 29 Février Ann. Rech. For. Maroc
Num. Spécial
El Hamrouni, A. 1992. Végétation forestière et préforestière de la Tunisie: Typologie et éléments pour la gestion.
Thèse Université de Provence Aix-Marseille III, 235 p.
Et-tobi, M. 1996. Contribution à l’étude de la dynamique et du dépérissement du chêne liège en Mamora (Maroc).
Mém. 3 ème cycle E.N.F.I, Maroc,
Evaluation of Cork Production in Kroumirie Cork Oak Forest, Tunisia 47
Dagnelie, P. 1975. Théories et méthodes statistiques, Volume II. Presses agronomiques de Gembloux.
Direction Générale des Forêts. 1995. Résultats du premier inventaire forestier national en Tunisie. D.G.F. Tunisie.
Direction Générale des Forêts. 2005. Résultats du deuxième inventaire forestier national en Tunisie. D.G.F. Tunisie.
Montero, G., Oliva, M. and Alia, R. 1991. Estructura y produccion de los alcornocales (Quercus suber L.) del sur
de Espana, Investig. Agrar. Sist. Recur. For. 0: 69–74.
Motte, M. 1960. Instructions relatives aux travaux de démasclages et de récoltes des lièges de reproduction, au
transport, au cubage et au triage des lièges sur parc. Service des forets, 9 p.
Rognon, P. 1997. Sécheresse et aridité: leur impact sur la désertiication au Maghreb, Cahiers “Sécheresse” 7:
287–297.
Saoudi, H. 1983. Réponse des végétaux aux facteurs de dégradation en Kroumirie (Tunisie). Thèse de Docteur
Ingénieur. Univ. Aix-Marseille III.
Sebei, H., Albouchi, A., Rapp, M. and El Aouni, M. H. 2001. Evaluation de la phytomasse arborée et arbustive
dans une séquence de dégradation de la subéraie à Cytise de Kroumirie (Tunisie). Annals of Forest Sciences 58:
175–191.
Sebei, H., Albouchi, A., Rapp, M. and El Aouni, M. H. 2004. Productivité en phytomasse du chêne liège dans une
séquence de dégradation de la subéraie à Cytise de Kroumirie (Tunisie). Annals of Forest Sciences 61: 347–361.
Scenario Analysis Applied to Cork and Holm Oak Forest
Ecosystems in Southern Portugal
P. J. Borges, S. Marques, J. G. Borges and M. Tomé
Centro de Estudos Florestais, Instituto Superior de Agronomia,
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
Abstract
Cork oak (Quercus suber L.) and holm oak (Quercus rotundifolia) ecosystems are
characteristic of Mediterranean forestry in Portugal, and its main product, cork, is one of
the most valuable products in the Portuguese forest sector. This paper focuses on techniques
for oak ecosystems’ scenario analysis. Both the linear programming model and the decision
support system (DSS) architecture are addressed. The mathematical model includes
objectives such as net present value, cork and timber lows and carbon stocks. The DSS –
MfLOR - encompasses a modular structure, comprising a database system (INfLOR2.1), a
prescription writer, a scenario analysis module and a graphical user interface. Results are
discussed for a large-scale application encompassing over 1 million ha of cork and holm
oak forest ecosystems in Southern Portugal. This approach demonstrates the usefulness
and relevance of technological platforms for the effective integration of data, information
and models, providing simulations and outputs that decision makers can use to guide their
decisions.
Keywords: Scenario analysis: forest management planning; cork oak forest ecosystems
1. Introduction
Mediterranean ecosystem management encompasses multiple economic, social and
ecological objectives. Addressing sustainability concerns in Mediterranean forest ecosystems
management is thus a complex task that requires the integration of diverse data, information,
models and methods. Ribeiro et al. (2004) addressed data quality issues pertinent to that
integration. Further, the volume of growth and yield information for Mediterranean forest
ecosystems has increased substantially in recent years (e.g. Tomé et al. 1999; Costa et al.
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
50
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
2003; Palahí et al. 2003; Trasobares et al. 2004; Sanchez-Gonzalez et al. 2005; Bravo-Oviedo
et al. 2006; Sanchez-Gonzalez et al. 2007).
The potential for development and application of quantitative approaches to Mediterranean
forest ecosystem management has thus improved. The literature reports exact (e.g. Borges
et al. 1997; Diaz-Balteiro and Romero 1998 and 2003; Palahí and Pukkala 2003; Bravo et
al. 2008) and heuristic (e.g. Falcão and Borges 2005; Gonzalez et al. 2005) approaches to
both represent and solve Mediterranean forest management planning problems. There is
also some experience with the development and application of decision support systems for
Mediterranean forest management (e.g. Borges et al. 2003; Palahí et al. 2004; Falcão and
Borges 2005). Yet these systems have been developed mostly for research and demonstration
purposes.
This work builds upon both cork oak (Quercus suber L.) and holm oak (Quercus
rotundifolia) growth and yield research (e.g. Tomé et al. 1999) and upon academic-driven
technological platforms (e. g. Borges et al. 2003; Falcão and Borges 2005) to develop the irst
forest decision support system – MfLOR - to be used by a Portuguese Ministry of Agriculture
Regional Ofice (DRAPAL). Preliminary results of its application to oak forest ecosystems
scenario analysis in Alentejo (circa 1 × 106 ha) in Southern Portugal are discussed. They
demonstrate the potential of quantitative techniques and information systems to provide
effective support for strategic Mediterranean forest ecosystem scenario analysis.
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Materials
For scenario analysis purposes, DRAPAL considered an area in Alentejo in Southern Portugal
extending over 1 × 106 ha. Cover types in this area are dominated either by cork oak or holm
oak. These species may occur in pure or mixed composition, and in even-aged or uneven
aged stands. Spacing also varies. The scenario analysis area was inventoried and irstly
classiied into 23 373 land units according to criteria such as the dominant and the secondary
forest species, density, age and spatial contiguity (Figure 1). As the latter was not relevant
for DRAPAL scenario analysis objectives, these land units were aggregated into 84 strata
according to the irst three criteria.
Both cork and holm oak prescriptions encompass thinnings. In the case of cork oak,
prescriptions also involve cork extraction. The irst debarking cannot take place until the tree
circumference at breast height reaches 70 cm. Thus cork oak debarking usually starts when
the age is between 20 and 30 years. Current legislation further prescribes a minimum tree
debarking cycle of 9 years. Thinnings occur in debarking years and recently debarked trees
are removed. Trees may live up to about 150 years or more. Cork oak ecosystem management
modeling is a particularly complex task, for both tree growth and cork production must be
taken into account (Falcão and Borges 2005).
2.2 Methods
Former decision support systems (Borges et al. 2003; Falcão and Borges 2005) had to be
adapted and extended so that new functionalities needed for oak scenario analysis might
be included. This involved the conceptualization and implementation of a management
information system that might store and organize data from 608 oak plots in the 84 strata in
Scenario Analysis Applied to Cork and Holm Oak Forest Ecosystems in Southern Portugal
51
Figure 1. Scenario analysis area in Portugal and example of its spatial heterogeneity.
the scenario analysis area. The resulting MS Access 2003 relational database (INfLOR 2.1)
encompassed 39 entities and stored data from 3764 cork oak and 1637 holm oak trees. The
freeware MapWinGis stored the strata spatial data.
A simulator that might include the new cork and holm oak growth and yield models –
SUBER v. 4.0 – was also developed. This model provides estimates of cork and timber
yields. It further provides estimates of carbon stocks in the tree above the ground. The growth
and yield models were encapsulated in a FORTRAN executable ile that is called by the
new simulator developed with the software Ms VB.NET. Combining the data stored in the
database with the growth and yield models, the simulator plays a key role in the DSS, as it
allows the automated generation for all strata of all strategies that are pertinent for scenario
analysis. This information is outputted as a linear programming matrix for subsequent
optimisation by a freeware linear programming solver GnuWIn32 that integrates MfLOR.
For preliminary scenario analysis purposes, a Model I type (Johnson and Scheurman 1977)
linear programming model was developed:
∑∑c
N
Max NPV =
Mi
ij
i=1 j=1
xij
(1)
Subject to
∑x
Mi
= Ai , i = 1,..., N
j =1
ij
N
Mi
i =1
j =1
N
Mi
i =1
j =1
N
Mi
i =1
j =1
∑ ∑w
x = Wt , t = 1,..., T
ijt ij
∑ ∑ cork
(3)
x = Cork t , t = 1,..., T
(4)
x = Carbt , t = 1,..., T
(5)
ijt ij
∑ ∑ Carb
(2)
ijt ij
Wt +1 ≥ Wt , t = 1,..., T − 1
(6)
52
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Figure 2. Form to access alphanumeric and geographical data from the scenario analysis area.
Corkt +1 ≥ Corkt , t = 1,..., T − 1
Carbt +1 ≥ Carbt , t = 1,..., T − 1
xij ≥ 0, ∀i , j
(7)
(8)
(9)
where,
N = the number of strata (84).
Mi= the number of silviculture strategies for strata i.
T = the number of planning periods (5)
xij = number of ha of strata i assigned to silviculture strategy j.
cij = net present value associated with silviculture strategy j in strata i.
Wijt = wood low in period t that results from assigning silviculture strategy j to strata i.
Corkijt = cork low in period t that results from assigning silviculture strategy j to strata i.
Carbijt = average yearly carbon stock in period t that results from assigning silviculture
strategy j to strata i.
Equation (1) deines the objective of maximizing net present income. Equation (2) states that
the area assigned to each silviculture strategy can not exceed the strata area. Equations (3),
(4) and (5) deine the wood and cork yields and the average carbon stocks per product and
planning period. Equations (6), (7) and (8) deine the objectives of non-declining cork and
wood lows and carbon stocks. Finally, equation (9) states the non-negativity constraints.
Graphical user interfaces were programmed so that the user may check strata-related
information (Figure 2) and deine parameters e.g. thinning intensities and cork extraction
periods to simulate silviculture strategies in all strata (Figure 3). Typically, most important
Scenario Analysis Applied to Cork and Holm Oak Forest Ecosystems in Southern Portugal
53
Figure 3. Form to deine silviculture strategies.
silvicultural options encompass regeneration, thinnings and cork extractions. Most stands
are uneven-aged and have densities of 70 to 150 trees per ha when mature. The irst cork
extraction cannot take place until the tree circumference at breast height reaches 70 cm. Thus
cork extraction usually starts at the age of 30 years. A cork extraction cycle encompasses at
least 9 years. Thinnings occur in cork extraction years and remove recently debarked trees.
Trees may live up to about 150 years or more (Falcão and Borges 2005).
3. Results
The integrated functionality of all MfLOR modules – management information system,
simulator and optimizer – was used to check whether policies aiming at non-declining cork
and wood lows and carbon stocks might be sustained. A planning horizon of 5 ten-year
periods was considered. The system allows the user to specify the number of strategies
that might be simulated for each strata (Figure 3). Four test simulations were completed
considering 10, 20, 40 and 100 strategies. The optimizer used the corresponding linear
programming matrices for scenario analysis purposes.
In all 4 runs, the number of cycles varied from 6 to 27. A cycle corresponds to a
combination of silviculture parameters (Figure 3) that may change over the planning horizon
in a given strata. For example, in the case of strata where the only forest species present is
the cork oak, a cycle may encompass the combination of 3 target densities, 3 cork extraction
periodicities and 3 thinning intervals: 27 cycles are possible. After deining cycles, the system
read the strata inventory data and simulated up to 8400 silviculture strategies for all strata
over the 50-years planning horizon. Computational costs were reasonable. The most costly
run took about 17 minutes in a Intel Core Duo 2.66 MHz machine with 1 Gb of RAM.
Increased lexibility led to a 13% increase in total net present value. In all test runs, it was
shown that non-declining cork and wood lows and carbon stocks might be sustained (Figures
4 to 6). Current inventory does not constrain these policies. Actually, if no targets are set for
the irst period lows and stock, non-declining goals are met just by maximizing net present
54
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Wood flow
2500000
m3
2000000
100
1500000
40
1000000
20
10
500000
0
1
2
3
4
5
Period
Figure 4. Wood lows in the 5 ten-year periods of the planning horizon in the case of the simulation of
10, 20, 40 and 100 strategies per strata.
Cork flow
2.50E+08
Kg
2.00E+08
100
1.50E+08
40
1.00E+08
20
10
5.00E+07
0.00E+00
1
2
3
4
5
Period
Figure 5. Cork lows in the 5 ten-year periods of the planning horizon in the case of the simulation of
10, 20, 40 and 100 strategies per strata
Carbon stock
2.50E+07
2.00E+07
100
40
1.00E+07
20
t
1.50E+07
10
5.00E+06
0.00E+00
1
2
3
4
5
Period
Figure 6. Carbon stock in trees and above the ground in the 5 ten-year periods of the planning horizon
in the case of the simulation of 10, 20, 40 and 100 strategies per strata
Scenario Analysis Applied to Cork and Holm Oak Forest Ecosystems in Southern Portugal
55
value when 20, 40 and 100 strategies are simulated. Scenario analysis further shows that
current inventory does not allow a cork low of over 25 × 106 kg in the irst planning period.
Dual values associated with area constraints also provide valuable information to assess
the relative importance of each strata. As a consequence of the current linear programming
formulation, generally cork oak strata are the most valuable. Cork revenues impact shadow
prices substantially. Yet the higher value of holm oak timber as reflected in dual prices
underlines the importance of this cover type.
4. Discussion
The current knowledge about Mediterranean forest ecosystem production functions provides
opportunities for enhanced decision analysis. Quantitative techniques and traditional decision
support systems become more useful for both management planning and regional scenario
analysis. In the case of cork and holm oak forest ecosystems, existing growth and yield
models provide information about cork and timber yields and carbon stocks in the trees and
above the ground. This information was instrumental in developing a linear programming
model and software to support cork and timber lows and cork stocks regional scenario
analysis.
Preliminary results were presented to demonstrate the potential of the integrated
functionality of the models and tools within the MfLOR system. The Portuguese Ministry of
Agriculture Regional Ofice of Alentejo (DRAPAL) will start using this system in 2008 for
scenario analysis. The possibility of adapting policy scenarios as the knowledge generated
by the system increases is instrumental for sound policy making. Flexibility in linear
programming matrix generation is key to this functionality. This system architecture may be
further used for management planning.
Cork and holm oak forest ecosystems provide other goods and services (e.g. acorn
production, livestock). The system is extensible as it allows for the updating and the insertion
of production and conservation functions to address other objectives. A valuable functionality
is the ability to provide multiple objectives tradeoff information.
Acknowledgments
Partial support for this research was provided by Project INTERREG IIIA “Desarrollo de
un sistema de información para la gestión ambiental y económica del ecosistema dehesa/
montado en Extremadura y Alentejo. 2ª Fase” and by Project PTDC/AGR-CFL/64146/2006
“Decision support tools for integrating ire and forest management planning” funded by the
Portuguese Science Foundation
References
Borges, J. G., Falcão, A., Miragaia, C., Marques, P. and Marques, M. 2003. A decision support system for forest
resources management in Portugal. In: Arthaud, G. J. and Barrett, T. M. (Eds.) System Analysis in Forest
Resources. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Managing Forest Ecosystems 7: 155–164.
Borges J. G., Oliveira, A. C. and Costa, M. A. 1997. A quantitative approach to cork oak forest management. Forest
Ecology and Management 97: 223–229.
56
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Bravo, F., Bravo-Oviedo, A. and Diaz-Balteiro, L. 2008. Carbon sequestration in Spanish Mediterranean forests
under two management alternatives: a modeling approach. European Journal of Forest Research DOI 10.1007/
s10342-007-0198-y
Bravo-Oviedo, A, Sterba, H., del Rio , M. and Bravo, F. 2006. Competition-induced mortality for Mediterranean
Pinus pinaster Ait. and P-sylvestris L. Forest Ecology and Management 222: 88–98.
Costa, A., Pereira, H. and Oliveira, A. 2003. Variability of radial growth in cork oak adult trees under cork
production. Forest Ecology and Management 175: 239–246.
Diaz-Balteiro, L and Romero, C. 1998. Modeling timber harvest scheduling problems with multiple criteria: An
application in Spain. Forest Science 44: 47–57.
Diaz-Balteiro, L and Romero, C. 2003. Forest management optimisation models when carbon captured is
considered: a goal programming approach. Forest Ecology and Management 174: 447–457.
Falcão, A. and Borges, J. G. 2005. Designing decision support tools for Mediterranean forest ecosystems
management: a case study in Portugal. Annals of Forest Science 62: 751–760.
Gonzalez, J., Palahí, M. and Pukkala, T. 2005. Integrating ire risk considerations in forest management planning in
Spain – a landscape level perspective. Landscape Ecology 20: 957–970.
Johnson, K.N. and Scheurman, H. L. 1977., Techniques for prescribing optimal timber harvest and investment
under different objectives - discussion and synthesis. Forest Science Monograph. No. 18
Palahí, M. and Pukkala, T. 2003. Optimising the management of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands in Spain
based on individual-tree models. Annals of Forest Science 60: 105–114.
Palahí, M., Pukkala, T., Miina, J. and Montero, G. 2003 Individual-tree growth and mortality models for Scots pine
(Pinus sylvestris L.) in north-east Spain. Annals of Forest Science 60: 1–10
Palahí, M., Pukkala, T., Pascual, L. and Trasobares, A. 2004. Examining alternative landscape metrics in ecological
forest landscape planning: a case for capercaillie in Catalonia. Investigaciones Agrarias: Sist. Recur. For. 13(3):
527–538.
Ribeiro, R. P., Borges, J. G. and Oliveira, V. 2004. A framework for data quality for Mediterranean sustainable
ecosystem management. Annals of Forest Science 61: 557–568
Sanchez-Gonzalez, M. S., Tomé, M. and Montero, G., 2005. Modelling height and diameter growth of dominant
cork oak trees in Spain. Annals of Forest Science 62: 633–643.
Sanchez-Gonzalez, M. S., Calama, R., Canellas, R.I and Montero, G. 2007. Variables inluencing cork thickness in
Spanish cork oak forests: A modelling approach. Annals of Forest Science 64: 301–312.
Tomé, M., Coelho, M.B., Pereira, H. and Lopes, F. 1999, A management oriented growth and yield model for cork
oak stands in Portugal. In: Amaro, A. and Tomé, M. (Eds.) Proceedings of the IUFRO Workshop Empirical and
Process Based Models for Forest Tree and Stand Growth Simulation. Oeiras. Portugal. 1999. Pp. 271–289
Trasobares, A., Tomé, M. and Miina, J. 2004. Growth and yield model for Pinus halepensis Mill. In Catalonia, norteast Spain. Forest Ecology and Management 203(1–3): 49–62.
Cultivation Methods of the Black Trufle, the Most
Proitable Mediterranean Non-Wood Forest Product;
A State of the Art Review
José Antonio Bonet1,2, Daniel Oliach1, Christine Fischer1, Antoni Olivera1,
Juan Martínez de Aragón1 and Carlos Colinas1, 2
1
2
Centre Tecnològic Forestal de Catalunya, Solsona, Spain
Departamento de Producción Vegetal y Ciencia Forestal, Universitat de Lleida, Spain
Abstract
The black truffle (Tuber melanosporum Vittad.) has become an important agricultural
alternative in rural Mediterranean regions. The declines of wild production throughout
its natural range, its high market value and the development of nursery and cultivation
techniques have enhanced its successful cultivation during the last few decades. In this
article, we present the state of the art of black trufle cultivation, the requirements of the
fungi and the cultivation techniques of this culinary fungus.
Keywords: Tuber melanosporum, cultivation techniques, land suitability
1. Introduction
Cultivation of the black trufle (Tuber melanosporum Vittad.) can mean a vital source of
prosperity for rural communities with suitable habitat, becoming a complementary activity
to agricultural traditions, diversifying the rural economy and promoting a renewed land-use
balance.
The historical evolution of the markets reveals a decrease in wild production and a rise in
the demand for trufles over the last decades (Bonet and Colinas 2000). Due to its culinary
standing – it is said that the black trufle is the “black diamond of the kitchen” – it has a high
economic return as a specialty product making it attractive for cultivation and international
marketing.
The black trufle has gained increasing interest as an agricultural alternative in marginal
lands and depressed farming regions (Bencivenga et al. 1983; Romieu and Tabouret 1995).
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
58
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
This hypogeous ascomycete, which produces mature ascocarps or fruit bodies (truffles)
in late autumn and winter, grows in ectomycorrhizal symbiosis with several tree species in
Mediterranean conditions. It is native to the calcareous regions primarily of France, Italy and
Spain and is found on well-drained, open forest or farmlands with high pH, warm summer
temperatures and relatively low, but well-partitioned annual rainfall (Delmas and Poitou 1974).
Cultivation in orchards began intensively with the development of nursery techniques to
induce T. melanosporum ectomycorrhiza formation in receptive host seedlings (Chevalier and
Grente 1978). Productive trufle orchards in France, Italy and Spain presently provide rural
landowners with an alternative to agricultural subsidies, promote restoration of abandoned
cereal lands and require relatively low agricultural inputs (Samils et al. 2003).
Mass production of Tuber-colonized host seedlings has represented the most important
progress in truffle cultivation for the past 30 years. In Spain the first plantations were
established in the early seventies by importing plants from France, and at the onset of the
eighties the irst businesses to cultivate and sell locally grown plants began to appear. Since
then, the expansion of trufle plantations has created an economic boom for the tree nurserysector specializing in the production of trufle-inoculated seedlings.
Annual fresh weight productions from plantations vary with reports of 50 kg/ha from wellmanaged 13–14 yr-old plantations in Italy (Bencivenga and Di Massimo 2000), 45 kg/ha
reported from irrigated plantations in Spain (Carbajo 2000) and 15–50 kg/ha with exceptional
yields up to 110 kg/ha in 14 yr-old plantations in France (Chevalier and Frochot 1997).
Average retail prices in Europe range from 300–450 euros/kg fresh weight (Olivier 2000)
although summer droughts in the recent few years have contributed to low trufle productions
and higher prices of up to 700–900 euros/kg for high quality trufles.
In many regions with suitable habitat, modern methods for truffle cultivation are not
well known by local agriculturalists and experts, and there is limited information available
for potential truffle growers. In this article, we provide a summary of the more solid
recommendations published based on direct observations by the cited authors.
2. Land suitability
The most favorable land for the establishment of a trufle plantation is determined by its
geographical, climatic, geological, soil, and biotic conditions.
2.1 Geographical Conditions
The geographical location may determine the distribution of trufles, but the geographical
parameters themselves do not have much relevance and should be considered along with the
climate.
Altitude
The appropriate altitude for the establishment of a plantation is a parameter presenting
discrepancies among experts because it cannot be set apart from the latitude and orientation.
In Europe wild trufles are found from near sea level in France (Olivier et al. 1996) to 1800
m in Granada (Reyna 2000). In Spain the majority of wild trufle beds are located at around
600–1200 m.
Cultivation Methods of the Black Trufle, the Most Proitable Mediterranean Non-Wood Forest Product...
59
Aspect
The inluence of orientation depends, in turn, on the altitude and latitude as well as exposure
to dominant winds. The majority of wild truffle beds are found facing south, but when
looking at the peninsular south, there is more of a tendency towards growth in the shade. For
example, in Castellón there are more trufle beds facing south, while in Valencia the trufle
beds prefer to face north. (Reyna 1992; 2000).
Slope
Normally trufle beds are not found in completely level areas because of the risk of poor
drainage (Reyna 1992). It is more frequent to ind them on slight inclines (<15%) (Delmas
and Poitou 1973; Reyna 1992; Hernández 1994), although wild trufle beds are quoted as
having slopes of up to 60% (Hernández 1994).
2.2 Climatic Conditions
The climatic conditions that most inluence production of the black trufle are precipitation
and temperature.
Precipitation
The availability of water is of great importance to trufle cultivation, above all during summer
when precipitation has a decisive role in the growth of a trufle. Written works contain no
experimental information on the combined water needs of the symbiotic organism and the
host tree and the fungus. Available information refers only to precipitation. This information
has important limitations, considering that a given precipitation which provides suficient
water needs for a plant grown in colder climates may create water stress for the same plant in
warmer climates.
The suitable rainfall observed in wild trufle beds ranges between 425 and 1500 mm/year,
with precipitation between 72 and 185 mm in summer months (Hernández 1994; Reyna
2000; Ricard 2003).
Temperature
Trufles prefer Mediterranean climates with changing seasons and are capable of withstanding
extreme conditions. Table 1 presents the ranges of optimum temperatures as described in
written works. The ranges are based on observations from places where trufles grow but
without experimental evidence that outside these places they cannot grow. For this reason, it
is probable that some of these ranges will broaden as studies on trufle autecology advance.
Temperature limitations may be determined by the soil’s suitability for a plantation. It is
important to avoid extremes. For example, summer temperatures higher than 23°C for more
than six days (Michels 2003) and winter temperatures lower than -10°C for more than ive
days (Olivier et al. 2002; Sourzat 2003) are excessive. Mulching can reduce the thermal
amplitude, decreasing the soil temperature with a depth of 10 cm in the summer, while
slightly increasing it in the winter (Michels 2003; Sourzat 2003).
60
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 1. Proposed range of temperatures for cultivation of the black trufle (Reyna 1992; Hernández
1994; Callot and Jaillard 1996; Reyna 2000; García-Montero et al. 2001).
Mean annual temperature (ºC)
Mean highest temperature of the warmest month (ºC)
Monthly mean maximum temperature (ºC)
Mean lowest temperature of the coldest month (ºC)
Monthly mean minimum temperature (ºC)
Extreme maximum temperature (ºC)
Extreme minimum temperature (ºC)
8.6 –14.8
23–32
17.4–23.5
(-2)–(-6)
1 – 8.2
43
(-9)–(-25)
2.3 Geologic Conditions
The most preferred soil classiications are those from the Secondary-Mesozoic era including
the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Land with a soil classiication from the late
Jurassic period is best (Sáez and De Miguel 1995), although alluvial substratums from the
Quaternary period are also suitable (Olivier et al. 2002).
2.4 Soil Conditions
Trufles develop on calcareous soils at a depth of 10-40 cm (Sourzat 1997) on Inceptisols,
Entisols and Mollisols (Raglione et al. 2001).
The most appropriate soil parameters and approximate ranges for the correct location and
development of a trufle plantation are as follows:
Stoniness
Soil stoniness is a positive condition for trufle production because it contributes to effective
soil drainage and aeration. Surface stoniness lessens the amount of evaporation in the
summer and protects the soil against compaction or erosion produced by rain. This creates
a mulching effect as well as regulating the temperature of the topsoil (Callot 1999; Reyna
2000). Temperature moderation during hot periods helps to form condensation and insures
soil fauna activity (Callot 1999).
Acidity or Alkalinity
The concentration of acidity or alkalinity in the soil is represented by the pH value. The pH
value is one of the most important determining factors for trufle production due to its need
for basic soils.
The recommended range for the cultivation of the black trufle lies between 7.5 and 8.5
(Delmas et al. 2001), the most favorable being around 8 (Poitou 1988; 1990). The pH of
trufle beds varies between 7.1 and 8.85 (Bencivenga and Granetti 1988; Sáez and de Miguel
1995; Sourzat 2001).
Cultivation Methods of the Black Trufle, the Most Proitable Mediterranean Non-Wood Forest Product...
61
Calcium
Calcium carbonate is essential for the cultivation of the black trufle, although a low soil
calcium level may be compensated for by a signiicant presence in the parent material or
in large soil particles (Reyna 2000). If it is not present in large particles or stones, soil
concentration must exceed 1% and may reach up to 83.7% (Bencivenga and Granetti 1988;
Poitou 1988; Raglione et al. 2001).
Texture
The most suitable soil texture for trufle bed establishment is a balanced loam. Excessively
sandy soils are not acceptable because of their poor water retention capacity, and neither are
heavy clay soils (with >46 %clay) (Raglione et al. 2001) because of elevated compaction.
However, acceptable maximum levels of clay depend on stoniness, organic matter and the
biological activity of the soil, all of which help aeration and prevent compaction.
Recommended soil textures for the cultivation of the black trufle are loam soils: sandy
loam, clay loam, silty loam, sandy clay loam (Delmas and Poitou 1973; Grente and Delmas
1974; Reyna 2000), considering the texture classes of loam, sandy loam and sandy clay loam
to be optimal (Colinas et al. 2007) although wild trufle beds are formed in almost every type
of texture (Delmas et al. 1981; Bencivenga and Granetti 1988).
Organic Matter
Organic matter in the soil improves structure, helps the formation of aggregates and increases
porosity and cation exchange capacity. It also regulates the soil pH, increases water retention
and stimulates biological activity. For these reasons it is an important factor to keep in mind
when choosing the site for trufle cultivation.
The amount of organic matter in trufle bed soil varies considerably with minimum and
maximum absolute values at 0.8% and 17.4% respectively (Delmas et al. 1981; Bencivenga
and Granetti 1988). The recommended range for truffle cultivation is from 1.5% to 8%
(Delmas and Poitou 1973; Grente and Delmas 1974; Poitou 1990).
Macronutrients (N, P and K)
Despite being essential nutrients, signiicant concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium in the soil are not necessary for trufle production. Generally, most soils have
sufficient amounts of these nutrients for maintaining both fungal and tree growth and
therefore, apart from unusual circumstances, there should not be deficiency problems.
Usually problems associated with macronutrients are due to concentration levels having been
raised too high from added fertilizer in cultivated ields. Plants depend on mycorrhizal fungi
for capturing soil nutrients at the typically low concentrations found in most soils. When
concentrations are exceptionally high, plants can absorb nutrients without the intermediary
fungus and mycorrhizal colonization rates drop, which may cause the loss of the desired
fungus (T. melanosporum, in this case), which depends on the tree for obtaining carbon (its
energy source) and maintaining its life cycle.
The recommended range of organic nitrogen content (Kjeldahl) for the cultivation of the
black trufle lies between 0.1% and 0.3% (Poitou 1987; Olivier et al. 1996; Sourzat 2001)
62
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
with minimum and maximum absolute values from wild trufle beds at 0.05% and 0.52%
(Delmas et al. 1981). Both the mycelium of the black truffle and soil microorganisms
are capable of transforming the different forms of phosphorous into an assimilated form
suitable for its host (Poitou 1987; 1988; Olivier et al. 1996; Sourzat 2001). In effect, the total
measurement of phosphorous in trufle bed cultivation is more signiicant than the individual
portions. The recommended range is from 0.1% to 0.3% (Poitou 1987; 1990; Olivier et al.
1996).
The recommended range for potassium content for cultivation of the black trufle lies
between 0.01% and 0.03% (Poitou 1987; Olivier et al. 1996; Sourzat 2001) with minimum
and maximum absolute values of natural trufle beds at 0.0096% and 0.12% (Delmas et al.
1981).
The C/N Relationship
The C/N relationship relects the amount of mineralization in the soil and gives an indication
of biological activity. This should be evaluated particularly in heavy soils with elevated clay
content (Sourzat 2001).
The recommended range of the C/N relationship for cultivation of the black trufle lies
between 8 and 15 (Delmas and Poitou 1973; Delmas et al. 1981; Poitou 1988; Sourzat 1997),
with optimum values near 10 (Delmas and Poitou 1973; Poitou 1988; Sourzat 1997). The
minimum and maximum absolute values observed in trufle beds are 0.1 and 26 respectively
(Bencivenga and Granetti 1988; García-Montero et al. 2001).
Structure
The structure describes the way in which individual particles make up the soil and create
resulting cavities. The best structure for the development of the black trufle is one which
permits aeration within the soil and effective water drainage through the pores thus enabling
penetration of the tree roots and the trufle mycelium (Delmas and Poitou 1973; 1974; Poitou
1988). The most ideal structure for black trufle cultivation is a granular or crumbly structure
(Poitou 1988; Sourzat 1997).
Table 2 lists the recommended ranges for the main soil parameters.
2.5 Biological Conditions
Cultivation Land Use History
The legacy of previous crops where the plantation is established will affect the future
evolution of the land. Cereals, forage crops, and leguminous plants are preferable crops
(Reyna 2000). Vineyards and fruit orchards are also considered effective (Sourzat 1997) and
in general, previous crops which form endomycorrhyzal symbiosis. In the case of woody
crops, it is important to test the health of the roots. An infection caused by the pathogenic
fungus Armillaria sp. could seriously affect the plantation. Other experts recommend a
“biological cleaning” of the land by cultivating cereals or forage crops for at least one year
(Verlhac et al. 1990) prior to trufle plantation establishment.
Cultivation Methods of the Black Trufle, the Most Proitable Mediterranean Non-Wood Forest Product...
63
Table 2. Recommended range for the principle soil parameters for black trufle cultivation (Delmas
and Poitou 1973; Grente and Delmas 1974; Delmas et al. 1981; Delmas et al. 1982; Poitou 1987; 1988;
1990; Bencivenga and Granetti 1988; Olivier et al. 1996; Sourzat 1997; 2001; Reyna 2000; Raglione
et al. 2001).
Parameter
Recommended range
pH
Organic material (%)
Calcium carbonate (%)
Exchangeable Calcium (% calcium oxide)
Nitrogen (Kjeldahl) (%)
Phosphorus (%)
Potassium (%)
Texture
Structure
C/N ratio
7.5– 8.5
1.5–8
1–83.7
0.4–1.6
0.1–0.3
0.1–0.3
0.01–0.03
Loam, sandy loam, clay loam, silt loam, sandy clay loam
Granular or crumbly
8–15
Host Trees
T. melanosporum can form mycorrhizas with evergreen holm oak (Quercus ilex sp. ilex, Q.
ilex sp. ballota), semi-deciduous and deciduous oak trees, the “Quejigo” oak, and downy oak
(Q. faginea, Q. pubescens), Kermes oak (Q. coccifera), hazelnut trees (Corylus avellana),
rockrose (Cistus incanus), several pine species (Pinus pinea, P. halepensis, P. nigra),
European hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia), European hornbeam or ironwood (Carpinus
betulus), and linden trees (Tilia sp.) (Palenzona 1969; Manna 1992; Bencivenga et al. 1995).
Plants Found Within the Physiologic “Burn”
There are a few plants which are not affected by the allelopathic properties of T.
melanosporum, which is known to cause a “brule” or burn around the base of the host tree.
Among them, Mahaleb cherry (Prunus mahaleb), dogwood (Cornus sanguinea), juniper
(Juniperus oxycedrus, J. communis), stonecrop (Sedum altissimum) and red fescue (Festuca
rubra) (Nicolas 1973; Sáez and De Miguel 1995; Olivier et al. 1996), and in areas with mild
climates, Ulex parvilorus (Olivier et al. 1996; Sourzat 1997). However, Olivier et al. (1996)
and Sourzat (1997) indicate that the dogwood is an unfavorable indicator species for land
suitable for trufle production.
3. Planting
In order to begin planting it is necessary to prepare the land, obtain the plant, and to plant on
the appropriate day, having already chosen the planting density.
64
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
3.1 Preparing the Land
Preparation of the land depends, in part, on previous land usage and the condition of the land
at the time prior to planting.
In order to facilitate drainage and aeration, it is important to cultivate deeply with a
subsoiler or a chisel in order to break up a possible hardpan from previous land use.
Afterwards, supericial cultivation is important for smoothing and leveling the soil with
graders or cultivators. The recommended time period is the summer and autumn months
before planting. It should be done on dry ground and without mixing soil horizons.
Land cultivation can also to be carried out in sections of 1 meter wide strips along the
planting rows. In areas with supericial soils or non-compacting (sandy textured) soils with
little organic matter and minor plant cover, planting may be carried out without pre-plantation
cultivation (Ricard 2003).
If the previous cultivation has been woody, all the roots should be extracted in order to
prevent the proliferation of Armillaria sp. or other pathogenic fungi in the roots.
In order to cultivate trufles in acidic soil it is necessary to compensate by raising the pH.
This should be calculated based on actual characteristics of the soil. A sample estimation
would be 1 ton of a mixture in lime (CaCO3) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) for every
hectare in order to elevate the soil pH by 0.1 for the 20 cm of supericial soil (Hall and
Brown 1989).
3.2 Acquiring the Plant
The host plant will be chosen based on the plantation site. In the nursery market, the available
inoculated plants are several species of deciduous and evergreen oak trees including holm
oak, hazelnut tree, and occasionally rockrose. Ideally, the chosen host should be the most
suitable for the area. In Spain, best results have been observed with Quercus ilex, and it
is not advisable to plant hazelnut trees (Estrada 1999), a species much more receptive to
Tuber brumale Vittad. than the holm oak and downy oaks (Ricard 2003). In France, trufle
production occurs earlier with holm oak than hazel nut trees, which would explain its higher
concentration in newer plantations (Ricard 2003).
Plants should have a well-developed root system with abundant fine or trophic roots.
The percentage of the total fine root tips colonized with T. melanosporum mycorrhizas
should surpass 33%, and there should not be mycorrhiza from any other Tuber species. A
low percentage of mycorrhizas from fungi commonly found in greenhouse conditions is
acceptable although not desirable (Fischer and Colinas 1996). In the market it is easy to
ind a plant with trufle mycorrhiza percentages higher than 33% and relatively free of other
fungal mycorrhizas. Seedling quality of the plants should be ideal and comply with current
regulations and established forestry standards. The plants should be correctly stored and
hardened-off, above all if they are to be planted in autumn. If seedlings are not certiied, it
is advisable to have the plants analyzed in a laboratory of his or her choice to conirm the
seedling quality and mycorrhizal status of the plants prior to outplanting.
3.3 Selecting Planting Density
The planting density depends on the chosen host plant and the fertility of the land, which in
turn is dependant on the depth of the soil as well as the content of organic matter and clay in
Cultivation Methods of the Black Trufle, the Most Proitable Mediterranean Non-Wood Forest Product...
65
the soil. Density should be lowest in areas of long growing seasons where higher annual tree
growth is expected.
Density also varies according to the weed control model. For this reason, if one is
considering cultivating the land often, it is best to space the trees accordingly. In the past, 5×5
m planting spacings were used to obtain densities of 400 plants/ha (Estrada and Alcántara
1990) and even greater ones of 400–600 (Grente and Delmas 1974) up to a total of 800
plants/ha (Nicolás 1973).
Currently the most widely used planting grids are those required to obtain a density of
200–330 plants/ha. This is achieved by using spacings of 6×5, 6×6, 7×5, etc.
3.4 Planting Time
According to the weather of each region, planting should be carried out from the month of
November until the month of March and even up to April if there is late freezing.
3.5 Planting
The day before planting it is best to water the plants so that the root plug is more intact and
to reduce potential transplant shock. Plantation should not be undertaken during freezing
periods or with strong winds. Planting is carried out manually. Make a hole large enough
to contain the plant. Carefully place the plant so that it sits vertically with its roots well
extended in such a way that the root collar is slightly underground. Next, ill the planting
hole with ine soil and pack it irmly by stepping around the plant to prevent air pockets.
After planting it is advisable to water each plant with 5 liters of water. Protectors may be
used if there is threat of animal browsing.
When planting in thin or supericial soils it is useful to place partially buried protectors
around the plants in order to protect the plants against drought (Sourzat 2002).
4. Maintenance
Once planting has been carried out, the trufle plantation should be taken care of properly
in order to obtain good production. For other types of cultivation there is a wide variety of
information regarding proper treatments for plantations, and the response to such treatments
is clearly observable: one can directly observe tree growth in the ield and determine if they
lower or if their fruits grow in size. However, the objective of black trufle cultivation is
to aid in the development of a fungus that develops underground and is therefore not
directly observable. The irst indication of effective fungal growth is the appearance of the
burn between the fourth and seventh year, although this does not guarantee the plantation’s
success. The irst trufles usually are not produced until the middle of the sixth and tenth
years. Until then, in order to follow the development of the fungus, one may observe the
proliferation of mycorrhizae in the tree’s roots, or detect the presence of mycelium in the soil
by using molecular techniques (Suz et al. 2006)
66
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
4.1 Weed Control
Stage 1: From the Establishment of the Plantation to the Appearance of Burns
In this stage the weed control around the plants is independent from the vegetation
management or weed control model chosen later. During the irst 2–4 years it is important
to keep the area around the plants free of weeds using manual hoes. This way, it will help
the plant’s chances of survival by eliminating competition for water and nutrients while
increasing survival and proliferation of mycelium.
In the separate rows between each plant the land should be cultivated with tools that can be
controlled for depth – cultivators or disc harrowers (never a rototiller, which mixes the soil) –
to a depth no greater than 15–20 cm (Reyna 2000).
The Tanguy method is used in some plantations in France: For the first two years of
planting the herbaceous vegetation around the trees is eliminated with a hoe or by using
herbicides thereby aiding in the survival and good establishment of the trees. On the third
year, hoeing should be stopped to limit the growth of trees. The plantation is maintained with
naturally occurring or seeded grasses. With the onset of trufle production a few cultivator
passes can be made to stimulate new root growth (Sourzat 1999; 2000).
Stage 2: Years Following the Appearance of Burns
Once the burn appears there are two options for weed control.
a) Land cultivation:
The objectives of truffle bed cultivation include: elimination of weeds and plants that
compete with trufle mycelium and oak seedling for water and nutrients, promotion of soil
aeration and improvement of the water-holding capacity of the soil.
Cultivation is carried out with depth-control tines to a depth no greater than 10 cm (Sáez
and de Miguel 1995; Reyna 2000), although according to Carbajo (1999a), deep land
cultivation helps the production of trufles.
However, excessive cultivation (3–4 or more times per year) may have a negative effect on
the structure and porosity of the soil because of the destruction of soil aggregates, increasing
compaction and a diminishing of microbial activity (Ricard, 2003), resulting in the opposite
effect sought for in trufle bed cultivation.
Sourzat (2000) has observed that cultivation helps to produce larger sized trufles, although
it does not favor the onset of production and in some situations may even delay it.
Land cultivation may be altogether unnecessary in sandy or extremely loose soils where
there is good natural aeration (Ricard 2003).
The best times are the months of March-April (Sourzat 1997).
b) Grass cover:
Once the trees have developed burns the cultivation activity is halted, allowing for herbaceous
plant growth, which can be controlled, if necessary, by mowing. Both naturally occurring and
artiicially sown grasses can be effective (Sourzat 2000). Contrary to land cultivation, the
grasses aid in the development of biologic activity and microlora populations in the soil,
which later become increasingly important for the development of the trufle fruitbodies
(Ricard 2003).
Cultivation Methods of the Black Trufle, the Most Proitable Mediterranean Non-Wood Forest Product...
67
4.2 Irrigation
Stage 1: Establishment and Preproduction
Regular watering is recommended for the irst years until the root system is well-established
(Fortuny and Estrada 1986). Particularly during the irst year or in the case of a prolonged
drought of 20 days or more the plants should be watered depending on soil type and climatic
conditions. There are two types of recommendations for the quantity of water necessary.
The irst is based on a volume of water per plant and the other on the water deicit of the
plant calculated according to potential evapotranspiration. For the former, 3 to 4 litres is
recommended per plant every two to three weeks depending on the intensity of the drought
(Sourzat 2002). For the latter, it is recommended to reduce by one half the amount of water
shortage registered (Bonet et al. 2005), especially in the spring and the irst half of summer
(Olivera et al. 2005). The irst type of recommendation is useful when one cannot estimate
the water shortage, but it is problematic because the necessary quantity of water depends on
the type of soil.
If watering cannot be done, the plants should be mulched. Mulching does not appear
to adversely affect the fungus, but it is not advisable to maintain the mulch for prolonged
periods (Richard 2003).
Stage 2: Production
In this stage the plants should be irrigated with 50–60 l/m2/month from May–June until
August–September (Grente and Delmas 1974; Olivier et al. 1996), or 30l/m2 every 15–20
days (Sourzat 1997), 30l/m2 every 3 weeks (Fortuny and Estrada 1986) or between 30–50 l/
m2 each month based on the soil’s ability for water retention (Verlhac et al. 1990). With these
quantities one must subtract the actual rainfall (Estrada and Alcántara 1990; Sourzat 1997).
Carbajo (1999b) recommends 25 l/m2 every 15 days during the months July, August and
September, although each trufle farmer has his or her own particular guideline (Olivier et
al. 1996). However, excessive irrigation appears to inhibit the production of trufles (CTIFL
1988). Presently, sprinklers or micro sprinklers are recommended over drip irrigation.
Mulching with straw or other plant materials can help prolong the humidity of the irrigation
and may be kept in place for the entire summer but without covering the entire burn.
Diameters of about 50 cm of mulch material should be spaced out at a minimum of 60 cm
intervals (Callot 1999; Ricard 2003).
4.3 Fertilization
Most soils have sufficient amounts of nutrients for black truffle development (Reyna
2000). The black trufle is a fungus adapted to living in marginally fertile or poor soils. It is
advisable to fertilize only on plantations with land exceptionally low in a particular nutrient
in order to make up for the deicit (Olivier et al. 1996). One common practice in areas with
low soil pH is to gradually add slow-release calcareous corrections of around 1000 kg/ha of
CaCO3 before cultivating the land (Ricard 2003).
68
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
4.4 Pruning
For the first years of the plantation tree pruning is carried out primarily for correcting
structural defects (Sourzat 2000; 2002) and to develop the desirable tree form for creating
conditions most favorable for trufle development (Ricard 2003).
Formation pruning or early training is aimed at attaining a tree with the shape of an
inverted cone (Carbajo 1999b) or oval shape (Grente and Delmas 1974) thereby eliminating
lower branches and basal sprouts. Thus, the amount of light reaching the ground is increased,
there is room for a later irrigation system and future trufle gathering is more eficient.
Formation pruning may begin in the third year depending on the plant’s strength and should
be done with low intensity. It is recommended yearly.
