ARCHEOMED PROJECT Cultural and Archaeological heritage in the Mediterranean Basin Archaeological minor sites in the Mediterranean Basin Beit Sahur in Palestine, Gadara in Jordan, Vito Soldano and Finziade in Italy ARCHEOMED LEADER Academic Pole of the Province of Agrigento Italy, Sicily PARTNERS Sudgestaid. Italy, Lazio Yarmouk University, Faculty of Archaeological and Anthropology, Jordan, Irbid Al Quds University, Institute of Archaeology, Palestinian Authority AIDO Industrial Association of Optics, Colour and Imaging (Spain, Comunidad Valenciana) 5 Archaeological minor sites in the Mediterranean Basin, case study: Beit Sahur in Palestine, Gadara in Jordan, Vito Soldano and Finziade in Italy Expert contributions Palestine Ibrahim Abu A’mar, Salah H. Al-Houdalieh, Osama Hamdan, Carla Benelli Jordan Ziad Al-Saad, Abdel Hakiem AlHusban, Abdullah Al Jarrah, Fandi Al Waked, Mohammad Jaradat, Mohammad Bataineh, Mohammad Rababha Italy Annalisa Amico, Francesco Catalano, Pietro Cocchiara, Valentina Consoli, Laura Danile, Antonella Siragusa his publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union. he contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the members of the ARCHEOMED Project Consortium and can in no way be taken to relect the views of the European Union print: Al Adab Press, Jerusalem © Copyright 2014 Al Quds University, Palestine he authors encourage all readers to relay this work. It may be distributed and issued by means of nominal quotations 6 Table of Contents 12 Foreword Case Study of Beit Sahur, Palestine 8 15 1 16 16 18 19 19 21 22 22 25 26 27 27 28 29 31 33 33 33 34 34 34 34 34 35 36 37 38 38 39 40 2 Overview of the Beit Sahur region and municipality 2.1 Region location and environmental setting 2.1.1 Beit Sahur’s location 2.1.2 Bethlehem area urban layout 2.1.3 Extensive landscape transformation 2.1.4 Urban landscape 2.2 Administrative and planning authorities in Beit Sahur city 2.3 Political background of the 20th and 21st centuries 2.4 Population 2.5 Educational status 2.6 Natural and cultural resources of the region 2.6.1 he natural landscape 2.6.2 he cultural landscape 2.6.3 he historic core of the city 2.6.4 Archaeological sites in the surrounding area 2.7 Infrastructures 2.7.1 Electricity and telecommunication services 2.7.2 Transportation services 2.7.3 Water supply 2.7.4 Sanitation 2.7.5 Solid waste removal 2.8 Local economic system of Beit Sahur 2.8.1 Land use 2.8.2 Labour force and employment 2.8.3 Agriculture and food 2.8.4 Industrial activities 2.8.5 Handicraft activities 2.8.5.1 Olive wood handicrafts 2.8.5.2 Mother-of-pearl 2.8.5.3 Embroidery Introduction 41 41 41 42 42 42 44 44 2.8.5.4 Mosaic 2.8.5.5 Wax 2.9 Accommodations 2.10 Catering and restaurants 2.11 Tour operators and travel agencies 2.12 Trade and commerce 2.13 Printing and publishing 2.14 Communication and information technology 45 45 48 51 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 Beit Sahur - History and analysis of the Shepherds’ Field site he “Shepherds’ Fields” in ancient texts and the history of the various sites Historical and documentary survey Restoration and conservation activities Development policies Safety and site protection Interpretation and presentation of the site Visitor services Number and type of visitors Entrance fee policy and opening hours Dissemination and promotional activities Human resources Financial issues and budget 64 64 66 4. 4.1 4.2 Legal Context of the Shepherds’ Field site Legal Framework Ownership and the «status quo» 69 5. Selected references 71 71 85 88 6. 6.1 6.2 6.3 Appendix List of Stakeholders Stakeholders Analysis Table Swot Analysis of the Stakeholders Case Study of the Site of Umm Qaies, Jordan 91 1 Introduction 92 92 92 93 2 2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 he function of the selected site region Site location and environmental setting Site location Governorate area layout 9 93 93 95 10 95 96 96 99 99 99 99 103 104 105 106 106 106 124 126 127 127 128 128 128 128 129 129 2.1.3 Extensive landscape transformation 2.1.3.1 Introduction 2.1.3.2 Understanding Settlement Evolution & Spatial Organization “he Land Code of 1858 and Land-Use System” 2.1.3.3 Trade Networks 2.1.4 Urban landscape 2.1.4.1 Migration and Resettlement 2.2 Administrative and planning authorities in the site 2.2.1 Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities 2.2.2 Department of Antiquities 2.3 Population 2.3.1 Social grouping 2.4 Educational status 2.5 Labour force and employment 2.6 Land use 2.7 Territorial natural and cultural resources 2.7.1 Archaeological Resources at Umm Qaies 2.7.2 Cultural resources 2.7.3 he natural landscape 2.7.4 he cultural landscape 2.7.5 Archaeological sites in the surrounding area 2.8 Infrastructures 2.8.1 Electricity and telecommunication services 2.8.2 Transportation services 2.8.3 Water supply 2.8.4 Sanitation 2.8.5 Solid waste removal 130 130 133 133 134 134 137 138 139 140 140 141 144 145 145 3 History and analysis of the functions of the site 3.1 A Reconstruction of Umm Qaies Socio-Historical Context 3.2 Political organization 3.3 he site in ancient texts 3.4 Historical and documentary survey 3.5 Restoration and conservation activities 3.6 Development policies 3.7 Safety and site protection 3.8 Interpretation and presentation of the site 3.9 Visitor access and facilities 3.9.1 Visitors access 3.9.2 Visitor’s facilities 3.9.3 Undergoing houses rehabilitation project 3.9.4 Adoption of new standardized signage system 3.10 Number and type of visitors 146 146 146 3.11 3.12 3.13 Entrance fee policy and opening hours Dissemination and promotional activities Human resources 148 148 148 4. 4.1 4.2 Legal Context of the site Legal Framework Ownership 149 149 151 154 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 156 156 156 156 157 157 5. Local economic system of the site 5.1 Economic system 5.2 Division of Labour 5.3 General observations 5.4 Agriculture and food 5.5 Industrial activities 5.6 Handicraft activities 5.6.1 Olive wood handicrafts 5.6.2 Mother-of-pearl 5.6.3 Embroidery 5.6.4 Mosaic 5.6.5 Wax 5.7 Accommodations 5.8 Catering and restaurants 5.9 Leisure time industry 5.10 Trade and commerce 5.11 Information and communication 158 6. Selected references Case Study of the Sites of Phintias and Vito Soldano, Sicily ( Italy ) 161 161 161 162 162 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3.1 he function of the selected site areas Vito Soldano Finziade Administrative and planning authorities at the sites he Sovraintendenza dei Beni Culturali 163 163 164 164 2 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 he province of Agrigento Physical territory Economy Agriculture 11 12 165 166 166 167 168 168 168 169 169 169 170 170 170 170 172 174 176 176 176 177 178 179 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.3 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.7.1 2.7.2 2.7.3 2.7.4 2.7.5 2.8 2.8.1 2.8.2 2.9 2.10 Handicrafts Industry Tourism Labour force and employment Infrastructures and transportation in the province Roads Railways Ports Airports Communications and media Healthcare Cultural resources of the province Monuments and sites of interest in the province Famous people from the province: Luigi Pirandello Famous people from the Province: Leonardo Sciascia Traditions and religious celebrations Cuisine he historic core of the province Canicattì and Licata Canicattì Licata Educational status Sports 180 180 180 181 183 183 183 185 3 3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 Local economic system of the site Licata Agriculture and food Typical local foods Canicattì Agriculture and food he “Italia” Grapes in Canicattì he peach in Canicattì 186 186 187 194 195 196 199 201 201 201 204 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.3.7 History and analysis of the functions of the sites Introduction to the sites Archaeological sites and museums in the surrounding areas Phintias he site in ancient texts Historical and documentary survey Restoration and conservation activities Development policies Safety and site protection Interpretation and presentation of the site Visitor access and facilities 206 206 206 207 208 208 209 210 213 213 214 214 218 220 220 220 220 221 4.3.7.1 he Museum 4.3.8 Number and types of visitors 4.3.9 Entrance fee policy and opening hours 4.3.10 Dissemination of information and promotional activities 4.3.11 Human resources 4.4 Vito Soldano 4.4.1 he site in ancient texts 4.4.2 Historical and documentation survey 4.4.3 Restoration and conservation activities 4.4.4 Development policies 4.4.5 Safety and site protection 4.4.6 Interpretation and presentation of the site 4.4.7 Visitor access and facilities 4.4.7.1 he Museum 4.4.8 Number and types of visitors 4.4.9 Entrance fee policy and opening hours 4.4.10 Information and promotional activities 4.4.11 Human resources 222 222 222 222 223 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Industry Wine industry Rock salt industry Fishing Crafts amd ceramics production 224 6 Accomodations, Catering and restaurants 225 7 Notes 226 8 Selected references 228 9 Appendix, Field analysis of local stakeholders of the areas of the archeological sites of Licata-Phintias and Vito Soldano-Canicattì 13 Foreword Archeomed’s aim is to enhance the appeal of marginalized or underestimated archeological and cultural-historical heritage sites in the Mediterranean areas, by introducing and sharing an innovative model of cross-border cultural cooperation among the territories involved, with the extent of supporting sustainable development along both sides of the EU’s external bodies. Building on the cross border cooperation for the valorization of cultural resources, the project intends to create an interactive network to promote the development and cooperation of the management of cultural activities and at the territorial marketing for the improvement of the Mediterranean Basin territories, thus ensuring wider and better access to the cultural and artistic potential, especially when hidden, of the territory. he action is set in the strategic framework activities foreseen by priority 1 measure 1.1 of the ENPI CBC Sea Basin 14 Mediterranean Programme 2007-2013, and in a close line with the objectives of the Barcelona Declaration on a joint ownership, dialogue and co-operation, seeking to create a Mediterranean region of peace, security and shared prosperity. he general objective is the promotion of socio-economic development and enhancement of territories through the support to innovation and research in the process of local development. he speciic objective is the valorization of the cultural resources of the Mediterranean heritage through the creation of a interactive network of the underrated and underestimated territories as a pilot project for the integration of management and preservation systems to revitalization of the artistic, cultural and economic-related activities of the territories, i.e. cultural tourism. his publication named Archaeological minor sites in the Mediterranean Basin, case study: Beit Sahur in Palestine, Gadara in Jordan, Vito Soldano and Finziade in Italy put together the preliminary studies aimed at identifying a common system of valorization, preservation and management of the so called “Minor sites”. In addition to the desk research, ield analysis, interviews and round tables with stakeholders have been important tools to conduct the three studies that, after analyzing and describing the geographic, social-economic, environmental and cultural context of the sites areas, get on to illustrate the site, its history, features and how it is managed. he studies have shown that all the four sites are missing a proper managerial and conservation plan and that the role of local communities in general is often greatly underestimated and confused and there is marginal participation of the people in the preservation of cultural heritage and usability of the resources of the territories they live in. 15 Case Study of Beit Sahur Palestine Ibrahim Abu A’mar, Salah H. Al-Houdalieh, Osama Hamdan, Carla Benelli 1. Introduction he project and the accompanying studies were funded by the European Union through the ENPI CBC Med program. he main goal of the project was, irst, to choose an under-developed and undervisited archaeological site, and then create the focus and attention needed to properly document, preserve and present the site, establishing in the process a network with partners in the Mediterranean area. After visits to many sites in the Beit Sahur area, the team members chose the Shepherds’ Field (of the Franciscans) as a model site for the project. A comprehensive study was made of the speciic location and its environs, the Beit Sahur area, exploring the following topics: the region of Beit Sahur and its characteristics, focusing on the landscape and its components; the historical and archaeological background of Beit Sahur, including surveys, excavations and publications, focusing on both the general area and the speciic site itself; the site’s legal context, for example, the ownership and the matter of the Status Quo; aspects of the local economy and their efects on the site, such as accommodations, catering and restaurants, handicraft industries, etc.; and restoration and conservation activities focused on the Shepherds’ Field site. We hope that after carrying out this study project and looking at all the above-mentioned areas, that a network of concerned parties – the team members, the stakeholders and the local community -- will be able to help develop the site, especially the areas that have been neglected and sufer due to the shortage of resources. A second major goal for the project is developing the site as a desirable tourist destination, making it a key site for all the visitors to the area, a place professionally restored, preserved, and interpreted, and to publicise it by means of both print and electronic media. Ultimately, we would like to see the site placed “on the map” of important touristic, historical and archaeological locations which are perfectly integrated with their environments and also connected to their local communities. 17 2. Overview of the Beit Sahur region and Municipality 2.1 Region location and environmental setting Geographers of historic Palestine have long recognized the existence of three distinct and roughly parallel zones running in a north-south orientation: 1. he Coastal Plain on the west; 2. he Central Uplands; and 3. he Valley of the Jordan River, the Ghor, on the east. he Central Uplands, the region in which Beit Sahur is located, consists of two major units of difering character lying north and south of the long, east-west Central Valley which extends some 60 km inland, from the Bay of Haifa to the Jordan Valley. North of this valley (sometimes known as Jezreel or Esdraelon), the ridges of the Lower Galilee rise to about 590 m. To the south of it, the sparsely settled uplands of Samaria are divided into distinctive mountain groups rising up to 900 m in elevation and separated by wadis and basins. Extending from the Samaria region toward the northwest is the range of Mt. Carmel. hen to the south there is a plateau, with hills rising to more than 1000 m south of Bethlehem and inally falling by broad undulations into the Negev (Fig. 1). On the eastern edge of the central hills, the general dryness is further enhanced by a rain-shadow efect which has created a tract of arid wilderness. 18 Fig. 1: he topography of mandatory Palestine. Source, http://www.palestineremembered.com Under the impact of human occupation in ancient times, the Central Uplands experienced important physical changes as woodlands were cleared, agriculture was established and spread, and the related process of soil erosion began. Since then, however, the region has generally seen a remarkable physical stability, enhanced by the construction of artiicial terraces along the contours of the hills and across the valleys (Fig 2). Fig. 2: Agricultural terrace walls in Bethlahem area In the past, these terraces checked the runof of rainwater, thus decreasing erosion and increasing both the iniltration of water and the extent of cultivated areas. Once constructed, the terraces served to stabilize the landscape and, until recent times, human occupation of the Uplands has depended heavily upon the rehabilitation or reconstruction of these terrace systems. hey are actually relatively fragile and are preserved only so long as certain conditions are fulilled: the population level remains above a certain critical threshold; the terraces are constantly maintained; the farming methods retain their traditional character, with limited mechanization; and a certain pattern of cropping is continued, involving dry-farmed cereals, vines and olives. 19 2.1.1 Beit Sahur’s location Beit Sahur is located in the Bethlehem Governorate (administrative district) of the Palestinian Authority, which includes three main cities (Bethlehem, Beit Sahur and Beit Jala), three refugee camps (edDheisha, Ayda and al-A’za), and 65 villages. his governorate occupies an area of about 607 square kilometres, and is bounded by the Jerusalem Governorate on the north, the Hebron Governorate on the south, the Dead Sea on the east, and Israel to the west (Fig. 3). he Governorate is distinguished by its varied topography, encompassing a series of mountains, hills and valleys of diferent sizes, a large number of springs and seasonal streams, and the wilderness areas descending to the east. he elevation of the governorate ranges between 930m above sea level in Beit Jala to as low as 412m below sea level along the western shore of the Dead Sea (ARIJ database 2006: 17). Beit Sahur is located approximately 2km east of Bethlehem city and is bounded by Jerusalem and the Abu Ghneim (HarHoma) Israeli settlement on the north, Hindaza village on the south, Dar Salah and esh-Shawawra villages on the east, and the municipality of Bethlehem on the west. Beit Sahur sits at an average elevation of 650m above sea level and its annual rainfall measures about 450mm (ARIJ database 2010: 5). Fig. 3: he location of Beit Sahur city. Source, http://www.geogle.pssearch?