Later, at the onset of the tenth year, one should try to limit tree growth and expansion of
the root system and avoid canopy closure (Ricard 2003). During this stage, pruning may be
more intense and be necessary every 2–5 years (Reyna 2000).
In hot climates and with strong solar radiation one can prune the higher branches of the tree
in order to aid aeration and conserve lower branches. This shades the ground and promotes a
buffering of temperature extremes (Ricard 2003).
Pruning is recommended during the winter or the vegetative dormancy phase (Sáez and De
Miguel 1995), although one can also prune in summer periods. Green pruning consists of a
light pruning and pinching-off of the spring or summer growth before ligniication (Ricard
2003).
4.5 Plagues and Diseases
The trees used in trufle cultivation are hardy species and small attacks from pathogenic
organisms do not generally cause any loss (Ricard 2003).
With younger plantations during the establishment phase severe attacks that could disrupt
tree growth may cause concern. Only in this situation is it necessary to intervene (Ricard
2003). In the production stage, the worst problems arise from possible trufle predators,
mainly the wild boar, for which fencing is advisable (Reyna 2000).
In trufle cultivation, one should not aggressively attack plagues and diseases, since every
treatment applied may affect the trufle ecosystem.
4.6 Productive Plantations
Onset of trufle production is variable. It is not uncommon for a few ilbert or oak trees within
a plantation to produce an early trufle 3–5 years after outplanting, but most plantations
require 7–10 years before trufle collections will be reliable. Reports of trufle yields range
between 50 kg/ha from well-managed 13–14 yr-old plantations in Italy (Bencivenga and
Di Massimo, 2000), 45 kg/ha reported from irrigated plantations in Spain (Carbajo, 2000)
and 15–50 kg/ha with exceptional yields up to 110kg/ha in 14 yr-old plantations in France
(Chevalier and Frochot, 1997). Plantations may remain productive up to 35 years, but
longevity depends very much on management interventions that can maintain healthy host
trees and the soil parameters ideal for T. melanosporum habitat.
There is wide variation in annual production related primarily to climatic conditions.
Summer rains have been positively correlated with trufle production. (Reyna 2000). In 200506, after a severe summer drought, trufles were collected from irrigated sections of mature
plantations in Sarrión, Spain while the non-irrigated sections of the same plantation had very
minimal production.
Cultivation Methods of the Black Trufle, the Most Proitable Mediterranean Non-Wood Forest Product...
69
Trufles are collected between November and March with the assistance of a trained trufle
dog. A specialized long-nosed trowel is used to remove them from belowground, and the dig
is closed immediately afterward to maintain the integrity of the soil environment.
Trufle quality is also highly variable. Smaller and knobbier specimens are collected from
very rocky and dry soils whereas larger and more regular-shaped trufles, which appeal to
restaurant clientele, are found in spongier soils. Supericial trufles may be more vulnerable
to freezing and lose the appreciated mature quality found in specimens collected from 1015cm deep.
5. Cost-beneit analysis
The total yield on the initial investment is calculated by obtaining the annual yields from
differences in income and expenses and discounting according to the value of the euro in the
irst year of establishment. According with our calculations, the total yield of one hectare of
T. melanosporum according to the Net Present Value (NPV) is 50 231 € which corresponds
to an annual net cash low of 2691 €/ha.
This cost-beneit analysis gives an orientation of potential yields, given that we assume that
the price of trufles and production quantities are constant. There are various studies which
discuss proits obtained from plantations in Spain, France and Italy which show Net Present
Values luctuating between 19 424 €/ha and 66 972 €/ha (Bonet and Colinas 2001, including
references cited therein). According to these studies, the average yield obtained using the
internal rate of return (IRR) is always greater than 9% and the period of recuperation from
the investment is always greater than 10 years.
6. Future prospects
The international market demand for fresh trufles and trufle products appears to be strong
and the expansion of truffle plantations throughout regions of Spain, France and Italy
continue. There are productive black trufle plantations in New Zealand, Australia and the
USA, established in soils that require additional living to maintain the alkaline pH suitable
for T. melanosporum. There are economic challenges for trufle producers to maintain a
regular and quality product that will ensure a reliable income. This requires more rigorous
studies on the inluences of management interventions including irrigation, weed control, tree
pruning and soil amendments. In addition trufle producers may be at a disadvantage when
selling their products at local markets when they could fetch higher prices by selling quality
trufles directly to the inal buyer or consumer. This may require the introduction of grading
trufles by quality and entrepreneurship on the part of the growers.
There are many ecologic challenges as well. Despite the large number of hectares in
production, there are many plantations that fail to produce trufles. These non-productive
sites challenge our understanding of the trufle’s life cycle and biological requirements.
Another ecologic challenge is the protection of the T. melanosporum habitat from invasions
of other black trufles (Murat et al. 2008), particularly T. brumale and T. indicum. This will
require more effective control over the of the inoculation material used for commercial
trufle-colonized seedlings.
70
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Acknowledgements
This study has been funded by the Departament de Medi Ambient i Habitatge and by the
Department of Agriculture of the Generalitat de Catalunya.
References
Bencivenga, M.; Granetti, B. and Mincigrucci, B. 1983. Tartufaie artiiciali nei terreni marginali. L’Informatore
Agrario. Verona 39(37): 27449–27459.
Bencivenga, M. and Granetti, B. 1988. Ricerca comparativa sulle esigenze ecologiche di Tuber magnatum Pico e
Tuber melanosporum Vitt. dell'Italia centrale. Annali della Facolta di Agraria, Universita degli Studi di Perugia
42: 861–872.
Benvivenga, M.; Donnini, D.; Tanfulli, M. and Guiducci, M. 1995. Tecnica di campionamento delle radici e degli
apici radicali per la valutazione delle piante micorrizate. Micologia Italiana 2: 35–47.
Bencivenga, M. and Di Massimo, G. 2000. Risultati produttivi di tartufaie coltivate di Tuber melanosporum Vitt. in
Umbria. Micologia Italiana 2: 38–44
Bonet, J.A. and Colinas, C. 2000. Truicultura, una alternativa rentable para las zonas de media montaña. Revista de
desarrollo rural y cooperativismo agrario 3: 153–162.
Bonet, J.A. and Colinas, C. 2001. Cultivo de Tuber melanosporum Vitt. Condiciones y rentabilidad. Forestalia, 5:
38-45.
Bonet, J.A.; Fischer, C. and Colinas, C. 2006. Cultivation of black trufle to promote reforestation and land-use
stability. Agronom. Sustain. Devel. 26: 69–76.
Callot, G. 1999. La truffe, la terre, la vie. Ed. INRA. París. 210 p.
Callot, G. and Jaillard, B. 1996. Incidence des característiques structurales du sous-sol sur l’entrée en production de
Tuber melanosporum et d’autres champignons mycorhiziens. Agronomie 16: 405–419.
Carbajo, P. 1999a. Gestión de una gran plantación de trufa. In: "Cultivo de Hongos Comestibles Micorrícicos". In:
Colinas and Fischer (Eds.). Publ. Univ. de Lleida. Lleida.
Carbajo, P. 1999b. Plantación de encinas micorrizadas para la producción de trufas (Tuber melanosporum) en la
provincia de Soria. In: “Micorrización en áreas mediterráneas de la Península Ibérica”. In: Vázquez, Rincón,
Ramos and Doncel (Eds.). Publ. Junta de Extremadura. Mérida: 107-111.
Carbajo, P. 2000. Plantación de Arotz-Catesa. In: Jornadas de Truicultura. Viver, El Toro (Castellón).
Chevalier, G. and Frochot, H. 1997. La maîtrise de la culture de la truffe. Revue Forestière Française 49 Nº special
(Champignons et mycorrhizes en forêt): 201–213.
Chevalier, G. and Grente, J. 1978. Application practique de la symbiose ectomycorrhizienne: production a grande
échelle de plants mycorrhizes par la truffe (Tuber melanosporum Vitt.). Mushroom Science 10(2): 483–505.
Chevalier, G. and Frochot, H. 1997. La maitrise de culture de la truffe. Champignons et mycorhizes en foret.
Revue-Forestiere-Francaise. Special Issue 49: 201–213.
Colinas, C.: Capdevila, J.M.; Oliach, D.; Fischer, C.R. and Bonet, J.A. 2007. Mapa de aptitud para el cultivo de trufa
negra (Tuber melanosporum Vitt.) en Cataluña. Ed. Centre Tecnològic Forestal de Catalunya, Solsona, 134 p.
CTIFL, 1988. La truffe. Boletín nº 10 de la FNPT. Ed. Charles Parra. París. 85 p.
Delmas, J. and Poitou, N. 1973. La truffe et ses exigences écologiques. Pépinièristes Horticulteurs Maraichers, 144:
33–39.
Delmas, J. and Poitou, N. 1974. Contribution a la connaissance de l'ecologie de Tuber melanosporum: la truffe
du périgord. Academie D'Agriculture De France, Extrait du procès-verbal de la Séance du 19 Décembre 1973.
Pp.1486–1494.
Delmas, J.; Brian, C.; Delpech, P. and Soyer, J.P. 1981. Application de l’analyse en composantes principales à une
tentative de caractérisation physico-chimique des sols truficoles français. Mushrroom Science 11(2): 855–867.
Delmas, J.; Chevalier, G.; Villenave, P. and Bardet, M. Ch. 1982. Mécanique des sols et mycorhizes de Tuber
melanosporum. Les Colloques de l´INRA 13: 329–335.
Estrada, J.M. 1999. Historia y economía del cultivo de la trufa en España. In: "Cultivo de Hongos Comestibles
Micorrícicos". In: Colinas and Fischer (Eds.). Publ. Univ. de Lleida.
Estrada, J.M. and Alcantara, C. 1990. La trufa. Ed. Servei d’Extensió Agrària del Departament d’Agricultura,
Ramaderia i Pesca. Generalitat de Catalunya. Barcelona. 26 p.
Fischer, C.R. and Colinas, C. 1996. Methodology for certiication of Quercus ilex seedlings inoculated with Tuber
melanosporum for commercial application. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference in Mycorrhizae.
Berkeley, California, USA.
Fortuna, M. and Estrada, J.M. 1986. La truicultura. Guía práctica para la plantación y el cultivo de la trufa. 28 p.
García-Montero, L.G.; Manjón, J.L. and Casermeiro, M.A. 2001. Análisis productivo y caracterización ecológica
primaria de Quercus faginea Lam. como simbionte de Tuber melanosporum Vitt. In: Actes du Ve Congrès
International, Science et culture de la truffe, 4–6 marzo 1999, Aix-en-Provence, France. Pp. 4209–4213.
Grente, J. and Delmas, J. 1974. Perspectives pour une truficulture moderne. INRA. Clermont-Ferrand. 65 p.
Cultivation Methods of the Black Trufle, the Most Proitable Mediterranean Non-Wood Forest Product...
71
Hall, I. and Brown, G. 1989. The black trufle. Ed. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Wellington, Nueva
Zelanda. 73 p.
Hernández, A. 1994. Líneas de investigación sobre trufa. In: Actas de las I Jornadas Internacionales de Truicultura,
Ed. ASOPIVA, Abejar, Soria, Spain.
Manna, D. 1992. Importanza della scelta della specie forestale nell'impianto di tartufaie: Esperienze nel
comprensorio della comunita montana dello Spoletino. In: Convegno Internazionale sul tartufo, 5–8 marzo 1992,
l'Aquila, Italy. Pp. 233–250.
Michels, C. 2003. Conditions climatiques et production trufière. In: Resumes des interventions, Journée Nationale
de la truficulture, 28 march 2003, Martel, France.
Murat, C, Zampieri, E., Vizzini, A and Bonfante, P. 2008. Is the Perigord black trufle threatened by an invasive
species? We dreaded it and it has happened. New Phytol. Letters. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02449.x.
Nicolas, J.J. 1973. La trufa. Boletín de la Estación Central de Ecología. ICONA. Madrid. Vol. 2 nº 3. 28 p.
Olivier, J.M. 2000. Progress in cultivation of trufles. In: Science and cultivation of edible fungi. In: Van Griensven
(ed.). Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Pp. 937–942.
Oliver, J.M.; Savignac, J.C. and Soruzat, P. 1996. Truffe et truficulture. Ed. Fanlac. Périgueux. France. 263 p.
Oliver, J.M. ; Savignac, J.C. and Sourzat, P. 2002. Truffe et truficulture. Ed. Fanlac. Périgueux. France. 263 p.
Palenzona, L. 1969. Mycorrhizal synthesis between Tuber aestivum Vitt., Tuber brumale Vitt., Tuber melanosporum
Vitt. and seedlings of Corylus avellana L. Allionia 15: 121–132.
Poitou, N. 1987. Le sol. Cas particulier des sols trufiers. In: Congrès de la truficulture. 27–28 november1987,
Saintes, France. Pp. 11–16.
Poitou, N. 1988. Les sols trufiers. Choix du sol: prélèvement, analyse, correction, oligo-éléments. In: Journées
Nationales de la Truffe, St. Paul Trois Châteaux, Drome, France.
Poitou, N. 1990. Les sols trufiers français. Atti del Secondo Congresso Internazionale sul Tartufo, 24–27 november
1988, Spoleto, Italy. Pp. 391–396.
Raglione, M. ; Spadoni, M. ; Cavelli, S. ; Lorenzoni, P. and De Simone, C. 2001. Les sols des trufières naturelles
de Tuber melanosporum Vitt. dans l'Apennin Central (Italie). In: Actes du Ve Congrès International, Science et
culture de la truffe, 4–6 marzo 1999, Aix-en-Provence, France. Pp. 5276–5280.
Reyna, S. 1992. La trufa. Mundi-Prensa. Madrid. 115 p.
Reyna, S. 2000. La trufa, truicultura y selvicultura trufera. Mundi-Prensa. Madrid. 229 p.
Ricard, J.M. 2003. La truffe. Guide technique de truficulture. Centre technique interprofessionnel des fruits et
légumes. París. 268 p.
Romieu, M. and Tabouret, P. 1995. La truficulture: une des alternatives à la déprise agricole en Drôme. Forêts de
Frances 387: 20–22.
Sáez, R. and De Miguel, A. 1995. Guía práctica de truicultura. I.T.G. Agricola S.A. and Universidad de Navarra.
Pamplona. 94 p.
Samils, N.; Olivera, A.; Danell, E.; Alexander, S.J. and Colinas, C. 2003. Aportación de la truicultura al desarrollo
socioeconómico. Vida Rural 181: 54–60.
Sourzat, P. 1997. Guide pratique de truficulture. Ed. Station d’expérimentations sur la truffe. Le Montat. France.
96 p.
Sourzat, P. 1999. Les méthodes de truficulture en France. In : “Cultivo de Hongos Comestibles Micorrícicos”. In:
Colinas and Fischer (Eds.). Publ. Univ. de Lleida.
Sourzat, P. 2000. Truficulture. Résultats techniques d’expérimentations: à l’usage pratique des truficulteurs. Ed.
Lycée professionnel agricole et viticole de Cahors-Le Montat. Le Montat. France.
Sourzat, P. 2001. Les limites des critères agronomiques dans l'analyse de terre en truficulture. In: Actes du Ve
Congrès International, Science et culture de la truffe, 4–6 march 1999, Aix-en-Provence, France. Pp. 5281–5286.
Sourzat, P. 2002. Guide pratique de truficulture. Ed. Station d’expérimentations sur la truffe. Le Montat. France.
119 p.
Sourzat, P. 2003. Les écosystèmes trufiers naturels: quels enseignements en tirer?. En: Résumes des interventions,
Journée Nationale de la truficulture, 28 march 2003, Cuzance, France.
Suz, L.M. ; Martin, M.P. and Colinas, C. 2005. Detection of Tuber melanosporum DNA in soil. FEMS Microbiol
Lett, 254: 251–257.
Verlhac, A. ; Giraud, M. and Leteinturier, J. 1990. La truffe, guide pratique. Ed. CTIFL. París. 108 p.
Acorn Production in Iberian Dehesas
G. Gea-Izquierdo, S. Roig and I. Cañellas
Forest Systems and Resources Department, Center for Forest Research (CIFOR-INIA),
Madrid, Spain
Abstract
Acorn production is one of the most important products in Mediterranean agroforestry systems.
In this work we present a review on the state of the art of fruit production of the Iberian dehesas
of Quercus ilex (holm oak) and Quercus suber (cork oak). We briely describe the common
acorn production estimation methods, indicating their advantages and disadvantages. We also
analyze the main known factors reported in the literature that determine acorn production such
as pruning, stand characteristics, and site quality. The scientiic review is complemented with
the description of the preliminary results of some trials carried about to analyze the distribution
of production over time and the effect of pruning. Acorn production is very variable both in
time and space between individuals. Most studies found in the literature are too short and
generally do not characterize the stands dasometrically, making it impossible to extract valid
conclusions. Although it would seem strange to think that such a valuable resource is not well
understood, the current situation is that there is a great lack of scientiic knowledge on the
ecology of acorn production in dehesas. Management and even the available literature keep
relying on traditional empirical beliefs that should be demonstrated.
Keywords: fruit yield; oak woodlands; agroforestry systems.
1. Introduction
The genus Quercus (oaks) is one of the most widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, oaks
being the main components of the tree stratum in many forests and woodlands. In Europe, and
speciically in the Mediterranean basin, despite the great importance of oaks, there have been
few studies of acorn production, even though acorns have played a basic role in domestic and
wildlife feeding. As a consequence of its importance, many studies are available about the
acorn production of many oaks in North America (Aizen and Woodcock 1992; Koenig et al.
1994; Abrahamson and Layne 2003) and in East Asia (Maeto and Ozaki 2003).
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
74
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Figure 1. Distribution of the dehesa system in Spain (data from the Spanish Forest Map and the
Andalusian Vegetation Cart).
The dehesa is a traditional agroforestry system which consists of an oak woodland with
an understory composed of a mosaic of croplands, grasslands and shrublands, where cattle,
sheep, pigs and goats are extensively raised (Joffre et al. 1988; San Miguel 1994). This
agroforestry system occupies more than 3×106 hectares in the south-west Iberian peninsula.
The mean tree density is around 30–50 trees ha–1, varying from isolated trees to complete
tree cover (over 100 trees ha–1). Several tree species are present at the dehesa systems but
perennifolius Quercus ilex L. (holm oak) and Quercus suber L. (cork oak) are the dominant
tree species. In Table 1 the dasonomic characterization of the dehesa system is presented
trough the available information of the third National Forest Inventory (IFN). Pruning to
obtain irewood is a traditional activity which has been retained even though irewood has
lost almost all of its value. Game, both small and large, is gaining importance as an income
source, due to the changes in socioeconomic structure which have occurred over the last four
decades (Pinto-Correia 1993; San Miguel 1994). The distribution of the Spanish dehesa is
shown in the Figure 1.
The most characteristic fruit of the dehesa is the acorn, which is a key feeding resource in
areas of mild winters. Acorns with the highest nutritional quality are those of the evergreen
oak (Quercus ilex sbsp. ballota), followed by those of the quejigo oak (Quercus faginea
sbsp. broteroi), cork and pyrenean oak (Quercus pyreniaca Willd.). It is considered that 9
kg of evergreen oak acorns are equivalent to 12 kg from the quejigo oak, 14 kg from the
cork oak and 18 kg from Pyrenean oak. As fodder, the acorn is poor in proteins and rich
in carbohydrates which are easily transformable into fat. It is therefore usually used for
fattening fully-grown animals. Its energy value is about 0.5 UF/kg. The stock which make
best use of the montanera (acorn-feeding period) on the dehesa are pigs, particularly of the
Iberian breeds, which transform approximately 7–9 kg of acorns into 1 kg of high quality live
weight, consuming about 8–10 kg of acorns per day for each 100 kg of live weight, all within
an extensive system of exploitation, and generally without supplements. For other livestock,
the montanera is only a complement of varying degrees of importance in its feeding.
Acorn Production in Iberian Dehesas
75
Table 1. Dasonomic characterization of the dehesa system of holm or cork oak in Spain (5144 plots of
the third Spanish National Inventory).
N (stem/ha)
Dg (mm)
BA (m2/ha)
Fcc (%)
H (m)
Dm (mm)
Ho (m)
Do (mm)
Mean
Median
Range
Std.Dev.
59.6
410.8
6.5
69.9
7.6
431.8
8.9
555.2
47.5
386.1
5.5
85.0
7.4
418.8
8.5
530.5
199.9
1526.0
49.8
100.0
21.2
1526.0
28.0
1526.0
43.75
155.76
4.05
30.33
1.88
147.26
2.43
188.53
N: number of trees by hectare; Dg: quadratic mean diameter; BA: basal area; Fcc: cover fraction; H: mean height; Dm: mean diameter; Ho: dominant
height; Do: dominant diameter.
Table 2. Chemical composition (%) of holm oak and cork oak acorns (in bracket the mean standard
deviation) (Cañellas et al. 2003).
Holm oak
Humity (%)
Ash
Fat
Crude iber
Crude protein
Ca
P
Mg
Fe*
Cu*
Cork oak
endosperm
shell
endosperm
shell
36.2 (0.55)
2.5 (0.15)
9.2 (0.45)
4.0 (0.80)
6.0 (0.29)
0.39 (0.01)
0.81 (0.02)
0.80 (0.02)
40.0 (1.7)
90.0 (4.9)
26.5 (3.02)
2.1 (0.17)
1.5 (0.08)
42.7 (1.52)
5.5 (0.27)
0.58 (0.02)
0.50 (0.02)
1.00 (0.04)
57.0 (1.7)
125.0 (7.0)
33.4 (0.98)
2.1 (0.38)
9.0 (0.60)
2.0 (0.40)
8.1 (0.32)
0.30 (0.02)
1.30 (0.03)
0.76 (0.03)
30.0 (1.2)
125.0 (9.8)
17.1 (0.19)
2.2 (0.16)
1.7 (0.08)
31.5 (1.28)
6.3 (0.32)
0.54 (0.02)
0.30 (0.02)
1.00 (0.05)
50.0 (0.8)
91.0 (10.2)
* ppm
Acorn collection is usually from October to January (inclusive). The irst falling acorns
are usually green (with a high tannin content which may affect the livestock) or affected by
Balaninus spp. Acorn production on the dehesas is believed to be concentrated on a limited
number of individuals. This has led researchers to focus on the study and selection of high
productive individuals or varieties for reproduction and for use in reforestation projects.
In this work we present a review on the state of the art of fruit production of the Iberian
dehesas of Quercus ilex (holm oak) and Quercus suber (cork oak). We briely describe the
common acorn production estimation methods, indicating their advantages and disadvantages.
We also analyze the main known factors reported in the literature that determine acorn
production such as pruning, stand characteristics, and site quality. The scientiic review is
complemented with the description of the preliminary results of some trials carried out to
analyze the distribution of production over time and the effect of pruning.
76
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
2. Estimation methods for acorn production
The estimation of acorn production is a laborious activity due to the large samples required
and the demand of great effort to collect acorns. Different estimation techniques have been
developed in technical and scientiic works (Gea-Izquierdo et al. 2006): (i) visual survey and
(ii) acorn collection.
(i) In the visual surveys methods, acorns are counted directly from the crown. Counts are
made during a ixed time period, in sectors of the crown or in quadrats (Koenig et al., 1994;
Perry and Thill, 1999). Score methods, subjective visual estimations, are included in this
group too, which are made from standing crops according to ranked categories based on
the amount and distribution of acorns in the crown. Several kinds and numbers of scores
(generally between 4 and 10 categories) have been used in the literature (Perry and Thill
1999, 2003; Peter and Harrington 2002).
(ii) Acorn collection methods can be partial or total collection. In partial acorn collection
seed traps or quadrats (ground plots) are evenly distributed beneath the crown. The number
of traps or quadrats is preferably proportional to the crown area (Gysel 1956; De Zulueta and
Cañellas 1989; Perry and Thill 1999). In the total acorn collection methods all acorns have to
reach the ground, either naturally or man induced by using sticks, and they are collected in
canvases placed beneath the crown (Gysel 1956).
The estimation method will be selected depending on the goals of the study and conditions
such as economy, time, availability of trained workers and the scientiic accuracy required.
No method is perfect and each one can be suitable for a speciic purpose. Visual methods are
biased if the procedures are not standardised and the observers well trained before the survey,
but it permits increasing sample size with very low cost. In traps, only acorns reaching the
ground are collected, hence results are biased from aerial consumption by animals. If we aim
at estimating the total production, as kg/ha or kg/tree, every method except the total counts
requires a previous estimate to relate either the total acorn production or the production per
surface area to the estimative method (scores, counts, traps or quadrats) selected, which adds
an extra source of error. The total collection method is the most accurate one. Nevertheless, it
requires the highest effort and, like all collection methods, does not permit the estimation of
acorn yields in advance.
3. Acorn production
Oak acorn production of any of the species thriving on dehesas has not yet been well
described. The time series studied are far too short to provide any clear explanation to acorn
production (Gea-Izquierdo et al. 2006). The great variability reported by all authors (Martín
et al. 1998; Álvarez et al. 2002; Carbonero et al. 2002; Torres et al. 2004), both between
individuals and within individuals between years, is common to most other woody species
(Herrera et al. 1998; Koenig and Knops 2000). Holm oak acorn annual mean values in
dehesas in the literature are between 80 and 300 g/m2 (Table 3). These igures are higher
than the production in forests of NW Spain and SW France reported by Siscart et al. (1999).
However, coeficients of variation over 100% are fairly common in the bibliography. Within
the same location it is possible to ind individuals with null annual production and trees
producing up to 155 kg/tree (Carbonero et al. 2003). In the northwest foothills of the Central
Range System (northernmost range of dehesas, Salamanca province), Álvarez et al. (2002)
report ranges from 0.1 to 87.9 kg/tree, corresponding to an average of 19.0 kg/tree. These
results are similar to some studies, with a tree annual production in 6 years of 20.7 kg/tree
Table 3. Acorn production of Western Iberian holm oak woodlands from different sources (from Gea-Izquierdo et al. 2006). Data are averages of several years and
different stands. Means of annual standard deviations (SD) as simple estimates of dispersion are between brackets; they were weighted by number of years estimating
production when possible.
References
Procedence
Sample size
(trees)
Estimation
method
Nºof
years
Stand density
(trees/ha)
140
Total acorn
collection
From
8 to 2
-
-
22.9
(10.8)
-
g/crown m2
Mean production
kg/tree
kg/ha
Huelva
Álvarez et al.
2002
Salamanca
-
Total acorn
collection
1
25
-
19.0
475
Gómez et al.
1980
Salamanca
3
Traps
2
-
86.6
-
-
Escudero et al.
1985
Salamanca
-
Traps
3
-
120.1
-
-
Martín et al.
1998
Sevilla
Traps
7
23
285.8
(194.5)
115.8
(83.2)
25.3
(6.5)
7.1
(1.9)
-
Carbonero et al.
2003
Córdoba
Torrent, (1963)
Spain
Olea et al. 2004
Badajoz
50
2000
-
60
Traps
-
2
60-78
-
26.7
(5.1)
-
2
20-45
-
-
674.3
(120.4)
Traps
Acorn Production in Iberian Dehesas
Porras,
1998
77
78
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
(Medina-Blanco 1963), from the Central West Range of dehesas (Extremadura), but higher
than other results in that same area (15 kg/tree; Espárrago et al. 1993). In dehesas, within 8
provinces of Spain, in 10 years, Torrent (1963) visually estimated a mean annual average
of 586.4 ± 131.6 kg/ha and similar average values around 550 kg/ha have been reported by
other authors (San Miguel 1994; Martín et al. 1998. Table 3).
4. Tree and stand production
The Effect of Tree Density and Stand Characteristics
Acorn production is likely to vary with stand density. Table 3 shows some of the studied
relationships between acorn production and stand characteristics for the dehesa system.
Martín et al. (1998) estimated a holm oak annual production per crown unit area ranging
from 0.5 to 577.2 g dry matter/m2. Holm oaks in stands of low density (23 trees/ha) averaged
higher productions per tree (285.8 g/m2, 25.3 kg/tree). However, these trees produced less
per ha (291.5 kg/ha) than stands with higher densities (59.5 trees/ha), which had the opposite
trend (115.8 g/m2; 7.1 kg/tree; 296.0 kg/ha). The same negative relationship was observed for
cork oak stands in the same area.
Lower densities seem to account for higher production at tree level, as a result of increased
light availability (Abrahamson and Layne 2003), and decreased intraspeciic competition. In
North America (Healy et al. 1999; Perry and Thill 2003) and Central America (Guariguata
and Sáenz 2002) several oak species average higher productions after thinning, and it has
also been shown in two North American Quercus species how acorn production decreases
with increasing stand basal area (Perry et al. 2004). In holm oak closed forests with 1,400
trees/ha in France, the average reported is 512.3 ± 365.5 kg/ha-year (Lossaint and Rapp
1978). Abrahamson and Layne (2003) also detected that stand diameter distribution is also
likely to affect acorn production. Tree diameter is directly related to crown volume and age.
In other oak species it has been shown that the larger the dbh, the higher total tree production
(Greenberg 2000). However, factors as tree dbh, crown volume, and tree age have sometimes
contradictory effects into production per crown m2. Some authors have stated that trees with
dbh under 25 cm are signiicantly less productive per crown unit area (Greenberg, 2000;
Carbonero et al. 2002; Alvarez et al. 2002) (Figure 2). This fact could be related to the irst
age of lowering of trees and maturing of individuals, and should be studied in more detail.
The Effect of Site
The relationship of acorn production to site characteristics (climate and soil) has been widely
reported in other species, showing a great inluence in acorn production (Kelly and Sork
2002; Abrahamson and Layne 2003). There is yet a lack of studies analyzing this aspect in
the dehesa system. Álvarez et al. (2002) in Salamanca (Fig. 2) observed differences in acorn
production between stands thriving on slopes, plains and foothills. There were soil differences
among the topographic situation (foothill soils have higher clay and loam percentages while
slopes tend to be more sandy and acidic) and stands characteristics. Similarly, Carbonero et al.
(2004) reported higher production in heavy soils (loamy-clay soils or clay), than in sandy or
sandy-loam soils. Siscart et al. (1999), in holm oak forests of NW Spain, reported an increase
in acorn number and biomass in nitrogen fertilized plots. In the same study, irrigation was
found to be closely related to fertilization and annual acorn production affected positively
Acorn Production in Iberian Dehesas
5
(B)
(A)
3
DC <35
2
DC 35-54
Acorn Weight (g)
Acorn Weight (g)
5
4
79
4
3
Plain
2
Slope
DC >55
1
1
3
5
7
Weeks
Foothill
1
1
3
5
7
Weeks
Figure 2. Variation in acorn weight (g) along the fruiting season (weeks in the x-axis, from 15-october
to 15 December). Data from Álvarez et al. (2002) from a sample 100 acorns per tree of 44 trees
belonging to three stands in different positions (slope, plain, foothill) in one year in Salamanca
(Northern limit of dehesas). (A): effect of diameter class. (B): effect of position.
only in years with high summer drought. According to the previously discussed, masting
would be likely to be more pronounced in the highest elevations, as lower productivity
increases the time required to accumulate resources between high seed crops (Kelly and Sork
2002; Abrahamson and Layne 2003). Some authors have studied the relationship between
fertility and acorn production in dehesa systems (Martín et al. 1998; Carbonero et al. 2004)
but neither of them found any signiicant effect.
Other Factors Affecting Acorn Production
Some other factors affecting acorn production have been studied such as the position of
acorn within the canopy (Innes 1994; Nuzzo et al. 1997; La Mantia et al. 2003). Peter and
Harrington (2002) found higher acorn production in the top half of the canopy in Quercus
alba stands. Carbonero et al. (2002) report a non-signiicant increase in both the outer part
and the south facing part of the crown (29.6 g/m2 in the South-outer; 26.4 g/m2 in the Northouter; 21.2 g/m2 in the South-interior; 20.4 g/m2 in the North interior) in holm oak trees
in dehesas. These differences could be a result of higher light availability (Guariguata and
Sáenz 2002) as acorns in the more shaded branches receive less light for maturation, in a
similar way to subcanopy tree species (Kato and Hiura 1999). Additionally, branches located
in different orientations receive different quantities of sap (Infante et al. 2001). Therefore, it
might be thought that South and South West aspects would be more productive. Pre-dispersal
and post-dispersal acorn losses owing to biotic and abiotic factors can reduce yearly acorn
production (Pulido and Diaz 2005). Insect attack provokes an early fall of acorns (Soria et
al. 2005). The negative effect of insects can be very intense some years, with reductions
in acorn yield up to 50% (Espárrago et al. 1993; Soria et al. 1996, Cañellas et al. 2007),
however these figures are likely to increase in some years attending to results in other
European oak species (Crawley and Long 1992). Some authors report an adjustment of some
insect life-cycles to two or more year patterns, suggesting that insects would synchronize
80
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 4. Average tree characteristics of the cork oak pruning trial plots. Standard deviations are between
brackets (from Cañellas et al. 2007).
variables
Circumference over cork (cm)
Circumference at the top of trunk over cork (cm)
Circumference in mid-point of trunk over cork (cm)
Circumference at the base of trunk over cork (cm)
Height stripped in trunk (cm)
Stripping coeficient*
Treatment
pruned
No pruned
134 (30)
126 (34)
122 (34)
147 (41)
247 (68)
2.10 (0.5)
141 (29)
135 (37)
127 (34)
157 (37)
264 (95)
2.22 (0.51)
* Relation between stripping height and circumference over cork at 1.3 m
their diapauses to fruit masting (Maeto and Ozaki 2003). The exudation of sap in acorns, a
phenomenon called “drippy nut disease (melazo) possibly causing transmission of pathogens
by insects, is another common source of acorn losses. In García et al. (2005) 27.5±10.7 % of
trees produced acorns with melazo, which generally fall earlier from the tree. Other activities
such as grazing and ploughing could inluence acorn production but until now the effect of
ploughing or fertilisation in this system has not been quantiied.
Tree selection through centuries in dehesas could have led to a genetic differentiation
compared to the original forest. However, to our knowledge, no studies have been conducted
analyzing the effect of genetic selection and genetic tree variability on acorn production in
this ecosystem.
5. Pruning effects in acorn production
The effect of pruning in Mediterranean oak woodland has long been controversial. There is
insuficient information based on research even to form an objective and rational opinion
upon the response of trees to this silvicultural practice. Light or moderate pruning are likely to
be positive for the tree growth and production. Pruning of overshadowed and weak branches
(with a negative energy balance, more carbohydrates are lost by respiration than gained
by photosynthesis) is thought to be beneicial (Hubert and Courrand 2002). The economic
costs of light or moderate pruning are very high, and there are attempts to compensate these
costs by obtaining incomes from irewood, charcoal or virgin cork. This generally implies
an increase in the intensity of pruning, which can be too intense and cause damage to the
tree and produce an imbalance between the above and underground biomass. There is also
a traditional belief that pruning increases acorn production (San Miguel 1994; Gómez and
Pérez 1996). Acorn production is nowadays one of the most proitable products in the dehesa
system, as Iberian pigs, the most eficient acorn consumers, are raised extensively by feeding
them acorns during the fruiting period as it has been previously described.
To analyse the effect of pruning in acorn production in a cork oak open woodland a
pruning trial was developed where acorns were collected from 40 cork oak trees pruned in
December 1993, and 40 left un-pruned (Cañellas et al. 2007). Cork stripping took place in
August 1998, at the end of a ten-year cycle. Trees were selected in pairs according to their
size (circumference over cork at breast height), covering all the diameter classes present
in the area. A moderate pruning treatment was applied, removing around 30% of crown
Acorn Production in Iberian Dehesas
81
Table 5. The effect of pruning on acorn production (ANOVA) (from Cañellas et al. 2007).
No pruned
Mean (g/m2)
Pruned
332.85 ± 340.02 a
0.74 ± 1.65 c
58.15 ± 115.02 d
31.02 ± 61.00 e
332.57 ± 312.21 f
155.64 (77.59)
137.68 ± 322.13 b
2.10 ± 8.21 c
56.76 ± 108.39 d
32.85 ± 67.38 e
177.64 ± 167.91 g
81.21 (32.96)
Year
1994–1995
1995–1996
1996–1997
1997–1998
1998–1999
Average
Average
237.39 ± 343.73
0.98 ± 5.83
56.89 ± 111.13
30.98 ± 63.78
224.43 ± 264.27
Different letters indicate statistical differences at a = 0.05 between years (standard deviations). As the interaction between ‘Pruning treatment’ and
‘Year’ was signiicant, comparisons were calculated independently for each combination of factors
Fig. 3. Seasonal distribution of acorn fall in pruned and un-pruned cork oak trees (expressed in g m–2
of crown surface). Data from September 1994 to March 1999 (from Cañellas et al., 2007).
biomass. Acorns were collected in one 0.3025 m2 trap per tree placed randomly below each
tree crown (taking into account the distance to the trunk and the orientation). Falling acorns
were collected monthly from September 1994 to March 1999. Acorns were dried at 80ºC for
48 hours and weighed to the nearest 0.01 g.
No signiicant effect on silvicultural characteristics such as tree size and intensity of cork
stripping was observed between pruned and non-pruned trees (Table 4). The estimated acorn
production (expressed in units per crown projection area) was analyzed through ive annual
cycles (1994–1999) as a function of the pruning treatment (Table 5). Acorn yield varied
greatly between years. A large fall of acorns in 1994 was followed by a low fall over the next
three years (Fig. 3). The interaction between ‘Treatment’ and ‘Year’ was signiicant (F4,390
= 4.81, P < 0.001), hence the pruning effects were analysed for each year separately (Table
5). There were signiicant differences in the years 1994 and 1998 (see Table 5) between the
pruned and un-pruned trees, coinciding with the two years where acorn production was above
the average. However, when acorn production was below the average (the other three years
studied), production was unaffected by pruning.
82
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Our results suggest that it is unclear whether pruning enhances acorn production, as is
traditionally believed (San Miguel 1994). It is dificult to obtain any conclusions from the
existing studies, as most of them lack many necessary details, such as production previous
to pruning and stand characterization (especially tree diameter distribution and crown sizes),
and do not study a whole pruning period (between 10 and 20 years). (Gómez and Pérez 1996;
Álvarez et al. 2004).The present study also suffers from some of these shortcomings: there
are no records from before the pruning and our study period is still too short to evaluate
a whole pruning cycle. However, as an approach, this study is valuable as a basis for the
necessary longer studies to demonstrate if there is a response in acorn production to pruning.
Most authors report a decrease in production during the irst year after pruning (Porras 1998;
Carbonero et al. 2003; Álvarez et al. 2004). This might be explained as the tree reallocating
resources to rebuild the aboveground biomass (Cañellas et al. 2007).
In our results, pruning clearly reduced production during the above the average (‘‘masting
years’’), which could be partly a result of lower crown volume after pruning. There is no
agreement between authors on whether the type of pruning used has an inluence or not
(Álvarez et al. 2004), but intuitively it could be thought that less aggressive pruning will be
less negative for trees. Most pruning and production studies have been conducted on holm
oaks. Flowering and fruiting phenology is more complex in the cork oak than in the holm oak
(lowering and fruiting cycles of 1, 1.5 or 2 years), and this could inluence any comparisons
between the species. As the existence of a positive effect of pruning on acorn production is
not clear, and currently charcoal and irewood are depreciated in value, pruning might be
unproitable from an economic point of view. Nevertheless it provides work for people in
deprived areas which can temporally have socio-economic beneits.
6. Final remarks
The most important conclusion from this study should be the need of more detailed, longer
studies to explain acorn production patterns in this Iberian ecosystem. The heterogeneity of
methodologies and incomplete way in which results are reported in most studies makes the
extraction of clear conclusions of any of the factors analyzed impossible. Acorn production
is economically and ecologically important enough to deserve more attention that it has
received so far. Speciic, well designed studies are urgently needed if we want to approach
the understanding of this phenomenon and all the details involved.
It is necessary to study in depth the effect of the main silvicultural treatments (fertilization,
ploughing, pruning, density regulation,..), specially in a very harsh and changing ecosystem
like the Mediterranean open landscapes. Traditional beliefs, though being a very valuable
source of wisdom, must be analyzed and demonstrated.
References
Abrahamson, W.G. and Layne, J.N. 2003. Long-term patterns of acorn production for ive oak species in xeric
Florida uplands. Ecology 84: 2476–2492.
Aizen, M.A. and Woodcock, H. 1992. Latitudinal trends in acorn size in eastern North American species of
Quercus. Can J Bot 70: 1218–1222.
Álvarez S., Morales R., Bejarano L., Durán A., 2002. Producción de bellota en la dehesa Salmantina. In: Chocarro
C et al. (eds) XLII Reunión Cientíica de la SEEP, Lérida. pp. 645-650.
Cañellas I., Roig S., San Miguel A., 2003. Caracterización y evolución anual del valor bromatológico de las
quercíneas mediterráneas. In: Robles A., Morales M.., de Simón E., González-Rebollar J. L., Boza J. (eds).
Pastos, desarrollo y conservación, Granada. pp. 455-460.
Acorn Production in Iberian Dehesas
83
Cañellas I., Roig S., Poblaciones M.J., Geaizquierdo G., Olea L. (2007). An approach to acorn production in Iberian
dehesas. Agroforestry Systems 70:3-9..
Carbonero M.D., Fernández P., Navarro R., 2002. Evaluación de la producción y del calibre de bellotas de Quercus
ilex L. subsp. ballota (Desf) Samp a lo largo de un ciclo de poda. Resultados de la campaña 2001-2002. In:
Chocarro C., et al. (eds). XLII Reunión Cientíica de la SEEP, Lérida. pp. 633-638
Carbonero M.D., Fernández P., Blázquez A., Navarro R., 2003. Evaluación de la producción y del calibre de
bellotas de Quercus ilex L. subsp. ballota (Desf) Samp a lo largo de un ciclo de poda: resultados de las campañas
2001-2002 y 2002-2003. In: De Simón et al. (eds). XLIII Reunión Cientíica de la SEEP, Granada. pp. 645-650.
Crawley M.J., Long C.R., 1995. Alternate bearing, predator satiation and seedling recruitment in Quercus robur L.
J Ecol 83(4), 683-696.
De Zulueta J., Cañellas I., 1989. Método para estimar la producción real de bellota en un alcornocal. Scientia
Gerundensis 15, 115-119.
Escudero A., García B., Gómez J.M., Luis E., 1985.The nutrient cyling in Quercus rotundifolia and Quercus
pyrenaica ecosystems («dehesas») of Spain. Acta Oecol 6(20), 73-86.
Espárrago F., Vázquez F.M., Burzaco A., Pérez M.C., 1993. Producción de bellota en Quercus rotundifolia
Lam.: variabilidad anual e importancia económica. In: Silva F.J., Vega G. (eds). I Congreso Forestal Español,
Lourizán., pp. 503-510.
García D., Ramos S., Barrantes J.J., Blanco J., Martínez M., Lucas A.B., Vázquez F.M., 2005. Estimación de la
producción de bellotas de los encinares extremeños en la campaña 2005-06. Solo Cerdo Ibérico 13, 85-94.
Gea-Izquierdo G, Cañellas I, Montero G. 2006. Acorn production in Spanish holm oak dehesas. Invest Agrar: Sist
Recur For 15 (3), 339.354.
Gómez J.M., Pérez M., 1996. The «dehesas»: silvopastoral systems in semiarid Mediterranean regions with poor
soils, seasonal climate and extensive utilisation, In: Étienne M. (ed). Western European silvopastoral systems.
INRA, Paris. pp. 55-70.
Gómez J.M., Luis E., Escudero A., 1980. Materiales aportados al suelo por la encina en la zona de dehesas
salmantina. I. Sustancia seca. Stud Oecol II, 181-211.
Greenberg C.H., 2000. Individual variation in acorn production by f ive species of Southern Appalachian oaks.
Forest Ecol Manag 132, 199-210.
Guariguata M.R., Sáenz G.P., 2002. Post-logging acorn production and oak regeneration in a tropical montane
forest. Costa Rica, Forest Ecol Manag 167, 285-293.
Gysel L.W., 1956. Measurement of acorn crops. For Sci 2, 305-313.
Healy W.M., Lewis A.M., Boose E.F., 1999. Variation of red oak acorn production, Forest Ecol Manag 116, 1-11.
Herrera C.M., Jordano P., Guitián J., Traveset A., 1998. Annual variability in seed production by woody plants and
the masting concept: reassessment of principles and relationship to pollination and seed dispersal. Am Nat 152,
576-594.
Hubert M, Courrand R., 2002. Elagage et taille de formation des arbres forestieres (3ª éd.). Institut developpement
Forestier, Paris
Infante J.M., Mauchamp A., Fernández-Alés R., Joffre R., Rambal S., 2001. Within-tree variation in transpiration in
isolated evergreen oak trees: evidence in support of the pipe model theory. Tree Physiol 21, 409-414.
Innes J.L., 1994. The occurrance of lowering and fruiting on individual trees over 3 years and their effects on
subsequent crown condition. Trees 8, 139-150.
Joffre R., Vacher J., De Los Llanos C., Long G., 1988. The dehesa: an agrosilvopastoral system of the
Mediterranean region with special reference to the Sierra Morena area of Spain. Agroforest Syst 6, 71-96.
Kato E., Hiura T., 1999. Fruit set in Styrax obassi a(Styracaceae): the effect of light availability, display size, and
local loral density. Am J Bot 86, 495-501.
Kaul R.B., 1985. Reproductive morphology of Quercu s(Fagaceae). Am J Bot 72 (12), 1962-1977.
Kelly D., Sork V.L., 2002. Mast seeding in perennial plants: why, how, where? Annu Rev Ecol Syst 33, 427-447.
Koenig W.D., Knops J.M.H., Carmen W.J., Stanback M.T., Mumme R.L., 1994. Estimating acorn crops using
visual surveys, Can J For Res 24, 2105-2112.
Koenig W.D., Knops J.M.H., 2000. Patterns of annual seed production by Northern Hemisphere trees: a global
perspective. Am Nat 155, 59-69.
La Mantia T., Cullotta S., Gari G., 2003. Phenology and growth of Quercus ilex L. in different environmental
conditions in Sicily (Italy). Ecol Medit 29(1), 15-25.
Lossaint P., Rapp M., 1978. La forêt méditerranéenne de chênes verts. In: Lamotte M., Bourliere M. (eds).
Problèmes d’écologie. Structure et fonctionnement des écosystémes terrestres, Masson. pp. 129-182
Maeto K., Ozaki K., 2003. Prolonged diapause of specialist seed-feeders makes predator satiation unstable in
masting of Quercus crispula. Oecologia 137, 392-398.
Martín A., Infante J.M., García-Gordo J., Merino J., Fernández-Alés R., 1998. Producción de bellotas en montes y
dehesas del suroeste español. Pastos 28(2), 237-248.
Medina-Blanco M., 1963. Pastos y montanera. In: IV Reunión Cientíica de la SEEP. Cáceres-Salamanca. pp. 1-29.
Nuzzo V., Biasi R., Dichio B., Montanaro G., Xiloyannis C., Lanzieri A., 1999. Inluence of different seasonal light
availability on lower bud quality in CV Tyrinthos (Prunus armeniaca L.). Acta Hort 488, 477-482.
Olea L., Poblaciones M.J., Viguera J., Olea B., 2004. Distribución de la «oferta» de bellota (cantidad y calidad) de
encina (Quercus ilex Lam. ssp. ballota) en «montanera» en dehesas del S.O. de Extremadura. In: García-Criado
B., et al. (eds) XLIV Reunión de la SEEP. Pastos y ganadería extensiva, Salamanca.
Perry R.W., Thill R.E., 1999. Estimating mast production: an evaluation of visual surveys and comparison with
seed traps using white oaks. South J Appl For 23, 164-169.
84
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Perry R.W., Thill R.E., 2003. Initial effects of reproduction cutting treatments on residual hard mast production in
the Ouachita Mountains. South J of Appl For 27(4), 253-258.
Peter D., Harrington C., 2002. Site and tree factors in Oregon white oak aocrn production in Western Washington
and Oregon. Northwest Sci 76(3), 189-200.
Pinto-Correia T., 1993. Threatened landscape in Alentejo, Portugal: the «montado» and other «agro-silvopastoral »
systems. Landscape Urban Plann 24, 43-48.
Porras C.J., 1998. Efecto de la poda de la encina (Quercus rotundifolia Lam.) en los aspectos de producción y en el
del grosor de las bellotas. In: Ciria D., et al. (eds). XXXVIII Reunión Cientíica de la SEEP, Soria. pp. 381-384.
Pulido F.J., Díaz M., 2005. Regeneration of a Mediterranean oak: A whole cycle approach. Ecoscience 12(1), 92102.
San Miguel A., 1994. La dehesa española: origen, tipología, características y gestión, Fundación Conde del Valle de
Salazar, Madrid.
Siscart D., Diego V., Lloret F., 1999. Acorn ecology. En: The Ecology of Mediterranean Evergreen Oak Forests.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin. pp. 75-87.
Soria F.J., Cano E., Ocete M.E., 1996. Efectos del ataque de itófagos perforadores en el fruto de la encina (Quercus
rotundifolia Lam.). Bol San Veg Plagas 22, 427-432.
Soria F.J., Jiménez A., Villagrán, Ocete M.E., 2005. Relación entre la colonización de la encina por Curculio
elephas Gyllenhal (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) y el periodo de caída natural de frutos. Bol San Veg Plagas 31,
365-375. SORK V.L., BRAMBLE J., SEXTON O., 1993. Ecology of mast fruiting in three species of North
American deciduous oaks. Ecology 74, 528-541.
Torrent J.A., 1963. Montaneras en los últimos diez años: 1953-1962. IV Reunión Cientíica de la SEEP, CáceresSalamanca. pp. 69-71.
Torres E., Alejano R., Alaejos J., 2004. Hacia una modelización de la producción de bellota en encinares (Quercus
ilex ballota). In: García-Criado B et al. (eds). Reunión del grupo de trabajo sobre Modelización forestal de la
SECF, ETSI Agrónomos y Montes, Palencia.
The Chestnuts “Filiere” in Italy:
Values and Developments
Silvia Pierrettori and Lorenzo Venzi
Department of Ecology and Sustainable Economic Development (DECOS),
University of Tuscany, Viterbo, Italy
Abstract
Italy has an ancient chestnut producing tradition. Although its production has been slowly
decreasing in recent years, because of the reduction of the land devoted to chestnut trees for
fruits, today there is a new positive trend in the appreciation of this product. On the economic
side, at chestnut orchard level, this crop is fairly satisfactory and rewarding but market
margins are rather high along the Filiere.
A lot of problems, however, are still unsolved, such as the high cost of harvesting and other
operations, due to the limited and dificult mechanisation, old and incoming new pests and
pathogens and high seasonality of its market.
A possible way for improving the future of the chestnut Filiere is, of course, pooling
producers’ supply and generating a strong marketing action, aimed at the development of
new processed products that present new appeal to the changing taste of consumers.
Keywords: chestnuts economic results; Filiere development; marketing strategy
1. Introduction
Italy has been, and still is, one of the largest chestnut producers in Europe but its production
decreased for a long time. The land devoted to chestnut trees for fruit has also slowly
decreased in recent years. It is seems that new interest is devoted to this production (Alvisi
1994), but is too early to substantiate it with appropriate statistics, particularly with reference
to new processed products developed from chestnuts.
The production activity is mostly located in a few regions and single chestnuts orchards
are limited in extension (80% of farms are within a range of 0–5 hectares), mainly located
in low mountain and hill districts. Mechanisation is limited to the most relevant operation,
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
86
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 1. Chestnut orchard world surface (ha) (FAOSTAT 2007).
Country
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Bolivia
China
Italy
Japan
Korea
Portugal
Spain
Turkey
World
25 000
110 000
23 500
26 400
38 000
29 101
6 254
35 300
319 914
25 000
110 000
23 500
25 900
39 000
29 190
6 254
35 100
320 932
25 000
120 000
23 500
25 600
35 000
29 522
6 254
35 100
327 335
25 500
125 000
23 500
25 300
35 000
29 522
11 237
35 300
333 388
25 500
125 000
23 500
25 300
35 000
29 500
6 254
35 300
333 605
30 116
125 000
24 000
23 800
38 783
30 276
6 000
35 816
341 613
2006 World %
2006
30 116
126 000
24 000
23 300
38 783
30 265
6 000
35 816
341 698
8 81
36.87
7.02
6.82
11.35
8.86
1.76
10.48
100
harvesting. Because of steep slopes and terraces where the big trees are situated, harvesting
is costly and highly labour intensive, so far mostly performed by elderly people, who will
gradually abandon this activity (Alvisi 1979).
Chestnuts market relects this situation and the bargaining power of single producers is
very limited, unless they manage to organize themselves, pooling their produce. Post harvest
operations, represented by water “curing” the chestnuts, does represent a possible source of
savings by exploiting economies of scale, as is also the case for marketing operations, i.e.
pooling the products allows to improve and/or establish market power in confronting the
buyers, or the processing industry (Casini et al. 1990). Most farmers are price takers from
local buyers and this makes it dificult to continue a proitable activity, or obtain a decent
individual income. Moreover, the outlets for produce shows marked differences between the
Centre-Northern producers and those in the South and Islands.
A possible solution and policy orientation, beside organizing producers, lies in the creation
of Value Added to the raw material (chestnuts), by inding and promoting new processed
products, by organizing high food quality campaigns and bringing back traditional dishes,
which usually present a strong appeal to customers (Alvisi 1979; Bounous et al. 2001).
This paper aims at:
-
exploring the state of art in the Italian chestnut Filiere (marketing channel);
reviewing the present situation both in terms of income provision and market revenues;
analyzing present and possible opportunities for consumption;
proposing tentative policy options for enhancing both the value of the product and the
development of this sector.
A last remark should be made in relation to statistical data reported in the following tables;
the reader will notice discrepancies between FAO data and the national ones (ISTAT). A
possible reason for that could refer to a communication gap and deferred transmission from
one year to the other. All this could cause some confusion and will be explained further on.
1.2 Surface area and production
The chestnut tree (Castanea sativa) has Asian origins and was already in Europe in Roman
times and at present is grown all over the world (Bounous 2002). Its product, the chestnut,
The Chestnuts “Filiere” in Italy: Values and Developments
87
Table 2. Chestnut world production (tons) (FAOSTAT 2007).
Country
2000
Bolivia
China
Italy
Japan
Korea
Portugal
Spain
Turkey
World
34 400
600 371
50 000
26 700
92 844
33 317
9 230
50 000
943 983
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 World
%
2006
34 500
34 500
35 000
38 788
40 980
40 980 3.47
601 242
703 849
799 811
807 753
828 130
850 000 72.05
50 000
50 000
50 000
50 000
52 000
52 000 4.41
29 000
30 100
25 100
24 000
21 800
23 100 1.96
94 130
72 405
60 017
71 795
76 447
76 447 6.48
26 118
31 385
33 267
31 051
22 327
29 133 2.47
9 510
9 362
16 821
9 510
10 000
9 500 0.81
47 000
47 000
48 000
49 000
50 000
53 814 4.56
936 708 1 021 659 1 125 915 1 128 254 1 148 588 1 179 727
100
has always enjoyed an important role in the economy of Italian rural areas, both in low
mountain and hilly districts, as shown by FAO data, which places Italy amongst irst in world
rankings, both for orchard surface area and chestnut production.
All over the world there are about. 350 000 ha covered by chestnuts trees.
From Table 1, it is clear that there are two major poles: the Asian one, with China, Korea
and Turkey, covering almost 60% of world total; the European pole, represented by Italy,
Spain and Portugal.
The analysis related to production is not too different. World total production amounts to
1 200 000 tons. Again China is top ranking with a production of 850 000 t, 72%, followed by
Korea, Turkey and Italy, which by yields overtakes countries with larger producing surface
areas, such as Portugal and Bolivia.
Summing up, except for China whose recent increasing yields have been remarkable,
the overall situation has been more or less stationary and, in certain cases, decreasing as in
Japan.
A few words, however, have to be spent on data reliability. Tables referred to here are
drawn from FAO source, good in the sense this makes it possible to achieve a comprehensive
picture worldwide. However, these data are not trustworthy, for instance, at least in regards
to the Italian situation. It has to be noted in fact that the yield data are continuously repeated,
year by year, for too long a period, which seems at least a bizarre situation. Moreover, the
Italian data appear different from those published by ISTAT, the Italian Central Statistical
Institute, charged to transfer these agricultural statistics to FAO.
Analyzing the Italian chestnut production using ISTAT data, in the last decade it decreased
from 60 000 t in the early 1970s to around 50 000 t in the middle of 2000s (ISTAT Agriculture
Census 2000). Farms with chestnut trees amount to more or less 34 000 units in 2005 (ISTAT
2007 yearbook) with only 59 000 ha of intensive chestnut orchards.
Table 3 shows, in the period between 1970–2000, a strong decrease both in the overall
number of farms (-51%) and in agricultural area (-47.6%). As previously mentioned, it has
to be pointed out that this analysis is heavily in contrast with FAO data, proposed in Table 1
and 2.
The largest surface areas occupied by chestnut trees are in Tuscany, Campania, Calabria,
Piedmont, Latium and Emilia-Romagna. In terms of yield, however, the picture changes
quite drastically. Whilst Campania still stays on the top of the list, Tuscany contributes to
national harvest only for 7%, while Latium produces 14% with much smaller surface areas
88
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 3. Number of farms and average of chestnut orchards in Italy, 1970-2000 (ISTAT Agriculture
Census 2000).
Year
1970
1980
1990
2000
Variation1970–1980
Variation 1980–1990
Variation 1990–2000
Variation 1970–2000
Farms
(n°)
Total Surface
(ha)
Farm average
Surface (ha)
136 098
119 553
97 696
66 213
-0.122
-0.183
-0.322
-0.513
144 887
140 133
107 608
75 985
-0.033
-0.232
-0.294
-0.476
1.06
1.17
1.1
1.15
0.101
-0.06
0.042
0.078
than Tuscany and Piedmont, given its particular pedo-climatic endowment. All remaining
Regions keep the same relevance in yields as in surface areas.
In Latium there are 5 Provinces, but just 4 of these are involved in chestnut production. In
particular, the largest number of farms is situated in Viterbo and Roma Provinces, but with
some differences. First of all, the average farmer has a bigger surface area while in the latter
there are many small farms, under one hectare.
The reason of Viterbo Province’s leadership, both in the Region and, partially, at national
level, is due to the particular orographical and pedo-climatic characteristics and, therefore, to
its natural vocation for this crop.
Besides all that, a strong consideration to this situation comes from public authorities, irst
of all the Cimini Mountain Community, which for a long time has intervened with actions
aiming at the enhancement of the orchard asset and has managed to rehabilitate more than
50.000 old chestnut trees and in so doing turning 20 000 ha of chestnut coppice into high
stands.
Joint efforts, both from public and private authorities, have, moreover, managed to
encourage mechanized harvesting (Dono et al. 2000), irst processing of produce, organizing
local meetings and festivals, boosting marketing campaigns for chestnuts and their sales (La
Filiera del Castagno Laziale, DECOS – ARSIAL Project 2004).
2. The Filiere structure and background
More than 80% of national produce is eaten as soon as harvested, half in the home market
and half exported. The fresh product can be eaten roasted , boiled, baked, cooked in milk and
sugar or as a staple product in arranging irst courses and accompanying second courses of
meat (Carbone et al. 2000).
Of the remaining 20%, a small portion as 5–10% is dried, and the last quota is destined to
the processing industry (Pinnavia et al. 2003).
The Filiere (marketing channel) can be sketched in the following way:
This arrangement is just an example of the most likely Filiere because, often, its actors can
play more than one role (Carbone et al. 2000).
However, we can summarize the Filiere by two models:
The Chestnuts “Filiere” in Italy: Values and Developments
89
Figure 1. Italian Orchards Surface (ISTAT Agriculture Census 2000).
Figure 2. Italian Production (ISTAT 2002).
1. “Short Filiere” (on the right side of Figure 4) in which the farmer sells his product directly
at consumers’ price, gaining the entire added value. He can sell to:
• restaurants
• festivals
• local associations for tourism development
• retailers
• local bakeries and confectioners
• street vendors
• consumers (friends, colleagues, etc.)
2. “Articulate Filiere” (on the left side of Figure 4) in which the number of agents increase
with a lot of intermediaries, such as:
90
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
3000.00
2200.00
2500.00
1700.00
2000.00
1200.00
ha 1500.00
700.00
1000.00
n°
200.00
500.00
-300.00
0.00
Viterbo
Rieti
Roma
Provinces
Latina
Surface (ha)
Farms (n°)
Figure 3. The Chestnut-Orchards in Lazio Regions (ISTAT Agriculture Census 2000).
Import
Market
Italian
Farmers
Farmers' Associations &
Cooperatives
(1st handling)
Chestnut
Festivals
SME
Processors
Restaurant,
Bakeries &
Confectioneries
Consumers
(fresh & roast
chestnuts)
Losses/self
consumption
Middlemen
Processor (flour,
marron glacés, etc.)
Bakeries
E-Commerce
Export
Wholesalers
Confectioneries
Figure 4. The chestnut Filiere.
•
•
•
•
•
•
farmers’ associations and coopertives (1st handling)
processors
middlemen
wholesalers
retailers
e-commerce
After picking, the fruits need some treatment to preserve them. In fact, before falling, apart
from climatic factors that have inluenced their growth, the fruits have been threatened almost
exclusively by pest developed from eggs laid when the pericarp was still white and tender.
The handling operations consist of: sorting, washing, curing and packaging. In particular
“curing” is a technique of submerging chestnut into water at 15 °C, for 4–5 days ,to preserve
the fruits from pest developement. After curing, chestnuts are 3 or 4 times more resistent than
those that have not been treated.
The Chestnuts “Filiere” in Italy: Values and Developments
91
Price Trend in Viterbo District
350.00
C 80-95
Price
300.00
250.00
C 70-80
200.00
C 60-70
150.00
M 85-100
100.00
M 70-80
50.00
M 60-70
0.00
2002
2003
2004
Time
2005
2006
Figure 5. Price trend in Viterbo Province (Chamber of Commerce, Viterbo data). C=Chestnut;
M=Marroni, units/kg.
Other processes depend on the kind of inal product produced. In general, these are:
•
•
•
•
•
drying and grinding process (lour);
cooking with syrup (fruits in syrup, candied, marron glacés);
cooking and homogenizing by steam and preservatives (creams and mashes);
freezing (fresh and mashed products);
ice creams.
Chestnut prices for the Viterbo district are reported in Figure 5. The graph obtained by
average values, shows clearly the decreasing trend, but for a slight increase after 2004 for the
lowest priced chestnuts and marroni.
It should be noted that in Italy the big size chestnut and the bigger and rounder marrone
varieties are more expensive than other fruits; a difference, however, which is gradually
closing, as it is shown in Table 4 (Pirazzoli 1991). A possible explanation to that lies in the
consumers’ reaction, in an overall income depression, in choosing the least priced chestnut
and marroni and neglecting the higher priced products. Another hypothesis referes to the
representativeness of the reported market prices, that is that they are relevant only for a wide
section of the wholesale market, but they do not consider the direct sales of quality products
made by large farmers to supermarkets or food chains, by-passing oficial records.
Data are in nominal terms, not delated, which makes the decline even more relevant.
3. Basic material and discussion
Tables 5 and 6 provide details on costs of planting new orchards. Grafting coppices, the
other alternative of establishing new orchards, is not considered in this paper and it appears
to be not very suitable and successful. A new chestnut orchard does not start as usual with
deep ploughing in order not to disturb mycorrizes and forest soil structure. Seedlings are just
placed in deep holes (1×1×1m) at a distance of 10×10m (Casini et al. 1990).
92
Typology
Size
(n°/Kg)
Oct.
Chestnut (C)
80–95
70–80
60–70
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
85–100
70–80
60–70
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
Marroni
(M)
2002
Nov.
Oct.
2003
Nov.
140–150.00
170–180.00
210–220.00
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
125–135.00
135–145.00
140–150.00
190–200.00
270–280.00
290–300.00
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
155–165.00
195–205.00
200–220.00
Oct.
2004
Nov.
Oct.
90–95.00
110–120.00
140–160.00
85–90.00
105–115.00
140–160.00
80–90.00
120–130.00
150–180.00
80–85.00
115–125.00
150–180.00
* size: refers to the number of single pieces per Kg; it means that the more the chestnuts the least is their diameter;
** typology: refers to the difference in varieties , having the chestnuts a shape lat on one side, contrary to the marrone which is round on both sides.
2005
2006
Nov.
Oct.
Nov.
85–90.00
105–110.00
125–130.00
85–90.00
105–110.00
125–130.00
100–105.00
110–115.00
120–130.00
100–105.00
110–115.00
120–130.00
80–85.00
115–120.00
145–155.00
80–85.00
115–120.00
145–155.00
100–110.00
120–125.00
130–150.00
100–110.00
120–125.00
130–150.00
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 4. Wholesale prices (€/tons) in the area of Viterbo per size* and typology**, 2002–2006 (own arrangement from Chamber of Commerce, Viterbo data).
The Chestnuts “Filiere” in Italy: Values and Developments
93
Table 5. Cost of planting a new chestnut orchard* (MiPAF Project D.M. 564/7303)
Operations and Tools (1 ha)
Unit Cost (€)
Tot. €
Hole digging (1×1×1 m)
Fertilization per seedling
Chestnut (3 years) seedling
Stakes
Tot. expenditure
6.19
0.77
9.75
0.25
619.75
77.47
975.00
25.00
1697.22
* spacing of the trees is 10m per 10m, leading to 100 trees per ha, data refers to 2005.
Table 6. Maintenance cost (from La Filiera del castagno laziale, DECOS - Arsial Project 2004; survey
with chestnut producers).
Labor (10.83€/h)
Branch pruning (total)
Pruning charge (per year = 1/6th)
Ground cleaning
Other Activities
Other Costs*
Fruits Picking
Time (h)
Costs (1 ha)
276
46
20
19
50
58
2988.00
498.00
249.00
216.00
541.00
626.00
* Handling: orchard amortization; maintenance; taxes; interest; administration, etc.
The basic input cost is the seedling, €10 per piece, because of sanitation treatment and top
quality grafting. Hole digging, instead of ploughing required to avoid destroying mycorrizes
constitutes the second bigger cost. In terms of orchard management, picking of fruits is most
relevant in those areas where mechanization cannot be applied, followed by overall costs and
pruning, every six years.
Other kind of costs concern possible threats to the plants. In Latium there are four main
threats, two pests (Curculio and Cydia) and two virulent fungi (Ink disease – Phytophthora
cambivora and Chestnut Blight – Cryphonectria parasitica) but the most dangerous is
Drycocosmus, an incoming and devastating insect, which comes from Asia and can destroy
both coppices and orchards. It is estimated that suitable treatment for its control will be
available only in ive or six years from now.
In terms of costs, other pests, and particularly Curculio elephant, according to season,
require at least one spraying in August. In certain cases it may not be enough as shown in
Table 6. It has to be noted that although the cost data reported in Table 7 are not updated, no
more than 10% value change has been observed up to day (Dono et al.1999).
A real case study is now analysed, having monitored for four season two chestnut
orchards, which can provide an example of what could be the economic results under the
best conditions actually achieved. Both farms have most favourable physical conditions,
such as to be located on the South-Eastern slope of the Cimini Mountains in Central Italy,
on lat ground allowing full mechanized harvesting. The production received biological
certiication, commanding highest prices, but the two farms differ in the age of trees: the irst
one is a fairly new plantation, more or less 30 years old, and the second has century old trees.
This means that in the former there is still an amortization charge, which in the latter seems
absolutely unrealistic to be considered.
94
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 7. Source: La iliera del Castagno laziale, DECOS, Arsial Project 2004 – Spraying costs per
hectare/€
Type
Worker & Equipment
Pest killer Products
Total / ha
1998
1999
2001*
33.57
92.96
126.53
34.60
95.54
130.15
73.34
202.73
276.06
* note that the cost is twice as much, because of a double treatment with two different kind of products, due to a bad season for chestnuts.
Total Production amounts to 2.5–2.8 tons at farm price of more than 2000 €/ton, since
biologically certiied. Variable costs are approximately the same, as well as gross margin,
ixed costs, mainly ixed costs (Dono 2000). Costs therefore differ because of amortization
charge, still operational in the irst orchards and no longer relevant in the second, as before
mentioned.
From this fairly representative case of the Cimini mountains around Viterbo it is possible
to realize the higly proitable activity relating to chestnut production. It is therefore suitable
for an investor to set a chestnut orchard, provided the geo-pedological requirements and
the climate conditions would be satisied. This, however, can not be expanded beyond the
physical limits before mentioned. In that district, the limit to chestnut orchards expansion is
based also on the competition with hazelnut production, so far more rewarding.
4. Results and conclusions
In order to analyze the economic sustainability of the chestnut economy the following critical
factors have to be considered.
First of all, the chestnut product, althought at the moment could be fairly rewarding as
stated before, needs a strong marketing action to overcome the problem of their seasonality
and expanding the sale period. In fact, most of the production is sold in a period of no
more than 1 or 2 months (October and November at sharp declining prices after the irst
two weeks). This is the reason why is important to organize festivals and high food quality
campaigns to stimulate interest in traditional dishes and lengthen the consumption period.
The purpose of these strong marketing actions lies on the need to confront decreasing
overall prices for the chestnuts and rising labor costs and shortage of manpower for hand
picking, which is still needed at large, and determines rather unfavourable results, quite
different from those shown in the example.
On the other hand, the farmer who wants to enhance the value of his production should
join some certiication programme, as PDO, PGI and biological labels, that can upgrade the
chestnut products and prices, as the two farms presented above have done.
Another option is to promote aggregate forms of management, because there are production
units too small and dificult to manage eficiently. Also, aggregation is one way which helps in
adopting mechanical techniques in harvesting. However, chestnut orchards are mostly located
in low mountain areas or hills; thus mechanization is highly expensive for a single producer on
a much smaller dimension, compared with those of the higly proitable example.
By pooling producers, economies of scale could be generated in the curing process which
is highly expensive, according to the traditional technique, but could be industrialized and be
fully mechanically integrated on large dimensions of the produce (Dono et al. 1999).
The Chestnuts “Filiere” in Italy: Values and Developments
95
Table 8. Tecnichal - Economic average data of the orchards under survey over 4 years (€)
1st Orchards
Gross Total Production
Variable Costs
Gross Margin
Fixed costs
Operational Income
2003–2006
5359.25
893.13
4466.13
2170.00
2296.13
2nd Orchards
Gross Total Production
Variable Costs
Gross Margin
Fixed costs
Operational Income
2003–2006
6006.00
863.13
5142.88
601.38
4541.50
Gross Margin = Gross Total Production- Variable Costs
Variable Costs = payments for inputs, farm laborers, ecc.
Fixed costs = costs relating to ixed inputs
Operational Income = Gross Total Production - management costs, including amortization, interests, taxes and estate fees
Finally, is important to develop new commercial systems; a good opportunity is given by
e-commerce, which is slowly gaining ground.
Chestnut is an important product for the Italian rural economy. It could provide a good
opportunity to increase farm incomes in marginal areas and opportunities for employment
both in the woods and in the local processing industry.
The following issues have a non-positive impact on the market:
• the production structure is mostly based on few regions and single chestnuts orchards are
limited in dimension;
• harvesting is expensive and highly labor intensive due to limited mechanization
opportunities;
• single producers have poor bargaining power.
To improve the current market situation it is important to organize producers and pool supply
by creating added value to the raw material (chestnuts) and gaining economies of scale, by
inding and promoting new processed products and, inally, by organizing high food quality
campaigns and rejuvenating ancient traditional dishes.
References
Alvisi, F.1994. Aspetti economici e commerciali della castanicoltura italiana. Rivista di Frutticoltura 2: 41–47.
Alvisi, F. 1979. Situazione economico-commerciale del castagno da frutto in Italia. Produttività e valorizzazione
dei castagneti da frutto e dei cedui di castagno. Accademia nazionale dell’agricoltura Bologna.
Bellini, E. (ed.). 2001. Proceedings of Convegno nazionale sul castagno 2001. Marrani, Firenze
Benassi, A. 1981. Aspetti economici e sociali del bosco ceduo e della sua conversione in fustaia. Annaali
Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali XXX: 303–314.
Bounous, G. 2002. Il Castagno: Coltura, ambiente ed utilizzazioni in Italia e nel mondo. Edagricole, Bologna.
Bounous, G., Botta, R. and Beccaro, G. 2001. Valore nutritivo e pregi alimentari delle castagne, Frutticoltura 10:
38–44
Carbone, A., Dono, G. and Gioia, M. 2000. Indagine sui prodotti agricoli tipici della Regione Lazio. Quaderni di
informazione socio economica n.3
Casini, L. and Marinelli, A. 1990. Il rilancio del castagno tra ambiente ed economia. Agricoltura n. 203. ISMEA:
21-30.
Dono, G. 2000. La redditività della castanicoltura da frutto nei Monti Cimini: un’analisi economica in aziende
rappresentative. Documento di ricerca n. 3. Collana D.E.A.R., Tuscia Univeristy, Viterbo.
Dono, G., Franco, S. and Monarca, D. 1999. Introduzione di nuove tecniche di raccolta a minore impatto
ambientale per la valorizzazione della castanicoltura da frutto nel territorio dei Monti Cimini. ARSIAL Project,
objective 5b 1994/99
Dono, G. and Franco, S. 1999. Aspetti produttivi e di mercato della castanicoltura da frutto viterbese nel contesto
nazionale.
Mari, F. 1992. La castanicoltura da frutto dei Monti Cimini: aspetti economico-commerciali. L’Informatore Agrario
18: 85–90.
96
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Pinnavia, G., Sacchetti, G. and Dalla Rosa, M. 2003. La trasformazione delle castagne: situazione attuale e possibili
prospettive. Frutticoltura 3: 44–48
Pirazzoli, C. 1991. Situazione e prospettive commerciali delle castagne in Italia, Rivista di Frutticoltura 12: 17–23
Venzi, L., Loseby, M., Carbone, F., Ciccarella, F., et al. 2005. La iliera del castagno laziale: interventi economici
per la valorizzazione del prodotto castagna. DECOS-ARSIAL project 2004.
C.C.I.A.A. 2007. Prices data. Camera di Commercio di Viterbo, Viterbo, Italy.
www.cciaa.vt.it/default.asp
FAO 2008. Crop Production quantity database, FAO. Italy
faostat.fao.org/site/567/default.aspx
ISTAT 2007. Chestnut Production & Surface database. Italy
www.istat.it/agricoltura/agricoltura/
Developing and Implementing the Ecosystem Based
Multiple Use Forest Management Planning Approach
(ETÇAP) in Turkey
Emin Zeki Baskent, Şağdan Başkaya and Salih Terzioğlu
Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Trabzon, Turkey
Abstract
This paper both describes the framework of the ecosystem based multiple use forest
management (ETÇAP) approach and its implementation in a case study area. The new
management philosophy has four important pillars; the integration of biodiversity
conservation into forest management process, characterization and accommodation of
multiple forest values, effective participation of stakeholders and use of advanced information
technologies and management science techniques. These components are relatively new to
forestry in Turkey and calls for a sound framework of forest management planning system as
ownership, land use policy, social structure and forest ecosystems are unique to the country.
Some experiences from the case study area of Yanlızçam planning unit were documented
to realize the performance of the concept. The liaison between the government institutions
and major stakeholders is found necessary, and the effective use of Geographic Information
System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) have been realized to be critically important. The
case study supported the idea that effective participation as communication has better
possibilities to promote multiple use forest management than participation as information
gathering. Primary challenges relate to the effectiveness of a conservation program,
availability of coherent biodiversity data, inadequacy of institutional capacity; awareness,
training and common understanding of biodiversity and protected area concept; coordination
among the related institutions and stakeholders, and willingness and enthusiasm of authorities
to accept and implement the concept.
Keywords: biodiversity conservation; multiple uses; participation; forest management
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
98
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
1. Introduction
The concept of multiple uses including biodiversity conservation has been a key issue of
contemporary forest management (Probst and Crow 1991; Noss 1999; Simberloff 1999;
Bunnell and Huggard 1999; Lindenmayer 1999; Baskent et al. 2005a). Despite the longexisting principle of holistic sustainability, there is a continued decline of plant species
diversity of forests (Grashof-Bokdam and Geertsema 1998; Fischer et al. 2006; Lindenmayer
et al. 2007). The dilemma is that forest and conservation managers need to understand
how far society is willing to protect and enhance biodiversity in the context of other
investment options (Parviainen and Frank 2003). They also need to compare the relative
benefits of investments on biodiversity conservation with those of other investments in
sustainable forest management. Such understanding requires insight into how biodiversity
is characterized, which forest management practices contribute most to its conservation,
interactions between those practices and other objectives (social, economic, environmental),
the role of participation and information technology, and what political responses are most
likely to result from speciied biodiversity conservation practices. The emergence of the
concepts of continuous forest, naturalistic, near-natural and ecology-based silvicultural forest
management since the 1920s have led to an idea of coupling conservation and management
(Baskent and Yolasigmaz 1999; Fabbio et al. 2003). Basically, the ecological, economic and
socio-cultural values of forest ecosystems become major components of forest management
regulations (Bengtsson et al. 2000; Wulf 2003). Explaining the components will provide the
basis for developing a workable framework for resource and conservation managers.
Forest management planning in Turkey is based on a neo-classical approach to satisfy the
needs of the society for wood production and services (Asan 1999). Required by law, forest
management plans have been prepared periodically with a modiied area control method
and implemented by the state employed foresters across the country. Influenced by the
national forestry program and international conventions on sustainable forest management,
biodiversity protection and desertiication control, forest management planning approach has
changed towards ecosystem oriented multiple use philosophy. In that respect a number of
shortcomings were identiied in forest management. First of all, management objectives are
set to produce solo wood production. Second, a comprehensive forest ecosystem inventory
including biodiversity, forest health, capacity, site production and socio-cultural resources
has not been conducted to characterize forest values and develop a functional relationship
between management actions and forest structure. Third, spatial database has not been
built and conservation targets have not beet established under stakeholders’ participation
for effective management of the forest resources. Finally, forest regulations are generally
centralized in addition to incomplete cadastral survey which frequently creates ownership
problems during management planning process (Baskent et al. 2005b).
With the support of international projects such as GEF-II (URL-1 2006) and BTC Co.
pipeline (URL-2 2006), multiple use forest management planning approach has been
developed to overcome most of these shortcomings. The approach is relatively simple
focusing on characterization of forest values, stratifying the forest areas for various uses
based on a number of criteria and indicators (Bücking 2003; Hagan and Whiteman 2006),
setting up forest management objectives and conservation targets with effective participation
and inalizing forest management decisions with modeling approach (Pukkala and Miina
1997; Bettinger et al. 1998; Davis et al. 2001; Baskent and Jordan 2002). The process has
been accepted by the department of forest management in General Directorate of Forestry in
Turkey as a next generation planning approach (Baskent et al. 2005a).
Biodiversity conservation, participation and multiple uses have become the driving force for
the new generation forest planning approach (Bengtsson et al. 2000, Eriksson and Hammer
14
Ln ( SoilLoss ) = 2,553 − 0,065 xBasalArea
Soil Loss (ton/ha)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
20
30
Basal Area (m2/ha)
40
Water Production (WP,ton/ha)
Developing and Implementing the Ecosystem Based Multiple Use Forest Management Planning...
400
99
WPsw = 2123 . 38 * e − 0 .1866 * BA
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Basal Area (BA, m2/ha)
Figure 1. The functional relationships between stand structure and forest values for different forest
ecosystems.
2006, Schulte et al. 2006). As such, this paper provides conceptual framework of ecosystem
based multiple use forest management (ETÇAP) approach, focuses on the basic components
and documents its practical implementation in a pilot area of Yanlızçam planning unit. The
paper further explains the stratiication and participation processes and presents the effective
incorporation of biodiversity into forest management plans for sustainable use of forest values.
2. Ecosystem Based Forest Management Planning (ETÇAP) Process
ETÇAP concept, irst of all, focuses on the integration of biodiversity into the management
by characterizing and controlling forest ecosystems to reach demands on a sustainable basis.
Various forest values such as wood production, water production, soil prevention, carbon
sequestration and recreation potential of ecosystems are inventoried and characterized. After
this comes the identiication of habitats, usually for focal species which are of special interest
in biodiversity conservation (Lambeck 1997). Second, management policies and the related
objectives are formulated based on the relection of owners’ demand on forest values and
other stakeholders’ participation for various uses. Fourth, the functional relationship between
the forest structure and the forest values is established to assess the contribution of each
forest patch to the management objectives or conservation target. Fifth, a set of alternative
treatment actions such as retention harvesting, thinning, planting for each stratiied area
is prescribed. Finally, appropriate planning or operations research techniques are used to
create various planning alternatives to determine the best among them. Based on the various
components, ETÇAP focuses on the maintenance of biodiversity, productivity, regeneration
capacity, vitality and their potential to satisfy ecological, economic and socio-cultural values
without jeopardizing the long term stability of forest ecosystems (Baskent et al. 2008).
In modeling management activities, setting the functional relationship between forest
structure and values is paramount. The relationship allows one to forecast the future forest
condition necessary to simulate and control the forest structure over time on a sustainable
basis. Wood productivity of a site is determined through empirical yield tables of growth
and yield models. The amount of soil loss and water production is estimated through basal
area using regression models (Figure 1). For example, as the basal area increases the soil
100
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
loss decreases yet water production increases. The relationship between stand structure
and the focal species can likewise be reflected as modeling the habitat preferences of
viable population of focal species. Thus, ETÇAP approach focuses on the establishment
of such basic relationships then examines alternative management options to meet multiple
management objectives.
Decision making tools are central to the design as well as implementation of management
plans. While classical approaches utilize typical simulation techniques, ETÇAP uses simulation
and mathematical optimization as well as meta-heuristic techniques in developing management
strategies and inding the best among them. The concept utilizes monte carlo simulation, linear
programming and simulated annealing (to be coded soon) techniques in forecasting future
management actions. Spatial features such as opening size, adjacency, accessibility and spatial
distribution of patches (i.e., cut blocks, old forests, habitat areas) will soon be part of the model.
However, as the concept of modeling approach based on operational research is relatively new
to forestry and forest education in the country, it has become quite dificult to implement the
decision making tools in forest management planning.
3. The case study area: Yanlızçam planning unit
The research was conducted in an area within the very northeastern corner of the country,
Yalnızçam of Ardahan Province, to implement and evaluate the success of ETÇAP approach
(Figure 2). The area lies in high elevation landscape from 2100 m to 2700 with large pastures
in the valleys and forests in the hills and mountains. The total area of Yalnızçam is 44
280 ha, 13% (5885 ha) of it is forested composed primarily of Scotch pine with varying
developmental stages and crown closures. Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) is distributed
from the sea level to 2700 m (Ziyarettepe) and it has the largest pure stand formations in
Yalnızçam. The area was chosen as a pilot study site for a number of reasons: i) the subtemperate forests, lying in a biogeographic corridor between the Mediterranean and Central
Asia, are within the Caucasian hot spot area that is globally recognized as among the most
biologically rich on Earth, ii) the forests are truly unique where Scots pine grows well up
to 2700 m in elevation with higher wood quality, iii) welfare of the local population is
extremely low creating a pressure on forests resources and iv) BTC (Baku Tbilisi Ceyhan)
pipeline passes through the area and provides inancial support to carry out various social
development and environmental investment projects such as forest habitat enhancement.
There are also some planning problems in the area as well. These include insuficient
institutional capacity, ineffective forest protection programs, poor communication with local
people and unsustainable use of forest resources due mainly to slow renewal rates and a
continuous shrink of forests by fragmentation and degradation. As well, the climate is very
harsh with almost six months of winter; infrastructure is insuficient without appropriate
water pipelines, sewage system, roads and roofs in houses. The income of the local people
is greatly below the average national GDP and their livelihood depends only on animal
husbandry and forestry activities.
3.1 Major Threats
The forest ecosystems are heavily inluenced by over grazing, land conversion to agriculture
and rangeland, and cutting of the forest for irewood. On the contrary, the forests are an
important natural resource for local communities who graze the areas, clear them for
Developing and Implementing the Ecosystem Based Multiple Use Forest Management Planning...
101
Figure 2. The location and the topographic structure of the study area.
agriculture and cut them for irewood. Squeezed by the dilemma, the forests are overexploited,
degraded and fragmented generating other problems such as increased soil erosion, deregulation of water resources, and decreasing productivity of grazing and agricultural land.
As a result, a cycle of increased rural poverty and natural resources degradation are created
to contribute to migration of local people from the region.
Based on the ield observations, needs and expectation analysis and a structured regular
visit to the area, the following were identiied as the major threats to the stability of the forest
ecosystems.
1. Lack of suficient knowledge, information, awareness and interest about the biodiversity
and other values of the forest ecosystems among the local communities and stakeholders,
even among most of the regional officers working in Ministry of Environment and
Forestry (MoEF),
2. Inadequacy of the traditional forest management regulations particularly with regard
to conservation of biological diversity, multipurpose utilization of forest resources and
participation of stakeholders,
3. Continuous pressure of low-income local communities on forest resources, failure in
meeting their essential needs (e.g. fuel.-wood, fodder, etc.) and in earning signiicant
income from forests, inadequacy of rural community development projects, programs and
means,
4. Uneven distribution of age classes with accumulation of over mature stands beyond the
economical rotation age,
102
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
5. Inadequate institutional capacities of the related agencies and stakeholders (e.g. state
forestry organization, forest villagers, local NGOs) in the area, poor communication
and collaboration rates among them, inadequate budget resources allocated for natural
resource management,
6. Habitat degradation, loss and fragmentation due mainly to solo timber oriented forest
management practices, uncontrolled and unplanned grazing of livestock, illicit harvesting
and fuel-wood utilization of shrubs, hay or fodder production in and nearby forests,
poaching, egg collection, fox predation and outdoor activities.
3.2 Forest Ecosystem Inventory and Stratiication
The planning process started with a comprehensive forest ecosystem inventory process that
involved in area, growing stock, increment, biodiversity, site classification and capacity
inventories. However, both forest health and economic analyses were not conducted due
to inancial limitation. Systematic sampling accommodated the design of sample points to
conduct the ield survey. Circular sample plots of 475 were generated and distributed over the
forest with 300 by 300 m grids and located with GPS. Aside from the traditional measurements
in each plot such as DBH, height and increment, additional parameters for biodiversity and site
classiication such as damaged trees, down-dead trees, grazing type and rate, plant succession,
plant cover-abundance rate, plant and animal species, woody debris, and soil parameters in a
soil proile were measured and/or observed for a comprehensive multiple use planning.
Given the inventory data, Yanlızçam forests were stratiied into eight major zones each
representing at least a certain forest zone/value (Table 1) and mapped using GIS (Figure
3) with the help of stakeholders’ participation. Each forest use was described by a deined
number of criteria and indicators followed by the due actions to be applied to each forest use
area. The abstract delineation was conducted by the experts and then was discussed with all
stakeholders to inalize the stratiication.
The stratified areas were used as basis for the management plan. While there were
no strictly protected areas almost half (54%) of the areas were allocated primarily for
conservation purposes. Biodiversity conservation areas serve as wildlife habitat for
four species of vultures and as monitoring the natural development of Scots pine forests.
Ecological corridors between pine forests and a coppice forest fragment are used to connect
the habitats and allow species to freely move across landscape matrix. The riparian areas
allow for the conservation of focal species and provide special habitat for wildlife along the
stream bank. Since the forests are generally fragmented, most of the degraded areas and the
areas to connect forest fragments are allocated for rehabilitation through aforestation. Both
upper forest edges in high mountain areas and lower forest edges near range land are under
social pressure by heavy livestock grazing and forage (grass) cutting. Therefore, intensive
protection with fences is recommended for these areas when regeneration is prescribed. Aside
from the speciic allocation of the landscape to each use, landscape matrix and coarse level
conservation concept are mimicked to determine harvest levels in the rest of the forest areas
by spatially locating harvest areas and determining sustainable harvest amounts.
3.3 Building a Spatial Database
The ield data in association with the questionnaire for needs and expectation analysis, old
cover type maps, aerial photos and satellite images were compiled to create the database
with GIS (Arc/Info 8.2). The spatial database consisted of thematic layers such as forest
Developing and Implementing the Ecosystem Based Multiple Use Forest Management Planning...
103
Table 1. Forest zones (values) determined based on criteria-indicators and the associated actions.
Zones
Criteria-Indicators
Actions
Aesthetic-Recreation
Natural monuments (earth pillars)
along the Kura canyon,
traditionally used sites, historical
remnants, camping areas, potential
ski areas, livestock festival areas,
and waterfalls.
Due recreation activities, camping
grounds, bird watching stations,
no clear cuttings along roads,
festival activities, ski routes
Ecological corridors
Areas between birch fragments
and mass forest areas
Need grazing plan, periodic
aforestation with natural trees (pine
and birch) light silviculture,
no clear-cutting, limited number of
dead trees and maintenance of a
certain level of growing stock
Riparian areas
200 m around Kura river,
140 m other streams and wetlands,
and 100 m around creeks
Light silviculture, no clear-cutting,
leave off dead trees, longer rotation
periods and maintenance of a certain
level of growing stock
Rehabilitation
Degraded pine stands, open areas
Site preparation and aforestation,
connecting fragmented patches and fences around regeneration areas
unsuccessfully regenerated areas
High mountain forests
Areas above 2300m elevation, and
70 inside buffer from the upper
timber lines
Biodiversity
conservation
IBA, IPA, habitats of focal species, Conservation activities, limited
old forests, and stands with big and management for wood and leaving
dead trees
out some pine stands to trace the
natural developments
Social conlict areas
One km buffer around villages,
500 m buffer around other
residential areas and 70m buffer
inside forest areas from the lower
forest line where there is heavy
grazing
No management, consensus building
among the major stakeholders before
the renewal activities in those areas
Wood production
Other forest areas
Appropriate amount and level of
interventions for quality saw logs
and irewood
Other areas
residences, agriculture, water and
power lines (15 m in both sides)
No management
Light silviculture, rehabilitation,
panoramic landscape observation,
trekking, camping, and ecotourism
activities.
cover type maps of 1973, 1999 and 2006, forest stratification maps, residential areas,
major land use maps, biodiversity conservation areas, sample plots, disturbance maps, site
classiication maps, topographic maps (slope, aspect, and DEM), LANDSAT and one meter
resolution IKONOS images (August 13, 2005) obtained from the General Directorate of
Turkish Forestry. The forest cover type map was updated by interpreting aerial photographs
in accordance with high resolution satellite images and rectiied with ield survey data. The
cover type layer included basic information of stand attributes such as species mix, crown
104
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Figure 3. The spatial distribution of stratiied area.
closure, per ha values of wood and others, land use status, disturbance types and rates, and
development and successional stages. The information technologies such as GIS, RS, GPS
and database management system were acquired to establish spatial database for developing
forest management plans.
3.4 Participation
Participation of stakeholders has been a central issue in the development of forest
management plans. Participation process promotes effective communication at various
levels and generally involves deining the stakeholders, conducting needs and expectation
analysis, creating awareness through structured meetings, taking majority decision with
democratic discussion, identifying and sharing rights and responsibilities, and finally
presenting accountability to the owner (Leskinen 2004; Baskent et al. 2007). The steps were
all exercised throughout the process of the research and discussed below.