=map+of 20 Beit Sahur is situated astride the national watershed line, i.e. the ridge that divides the country’s Mediterranean and Great Rift stream systems. East and south of the town the land falls away toward the desert and the Dead Sea. structures, as is typical of most historic Arab cities. he organic, spontaneous way in which the three towns have developed is evident from the irregular forms and clusters of buildings, which have been inluenced largely by the topography. he surrounding region is fertile, and its steep slopes are terraced to allow for cultivation. Vineyards, olive, almond and ig trees, and ields of barley and wheat colour the land according to the seasons. Beit Sahur is located very much in a transition zone between the desert and more fertile regions. he built-up areas cover almost 45% of the total land area of the three municipalities. Land use within the town centres, including their historic cores, is essentially commercial, public and residential. he historic centres include the traditional squares and enclosed compounds (hosh), workshops, religious buildings, shops and housing. he commercial activity is concentrated around the important road intersections, such as Bab al-Sqaq. Industry is mainly concentrated south of Beit Jala and Bethlehem, but some workshops are dispersed throughout the towns, often along the main roads. Its climate is typically “Mediterranean”, featuring hot, dry summers and cold, wet winters. he winter season, from midDecember to mid-March, is characterised by cold temperatures and cloudy, rainy conditions. In summer, from May through September, the weather is consistently warm and sunny. Beit Sahur receives an average of 454 millimetres of rainfall annually and experiences its highest precipitation rates in January and February. Night dew may occur as many as 180 days per year. he town is inluenced by the Mediterranean sea-breeze that begins around mid-day. However, Beit Sahur is also afected by annual waves of hot, dry and dusty conditions, the khamaseen winds that originate from the Arabian Desert especially during April and May to mid-June. 2.1.2 Bethlehem area urban layout he three historic municipalities of the area (Bethlehem, Beit Sahur and Beit Jala) present a diverse mix of residential, commercial, religious and institutional he main public services, such as administration, health and education, are located within and on the margins of the historic centres. Most of the built-up areas are developed for residential use. 2.1.3 Extensive landscape transformations he transformation of the area began in the second half of the 19th century when some inhabitants started emigrating to South America. he small towns experienced a signiicant change in appearance as, thanks to the money the emigrants sent back home to their families, huge buildings and palaces were erected; this phenomenon was seen in the late 19th and early 20th century, and especially in Bethlehem and Beit Jala. A second 21 factor contributed to this transformation: many foreign institutions started to build structures for the delivery of services, such as schools and hospitals, as well as monasteries and convents. In both cases, the three towns could not accommodate these huge new constructions within their historic cores, therefore these structures were located on the outskirts, especially along the roads to Jerusalem. Until 1948, Bethlehem, Beit Jala and Beit Sahur, beyond their importance for Christianity, exhibited all the typical characteristics of peasant towns. In 1948, however, there was a second great change. he arrival of many refugees generated a demographic boom and consequently a growth in building activity and the opening of new settled areas (refugee camps) in the outskirts. hus the growing number of inhabitants dramatically altered the population density of the region, with the land area per person decreasing by two-thirds. herefore, the patterns of land use likewise underwent great change. A third wave of transformation further altered the historical and cultural landscape beginning in 1967. Under the impact of the Israeli occupation, many tracts of land became essentially besieged and were abandoned, with many of the peasant owners leaving their work on the land to go ind work as labourers in Israel. At the same time, the Jewish settlements, some quite extensive, began to surround the towns and villages, negatively impacting the landscape. Vast areas of the region were closed of and designated as protected military zones or building areas for the Jewish settlements. Much 22 land thus became inaccessible to the local Arab residents, including its legal owners. his inexorable settlement activity – including a network of protected roads linking the settlements but often closed to Palestinian use – gradually broke most of the physical links between Bethlehem and the surrounding villages. A fourth transformation in the landscape happened after the signature of the Oslo Agreements in the mid-1990s. All the lands of the occupied West Bank were thereafter deined as belonging to one of three “Areas”: A, B and C. Locally, the inhabited areas of Bethlehem, Beit Jala and Beit Sahur were designated as Area A, under full Palestinian control, but the majority of their surrounding lands came under full Israeli control (“civil” and “security” control) as Area C. his fact further limited the use of the outlying, privately-owned land and at the same time intensiied local Arab building activity inside Area A, causing a general transformation and upsetting the natural characteristics of the landscape. Intense building activity followed, characterized by a lack of proper development plans and studies intended to preserve the landscape resources. hus the growth these towns experienced was anything but a thoughtful, compatible pattern of development. he situation worsened after the beginning of the second Intifada (early 2000s), and recent developments have continued to overturn the natural evolution of landscape. Israel’s building of the Separation Barrier and the continued growth of both Jewish settlements and the bypass roads that serve them have created ever more barriers to intelligent local growth and the continuity of landscape. 2.1.4 Urban landscape he fabric of Beit Sahur is dense and intricate, following the topography. In essence, the town was irst comprised of hara, residential groupings consisting of several dwellings each, with each group dependent upon clan allegiance to an extended family. Compact and uniform, these clusters of buildings rise up the hill and cover its slopes (Fig. 4). Fig. 4 air photography for the the urban landscape of Beit Sahur. Source: the Municipality of Beit Sahur, 2012. 23 he traditional structures up until the late 19th century are of a distinct type, a classical Arab model consisting of an array of vaulted rooms overlooking a central courtyard. his template dominated until the beginning of the twentieth century when several palaces of white and pink stone were built within the urban fabric, or on its fringes. In the middle of the 19th century, some churches, monasteries and pilgrim hospices were also built in the town centre, or on the immediate outskirts. 2.2 Administrative and Planning Authorities in Beit Sahur City here are several regional and national oicial authorities, on various levels, which oversee civilian afairs in Beit Sahur, including: the Municipality, the (PA) Ministry of Local Government, the Ministry of Education and Higher Education, the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Awqaf and Religious Afairs, and the Ministry of Planning and Administrative Development. Not unlike many other Palestinian towns, Beit Sahur established a village council in 1925, one of the irst to do so. his council was upgraded in 1952 to the status of a municipality, and the election of the municipal council was set to take place every four years. his arrangement held sway until 1976 when the Israelis froze all municipal elections, thus from 1976 to 2000 there were none. In August 2000, however, the Palestinian National Authority appointed a new municipal council, for a transitional period. he irst democratic election was then held in 24 2005, and a council of 13 members was seated, under the leadership of Mr Hani Al-Hayek. Due to national and regional political crises, the election that was due in 2009 has been postponed several times, therefore the municipal council of 2005 still carries out its responsibilities. he municipality is responsible for urban planning, infrastructure development and various other services delivered by its employees. However – and despite the establishment of the Palestinian National Authority in 1994 – the Israelis still control the master plan of the city and exert full civil and security control over 47.2% of the municipality’s land area (i.e. Area C), working out of an Israeli administrative oice in Bethlehem. In Beit Sahur the Palestinian National Authority maintains an administrative oice for the Ministry of Local Government (the Municipality), however all the other Palestinian Ministries carry out their responsibilities for Beit Sahur from oices located in Bethlehem. 2.3 Political background of the 20th and 21st centuries According to the administrative scheme established under the British Mandate, Bethlehem was part of the Jerusalem district. hen in November of 1947, as part of their Partition Resolution (G.A. 181), the United Nations intended to deal with the Jerusalem-Bethlehem enclave as a “Corpus Separatum” of 186 square kilometres, territory having a special status and to be maintained under international administration. In the ighting of 1948, however, Israel took control of 78% of Mandate Palestine (including West Jerusalem) while the Bethlehem district came under Jordanian administration, until 1967. On the 5th of June 1967, Israel occupied the rest of historic (Mandatory) Palestine and shortly thereafter annexed East Jerusalem. Over the years the Israelis have repeatedly expanded the municipal boundaries until today Jerusalem is more than 10 times its pre-1948 size (and includes 70 square kilometres east of the 1949-67 “Green Line”). In the process, the Israelis redrew the administrative boundaries of the neighbouring Palestinian districts and simply expropriated large tracts of their land. In short, as a result of this expansion of Jerusalem, the Bethlehem Governorate lost large parts of its original lands. hen, over the last four decades of occupation Israel has coniscated a further 18 square kilometres or more from the lands of the Bethlehem Governorate, for the construction of illegal settlements, outposts and bypass roads (ARIJ database 2006: 18-19). According to the Oslo II agreement that was signed in 1995 between the Israelis and the Palestinians, all West Bank territory was assigned to one of three administrative areas: Area A, under