As a irst step, needs and expectation analyses were carried out identifying major problems,
threats, target villages and other stakeholders as major players in the management of forest
landscape. Under the auspices of BTC and General Directorate of Forestry (GDF), the owner,
the stakeholders were grouped into two steering committees. Local steering committee
consisted of local government, nine villages, community cooperatives, Erzurum regional
directorate of forestry, Ardahan forest and environmental organization, Ardahan agriculture
department, rural affairs, KTU, project manager and NGOs of ODOPEM, ORKOOP and
International Blue Crescent. The national steering committee embodies department of R&D,
KTU, ODTU, project manager, NGOs of ODOPEM, ORKOOP, TEMA and SÜRKAL,
Developing and Implementing the Ecosystem Based Multiple Use Forest Management Planning...
105
and general directorates of natural parks, aforestation-erosion control and rural affairs. The
necessary tasks and responsibilities were identiied and assigned to each committee. The
local committee was charged to be responsible for creating awareness at local level, setting
management regulations and discussing local socio-cultural problems with regular visits and
meetings. The national committee provides visions, evaluates and supervises the activities to
lead the participation process.
The second stage of the participation process was to develop workshops, site visits, town
meetings, and questionnaires to create awareness for a stewardship management of forest
ecosystems. A irst workshop was held to introduce the concept and revise the ecosystem
based management planning process to accommodate multiple values, participation and
biodiversity into the plans. A community expert was hired to conduct a survey in nine villages
for better relecting their needs. Additionally, a veterinarian and an agriculture engineer
were employed to monitor the livestock of nine villages regularly and help design grazing
plans and advise for appropriate raising of livestock, respectively. The management team,
formed by planning, fauna, lora and database experts, also held a series of town meetings
and school meetings to create awareness and discuss the local problems and the outline of the
management plans. Also, NGOs were consulted to actively involve them in all meetings. The
meetings were managed by an independent facilitator to allow each participant to express
his/her views towards any management decisions.
In order to establish a good communication with the local people, create awareness,
improve livelihood, reduce fuel-wood consumption and illicit cuttings and thus lessen
the potential pressure on forest resources a number of rapid impact or income generating
activities were determined and implemented in nine forest villages.
• Restoration of schools, building water pipe lines and drinking troughs in rangeland
• Improvement of rangeland with cultivation of common vetch and clover crops, preparing
a grazing plan, sowing animal fodder and making silage with the incentives from the
department of agriculture,
• Building a sample greenhouse to produce vegetables such as cucumber and strawberry,
• Implementation of training programs for beekeepers and promoting handmade rags among
people in long winter period,
• Training local people for application and development of new community development
projects and raising funds from foreign sources (nearly 500000 Euro raised),
• Improvement of a dairy farm managed by a cooperative in a village,
• Rooing buildings with iron sheets and distributing coal burning cook stoves,
• Scanning and spraying animals for good health,
• Training programs for awareness in environment and forestry in group of women, children
and adults, and
• Hands-on training of forest workers with modern forestry instruments.
A number of outcomes from the participation process can be noted. First, since the
participation was only recently introduced to the stakeholders as a relatively new concept,
it took a while to communicate and develop a common understanding, and explain the roles
and responsibilities of stakeholders within the management of forests resources. While the
traditional state control management of forests (Baskent et al. 2005b) clearly dominated the
participation process, the forest management department was fortunately very receptive to
stratifying forest areas into both conservation and timber management as necessary. Second,
the villagers requested to use the forest areas for grazing and forage cutting whatever the
consequence would be. They desired to continue such forest uses as if intrinsically they have
the rights to do so. The local committee came up with a consensus to allow limited and
planned grazing on the mature-overmature stands where inal felling and regeneration is not
106
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
prescribed. Local people did not initially welcome any restrictions on grazing and forage
cuttings in forest ecosystems when habitat enhancement and conservation activities such as
setting aside riparian buffers, biodiversity conservation areas, upper-lower forest edges and
creating habitat corridors to connect fragmented habitats with aforestation were prescribed.
However, after the hectic process of participation and provision of quick impact or income
generating activities, the majority of the stakeholders agreed to abide by the necessary
management regulations for multiple uses. Third, sporadic grazing in rangelands adjacent
to forests and the villages by the outsiders created social instability and conlicts in the area.
Explaining the potential impacts in few meetings with the local government yielded a decision
to control and stop the outside grazers. There was no apparent influence of community
cooperatives on neither forest management activities nor community developments. An
expert was hired to train the managers and analyze the status of eight latent cooperatives and
it was found out that only four were able to sustain themselves. Some of the quick impact
projects such as capacity building and European support for infrastructure were directed
towards the enhancements and activation of the cooperatives. Finally, NGOs desired to
allocate most of the areas for conservation and to create multilayered old growth type forests,
leaving limited use for timber management. A number of special meetings, workshops and
educational courses were organized to provide background on the special dynamics of pure
Scots pine forest and discuss the issues with oficers from forestry department and NGOs.
Although all the NGOs were not quite convinced, the potential consequences of the desire
were explained and thus even-aged management activities were prescribed to the forests with
varying rates and limits depending on the priority of forest uses as depicted in Table 1.
3.5 Management Objectives and Conservation Targets
To help set up a conservation target in the area the biodiversity inventory was carried out
throughout the year. Both fauna and lora analyses were conducted during all seasons and
target species and their habitats were determined together with experts and appropriate
stakeholders. Based on the forest inventory data, socio-cultural structure, stratiication and
biodiversity conservation, management policies were formulated. Management objectives
determined under the full participation of stakeholders primarily relate to maximization of
wood production. Additionally, resolving social conlicts, utilization of recreation-aesthetic
values, and support of community developments activities to increase social welfare
with awareness creation about biodiversity conservation were formulated as secondary
management objectives. Conservation targets were deined as the restoration of fragmented
and degraded forest patches, protection of riparian ecosystems, protection of high mountain
forest ecosystems and protection of forest edges under grazing and forage cutting pressure
and conservation of biodiversity in the areas.
3.6 Management Plan
Under the supervision of stakeholders and the forest management guidelines, a forest
management plan was prepared to satisfy both management objectives and conservation
targets. The plan did also take necessary planning principles such as international conventions,
legal mandates, multiple use planning, spatial database build and interdisciplinary approach
into account. The even-aged management system based on both area and volume control was
used as the guiding harvest scheduling approach. Varying rotation lengths, from 120 to 180,
Developing and Implementing the Ecosystem Based Multiple Use Forest Management Planning...
107
Table 4. A summary of management decisions in terms of AAC (m³/year) and planting (ha/20 year).
Management objectives
Rotation
period (year)
Final
felling (m³)
Commercial
Thinning (m³)
AforestationPlanning (ha)
Pine wood production
Ecosystem rehabilitation
Nature conservation
Aesthetic-recreation
Social conlict resolution
Total AAC
120
120
180
180
120
5963
227
195
6385
2010
18
280
27
82
2417
149.5
482.8
62.4
30.3
8196.3
8921.3
were used in regulating forest dynamics over time and space. The area weighted average site
index of 22.34 m indicated site productivity III.
Based on national forest management guidelines and the management objectives the area
was divided into ive sub-management units (MU) in preparation of silvicultural actions.
Table 4 shows the level of planting and Annual Allowable Cut (AAC) decisions based on the
irst period (20 year) management plan actions in terms of available wood production in all
zones. The utilization rate was found to be around 1,2% as compared to 1.7% in regulated
forest of solo timber production objective.
The classical area control method was used to regulate forest structure and accomplish
a regulated forest structure. Given the rotation age of 120 years the normal periodic area
was calculated to be 576.67 ha in pine wood production sub-management unit, the area to
be regenerated in each period of 20 years. As the actual structure of the forest was of “old
forest” type (areas are generally concentrated to older age classes) there was enough area for
regeneration over the planning horizon.
The level and the rate of management actions were determined with a participatory
process. Initially, the forest management department objected any “no cut” alternatives in
particularly biodiversity conservation and riparian areas due to the speciic ecological and
silvicultural requirements of pine forests. In contrast, the NGOs always pushed for more
areas to be protected, particularly for biodiversity conservation. The contradictory views
were ratiied by the planning and biodiversity experts again within the participation process
as the local steering committee organized frequent meetings and site visits to the area. The
outcome was a consensus in majority that harvesting rates in conservation areas could be
reduced in varying rates between 10% and 70% as compared to full harvesting on wood
production zone. Furthermore, the per area wood production through commercial thinning
(~1.7 m3/ha/year) was kept quite far below the average annual increment per ha (~3.4 m3/ha/
year) to ensure both sustainability and conservation values.
The success of the implementation of the plan is subject to the resolution of ownership,
enhancement of the welfare system of the villages, development of a range management
plan and resolution of potential conlicts of dwellers around the forest management planning
unit. The agreed stratiication of the forest areas is a irst step to start the communication
with rural people. Then the willingness of forest officers comes into play to coordinate
forest management actions with the villagers in line with the management plan. A number
of training programs were developed and implemented among the forest rangers to create
awareness about the new planning approach used in the management plan.
108
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
4. Conclusions
Forest management philosophy has changed to accommodate various forest values such as
biodiversity, water production, erosion control, recreation and carbon sequestration under
stakeholders’ participation. Ecosystem based multiple use forest management approach
utilizes both ine and coarse ilter approaches (mesoilter) (Hunter 2005). Focal species and
their habitat requirements provide a clue to the planners. Thus, appropriate set of quantitative
measures of biodiversity as proxy is necessary for integration. It is now widely accepted
that participatory methods are the most effective approaches to achieve sustainable resource
management. Local communities and NGOs are increasingly demanding more say and
influence on public forests almost everywhere where forests are public in Turkey. The
approach was implemented in Yanlızçam planning unit and certain experiences were realized.
Needs and expectation analysis provided basic socio-cultural information, awareness was
created among stakeholders, quick impact activities were developed and implemented in
villages, ecosystem based multiple use forest management concept has become the prevailing
planning approach, both satellite and GIS technologies were heavily used and spatial database
built as indispensable infrastructure, criteria and indicators for forest stratiication were
developed, participation of stakeholders was recognized and the critical role and importance
of biodiversity conservation was acknowledged. A shift is required from timber oriented
management to the adoption of ecosystem management with new silvicultural treatments and
natural disturbances as a template to guide management actions to ensure the conservation
and production in balance. Primary challenges relate to the effectiveness of a conservation
program, availability of coherent biodiversity data, inadequacy of institutional capacity;
awareness, training and common understanding of biodiversity and protected area concept;
coordination among the related institutions and stakeholders, and willingness and enthusiasm
of authorities to accept and implement the concept.
Acknowledgements
Funding for the development of this research has been provided by the BTC Pipeline through
ORKOOP and ODOPEM in Turkey. The authors would like to thank the staff at Turkish
Forest Service particularly the forest management department, the research associates in the
Faculty of Forestry, Karadeniz Technical University for providing data and all valuable help.
References
Asan, Ü. 1999. Multiple use of forest resources and planning systems: meeting on the multiple use forest
management planning. 5–6 May, 33–40, Bolu, Turkey
Baskent, E.Z., Terzioğlu, S. and Başkaya, Ş. 2008. Developing and Implementing Multiple Use Forest Management
Planning in Turkey, Environmental Management (Under Revision)
Baskent, E.Z., Köse, S., Altun, L., Terzioğlu, S. and Başkaya, Ş. 2005a. Integration of biodiversity with forest
management plans. Orman Mühendisliği Dergisi 4–9
Baskent, E.Z., Köse, S. and Keles, S. 2005b. Forest management planning system of turkey: constructive criticism
towards the sustainable management of forest ecosystems. International Forestry Review 7 (3): 208–217.
Baskent, E.Z. and Jordan, G.A. 2002. Forest landscape (ecosystems) management with simulated annealing. Forest
Ecology and Management 165(1–3): 29–45.
Baskent, E.Z. and Yolasigmaz, A. 1999. Forest landscape (ecosystems) management revisited. Environmental
Management 24(4): 437–448.
Bengtsson, J., Nilsson, SG., Franc, A. and Menozze, P. 2000. Biodiversity disturbances, ecosystem function, and
management of European forests. Forest Ecology and Management 132: 39–50.
Developing and Implementing the Ecosystem Based Multiple Use Forest Management Planning...
109
Bettinger, P., Sessions, J. and Johnson, K.N. 1998. Ensuring the compatibility of aquatic habitat and commodity
production goals in eastern Oregon with a Tabu search procedure. Forest Science, 44: 96–112.
Bücking, W. 2003. Are there threshold numbers for protected forests? Journal of Environmental management 67:
37–45
Bunnell, F.L. and Huggard, D.J. 1999. Biodiversity across spatial and temporal scales: problems and opportunities.
Forest Ecology and Management 115: 113–126.
Davis, S.L., Johson, K.N., Bettinger, P.S. and Howard, T.E. 2001. Forest management, 4rd ed., MacGraw-Hill. 790 p.
Eriksson, S. and Hammer, M. 2006. The challenge of combining timber production and biodiversity conservation
for long-term ecosystem functioning- A case study of Swedish boreal forestry. Forest Ecology and Management
237 (1–3): 208–217.
Fabbio, G., Merlo, M. and Tosi, V. 2003. Silvicultural management in maintaining biodiversity and resistance of
forests in Europe -the Mediterranean region. Journal of Environmental Management 67: 67–76.
Fischer, J., Lindenmayer, D.B. and Manning, A.D. 2006. Biodiversity, ecosystem function, and resilience: ten
guiding principles for commodity production landscapes. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 4(2): 80–86.
Grashof-Bokdam, C.J. and Geertsema, W. 1998. The effect of isolation and history on colonization patterns of plant
species in secondary woodland. Journal of Biogeography 25(5): 837–846.
Hagan, J.M. and Whiteman, A.A. 2006. Biodiversity indicators for sustainable forestry: simplifying complexity.
Journal of Forestry, June 2006, 203–210
Hunter, M.L. 2005. A mesoilter conservation strategy to complement ine and coarse ilters. Conservation Biology
19(4): 1025–1029.
IUCN 2001. IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 3.1. Information Press, Oxford, UK.
Lambeck, R.J. 1997. Focal species: a multi-species umbrella for nature conservation. Conservation Biology 11:
849–856.
Leskinen, L.A. 2004. Purposes and challenges of public participation in regional and local forestry in Finland.
Forest Policy and Economics 6: 605– 618
Lindenmayer, D.B. 1999. Future directions for biodiversity conservation in managed forests: indicator species,
impact studies and monitoring programs. Forest Ecology and Management 115: 277–287
Lindenmayer D.B., Fischer, J., Felton, A., et al. 2007. The complementarily of single-species and ecosystemoriented research in conservation research. OIKOS 116 (7): 1220–1226.
Noss, R. 1999. Assessing and monitoring forest biodiversity: a suggested framework and indicators. Forest Ecology
and Management 115: 135–146.
Parviainen, J. and Frank, G. 2003. Protected forests in Europe approaches-harmonizing the deinitions for
international comparison. Journal of Environmental Management 67: 27–37
Probst, J.R. and Crow, R.T. 1991. Integrating biodiversity and resource management. Journal of Forestry. Pp.
12–17.
Pukkala, T. and Miina, J. 1997. A method for stochastic multi-objective optimization of stand management. Forest
Ecology and Management 98: 189–203.
Schulte, L.A., Mitchell, R.J., Hunter, M.L., Franklin, J.F., McIntyre, K.R. and Palik, B.J. 2006. Evaluating the
conceptual tools for forest biodiversity conservation and their implementation in the U.S. forest, Forest Ecology
and Management 232: 1–11
Simberloff, D. 1999. The role of science in the preservation of forest biodiversity. Forest Ecology and Management
115: 101–111
URL-1. 2006. Biodiversity and natural resource management project, http://www.gef-2.org.
URL-2. 2006. Environment Investment Program, http://www.btcinvestment.com.
Wulf, M. 2003. Forest policy in the EU and its inluence on the plant diversity of woodlands. Journal of
Environmental Management 67: 15–25.
Adaptive Forest Management:
Learning by Doing in Forestry
Felipe Bravo
Joint Research Unit UVa-INIA, Department of Forest Resources,
University of Valladolid, Palencia, Spain
Abstract
Adaptive Forest Management allows foresters to face highly variable environmental and
social situations. Different emerging concepts (sustainability, both social and environmental
change and participation) are challenging traditional forestry around the world. Researchers
and foresters share a general interest in developing and applying sustainable forest
management. However, it is dificult to ind a common meeting point. Through Adaptive
Forest Management, we can elaborate a common set of tools to develop and evaluate forest
management alternatives. Adaptive Forest Management is a systematic process to steadily
improve forestry practices and policies by learning through monitoring and evaluating
operational silviculture. Reasons to apply Adaptive Forest Management and dificulties in
its application are analysed in this contribution. Science and Forest Management must join
forces and take advantage of all the approximations, so that forestry science can help solve
real problems for managers in real situations.
Keywords: sustainable forest management; monitoring; evaluation
1. Introduction
Over the last few decades, an increase in concern about conservation and management of
natural resources has been produced throughout the world. This tendency has been relected
in government activities, such as the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Conference. There the general
criteria was defined as the need to incorporate Sustainable Management measures for
exploiting forests that ensure both rational use of natural resources and persistence over
time of environmental values, such as the diversity of species and of ecosystems. This
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
112
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
process has had great repercussions at world level, in the 2002 Johannesburg Meeting (also
known as RIO+10), and in Europe as well, where there had been several prior meetings
and conferences: Strasbourg (1990), Helsinki (1993), Lisbon (1998), Vienna (2003) and
Warsaw (2004). In these events, the various countries have reached successive agreements
to promote cooperation in forest protection and sustainable forest management (www.minconf.net and www.mcpfe.org). At approximately the same time, other initiatives to try and
deine appropriate levels and objectives of sustainability have been developed. Thus, the
set of criteria and indictors promoted by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) exist jointly
with many others: the criteria and indicators for the conservation and sustainable handling
of the warm and boreal forests (known as the Montreal Process), the criteria and indicators
for Amazon forests (within what is known as the Tarapoto Process) and the International
Model Forest Network, which includes high-quality management of forests with the goal of
deining and developing Sustainable Forest Management at the practical level based on the
participation of different social actors.
However, in spite of all these efforts, reasonable doubts exist as to what Sustainable
Forest Management is exactly. The different points of view on the subject can be grouped as
follows:
1) Traditional practices have been shown to be sustainable – this is certain if we consider the
maintenance or increase in forest stocks (volume, surface), and is criticised by those who
advocate ecosystem management instead of timber management,
2) appropriate procedures that guarantee sustainability of management practices are needed –
these are implemented via principles, criteria and indicators; they are not legally imposed
procedures but those having international reference frameworks for carrying out forest
policies (Helsinki, Montreal and Tarapoto Processes) in such a way that a set of criteria
and indicators for sustainable forest management are available,
3) forest management systems should approach sustainability – the system itself for forest
management includes procedures for reaching Sustainable Management, such as the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Standard 14001, on environmental
handling systems, for example,
4) self-regulation by the forest producer or industry – in this case, a set of principles and
action lines exist, but there is no external enforcing control; the Paper Industry Association
in the U.S.A. has proposed a system of this type, and
5) Follow-up and certiication of forest management by a third party – this involves the
examination of the systems of forest management and policies (similar to those promoted
by the ISO), with ground-level evaluation of procedures and practices and other aspects
such as labour safety or the involvement of local communities; it includes the certiication
of products from forests managed in a sustainable manner (the procedure for FSC
certiication is an example of this type).
One aspect is crucial for both developing methods and procedures for sustainable forest
management and for controlling its execution: adopting adaptive management methods
that allow for adapting forest management to the global changes (environmental, social and
economic) silviculturists must face at present. The goal of this paper is to present the concept
of Adaptive Management, the main forms of its development in forests and its potential in
the Mediterranean Basin.
Adaptive Forest Management: Learning by Doing in Forestry
113
2. What is Adaptive Management?
The irst publications that presented the idea of Adaptive Management as a useful strategy
for natural resource management owe a debt to Holling (1978). As deined by Nyberg (1998),
Adaptive Management is a systematic process for continual improvement in management
practices and policies through learning from silvicultural activity results. Up to this point,
an experienced reader could deduce that you could comply with the idea of Adaptive
Management simply through the development of forest handling plans and adequate followup, but that is not true. The principal characteristics of Adaptive Management are the
following (Nyberg 1998; Stankey et al. 2005):
1. Recognition of the uncertainty about which management practice is "best" for a given
situation and/or context.
2. Efforts aimed at integrating knowledge from different disciplines into dynamic models
that permit predicting the impact of alternative policies, which requires clariication of
problems and improvement of communication between management scientists and other
stakeholders.
3. Well-considered selection of the practices and methods to be tested, eliminating options
that are improbable or clearly inadequate in the light of the knowledge now available.
4. Careful implementation of an action plan to discover the parts that are critical (given that
they are poorly based) in present knowledge.
5. Follow-up on the response of the key indicators to the techniques and practices
developed.
6. Analysis of the results in relation to the original objectives.
7. Incorporation of the results into future decisions.
What is involved is a process in which each management action (clearing, thinning, pruning,
planting, etc.) has to be considered as part of a real-life-scale experiment that must be
planned to obtain useful information, so as to orient future forest management. Adaptive
Management therefore has to do with overcoming the concepts of permanent plots, tests of
origin or experimental sites and complementing them – or replacing them – with these lifesized 'experiments'. So it is a case of learning-by-doing, of taking advantage of successes and
failures, both one's own and of others.
However, although the learning-by-doing concept is essential in the application of Adaptive
Management, for it to be really useful there should not be only one incremental dimension
of knowledge. There must be a formal, explicit and deliberate process for increasing useful
manager knowledge through experiments and contrast, critical result processing and the
application of new management strategies (Stankey et al. 2005). Lastly, for the learning to
be real and for it to have a clear impact, it must have two dimensions: a cognitive one (we
understand processes we have studied better) and a behavioural one (we change our way of
handling forest management).
3. Adaptive Management foundations
The basis of Adaptive Management is that the management must start from life-sized
'experiments' based on our scientiic knowledge. That way the underlying hypotheses can be
tested and the validity of the predictions can be checked, so as to improve our management
with the results obtained. The core idea is that management of the natural environment should
114
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
be technical, but with an anthropological and ecological basis. Management development
will therefore be scientiically admissible, technically possible, economically viable and
socially acceptable (Bravo 1989).
3.1 What are the main reasons for developing an Adaptive Management programme?
The main reason for implementing an Adaptive Management programme is that, by doing so,
we are converting a local experience – of no value for determining cause-effect processes –
into information useful in analysing the 'whys' of the results obtained. We can thus raise the
level of technical knowledge applied to forest management. To apply management techniques
such as those called pastoral "routines", a scientiic or technical basis is not necessary; the
only thing needed is a person skilled in repeating what has already been done before. If
environmental, social or economic situations do not change, applying good "routines" is very
effective. Certainly, under those circumstances, society will not ask more of the foresters.
However, in a highly changeable situation (climate changes, changes in social preferences
with respect to forests, changes in productive uses, etc.), the scientiic knowledge we can
obtain from Adaptive Management is indispensable in responding to society's needs.
Of course, factors related to snobbism and a good image associated with innovation could
also be argued. However, if these are the principal reasons, we will not get very far wasting
valuable resources on lovely image campaigns.
3.2 What are the main dificulties in developing an Adaptive Management programme?
The main dificulties in implementing an Adaptive Management programme depend to a
great extent on local conditions, but they are generally the following:
1. Excessive bureaucracy of public administration towards forest managers.
2. Lack of means and techniques know how of forest management in private lands.
3. Lack of training in advanced statistical techniques (experiment design, Bayesian
techniques, etc.) and in methods of making decisions under uncertain conditions.
4. Lack of knowledge of Adaptive Management methods and techniques.
5. Lack of systematic doubts in the application of management procedures In Engineering
Schools, students are rarely taught to doubt; doubt constitutes the engine that drives
technical advances.
6. Managers do not have a tradition of exchanging experiences among themselves and with
the scientiic community.
Budget restrictions do not usually constitute a problem, given that costs are limited if
Adaptive Management criteria and procedures are introduced in management design.
3.3 Why doesn't the transfer of information from scientists to managers work?
A great deal of effort is expended on research, development and innovation in all spheres,
including those related to forest ecosystem management. Nevertheless, there is no adequate
channel that allows researchers to communicate their results effectively with managers or
that lets managers promote the research that responds to their needs. On the other hand, the
scientiic system promotes and rewards extending results among other researchers through
publishing them in specialised journals. However, these journals are often difficult for
Adaptive Forest Management: Learning by Doing in Forestry
115
managers to access, because they are only available through university libraries or research
centres. In addition, managers ind it dificult to have suficient economic resources and time
available to attend specialist congresses. According to Finch and Patton-Mallory (1993),
there are other factors that must be taken into consideration in explaining dificulties of
transferring information between researchers and managers:
1. Research results are normally dispersed and appear in fragments in several publications.
There is a lack of publications that synthesise all the information in a set of management
recommendations.
2. There are no adequate processes to identify and prioritise the knowledge gaps in a way
that allows research results to become part of the state of the art.
3. Part of the information generated by researchers has only limited usefulness because it
centres on overly-speciic aspects.
4. Work routines and environments generate philosophical barriers between managers and
researchers. The researcher normally carries out his or her work with greater liberty, while
the manager has to deal with political and economic realities in day-to-day decisionmaking.
4. Fundamental methods for data analysis within an Adaptive Management
programme
An Adaptive Management programme requires the managers and researchers to work together
from the start of planning the actions from which extracting scientiic knowledge is desired
(Finch and Patton-Mallory 1993). Managers will be more willing to use the new knowledge
generated if they feel part of its generation from the beginning. Likewise, researchers will
provide their capabilities more usefully if they are involved in forest management planning
from the very irst. In addition, the information must be shared systematically for it to be
possible to explore aspects that were perhaps not foreseen in the initial plan, but can later
turn out to be of great interest. Lastly, the organisations must prioritise the research, followup and management in such a way that the individuals responsible for these activities and the
supervisors of managers and researchers effectively evaluate and reward the activities.
Data Analysis
The first step is to decide if we want to do a retrospective study or a prospective study
applicable for the development of Adaptive Management. If it is assumed that our interest
lies in knowing the effects of ire on the forest, we can focus on the problem in two ways:
(1) Look for already burnt areas and choose some of them for the study, comparing them
with others selected as the control. An example of this is the recent project by Núñez (2006),
and (2) choose an area and wait until it burns or burn it under control to carry out the study.
The irst option is a retrospective study, while the second is a prospective study.
Both models are useful in obtaining valid conclusions for Adaptive Management (Smith,
1998). However, the lack of control over some key factors in the burnt and control areas in
the retrospective study make it necessary to take additional precautions in result analysis and
interpretation when using this model. In many cases, Adaptive Management should be based
– at least during the irst stage – on only retrospective studies. This limits the validity of the
results, which should be taken as a irst approximation.
116
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Tools
Every Adaptive Management programme should be based on the following tools to obtain a
set of reliable data from which well-founded conclusions can be drawn:
1. Long-term experimental sites with sophisticated experimental devices. In Spain, there is
no experimental site comparable to those integrated in the Long-Term Ecosystem Research
Network (LTERN) in the United States. This network provides a theoretical basis for adaptive
management activities. The problem with long-term experimental sites is that, as they get
older, their value increases, but it is also probable that the scientiic question that motivated
their initiation has lost relevance (Innes, 2005).
2. Monitoring plot networks. These plots can be temporary, interim or permanent, based on
the number of remeasurements that have been performed. An adequate balance between all
the plot types distributed for all the silvicultural situations of interest is crucial for extending
the results in long-term intensive experimental sites. The problems involved in designing
Monitoring plot networks and in their follow-up have been compiled by Curtis and Marshall
(2005). They pointed out that, in many cases, plot documentation is inadequate, plots are
too small and/or installed without buffer areas, applicable treatments have not been assigned
randomly, tree measurements are not adequate (in number, in tally-tree selection, etc.), age
estimation is imprecise, conditions prior to treatment have not been registered and a long
etcetera. However, when Monitoring plot networks exist, they constitute a key element in
increasing forest management knowledge.
3. Regional analysis. Isolated results of 'tests' that managers can carry out in each site are
of scant value. There must be a plan for the management alternatives to be tested, at least at
the district level, so that valid conclusions can be drawn. If this is not done, money will be
wasted in local 'tests' of absolutely no value, as we cannot distinguish the results that show
arbitrary relationships from those that show causal relationships.
4. Modelling and simulation. It is not possible to test all the options, but adequate models
allow them to be simulated and conclusions drawn. This will, at the least, eliminate the
options that are clearly undesirable and establish a clear hierarchy among the different
management alternatives. An example is the work of Bravo et al. (2008) from the simulation
of two management alternatives (short and long rotation) in stands of two species (Pinus
sylvestris and Pinus pinaster) in the north of Spain that represented two productivity levels
(high and low site index). These researchers could determine the impact of the alternatives
simulated on carbon storage in the forests; in addition, by including the analysis of different
carbon prices and different discount rates, they could study the impact of establishing
payments for carbon storage credits in the forests.
5. Integration of results at multiple scales. Forests are holistic systems, in which the whole
is more than the sum of the parts. The bottom-top approach to problems (from the tree to the
landscape) must be complemented with a top-bottom approach (from landscape to tree), in
such a way that a vision of the unit, absent if we observe only one level, can be obtained.
6. Harvest analysis (Gadow and Kleinn, 2005). This involves selecting areas where cutting
is going to be carried out (clearing or regeneration cutting) and measuring all the trees once
the cutting is marked. After the cutting is performed, we will have information available on
the stand before and after cutting and on the cutting itself. Analysis performed after a prespeciied period of time, from a network of such sites, could give us valuable information
about forestry practices at a life-sized scale. Of course, such analysis does not have to be
restricted exclusively to clearing and final cutting. It can be extended to other forestry
activities.
Adaptive Forest Management: Learning by Doing in Forestry
117
5. Model forests as a framework to develop Adaptative Management
As foresters face uncertainty both at the environmental and economic level, they need to
develop forest management strategies in fuzzy situations. Adaptive management allows
foresters learn by doing practical forestry while developing sustainable forest management.
In places where a lack of scientiic knowledge exists, as in some parts of the Mediterranean
basin, implementing these learning by doing strategies can help managers to design adequate
strategies to achieve sustainability and to increase forestry knowledge.
Model forest is a concept based on a combination on social, cultural and economic needs
of local communities on forest areas where sustainability has been applied in practice for
a long term. In the model forests both public and private organizations sharing a common
objective cooperate to achieve and develop sustainable forest management in a given
local forest area. The principles which the forest model concept relies on are: partnership,
sustainability, management at landscape level, good governance practices, knowledgesharing and networking. A model forest currently exists in the Mediterranean Basin, in the
region of Castilla y León (northern Spain). This model forest is called "Urbión". It includes
the mountain pine forests of the Urbión mountain range (in northern Spain), pine forests of
wild pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) being the dominant forest type. Additional information about
this model forest can be found at the website www.urbion.es. The Urbión forest model has a
long-standing tradition on sustainable forest management. The irst management plans date
back to the 19th century and since then sustainability has been the main forest management
objective. First a sustainable yield approach was applied but during the last decades
management objectives have shifted to a comprehensive approach including non-timber
values, biodiversity conservation and carbon sequestration, jointly with timber production,
as main outcomes.
6. Conclusions
Forest management is carried out in a changing world, from the economic, social and
environmental points of view. It requires management methods that go far beyond traditional
"routines", as has been indicated earlier. Investment in forest research can be especially
dificult in countries where other priorities may need the economic support available with a
greater urgency (such as those in the south and east of the Mediterranean Basin). That is why
it is important for all the data that can be obtained from forest management activities to be
integrated in formal processes in order to increase directly applicable scientiic knowledge.
Initiatives such as implanting model forests can help to structure and implement this kind of
initiatives.
To make all these efforts related to Adaptive Forest Management (model forests, learningby-doing, etc.) truly useful, researchers should come out of their own circles and their
laboratories and test networks to approach the managers. Managers, in turn, have to change
their mentality and stop considering scientiic activities a madness involving theoreticians
and naïve people that have little use except for adding a certain image of modernity. Society
needs technical decisions based on knowledge and in constant adaptation to changing
situations. Science and forest management cannot follow parallel paths, much less opposite
paths. All the efforts and the approximations have to be utilised wisely, so that forest
management regains its scientiic basis and forest science can help to solve real problems of
managers in real situations.
118
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
References
Bravo, F. 1989. Estudio silvopastoral de la dehesa boyal de Alía (Cáceres). Ecología 3:107–115
Bravo, F., Bravo-Oviedo, A. and Díaz-Balteiro, L. 2008 Carbon sequestration in Spanish Mediterranean forests
under two management alternatives: a modeling approach European Journal of Forest Research doi:10.1007/
s10342-007-0198-y
Curtis, R.O. and Marshall, D.D. 2005 Permanent-plot procedures for silvicultural and yield research Monitoring
plot networks. Gen. Tech. Rep PNPW-GTR-634 Portland, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Paciic Northwest Research Station. 86 p
Finch, D.M. and Patton-Mallory, M 1993 Closing the gap between research and management In: Finch, D. M. and
Stangel, P. W. (eds.). Status and management of neotropical migratory birds: September 21–25, 1992, Estes Park,
Colorado. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-229. Fort Collins, Colo.: Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station,
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service. Pp. 12–16
Gadow, K. von and Kleinn, C. 2005. Forest management: science-based and . In Peterson, C.E. and Maguire,
D.A.(eds.) Balancing ecosystem values: innovative experiments for sustainable forestry PNW-GTR-635: 15–24
Innes, J. L. 2005. Long-Term forest experiments: the need to convert data into knowledge in Peterson, C.E. and
Maguire, D.A. (eds.) Balancing ecosystem values: innovative experiments for sustainable forestry PNWGTR-635: 25–31
Núñez, M.R. 2006. Estudio de la recuperación post-fuego en comunidades de pinar del norte de Castilla y León
Tesis Doctoral. ETS de Ingenierías Agrarias de Palencia, Universidad de Valladolid
Nyberg, J.B. 1998. Statistics and the practice of adaptive management in Sit, V. and Taylor, B. (eds.) Statistical
methods for adaptive management studies Res. Br., B.C. Min. For., Res. Br., Land Manage. Handb. nº 42: 1–7
Smith, G. J. 1998. Retrospective studies in Sit, V, Taylor,B (Eds) Statistical methods for adaptive management
studies Res. Br., B.C. Min. For., Res. Br., Land Manage. Handb. 42: 41–53
Stankey. G.H, Clark, R.N. and Bormann, B.T. 2005 Adaptive management of natural resources: Theory, concepts
and management institutions. Gen. Tech. Rep PNPW-GTR-654 Portland, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Paciic Northwest Research Station. 73 p
Holling, C.S. 1978 Adaptive environmental assessment and management. John Wiley. London. 377 p
Contribution to the Sylvester Mushroom Inventory
and Estimation of the Production on Permanent
Plots in Kroumirie, Tunisia
Youssef Saidi and Foued Hasnaoui
Institut Sylvo, Pastoral de Tabarka, Tunisia
Abstract
The Kroumirie is the most irrigated region in Tunisia and its climatic and edaphic factors are
favourable to mushroom multiplication. Field studies showed a very large potentiality in the
region. Inventory of fungi potential permitted the identiication of the following big families:
Agaricaceae (Agaricus arvensis and Agaricus campester), Cantharellaceae (Cantharellus
cibarius, Craterellus cornucopioides), Boletus or tube mushrooms (Boletus chrysenteron),
Clavariaceae (Ramaria botrytis), Lepiotaceae (Lepiote procera) and Russulaceae (Russula
vesca) and Lactarius delicious.
After this irst survey we identiied the main species of the region and showed the value of
this important potential badly used and unknown by the local population; especially when it
presents an important economic and nutritive value.
Keywords: inventory; sylvester mushroom; Kroumirie, Tunisia
Introduction
Mushrooms are organisms related to plants, but are distinguished, in particular, by their nonphotosynthetic nutrition mode (Lanier 1978). They constitute a distinct numerous and varied
group, living apart from the animal and plant reign.
Mushrooms are aerobic organisms. They are very rich in water. Their development requires
a lot of water and oxygen but also an organic carbon source because they cannot carry out
the photosynthesis.
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
120
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
In nature, they are in presence of polysaccharides that they must first degrade before
absorbing them. They secrete the digestive enzymes that degrade these complex sugars into
simple ones. They need mineral nitrogen to synthesize new nitrogenous molecules such as
amino acids.
Most mushrooms’ reproduction is assured by the billions of spores that they produce.
Among this large number of mushroom species met in the world, about 150 are edible,
but only about twenty species that deserve the honours of the kitchen still remain (Becker
1982). This potential remains unknown in the Kroumirie region. This is the irst study in this
subject. Mushrooms have been collected only in the last few years; it was not known even by
the population. In the present work, we try to inventory the majority of edible species met in
this zone and to estimate their production. With this paper, we hope to explain the importance
of the main species for consumers, especially that they have a very high nutritive value.
1. Material and methods
1.1 Study area
The survey zone is the Kroumirie. It is a region where we can ind natural mushrooms or
Sylvester ones. This region presents large varied forests which are the most watered of
Tunisia.
The Kroumirie is bio-climatically the most privileged region of Tunisia (Emberger 1938,
1942, 1954); its largest part belongs to the humid bioclimatic level.
We note an increasing rainfall gradient from East to West (from Bizerte toward Tabarka)
and from sea level to altitude (from Tabarka toward Aïn Draham), so Tabarka is included in
the lower humid bio-climate while Aïn Draham, Aïn Zena and El Feidja are located in the
humid high one.
Altitude rainfall gradient is in the order of 75.5 mm/100 m (Dimanche and Schoenenberger
1970). According to this fact, valleys appear distinctly drier than reliefs.
Precipitations are more than 600 mm/year everywhere. They are more than 1500 mm in
Aïn Draham (very windy passageway and particularly watered) at 720 m of altitude; they
are on an average of 1000 mm/year in Tabarka on the North coast and only 600 mm/year in
Fernana, about thirty Kilometres to the south of Ain Draham and at only 400 m of altitude.
These variations, in relation with the altitude, allow us to suppose that precipitations can
be higher in greater altitudes and can reach 2000 mm/year in Djebel El Ghorra (1203 m)
(Hasnaoui 1992).
The seasonal rainfall distribution shows that 45% of the rainfall is annually concentrated
on the three winter months, whereas only 3% fall in the summer season (Kassab 1979 and
Henia 1980).
The average temperatures of the coldest month are the following: Tabarka: 11.1°C, Aïn
Draham: 6.6 °C and El Feidja: 6.2°C. The absolute minimum temperatures are - 1°C in
Tabarka, - 5°C in Aïn Draham and - 6.5°C in El Feidja, all are recorded in January). The
average annual temperature decreases with the altitude 17.9°C in Tabarka on the coast,
14.9°C in Aïn Draham at 720 m of altitude and 14.3 in El Feidja at 900 m above sea level
(Hasnaoui 1992).
Relative air humidity is very high during the period from October to February (85% in
January), less so in August (60%), and very often, throughout the year (Ben Tiba 1980).
Contribution to the Sylvester Mushroom Inventory and Estimation of the Production on Permanent Plots...
121
1.2 Methodology
Plots choice was done according to the ecological features (dominant species) and orographic
factors (altitude, slope, and exposition). In these different surroundings, we cleared two strata
according to their altitude:
• The irst one less than 300 meters;
• The second one more than 300 meters.
In every identiied stratum, we cleared under-strata according to dominant species: Pine
(Pinus pinaster or Pinus pinea), cork oak (Quercus suber), zeen oak (Quercus canariensis),
shrubs (range in height from 0.3 to 5 m) and non-cultivated land. We ixed ive permanent
plots of a quarter of hectare in each under-strata and selected lots of 22.7 m equivalent to an
area of 1619 m². The total of plots was ifty (5 plots × 5 under strata {Pine, cork oak, zeen
oak, shrubs and non cultivated land} × 2 strata [The irst one less than 300 meters and the
second one more than 300 meters]).
No special intervention was made been made in any of the plots. We just followed the
natural conditions. We followed a passage every fifteen days from the beginning of
November till the end of February, in view to identify, inventory and estimate the different
edible mushroom species. To collect mushrooms, we used a sharp knife to cut the over part
and leave the roots in place. Collected species of each plot were weighted in the laboratory.
This study took four years.
The production was not regular. Some species did not appear during two years which is
why we did not apply any statistical test. We merely took the mean production range for each
mushroom species.
The morphological description of the different species has been veriied on the BORDAS
guide.
2. Results
2.1 The Agaricaceae
This very particular family includes two important kinds under our moderate climates. Agaric
kinds include very numerous species. At these mushrooms, gills are free and the veil generally
well developed forming a ring.
Agaricus arvensis (Fallows Agaric): It is an edible and delicious species, generally big and
chunky, with white hat strap on yellow, its ring is formed by two distinct layers around the
foot. It grows in grasslands. This species has been harvested under different surroundings
(pines, cork-oak, non cultivated lands).
Agaricus campester: It is a good enough edible species, with pale hat of 4 to 10 cm
diameter, rose blades which become black, fusiform stipe with a leeting veil.
These two species are invariant to altitude (less than 100 m and more than 500 m) and
grow in sloped and lat terrains (10 to 25%). They are generally collected from the end of
November after the irst big rains. They grow spontaneously on non-cultivated lands and
brown forest soils.
122
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
2.2 The Cantharellaceae
These mushrooms form an intermediate group between gill mushrooms, very evolved, and
the most primitive group. These species include a foot and a funnel-shaped hat. The fertile
surface, lower face of the hat, is sometimes smooth but can be creased more or less. Most
species have good edibility but some are not good enough.
Cantharellus cibarius (Chanterelle): Chanterelles are good enough edible species, with a
hat of 3 to 10 cm diameter, thick and leshy, lat or a little depressed in cuttings, matt and dry,
their gills are not the thin strait slices that we are used to seeing under the hat of mushrooms.
They grow on clayey soil, under cork-oak trees and dense shrubs whose plant litter is well
decomposed.
Craterellus cornucopioides (Death Trumpet – Abundance Horn): This is a species with
a good enough edibility, having a blackish grey colour. It has a trumpet shape. It can have
10 cm height and 7 cm diameter. Its lesh is very thin and brittle. It grows on clayey and
calcareous clay soils under cork-oak close to streams.
These two species have a preference to heights (more than 400 m). They are invariant to
slopes and grow naturally on fresh expositions (North).
They are often harvested from November after autumn irst rains.
2.3 The Boletus
Boletuses exist all over the world, under moderate and tropical climates. Of the entire hat
mushrooms set they are, probably, the more curiously colourful, the most voluminous
and most delicious to consume. In some species the hat reaches a diameter of 60 cm on
a very massive foot, while other species hardly measure few centimetres. Nearly all are
characterized by a tender and leshy structure. These tubes are closely tightened against each
other under the hat and their opening is known as a pore, the only visible part of the tube if
it does not break or cut the hat. Flesh colour variations are extremely common in this family
and are often very useful to identify species. Nearly all boletus are considered edible; rare are
those that are a little bitter. One of their species is the Cep (Boletus edulis), one of the most
famous among the edible mushrooms all over the world.
Boletus chrysenteron (Yellow Flesh Boletus): It is a medium edible species, but little tasty,
with a hat of 4 to 12 cm diameter. It grows on evolved fairly deep to heavy texture soil, under
cork-oak and scrub.
Suillus granulatus (Granulated Boletus) – pines yellow Cep: It is a good enough edible
species, its hat is 6 to 12 cm of diameter. It grows on brown forest soil with heavy texture in
presence of hydromorphy, under cork-oak in abundance of a little evolved scrub.
Boletus edulis (Bordeaux Cep - Edible Cep - Edible Boletus -Thick Foot)
It is a good enough edible species, its hat is 2 to 20 cm of diameter. It grows on brown
forest soil with heavy texture in presence of hydromorphy, under cork-oak and well
developed scrub whose plant litter basis is little decomposed humus.
These three species of Boletus have a preference for altitude zones, with light slopes (less
than10%), with South exposition. They are harvested from November onwards.
2.4 The Clavariaceae
These species are mainly basidiomycetes, typically leshy or in more or less small shrub
branched, sometimes with a thick leshy base. Nearly all their surface is fertile, sometimes
Contribution to the Sylvester Mushroom Inventory and Estimation of the Production on Permanent Plots...
123
a sterile base more or less developed. However, some ascomycetes with very similar shape
were also placed in this morphological group.
Ramaria botrytis (Ramaire Caulilower): It is an edible species, very branched, with very
thick base, whitish cream to pale beige, pink extremities, thick lesh, massive foot branching
out in shape of corolla head, 5 to 20 cm in diameter. It grows under broadleaved trees and
sometimes coniferous species. This species is harvested from December, on high altitude
places and even on strong slope sites.
2.5 Lepiotaceae
The parasol mushroom kind in the strictly articulated sense have several groups, according to
the spore shape and microchemist behaviour.
This family's characters are: appendicularians margin, no streaks, free blades, ine bone
and white lesh.
Lepiote procera (Elevated Parasol Mushroom): It is a good enough edible species, with a
hat of 10 to 30 cm of diameter, irst spherical then ovoid, tight white blades, very big foot
reaching 30 cm, with a very fragile necklace.
It grows on clayey soil little evolved with light texture, under cork-oak and zeen oak.
Macrolepita rhacodes: It is a species with a medium edibility having a conical hat of 15 to
18 cm in diameter. Free white and tight pot-bellied blades, the foot with a necklace.
It grows on brown forest soil rich in humus and under pines.
These two species are invariant to altitude, slope and have preferences to fresh expositions
(North) and in the old charcoal locations. We harvested them from November.