complete Palestinian civil and security control; Area B, under Palestinian civil control but Israeli security control; or Area C, under complete Israeli civil and security control. Based on this agreement, only 7.8% of the Bethlehem Governorate is designated Area A, 5.5% as Area B, while fully 69.7% is Area C, under full Israeli control. And, what was envisioned as a transitional arrangement leading to a Palestinian state is now irmly entrenched. Beginning in April 2002, Israeli military forces re-entered the West Bank and placed all three above-mentioned areas under their direct control, a situation which has now been mostly alleviated (compare Al-Houdalieh 2009: 338-339; ARIJ database 2006: 20). According to the same Oslo agreement, the lands of Beit Sahur were split between Areas A and C. he majority of the urban space was designated Area A, while the town’s agricultural lands, open spaces, and a small part of the urban area fell in Area C. De facto, the Beit Sahur residents are not allowed to build upon, cultivate or harvest, or derive beneit in any way from their land in Area C unless they obtain permits – which is extremely diicult – from the Israeli Civil Administration. he following table shows the distribution of the lands of Beit Sahur, by Area. Area A C % of the total city area 52.8 47.2 Table 1 he distribution of the lands of Beit Sahur, by Area. In April of 2002, the Israeli government announced its intention to construct a separation barrier between Israel and the Palestinian National Territories; they started construction in June of the same year. his separation barrier was planned to stretch in length a total of some 650 km. It has been constructed as either an 8m-high concrete wall or a 60 to 80m-wide fortiied corridor comprised of layers of barbed wire fencing, military 25 patrol roads, trenches, and a 4 to 5m-high metal fence itted with electronic sensors and security cameras. Approximately 85% of this barrier, instead of following any recognized border, has been built on the eastern (Palestinian) side of the Green Line (the 1949 Armistice line). his wall/barrier has thus resulted in the seizing of some of the most fertile Palestinian land, seriously undermining the territorial contiguity of Palestinian settled areas, cutting of many Palestinian communities in enclaves, usurping natural resources, and isolating a large number of heritage resources from their cultural context (compare Al-Houdalieh 2006: 108; ARIJ database 2006: 21). Locally, the construction of this barrier (here, almost exclusively a wall) has meant the coniscation by Israel of about 73 square kilometres of the Bethlehem Governorate’s land. As in many other places throughout the Palestinian National Territories, the Israeli government began constructing the separation wall on the land of Beit Sahur in 2002 (Fig. 5). Since then, it has issued several military orders coniscating more and more land from the municipality. Based on an updated plan published on the web page of the Israel Ministry of Defence in 2007, the Israelis had then already coniscated about 25.8% of the land of Beit Sahur for exclusive Israeli use. Fig. 5: he separation wall built on Beit Sahur’s land, looking north. Source: the authors, 2012. 26 Furthermore, several Israeli settlements, settlement outposts and bypass roads are constructed on the lands of Beit Sahur. he major settlement on Beit Sahur land is called by the Israelis HarHoma. his extensive hilltop site, whose real name is Jabal (“mountain of ”) Abu Ghuneim, had long been classiied as a nature reserve, however the Israelis re-classiied it in 1997 as a construction area. Accordingly, Israeli bulldozers uprooted some 60,000 trees in the process of preparing the area for a massive building project. Today HarHoma, now conveniently annexed to the Jerusalem municipality, is the third largest settlement in terms of land area of the 19 settlements established in the Bethlehem Governorate. At the same time, the Israeli occupation authorities routinely forbid Palestinian land-owners from building upon or improving their property in any way. Over the past 18 years (since Oslo) they have issued numerous military orders that direct the Palestinian owners to halt any attempted construction, under threat of demolition, or sometimes to demolish their completed homes by their own hands by a given date, usually only a few days. his regime of prohibition is founded on the pretext that the residents live in Area C and lack the required permits – permits which, when requested, are almost never granted. 2.4 Population According to the irst Palestinian Census carried out by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistic (PCBS) in 1997, Bethlehem Governorate was then inhabited by 132,090 persons, of which 51% were male and 49% were female. here were 22,680 households living in 22,105 housing units. he concentrated urban spaces of this Governorate were Bethlehem, Beit Sahur and Beit Jala municipalities, within which 34% of the Governorate’s population were living. Approximately 8% of the Governorate’s population were living in three refugee camps, while the majority (58%) were living in villages. By 2007, the total population of the Bethlehem Governorate had increased to 176,235 persons of whom 70.2% now lived in urban areas, 7.3% lived in the three refugee camps, and only 22.5% in villages or rural areas. he population growth rate over the 10 years from 1997 to 2007 was 22%. As for the Governorate’s population distribution by age group, in 1997 it was measured as follows: 41.8% were less than 15 years old or above 65 years old, which means that they are considered dependents. In 2007, the age group distribution had changed slightly: 43% of the population were less than 15 or above 65 years of age (ARIJ database 2006: 27-29; ARIJ database 2010:16) he average population density across the Bethlehem Governorate was 3,919 persons per square kilometre in 2005. his is considered to be very high when compared to the average global population density of 48.3 persons/sq. km (ARIJ database 2006:34). he total population of Beit Sahur in 2007 was 12,367, of whom 50.1% were male and 49.9% female. he 2007 27 Census indicates that Beit Sahur has 2,775 households living in 3,517 housing units (ARIJ database 2010: 8), and the population density of the city in 2008 was 3,312 persons per square kilometre. he residents of Beit Sahur originate from Palestine and several other Arab and European countries, including Jordan, Syria, Egypt, and the Hejaz. he names of the town’s main families are: Abu A’ita, Banourah, Qumsiyah, Kheir, Musleh, Al-Qassis, Rishmawi, Al-Atrash, Sha’lan, Ghattas, Jubran, Badra, Abu Farha, A’wwad, Sajdiyah, She’ibat, Al-Yateem, Al-Hurani and Hilal (ARIJ 2010: 8-9). 2.5 Educational status Bethlehem Governorate has 135 schools containing 1,602 classrooms and attended by more than 49,000 students and employing 2,600 teachers. Of these schools, 10 are located in Beit Sahur: ive government-run by the Palestinian Ministry of Higher Education and the other ive private, operated by religious institutions. As of the academic year 2005-2006, the total number of students attending schools in Beit Sahur was 3,851. By 2008-2009 this number increased very slightly, to 3,863; there were 139 classrooms in use and 213 teachers employed. In addition, in Beit Sahur there is a specialised school, established in 1998, which provides an array of services for the development of learning challenged children; this school is connected with a residential facility that seeks to meet the needs of its students physically, spiritually and psychologically. Beit Sahur also boasts 28 four kindergartens, all run by charitable societies. With regard to vocational skill development and institutions of higher education, Beit Sahur has a Fashion and Textile Institute and a branch of AlQuds Open University. he Institute was established in 1994 to provide training programs in the textile industry for the residents of Beit Sahur and its nearby villages. he University branch was founded in 2003 to provide Beit Sahur residents with the opportunity to attend university-level classes; as of the academic year 2010-2011, the University had more than 1,800 students enrolled. Comparing census data from 1997 and 2007, the educational status of the Bethlehem Governorate population broke down as follows: Item 1997 2007 Educational status Percentage Percentage Illiterate 5.4 5.7 Can read & write 13.2 13.2 Finished elementary school 24.8 23.7 Finished preparatory school 22.8 28.3 Finished secondary school 18.8 17.4 Associate Diploma 5.4 3.9 Bachelor degree 6.9 6.8 Higher Diploma 0.2 0.2 M.A. 1.1 0.8 PhD 0.3 0.2 Table 2 he educational status of the Bethlehem Governorate population from 1997 and 2007. To give a picture of educational status speciically for Beit Sahur, we present the following table of 2007 census data: Educational status Illiterate Can read & write Finished elementary school Finished preparatory school Finished secondary school Associate Diploma Bachelor degree Higher Diploma M.A. PhD Percentage 2.4 11.1 19.8 20.7 21.7 8.1 13.1 0.8 1.7 0.6 Table 3 he educational status of the Beit Sahur population in2007. 