2.6 The Rusullaceae
Rusullaceae are remarkably homogeneous, having a lesh with a brittle granular texture.
Lacteal and rusulla are very easy kinds to recognize (in the ield, stipe breaks like a piece of
chalk, without making ilaments or ibres). The lacteal have long blades which are not ixed
on the habitual common point and a depressed hat. Rusulla are chunkier, with a little dogged
hat. Rusulla and Lacteal form mycorhizes with various trees.
Their constant characters are: convex hat either spread out then depressed (especially for
lacteal). Their lesh is granular, heterogeneous, made by a mixture of round and long cells
usually containing latex. After breakage these species exude colourful milk.
Russula vesca (Edible Rusulla): It is a good edible species. The upper hat is 8 cm in
diameter, with white colour gill and foot. It grows on clayey to hydromorphic soil, under
cork and zeen oak.
Lactarius delicious (Lacteal Delicious): It is a species with a medium edibility, its hat is 8 to
15 cm in diameter, with orange colour, orange gill, white foot speckled with orange colour.
It grows on non-evolved to heavy soil texture with light hydromorphy and under pines.
These two species are invariant to altitude, but are very frequent between 400 and 700 m,
in north exposition. We inventoried these species from the end of November.
2.7 The Production Estimation
The inventory of sylvester mushrooms in the Kroumirie zone showed a very varied potential.
The evaluation of the production for the majority of species gave the following results:
124
•
•
•
•
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Chanterelle: 0.5 to 1 kg/ha ;
Lacteal delicious : 8 to 15 kg/ha;
Pin cep: 1 to 1.5 kg/ha;
Fallows agaric : 0.5 to 1 kg/ha.
The assessment of the production is very variable and bound to the climatic conditions; that
is why luctuations are often very important.
3. Discussion
The distribution of sylvester mushrooms is signiicantly related to the climatic, orographic
and edaphic conditions. Species appear spontaneously when the humidity is near 100%,
the lower temperature 25 °C, and the soil slightly acidic. These results are conirmed by
Kranabetter (2002): Soils were well to very rapidly drained and generally coarse in texture,
often with a high coarse fragment content and thin forest loor.
The majority of mushrooms are in the medium altitudes between 400 and 700 m and in
fresh exposition (North).
Usually, Lactarius delicious are collected earlier than the others. Their starting time
depends on the quantity of rain. It happens that we do not get heavy rains till the beginning
of December and in some years some species do not appear at all.
These conditions determine fruiting period of different species and explain their time of
appearance from a region to another.
Numerous factors influence fruiting of mushrooms such as rainfall and temperature
(Hosford and Ohara 1995), and other biotic and abiotic factors (Ohara 1994). Mushroom
species differ essentially by vegetation (broadleaf trees and resinous ones). Some are
invariant to vegetation types (mixed forests and uncultivated areas).
Typically types of mushrooms are associated with speciic trees and substrates (Amaranthus
et al. 2000). The association between mushrooms and their mycorrhizal host frequently varies
by geographic location. Fruiting is non-uniform. The spatial and temporal variability in
fruiting and insuficient ecological knowledge of the mycorrhizal mycelium has challenged
research and monitoring efforts.
4. Conclusions
The region of Kroumirie is a very suitable area for sylvester mushrooms according to
loristic, edaphic and climatic diversity.
The Tunisian consumer is not informed on this subject, as most of the edible species are
not known. This potential remains poorly exploited.
Most mushrooms are constituted more or less of edible or poisonous species. Indeed, many
mushrooms well-known to be edible species can provoke various concerns for some people.
Mushrooms are not only made to be eaten. Their roles in nature are varied and extremely
important. They are fundamental agents of the biological balances. They are also scavengers,
regulating populations and auxiliary of plants.
Contribution to the Sylvester Mushroom Inventory and Estimation of the Production on Permanent Plots...
125
References
Amaranthus, M.P., Pilz, D., Moore, A., Abbott, R. and Luoma, D.L. 2000. American matsutake (Tricholoma
magnivelare) across spatial and temporal scales. In: Powers, R.F., Hauxwell, D.L., Nakamura, G.M. (Tech.
Coords.). Proceedings of the California Forest Soils Council Conference on Forest Soils Biology and Forest
Management, February 23–24, 1996, Sacramento, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-178. USDA Forest Service,
Pac. Southwest Res. Stn., Albany, CA. Pp. 99–108.
Becker, G. 1982. Guide des champignons. Première édition; Sélection du Reader’s Digest. Paris. 319 p.
Ben Tiba, B. 1980. Contribution pollen analytique à l’histoire Holocène de la végétation de Kroumirie (Tunisie
Septentrionale). Thèse Docteur Ingénieur. Uni Aix–Marseille III. 76 p.
Bortoli, L., Gounot, M. and Jacquiot. J. CL. 1969. Climatologie et bioclimatologie de la Tunisie septentrionale.
Annales de l’I.N.R.A. Tunisie. Vol 42. Fasc1. Pp : 9–104.
Dimanche, P. and Schoenenberger. A. 1970. Description des milieux des Mogods et de Kroumirie. I.N.R.F. Tunisie.
Var. Sci. Tunisie 4. 24 p.
Emberger, L. 1938. Aperçu général sur la végétation du Maroc. E. Hans Huber. Berne.
Emberger, L. 1942. Un projet de classiication des éléments du point de vue phytogéographique. Bull. soc. List.
Nat. Toulouse- France. Tomme 77. Pp: 97–124.
Emberger, L. 1954. Projet d’une classiication biogéographique des climats. Les divisions écologiques du monde.
C. N. R. S. Paris.
Hasnaoui, B. 1992. Chênaies du Nord de la Tunisie, Ecologie et Régénération. Doctorat d’état es-Sciences
Naturelles, Univ de Provence Aix Marseille I. 186 p.
Henia, L. 1980. Les précipitations pluvieuses dans la Tunisie tellienne ; Publication. Univ. Tunis; Vol. XIV.
Imprimerie oficielle de la république tunisienne.
Hosford D. and Ohara, H. 1995. Ecological study of Tricholoma magnivelare shiros in central Washington.
In: Schnepf, C. (ed.). Dancing With the Elephant. Proceedings: The Business and Science of Special
Forest Products—A Conference and Exposition January 26–27 1994, Hillsboro, OR. Western Forestry and
Conservation Association, Portland, OR. Pp. 111–116.
Kassab, H. 1979. Les très fortes pluies en Tunisie. Publication de l’université de Tunis. Vol. XI. 13 p.
Kranabetter, J. M., Trowbridge, R., Macadam, A., McLennan, D. and Friesen, J. 2002. Ecological descriptions of
pine mushroom (Tricholoma magnivelare) habitat and estimates of its extent in northwestern British Columbia.
Forest Ecology and Management Volume 158 (1–3): 249–261.
Lanier, L. 1978. Mycologie et pathologie forestière, Tome I: Mycologie forestière. Paris. 487 p.
Luoma, D. L., Eberhart, J. L., Abbott, R., Moore, A., Amaranthus M. P. and Pilz, D. 2006. Effects of mushroom
harvest technique on subsequent American matsutake production. Forest ecology and management. Pp. 65–75.
Ohara, H. 1994. A history of the trial and error in artiicial production of matsutake fruitings. Annual Report of
Studies. Doshisha Joshi Daigaku 27: 20–30.
The Role of Medicinal Plants in Oak Forests in
Idleb, North-West Syria, in Improving Incomes
of the Rural Poor
Amin Khatib Salkini and Eddy De Pauw
International center for agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria
Abstract
The biodiversity in the oak forest in Idleb Province, North-west Syria were exposed many
years ago to degradation caused by over grazing, cutting wood, rock and stone removal,
cultivation, quarrying and terracing for planting fruit trees and ield crops.
All plants are important and essential to life, and the rural poor depend on plants for their
survival, food, medicines, clothing, shelter and fuel.
So actions that are necessary include limited human impact on the biosphere, maintaining
biological wealth, promoting technologies, developing a clear policy for protection,
production, transportation and marketing of medicinal plant raw materials that are sensitive
to the needs of the rural poor who depend on natural resources for income and establishing
extension programs on the conservation and importance of medicinal plants that increase
beneits to help the rural poor.
Keywords: degradation of biodiversity; medicinal plants; improving incomes of the rural poor.
Introduction
The biodiversity in Al-Zawia and Al-Wastani Mountains in Idleb Province were exposed to
degradation year after a year and the vegetation cover decreased the cultivation was applied
even between two rocks and planting spaces less than 5 m2.
So the Government of Syria, through the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform
(MAAR), requested IFAD to inance an agriculture development project, and the project
needs to undertake, among others, eco-geographical and botanical survey in order to ensure
that areas with valuable plant biodiversity are developed.
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
128
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 1. Latitude, longitude and altitude of Al-Zawia sites.
Latitude
Longitude
Altitude
Kafar
Lata
Kafar
Haya
Al-Rame
Dar-Dobat Mohanbel
(Al-Bara)
Kokfeen
Bab-Alah
35.79077
36.61841
801
35.74908
36.59850
781
35.75354
36.53848
671
35.68062
36.52614
732
35.63431
36.41740
662
35.83680
36.52752
471
35.79022
36.48305
526
Table 2. Latitude, longitude and altitude of Al-Wastani sites.
Latitude
Longitude
Altitude
Oreba
Al-Fasook
Maryameen
Al-Daher
36.14626
36.50709
457
36.01392
36.45195
531
35.91133
36.40605
479
35.95978
36.41823
326
Attitudes toward development that are based on conservation are a move to redress the
balance between the plants, which have a right to exist, and the future generations of people
have a right to expect adequate resources and thinking about the economic beneits of people
derive from plants (food, feed, medicine, resins, fuel, oil, industry...etc),
Objectives
• Map the botanical biodiversity (I think that it’s more relevant to say botanical diversity
or plant diversity) within the project area, particularly in relation to the occurrence of
indigenous wild species and land species.
• Assess economic importance of the botanical biodiversity identiied in the project area.
• Conservation of the biodiversity by encouraging farming practices that are compatible
with good management of the natural resources.
• Rural development is a frequently stated purpose of aid programs, the overall goals being
to ameliorate poverty, unemployment, poor health and inequality.
Methodology
• Selection of the Monitoring Area: the selection was conducted during March 2007 by a
team in Al-Zawia and Al-Wastani Mountains and the selection of monitoring areas was
based on the following criteria:
The Role of Medicinal Plants in Oak Forests in Idleb, North-West Syria, in Improving Incomes...
129
Figure 1. Map of the project area of Idleb shows the monitoring areas in Al-Zawia and Al-Wastani
Mountain.
1. Covered different land use.
2. Covered different parent rocks: (e.g. Basalt, light limestone, dark limestone).
3. Covered a protected area and a degraded area.
4. Covered a different plant community.
5. Covered a wild herbaceous area and a forest area.
6. Covered a natural area and a cultivated area.
• Duration of Botanical Survey: From mid April up to mid-June 2007
• Levels of Survey: the surveys were at three levels:
1. The project area levels: 2 levels: Al-Zawia and Al-Wastani Mountains
2. The monitoring area levels: 7 monitoring areas were selected in Al-Zawia and 4
monitoring areas in Al-Wastani. Tables 1 and 2 show the sites names and coordinates,
Figure 1 shows the monitoring areas in Al-Zawia and Al-Wastani Mountains:
3. The transect area levels: 3 levels of transect for each monitoring area for both
herbaceous and tree plots.The length of each transect was (50–250m).
4. The plot area levels: 5 plots were selected in each transect of each monitoring area for
both herbaceous and tree area The distance between plotswas (15–30m), plot size in the
herbaceous study was 1 m2, while the plot size in the tree study was 100 m2.
130
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Measurements
• Coordinates: Latitude, longitude and altitude were recorded in the middle of each
monitoring level and each starting and ending point of the transect level and each plot
level.
• Photography: Photos were shot in each monitoring level and each transects level and each
plot level.
• Terrain: Slope%, slope aspect and slope length were measured in each transect and slop
aspect in each plot.
• Soil: in each plot the following characters were measured:
– Depth (cm),
– Color (reddish, brownish, yellowish, grey or black),
– Texture (Clayey, loamy, sandy or organic), Moisture (dry, moist or wet),
– Aggregates and plough (yes or no).
– Free lime: by Adding to the soil few drops of HCl to know if the soil was strongly
calcareous, calcareous, slightly calcareous or non calcareous.
• Rocks: in each plot the following characters were measured:
– Abundance%
– Type: Basalt, light limestone, or dark limestone.
– Weathered (fresh, weathered or rotten).
• Stones: in each plot the following characters were measured:
– Abundance%
– Type: Basalt, light limestone, or dark limestone.
– Size class: the range from (0.2 cm-more than 60 cm).
• Species Survey: both in herbaceous plot and trees plot Date of survey, surveyors, and plot
size were recorded.
– In Herbaceous Plots: the following measurements were recorded:
· List of Species: including botanical name, author, family, Arabic name, life cycle
(annual, perennial or biennial) and biotype (trees, shrub, herb or climber), the known
species directly recorded in the ield, plant species which could not be identiied in the
ield were given a code, collected and labeled, these specimens were compared with
herbarium material of ICARDA, and by using lora of Syria, Palestine (reference 1, 2,
3, 5, 8,10,11,12 and 13)
· Plant Cover%: for each species
· Density: number of plants for each species/plot
· Growth Stage: leaf stage, lower or fruiting
· Health: healthy or stressed (by disease, insect, parasite, cutting and burn or grazing)
· Dominant and Associated Species: in each plot
· In Tree Plots: in addition to previous data of herbaceous plots, a special data for trees
were also recorded:
· Number of each adult trees
· Height and diameter of each adult trees
· Number of seedlings and juvenile trees
• Degradation Factors: these data were recorded in monitoring level
– General Factors: the scale was 0 (none or very low), 3 (low), 5(medium),7(high),
and including:(overgrazing, urbanization, cropland encroachment, cutting, terracing,
destoning, other land reclamation, quarries or ire.
– Botanical Indicators: recording the list of the indicator species of degradation,
containing thistles, poisonous and unpalatable herb and shrubs for sheep and goats and
poisonous bulbous plants.
The Role of Medicinal Plants in Oak Forests in Idleb, North-West Syria, in Improving Incomes...
131
Table 3. Multi-uses of major native species (data obtained from local knowlegement of community).
Species
Medicinal Aromatic
Honey OrnamenProduction
tal
Styrax oficinalis
Snow drop bush
√
√
√
√
Laurus nobilis
Laurel
√
√
√
√
Crataegus azarolus
Hawthorn
√
Pistacia palaestina
Terebinth
√
Rhus coriaria
Sumac
√
Quercus calliprinos
Palestine oak
√
Amygdalus orientalis
Wild almond
√
Capparis spinosa
Capers
√
√
√
√
Wood
Forage
Industrial
Purposes
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Foods
√
√
Results
Based on the botanical survey conducted by ICARDA in the oak forest in the Idleb area
from March-June 2007, about 58 families, 220 genus and 338 species-with 75 medicinal, the
medicinal plants deined by local knowlege of the community plants species were recorded.
The study involved herbaceous plants and trees.
The medicinal plant species consist of 12 tree species, 20 shrub and 43 herb species.
Some examples of the role of medicinal plants in improving the incomes of rural poor,
which the rural community informed us of:
• Collecting the fruit of laurel by rural poor to extract the oil and selingl it to the factory of
natural laurel health soap.
• Collecting the fruit of sumac and selling it to the local market to be used as medicine, food
and dye.
• Collecting the lower buds and roots of capers to be sold as medicine and food to other
countries (Turkey).
• Collecting lowers, leaves or fruits of many medicinal plants for household consumption
and to be sold to pharmaceutical companies that depend on medicinal plants.
Threats Facing Medicinal Plants in Oak Forests
Medicinal plants are threatened by the following factors of degradation:
• Cultivation methods enhance wind erosion
• Excessive removal of woody plants for fuel.
• Some trees are cut and burned annually to be used as a source of energy for cooking.
132
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 4. The most important medicinal plant species collected from Oak forests by the rural poor, and
sold in local markets (data obtained from the local market in Syria).
Species
Matricaria chamomilla, Camomile
Thymus syriacus, Thyme
Micromeria myrtifolia,
Myrtle-leaved Savory
Crataegus azarolus,
Azarole Hawthorn
Rhus coriaria, Leafed Sumac
Capparis spinosa, Capers
Pistacia palaestina, Terebinth
Quercus calliprinos, Holm Oak
Laurus nobilis, Greek Laurel
Price
(USS/kg)
Part used
Uses
10
6
5
Whole plant
Leaves
Leaves & lowers
Upset stomach, bronchitis
Cough, ulcer
Asthma
3.5
Flowers
Strengthens the heart
3
3
1.5
1
1
Fruits
Flower buds, roots
Fruits
Bark & fruits
Leaves
Relief from fever
Diarrhea, ulcer
Sedative the pains
Eczema, antacid
Vomiting, eczema
• Overgrazing by sheep and goats and poor range management.
• The use of nature often takes place against backdrop of uncontrolled exploitation or
consumption.
• Rock removal, cultivation and planting of fruit trees or annual crops.
• Quarrying for limestone and other rocks for building purposes.
• Terracing of the land for planting agricultural crops.
• Some tree groups and herbaceous plants have suffered from human impact.
Reasons for Conserving Plant Diversity: (reference 7)
• All plants are important and essential to life, and the rural poor depend on plants for their
survival, food, medicines, clothing, shelter and fuel.
• Necessary actions include limited human impact on the biosphere, maintaining biological
wealth, promoting technologies that increase beneits to help the rural poor.
Recommendations for Conservation of Medicinal Plants and How to Help the Rural Poor:
(reference: 4 and 6)
• Compilation of a list of species that may be under threat.
• Rural development is a frequently stated purpose of aid programs, the overall goal to
alleviate poverty, unemployment and poor health.
• A further component of rural development is maintenance and rehabilitation ecosystems
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the botanical survey ield team: Mr. Abdul Karem Hamade and Ms.
Enas Jumbaz, and also we thank Ms. Reem Shabe Kalyeh for entering data base for botanical
survey and Ms. Rima El-Khatib for formatting the report.
The Role of Medicinal Plants in Oak Forests in Idleb, North-West Syria, in Improving Incomes...
133
References
Al-Eisawi, D. M. H. 1998, Wild Flowers of Jordan and Neighboring Countries, Press in Jordan, Foundation (Al Rai).
Al-Oudat, M., Khatib Salkini, A. and Tiedemann, J. 2005. Major Plant Species in Khanasser and Shbeath
Mountains. ICARDA & AECS.
Brummitt, R. K. Vascular Plant Families and Genera, Royal Botanic Garden’s, Kew, London.
McKell, C. M., Blaisdell, J.P. and Goodin, J. 1971. Wildland Shrubs-Their Biology and Utilization, An
International Symposium Utah State University, Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report
INT-I August 1972.
Akram, D. I., Nabeg, A. G. and Sami, M. 2000. A glance about some native and exotic forest trees in Syria,
Afforestation committee, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Environment, Aleppo University, Press the SyrianLibanon Company.
Thalen, D. C. P. 1979. Ecology and Utilization of Desert Shrub Rangeland in Iraq, Dr. W. Junk B. V. Publishers.
Given, D. R. 1994. Principles and Practice of Plant Conservation, Lincoln University, New Zealand, Press
Chapman & Hall, London.
GRIN: Germplasm Resources Information Network.
Wiersema, H. and Leon, B. 1999. World Economic Plants, a Standard Reference, Press CRC, Boca Rateon,
London, New York, Washington, D.C.
IPNI: International Plant Name Index
Mouterde, P., 1966. Nouvelle Flora du Liban et de la Syria.
Sankary, M. N. 1981–1982. Ecology, Flora and Range Management of Arid and very J. arid Zones of Syria,
Conservation and Development, University of Aleppo, Faculty of Agriculture.
Zohary, M. D. 1978. Flora Palestine, text and plates of (1, 2, 3, 4) volumes.
134
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Appendix 1. List of species in herbaceous plots and tree plots in both areas
(Al-Zaweyeh &Al-Wastani Mountains).
1R 6SHFLHV
$XWKRU
)DPLO\
$GRQLVDHVWLYDOLV
/
5DQXQFXODFHDH
ϥϮϨΣΩ $
$GRQLVDQQXD
/
5DQXQFXODFHDH
ϥϮϨΣΪϟ $
+
$HJLORSVJHQLFXODWD
5RWK
*UDPLQHDH
ΰϋΎϤϟΔθϴθΣ $
+
$HJLORSVRYDWD
/
*UDPLQHDH
ΰϋΎϤϟΔθϴθΣ $
+
$HJLORSVWULXQFLDOLV
/
*UDPLQHDH
ΰϋΎϤϟΔθϴθΣ $
+
$LQVZRUWKLDWUDFK\FDUSD
%RLVV
8PEHOOLIHUDH
$
+
$MXJDFKLD
6FKUHE
/DELDWDH
ϡΪϟΔΒθϋ 3
+
$MXJDRULHQWDOLV
/
/DELDWDH
ϡΪϟΔΒθϋ 3
$OKDJLPDXURUXP
0HGLN
/HJXPLQRVDH
$OOLXPVFRURGRSUDVXP
/
$OOLDFHDH
ϥΎϤΘϴϋίϱήΑϞμΑ 3
$OOLXPVWDPLQHXP
%RLVV
$OOLDFHDH
ϱήΑϞμΑ 3
+
$ORSHFXUXVXWULFXODWXV
%DQNV 6RO
*UDPLQHDH
ΐϠόΜϟΐϧΫ $
+
$O\VVXPGDPDVFHQXP
%RLVVHW*DLOO
$O\VVXPPLQXV
$P\JGDOXVRULHQWDOLV
'XK
5RVDFHDH
$QDJDOOLVDUYHQVLV
/
3ULPXODFHDH
$QDJ\ULVIRHWLGD
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ήϳΰϨΨϟΏϭήΧ 3
$QFKXVDVWULJRVD
%DQNV 6RO
%RUDJLQDFHDH
έϮΜϟϥΎδϟ 3
$QGUDFKQHWHOHSKLRLGHV
/
(XSKRUELDFHDH
ΩϭΪϟέάΑ 3
+
$QHPRQHFRURQDULD
/
5DQXQFXODFHDH
ϥϮϤϴϧ 3
+
$QWKHPLVFRUQXFRSLDH
%RLVV
&RPSRVLWDH
ϥΎϴΑέϦΒϠϟΓήϫί $
+
$QWKHPLVFRWXOD
/
&RPSRVLWDH
ϥΎϴΑέϦΒϠϟΓήϫί $
+
$QWKHPLVPDULVPRUWXL
(LJ
&RPSRVLWDH
ϥΎϴΑέϦΒϠϟΓήϫί $
+
$UDELVDXFKHUL
%RLVV
&UXFLIHUDH
ΔϴΑήϋΓήϫί $
+
$UEXWXVDQGUDFKQH
/
(ULFDFHDH
$ULVWRORFKLDPDXURUXP
/
$ULVWRORFKLDFHDH
$UWHGLDVTXDPDWD
/
8PEHOOLIHUDH
$UXPSDODHVWLQXP
%RLVV
$UDFHDH
$VSDUDJXVDFXWLIROLXV
/
$VSDUDJDFHDH
$VSKRGHOLQHOXWHD
$VSKRGHOXVPLFURFDUSXV
6DO]P 9LY
$VSKRGHODFHDH
$VWUDJDOXVDVWHULDV
6WHYHQ
/HJXPLQRVDH
$VWUDJDOXVKDPRVXV
/
$VWUDJDOXVSDODHVWLQXV
(LJ
$WUDFW\OLVFDQFHOODWD
/
$YHQDEDUEDWD
$YHQDVWHULOLV
%DOORWDVD[DWLOLV
6LHEH[&3UHVO /DELDWDH
%HOOHYDOLDIOH[XRVD
%RLVV
+\DFLQWKDFHDH
ϲϟΪΘϣϞϴμΑ 3
+
%HOOHYDOLDVWHSSRUXP
)HLQEU
+\DFLQWKDFHDH
ϞϴμΑ 3
+
%LIRUDWHVWLFXODWD
/ 6SUHQJH[
6FKXOW
8PEHOOLIHUDH
ΓήϴϐλΓήΑΰϛ $
+
/ 5RWKP
$UDELFQDPH
/LIHIRUP %LRW\SH
ϲΑήϐϣϝϮϗΎϋ 3
+
+
66K
+
&UXFLIHUDH
ΔϴϘθϣΩΔϤϬϳέΩ $
+
&UXFLIHUDH
ΓήϴϐλΔϤϬϳέΩ $
+
/ 5HLFKHQE $VSKRGHODFHDH
ϱήΑίϮϟ 3
έΎϔϟϥΫαϭήόϟϡΰΧ $
+6K
+
66K
+
ΐϠτϗ 3
7
ϢϨϐϟέΎϴΧ 3
+
$
+
ϑϮϠϟ 3
+
ϥϮϴϠϬϟ 3
ϱϮλϮΑ 3
66K
+
ϥϼμϴϋ 3
+
ΔΒϟΎμΘϣ˯Ύόϔϗ $
+
/HJXPLQRVDH
Δϴμη˯Ύόϔϗ $
+
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΔϴϨϴτδϠϓ˯Ύόϔϗ $
+
&RPSRVLWDH
ΔϜΑΎΤΘϣΓϮϠΟ $
+
3RWWH[OLQN
*UDPLQHDH
ϱϮΤϟϥΎϓϮη $
+
/
*UDPLQHDH
ϢϴϘϋϥΎϓϮη $
+
ΎΗϮϠΑ 3
66K
The Role of Medicinal Plants in Oak Forests in Idleb, North-West Syria, in Improving Incomes...
1R 6SHFLHV
$XWKRU
)DPLO\
%LVFXWHOODGLG\PD
/
&UXFLIHUDH
%LVHUUXODSHOHFLQXV
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
%LWXPLQDULDELWXPLQRVD
%RODQWKXVILOLFDXOLV
%RQJDUGLDFKU\VRJRQXP
%UDVVLFDQLJUD
%UL]DPD[LPD
/ 6WLUWRQ
$UDELFQDPH
/LIHIRUP %LRW\SH
ϚΒθϣϲϨΤϨϣϝΩήΧ $
+
$
+
/HJXPLQRVDH
3
+
&DU\RSK\OODFHDH
3
+
/ 6S
%HUEHULGDFHDH
3
+
/ .RFK
&UXFLIHUDH
ΩϮγϝΩήΧ $
+
*UDPLQHDH
ΔϔμϗΓΰϳήΑ $
+
%URPXVDORSHFXURVVXEVS *UHXWHU 30 *UDPLQHDH
FDUROLKHQULFL
6PLWK
ΓήόϳϮη $
+
%URPXVGDQWKRQLDH
7ULQ
*UDPLQHDH
ΓήόϳϮη $
+
%URPXVGLDQGUXV
5RWK
*UDPLQHDH
ΓήόϳϮη $
+
%URPXVODQFHRODWXVYDU
ODQDWXV
NHUJXH OHQ
*UDPLQHDH
ΔϗΪΘδϣΓήόϳϮη $
+
%URPXVWHFWRUXP
/
*UDPLQHDH
%U\RQLDFUHWLFD
/
&XFXUELWDFHDH
%XSOHXUXPEUHYLFDXOH
6FKOHFKW
8PEHOOLIHUDH
&DOHQGXODDUYHQVLV
/
&RPSRVLWDH
&DOOLSHOWLVFXFXOODULD
&DO\FRWRPHYLOORVD
&DPSDQXODHULQXV
/
&DPSDQXODVWULJRVD
%DQNV 6RO
&DSSDULVVSLQRVD
/
&DSVHOODEXUVDSDVWRULV
&DUGXQFHOOXVHULRFHSKDOXV %RLVV
&RPSRVLWDH
&DUGXXVS\FQRFHSKDOXV
&RPSRVLWDH
&DUH[VWHQRSK\OOD
:DKOHQE%
&\SHUDFHDH
κϴϤϧ 3
+
&DUWKDPXVSHUVLFXV
:LOOG
&RPSRVLWDH
ϲγέΎϓήϔμϋ $
+
&DWDSRGLXPULJLGXP
/ &(
+XEEDUG
*UDPLQHDH
$
+
&DXFDOLVWHQHOOD
'HO
8PEHOOLIHUDH
$
+
&HQWDXUHDLEHULFD
7UHYH[6SUHQJ &RPSRVLWDH
έήϣ %
+
&HQWDXUHDSDOOHVFHQV
'HO
&RPSRVLWDH
&HUDVXVDYLXP
/0RHQFK
5RVDFHDH
&HUDVXVPDKDOHE
/ 0LOO
5RVDFHDH
&HUDWRFHSKDODIDOFDWD
/ 3HUV
5DQXQFXODFHDH
&KDUGLQLDRULHQWDOLV
/ 2.XQW]H &RPSRVLWDH
&LFKRULXPSXPLOXP
-DFT
&RPSRVLWDH
&LVWXVFUHWLFXV
/
&LVWDFHDH
&OHPDWLVFLUUKRVD
/
5DQXQFXODFHDH
&RQYROYXOXVGRU\FQLXP
/
&RQYROYXODFHDH
&RURQLOODURVWUDWD
%RLVVHW6SUXQ /HJXPLQRVDH
&RURQLOODVFRUSLRLGHV
&UDWDHJXVD]DUROXV
&UHSLVVDQFWD
&UXFLDQHOODFLOLDWD
/DP
&UXFLDQHOODODWLIROLD
/
&UXFLDWDDUWLFXODWD
%RLVV
%DUNRXGDK
/
ΓήόϳϮη $
ΦϴθϟΔόϳήϗ 3
ϥϮϠΣ $
+
&+
+
ϱήΑϥϮΤϗ $
+
$
+
/ 6WHY
5XELDFHDH
3RLU /LQN
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϥΎΑήΠϟ 3
&DPSDQXODFHDH
ΔϴγήΟ $
+
&DPSDQXODFHDH
ΔϴϛϮθϟαήΠϟΓήϫί $
+
/ 0HGLN
-DFT %RLVV
/ .RFK
/
/ %RUQP
/ (KUHQGI
66K
&DSSDUDFHDH
ϠϔθϟέΎΒϘϟ 3
+6K
&UXFLIHUDH
ϲϋήϟβϴϛ $
+
3
+
ΐϠϜϟϥΎδϟ $
+
έήϣέΩέΩ $
+
ίήϛ 3
7
ΐϠΤϤϟ 3
7
ΔϴϠΠϨϣΔϨϴθΧ $
+
ΎϴϨϳΩέΎϛ $
+
ΔϳήΑ˯ΎΑΪϨϫ $
+
ΩΎΒϟΔπϳήϗ 3
ΓΩΪϣ 3
ϲΠδϔϨΑΩΪϣ 3
66K
&6K
+
ΔϳέΎϘϨϣΔϨϳήϗ $
+
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΔϴΑήϘϋΔϨϳήϗ $
+
5RVDFHDH
ϱήΑέϭήϋί 3
7
&RPSRVLWDH
5XELDFHDH
5XELDFHDH
5XELDFHDH
135
ϯϭϼΣ $
+
Δϣϻ $
+
Ϟϳΰϫ $
+
$
+
136
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
1R 6SHFLHV
$XWKRU
)DPLO\
$UDELFQDPH
/LIHIRUP %LRW\SH
&UXSLQDFUXSLQDVWUXP
0RULV 9LV
&RPSRVLWDH
&\QRGRQGDFW\ORQ
/ 3HUV
*UDPLQHDH
&\QRVXUXVHOHJDQV
'HVI
*UDPLQHDH
ΐϠϜϟΐϧΫ $
+
'DFW\OLVJORPHUDWD
/
*UDPLQHDH
ΔϠΘϜΘϣΔϴόΒλ 3
+
'DSKQHROHLIROLD
/DP
7K\PHODHDFHDH
'LDQWKXVVWULFWXV
%DQNV 6RO
&DU\RSK\OODFHDH
(FKLQDULDFDSLWDWD
ϚΎηϦθΧΐθϋ $
+
(FKLQRSVJDLOODUGRWLL
%RLVV
&RPSRVLWDH
ϝΎϤΠϟϙϮη 3
+
(FKLQRSVSRO\FHUDV
%RLVV
&RPSRVLWDH
ϕέίϷϝΎϤΠϟϙϮη 3
+
(PLQLXPVSLFXODWXP
ϲϠΒϴϨγϥϮϨϴϣ 3
+
(SKHGUDSHGXQFXODULV
(URGLXPFLFXWDULXP
(URGLXPJUXLQXP
(URGLXPVXELQWHJULIROLXP
/ 'HVI
/ / +H U
+
ϱήΑϞϔϧήϗ 3
*UDPLQHDH
+6K
+
(SKHGUDFHDH
ϯΪϨϠϋ 3
*HUDQLDFHDH
ϱήΘΨΒϟίϮΠόϟΓήΑ $
+
&6+
+
*HUDQLDFHDH
ΓϮϧήϗ $
(LJ
*HUDQLDFHDH
ΓϮϧήϗ $
+
(U\QJLXPFUHWLFXP
/DP
8PEHOOLIHUDH
ϱϭήΤλΏΪϨηΔϨόλήϗ 3
+
(U\QJLXPJORPHUDWXP
/DP
8PEHOOLIHUDH
ϱϭήΤλΏΪϨηΔϨόλήϗ 3
+
(XSKRUELDDOHSSLFD
/
(XSKRUELDFHDH
ΔϨϴΒϟ $
+
(XSKRUELDGHQVD
6FKUHQN
(XSKRUELDFHDH
ΔϨϴΒϟ $
+
(XSKRUELDH[LJXD
/
(XSKRUELDFHDH
ΔϨϴΒϟ $
+
(XSKRUELDKHOLRVFRSLD
/
(XSKRUELDFHDH
ΔϨϴΒϟ $
+
(XSKRUELDUHXWHULDQD
%RLVV
(XSKRUELDFHDH
ΔϨϴΒϟ $
+
&UXFLIHUDH
ΔϴϤϫέΩ 3
+
0RUDFHDH
ϱήΑϦϴΗ 3
7
ΔϨϴτϗ $
+
ΔϴϣήϫΔϨϴτϗ $
+
βϴΘϟΔϴΤϟ 3
+
)LELJLDFO\SHDWD
)LFXVFDULFD
)LODJRFRQWUDFWD
)LODJRS\UDPLGDWD
*DJHDFKORUDQWKD
/ / +H U
+
ϲόΒλϷϞϴΠϨϟ 3
ΔϴϧϮΘϳίΔϨϓΩΓΰϨόϟΔγϮϔδϓ 3
%OXPH 6FKRWW $UDFHDH
%RLVV
ΎϨϴΑϭήϛ $
/ 0HGLN
/
%RLVV &KUWHK &RPSRVLWDH
+ROXE
/
&RPSRVLWDH
%LHE 6FKXOW /LOLDFHDH
6FKXOWILO
*DOLXPDSDULQH
/
5XELDFHDH
ΔϘϴΑΩ $
+
*DOLXPKLHURFKXQWLQXP
%RUQP
5XELDFHDH
ΔϘϴΑΩ $
+
*DOLXPVHWDFHXP
/DP
5XELDFHDH
ΔϳίήΨϣΔϘϴΑΩ $
+
*HUDQLXPFROXPELQXP
/
*HUDQLDFHDH
ϕϮϧήϏ $
+
*HUDQLXPWXEHURVXP
/
*HUDQLDFHDH
ϕϮϧήϏ 3
+
+
*HURSRJRQK\EULGXV
&RPSRVLWDH
αήϔϟϞϳΫ 3
*ODGLROXVDOHSSLFXV
%RLVV
,ULGDFHDH
ΔϴΒϠΣΔϴϔϴγ 3
+
*XQGHOLDWRXUQHIRUWLL
/
&RPSRVLWDH
ϦϴΒϠγ 3
+
*\QDQGULULVVLV\ULQFKLXP
+HG\SQRLVUKDJDGLRORLGHV
/ 6FK%LS
/ 3DUO
/
):6FKPLGW
HPHQGVSUHQJ
,ULGDFHDH
&RPSRVLWDH
+HOLDQWKHPXPVDOLFLIROLXP / 0LOO
&LVWDFHDH
+HUQLDULDKLVXWD
/
,OOHFHEUDFHDH
+LSSRFUHSLVXQLVLOLTXRVD
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
+LUVFKIHOGLDLQFDQD
/ /DJUH]H
)RVVDW
&UXFLIHUDH
ΔϳΩΎΒϟϦγϮγ 3
+
$
+
Γ΄ϤϜϟΓΩήΟ $
+
ΓΪϴΒϟϡ $
+
ΕΎϳϭΪΣ $
+
ΎϳΪϠϴϔηήϫ $
+
+RUGHXPEXOERVXP
/
*UDPLQHDH
ϲϠϴμΑήϴόη 3
+
+RUGHXPJODXFXP
6WHXG
*UDPLQHDH
ϱήΑήϴόη $
+
+RUGHXPPXULQXP
/
*UDPLQHDH
ΏήϳϮηϮΑ $
+
The Role of Medicinal Plants in Oak Forests in Idleb, North-West Syria, in Improving Incomes...
1R 6SHFLHV
$XWKRU
)DPLO\
+RUGHXPVSRQWDQHXP
&.RFK
*UDPLQHDH
ϱϮϔϋ ϱήΑήϴόη $
+
+RUGHXPYXOJDUH
/
*UDPLQHDH
ωϭέΰϣήϴόη $
+
+\PHQRFDUSRVFLUFLQDWXV
+\SHFRXPSURFXPEHQV
/ 6DYL
/
$UDELFQDPH
/LIHIRUP %LRW\SH
/HJXPLQRVDH
έϭΪϣϞϔϧ $
+
3DSDYHUDFHDH
ΓέΎΑήΑ $
+
+\SHULFXPWULTXHWULIROLXP 7XUUD
*XWWLIHUDH
ϕέϭϻϲΛϼΛϢϜϳήϴΒϴϫ 3
+
,EHULVRGRUDWD
&UXFLIHUDH
ΔϣΎϤΤϟΔϣΎπϗ $
+
,QXODYLVFRVD
/
&RPSRVLWDH
ϥϮϴσ 3
66K
,ULVKLVWULR
5HLFKHQEILO
,ULGDFHDH
ϦγϮγ 3
+
-XQLSHUXVR[\FHGUXV
/
&XSUHVVDFHDH
ϲϨϴΑήηήϋήϋϦϴΑήη 3
7
.RHOHULDSKOHRLGHV
/ $LW
9LOO 3HUV
*UDPLQHDH
ωϮΒϨϗ $
+
&RPSRVLWDH
βϴδΧ 3
+
βϴδΧ %
+
/DFWXFDVHUULROD
/
/DFWXFDWXEHURVD
-DFT
&RPSRVLWDH
/DJRHFLDFXPLQRLGHV
/
8PEHOOLIHUDH
ΐϫάϟΔθϴθΣ $
+
/DWK\UXVDSKDFD
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϥΎΒϠΟ $
+
/DWK\UXVEOHSKDULFDUSXV
%RLVV
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΔϨϴΒϴϠΟ $
+
/DWK\UXVFLFHUD
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϥΎΒϠΟ $
+
0%LHE )RLUL /HJXPLQRVDH
ϥΎΒϠΟ $
+
/DWK\UXVGLJLWDWXV
/DWK\UXVKLHURVRO\PLWDQXV %RLVV
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϥΎΒϠΟ $
+
/DWK\UXVPDUPRUDWXV
%RLVV
%ODQFKH
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϥΎΒϠΟ $
+
/DXUXVQRELOLV
/
/DXUDFHDH
/HQVHUYRLGHV
%ULJQROL
*UDQGH
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϱήΑαΪϋ $
+
/HQVRULHQWDOLV
%RLVV
6FKPDOK
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϱήΑαΪϋ $
+
/HRSROGLDFRPRVD
έΎϐϟ 3
77
+\DFLQWKDFHDH
ϊΎηϕέίϞϴμΑ 3
+
/HRSROGLDHEXUQHD
(LJ )HLQEU
+\DFLQWKDFHDH
ϕέίϞϴμΑ 3
+
/HSLGLXPVSLQHVFHQV
'&
&UXFLIHUDH
/LQDULDMRSSHQVLV
%RUQP
6FURSKXODULDFHDH
/LQXPSXEHVFHQV
%DQNVHW6RO
/LQDFHDH
ΐϏΰϣϥΎΘϛ $
+
/LQXPVWULFWXP
/
/LQDFHDH
ϱήΑϥΎΘϛ $
+
/REXODULDOLE\FD
9LY &): &UXFLIHUDH
0HLVVQ
$
+
/ROLXPULJLGXP
*DXGLQ
*UDPLQHDH
ϢϠϴθϟΔθϴθΣ $
+
/RQLFHUDRULHQWDOLV
/DP
&DSULIROLDFHDH
/RWXVKDORSKLOXV
%RLVV 6SUXQ /HJXPLQRVDH
/\FLXPGHSUHVVXP
6WRFNV
6RODQDFHDH
0HGLFDJRDFXOHDWDYDU
DFXOHDWD
*DHUWQ
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲϛϮηϞϔϧ $
+
0HGLFDJREODQFKHDQDYDU %RLVV
EODQFKHDQD
/HJXPLQRVDH
ξϴΑϞϔϧ $
+
0HGLFDJREODQFKHDQDYDU $UF $UF
ERQDURWLDQD
/HJXPLQRVDH
ξϴΑϞϔϧ $
+
0HGLFDJRFRQVWULFWD
/ 3DUO
'XU
ϱήΑΩΎηέ $
+
ΓϭϼΣ $
+
ϲϗήηϲϠΗήϋ ΔϠδόϟ 3
έϮϔμόϟϞΟέ $
ΞγϮόϟ 3
&6K
+
+6K
/HJXPLQRVDH
ιήΘϣϞϔϧ $
+
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲΟΎΗϞϔϧ $
+
/ 0LOOHU
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϕέϭϻκμϔϣϞϔϧ $
+
/ %DUW
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϥϭήϘϟήϴϐμϟϞϔϧ $
+
/ %DUW
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϱέΰϟϞϔϨϟ $
+
0HGLFDJRFRURQDWD
/ %DUW
0HGLFDJRODFLQLDWD
0HGLFDJRPLQLPDYDU
PLQLPD
0HGLFDJRRUELFXODULVI
137
138
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
1R 6SHFLHV
$XWKRU
)DPLO\
$UDELFQDPH
/LIHIRUP %LRW\SH
PDUJLQDWD
0HGLFDJRSRO\PRUSKDYDU /
SRO\PRUSKD
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϝΎϜηϻΩΪόΘϣϞϔϧ $
+
0HGLFDJRSRO\PRUSKDYDU %HQWK
YXOJDULV
6KLQQHUV
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϝΎϜηϻΩΪόΘϣϞϔϧ $
+
0HGLFDJRUDGLDWD
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲϋΎόηϞϔϧ $
+
0HGLFDJRULJLGXODYDU
DJUHVWLV
%XUQDW
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲγΎϗϞϔϧ $
+
0HGLFDJRULJLGXODYDU
FLQHUDVFHQV
-RUG 5RX\
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲγΎϗϞϔϧ $
+
0HGLFDJRULJLGXODYDU
ULJLGXOD
/ $OO
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲγΎϗϞϔϧ $
+
0HGLFDJRULJLGXODYDU
VXEPLWLV
%RLVV +H\Q
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲγΎϗϞϔϧ $
+
0HGLFDJRWXUELQDWDYDU
WXUELQDWD
/ $OO
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϥϭήϘϟϲϨϴΑέϮΗϞϔϧ $
+
3
+
ΔδΧΏϮϠΒϠΣ $
+
0HOLFDFXSDQL
*XVV
*UDPLQHDH
0HUFXULDOLVDQQXD
/
(XSKRUELDFHDH
0LFURPHULDP\UWLIROLD
%RLVV +RKHQ /DELDWDH
0LQXDUWLDGHFLSLHQV
)HQ]O %RUQP &DU\RSK\OODFHDH
0XVFDULUDFHPRVXP
/ 0LOO
+\DFLQWKDFHDH
1DUGXUXVPDULWLPXV
/
*UDPLQHDH
1LJHOODXQJXLFXODULV
3RLU 6SHQQ
5DQXQFXODFHDH
1RDHDPXFURQDWD
)RUVVN $VFK &KHQRSRGLDFHDH
6FKZHLQI
1RWREDVLVV\ULDFD
2OHDHXURSHDH
/ &DVV
/
2OHDHXURSHDHYDUROHDVWHU +RIIPJJ
/LQN '&
Ύϓϭί ϱήΑϱΎη 3
66K
ϱήϫίΔΒϳήΣϮΑ $
+
˯ΎϗέίαήΟΐϠϜϟΔϠΤϛ 3
+
$
+
˯ΩϮγΔΒΣ $
ήμϟ 3
+
66K
&RPSRVLWDH
ήϴΒϜϟζϴϓήΨϟ $
+
2OHDFHDH
ωϭέΰϣϥϮΘϳί 3
7
2OHDFHDH
ϱήΑϥϮΘϳί 3
+6K
2QREU\FKLVDHTXLGHQWDWD
6P 8UY
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϦϨδΘϟϱϭΎδΘϣΐτϗ $
2QREU\FKLVFDSXWJDOOL
/ /DP
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϚϳΪϟαέΐτϗ $
+
2QREU\FKLVFULVWDJDOOL
/ /DP
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϚϳΪϟϑήϋΐτϗ $
+
+
2QRQLVDQWLTXRUXP
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϕήΒθϟ 3
2QRQLVQDWUL[
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΔΤϴθϧήϔλϕήΒη 3
2QRQLVUHFOLQDWD
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϕήΒη $
2QRQLVVLFXOD
*XVV
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲϠδϴδϟϦϴΘϠϟ $
+
2QRQLVYLVFRVD
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϕήΒη $
+
66K
66K
+
2QRSRUGXPKHWHUDFDQWKXP &$0H\
&RPSRVLWDH
βϳέΪϨϗ %
+
2UFKLVVDQFWD
2UFKLGDFHDH
αΪϘϤϟΪϴϛέϭϷ 3
+
$
+
2UOD\DGDXFRLGHV
/
/ *UHXWHU
8PEHOOLIHUDH
2UQLWKRJDOXPGLYHUJHQV
%RUHDX
2U\]RSVLVPLOLDFHD
/ $VFKHUV *UDPLQHDH
6FKZHLQI
2V\ULVDOED
/
3DOOHQLVVSLQRVD
/ &DVV
ήϴτϟϦΒϟ 3
+
ΔϤϋΎϧΔϳίέΔθϴθΣ 3
+
6DQWDODFHDH
ΎϴϣϮμΧ 3
&RPSRVLWDH
ϢϳήϣέϮΨΑ $
+
ϖϴϘθϘη $
+
3DSDYHUSRO\WULFKXP
%RLVVHW.\
3DSDYHUDFHDH
3DSDYHUUKRHDV
/
3DSDYHUDFHDH
3DUHQWXFHOOLDIODYLIORUD
+\DFLQWKDFHDH
%RLVV 1HYVNL 6FURSKXODULDFHDH
3DURQ\FKLDSDODHVWLQD
(LJ
,OOHFHEUDFHDH
3HJDQXPKDUPDOD
/
=\JRSK\OODFHDH
66K
ϥΎϤόϨϟϖΎϘη $
+
$
+
ϝΰϐϟϚϠϋ ϲπϓΚΑήΣ 3
ϞϣήΣ 3
+
66K
The Role of Medicinal Plants in Oak Forests in Idleb, North-West Syria, in Improving Incomes...