2.6 Local natural and cultural resources he Beit Sahur area is home to some of the most vibrant and diverse resources of Palestine, both natural resources (natural landscapes and agricultural land) and man-made features (elements of cultural or built heritage of signiicant historical, architectural and aesthetic interest). he lack of a national inventory of natural and cultural heritage resources, including around Beit Sahur, is a serious drawback, one which must be addressed promptly since the area is witnessing dramatic and irreversible change without any systematic documentation of what is being lost. he elements of this transformation include the construction of numerous Israeli settlements, outposts, bypass roads and the separation wall; the on-going coniscation of land; the looting of heritage resources from plundered ancient sites; and the destruction of vernacular architecture to make way for new construction, among others. Some surveys have been conducted by individuals, by NGOs related to cultural heritage, and by academic or research institutions. hese studies, however, remain piecemeal and limited in scope, not covering comprehensively all of Palestine’s natural and cultural heritage resources. 2.6.1 he natural landscape Beit Sahur includes a wide variety of natural landscapes, such as mountains and hills, broad plains, deep valleys, and a forest. he best known and most popular locations are (or were): Jabal Abu Ghuneim (now the sprawling HarHoma settlement) (Fig. 6); Jabal Al-Diek or Umm el-A’saier; Jabal el-’Uana; el-Fkhuot (the historic core of Beit Sahur); Abu Rjoom, or the shepherd’s ields; Juwar esSuwana; KaserGharghuri; Kaser el-Jada’; Khaliter-Rabawi; Khalit en-Nu’man; esSallak; O’sh el-Ghrub or el-Ghurab; ‘Irik el-Hisiyah; Wadi Luka; al-Hijaylah; Wadi abuSa’dah; Wadi es-Sawahra; er-Ras; edDahadiel; ej-Jbelah; Sahiler-Ra’wat; and Beit Basa. 29 Fig. 6: Jabal Abu Ghuneim. Looking north. Source: the authors, 2012. In the open areas there are still arrays of wild vegetation – narcissus, thyme, oak and pine – all of which used to be widespread, another part of the (disappearing) traditional local landscape. 2.6.2 he cultural landscape According to ield surveys and salvage excavations conducted in Beit Sahur, the place was irst settled during the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3200 to 2300 B.C.), and its settlement has continued without interruption right down to the present day. Beit Sahur and its environs include a large number of religious, archaeological and historical sites and features, including: he historic core of Beit Sahur; Kh. Umm el-A’saier; Kh. Abu Hamama; Kh. El-Mazar; Kh. Beit Basah; Kh. Karim Zarzar; the shrine of Sheikh Ahmad esSahuri; Bir as-Sayida (the Well of Mary); and the Shepherd’s Fields sites of both the 30 Greek Orthodox and the Latins (Roman Catholics), which are treated in detail in Section 3 below. In the 15th and 16th centuries A.D., Beit Sahur was described as two small villages, separate but in close proximity: Beit Sahur al-A’tiqa (“ancient” Beit Sahur) and Beit Sahur an-Nassara (“Christian” Beit Sahur). In the 16th century, the Arab geographer Mujired-Din mentioned Beit Sahur al-A’tiqa as one home of the Muslim scholar Sha’ban bin Salim bin Sha’ban. he same village was also mentioned by the 19th century French geographer V. Guérin as being 40 minutes away (i.e., by foot) from Jerusalem (Sharon 1997: 154). In 1596, Beit Sahur appeared in the Ottoman tax registers, once again as two villages: Beit Sahur al-Wadi (identiied as Beit Sahur al-A’tiqa) and Beit Sahur anNassara. he residents of the two villages were paying taxes on their wheat, barley, locks, and fruit trees (Huetteroth and Abdulfattah 1977: 115, 119). It is believed that Beit Sahur al-A’tiqa was destroyed in the 19th century by the army of Ibrahim Pasha because its residents took part in the revolution carried out in 1834 against his rule (Jakaman 2000: 201-203). 2.6.3 he historic core of the city A large number of historic and archaeological features have been documented in the historic core of Beit Sahur dating from the Early Bronze Age through the late Ottoman era; these include: caves, ancient roads, olive- and wine-presses, cisterns, graves, subterranean rock-cut tombs, remains of walls, and tessellated (mosaic) loors. Furthermore, the registry of the town’s historic buildings carried out by the Riwaq Center in 1995 indicates that Beit Sahur includes a total of 322 traditional buildings. Of these, 54% consist of one loor, 37% of two loors, and 4% of three loors. 89% of these buildings are in good physical condition; 85% are in use and the rest are abandoned. he majority of Beit Sahur’s historic houses were constructed adjacent to each other to form large compounds (hosh), each situated around a courtyard, with the compounds separated from each other by pathways (Fig. 7 & 8). Fig. 7: Traditional buildings of Beit Sahur in the late 19th and early 20th century. 31 Fig.8: Traditional buildings of Beit Sahur in 2012. Source: the authors, 2012. Each of the compounds was inhabited by the members of one extended family (hamula), with outsiders usually not allowed to share the same space. he houses of wealthy individuals or families were particularly large, constructed of well-dressed stones and mortar and decorated with columns and other ornamental elements (Fig. 9). he houses of less wealthy individuals or families were mostly medium- or small-sized, built of rough-cut stones and mortar, but rarely decorated. he majority of the individual houses are square in shape, measuring 6 X 6 X 6m on average, with the levels of a multistorey house connected via an internal or external staircase. Fig. 9: Ornamental elements on the entrance facade of a traditional building in Beit Sahur. Source: the authors, 2012. 32 2.6.4 Archaeological sites in the surrounding area Khirbet Beit Basa his site occupies the summit of a natural hill with steep slopes on all sides, located in the south eastern part of Beit Sahur. he place was connected with the town’s historic core via an ancient pathway paved with various size stones, which can still be traced at several spots. Conder and Kitchener visited the site in the 19th century, calling it by the name Bier Beit Basa, and dated it to the Roman, Byzantine and Islamic periods. he Khirbet (“ruin”) was excavated on three occasions: two salvage digs and one scientiic excavation. he irst salvage excavation was carried out by the Israeli Staf Oicer for Archaeology (SOFA) in 1986 to rescue a rock-cut Roman period tomb that was threatened by looting. he second salvage excavation was carried out by the Palestinian Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in 2008 to document a Byzantine winepress that was also being looted by locals. he inal expedition was carried out by the Institute of Archaeology of Al-Quds University to explore the broader history of the site and provide the students of the institute with ieldwork skills. he site was found to include remains of a large number of ancient walls, natural and man-made caves, winepresses and cisterns (Fig. 10). Fig.10: Architectural remains of Khirbet Beit Bassa. Source: the authors, 2012. 33 Khirbet Abu Hamama his site is located in the north western part of the city, covering an area of about 50 dunums. It was excavated by the SOFA in 1994 in the process of constructing the separation wall. he site includes subterranean rock-cut tombs, caves, cisterns, the remains of ancient walls, remains of an ancient road, and oliveand winepresses, all dated to the Roman or Byzantine periods (Fig. 11). Fig. 11: he ruins of Khirbet Abu Hamama. Source: the authors, 2012. Khirbet el-Mazar he place is situated south of Khirbet Abu Hamama (#2 above) and covers an area of about 45dunums. Its remains are dated to the Roman, Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, and include graves, caves, winepresses, cisterns and the ruins of an ancient mosque (Fig. 12). Fig. 12: he ruins of Khirbet el-Mazar. Source: the authors, 2012. 34 Khirbet Umm el-A’saier he site lies northwest of the city, covering an area of some 40 dunums. It has been coniscated for the construction of the separation wall and thus de facto annexed to Israel. he remains there date to the Roman and Byzantine periods and include a large number of (looted) rockcut tombs, a few cisterns, several caves, and remains of ancient walls. Bir as-Sayidah his is one of the most important wells located in the historic core of Beit Sahur (Fig. 13). It is believed that the patriarch Jacob (the son of Isaac, the son of Abraham) originally dug it during the second millennium B.C. It is said also that Mary passed by it on her way to Egypt. According to the traditional story, Mary was thirsty and asked a woman to draw water for her; the woman refused, whereupon the water in the well miraculously overlowed by itself. he elders of the town still believe that the well possesses miraculous powers for healing incurable diseases. Today, however, it is abandoned and very few people visit it. 2.7 Infrastructure Below we will present the most important elements of the infrastructure of Beit Sahur, including: electricity and telecommunication services, transportation services, water supply, sanitation, and solid waste removal. 2.7.1 Electricity and Telecommunication Services he 2007 Census indicates that 99.4% of the housing units of the city are connected to the public electricity network, provided by the Jerusalem Electricity Company, while the rest are dependent on private generators. Furthermore, approximately 95% of the housing units of the city are connected to a telecommunications network. 2.7.2 Transportation Services Interviews with Beit Sahur municipal employees conducted by the work team of this project in 2012 indicate that the city has a bus company and a large number of taxi oices. he buses are working from the early morning until around 8:00 p.m., while the taxis operate 24 hours a day. As for the road network, there is a total of more than 100km of main and secondary roads, which are mostly paved and in good physical condition. Furthermore, the municipality, together with the Palestinian Ministry of Transportation, have installed traic lights at several of the city’s busiest intersections. Fig. 13: he Well of as-Sayidah. Source: the authors, 2012. 35 2.7.3 Water supply According to the municipality’s statistics, about 99% of the housing units of the city are connected to the public water supply, while the rest are dependent on purchase of water tanks and on using the rainwater gathered in their own cisterns. he rate of water consumption per capita in the Beit Sahur community averages about 65 litres per day. 2.7.4 Sanitation Approximately 78% of the housing units in the city are connected to the public sewerage network. his network, established between 1995 and 1999, is about 45km in length and runs to a pumping station north of the city which pumps the untreated wastewater into Wadi en-Nar. he rest of the city’s citizens are using private cesspits; this wastewater, after being pumped out into tanks, is discharged into remote open areas or into Wadi en-Nar. 2.7.5 Solid waste removal According to information provided by several municipal employees, the Beit Sahur municipality is the oicial body responsible for managing, collecting, and transporting the solid waste generated by households, shops, institutions and public places. Most solid waste is collected by residents in plastic bags and these are deposited in large containers located at special spots along the main and secondary roads. Large compactor trucks then collect the solid waste from the containers daily and transport it to 36 the Abu Dis dumping site, about 20 km by road from Beit Sahur. Since the process of solid waste management is costly, the direct beneiciaries are charged a monthly or yearly fee, with the municipality covering the rest of the cost. 2.8 he local economic system of Beit Sahur 2.8.1 Land use he results of the 1997 Census indicate the land use within the Bethlehem Governorate as follows: 59.2% of the land area was pastureland; 22.6% was open spaces with little or no vegetation; 8.2% was cultivated agricultural land; 5.7% was Palestinian built-up areas; 2% forests and semi-natural areas; 1.9% built-up areas of Israeli settlements; 0.2% mining, dump or construction sites; and 0.1% occupied by Israeli military bases. he built-up areas of the three municipalities account for around 64% of the land area within the municipal boundaries. In the Bethlehem municipality, 14% of the land was agricultural land; 18% left as open spaces; and 1% was stone quarries; the balance (66%) represents Bethlehem’s built-up urban areas. In Beit Sahur, about 21% of the land was used for agriculture; 2% covered by shrub and herbaceous vegetation; 20% was other open spaces; and the rest (57%) was built-up area. In Beit Jala, 25% of the land area was agricultural land; 0.5% forest; 7% open spaces; and 67% built-up area. Over the past two decades, there has been an intensive wave of new construction within the governorate. Most of this building activity came at the expense of the agricultural areas as a large number of trees were cut and several roads constructed across the former agricultural lands. he agricultural landscape of Beit Sahur is characterized essentially by olive tree cultivation and to a lesser extent by other tree-crops (almonds, apricots, plums, etc.) as well as vineyards. his kind of “dry” agriculture is carried out largely on the slopes of hills and depends solely on winter rainwater. Traditionally, this agriculture has always lent the local landscape its distinctive appearance. By summer, which is harvest time, families used to move into the ields and live there during the entire period of intense daily activity. heir isolated stone constructions are still visible, dotting the local hills and ields. hey are called mintar, and were mostly built of dry-laid stone but occasionally with the use of mortar. hey were round like a tower and had two loors connected by an internal staircase. he family lived in the upper room, where there were windows overlooking the ields, however for security there were no windows in the lower room, which was used for storage of equipment and crops. he roof was often used to dry fruits and vegetables for the winter. Another agricultural use of the land is the cultivation of vegetables, especially squash, caulilower, tomatoes, chickpeas, etc; this is limited to the valley bottoms, which lend themselves more to irrigation and have deeper, more fertile soil deposits. Beit Sahur’s landscape is also characterized by cereal crops, grown especially on the broad plains east of the town, where sheep farming families and communities are also concentrated. he economic situation in the Palestinian Territories is unpredictable due both to national and local conditions, such as the unstable political situation in Palestine, and also to external factors such as the involvement of the World Bank. Essentially, the economy of Beit Sahur is facing the same barriers as the Palestinian economy in general. he town’s economy relies on a variety of economic activities, the most important of which are commerce and industry, such as textiles, chemicals and handicrafts; the industrial sector constitutes 34% of Beit Sahur’s total economic activity. 2.8.2 Labour force and employment he 1997 Census showed that approximately 39% of the total population of the Governorate were “economically active” (i.e., employed), while 61% were not economically active; the latter were further classiied as students (44.7%), housewives (43.1%), and people unable to work or not working and not looking for work (12.8%). Of the economically active people in the Bethlehem Governorate, 30% were working in the various professions and skilled trades; 28% in handicrafts and related work; 12% in services and sales; 5% as plant machine operators and assemblers; 4% as 37 clerks; 3% as legislators and managers; and inally 3% as skilled agricultural workers. he 2007 Census data speciically for Beit Sahur indicates that approximately 41.7% of the residents were economically active. Of these, 34% worked in the industrial sector; 27% in commerce; 17% were employees of the governmental sector; 11% worked in the services sector; 6% in agriculture; and 5% were employed in the Israeli labour market. In 2007 the unemployment rate in Beit Sahur stood at approximately 17%. 2.8.3 Agriculture and food his is one of the city’s most important economic sectors, despite the fact that the Israeli occupation has had a very detrimental impact on it. In particular, Israel’s separation barrier constitutes a huge impediment to the practice of agriculture. Statistics from the Ministry of Agriculture and the Beit Sahur municipality show that the land in this city available for agriculture is 8,306 dunums, here are 826 dunums of inhabited, built-up land. he other land use, by area breaks down as follows: Land Use in Beit Sahur city (dunum = 1000 m2) Total Built up Seasonal Permanent Green- Forests Area Area Crops Crops houses Open Spaces and Rangelands 8,306 826 2,738 1,349 2,087 0 21 Area of Area of Industrial, Settlements Commercial and Military & Transport Bases Unit 616 669 Table 4 Land use in Beit Sahur city. Source: GIS unit – ARIJ, 2008. Total area of fruit and olive trees in Beit sahur City (dunum = 1000m2) Cereals Rf Irr 220 0 Bulbs Rf 0 Irr 0 Dry legumes Rf 18 Irr 0 Oil crops Rf 0 Irr 0 Forage crops Rf 27 Irr 0 Stimulating crops Rf 0 Irr 0 Other crops Rf 0 Table 5 Total area of ield-crops in Beit Sahur city (in dunums) Rf: Rain-fed Irr: Irrigated 38 Irr 0 Total area Rf Irr 265 0 Total area of ield crops in Beit Sahur city (dunums = 1000 m2) Olives Rf Irr. 1,150 0 Citrus Rf 0 Irr. Rf 0 6 Stonefruits Irr. 0 Pome fruits Rf 0 Irr. 0 Nuts Rf 15 Irr. Rf 0 0 Other fruits Total area Irr. Rf Irr. 0 1,171 0 Table 6 Total area of fruit and olive trees in Beit- Sahur City (dunums). Rf: Rain-fed Irr: Irrigated Beit Sahur produces a variety of both ieldcrops and tree-crops. he former includes diferent vegetables and forage crops, but wheat, barley and other cereal grains (220 dunums) account for most of the area under ield-crop cultivation. Of the treecrops, most important are almonds and other nuts, and especially olives. Of the 1,171 dunums under cultivation, the vast majority consists of olive groves. Local agriculture has other connections, besides being a direct source of sustenance or income, which may not be self-evident. Olive trees, for example, possess a deeply symbolic and religious importance, and of course the olive wood is highly sought after for handicrafts. Olive trees are thus quite important for the local economy. Agriculture in general also has an inluence on tourism by creating attractive vistas which not only lend themselves to a relaxing experience but, for some, help evoke the biblical world through the kind of traditional, rural landscapes visitors have come to associate with the Holy Land. he major problems facing local agriculture are lack of rain (and Israel’s total control of water resources), plus a weak system of agricultural support and consultation, due to the lack of national institutions and trained professionals dealing with agricultural issues. Statistics also reveal that 78% of the total agricultural land in the Bethlehem governorate is in remote areas, which points up another major problem: farmers often can’t reach their lands due to restrictions that the Israeli occupation authorities have imposed on use of the land. In addition, the growth of Israeli settlements has had a negative impact on agriculture, the most glaring but very relevant local example being Mount Abu Ghneim (HarHoma) where, as mentioned, some sixty thousand trees were cut down. 2.8.4 Industrial Activities Here are some of the