1R 6SHFLHV
$XWKRU
)DPLO\
3KDJQDORQEDUEH\DQXP
$VFKHUVHW
6FKZHLQI
&RPSRVLWDH
ΐϧέϷϡΎόσ 3
3KDODULVPLQRU
5HW]
*UDPLQHDH
ϯήϐλΔΤϨΠϣ $
3KLOO\UHDODWLIROLD
/
2OHDFHDH
3KOHXPVXEXODWXP
$UDELFQDPH
/LIHIRUP %LRW\SH
βΠΑΩϭέΰϟ 3
6DYL $VFKHUV *UDPLQHDH
*UDHEQ
ΔϳϮμϋ $
66K
+
67
+
3KORPLVRULHQWDOLV
0LOO
/DELDWDH
ΐϴϬϠϟ 3
66K
3KORPLVSODW\VWHJLD
3RVW
/DELDWDH
ΐϴϬϟ 3
66K
3KORPLVV\ULDFD
%RLVV
/DELDWDH
ΐϴϬϟ 3
3LFQRPRQDFDUQD
/ &DVV
&RPSRVLWDH
ξϴΑϙϮηέΎϔϟϙϮη $
66K
+
3LFULVGDPDVFHQD
%RLVV *DLOO &RPSRVLWDH
3LPSLQHOODHULRFDUSD
%DQNVHW6RO
3LQXVSLQHD
/
3LQDFHDH
3LVWDFLDSDODHVWLQD
%RLVV
$QDFDUGLDFHDH
ϲϨϴτδϠϔϟϢτΒϟ 3
7
3LVWDFLDYHUD
/
$QDFDUGLDFHDH
ϲΒϠΣϖΘδϓ 3
7
3LVXPHODWLXV
0%
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΔϳήΑ˯ϻίΎΑ $
+
3ODQWDJRFUHWLFD
/
3ODQWDJLQDFHDH
ϞΑέΩΎΑί $
+
3ODQWDJRLQGLFD
/
3ODQWDJLQDFHDH
ΩΎΑίϞΑέϞϤΤϟϥΎδϟ $
+
3ODQWDJRODQFHRODWD
/
3ODQWDJLQDFHDH
ϕέϭϷϲΤϣέϞΑέ 3
+
3ODQWDJRRYDWD
)RUVVN
3ODQWDJLQDFHDH
ϱϮπϴΑΩΎΑί $
+
3RDEXOERVD
/
*UDPLQHDH
ϲϠϴμΑΎΒϗ 3
+
3RDVLQDLFD
6WHXG
*UDPLQHDH
ϲΎϨϴγΎΒϗ 3
+
3RO\FDUSDHDUHSHQV
)RUVVN
$VFKHUVHW
6FKZHLQI
&DU\RSK\OODFHDH
ΔϘϴϗΩΔϠϴϤϛ 3
+
3RO\FDUSRQWHWUDSK\OOXP
/ /
8PEHOOLIHUDH
&DU\RSK\OODFHDH
3UXQXVPLFURFDUSD
&$0H\
5RVDFHDH
3UXQXVXUVLQD
.\
5RVDFHDH
3VLOXUXVLQFXUYXV
*RXDQ 6FKLQJ *UDPLQHDH
7KHOO
ϲϘθϣΩϥΫϮΣ $
+
ήϤΜϟϲϓϮλϥϮδϴϧ $
+
ϱήϤΛήΑϮϨλ 3
7
ϥϮΑήϜϴϟϮΑ $
ϕϭήϗήΑϱήΑΥϮΧ 3
ΏΪϟΥϮΧ 3
+
+6K
67
$
+
3WHURFHSKDOXVLQYROXFUDWXV 6P 6SUHQJ
'LSVDFDFHDH
$
+
3WHURFHSKDOXV
SXOYHUXOHQWXV
%RLVVHW%O
'LSVDFDFHDH
3
66K
3\UXVV\ULDFD
%RLVV
5RVDFHDH
ϱήΑ ϱέϮγιΎΟ 3
7
4XHUFXVDHJLORSV
/
)DJDFHDH
ΰϋΎϤϟϥΎϳΪϨγ 3
7
4XHUFXVFDOOLSULQRV
:HEE
)DJDFHDH
ϱΩΎόϟϥΎϳΪϨδϟ 3
7
4XHUFXVLQIHFWRULD
2OLY
)DJDFHDH
ϲμϔόϟϲσϮϠΒϟϥΎϳΪϨδϟ 3
4XHUFXVOLEDQL
2OLY
)DJDFHDH
ϲϧΎϨΒϠϟϥΎϳΪϨδϟ 3
67
7
5DQXQFXOXVDVLDWLFXV
/
5DQXQFXODFHDH
ϥΫϮΣ 3
+
5DQXQFXOXVPLOOHIROLXV
%DQNV 6RO
5DQXQFXODFHDH
ϥΫϮΣ 3
+
5HLFKDUGLDWLQJLWDQD
/ 5RWK
&RPSRVLWDH
Ϊϴπϋ $
+
5KDJDGLROXVVWHOODWXV
/ *DHUWQ
&RPSRVLWDH
βϳϭέ $
+
5KDPQXVSDODHVWLQXV
5KDSRQWLFXPSXVLOOXP
5KXVFRULDULD
5RHPHULDK\EULGD
%RLVV
5KDPQDFHDH
ϲϨϴτδϠϔϟΪϳϮδϟ 3
+6K
ϞϴΌπϟϱΪϧϭήϟ 3
+
$QDFDUGLDFHDH
ϕΎϤδϟ 3
7
3DSDYHUDFHDH
ΔϧΎϤόϧ $
+
/DELOO %RLVV &RPSRVLWDH
/
/ '&
5RVDFRQLQD
/
5RVDFHDH
5XPH[FDVVLXV
%RLVV
3RO\JRQDFHDH
6DOYLDKRUPLQXP
/
/DELDWDH
139
ϲϨϳήδϧΩέϭ 3
+6K
ξϴϤΣ 3
+
εϮϛΩήϣ $
+
140
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
1R 6SHFLHV
$XWKRU
)DPLO\
6DOYLDLQGLFD
/
/DELDWDH
ΔϳΪϨϫΔϨϴδϟ 3
6DOYLDPXOWLFDXOLV
9DKO
/DELDWDH
ΔϴϤϳήϣ 3
6DOYLDYLULGLV
/
/DELDWDH
ΝήϤϟΓέϮϧ $
+
6DQJXLVRUEDPLQRU
6FRS
5RVDFHDH
ήΌΒϟΓήΑΰϛ 3
+
5RVDFHDH
ϥϼΒϟ 3
6DUFRSRWHULXPVSLQRVXP
/ 6S
$UDELFQDPH
/LIHIRUP %LRW\SH
+
66K
66K
6FDELRVDSDODHVWLQD
/
'LSVDFDFHDH
6FDQGL[LEHULFD
0%
8PEHOOLIHUDH
ϲϋήϟΓήΑΔϟΰϴϐϣϮΑ $
+
6FDQGL[SHFWHQYHQHULV
/
8PEHOOLIHUDH
ϲϋήϟςθϣΔϟΰϴϐϣϮΑ $
+
6FDQGL[VWHOODWD
%DQNVHW6RO
8PEHOOLIHUDH
ΔϟΰϴϐϣϮΑ $
+
6FRO\PXVKLVSDQLFXV
/
&RPSRVLWDH
έΎϔϟΔϛϮη %
+
6FRUSLXUXVPXULFDWD
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϞΠϨϋ $
+
6FRU]RQHUDSDSSRVD
'&
+
ΔϴϨϴτδϠϓΔΠϴϠΛ $
+
&RPSRVLWDH
Βο 3
6FRU]RQHUDVFKZHLQIXUWKLL %RLVV
&RPSRVLWDH
Βο 3
+
6FURSKXODULDKLHURFKXQWLQD %RLVV
6FURSKXODULDFHDH
ΔϳήϳίΎϨΧ %
+
6HGXPQLFDHHQVH
$OO
&UDVVXODFHDH
3
+
6HQHFLRYHUQDOLV
:DOGVW .LW &RPSRVLWDH
ϕϭήϣί $
+
6HUUDWXODFHULQWKLIROLD
6P %RLVV
&RPSRVLWDH
6LOHQHDHJ\SWLDFD
/ /I
ΔϘϳέϭ 3
+
&DU\RSK\OODFHDH
ϥϮϠΣ $
+
+
6LOHQHGDPDVFHQD
%RLVVHW*DLOO
&DU\RSK\OODFHDH
ΔϘΑΩ $
6LOHQHPXVFLSXOD
/
&DU\RSK\OODFHDH
ΔϘΑΩ $
+
6LOHQHWULGHQWDWD
'HVI
&DU\RSK\OODFHDH
ϦϨδΘϟΔϴΛϼΛΔϘΑΩ $
+
6LO\EXPPDULDQXP
/ *DHUWQ
&RPSRVLWDH
ζϴϓήΧ $
+
ϱήΑϝΩήΧΔϠϴΠϓΓήϴϔλ $
+
6LQDSLVDUYHQVLV
/
6PLOD[DVSHUD
/
6PLODFDFHDH
ϚϳΪϟΕΎϴμΧ 3
6RQFKXVROHUDFHXV
/
&RPSRVLWDH
ϚϠϋ $
6RQFKXVWHQHUULPXV
/
&RPSRVLWDH
ϚϠϋ $
+
ΔϠϘϴϠϗ $
+
ΐϳήΛϡ $
+
&UXFLIHUDH
6SHUJXODIDOOD[
/RZH .UDXVH &DU\RSK\OODFHDH
6SHUJXODULDGLDQGUD
*XVV +HOGU
6DUW
6WDFK\VDUYHQVLV
+
/DELDWDH
˯ήϴΒϏΔϴΠϠΛ $
+
6WDFK\VORQJLVSLFDWD
%RLVVHW.\
/DELDWDH
ΔϠΒϨδϟΔϠϳϮσΔΠϴϠΛ 3
+
6WLSDFDSHQVLV
7KXQE
*UDPLQHDH
ϡΰϋ $
+
6WLSDSDUYLIORUD
'HVI
*UDPLQHDH
έΎϫίϷήϴϐλϡΰϋ 3
+
6W\UD[RIILFLQDOLV
/
6W\UDFDFHDH
7DHQLDWKHUXPFULQLWXP
/ /
&DU\RSK\OODFHDH
&6K
6KUHE 1HYVNL *UDPLQHDH
7HXFULXPSROLXP
/
/DELDWDH
7KODVSLSHUIROLDWXP
/
&UXFLIHUDH
7K\PXVV\ULDFXV
%RLVV
/DELDWDH
7RUG\OLXPV\ULDFXP
/
ήϬΒόϟϙήτλϹ 3
$
ΓΪόΠϟΔμϳήϗ 3
ΓέϮϣήϤη $
ϱήΑϱέϮγήΘϋί 3
67
+
66K
+
66K
8PEHOOLIHUDH
ϞϳϷΔΒθϋ $
7RULOLVOHSWRSK\OOD
/ 5HLFKEI
8PEHOOLIHUDH
ϱήΑβϧϭΪϘΑ $
+
7UDFK\QLDGLVWDFK\D
/ /LQN
*UDPLQHDH
Γήϴόη $
+
7UDJRSRJRQ
EXSKWKDOPRLGHV
'& %RLVV
&RPSRVLWDH
αήϔϟΐϧΫ 3
+
7ULIROLXPDUJXWXP
%DQNV 6RO
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPDUYHQVH
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϝϮϘΤϟϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPERLVVLHUL
*XVVH[%RLVV /HJXPLQRVDH
ϱήϳίϮΑϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPEXOODWXP
%RLVVHW
+DXVVNQ
ϲϨτϗϢϴγήΑ $
+
/HJXPLQRVDH
+
The Role of Medicinal Plants in Oak Forests in Idleb, North-West Syria, in Improving Incomes...
1R 6SHFLHV
$XWKRU
)DPLO\
7ULIROLXPFDPSHVWUH
6FKUHE
/HJXPLQRVDH
ήϔλϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPFKHUOHUL
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPFO\SHDWXP
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲϋέΩϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPGDV\XUXP
&3HUVO
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPLVWKPRFDUSXP
%URW
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPQLJUHVFHQV
9LY
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΩϮγϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPSDXFLIORUXP
8UY
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPSK\VRGHV
6WHYH[0%
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPSLOXODUH
%RLVV
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPSXUSXUHXP
/RLVHO
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲΠδϔϨΑϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPVFDEUXP
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϦθΧϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPVFXWDWXP
%RLVV
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPVSHFLRVXP
6HQVX%RLVVHW /HJXPLQRVDH
*ULVHE(UUDW
ϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPVSXPRVXP
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPVWHOODWXP
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲϤΠϧϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPVXEWHUUDQHXP
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲοέΖΤΗϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULIROLXPWRPHQWRVXP
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϲϓϮλϢϴγήΑ $
+
7ULJRQHOODILOLSHV
%RLVV
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΔϴτϴΧΔΒϠΣ $
+
7ULJRQHOODNRWVFK\L
)HQ]OH[%RLVV /HJXPLQRVDH
ϲθΗϮϛΔΒϠΣ $
+
7ULJRQHOODPRQDQWKD
&$0H\
/HJXPLQRVDH
ήϫΰϟΔϳΩΎΣΔΒϠΣ $
+
7ULJRQHOODPRQVSHOLDFD
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΔΒϠΣ $
+
7ULJRQHOODQRDHDQD
%RLVV
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΔΒϠΣ $
+
7ULJRQHOODVSLFDWD
6P
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΔϴϠΒϨγΔΒϠΣ $
+
7ULWLFXPGXUXP
'HVI
*UDPLQHDH
9DODQWLDKLVSLGD
/
5XELDFHDH
9DOHULDQHOODFRURQDWD
/ '&
9DOHULDQDFHDH
9DOHULDQHOODHFKLQDWD
/ '&
9DOHULDQDFHDH
$UDELFQDPH
/LIHIRUP %LRW\SH
ϲγΎϗϤϗ $
+
$
+
ϲΟΎΗβΧ $
+
$
+
+
9DOHULDQHOODSXPLOD
:LOOG '&
9DOHULDQDFHDH
ϡΰϗβΧ $
9DOHULDQHOODYHVLFDULD
/ 0RHQFK
9DOHULDQDFHDH
ΓήϤΜϟΔϴϧΎΜϣβΧ $
+
$
+
+
9HOH]LDULJLGD
/
&DU\RSK\OODFHDH
9HUEDVFXPJDLOODUGRWLL
%RLVV
6FURSKXODULDFHDH
ήϴλϮΑ %
9HUEDVFXPVLQDLWLFXP
%HQWK
6FURSKXODULDFHDH
ϲΎϨϴγήϴλϮΑ %
9HUEDVFXP
WUDQVMRUGDQLFXP
0XUE
6FURSKXODULDFHDH
ήϴλϮΑ %
9HURQLFDSHUVLFD
3RLU
6FURSKXODULDFHDH
ΔϴγέΎϔϟϲηϮΤϟΓήϫί $
+
9HURQLFDSROLWD
)ULHV
6FURSKXODULDFHDH
ΔϳΩΎϣήϟϲηϮΤϟΓήϫί $
+
9LFLDFXVSLGDWD
%RLVV
/HJXPLQRVDH
ϥήϘϟΔϳέΎϘϨϣΔϴϘϴΑ $
+
9LFLDK\EULGD
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
˯ήϔλΔϴϘϴΑΔϨΠϬϣΔϴϘϴΑ $
+
9LFLDSDODHVWLQD
%RLVV
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΔϴϨϴτδϠϓΔϴϘϴΑ $
+
9LFLDVDWLYD
/
/HJXPLQRVDH
ΔϋϭέΰϣΔϴϘϴΑ $
+
9LWLVYLQLIHUD
/
9LWDFHDH
9XOSLDFLOLDWD
'XPRUW
*UDPLQHDH
/ &&*PHO *UDPLQHDH
9XOSLDP\XURV
=L]LSKRUDFDSLWDWD
/
/DELDWDH
141
ϱήϔόΟϱΪϠΑΐϨϋ 3
+
66K
&7
$
+
$
+
ϊϨϴόϧ $
+
%LRW\SH++HUE+6K+LJK6KUXE66K6XE6KUXE777DOO7UHH676PDOOWUHH7
7UHH&6K&OLPEHU6KUXE&7&OLPEHU7UHH
/LIHIRUP%%LHQQLDO33HUHQQLDO$$QQXDO
The Role of Networks in Non-Wood Forest Products
and Services Marketing in Europe
Davide Pettenella and Daria Maso
Dipartimento Territorio e Sistemi Agro-Forestali, University of Padova, Italy
Abstract
Starting from the evidence that some managers and owners are shifting from a timber-based
activity to a Non-Wood Forest Products and Services (NWFP&S) based activities, the paper
studies the key factors affecting NWFP&S marketing.
Products and services are classiied in three main categories: mass-produced, specialized
and complementary NWFP&S. This latter category can play a relevant role in improving the
proitability and in maintaining the competitiveness of small and medium-scale enterprises
involved in NWFP&S production and commercialization.
Differentiation, integration, and networks creation (among both private and public actors)
with the development of “territorial marketing” are considered fundamental tools for
strengthening the role of complementary NWFP&S in improving the economic value of
small-scale forestry in marginal areas.
A description of three main network types that could be identiied with regard to NWFP&S
is then provided on the basis of the results of the study carried out in Italy with seventeen
case studies.
Key factors of network development (e.g. need of clear property rights regulations, trust,
equitable proit distribution, social capital, etc.) are then discussed shortly.
Keywords: mass; specialized and complementary NWFP&S; territorial marketing;
networking
The Importance of NWFP&S in Europe
Traditional and new Non-Wood Forest Products and Services (NWFP&S) experienced a
growing interest throughout all of Europe during the last 20 years (Mantau et al. 2001). This
is caused by the fact that they can greatly contribute in improving the proitability of forestbased enterprises and in maintaining the competitiveness of forest product-consumer chain.
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
144
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 1. Average economic values of beneits from Mediterranean forest areas (€/ha/year).
Mediterranean areas
Wood
NWFP
Southern
Eastern
Northern
Total Mediterranean
Share of total (%)
Share of TEVa (%)
12
22
67
47
49.5
35.3
4
5
16
12
12.6
9.0
Grazing Recreation Hunting
32
10
10
13
13.7
9.8
n.a.
1
32
21
22.1
15.8
1
3
2
2.1
1.5
Total
TEVa
48
39
128
95
100
71.4
67
48
176
133
100
a: TEV = Total Economic Value
Source: adapted from Merlo and Croitoru (2005, p. 62).
Three main reasons of this interest can be identiied: (a) the decreasing prices of wood
products; (b) the growing demand for environmentally friendly products and products
connected with some speciic local traditions; (c) policies supporting rural development.
In relation to timber prices development, the United Nations Food and Agricultural
Organisation (FAO) and the Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) price databases’
(UNECE/FAO 2007) show that real prices of industrial roundwood have been gradually
decreasing in the last 20 years. Moreover, all major forecasts made by FAO and UNECE
predict a constant decrease in real prices of wood products in the next few years.
Demand for environmentally friendly products is increasing in all highly industrialised
countries (Lober and Misen 1995; Burrows and Sanness 1998). Many traditional products
that were once strictly connected to the needs and consumption behaviour of low-income
people are now regarded as natural health products (Meadley 1989; FAO 1995). Some
‘specialty’ foods and other forest products experience greater demand than in the past as a
consequence of new fashions (e.g. ‘Mediterranean diet’, organic farming, natural medicine,
aroma-therapy) (Pettenella et al. 2006).
Finally, the reform measures for the Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) have been
promoting the diversiication of rural activities and new sources of non-agricultural income
in European Union (EU) member countries.
As a result, nowadays, even in some high productive forest areas traditionally managed
for wood production, selling of recreational services (e.g. mushrooms collection permits)
represents often a much more relevant source of income for the forest managers than timber
sales. Commodities that once used to be considered “secondary products” are frequently the
primary source of revenue for forest managers and owners (Merlo and Croitoru 2005).
Especially in Mediterranean areas, NWFP&S play a remarkable role both in relation to
commercial objectives and in terms of estimated Total Economic Value (TEV) of forests,
as reported in Table 1. While wood and grazing are declining sources of income for forest
owners, tourism and non-wood forest products are increasing in importance to support rural
life, mainly in higher income countries (Pettenella et al. 2007b).
Actually the development paths related to NWFP&S marketing are not homogeneous all
around Europe and it is worthwhile to observe how obstacles to successful marketing have
been overcome in different local contexts. To improve and consolidate the economical role
of NWFP&Ss marketing strategies based on effective coordination among different rural
products and services should be applied. We will try to demonstrate that networks among
local resources managers are playing a key role in many successful examples of NWFP&S
marketing.
The Role of Networks in Non-Wood Forest Products and Services Marketing in Europe
145
Table 2. Examples of NWFP&S classiied into mass, specialized and complementary categories.
NWFP&S type
Products
Services
Mass-produced
Foliage (IRL)
Christmas trees (DK)
Moss (UK)
Mushrooms (POL, LIT and H)
Berries (FIN)
Chestnuts (I, CH)
Cork (P)
Birch sap (FIN)
‘Chemical free’ Christmas trees (GER)
Chestnut specialities (CH, I)
Trufles (I)
Pinus mugo oil (I)
Picknicking (IRL and ISL)
Water protection (GER)
Nature conservation (A)
Hunting (LIT, ROM)
Recreation (CRO)
Specialized
Complementary
Trufles and tourism (I and CRO)
Chestnut, wine and rural tourism (I)
Ecotourism (H and IRL)
Mountain biking (UK)
Country holidays (NOR and LIT)
Biking tours (FIN)
Recreation park services (ROM and IRL)
Recreational services (DK)
Bird watching (FIN)
Skiing (GER)
Funeral tree services (CH, GER)
Environmental Education (H)
Art in the Forest (I)
CO2-sequestration (ROM)
Source: Jáger (2005).
A Conceptual Framework for NWFP&S Classiication
In this paper the role networks serve in the development of NWFP&S marketing will be
analyzed on the basis of three main different NWFP&S categories (mass-produced,
specialized and complementary) that will be shortly deined below.
In marketing literature (Kotler et al. 1996) a classic distinction is made between two types
of target markets: mass markets and specialized markets. When considering NWFP&S a
third market category (namely complementary NWFP&S) should also be added. Products
and services included in this category are characterised by a joint demand of goods from
users, a demand that can also involve some products or services not originating from forests.
To give an example, in Table 2 are reported some NWFP&S’ classiied according to this
broader framework developed by the Working Group 3 (WG3) of the COST Action E30
‘Economic integration of urban consumers’ demand and rural forestry production’ (http://
www.joensuu.i/coste30).
Mass Products and Services: many traditional NWFP&S (e.g. cork in Portugal, Botetus
mushrooms in Italy, Christmas trees in Denmark, bilberries in Finland) are undifferentiated
and their target market is made up of a large number of consumers. They usually experience
a very high competition and their markets are frequently over-supplied. Being characterized
by a limited differentiation, products can only compete on price (Collier et al. 2004) and, in
the Marketing Mix, cost minimization is a factor of fundamental importance (Figure 1).
Several forest services provided to a large number of users (water cycle regulation, soil
protection, biodiversity conservation, CO2 sequestration, supply of recreational sites) are
free of charge and accessible to everybody. Introducing payments mechanisms for such
146
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Mass
Specialized
Complementary
4 Ps
Product
Place: logistic, etc.
Price: cost
minimization
Promotion
Product: quality
assurance, certification,
packaging, links with a
territory and/or a local
tradition, etc.
Place: logistic, etc.
Price: selling system
Promotion: e-marketing
Product: strong links with
a territory and/or a local
tradition, “baskets” of
different products and
services, etc.
Place
Price
Promotion
2 Ps
Political power
Public support/
participation
Political power
Public support/
participation
Political power: partnership
(Leader approach)
Public support/
participation: social capital
(i.e. capacity to cooperate
among private and public
actors)
Figure 1. Marketing Mix of mass, specialized and complementary goods.
forest services is becoming an interesting ield of development for mass services, in Europe
(Mantau et al. 2005) and worldwide (Pagiola et al. 2002).
In the mass products supply chain, especially in larger scale operations, middlemen
(marketing companies, buying groups and wholesalers) are usually involved in selling
systems. Some producers introduced vertical integration as a means to attain greater control
of product quality (e.g. cork producers in Portugal), in other cases horizontal integration
among growers or producers has been implemented by the creation of associations or
informal networks. This strategy can improve the value of NWFP&S business activities
through the use of standards, brands and trademarks for promoting the products on the
international market (e.g. the case of chestnuts in Italy, reported by Pettenella et al. (2005)).
Some key factors concerning successful marketing of mass NWFP&S that can be identiied
are:
- Human resources and social capital, because the availability of adequate number of
qualiied people is usually a problem in rural, marginal areas. Personnel may need to be
trained, or persons from outside the area will need to be adequately motivated to move in
and to stabilize the local business;
- Climatic conditions and disease outbreaks, which can potentially devastate yields;
- Seasonality (some NWFP&S are available and have to be harvested and sold over only a
short period of time);
- Perishability of products: rapid delivery channels, appropriate storage facilities and
processing are needed.
Specialized Products and Services: they are well differentiated products and services, often
with a high added value and available in relatively limited quantities. Since they are typically
The Role of Networks in Non-Wood Forest Products and Services Marketing in Europe
147
Box 1. Different set of standards used for NWFP certiication and labelling.
Some standards that are actually used as differentiation tools for specialized NWFP&S are:
• sustainable forest management and chain of custody standards, such as the Forest
Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certiication
(PEFC);
• standards to protect the origin, such as those deine by the European Commission Regulation
2081/92: the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and the Protected Geographical
Indication (PGI);
• standards for organic wild products such as those deined by International Federation of
Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) or by the European Commission for organic
crops cultivation (EC Regulation 2092/91);
• standards for collecting, processing and marketing biological resources deined by the
UNCTAD BioTrade Initiative;
• standards for fair trade deined by Fairtrade Labelling Organizations (FLO).
Some examples of certiication and labelling are:
• FSC certiied Christmas trees from Switzerland and Lithuania; oak tree bark, greeneries
from Denmark; cork in Portugal;
• PEFC certiied aromatic essence from Pinus mugo in Italy;
• In Italy a forest area producing mushrooms (Boletus edulis) has been registered as a PGI
product and some chestnut proveniences have been certiied both under the same scheme
and as organic products according with the EU rules.
Certiication systems have been developed also for some forest environmental services, e.g.
the Carbon storage certiication standards related to forest investments developed by Société
Générale de Surveillance (SGS) and by Det Norske Veritas (DNV), and the Sustainable
Tourism Management standards developed by Rainforest Alliance.
targeted to small customer groups, segmentation and correct customer information are very
important tools to develop their markets.
Two types of enterprises active in this NWFP&S category can be identiied:
1) small- and medium-sized enterprises (SME’s) with limited inancial and labour resources,
normally working only in the forestry sector, which are specialized on small-scale
activities (e.g. adventure or canopy forests in France, forest museums in Italy or funerals
and “ecological burial” services in Switzerland and Sweden);
2) large enterprises, not necessarily working only in the forestry sector, producing or selling
a large range of goods, including some specialised products and services (e.g. ‘chemical
free’ Christmas trees in Germany).
Differently from mass NWFP&S, many specialized products are “new” products (e.g.
adventure forest parks, “ecological burials”) or traditional rediscovered products, which were
already almost forgotten or out of commercial use for a long time (e.g. “manna” sap from ash
trees in Italy, Erica arborea roots for pipe making in Albania or birch sap in Finland).
In the Marketing Mix of specialized NWFP&S an important role is played by the factors
“Product” and “Promotion” (Figure 1). With respect to “Product”, quality assurance and
148
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
standardisation, further developed into various certiication schemes, labels and brands, are
very important product differentiation tools that give the possibility of premium prices (Box
1). For specialised NWFP&S marketing, special attention must be paid to “Promotion”: they
must reach the deined target groups, under the constraint of a limited investment potential
by the forest managers. E-commerce (both B2T and B2C) is becoming an extremely useful
instrument for marketing specialized NWFP&S.
Despite the use of certiication and labelling systems, specialized non-wood forest services
remain problematic because of two main reasons: a single, transparent, credible and wellknown identiication mechanism does not exist for them; in some cases there is a high risk of
imitation by competitors (e.g. forest adventure parks, environmental education courses).
A fundamental pre-requisite for developing many new markets for NWFP&S is the
implementation of a proper regulation on property rights: in many countries a free access
regime to the forest resources is limiting new investments in NWFP&S.
Complementary Products and Services: they consist of products and services that can be
sold and used in strict association because of important synergies connected to their joint
marketing. Not all products and services that are jointly marketed have to necessarily be
originated from forests (e.g. the “Törggelen” holidays: Autumn holidays organized in the
Italian South Tyrol during which tourists can walk in chestnut orchard, pick up the nuts and
then eat the roasted chestnuts in agri-tourist farms while tasting the new red wines).
Complementarity is a concept related to the different linkages that can connect products and
services. Complementarity products and services are an advanced form of network. Networks
can be deined as “a mode of organization that can be used by managers or entrepreneurs to
position their irms in a stronger competitive stance” (Carlos Jarillo 1988).
It is possible to differentiate networks according to two main variables: time and place.
With respect to time, “opportunistic” or “strategic” networks can be deined. The irst one
can be described as short-term network: a temporary set of links established among managers
or enterprises that last, for example, only for the time needed to develop a common special
marketing project. The second one, instead, is characterized by long-term relationships, and
can be described as “purposeful arrangements among distinct but related organizations that
allow those irms to gain or sustain competitive advantage vis-à-vis their competitors outside
the network” (Carlos Jarillo 1988).
With respect to place, “not territory-based” and “territory-based” networks can be
identified. The first ones are composed of units that act together independently from
their action area because they share a common ield of action, a goal, etc. (e.g. a regional
associations of beekeepers or and association of trufle pickers). The second ones, instead,
have a speciic territory1 as “common denominator”. This is the ield of interest of a new
branch of marketing, the so-called “territorial marketing”. According to this concept, a whole
consistent portfolio of products and services strictly linked with the environmental, social
or cultural characteristics of a territory is developed. Despite the fact that the enterprises
involved in the network work in different ields, they interact to develop a consistent portfolio
of products and services and they bundle marketing efforts for their coordinated promotion.
Common tools used to connect the various products and services offered by a territory are
organised trails, roads or pathways linking farms, craftsman shops, restaurants, exhibitions,
monuments, fairs and cultural events.
In general terms, when looking at the Marketing Mix (Figure 1), it can be observed that the
leading role is played by the “Product” factor, but in a different way than for specialized ones.
1 Some examples of homogeneous territories that can be deined (with examples for Italy) are: a valley or a watershed or the area around a mountain
group; a National Park or other types of protected area; an area traditionally linked to a speciic product or service (e.g. the Alba territory connected to
white trufles); and a forest itself (e.g. the Black Forest in Baden-Wurttemberg).
The Role of Networks in Non-Wood Forest Products and Services Marketing in Europe
149
Products and Services (P&S)
development strategies
Complementarity
+
Complementary
P&S
Mass-produced
P&S
Specialised
P&S
–
–
+
Differentiation
Source: adapted from Pettenella et al. 2006
Figure 2. NWFP&S marketing development strategies.
In this case a diverse strategy for differentiating goods is used. It consists in the development
of a “basket” of various goods that are marketed and sold together. The other attribute
characterizing complementary products and services is the “Public support/participation”
factor. It refers to the cooperative attitude among private and public actors, which share a
common vision and are able to carry on coordinated economic initiatives. This competitive
advantage is named, in the terminology of social scientists, “social capital”.
NWFP&S’ can change their target market: a specialized product can develop into a
mass product or into a complementarity product (and vice versa), as shown in Figure 2. A
common development path from a mass product into a specialized product and then into a
complementarity product is described by Figure 3.
As reported in Figure 3, the development from one or few enterprise dealing with mass
NWFP&S marketing to a group of enterprises involved in complementary NWFP&S is
due the creation of trust-based relationships. This evolution takes place in two different
forms: through consolidation (of links, relationships, etc.) in the irst step, from mass to
specialized NWFP&S, and through “contractualization” in the second step, from specialized
to complementary NWFP&S. While in the irst case connections are strengthened either
in a vertical (along the value chain) or in a horizontal (similar enterprises, etc.) direction,
but usually without formal agreements, in the second case relationships rely on a basis of
contracts and formal, more stable, agreements. In a parallel way, the role of territory becomes
more and more relevant going towards complementary NWFP&S, this being the most
common basis on which networks develop.
From the perspective of the policy maker promoting a stable and progressive policy of
rural development, complementary goods are of primary importance; actually their role in
local rural development is by far higher than the commercial value of the single products or
services that compose them.
150
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
NWFP&S:
Type of links
from
mass
to
One/few large
companies
specialized
to
complementary
Vertical and
horizontal
integration
consolidation
Main role of
trust-based links
contractualization
Role of the
territory
Relative independence
Dependence
Strong
dependence
Local people
engagement
Predominant role of
exogenous financial
and entrepreneurial
inputs
Intermediate
conditions
Social capital
playing a major
role
Innovation
policy
Structured R&D,
patent seeking
innovation
Intermediate
conditions
Imitation,
learning by doing,
adaptive
innovation
Figure 3. The development steps from mass to specialized to complementary NWFP&S.
The Role of Networks in Complementary NWFP&S: Three Network
Typologies
Based on the case studies of the COST Action E30 (Pettenella et al. 2006) and on a further
analysis of 17 Italian case studies (Pettenella et al 2007a), three main typologies of networks
linking NWFP&S to other products and services have been identiied (represented graphically
in Figure 4).
(a) In the irst case the NWFP&S is usually a non-marketed good, generally provided
free of charge by local authorities (e.g. concerts organised in the forests, cross-country
skiing trails, open-air museums). The aim is the attraction of consumers that, once in the
territory, will enforce other economic activities (e.g. restaurants, shops selling typical
local products, etc.). The costs of providing the non-marketable NWFP&S can be
covered by public authorities or by the beneiciaries of associated commodities sold in
the territory.
As Figure 5 shows, the activity is usually concentrated on few months (e.g. the
summer season for concerts and open-air museums, winter for cross-country skiing
trails). The level of investment (public or even private) concentrates on the period of the
activity and slightly before, since it consists of the promotion and of the funding of the
activities.
(b) In the second case the NWFP&S is a marketable good that takes advantage of synergies
deriving from joint promotion and selling1with other products and services of the
same territory. Advantages deriving from joint promotion consist of consequent higher
volumes of sales, increased number of clients and proit levels. Some examples are:
mushrooms or berries picking permit sales, ‘Chestnut roads’ where the purchasing of
chestnuts is associated with tourism and consume of other products (e.g. wine of the
The Role of Networks in Non-Wood Forest Products and Services Marketing in Europe
(a)
Concerts organized in a forest
(b)
Examples:
“the chestnut road”
151
(c)
A forest adventure park
The common territory
/
NWFP&S / products and services from other sectors
/
Marketable / non-marketable products and services
Size depending on the number of consumers or the level of sales (profit)
Figure 4. Marketing development strategies applied to complementary NWFP&S.
same area), etc. For example, in the case of mushrooms (igure 6), the level of public
investment can be close to zero, as activities are usually self-inancing. The activities
are multiple and concentrate more or less between late spring and the beginning of
autumn. Two peaks can be individuated in concomitance with the spring and autumn
productive seasons. Other activities are then added with the purpose of reaching a
constant customers’ presence during a larger time period. If seasonal production attracts
mushrooms pickers (buying picking permits), other activities (such as fairs and trails)
are organized to attract the broader public to the area, which will stimulate other related
economical activities (as explained for the case (a) described before).
(c) Finally, in the third case, the NWFP&S is a leading marketable good offered in a territory,
and there are other products and services from the same territory complementing and
supporting it. An example is that of the “forest adventure parks” where the leading
service is the adventure park and the usually associated service is an equipment hire, or a
bar or a gadget shop. The marketable good is the attraction factor and it is self-inancing.
Moreover, it stimulates the development of other economic activities by creating a new
demand and by increasing the potential customers for other more or less related goods.
Looking at Figure 7, it can be seen that these kind of NWFP&S do not require public
investments and that the level of activity is seasonal, both for the main good (e.g. the
adventure park) and for associated ones. It usually lasts from late summer to early
autumn, according to climatic conditions.
152
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Level of
activity
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
Level of
public
investment
Figure 5. Level of activity and of public investment in (a) type NWFP&S.
Level of
activity
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
Level of
public
investment
Figure 6. Level of activity and of public investment in (b) type NWFP&S.
The Role of Networks in Non-Wood Forest Products and Services Marketing in Europe
153
Level of
activity
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
Level of
public
investment
Figure 7. Level of activity and of public investment in (c) type NWFP&S.
The creation of a portfolio of related products and services in a clearly delimited territory
offers many advantages, especially when SME’s are involved. In fact the joint marketing
strategy needed by the portfolio allows to overcome the limited inancial resources and
competences in promotion techniques of the individual SME’s.
Moreover, complementary services or products can help to add value or competitive
advantages to the main product, diversifying its nature or its image, so that it can be targeted
to new customer groups. In territorial marketing NWFP&S play an interesting role as ‘imago’
products (i.e. a simpliied and symbolic brand of the territory). Even when their role in the
portfolio is minor, they are often used as a brand to present the territory, being among the
most environmentally-friendly products.
Joint marketing frequently stimulates a positive co-operation between private operators
and local public authorities as well as between landowners and services providers. Clear
agreements on costs and beneits for each actor, responsibilities sharing, trust and open
exchange of knowledge are needed in the production, processing and marketing channels,
both in private-public and private-private partnerships (including those between providers
and subcontractors). In many areas we are far from reaching this level of coordination
between the local actors (Box 2).
Conclusions
The research carried out demonstrates that there are interesting opportunities for successful
NWFP&S marketing, but also that some constraints exist.
154
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Box 2. The results of a survey on coordination capacity in marketing NWFP&S.
A recent survey by Serbati (2007) carried out in Belluno province of Veneto region, in the area
going from the National Park of Belluno Dolomites up to Natural Regional Park of Ampezzo
Dolomites, showed that the enterprises producing and marketing NWFP&S are operating in
a totally independent way one from the other. Forest managers having a riding school that
organize horse rides in the forest and owning also a Bed and Breakfast activity in the same
structure, do not have the intention of proposing packages putting together these services. Who
owns a forest adventure park provide the equipment to rent as the only joint service. At most,
he provides other services (e.g. sledge-dog or snow-shoe excursions) during the winter closure
but there is no interest of establishing links with other possible providers of complementary
products and services.
Production and commercialization of NWFP&S need clear regulations of property rights
(Mantau et al. 2001) and, due to the large variety of products and services involved, this is a
complex issue to be faced by local and national institutions (Marshall et al. 2006).
Mass-produced, specialised and complementary NWFP&S are not always clearly
distinguishable one from another. In fact, complementary products and services can
originate from mass products and services as well as from specialised ones. A mass
product characterized by low added value and low market value can become a successful
(complementary) product when combined with some specialised service. An example is the
combination of the selling of raw material collected from nature, such as moss or twigs,
with some handicraft courses. In the same way, complementary products can derive by
highly specialised niche products that are not able to reach the critical mass of supply when
commercialized independently and therefore need to be associated with other products.
When the production of mass NWFP&S is no longer proitable (in most cases because
of high production costs) there are two possible strategies. One is based on differentiation,
that is the transformation of the mass product or service into a specialized one. The other is
complementarity, consisting in the transformation of mass or specialized products or services
into complementary products and services. This aim is reached by combining NWFP&S with
forest or non-forest services or products to offer, for example, packages of forest recreation
plus tasting of forest specialities, or packages based on nut picking plus wine drinking and
forest recreation.
The implementation of territorial marketing strategies is a key factor for the achievement
of complementarity. Integration and, above all, network development among SME’s,
associations, public institutions, etc. play a fundamental role in this context.
Moreover, innovation in forest resources management should always be fully supported by
the local community, the general public and the public authorities, especially in rural areas
characterised by unique and fragile environments.
At present, even if successful cases of application of complementarity concept to NWFP&S
exist in Europe, a lot of work still remains to be done in this ield. In fact, these cases are
limited both in the number of involved products and services, in the total economic value
of businesses, in the actual development of networks and also in the creation and sharing of
social capital. Another critical point is that concerning how the involved SME’s can get the
funds they need during the irst phases of the jointed promotion of NWFP&S. In this phase
the economical support by public authorities is always of utmost importance.
The Role of Networks in Non-Wood Forest Products and Services Marketing in Europe
155
References
Burrows, J. and Sanness, B. 1998. The competitive climate for wood products and paper packaging. The factors
causing substitution with emphasis on environmental promotions. Joint FAO/ECE Team of Public Relations
Specialists in the Forest and Forest Industries Sector. Living Forests, Oslo.
Carlos Jarillo, J. 1988. On strategic networks. Strategic Management Journal 9 (1): 31–41
Collier, P., Short, I. and Dorgan, J. 2004. Markets for non-wood forest products. COFORD, Dublin.
FAO 1995. Edible nuts. Non-wood forest products for rural income and sustainable forestry. No. 5, FAO, Rome.
Jáger, L. (ed.) 2005. COST E30 Economic integration of urban consumers' demand and rural forestry production.
Forest sector entrepreneurship in Europe. Acta Silvatica & Lignaria Hungarica. Special Edition.
Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Saunders, J. and Wong, V. 1996. Principles of marketing. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River.
Lober, D.J. and Misen, M.D. 1995. The greening of retailing. Certiication and the home improvement industry.
Journal of Forestry 93(4): 38–41.
Mantau, U., Merlo, M., Sekot, W. and Welcker, B. 2001. Recreational and environmental markets for forest
enterprises. CABI, Wallingford.
Mantau, U., Schraml, U., Kastenholz, E. and Brogt, T. 2005. Germany. Country studies. In: Jáger L (ed.).
COST E30 Economic integration of urban consumers' demand and rural forestry production. Forest sector
entrepreneurship in Europe. Acta Silvatica & Lignaria Hungarica. Special Edition. Pp. 245–296.
Marshall, E., Schreckenberg, K. and Newton, A. C. (eds.) 2006. Commercialization of non-timber forest products.
Factors inluencing success. UNEP, WCMC, Cambridge.
Merlo, M. and Croitoru, L. (eds.) 2005. Valuing Mediterranean forests: towards total economic value. CABI,
Wallingford.
Pagiola, S., Bishop, J. and Landell-Mills, N. (eds.) 2002. Selling Forest Environmental Services. Market-based
Mechanisms for Conservation and Development. Earthscan, London.
Pettenella, D., Ciccarese, L., Dragoi, S., Hegedus, A., Hingston, A., Klöhn, S., Matilainen, A., Posavec, S. and
Thorinnsson, T. 2006. NWFP&S marketing: lessons learned from case studies in Europe. In: Niskanen, A. (ed.).
Issues affecting enterprise development in the forest sector in Europe. Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu.
Research notes 169. Pp. 367–403.
Pettenella, D., Klöhn, S., Brun, F., Carbone, F., Venzi, L., Cesaro, L. and Ciccarese, L.2005. Italy. Country studies.
In: Jáger, L. (ed.). COST E30 Economic integration of urban consumers' demand and rural forestry production.
Forest sector entrepreneurship in Europe. Acta Silvatica & Lignaria Hungarica. Special Edition. Pp. 383–435.
Pettenella, D., Maso, D. and Secco, L. 2007a. Prodotti forestali non legnosi, nuove strategie di marketing. Alberi e
Territorio 4–5: 18–23.
Pettenella, D., Secco, L. and Maso, D. 2007b. NWFP&S Marketing: Lessons learned and New Development Paths
from Case Studies in Some European Countries. Small Scale Forestry 6(4): 373–390.
Serbati, B. 2007. Attività ambientali e ricreative per la creazione di reddito e occupazione nel settore forestale. Il
caso della provincia di Belluno. Master thesis. DITESAF. University of Padova.
UNECE/FAO (2007). Forest products price database. http://www.unece.org/trade/timber/mis/price-stats.htm.
Accessed 26 Apr 2007.
Estimating Above-Ground Biomass of Mirbeck’s Oak
(Quercus canariensis Willd.) in Kroumirie, Tunisia
Ridha El Mokni1, Mohamed Riadh Mahmoudi1, Houcine Sebei2 and
Mohamed Hédi El Aouni1
2
1
Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Jarzouna, Tunisia
École Supérieure d’Agriculture de Mograne, Mograne, Tunisia
Abstract
Monitoring forests in order to understand the impact of global climate changes on terrestrial
ecosystems has become of great importance. In fact, to characterize forest changes, it is useful
to parameterize a forest by using several parameters such as biomass, basal area, tree density,
tree height, and trunk diameter at breast height. Ten trees of natural Mirbeck’s oak (Quercus
canariensis Willd. = Quercus Mirbecki Dur.), representative of the main diameter classes, were
harvested from four sites in Kroumirie. Allometric equations were established for estimating
tree above-ground dry-weight. Diameters at breast height (DBH) of felled trees ranged from
4.8 to 48.4 cm, total heights from 4.49 to 18.33 m and dry-weights from 5934 to 1989.069
kg. From these parameters, a number of biomass equations including trunk wood mass, trunk
bark mass, branches wood mass, branches bark mass, twigs and buds mass, foliage mass and
total branches mass were developed and tested statistically. Non-linear models based on trunk
diameter at breast height (DBH) alone explained more than 98% of the biomass variation.
Within all these parameters, strong site independent correlations were observed. Coeficients
of determination (R2) for the selected total biomass models ranged from 0.8996 to 0.9822.
Equations for wood trunk biomass and foliage biomass have showed higher coeficients of
determination than did equations for either bark trunk biomass, branches biomass, twigs and
buds biomass or total branches biomass of these deciduous tree species
Keywords: Kroumirie; Quercus canariensis Willd.; biomass; allometric equations
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
158
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
1. Introduction
Forest biomass quantity is the result of the difference between production through
photosynthesis and consumption through respiration, mortality, harvest and herbivory.
The rate at which forest biomass changes depends on several factors (i) direct human
activity (silviculture, harvesting and clearing,…), (ii) natural disturbances caused by wildire
or pest outbreaks and changes in climate and atmospheric pollutants.
Forest biomass is known for its importance as a supply of fodder, feed and fuel (Rawat
et al. 1988). It determines the potential amount of carbon that can be sequestered on the
land when forests are well managed. This parameter is required as the primary inventory
data to understand carbon pools changes and productivity of forests (Whittaker et al. 1971),
is a useful measure for comparing structural and functional attributes of forest ecosystems
across a wide range of environmental conditions (Brown et al. 1999) and provides valuable
information for many global issues.
Debate is currently underway regarding how to evaluate the forest biomass which can be
used to appreciate sequestered carbon and understand some of actual climate changes.
In Tunisia, many studies have been intended in this ield for many species of pine but
fewer were the studies that have dealt with oak species and no work was precompiled for
Mirbeck’s oak.
Thus, characterizing the biomass amount and mechanism of carbon sinks in these natural
Mirbeck’s oak stands became of great scientiic, ecological, environmental and political
importance.
The irst aim of the present study was limited to the estimation of above-ground biomass of
Mirbeck’s oak in the Kroumirie’s forests (North West of Tunisia), which spreads over 15 000
hectares.
2. Material and methods
2.1 Study sites
The study was carried out in eleven plots of Quercus canariensis stands located across the
Kroumirie region. The plots are situated at four sites; Aîn Zana (AZ: 2 plots), B’ni Mtir
(BM: 2 plots), El Feîdja (EF: 4 plots) and Oued Zeen (OZ: 2 plots). All sites are located in
Jendouba governorate (Kroumirie Mountains, Jendouba (Tunisia) 40G46‘-41GN and 06G48‘07GE), as shown in Figure 1.
2.2 Study site characteristics
The climate of the studied zone features rainy winters and warm summers and thus it was
classiied as being humid Mediterranean.
In all plots, in addition to the tree stratum comprising Quercus canariensis Willd., shrub
stratum is present with spiny Rosaceae (Rubus ulmifolius, Crataegus oxyacantha, etc.),
Cytisus villosus, Erica arborea, Arbutus unedo,…
As rainfall increased with altitude, Agrimonia eupatoria became more abundant whereas in
clearing forest and lower altitude Calycotome villosa and Cistus monspelensis expand.
In the herbaceus stratum there is a predominance of Poaceae (Cynosorus elegans,
Cynosorus echinatus, etc.) and Urginea maritima.
Estimating Above-Ground Biomass of Mirbeck’s Oak (Quercus canariensis Willd.) in Kroumirie, Tunisia
159
Figure 1. Localisation of the studied sites in the Kroumirie Mountains of Tunisia (1: El Feîdja, 2: B’ni
Mtir, 3: Aîn Zana, 4: Oued Zeen).
All plots were developed over a sandstone substrate with insertion of clay banks.
The soil ranges widly in depth, eventhough it is classiied as acid forest mull with a C/N
ratio < 15 and a pH ranging between 4,5 and 5,6.
2.3 Biomass determination
The most common procedure for estimating biomass in forest stands is to use regression
equations and stand tables, based mostly on DBH (DOBH at 1.3 m) and individual tree
biomass. The DBH of all the stems on one ha (square shaped: 100 m × 100 m) in each
of the 10 plots was measured and DBH classes were established. Ten Mirbeck’s oak trees
representing all DBH classes were felled and harvested. Each harvested tree was divided into
bark (trunk and branches), wood (trunk and branches), twigs and buds and leaves.
Trunks were divided into sections and each section was weighed. Branches were separated
from the trunk then weighed in the ield, their basal diameters were measured. Leaves, twigs
and buds and sometimes acorns, for aged trees, were separated from all harvested branches
and weighed immediately.
Sub-samples of these different components were brought to the laboratory and over dried
at 80 °C to a constant moisture for dry weight determination. Finally, allometric equations
based on DBH and including wood mass, bark mass, twigs and buds mass and foliage mass
were established by using and testing different regression models: linear and non linear.
160
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Figure 2. Relationships between DBH over bark and the different compartmental biomasses of
harvested trees of Quercus canariensis in the Kroumirie region of Tunisia.
2.4 Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was carried out using “Microsoft office Excel 2007” software. For
each component the retained regression equation was selected for its higher determination
coeficient.
3. Results
The different regression equations calculated for each total sub-sample biomass (Figure 2)
and even for total biomass per tree (Figure 3) indicated best determination coeficients with
power regression represented by:
Y = a X b that Biomass = a (DBH) b
Only for the regression equation of branches whose diameter ≥ 2 cm (Figure 4), best
determination coeficient was obtained with exponential regression represented by:
Y = a e b X that Biomass = a e b (DBH)
Coeficients of determination (R2) for the selected total biomass models ranged from 0.903 to
0.982 (Table 1);
Estimating Above-Ground Biomass of Mirbeck’s Oak (Quercus canariensis Willd.) in Kroumirie, Tunisia
161
Total biomass (kg)
2500
y = 0.085 x2.541
R² = 0.982
r = 0.916
2000
1500
1000
500
DBH (cm)
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 3. Relationship between Total biomass per tree and DBH.
Biomass (kg)
700
600
500
y = 0.901e0.130x
R² = 0.906
r = 0.743
400
300
200
100
DBH (cm)
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 4. Relationship between biomass of Branches ≥ 2cm per tree and DBH.
Estimated mean total biomass per hectare (Table 2) showed variation between plots which
may be due to (i) climate and soil characteristics of each plot, (ii) age, density and plot
development conditions, (iii) low number of harvested trees, (iv) several anthropo-zoogenic
behaviors.
Equations for wood biomass and foliage biomass have showed higher coefficients of
determination than did equations for either bark biomass, branches biomass, twigs and buds
biomass or total branches biomass of these deciduous tree species.
4. Discussion
This study presents regression models to evaluate the total biomass of trees in several
different aged Mirbeck's oak stands, using one simple measurement (DBH). In fact, similar
results were obtained between the biomass of the trunk and its DBH for Betula aetnensis
162
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 1. Relationships between regression equations of different component biomasses (Y in kg) of
harvested Mirbeck’s oak trees and DBH over bark (X in cm).
Tree Components
n
Equations
Wood (trunk + branches)
Bark (trunk + branches)
Branches ≥ 2cm
branches < 2cm
Twigs + Buds
Foliage (leaves)
10
10
10
10
10
10
Y = 0.026 X
Y = 0.022 X 2.307
Y = 0.901 e 0.130 X
Y = 0.012 X 2.233
Y = 0.001 X 2.758
Y = 0.017 X 1.942
2.731
R2
r
0.982
0.917
0.906
0.903
0.905
0.980
0.94406***
0.91185***
0.74294***
0.874294***
0.934594***
0.953613***
***α=0.001
Table 2. Densities and mean total biomasses of different studied plots in Kroumirie (Tunis).
Studied plots
EF
BM
AZ
OZ
Mean density per hectare
(min–max)
346
(092–519)
350
(284–416)
712
(629–794)
222
(204–239)
Mean total Biomass
(Mg.ha-1)
(min–max)
267.912
(095.430–
639.606)
211.514
(185.551–
237.477)
242.702
(237.768–
247.637)
168.829
(157.077–
180.581)
Rain. (Léonardi et al. 1994), Quercus suber L. (Sebei et al. 2001), Fagus sylvatica L.(Huet
et al. 2004) and also for Quercus pyrenaica Willd.(Santa Regina et al., 2000), between DBH
and total aerial biomass. Hence, the validity of the allometric equation is obviously limited to
the variation range in the DBH class of trees included in the sample, which implies that the
equations generated may be applied to the same species in all sites of the Kroumirie or even
other regions (in Algeria), provided they show similar characteristics.
The calculated above-ground-biomass ranged from 168.829 to 267.912 Mg.ha-1 (Table
2). This difference could result from density, age, site characteristics and plot development
conditions (Lemée 1978).
The higher amounts of above-ground-biomass were obtained at El Feîdja site whereas
the lower amounts were noticed at Oued Zeen site. This may be in relation to increasing
precipitations with altitude:
Sites
El Feîdja
B’ni Mtir
Altitude (m)
Rainfall (mm.year-1)
Biomass (Mg. ha-1)
850–900
650–700
1217
1140
267.912
211.514
Compared with some others species of oak in the Mediterranean basin, Mirbeck’s oak has
an above-ground-biomass higher than that found by (i) Sebei et al. (2001, 2004 et 2008) in
Tunisian forests for cork oak (Quercus suber L.) and (ii) Rapp et al. (1999) in Spanish and
French forests for two deciduous oaks (Quercus pyrenaica Willd. and Quercus lanuginosa
Lamk.) and two evergreen oaks (Quercus ilex L. and Quercus rotundifolia Lamk.).
Estimating Above-Ground Biomass of Mirbeck’s Oak (Quercus canariensis Willd.) in Kroumirie, Tunisia
163
Table 3. Comparison of above-ground biomasses for oak species in the Mediterranean basin.
Oak species
Country
Above-ground-biomass
(Mg. ha-1)
Quercus pyrenaica Willd.
Quercus lanuginosa Lamk.
Quercus ilex L.
Quercus suber L.
Spain
France
France
Tunisie (Kroumirie)
63.8–130.8
63.7
71.4
48.9–234.2
Quercus suber L.
Quercus canariensis Willd.
Spain (Saint Hilari)
Tunisie (Kroumirie)
328
168.8–267.9
References
Rapp et al. (1999)
Rapp et al. (1999)
Rapp et al. (1999)
Sebei et al.
(2001 and 2008)
Robert et al. (1996)
present study
Nevertheless, Robert et al. (1996) have showed a much higher estimated aboveground
phytomass for the cork oak trees at Saint Hilari in Spain (Table 3).
Other methods can be used to estimate the amount of biomass in forest trees. Brown and
Lugo (1984) have used stem volume to calculate biomass in tropical forests.
This methodology did not include biomass of other aboveground components and needs a
factor relating wood density which varies within trees as a function of age, site productivity,
etc. and lead to estimation errors.
To calibrate and verify the eficiency of these other methods, allometric equations must be
used, as they provide more accurate information about the existing biomass (Acosta-Mireles,
2002).
An important aspect worth considering is that allometric models developed in this study
can be used in situations of similar plant communities to estimate the amount of biomass in a
reliable way, due to the high determination coeficients obtained.
5. Conclusion
As a result of this work, we have managed to achieve one of our objectives. The work has
provided for the irst time a detailed database of total above ground biomass in Mirbeck’s oak
forests in the Kroumirie region. Such a database could be used to provide a more accurate
determination of carbon biomass stocks in these forests and improve our knowledge about
the quantitative and qualitative future of the carbon stocks in living Mirbeck’s oak forests.
A complementary study is underway to: (i) estimate the different mineral element levels in
the several components, thus to understand better the losses from the forest ecosystem and
the returns of nutrients into the soil, (ii) estimate the Net Primary Productivity (NPP) in these
deciduous forests.
Acknowledgments
This work was made possible through the help and the collaboration of all the Kroumirie’s
foresters. Our most sincere thanks go to the General Forest Direction, Jendouba, Fernana and
Aïn Draham Forest services. The English revision was done by Miss. Thouraya Maâzaoui.
164
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
References
Acosta-Mireles, M., Vargas-Hernandez, J., Velazquez-Martinez, A. and Etchevers-Barra, J.D. 2002. Aboveground
biomass estimation by means of allometric relationships in six hardwood speies in Oaxaca, Mexico. Agrociencia
36: 725–736.
Brown, S. and Lugo, A.E. 1984. Biomass of tropical forests: a new estimate based on forst volumes. Science 223
(4642): 1290–1293.
Brown, S.L., Schroeder, P. and Ken, J.S. 1999. Spatial distribution of biomass in forests of the eastern USA. Forest
Ecology and Management 123: 81–90.
Huet, S., Forgeard, F. and Nys, C. 2004. Above- and belowground distribution of dry matter and carbon biomass of
Atlantic beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in a time sequence, Ann. For. Sc. 61: 683–694.
Léonardi, S., Rapp, M., Failla, M. and Komaromy E. 1994. Organic matter and nutrient cycling within an endemic
birch stand in the Etna massif (Sicily): (Betula aetnensis Rain.). Vegetatio 111: 45–57.
Lemée, G. 1978. La hêtraie naturelle de Fontainebleau, in Lamotte, M. and Boulière, F., problèmes d’écologie:
Ecosystèmes terrestres, (eds.) Masson, Paris. 75–128.
Rawat, J.K. and Nautiyal, J.C. 1988. Forest biomass: a source of food, feed and fuel. Indian Forester 8: 429–439.
Santa Regina I. 2000. Biomass estimation and nutrient pools in four Quercus pyrenaica in Sierra de Gata
Mountains, Salamanca, Spain, Forest Ecology and Management 132: 127–141.
Robert B., Caritat A., Bertoni G., Vilar L. and Molinas M. (1996): “Nutriment content and seasonal luctuations in
the leaf component of cork oak (Quercus suber L.) litterfall”, Vegetatio, 122: 29–35.
Sebei, H., Albouchi, A., Rapp, M. and El Aouni, M.H. 2001. Évaluation de la biomasse arborée et arbustive dans
une séquence de dégradation de la subéraie a cytise de Kroumirie (Tunis) Ann. For. Sc. 58: 175–191.
Sebei, H., Albouchi, A., Rapp, M. and El Aouni, M.H. 2004. “Productivité en phytomasse du chêne liège dans une
séquence de dégradation de la subéraie à Cytise de Kroumirie (Tunis)”, Ann. For. Sc., 61: 347–361.
Sebei, H., Chaar, H., Stiti, B. and Montero, G. 2008. (in press) “Evaluation of aboveground and belowground
phytomasses of cork oak trees (Quercus suber L.) And aboveground phytomass of shrubs at Ain Snoussi,
Tunisia”. International congress- Cork Plantation, factors and traders: the past, the present and the future of the
cork business, palufreegell, Gerona, Spain, February 17–19, 2005.
Whittaker, R.H. and Woodwell, G.M. 1971. Measurements of NPP of forests in Duvignaud, P. (ed.). Productivity of
forest ecosystems. Paris: UNESCO. Pp. 159–175.
Economic Evaluation of Forest Fire Prevention
Programme in Catalonia, NE Spain
Robert Mavsar1 and Verónica Farreras2
2
1
EFIMED, Barcelona, Spain
Forest Technology Center of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain
Abstract
In Catalonia forest ires have an important environmental, economical and social impact. Due
to some extreme ire incidents in the past decade, the problems of forest ires have attracted
significant attention in the media and amongst policy makers, leading to an increasing
public concern. In the present study the welfare effect of the implementation of a program
of additional forest ire prevention measures is estimated. The proposed program would
diminish the average area of forests burnt per year and the severity of forest ires, expressed
by tree mortality. A contingent choice method was applied to elicit the marginal values of
two forest ire impact attributes (area burnt and dead trees). In addition, the respondents were
also able to select the preferred prevention type, by selecting whether the majority of the
work would be done by prescribed burning or by physical fuel reduction. The implications of
the present study may be of interest to policy makers in supporting decision-making on ire
prevention programs considering social preferences.
Keywords: Catalonia; forests; contingent choice method; physical fuel reduction; prescribed
burning; social valuation; ire prevention program.
Introduction
Catalonia is located in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula. The majority of Catalonia is
dominated by a Mediterranean climate, with cold and moist winters and dry and hot summers
(Piñol et al. 1998). Additionally, approximately 61% of Catalonia is covered by forest and
shrublands. The forests, occupying almost 38% of the territory, are dominated by different
pine (e.g. Pinus halepensis, P. sylvestris, P. nigra) and oak (Quercus ilex, Q. suber, Q.
humilis) species (Gonzalez 2006).
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
166
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
As in other parts of the Mediterranean region, one of the major environmental concerns
is the occurrence of devastating summer wildires which can cause serious ecological and
economic damage. The number of forest ires and the area affected vary considerably from
year to year (e.g. see EFFIS 2006). However, it seems that in the last decades the number
of forest fire incidents slightly increased. The driving factors for such a development
are manifold; e.g. changing climate conditions (Piñol et al. 1998), abandonment of rural
areas, expansion of fast growing species that are highly inflammable, tourism growth
and development of extensive wildland-urban interface areas (Xanthopolus et al. 2006).
Therefore the problem of forest ires is attracting more attention, relecting the increasing
public concern for this issue.
The authorities try to cope with this problem by redesigning policies1 and increasing the
financial means, with the intention of increasing the efficiency of fire extinction and to
reduce the occurring damages. For example, in 2006 the Spanish government increased the
budged for prevention and extinction measures by approximately 10% when compared to
the year before (MMA 2006, MMA2007). However, the inancial means are still very low
when compared to the damages caused by wildires. According to the Spanish annual report
on forest ires for 2005, the total damage caused by ires amounted to approximately 505
million €, while in the same year the total budged for forest ire related action was only 63.5
million €2 (MMA 2006). Would it be worth to invest more money? Would such additional
investments be supported by the society?
Another question is how to invest the money for ighting the forest ire problem. Most of
the Mediterranean countries responded to the emerging wildire problem by increasing their
extinction potentials. In Spain, for example, in 2005 around 70% of the above mentioned
budged, was devoted to extinction measures. Such an approach might help to reduce
the burned area in a “mild” ire season, but might, because of fuel accumulation, lead to
devastating ire events in more dificult seasons (Xanthopolus et al. 2006). Therefore more
efforts should be directed towards fuel reduction measures. Several methods for fuel reduction
exist. They can be broadly divided into physical removals of biomass and prescribed burning.
Physical removals are widely applied in Southern Europe, while prescribed burning is still
less known. In Spain, for example, prescribed burning is regulated and applied only in some
regions (e.g. Andalusia), while in some others it is slowly getting introduced (e.g. Catalonia)
or even totally banned (e.g. Madrid) (Xanthopolus et al. 2006).
Legal limitations, missing experience in its application, and significant restrictions
regarding smoke management3, liability issues and safety, are some of the main reasons
that prescribed burning is not a standard fuel reduction approach in the Mediterranean
region (Xanthopolus et al. 2006). In addition, most of the awareness raising and prevention
campaigns were based on the paradigm that in a forest any fire is bad and dangerous.
Therefore, forest managers are concerned that using ires for fuel management might provoke
confusion or even protests of the local population. Would the society in the Mediterranean
area accept the application of prescribed burning as a prevention method?
To answer the above stated questions the social preferences regarding forest ire prevention
measures investments and the use of different fuel reduction methods should be explored.
According to our knowledge for the Mediterranean region only Riera and Mogas (2004)
conducted a study estimating the social value of a program that would reduce ire risk. They
applied a pure referendum method for evaluating from the social point of view the acceptance
for a proposed program that would reduce by 50% the risk of forest ires in Catalonia. Their
1 For example in Spain (BOE 2005).
2 This amount does not include the budgets of the autonomous regions.
3 Smoke management are policies and practices applied for the prevention and mitigation of negative impacts of smoke produced by the application of
prescribed burning (Hardy et al. 2001)
Economic Evaluation of Forest Fire Prevention Programme in Catalonia, NE Spain
167
study showed that 63% of the sampled population would be willing to pay the estimated
extra-cost of 6 € per person and year to inance the program.
Hence, it was decided to launch a study to explore (i) whether the public would be willing
to contribute additional money to support a program that would reduce damages caused
by forest ires and (ii) whether the society has any preferences how the program should be
implemented. The study was conducted for the region of Catalonia in Spain.
Economic methods, such as choice experiments, contingent valuation method, hedonic
pricing and others, were developed to evaluate the social value or desirability for a certain
product or service (Manisield and Pattanayak 2007). In this study the contingent choice
method was used as the valuation methodology.
The next section of this paper describes the case study. Section three outlines the main
results, while the last part of the paper discusses the main results.
Methodology
Stated Preference Methods
Different stated preference methods can be used for eliciting preferences for environmental
goods. Over the last decade attribute-based methods have been developed (Louviere et
al. 2000, Hanley et al. 2001). The three most popular approaches of these ABMs are: (i)
Contingent ranking; (ii) Contingent rating, and (iii) Contingent choice. These valuation
methodologies are consistent with the welfare economic theory (Unsworth and Bishop 1994,
Holmes and Adamowicz 2003, Louviere et al. 2000, Bennett and Blamey 2001).
In this study the contingent choice method was applied. This method requires that
respondents compare two or more alternatives simultaneously from a choice set and then
choose their preferred alternative. This choice simulates the actual market behavior, such as
choosing a brand of coffee from among brands with different attributes. The alternatives to
choose from are described in a questionnaire that details the attributes to be considered, the
changes in quantity or quality levels that may occur, and a proposed payment. This payment
can be seen as a contribution towards obtaining a desired change or avoiding an undesirable
one. In this way, more than one attribute of a product is taken into account at the same time.
Contingent choice is based on the random utility maximization model (RUM) (McFadden,
1973). This model assumes that the individual’s utility is the sum of systematic (v) and
random (ε) components and can be expressed as
U j = v (x j , p j ; β ) + ε j
(1)
where Uj is the true, but unobservable, indirect utility associated with the alternative j, xj is
the vector of attributes associated with alternative j, and εj is a random error term with zero
mean. The error term represents the inluence on the individual’s choices that are known to
the individual, but unobservable to the researcher.
The probability (P) that an individual will choose the alternative j from a choice set
containing competing alternatives can be expressed as:
P ( j C ) = P(U j > U k ) = P(v j + ε j > v k + ε k ), ∀j ≠ k ∈ C
(2)
where C contains all of the alternatives in the choice set. Most often the choice probabilities
are estimated using the conditional logit model (McFadden, 1973). The regression model is
then estimated using a maximum-likelihood approximation (Hensher and Johnson, 1981).
168
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Survey Scenario
Before asking the respondents to choose their preferred alternatives, the choice context or
scenario should be explained. In this study the survey scenario explained that due to land
abandonment and changes (e.g. collecting litter and ire wood) in the use of forests, the
propagation and intensity of forest ires in Catalonia might increase in the future. Therefore
the regional government proposes to implement additional forest ire prevention measures
that would decrease the propagation and severity of forest ires in Catalonia. Furthermore,
the scenario explained that the additional prevention activities would be implemented by
fuel reduction. This reduction could be achieved by applying different methods (i) prescribed
burning and (ii) physical reduction.
Propagation and intensity of forest ires were used as attributes to describe the effects of
forest ires and of the application of prevention measures. These attributes were selected since
rate of spread and ire intensity are two primary attributes of ire behavior and their prediction
is crucial in achieving effectiveness in both wildire control and application of prevention
measures (Martins Fernandes 2001). However for the purpose of this study, these attributes
had to be expressed in terms, which would be understandable to the general public.
Tree mortality was found to be a suitable attribute for expressing the ire intensity, since it
can be related to ire behavior indicators such as intensity (Gonzalez et al. 2007). When tested
in focus groups and in personal interviews it was found that tree mortality was clear and well
understood by the participants. According to Gonzalez et al. (2007) the tree mortality in the
past forest ires in Catalonia, was around 45%. Since no reliable estimates exist of the future
development of this attribute, the above value was used to characterize the situation which
may occur in 10 years time without the implementation of additional prevention measures.
In the case of ire spread it was decided to use the average forest area affected by ires
per year. This attribute was already applied by Riera and Mogas (2004) in their study. They
found that it was suitable and well understood by the respondents. To estimate a base line
situation the average burnt area of forest per year in Catalonia was estimated. According
to the ire statistic for the period between1968–2006, the mean number of hectares affected
each year is around 11 000 or 1% of the total forest area of Catalonia (GENCAT 2007).
Not to overestimate the future situation, it was decided to use conservative estimates of the
development, of both attributes, during the next 10 years.
Choice Sets
A contingent choice experiment consists of several choice sets, each containing two or more
alternatives. The alternatives are represented by a set of attributes and each attribute can take
one of several levels. In this study three attributes were used, namely: (i) burned forest area;
(ii) tree mortality, and (iii) annual payment to inance the ire prevention measures.
Each attribute had four levels, as shown in Table 1. For the “business as usual” or status
quo situation, it was assumed that no additional ire prevention measures would be applied.
Therefore the levels for burned area and tree mortality were kept as in the current situation.
For the case of applying additional prevention measures, the levels of area burned and tree
mortality were estimated according to simulations conducted in other studies (e.g. Gonzalez
2006) and according to expert opinions. When tested in focus groups it was found that the
attribute levels appeared realistic and plausible. Payment levels were determined after personal
interviews and focus groups in which respondents stated the maximum amount they were
willing to pay for different scenarios; the extra cost for the status quo option was set to zero.
Each combination of attribute levels constitutes an alternative. There were 27 (33) possible
combinations or alternatives, excluding the status quo levels. These were randomly grouped
Economic Evaluation of Forest Fire Prevention Programme in Catalonia, NE Spain
169
Table 1. The three attributes and levels used in the contingent choice exercise.
Attribute
Description
Levels
Burned forest area
The average of burned forest area per
year in 10 years time will be
10 hectares per 1000 (status quo)
7 hectares per 1000
6 hectares per 1000
5 hectares per 1000
Dead trees
The average percentage of dead trees
in forests affected by ires in 10 years
time will be
45 dead trees per 100 (status quo)
30 dead trees per 100
25 dead trees per 100
20 dead trees per 100
Payment
The required payment per person per
year for an additional ire prevention
program
0 euros (status quo)
15 euros
30 euros
50 euros
into blocks of 2+1 (status quo). Each compound block of three alternatives contained (i)
the status quo alternative, (ii) the alternative where the majority of additional prevention
measures would be conducted by prescribed burning and (iii) the alternative where the
majority of additional prevention measures would be implemented by physical reduction of
fuels. Three different choice sets were presented to each respondent and each of the surveyed
individuals were asked to select the alternative they prefer the most within a choice set.
Figure 1 reproduces a typical choice set.
Application and Questionnaire
The population under study comprised 200 members of the general population in Catalonia.
The strata followed the age and gender structure of the population according to the
population data for the year 2006 (INE 2007). The interviews were conducted face-to-face
at the respondent’s residences in June 2007. The selection of the respondents followed a
random route procedure to select a household, and then the age and gender quotas to select
the particular individual in the household.
The irst part of the questionnaire was devoted to the presentation of the attributes to be
valued, and the way of payment and the consequences of it. The central part contained the
choice exercise as well as some debrieing questions. The inal part of the questionnaire was
designed to collect some socio-economic data of the respondents.
In the introduction the questionnaire informed about the current average area of burned
forest and tree mortality caused by forest ires in Catalonian forests. Further it showed the
expected variation of these attributes in 10 years, if the current trend would continue and no
additional measures would be taken. Next, the questionnaire informed that by implementing
additional ire prevention measures, the future ire propagation and intensity levels could be
modiied. Three alternative levels, apart from the status quo option, were offered for each
attribute (Table 1). To further familiarize the individuals with the possible levels of change,
they were asked to select the most preferred level, regardless of the cost necessary to achieve
it. In this way, it could be detected whether an attribute was considered as good or bad, and
whether the choices to be made later were consistent. In the last part of the introduction, the
170
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Figure 1. Example of a choice set presented to respondents in the contingent choice survey.
different prevention methods, namely prescribed burning and physical fuel reduction, were
presented.
In the central part of the questionnaire, the monetary attribute was introduced. It was stated
that the Catalan government was considering implementing an additional forest ire prevention
program. The achievements of this program would depend on the amount of money devoted
to it. The participants were told that the amount of resources would depend on their answers
to the questionnaire. If on average the population would be willing to contribute an amount
money to support the program, payments would be collected annually and indeinitely from the
citizens, and the money given to a foundation to be created for this purpose.
Then the respondents were presented the choice sets and asked to select their preferred
alternatives. At the end, this part also contained some debrieing questions.
Finally, the questionnaire inquired about the socio-economic characteristics of the
respondent.
The questionnaire was administrated in paper and read by the interviewer. To better explain
and present some of the topics, pictures and graphics were shown on separate cards. The
average time of the interviews was approximately 15 minutes.
Data Treatment
The regression analysis was completed by using NLOGIT 3.0 software (Green 2005) and
SPSS version 15.0 statistical package (SPSS 2006).
Economic Evaluation of Forest Fire Prevention Programme in Catalonia, NE Spain
171
Table 2. Results of the multi-nominal logit regression analysis.
Attribute
Area burnt
Tree mortality
Annual payment
ASCSQ
ASCPB
ASCPR
NOPB
Log L
Adj. Pseudo R2
Model I
Model II
Model III
-0.361*** [0.071]
-0.334*** [0.079]
-0.422*** [0.074]
1.462*** [0.393]
1.725*** [0.353]
-0.361*** [0.071]
-0.334*** [0.079]
-0.422*** [0.074]
-1.462*** [0.393]
0.266**[0.112]
- 377.99
0.266
-377.99
0.266
-0.361*** [0.071]
-0.334*** [0.079]
-0.422*** [0.074]
-2.087*** [0.489]
-0.345 [0.310]
0.507** [0.243]
-375.771
0.271
(1) Standard error in parenthesis (2) ** Denotes signiicance at 5% level; *** Denotes signiicance at 1% level
Note: the pseudo-R2 value in MNL functions is similar to R2 in conventional analysis except that signiicance occurs at lower levels. Hensher and
Johnson (1981) comment that values of pseudo-R2 between 0.2 and 0.4 are considered extremely good its.
Results
A total of 207 completed questionnaires were used in the analysis. However, before turning
to the discussion of the main results it should be noted that 52 respondents (25%) always
selected the status quo option. Most of those, selecting this alternative, where protesting
to pay for a program, which in their opinion should be inanced by the government. These
“protest answers” were omitted from the analysis; where only positive and genuine zero bids
were included.
The results of three different models estimated by the regression analysis are given in Table
2. In all of them the signs of the estimated coeficients were as expected and most of the
variables are statistically signiicant at the 99% conidence level.
The negative sign in the burnt area, tree mortality and payment variables indicate that in
average the Catalan population considers that higher values of these attributes decrease their
welfare; i.e. less burnt area and dead trees are preferred.
The different estimated models are further exploring the preferences for applying a
certain type of fuel reduction methods. These preferences, along with any other systematic
unobserved effects, are captured by the alternative speciic constants (ASC) (Blamey et al.
2000).
In total three different models were estimated. In Model I the alternatives of applying
prescribed burning (ASCPB) and physical fuel reduction (ASCPR) are compared to the
status quo alternative. Both ASCs are statistically signiicant (i.e. different from zero) and
positive. Meaning that both alternatives, where additional prevention measures are applied,
are preferred to the alternative without additional prevention.
Model II intends to estimate whether the respondents have any preferences regarding the
type of methods applied to conduct the additional forest ire prevention measures. Therefore
the alternative of applying prescribed burning was compared with two other alternatives.
Also in this model both ASC were statistically signiicant. The negative sign of the status
quo constant (ASCSQ) conirms the result of Model I, that conducting additional prevention
measures by prescribed burning is preferred to the option of no additional prevention. The
positive value and statistical signiicance of the physical fuel removal alternative (ASCPR) is
indicating that this alternative is preferred to the prescribed burning alternative.
172
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 3. Marginal values.
Attribute
Marginal value (€)
Burned forest area
Dead trees
-0.85 [-1.121,-0.63]
-0.79 [-1.041,-0.524]
(1) 95% conidence intervals in brackets; (2) Marginal values are expressed in 2007 Euros
To further inquire what might be the reason for this preference Model III was estimated.
It was based on Model II by adding the dummy variable indicating respondent’s knowledge
about prescribed burning (NOPB). This variable takes value 0 if the respondent, before
conducting this questionnaire, was not familiar with the prescribed burning method and 1 if
he was. There are no changes with regards to the status quo alternative, which remains less
desired as the prescribed burning alternative. However, the alternative speciic constant of
the physical removals is no longer statistically signiicant. This means that this alternative is
not preferred compared to the prescribed burning alternative. The explanation is given by the
NOPB variable. This variable is statistically signiicant at 95% conidence level and positive.
It expresses that individuals who were familiar with the prescribed burning method are more
likely to select this alternative.
Table 3 reports the marginal values, along with their standard errors, for the burned area
and tree mortality attributes. This marginal value can be inferred by calculating
pa =
− βa
α
(3)
, where βa is the regression coeficient of the attribute to be valued and α the coeficient of
the attribute expressed in monetary units (i.e. price) (Louiviere et al. 2001). The conidence
intervals for the marginal value for each attribute were calculated using the Krinski and Robb
(1986) procedure with 2000 repetitions.
The values indicate that (i) for a decrease of burned forest area by 1 hectare per 1000
the individual, on average, would be willing to contribute 0.85 euros per year, and (ii) for
a decrease in the average tree mortality caused by forest ires of one percentage point (e.g.
from 30 to 29 dead trees per 100), on average, the respondents would be willing to pay 0.79 €
per year.
These values might be used to estimate the value of applying different prevention scenarios.
However, it should be noted that some limitations exist. The values were estimated using
given levels for each attribute (Table 1). It is uncertain if using different levels, outside this
range, would result in same estimated values, since respondent’s perception might vary.
Discussion
In this study it was intended to explore (i) what values people place on changes of burned
forest area and decreased share of tree mortality caused by forest ires, and (ii) what are
respondents’ preferences related to applying different fuel reduction measures.
Economic Evaluation of Forest Fire Prevention Programme in Catalonia, NE Spain
173
Regarding the irst point the marginal value of the two attributes was estimated. For both
we obtained negative marginal values. This was expected, since an increase in burned area
or tree mortality was considered as having negative inluence on the individual’s utilities.
The results are consistent with the answers obtained in the introduction to the questionnaire.
There respondents were asked to select their preferred situation with regards to different levels
of burned area and tree mortality. For both attributes approximately 94% of the respondents
selected the lowest levels. Based on these results it may be concluded, that the implementation
of an additional forest fire prevention program would increase the welfare of the Catalan
population and that on average the population would be willing to pay for its implementation.
The second purpose of this study was to obtain information on the preferences the
Catalans have regarding the application of different fire prevention methods, namely
prescribed burning and physical fuel reduction. This question was of particular interest,
since prescribed burning is still not widely accepted and applied in Spain (Xanthopolus et
al. 2006). Furthermore, most awareness campaigns described any type of ire in the forest as
bad. Therefore, the concern exists that using ire for fuel management might be rejected by
the public.
However, the regression analysis results demonstrated that the public is indifferent which
method is used to implement additional prevention. This is consistent with the responses to
additional questions, where no differences were detected between the shares of respondents
supporting the use of physical fuel reduction methods and prescribed burning. Also when
explicitly asked to select which method the respondents prefer, 24% replied prescribed
burning, 36% physical removal and 26% were indifferent.
However, the results also demonstrated that a part of the population is still not informed
about the possibilities of applying ire as a management tool. Therefore it would be important
to put more efforts on information and education campaigns, before widely applying
prescribed burning.
One inal remark should be placed on how the respondents perceived the scenario applied
in this study. Fire prevention measures and the beneits of applying them might be less known
among the general population. This might cause the respondents to over- or underestimate
the effects of the application of such measures and express their support based on wrong
assumptions. We tested this by asking the respondents what, in their opinion, is the possibility
that a forest ire occurs after prevention measures have been applied. Only around 4% of the
respondents answered that it is not possible at all, while the rest considered that even after
the prevention measures have been applied forest ires may occur.
In summary, this study showed that the Catalan society considers the implementation of
additional forest ire prevention as beneicial and would support it. It also showed that both
of the proposed methods for the implementation of such program (i.e. prescribed burning and
physical fuel removal) are considered as acceptable by the society. However, more efforts
should be devoted to inform the population about the possibilities and beneits of applying
new types of prevention methods, such as prescribed burning.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the EU financed project FIRE PARADOX: An Innovative
Approach of Integrated Wildland Fire Management Regulating the Wildire Problem by the
Wise Use of Fire: Solving the Fire Paradox (FP6-018505). We would also like to thank Dr.
José Ramón Gonzalez for his suggestions, explanations and comments.
174
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
References
Bennett, J. W. and Blamey, R. K. 2001. The choice modelling approach to environmental valuation. Cheltenham,
UK: Edward Elgar Publishing,
Blamey, R. K., Bennett, J. W., Louviere, J. J.; Morrison, M. D. and Rolfe, J. 2000. A test of policy labels in
environmental choice modelling studies. Ecological Economics 32: 269–286.
BOE 2005. Real Decreto-Ley 11/2005, de 22 de julio, por el que se aprueban medidas urgentes en materia de
incendios forestales. Oficial Journal of Spain 175: 26341–26348.
GENCAT 2007. Estadístiques d’Incendis. Barcelona: Generalitat de Catalunya, Generalitat de Catalunya,
Departament de Medi Ambient i Habitatge; available from: http://mediambient.gencat.net/cat/el_medi/incendis/
EFFIS 2006. Forest Fires in Europe 2005. Ispra, Italy: European Commission – Joint Research Centre.
Gonzalez, J. R. 2006. Integrating ire risk into forest planning. Joensuu, Finland: University of Joensuu; Ph.D.
dissertation.
Gonzalez, J. R., Trasobares, A., Palahi, M. and Pukkkala, T. 2007. Predicting stand damage and tree survival in
burned forests in Catalonia (North-East Spain). Ann. For. Sci. 64: 733–742.
Greene, W. H. NLOGIT 3.0 [Computer program]. 2005. Plainview, NY: Econometric Software Inc.
Hanley, N., Mourato, S. and Wright, R. E. 2001. Choice modelling approaches: A superior alternative for
environmental valuation? Journal of Economic Surveys 15: 433–460.
Hardy, C.C., Hermann, S.M and Mutch, R.E. 2001. Smoke management guide for prescribed and wildland ire.
Boise, ID: National Wildire Coordination Group, Fire Use Working Team. 236 p.; available from: http://www.
nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/SMG/SMG-72.pdf
Hensher, D. A. and Johnson, L. W. 1981. Applied discrete choice modelling. New York: John Willey and Sons.
Holmes, T. P. and Adamowicz, W. L. 2003. Attribute-Based Methods. In: Camp, Patricia A.; Boyle, Kevin J.;
Brown, Thomas C., editors. A Primer on Nonmarket Vauation. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Pp.
171–220.
INE 2007. Cifras de población. Madrid: Instituto Nacional de Estadistica; avaliable from: http://www.ine.es
Krinsky, I. and Robb, L. 1986. On Approximating the Statistical Properties of Elasticities, The Review of
Economics and Statistics 68(4): 715–719.
Louviere, J. J., Hensher, D. A. and Swait, J. D. 2000. Stated choice methods: Analysis and applications, Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
Manisield, C. and Pattanayak, S. 2007. Getting Started. In: Kanninen, B. J. (ed.) Valuing Environmental Amenities
Using Stated Choice Studies – A Common Sense Approach to Theory and Practice. Didrecht: Springer-Verlag.
Pp. 1–20.
Martins Fernandes, P. A. 2001. Fire spread prediction in shrub fuels in Portugal. Forest Ecology and Management:
144: 67–74.
McFadden, D. L. 1973. Conditional logit analysis of qualitative choice behavior. In P. Zarembka, P. (ed.) Frontiers
in econometrics. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA. Pp 105–142.
MMA 2006. Los incendios forestales en España durante el año 2005. Madrid, Spain: Spanish Ministry of
Environment: 119 p.
MMA 2007. Los incendios forestales en España durante el año 2006 – Draft Report. Madrid, Spain: Spanish
Ministry of Environment: 26 p.
Piñol, J., Terradas, J. and Lloret, F. 1998. Climate warming, wildire hazard, and wildire occurrence in coastal
eastern Spain. Climatic Change 38: 345–357
Riera, P. and Mogas, J. 2004. Evaluation of risk reduction in forest ires in a Mediterranean region. Forest Policy
and Economics 6: 521–528.
Riera, P., J. Peñuelas, V. Farreras and M. Estiarte. 2007. Valuation of climate-change effects on Mediterranean
shrublands. Ecological Applications: 17:91–100.
SPSS. 2006. SPSS 15.0 [Computer program]. Chicago, IL: LEAD Technologies Inc.
Unsworth, R.E and Bishop, R.C. 1994. Assessing natural resource damages using environmental annuities.
Ecological Economics 11 (1):35–41.
Xanthopolus, G., Caballero, D., Galante, M., Alexandrian, D., Rigolot, E. and Marzano, R. 2006. Forest Fuels
Management in Europe. In: Andrews, Patricia L.; Butler, Bret W., comps. Fuels Management – How to Measure
Success: Conference Proceedings. 28–30 March 2006; Portland, OR. Proceedings RMRS-P-41. Fort Collins,
CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Rocky Mountaisn Research Station. Pp. 29–46.
Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Modeling for Impact Assessment
in the Context of Sustainable Forest Management:
A Greek Case Study
V. Kazana1, A. Kazaklis2, Th. Merou1, I. Takos1
1
Technological Education Institute of Kavala, Department of Forestry and Natural
Environment Management, Drama, Greece
2
Centre for Integrated Environmental Management, Thessaloniki, Greece
Abstract
Most decisions in the context of sustainable multiple use forest management need to be
derived after consideration of various impacts, including environmental, socio-economic and
institutional. Moreover, very often some impact values are expressed in fuzzy terms. This
paper presents a fuzzy multi-criteria approach based on spatially referenced indicator models
to assess sustainability of forest management actions by considering different multiple
impacts. The approach is tested in a Greek case study. Different impacts of a complex forest
restoration project following a big forest ire in Kassandra of Halkidiki in Northern Greece
were traded-off to measure the performance of the “project option” versus the “no project
option” toward forest management sustainability. Implementation of the model suggested
that the “project option” contributes more to forest management sustainability than the “no
project option” and therefore the forest management Authorities should adopt it.
Keywords: spatial impact indicator models; multiple use forest management
1. Introduction
The most complicated decisions from the operational point of view managers of the
Mediterranean forests have to make are associated with their efforts to evaluate ex-ante, expost or on-going projects and/ or activities in the context of sustainable multiple use forest
management. This is mainly due to the fact that most of the existing evaluation tools can
hardly measure the contribution of forestry projects and/ or activities to forest management
sustainability, because they fail to incorporate all their different types of impacts, such as
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
176
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
environmental, social and economic, as these are usually different at different spatial
scales, time scales and levels of aggregation. In addition, most of the attributes related to
environmental, social and economic forestry project impacts are vague, subjective, intangible
or uncertain.
The best known and most commonly used analytic tool since the 1960s to address the welfare
economics issues has been the Cost-Beneit Analysis. However, the application of Cost-Beneit
Analysis for forestry project evaluation in the context of sustainable forest management poses
several problems, which are dificult to overcome, such as the appropriate decision rule (Net
Present Value, Internal Rate of Return, etc), the forest discount rate, the treatment of risk
and the distribution issue (Gregersen 1992; Bonnieux et al. 2004). The need to also consider
environmental issues in forestry project evaluation analysis since the late sixties has stimulated
the search for other analytic tools. Several methods appeared to allow monetization of nonmarket values in order to include those in the Cost Beneit Analysis framework (Johansson
1993; Cornelis van Kooten 1995; Cesaro et al. 1998; Campos et al. 2007). However, several
philosophical/ethical issues have arisen in many cases with this type of analysis. Multi-Criteria
Analysis was presented then as the alternative to Cost-Beneit Analysis.
Multi Criteria Analysis was originated from the Operations Research ield and includes
several methods, which usually provide alternative solutions (trade-off information) in
relation to many different, often conlicting, objectives under various types of constraints
(Cohrane and Zeleny 1973; Keeney and Raiffa 1976; Zeleny 1981; Reza and Steiner 1988;
Pukkala and Miina 1997; Borges and Hoganson 1999; Kurtilla et al. 2002; Kazana et al.