main types of activities in the city’s industrial sector: - Arts and crafts like pottery, glass, wicker furniture - Textiles and Clothing, with several 39 - factories located in the city Furniture Industries Chemical Industries Metalworking Industries like blacksmith workshops. Food, e.g. spaghetti and macaroni Plastics Industries 2.8.5 Handcraft Activities We can deine handicraft activities as crafts or industries which depend on natural raw materials, workers’ manual skills, and the use of simple tools. hese industries rely on transforming some raw material into marketable goods that relect the local cultural heritage, with many having a religious signiicance as well. We can identify several of these industries, including: glass, pottery, clay, embroidery, rugs, soap-making, olivewood carving, wicker and mosaics. Beit Sahur is one of the cities in Palestine which is very famous for such industries, which many families depend on for their living, especially olive-wood carving. However there are many problems facing the people working (or seeking work) in this sector, for example: - he lack of inancial help - he economic and political situations generally - he high prices of raw materials, and diiculty inding and obtaining these materials - A limited number of workshops and work opportunities - Limited access to international markets 40 he table below shows the number of workshops involved in the various handicraft industries: Artisan industry Olive-wood handicraft Mother-of-pearl Embroidery Wax Mosaic Number of workshops 150 11 6 1 1 Tabl 7 he number of workshops involved in the various handicraft industries in the area of Beit Sahur he various handicraft industries are described below in more detail: 2.8.5.1 Olive-wood Handicraft Olive trees, besides being one of the most important species characterizing the Mediterranean world, also carry religious signiicance for the three great monotheistic religions of Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Indeed, olive oil has lighted temples, synagogues, churches and mosques down through history – and in some places still does. he olive branch is also a well-known symbol of peace.. he tree’s origins are quite ancient. he remains of trees dating back 45,000 years were recently found decaying in the ground by workers at a place called Al-Negev; elsewhere, scientists found remains dating back about 25,000 years. Some people believe that olivewood carving is one of the oldest crafts to be passed down from previous generations as part of Palestinian heritage, due in particular to the relationship between the products and the Christian aspect of the country’s history. Moreover, we believe that this craft began in Bethlehem already during the fourth century A.D., when monks taught the local people how to makes these crafts, irst patterned perhaps on their own olive-seed rosary beads. Beit-Sahur is considered the irst place to have widely practiced this kind of craft. he workshops that deal in these crafts number about 150 today, family-owned and distributed throughout the city (Fig. 14). Fig. 14: One of the Olive-wood handicraft in Beit Sahur. Source: the authors, 2012. A great variety of objects are handcrafted locally from natural olive-wood, relecting especially biblical and Christian themes but also Islamic ones. For this reason, it is one of the important industries linked to travel and tourism, relected by the signiicant number of people working in this sector. he olivewood products are sold through three primary markets: the local market (IsraelPalestine); foreign markets in the West, especially the USA, Germany and Italy; and Arab markets like Jordan, the Persian Gulf and Saudi Arabia. Some of the most important items produced for this export trade are religious books bound with olive-wood covers, beads, and a great variety of carved igurines and decorative objects. 2.8.5.2 Mother-of-pearl Mother-of-pearl (also known as nacre), an iridescent shell-like material, likewise holds an importance which can be traced historically. It was found during the archaeological researches carried out at tell es-Sultan in Jericho, where in Neolithic burials it had been cut and inserted to form the eyes of plastered skull-masks; this custom apparently spread to the regions of Syria and Lebanon at about the same time. hroughout the land of Palestine, many other archaeological sites have shed light on the mother-of-pearl art and industry that took place here down through the ages. here are some witnesses to the craft from the Crusader period, however the mother-of-pearl industry in Palestine seems to have developed rapidly between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, especially among Christian monks. Today there are more than 36 motherof-pearl factories in the Bethlehem Governorate, with 10 of these located in Beit Sahur (Fig. 15). 41 Fig. 15: Mother-of-pearl’s workshop in Beit Sahur. Source: the authors, 2012. In the beginning, this industry was limited to producing beads and decorative pictures, but today has been developed to encompass a dozen or more kinds of products – brooches, jewellery and decorative items, mostly for the tourist market. Although the raw material is today imported from other countries, motherof-pearl production is one of the region’s genuinely traditional crafts. According to statistics from the Beit Sahur Municipality, the growth of the craft locally is dominated by certain large, extended families. he number of factories in Beit Sahur is roughly a third of the total number in the area; three of the workshops employ between 7 and 10 workers. As with olivewood, we can classify the mother-of-pearl products into various types, particularly by their religious themes: Islamic, Christian or neutral. 42 his important, traditional industry likewise has many problems facing it, such as: - he diicult economic and political conditions generally - A lack of local markets - Diiculty locating and obtaining the materials, and the high cost of materials - he sporadic nature of the work - he lack of trademark protection for the products - Inadequate inancial help 2.8.5.3 Embroidery Embroidery is a source of income for many families in Palestinian cities and villages, executed in a multitude of styles so distinctive that one can guess where a person comes from just by looking at the patterns embellishing his or her garments. Embroidery as a craft depends largely on women, the skills passing from mother to daughter, one generation to the next. hus, it plays a basic role in traditional Palestinian life and heritage, especially in rural areas but also in some cities. Moreover, many women depend on their handcrafted output as a source of income. he are many intricate patterns of embroidery which are applied not only to articles of clothing, but also mattresses, cushions and bags and, as mentioned, each village or locale boasts its own particular designs unique to that place. According to Bait Sahur Municipality statistics, there are six workshops producing embroidery; these operations are located in family homes and are not licensed (i.e., it is not required). 2.8.5.4 Mosaic 2.9 Accommodations he modern craft of mosaic work continues an ancient art form which dates back to Greek and Roman times and continued to lourish in the Byzantine and Islamic periods. In recent times this craft has seen something of a revival as a popular form of decorative art, sometimes with religious themes. In Bait Sahur city there is only workshop for making mosaic, whose installations decorate the walls of mosques, churches and private homes. Providers of guest lodging are very important players in the incoming tourism sector in the Bethlehem area. We have a signiicant supply of tourist rooms available in the Bethlehem Governorate, with more than 43 hotels, guesthouses and other lodgings. Statistics from the PA Ministry of Tourism show that the number of tourists coming to Bethlehem is about 1.4 million persons annually. his statistic is for the entire Bethlehem Governorate, however for Beit Sahur there is no separate data for incoming tourists. 2.8.5.5 Wax Work in wax (candle-making) is also strongly connected to the religious dimension, with wax candles being used in synagogues and churches from at least the third century. he wax industry in the Bethlehem area has passed through many stages and today produces many kinds and sizes of candles popular with pilgrims and tourists. he larger decorative candles often depict a well-known biblical story or bear a picture of a famous building or city. here is only one workshop in Bait Sahur, which is family-owned (Fig. 16). Fig. 16: A wax’s workshop in Beit Sahur. Source: the authors, 2012. here are thirteen hotels licensed by the PA Ministry of Tourism. Some of these hotels are quite large, such as the Golden Park and Shepherds Field House Hotel, which have 167 rooms each. Some of the lodgings are smaller, such as “the Dawn Modes” of Arab women and the Lavonti Hotel. Names of hotels: 1- Sahary Hotel 2- Shepherd’s Field House Hotel. 