2003; Falcao and Borges 2005). Multi Criteria Analysis provides a more realistic framework
for decision- making analysis than Cost-Beneit Analysis. However, at the operational level
forestry project evaluation in the context of sustainable forest management requires balancing
against each other and integrating the many usually vague, subjective, intangible, little known
and uncertain factors associated to sustainability, so as to measure the relative contribution of
the project under concern to forest management sustainability. Fuzzy logic can be used in this
respect to form useful operational decision making tools, as fuzzy models are word based,
nonlinear changeable and analog (ambiguous), not digital (yes/no). In other words, fuzzy
logic provides answers of “maybe” type and values range anywhere from 0 (NO) to 1 (YES),
while crisp sets can handle only 0s and 1s and the answer is either “YES” or “NO”. Fuzzy
Sets handle all values between 0 and 1 and the answer can be “no”, “slightly”, “somewhat”,
“sort of”, “a few”, “mostly”, “yes”, “absolutely” (Bellman and Zadeh 1971; Dubois and
Prade 1988; Smith 1994; Cornelissen et al. 2000; Phillis and Andriantiachaholiniaina 2001;
Kazana et al. 2005; Mendoza and Martins, 2006). A model of this type has been developed
through MEDMONT, an EU funded research project to assess project sustainability in
mountain Mediterranean areas.
2. The MEDMONT multi-criteria fuzzy model for forestry projects
sustainability assessment
The MEDMONT multi-criteria fuzzy model is part of the MEDMONT integrated evaluation
framework for project sustainability assessments in the mountain Mediterranean areas
(Kazana et al. 2005).
MEDMONT relates target groups with the project evaluation and monitoring processes and
tools by integrating three dimensions: spatial scale, level of aggregation (or level of detail)
and method of approach (top-down and bottom up). It involves: i) a natural resource base
and capability evaluation, ii) a socio-economic evaluation, iii) an institutional evaluation,
Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Modeling for Impact Assessment in the Context of Sustainable Forest Management...
177
iv) a green accounting evaluation, v) a social preference evaluation and vi) an integrated
evaluation based on Multiple Criteria Analysis and Fuzzy Logic.
With regard to spatial scale MEDMONT is based on the concept of spatial entities, that
is, spatial units meaningful for development analyses. These entities are formed to relect
the dynamic relationship that exists between the spatial patterns of natural resources and the
socioeconomic spatial activity patterns at any certain geographic location. Spatial entities
generally exhibit homogenous human impact history and present similar development
opportunities and/or restrictions and also respond in similar ways to development changes.
A four-level hierarchical spatial system is used involving the landscape region, the landscape
system, the landscape type and the ecotope. The landscape system typology involves
minimum mapping units of 1–5 km2 and a pattern of ecosystems described with physiographic
attributes. The landscape type typology uses as the major deining parameter the land use/
cover and minimum mapping units of 200 m2, while ecotopes are recognizable subunits of
ecosystem types with minimum mapping units of some m2. The level of aggregation (or level
of detail) is expressed in the form of a hierarchy of processes and a measure of aggregation
of processes. Generic landscape systems and types were identiied for the entire European
Mediterranean mountain region and used to construct Natural Resource Evaluation Models
(NREM) for forestry, agriculture, grazing, recreation, water/soil and wildlife corresponding
to high level of aggregation. The suitability/ impact values of the NREM models may range
from 1 to 20 with 20 representing the highest possible suitability/ impact value. The model
values represent the relative suitability/ impact of any spatial entity characterized by a
particular landscape system/ landscape type combination to sustain a relative level of any
selected indicators for a particular resource. These values also represent the importance of
possible negative or positive impacts of any resource/ indicator/ spatial entity. For illustration
purposes, Tables 1 and 4 show the NREM suitability/ impact indicator models for forestlands
(Kazaklis and Kazana, 2004). Similarly socio-economic, green accounting and institutional
impact indicators were spatially referenced for the landscape system and landscape type
spatial scales, called Human Resource Impact Evaluation Models (HRIEM).
The MEDMONT fuzzy multi-criteria evaluation model provides forestry project
sustainability impact assessments by considering the dynamics of two subsystems, the natural
resource impact changes and the human impact changes (Figure 1).
The overall project sustainability is then, in this respect, a nonlinear function of the
individual constituents’ sustainability and it is constructed logically by using fuzzy logic.
Specialist experts using the MEDMONT spatially referenced impact indicator models
evaluate each subsystem. Natural resource impact changes are estimated with the NREM
and the human impact changes are estimated with the HRIEM in the form of a composite
indicator, the Estimated Impact Units (EIUs). EIUs are calculated for each alternative
including the “no project option” by multiplying the corresponding indicator rating by the
land parcel area affected by the alternative under evaluation (Kazaklis and Kazana 2004).
Indicator impact units are assessed as % loss or % gain from a baseline condition, which
is always the “no project option” (Kazana et al. 2005). The combination of the impact loss
and impact gain by means of fuzzy logic provides a measurement of sustainability for each
subsystem. Therefore, in the model’s general form, 8 secondary linguistic variables (AGRimp,
FORimp, RANGEimp, WATERimp, RECimp, WLIFEimp, SECONimp, INSTimp) are considered to
obtain the two primary linguistic variables, the natural resource impact change (NRESimp)
and the human resource impact change (HRESimp).
To assess a forestry project sustainability three primary linguistic variables are used,
NRESimp, HRESimp and the Project Sustainability Impact Assessment, PSIA. The primary
linguistic variables take the linguistic values Very Low (=VL); Low (=L); Moderate (=M);
High (=H); and Very High (=VH).
178
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
PSIA
Social Preferences
Spatial NREM
Agriculture
lands
Spatial HRIEM
Wildlife
Socio
economic
Forest
lands
Institutional
Water
Graze
lands
Recreation
Figure 1. Constituents of forestry project sustainability in Mediterranean forest areas.
The linguistic values for the secondary linguistic variables are Non Signiicant (=NS),
Little Significant (=LS), Moderately Significant (=MS); Significant (= S); and Very
Signiicant (=VS). Each secondary variable is the fuzzy combined result of two variables
denoting impact Loss or impact Gain from the baseline condition (no project option). For
example, FORimp is the result of FORimp_L and FORimp_G, which take on similar to FORimp
linguistic values.
Triangular membership functions are used for the secondary variables and trapezoidal
functions are used for the primary variables to represent the increased uncertainty involved
in the computation.
To fuzzify the Estimated Impact Unit (EIU) value, in the Gain case, the land parcel area
affected by the project multiplies the maximum possible value, which could be obtained. By
applying the following formula the max EIUs are estimated, which correspond to the value
of 1. The EIU value is then fuzziied by deduction. In the Loss case, the min value, that is, 0
is taken.
( EIUs-max for alternative Pi) - ( EIUs for baseline condition) x100
(EIUs for baseline condition)
The value of each primary linguistic variable is given by the average aggregation of the
estimated values of the secondary linguistic variables.
Simulation of the evolution of the system is represented by rules of the form of “IF
(antecedents) – THEN (consequent)”, where the implication operator “THEN” and the
connectives “AND” among antecedents are fuzzy. The rules are expressions of the role of
interdependencies among different kinds of project impact changes. To determine PSIA, the
Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Modeling for Impact Assessment in the Context of Sustainable Forest Management...
179
contribution of the forestry project to sustainable forest management, the rule base needs 52=
25 rules, because there are 5 linguistic values and 2 variables. Different linguistic rule bases
can be built according to knowledge acquisition (social preferences).
To express quantitatively the fuzzy rules the “AND”, “OR”, or “IF-THEN” connectives
may be used. The connective “OR” is expressed by the max-max operator, while the “AND”
connective by the γ-operator deined as γ-operator = γ-minimum + (1-γ) maximum, where
γ є [0.1]. If γ=0.5, equal weight on the maximal and minimal values is assigned. Smaller
values of γ emphasize the maximum and larger values emphasize the minimum. Finally,
defuzziication, which is the inal operation to convert membership grades into a single
crisp value, is done with the center-of gravity formula, as it complies with the averaging
process used before fuzziication of the input. So, the crisp value for project contribution to
sustainable development is given by
Def (TPSIA ) =
∑y
j
⋅ μ ΤPSIA ( y j )
∑μ
i
TPSIA
(y j )
j
Where, yj is the value of the jth element of the fuzzy set TPSIA, and μT(PSIA) (yj) is the
membership grade of the jth element of the fuzzy set TPSIA.
The fuzzy MEDMONT model runs with the MATLAB fuzzy toolbox.
3. A Greek forestry project case study
The MEDMONT fuzzy multi-criteria project sustainability impact assessment model
is demonstrated in a real forest restoration project in the province of Halkidiki, Greece
(Figure 2).
The project concerns the restoration of the Agia Paraskevi – Pefkohori burnt pine forest
area, extended over 1735 ha in the Pallini Municipality of Kassandra, Halkidiki in Northern
Greece. The main objectives of the restoration Agia Paraskevi-Pefkohori burnt area project
are to prevent soil erosion and lood damages to the nearby residential areas, to reduce the
forest ire risk and to quickly restore the burnt forest area.
In order to achieve the objectives the project involves the following tasks:
• Removal of the burnt and damaged wood
• Construction of brush dams and bole dams in the burnt areas of high ire risk for soil
erosion protection from the dead trees found on site or transported from neighbouring sites
(life duration 5 years)
• Construction of small wooden dams for lood protection (life duration 5 years)
• Construction of small concrete dams (life duration 20 years)
• Natural regeneration of the pine burnt forests of the area. This process involves
silvicultural regimes, such as wide sowing using seeds all over the surface (1 kg seed/
0.1 ha) or sowing in rectangles (0.3 m × 0.5 m × 0.15 m) with the largest side along the
isoclines and supplementary planting with seedlings.
This type of project is quite typical in high ire risk Mediterranean forest areas, such as
Halkidiki. The total cost of the project amounted to 1 014 675 Euros and it was covered fully
by public funding.
The project sustainability impact is assessed in comparison to the no-project alternative
(baseline condition).
180
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
GREECE
Kassandra
Figure 2. Location map of the Kassandra-Halkidiki study area, northern Greece.
Tables 1, 2 and 3 show the selected forestlands and rangelands, as well as the
socioeconomic impacted indicators by the forest restoration project. Selection was made
using the MEDMONT NREM and HRIEM models at the landscape spatial scale. For
demonstration purposes in this paper only the forest lands and the rangelands impacts were
estimated to record the natural resource impact change and only the socio-economic impacts
to record the human resource impact change.
Once the values of the secondary linguistic variables FORimp, RANGEimp and SECONimp
are estimated for the Restoration of the Agia Paraskevi-Pefkohori burnt forest area project,
the MEDMONT multi-criteria fuzzy model is run with the MATLAB fuzzy toolbox and the
degree of the project contribution to sustainable multiple use forest management of the area
on a scale from 0 to 100 is computed. Figure 3 presents the inal output value (PSIA value)
for the two alternatives, that is, project/ no project of the project under concern.
A linguistic rule base, where the maximal value of one variable dominates all others was
used to estimate the inal output (PSIA value). On the basis of social preferences, more weight
was put on the natural resource impact changes over the human resource impact changes.
The inal PSIA value implies that the project option after balancing the natural resource and
the human resource impacts is more preferable in forest management sustainability terms. In
other words, a rational forest manager should select the project option, since this contributes
more to forest management sustainability of the area than the no project option.
The MEDMONT fuzzy multi-criteria model is an easy to use tool from the operational
point of view for assessing project impacts in the context of sustainable multiple use forest
management. In addition, as the project sustainability constituents are based on the natural
resource, socio-economic and institutional evaluation base of the MEDMONT framework
makes it consistent with sustainable mountain development.
Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Modeling for Impact Assessment in the Context of Sustainable Forest Management...
181
Table 1. Forest lands impacted indicators- Forest Restoration Project Agia Paraskevi- Pefkohori,
Halkdiki, Greece.
Forest lands impacted indicators
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Conservation of soil/moisture
Conservation of landscape aesthetic value
Conservation of water quality
Preservation of air quality
Prevention of soil erosion
Prevention of catastrophic loods
Prevention of wildires
Prevention of landslides and avalanches
Wood production
Production of nut and other food types (for human and wild fauna consumption)
Production of seeds
Table 2. Rangelands impacted indicators- Forest Restoration Project Agia Paraskevi- Pefkohori,
Halkdiki, Greece.
Rangelands impacted indicators
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Herbage production
Browse production
Livestock related production
Conservation of soil/moisture
Conservation of lora biodiversity
Conservation of landscape values
Improvement of soil fertility
Improvement of rangeland production (quality/ quantity)
Table 3. Socioeconomic impacted indicators –Forest Restoration Project Agia Paraskevi-Pefkohori,
Halkidiki, Greece.
Socioeconomic impacted indicators
1. Intermediate consumption / ha
2. Ordinary output/ ha
3. Quality of products/ ha
4. Outdoor activities/ ha
The MEDMONT fuzzy multi-criteria model can also be uniformly applied to all levels of
decision making and to a wide variety of project categories. Finally, social preferences are
incorporated in the evaluation process to balance the impact changes between the natural and
the human resources, expressed through the linguistic rule base of the model.
182
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
1
0.9
0.8
PSIA
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
no project
project
Figure 3. Project impact assessment in terms of multiple use forest management sustainability- Forest
Restoration Project Agia Paraskevi- Pefkohori, Halkdiki, Greece
4. Conclusions
The MEDMONT fuzzy multi-criteria model is a tool which can be used to balance and
integrate environmental, social and economic project impacts in the context of sustainable
multiple use forest management. The model structure is based on fuzzy logic and therefore
the model can successfully deal with attributes related to project impacts that are vague,
subjective, intangible or uncertain.
The constituents of the project sustainability draw upon the Natural Resource Evaluation
Models (NREM) and the Human Resource Impact Evaluation Models (HRIEM) of the
MEDMONT integrated evaluation framework. As a result of this the model is consistent
with mountain sustainable development, is applicable to a variety of project categories and
it can be uniformly applied to all levels of decision- making. The model also incorporates
social preferences in the evaluation process to balance natural resource and human resource
impacts, expressed through its linguistic rule base.
Acknowledgements
The present paper is part of “Tools for evaluating investment in the Mediterranean mountain
areas. An integrated framework for sustainable development – MEDMONT” (QLK5 – CT2000-01031), undertaken in collaboration with the MAI.Ch - CIHEAM (Dr. Vassiliki Kazana
(coordinator) and Mr. Angelos Kazaklis, University of Padova (Prof. Maurizio Merlo, Dr.
Paola Gatto and Dr. L. Croitorou), INRA (Dr. Francois Bonnieux and Dr. Jean-Cristophe
Paoli), CSIC (Dr. Pablo Campos Palacin) and University of Ljubljana (Prof. Lidija Zadnik).
The paper is also part of “ Project Evaluation for Sustainable Development and
Management of Mountain Areas – A Decision Support System” undertaken at the
Technological Education Institute of Kavala, Greece (“EPEAEK, ARCHIMEDES I, Dr.
Vassiliki Kazana (co-ordinator), Mr. Angelos Kazaklis, Prof. Ioannis Takos, Dr. Theodora
Merou, Prof. Nikos Eleftheriadis, Prof. Vassilis Papanastasis).
Landscape systems
1*
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Alluvia 0-300m
Alluvia 300-800m
Alluvia 800-1800m
Alluvia >1800m
Soft Sedimentary Rocks 0–300m
Soft Sedimentary Rocks 300–800m
Soft Sedimentary Rocks 800–1800m
Soft Sedimentary Rocks >1800m
Hard Sedimentary Rocks 0–300m
Hard Sedimentary Rocks 300–800m
Hard Sedimentary Rocks 800–1800m
Hard Sedimentary Rocks >1800m
Igneous Rocks 0–300m
Igneous Rocks 300–800m
Igneous Rocks 800–1800m
Igneous Rocks >1800m
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks 0–300m
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks 300–800m
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks 800–1800m
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks >1800m
12
17
14
11
15
19
17
16
14
17
15
10
13
15
14
12
16
11
14
14
12
18
13
18
13
13
16
16
14
18
16
14
16
14
19
16
13
15
18
15
16
14
15
15
15
16
14
14
12
14
17
13
14
16
17
15
10
13
14
11
15
15
17
11
14
15
16
15
17
14
17
11
12
17
14
12
12
18
15
15
17
13
14
18
16
15
14
17
15
15
12
13
15
13
17
15
12
13
16
14
15
15
14
15
13
18
13
11
15
14
14
13
17
11
15
13
16
13
13
12
14
14
12
14
16
12
15
18
14
14
10
14
14
15
15
14
12
12
12
11
16
14
16
17
13
15
15
17
17
14
14
18
17
14
16
19
17
14
14
18
13
17
12
13
12
15
16
13
16
15
15
13
13
14
14
16
12
15
12
16
16
14
14
13
15
13
10
16
12
14
13
16
14
16
13
16
13
16
11
16
17
13
14
18
16
15
14
17
15
15
12
13
15
13
17
15
12
13
16
14
* Values correspond to the 11 forest land impacted indicators reported in Table 1
Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Modeling for Impact Assessment in the Context of Sustainable Forest Management...
Table 4. Generic Mediterranean Forest resource suitability/ impact evaluation model (MEDMONT NREM)
183
184
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
References
Bonnieux, F., Paoli, J.C, Fouet, J.P., Giamarchi, M.P., Guerrier, C., Madelaine-Dupuich, V., Campos, P., Caparros,
A., Croitorou, L., Gatto, P., Gil, P., Hatzaskou, E., Kazana, V., Kuzmin, P., Martin, D., Merlo, M., Montero, G.,
Umek. M. and Venuda, M. 2004. Investment project evaluation: social and economic indicators for sustainable
development. WP6 scientiic report, MEDMONT project, DG-Research, Brussels. http://www.maich.gr/
medmont
Bellman, R. and Zadeh, L. 1971. Decision Making in a Fuzzy Environment. Management Science 17: 141–164.
Borges, J.G. and Hoganson, H.M. 1999. Assessing the impact of management unit design and adjacency constraints
on forest wide spatial conditions and timber revenues. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 29(11): 1764–1774.
Campos, P., Bonnieux, F., Caparros, A. and Paoli, J.C. 2007. Measuring total sustainable incomes from
multifunctional management of Corscican Maritime pine and Andalusian cork oak Mediterranean forests.
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 50(1): 65–85.
Cesaro L., Cistulli V., Merlo M. and Pettenella D. 1998. A Stepwise Procedure for Cost Beneit Analysis (CBA)
of Forestry and Soil/ Moisture Conservation (SMC) Projects. In: Tikkanen, I. and Pajari, B. (eds.) Future Forest
Policies in Europe Balancing Economics and Ecological Demands. EFI Proceedings 22.
Cohrane, L.J. and Zeleny, M. 1973. Multiple Criteria Decision Making. University of South Carolina Press.
Cornelissen, A.M.G., Van den Berg, J., Koops, W.J, Grossman, M. and Udo, H.M.J. 2000. Assessment of
sustainable development: a novel approach using fuzzy set theory. Erasmus Research Institute of Management
(ERIM) Report Series Research in Management.
Dubois, D. and Prade, H. 1988. Possibility theory. An approach to computerized processing of uncertainty. Plenum
Press, N. York.
Falcao, A.O and Borges, J.G. 2005. Designing decision support tools for Mediterranean forest ecosystems
management: a case study in Portugal. Annals of Forest Science 62: 751–760.
Gregersen H. and Contreras A. 1992. Economic Assessment of Forestry Projects Impacts, FAO Forestry papers
106, FAO Rome.
Johansson P.O. 1993. Cost-Beneit Analysis of Environmental Change, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
Kazaklis, A. and Kazana, V. 2004. Natural Resources Expert Model (NREM): A two-scale level, spatially
referenced capability model for investment evaluation in the Mediterranean mountain areas. MEDMONT WP4/5
Part A Report, EU-DG Research, Brussels. 90 p.
Kazana, V., Fawcett, R.H. and Mutch, W.E.S. 2003. A decision support modelling framework for multiple use forest
management: The Queen Elizabeth forest case study in Scotland. European Journal of Operational Research
148(1):102–115.
Kazana, V., Bonnieux, F., Campos-Palacin, P., Croitorou, L., Gatto, P., Kazaklis, A., Merlo, M., Paoli, J.C. and
Zadnik, L. 2005. MEDMONT: Tools for evaluating investment in the mountain Mediterranean areas – An
integrated framework for sustainable development. Final Report, EU DG-Research, Brussels. 255 p. http://www.
maich.gr/medmont
Keeney, R.L and Raiffa, H. 1976. Decisions with multiple objectives: Preferences and value tradeoffs. Chichester:
J. Wiley & Sons.
Kurtilla, M., Pukkala, T. and Loikkanen, J. 2002. The performance of alternative spatial objective types in forest
planning calculations: a case for lying squirrel and moose. Forest Ecology and Management 166(1–3): 245–260.
Mendoza, G.A. and Martins, H. 2006. Multi-criteria decision analysis in natural resource management: A critical
overview of methods and new modelling paradigms. Forest Ecology and Management 230 (1–3): 1–22.
Phillis, Y.A. and Andriantiachaholiniaina, L.A. 2001. Sustainability: an ill-deined concept and its assessment using
fuzzy logic. Ecological Economics 37: 435–456.
Reza, K. and Steiner, H.M. 1988. Resource analysis in Project Evaluation: A Multicriteria Approach. Journal of
Operational Research Society 39: 795–803.
Smith, P.N. 1994. Applications of fuzzy sets in the Environmental Evaluation of Projects, Journal of Environmental
Management 42: 365–388.
Zeleny, M. 1981. Multiple Criteria Decision Making. McGraw Hill, N. York.
Production Potentiality in Fruits, Biomass, Oil,
Essential Oil and Medicinal Properties of the Mastic Tree
(Pistacia lentiscus) in Kroumirie, N-W Tunisia
Youssef Saidi, Foued Hasnaoui, and Brahim Hasnaoui
Institut Sylvo, Pastoral de Tabarka, Tunisia
Abstract
The mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus) is a natural species from the anacardiaceous family. In
the Mediterranean area, it’s a well-known shrub, which generally grows with Erica arborea,
Arbutus unedo, Cistus salviifolius, Phillyrea latifolia and Myrtus communis.
In Tunisia, the mastic tree grows spontaneously in the North West of Tunisia and Cap Bon
but we can ind it in some other localities such as Séliana, Krib, Teboursouk, Testour and at
the gate of the desert: Matmata, Bouhedma.
To give an idea about the potentialities (cover, bio volume, bio mass) of this species, some
studies have been realised. They have shown a cover of 600 m²/ha, a bio volume of 1000 m3/
ha, a production of dry material 800 Kg/ha and an average fruit production of 1 to 1.5 tonnes/
ha. This species is wanted for its fruits, its resin and its essential oil extracted from the leaves.
The fruit has an edible kernel. From this fruit we can extract a ixed oil. Its yield varies from
8 to 18%. Yields of essential oil are affected by two factors: Drying and cutting. A survey
realised with the population of the North West of Tunisia has speciied the different medicinal
properties of this species.
Keywords: mastic tree; production; distillation; medicinal properties.
1. Introduction
The understorey of the Tunisian North West forests is very varied. It is essentially composed
of Pistacia lentiscus, Myrtus communis, Erica arborea, etc. In general, each of these species
is used for a very speciic end: Mastic tree for its essential oil and extracted oil from its fruits,
the myrtle for its essential oil, and the heather for manufacturing pipes.
EFI Proceedings No. 57, 2009
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Marc Palahí, Yves Birot, Felipe Bravo and Elena Gorriz (eds.)
186
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
To valorise this very varied understorey, we were interested in the production potentiality
of fruits, biomass, biovolume, cover, essential oil and the different medicinal utilizations
of the mastic tree. The essential oil is extracted from leaves. The extraction process used is
extraction by steam. The vegetal or ixed oil is extracted in a traditional way after crushing
and puriication.
2. Material and methods
2.1 Plant material
2.1.1 Presentation of the mastic tree
The mastic tree belongs to the Anacardiacea family, which contains about 600 species
and more than 70 kinds. Its natural range is discontinuous and has four phytogeographical
regions: the Mediterranean, Irano - touranienne, Sino-Japanese and Mexican regions.
Around the Mediterranean Sea, there are about 6 species. In the West it can be limited to
the Canary Islands and in the North, to Portugal, Spain, France, Italy and Greece. In North
Africa, it ends in the zones where we can ind Juniperus oxycedrus. It is rare in Tripoli; but
it becomes abundant in Cyrenaïc region. In Tunisia, the mastic tree grows spontaneously
in the North of Tunisia and the Cap Bon; but we ind it in some other regions like Séliana,
Krib, Teboursouk, Testour; and at the gate of the desert: Matmata, Bouhedma. The species
is represented by trees or shrubs, but rarely as a climbing plant and never as an herbaceous
plant. The bark, wood and other parts are especially developed. They produce some
substantial resins. We meet Pistacia lentiscus and Pistacia terebenthus in Tunisia.
The Anacardiaceas family is classiied as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Embranchement: Spermaphytes;
Under embranchement: Angiosperme;
Class: Magnolipsides (dicotylédones);
Order: Apetalous
Family: Anacardiacea;
Genre: Pistacia;
species: lentiscus;
Vernaculaire Name: Arabic Name: therou. ()ورذ
French Name: lentisque; arbre à mastic.
2.1.2 Botanical characteristics
It is a vivacious shrub, often in the state of a small shrub that can exceptionally reach a height
of 7 to 8 meters; garnished with narrow small leaves that spread a pleasant perfume. Leaves
are evergreen.
Bark: The bark is resinous and has a reddish or grey colour
Wood: The wood of the mastic tree is hard. It is not used for construction, but it gives an
excellent charcoal.
Leaves: Leaves are paripinnate, 3 to 12 lealets, with dark green colour, shiny at the upper
part, are 2 to 4 cm long and 7 to 15 mm in size. The total length of the leaf can be 6 to 10 cm
and a total width of 3 to 7 cm.
Production Potentiality in Fruits, Biomass, Oil, Essential Oil and Medicinal Properties of the Mastic Tree...
187
Fruits: The spherical fruits are irst green, then red and black at maturity; often used for
the extraction of oil and contain some small edible almonds. The berry of these fruits is used
for the manufacture of perfumes. This fruit is also very appreciated by livestock (particularly
goats and sheep).
Inlorescence: Flowering begins at the end of January, beginning of February and lasts for
about one month (exceptionally certain trees can bloom very late: end of April and beginning
of May). The male trees carry small reddish lowers in which we can ind 3 to 5 stamens
whose anthers are voluminous. The female trees have lowers composed of round ovaries,
surmounted by short styles with three stigmas.
2.1.3 Geographical distribution and ecological requirements
It is a Mediterranean species, well-known in the northern part of Tunisia: Kroumirie, Mogods,
Zaghouan, Siliana, the region of Kesra, Le Cap Bon and even in the south of the country, in
southern exposure (Matmata and Bouhedma).
It is a semiarid to sub-humid level species; with hot to moderate variants. We ind it in the
humid, under low level in its soft winter variant from 600 mm/year. It remained frequent in
the entire upper semiarid. By small localities, it is present up to less than 300 mm/year. In
arid regions with desert climate, it remains rare except in the case where there are certain
compensating factors (temporarily humid lump, clayey substratum or clayey Limon).
It is generally indifferent to soil, but likes the heavy, calcareous clay and clayey soils. In
Kroumirie, it is abundant in humid cork-oak forests up to an altitude of 600 m. Over this
altitude, it is stressed by the cold weather and snow but it bears cold weather and humidity
better than wild olive trees (Olea europeae).
2.2 Methods
2.2.1 Survey for mastic tree fruit production potentialities
This survey has been conducted in the Kroumirie – Mogods cork oak forest; especially in
Tabarka, Ain Drahem, Bellif and Tebabba forests. Eight stationary plots of 5000 m2 have
been selected and distributed on different regions of Kroumirie. In every plot, the following
measurements have been taken: the clump diameter, its height and its fruits location.
Fruits productions: Sex of the clump is determined and fruits are picked and weighted.
Colour of the fruits determine the maturity stage: black (mature), red (premature) and green
(non mature).
The site of every clump has been listed to follow the production according to years. The
evaluation of the production in fruits has been made during four successive years.
2.2.2 Survey of cover, biovolume and dry biomass
To value the cover, the biovolume and the dry biomass of every understory (Pistacia
lentiscus, Myrtus communis, Erica arborea, Erica scoparia, Phillyrea latifolia) 40 plots of
16 m², were randomly distributed on a map with a scale of 1/50 000 and then in the ield
(Saidi et al 2006).
In every plot, the following measurements were taken: the diameter of the clump, its height
and its sex.
188
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
For every mentioned species, at least forty different bio volume clumps have been cut
and weighted to estimate their distilled dry biomass (Luis-Calabuig 1987). A sample of 2
kilograms for every species have been cut then dried in an oven for 72 hours at a temperature
of 100°.
The relation between the biovolume and dry biomass is established by regression for every
species.
To determine the distillable dry biomass, we weighted the distillable part which contains
leaves and the woody part. It was dried in an oven at 100° for 72 hours to help establish the
relation between the biovolume, dry biomass and the distillable one.
2.2.3 Survey of essential oils
The essential oils are fragrant volatile substances in plants. They can be located in leaves as
well as in barks. Four types of distillation tests have been performed during the spring period
and conducted in this way:
•
•
•
•
First test: fresh material.
Second test: pounded fresh material.
Third test: crunched material after 4 days from the date of the picking.
Fourth test crunched material after 6 days from the date of the picking.
The protocol repetition of this experiment is four times. The principal aim of this protocol is
to test the effect of the cutting and the turning into the essential oil yield.
After every distillation, we measured the EOV. The output in essential oils is expressed
in litre/ton. It represents the quantity extracted from the anhydrous weight after turning of
pounded material. Mastic tree essential oils are less dense than water and can be separated by
decantation after cooling the distillate.
The separation of the essential oil from the distillate (loral water), is made by a separator,
then by a decantation ampoule. The measure of the collected quantity is done by means of a
test-tube. The pure essential oil is kept in a coloured well-closed small glass bottle. A steam
distiller with a capacity of 200 litters is used.
Humidity ratio = [(total biomass – dry biomass)/total biomass] × 100. PH is calculated by a
pH paper. Density = (weight of 10 ml) / (volume = 10 ml).
2.2.4 Survey on mastic tree’s medicinal qualities
An investigation has been conducted in the entire North West of Tunisia, relating to the yield
of oil, the use of the mastic tree in all its shapes, concerning all ages and social classes.
People were surveyed in one hundred households by delegation. It essentially covered regions
of Sédjnane, Nefza, Tabarka, Aïn Draham, Fernana and Gahrdimaou. The investigation took
4 years (2002–2006).
2.2.5 Harvesting of the resin
The resin is normally secreted by the plant. The bark of the trunk slightly incised secretes a
resin which has a pleasant smell. This incision enables its escape; but it is possible to harvest
it in autumn when it’s presented as whitish small balls.
Production Potentiality in Fruits, Biomass, Oil, Essential Oil and Medicinal Properties of the Mastic Tree...
189
Table 1. Mastic tree production potentialities compared to some other shrub species.
Variable
Species
Erica arborea
Phillyrea latifolia
Myrtus communis
Erica scoparia
Pistacia lentiscus
cover
in m²/ha
biovolume
in m3/ha
dry biomass
in kg/ha
1734
1395
1000
653
600
2757
2123
1340
1087
1000
2269
1844
931
1032
800
2.2.6 Oil analysis
Oil analysis has been made by the laboratory of Tunisian Oil Ofice. 12 samples have been
selected from different areas of the Kroumirie and were analysed to get the maximum yield
of oil and chemical composition.
3. Results
3.1 Mastic tree production potentialities
The measured parameters in the field (clump Diameter, Height, Weight) permitted us
to calculate the cover in m²/ha, the biovolume in m3/ha and the dry biomass in Kg/ha. A
regression of the shape Y = a + b X + c X² has been established between the diameter of
clumps and the cover, between the diameter of clumps and the biovolume and between
the biovolume and the dry weight for the four species. These selected species are chosen
according to their degree of importance in association with the mastic tree. These results are
summed up in Table 1.
Table 1 shows the importance of the mastic tree in the understory of the cork-oak forest.
It is represented by a cover of 600 m²/ha with a dry biomass of 800 Kg/ha. This recovery
constitutes 10 to 40% of the cork oak forest under stand, forming 600 to 900 clumps by ha.
10 to 20% of these clumps are male trees.
3.2 Distillable biomass
The objective of this study is to find a relation between the biovolume, the total dried
biomass, and the distillable dried biomass.
Tables 2 and 3 show that the female mastic tree has less total dry and distillable material
than the male one. It appears that the development of the fruits does inluence the general
growth of the plant and consequently its biomass.
190
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Total dry material (kg)
14
Total dry distillable material (Kg)
Dry material (Kg)
12
10
8
6
y = 1.567ln(x) + 1.4907
R² = 0.7775
4
2
y = 0.9199ln(x) + 0.6758
R² = 0.764
0
0
2
4
6
8
Biovolume
10
12
14
(m3)
Figure 1. Relation between the Biovolume (m3), the total dried material and the distillable dried
material for the female mastic tree.
Total Dry Material
Distillable Dry Material
14
12
y = 2.2541Ln(x) + 2.3051
R2 = 0.6658
Biomass (Kg)
10
8
6
4
y = 1.1192Ln(x) + 0.8732
R2 = 0.6812
2
0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
Biovolume (m3)
Figure 2. Relation between the Biovolume (m3), the total dried material and the distillable dried
material for the male mastic tree.
3.3 Distillation results
Considering to the difference in biomass of the male and female clump, we have conducted
the two types of distillation separately.
The irst two types have been carried out to demonstrate the effect of the cutting and the
two others the effect of the turning. These four test types have been repeated four times
Production Potentiality in Fruits, Biomass, Oil, Essential Oil and Medicinal Properties of the Mastic Tree...
191
Table 2. The average values of essential oil, in litre / ton (EOV) and the humidity ratio in percentage
for the distilled female mastic tree.
Distillation number
Non crunched fresh material
Crunched fresh material.
crunched material after 4 days from the date of the picking
crunched material after 6 days from the date of the picking
Humidity ratio %
EOV
60
60
29
22
1.2
1.25
1.2
1.1
Table 3. The average values of essential oil, in litre/ ton (EOV) and the humidity ratio in percentage for
the distilled male mastic tree.
Distillation number
Non crunched fresh material
Crunched fresh material.
crunched material after 4 days from the date of the picking
crunched material after 6 days from the date of the picking
Humidity ratio %
EOV
54
54
45
27
1
0.75
0.4
0.9
for each species and have given the results presented in Tables 4 and 5. These tables show
that the quantity of essential oil decreases lightly after cutting the distillable material (fresh
shoots) for the male mastic tree, but it is stable for the female tree.
The essential oil yield for the male mastic tree clump decreases clearly in the beginning of
the drying and then increases and becomes higher than the fresh one.
The essential oil yield for the female mastic tree clump remains stable in all the tests.
The essential oil yield for the female mastic tree clump is more important than the male
one and is not affected by cuttings or turning, but these two operations signiicantly inluence
the essential oil yield of the male mastic tree.
Physical analysis (pH and density) of the two types of essential oil has showed that the pH
of the essential oil coming from the male trees varies from 3.5 to 4.5 and its density varies
from 0.83 to 0.85. For essential oil coming from the female trees the pH varies from 3 to 4
with a density of 0.9.
3.4 Fruits and vegetal oil production
After pollination, the female mastic tree clump grows the fruits, which become blackish
when they are ripe. A polynomial regression of the shape «Y = a + bx + cX²» is established
between the biovolume and the fruit production and has given the following results:
The average production in mastic tree fruits per ha is estimated at 1 to 1.5 tons in a good
year and less then 0.1 ton in a bad year. They can get a copious production every 2 or 3 years.
This production represents an important potential that can be valorised by the local industry.
192
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
1600
y = 9.6375x2 – 1.4554x + 74.187
R2 = 0.9845
production in (g)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
3
biovolume in m
Figure 3. Fruit production Variation according to the Biovolume.
Fruits are hold on the two-year old wood and not on new shoots on a length of 3 to 6 cm.
90% of the fruits have a high density. 50 % have black colour (ripe fruits), 20% red colour
and 30% yellowish green colour. The colour is the same for low density fruits.
Mastic tree fruits begin to ripe in September and October and inish in December and
January. Harvesting is made in the ripeness period, generally by women, who select only the
ripe fruits.
The extraction of the ixed oil is made in several stages. This work is generally done by
women.
1. Fruit Gathering: They shake branches that carry fruits into kitchen utensils. Recovered
fruits are placed in bags before transportation.
2. Cleaning: once in the processing location they are cleaned of all impurities (leaves,
twigs…). After being sieved, they are placed in a water tank. Low density fruits loat to
the surface. They are generally green or red and are eliminated. Artisans say that they
contain a very little amount of oil.
3. Crushing: once cleaned, they are crushed with a big sandstone roller. The resulting dough
is put in high capacity tanks (more than 100 litres) then trampled down with feet. Twenty
four hours later, we add cold water and then they are placed outside. The temperature
is generally low enough to permit the solidiication of oil with a part of oilcake. This
solidiied mixture is recovered and will be puriied by several artisan methods that permit
the separation of the oil from the remainder.
Oil yield varies from 8 to 18% according to the soil and the exposure (Ben Chikh 1999; Saidi
2003).
3.5 Oil analysis
Some samples of mastic tree oil have been analysed. Oleic acid is the more important
component (50%), then palmitic acid (27.2%) and linoleic acid (19.3%). These substances
valorise mastic tree oil.
Production Potentiality in Fruits, Biomass, Oil, Essential Oil and Medicinal Properties of the Mastic Tree...
193
Table 4. Results Analysis of mastic tree oil (Laboratory of Tunisian Oil Ofice):
Fatty acid
Mastic tree oil
Oleic C18 '
Palmitic C16
Linoleic C18 ' '
Palmitoleic C16 '
50 %
27.2 %
19.3 %
1.7 %
3.6 Mastic tree uses
3.6.1 Investigation results
The conducted investigation, compared to literature (Abdel Malek 2002; Ben Chikh 1999;
Rjaibi 1996), has given the following conclusions:
• External Uses: treatment of burns and injuries (F.O), treatment of the chronic rheumatism
(E.O), treatment of the gingivitis (L.P); the bark in fumigation against deliverance; resins
in fumigation against fever. Irritation of the baby skin (F.O). Skin disease (L).
• Internal Uses: digestive tube treatment (L), bad breath treatment (R), against dry cough
(F.O), stomach and abdomen pains (F.O), diarrhoeas (L), ulcers (L). Gastro-intestinal
illnesses (root bark macerated in water), drying up of lips (F.O), cold and heavy cold; drops
in nostrils (F.O); resins are chewed against throat pain, stomach pain and gastric trouble.
• Veterinary Uses: worms treatments (L). Liquid soap was used against ovine parasites.
• Other Uses:
Manufacturing of Liquid Soap: ash leaves served to prepare a black liquid soap. It is also
used to wash wool.
Skin Tanning: Mastic tree leaves contain 12 to 14% of tannin and are therefore used in the
tanning of skins.
Organic Manure: leaves are very rich in potash and this gives them an exceptional
fertiliser values.
Charcoal: Mastic tree wood gives an excellent charcoal.
Varnish: the resin can be used to make an excellent varnish.
Chewing Gum: the resin is used as a chewing gum in rural areas (very fragrant gum).
N.B:
•
•
•
•
•
(L): treatments made by leafs;
(L.P): treatments made by leaf powder;
(E.O): treatments made by essential oil;
(F.O): treatments made by ixed oil;
(R): treatments made by the resin;
3.6.2 Essential oil conservation
It is recommended to stock essential oils (photosensitive) in well-closed treated blue glass
bottles, in order to protect them against light and air (oxidization) and in cool places in order
to avoid their polymerization. The length of storage is generally 18 to 36 months (Saidi et al
2006).
194
Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services
Table 5. Results Analysis of mastic tree oil and olive oil from the same area (Laboratory of Tunisian
Oil Ofice).
Fatty acid
Oleic C18 '
Palmitic C16
Linoleic C18 ' '
Palmitoleic C16 '
Mastic tree oil
Olive oil
50 %
27.2 %
19.3 %
1.7 %
69 %
12.8 %
12.9 %
1.1 %
4. Discussion
Evreïnoff (1948, in Rjaibi 1996) signalled the similarity of this oil with olive oil. In their
compositions; they show the same constituent (oleic acid, palmitic acid) and their physicalchemical characteristics are so close that there is not any substantial distinction. Tunisian oil
ofice conirms it in their analysis of the two oils.
The three important fatty acids that form the two types of oil are oleic acid, palmitic acid
and linoleic acid. The other acids exist only in low percentages or in traces.
This table explains that there is a slight difference between mastic tree oil and olive oil.
Percentages are different. There is less oleic acid in mastic tree oil and more palmitic acidic
C16’; this explains the phenomenon of crystallization of mastic tree oil.
Comparing yields, 8 to 18% for mastic tree and 12 to 28% for olive tree (Laboratory of
Tunisian Oil Ofice).
To produce a good quality essential oil, it is necessary to follow these recommendations:
• Note the Botanical Distilled Species: Latin name composed of the kind (Pistacia), and the
species (lentiscus). The exact name will be Pistacia lentiscus.
• Deine the Organ Producer: leaves, branches, or preferably new shoots…
• Identify the Biochemical Speciicities: They depend for the same plant on the original
country, soil, climate, altitude, sun light, exposure, etc. (Saidi et al 2006). Mastic essential
oil has a very important antiseptic and bactericidal effect (Boukef et al 1984, in Rjaibi,
1996).
• Biological Quality: the raw material comes from the forest that doesn't undergo any
amendment and is therefore of biological production.
• Essential Oils use Precautions: The investigation shows that the mastic tree essential oil
is an active substance that can be dangerous if it is wrongly used. For this reason some
precautions are necessary:
• Avoid its utilization by pregnant women, aged or fragile people and children if they are
less than 3 years.
• Avoid its use on the mucous and around the eyes.
• Generally, mastic tree essential oil is used to dilute in vegetal oils like sunlower oil, soft
almond oil and olive oil (Saidi et al 2006).
5. Conclusion
This study showed that the mastic tree has an important vegetal potential. This species
is characterized by a biovolume of 1000 m3 /ha, a total dry biomass of 800 kg /ha and a
Production Potentiality in Fruits, Biomass, Oil, Essential Oil and Medicinal Properties of the Mastic Tree...
195
recovery of 600 m3 /ha. The distillable part of the female trees is less important then the male
ones. The distillable part is about 300 to 360 Kg/ha.
Mastic tree distillation (Pistacia lentiscus) showed that the output in essential oil remains
constant with the cutting and turning for the female trees, but it’s reduced to 25% after cutting
for the male ones.
After drying, the essential oil yield decreases (60%) then increases to reach the volume of
the irst case (fresh material).
The investigation conducted with the urban and rural populations has shown some current
uses of this species, particularly in traditional and veterinary medicine.
Actually, mastic tree essential oil comes only from the forest understory. Its essential oil is
not valorised. However, the mastic tree ixed oil is widely known and is even very soughtafter, considering its medicinal power.
Regardless of the importance of this species, the mastic tree is still not considered in forest
Management and it is used only by the local population.
References
Abdel Malek, F. Kthiri, S. et Arfaoui, A., 2002. Inventaire des plantes médicinales dans les forêts naturelles du
Nord – Ouest et leurs utilisations par la population locale. Projet de Fin d’Etude. Institut Sylvo – Pastoral de
Tabarka – Tunisie – Tome II. 86 p.
Arnaud, M. T. and Thavaud, P. 1986. Proposition d’une méthode d’évaluation des variations de la biomasse de la
strate arbustive sur des parcelles pâturées. Forêts méditerranéennes t, VIII(2): 133–138.
A.T.P.N.E. 1997. Les plantes médicinales en Tunisie. Programme de conservation de la biodiversité en Afrique du
Nord. Sous l’égide de l’union mondiale de la nature, U.I.C.N, par l’appui inancier du Gouvernement Fédéral –
Suisse. 222 p.
Ben Chikh, M. et Jemaïi, Z. 1999. Extraction des huiles de Lentisque et de Myrte dans la Kroumirie. Projet de Fin
d’Etude. Institut Sylvo – Pastoral de Tabarka – Tunisie. 123 p.
Chaabane A. 1989. Les pelouses naturelles de Kroumirie (Tunisie) typologie et production de biomasse Tunisiennes
(Thèse de doctorat université de droit d’économie et de sciences : Aix – Marseille III). Faculté des Sciences et
Techniques St Jerome. 175 p.
Defomont, C. 1960. Etude comparée des différents procédés d’obtention d’huile. Docum. ITERG. Pp. 58–60.
Luis-Calabuig, E. 1987. Shrub responses to experimental ire, irst phases of regeneration. Ecologia mediterranea,
Fac. des SC. et techniques de Saint-Jérôme, Marseille, France Tome XIII, Fasc. 4 . Pp. 155–162.
Rjaibi, N., 1996. Contribution à l’étude phytoécologique, socio-économique, ethnobotanique et de production des
écosystèmes à Myrtus communis et à Pistacia lentiscus dans la région d’El Hammam – Tabarka. Mémoire de
troisième cycle. ENFI – Maroc. 102 p.
Saïdi, Y. and Hasnaoui, F. 2006. Potentialités de production en fruits, en biomasse, distillation et vertus du Myrte en
Kroumirie. Les Annales de l’INRGREF. Numéro spécial (9) Tome2, 324 p
Saidi, Y. and Hasnaoui, F. 2003. Rapport d’activités du laboratoire de biotechnologie. ISP Tabarka. 25 p.