3- Abu El-Nawas Hotel 4- Ararat Hotel 5- Sweet Dreams Hotel 6- Abu Saada guest house 7- Golden Park Hotel 8- Arab women’s guest house 9- he Roman Catholic house of hospitality 10- Lafunte de Maria hotel 11- he hree Kings Hotel 12- Ilyas Awad guest House 13- Centre for Rapprochement between people 43 2.10 Catering and restaurants Beit Sahur contains about 20 restaurants (an increase from 16 in 2008 to 19 in 2012) according to the latest statistics. hese vary greatly in terms of cuisine, price range, dining facilities, etc. he names of the restaurants are: 1- Al-Hakoura Restaurant 2- Orient Restaurant 3- Royal Hall 4- Al-Sous Hall 5- Al-Sahury Restaurant 6- Shepherd ield Restaurant 7- Al-Nawas Restaurant 8- Happy Days Restaurant 9- Cheese Restaurant 10- Happy Family Restaurant 11- Miller Restaurant 12- John Al-Haik Restaurant 13- Dar al-Balad Restaurant 14- Al-Qala Restaurant 15- Al-Khaima Restaurant 16- Al-Golden Park Restaurant 17- Ish Al-Ghurab Restaurant 2.11 Tour operators and travel agencies: A number of local tour operators and travel agencies specialise in making all kinds of travel arrangements: bookings for air travel and hotels, ground transport, group tours, etc.; their services encompass both incoming and outgoing tourism and in-country tours. Currently the main companies in this ield are: 1- Gloria Tours and travel 2- Siraj Center for Holy Land Studies 3- Sunbird travel Tours Co. Ltd. 4- he Alternative Tourism Group (A.T.G), founded in 1990 to encourage travel to Palestinian areas and encountering the life, culture and history of our country. 5- Brothers international Ltd. 6- Four seasons for travel and tourism 7- Green Tours 8- Angel for Travel and Tourism 9- Kokalay for traveling 10- Maji Tours 2.12 Trade and Commerce hese restaurants in turn help support several suppliers such as bakers, produce markets (six), and around 216 grocery stores. his rather general category encompasses many important centres of local economic activity. It thus contributes much to creating career opportunities and general employment for a large number of people. he table below shows the number of establishments documented in 2008: 44 Name of Industry Establishments in Beit- Sahur Aluminium Fabricating 5 Bakeries 6 Banks 1 Billiard halls 3 Blacksmithing 1 Food kiosks 4 Car upholstery work 10 Carpentry 18 Chemical Manufacturing 2 Cigarette selling 35 Confectionery 4 Dental Laboratory 2 Detergents 3 Electrical Equipment 3 Frozen Food 6 Fruit and Vegetables 6 Petrol Stations 2 Furniture Manufacturing 18 and Sales Auto repair 8 Gifts 4 Glass Manufacturing 1 Grocery and Beverages 18 Hotel supply 1 Jewellery Manufacturing 1 Knitwear and knitted 21 goods Public Library 1 Macaroni Factory 1 Mother–of-pearl Handicraft Olive Wood Paint, Varnish and Lacquer Pharmaceutical Photo Studio Plastic Molding Printing Refrigerator Repair Repairs, Electrical Products Restaurants Beauty Salon Household supplies Sculpting Sewing Machine Repair Shoe Repair Shoe Stores Stone Cutting Tailoring Textiles Machine shop Upholstering Watch Repair and Sales Wholesale and Retail Other 10 150 6 8 4 2 4 3 2 20 8 6 2 2 1 8 2 8 18 2 8 2 8 82 45 2.13 Printing and Publishing here are a few companies in Beit-Sahur specializing in printing and publishing, serving the ields of mass media and advertising/promotion. he main companies are: 1Tala Design and Print, specialized in all kinds of printing. 2Speed Printing – advertising and mass media. 3C.B.A. Printer. In addition, there is a health, cultural and social magazine which was founded one year ago and is published every three months. 46 2.14 Communications and Information Technology his sector has grown locally in line with its importance in international and regional markets. Beit Sahur is served by all the usual telephone, mobile and internet services. hese support the tourism industry here both as a means of booking hotels, restaurants, etc. and as services available to visitors. 3. Beit Sahur – History and Analysis of the Shepherds’ Field site 3.1 he “Shepherds’ Fields” in ancient texts, and the history of the sites he village of Beit Sahur is where one of the places most sacred to Christians, the Shepherds’ Field, is found. It is identiied as the setting of the story in the Gospel of Luke where an angel of the Lord visited the shepherds and informed them of Jesus’ birth: And there were shepherds living out in the ields nearby, keeping watch over their locks at night. An angel of the Lord appeared to them, and the glory of the Lord shone around them, and they were terriied. But the angel said to them, “Do not be afraid. I bring you good news of great joy that will be for all the people. (Luke 2:8-10) people traditionally built agricultural watchtowers to be used by the ields’ owners and their families. In the valley there are two places that purport to locate the exact site of the angel’s announcement, Kanisat al Rawat (Church of the Shepherds) run by the Greek Orthodox (Fig. 17) and Khirbet Siyar al Ghanam (Ruins of the Sheepfold) by the Franciscans. Both sites have been excavated, and these archaeological researches reveal that there have been churches in both places since the 4th century. he town’s Arabic name translates into English as “house of vigilance” and is considered to originate from the Canaanite words “Beit”, meaning house, and “Sahur” meaning night-watch. he fertile land of the region would have provided the locks with good grazing during the daytime, and safety in its numerous natural and man-made caves and shelters at night. It also encouraged farmers to plant the local hillsides with fruit trees, especially igs, and grapevines; these they were accustomed to watching over constantly, day and night, from July to October. For this purpose, Fig. 17: Kanisat al Rawat (Church of the Shepherds). Source: the authors, 2012. 47 his area is also believed to be where the Biblical matriarchs Ruth and Naomi gleaned in the ields behind the harvesters, on their way to Bethlehem from Moab (Ruth 2-4). According to the narrative, Ruth married Boaz, and they had a son, Obed, who was the father of Jesse and grandfather of David. hus Bethlehem became known in the Bible as the city where David was born, and it was prophesied that the Messiah would likewise be born there (Micah 5:1-5). An anonymous pilgrim text (most likely of Egeria, one of the earliest documented Christian pilgrims, ca. 381-384) is quoted by the 12th century Benedictine monk Peter the Deacon (Liber de Locis Sanctis, in Corpus Christianorum, Ser. Lat. 175, 96). his work tells us of the holy memories evoked by the environs of Bethlehem: Not far from there, there is a church called of the Shepherds, where a large garden is fully enclosed by a wall; and there, there is a very luminous grotto, which has an altar where an angel, appearing to the shepherds in vigil, announced the birth of Christ. St. Jerome (end of the 4th century) also mentioned this location in several places, associating it with the Biblical MigdalEder (“Tower of Eder”; Heb. eder = “lock”, Gen. 35:21) (PL 23, 1044); there the church of Jerusalem gathered and celebrated a feast-day on Christmas Eve. Bishop Arculf (7th century pilgrim) recalls being shown the burial places of the three shepherds within the church: I visited the three tombs of those three shepherds who are buried in a church near the Tower of Gader, which is about a mile 48 to the east of Bethlehem, whom, when the Lord was born, the brightness of the angelic light surrounded at that place, that is near the Tower of the Folck; where that church has been built, containing the sepulchres of those shepherds. Sometime before the arrival of the Crusaders, the church was destroyed but the ruins still continued to be visited by pilgrims. Greek sources called the place “Haghion Poimaneion” (Epiphanius the Monk, Enarratio Syriae, PG 120,263) or “Haghia Pimina” (he Pilgrimage of the Russian Abbot Daniel in the Holy Land). he Palestinian-Georgian Calendar of the Jerusalem Church mentions the Feast of Saints Cosmas and Damian on October 17th in “Bitaseuripago”, i.e. the village of Bitaseuri (Baldi D., Enchiridion Locorum Sanctorum, 1064).hat name in fact seems to be a transcription of Beit Sahur, meaning that the Arabic place-name came into use already sometime between the 7th and 10th centuries. he ruins at Kanisat al-Rawat were excavated in 1972 by Vasilios Tzaferis on behalf of the Greek Orthodox. he remains there include a church from the 4th century, of which the barrelvaulted roof still survives. his church is approached from above by a light of 21 steps and has three apses with traces of mosaic and old frescoes. he mosaic loor includes crosses. Above it a later Byzantine chapel was built; this was in turn replaced by a larger church, which was inally destroyed. hen the church and a monastery were rebuilt in the 7th century and survived until the 10th century. About 600 m to the north of al-Rawat is the site of Khirbet Siyar al-Ghanam (“Ruins of the Sheepfold”) which the Franciscan fathers identify as the Shepherds’ Fields, and thus it is regarded by Roman Catholic pilgrims (Fig. 18). Here there is a low natural cave or rock shelter in pleasant surroundings and with a ine view of the hills. Just to the north are the ruins of a rectangular monastery founded on a site purportedly occupied by nomadic shepherds in the 1st century. he monastery covers an area of 40,000 square meters, and was built on several terraces with a combined vertical height of some 35 meters. An early phase of the monastery dates from the late 4th century Fig. 18: Khirbat Siyar al-Ghanam (Ruins of the Sheepfold). to the early 5th century and a second phase to the 6th century. Only the apse of the church survives, and a large lintel decorated with crosses (Fig. 18). he monastery had winepresses, a bakery, cisterns and animal pens. he scholars who believe this was not the site described by early pilgrims have suggested that it might be one of the many other Byzantine monasteries of the Judean desert. 49 Fig. 19: Apse of the 4th/early 5th century church. Source: the authors, 2012. Although the Gospel text does not refer to an exact location and could apply equally to the entire small valley, the remains of the church within the Greek Orthodox site of Kanisat al-Rawat actually seem to correspond best to the church mentioned in the Medieval pilgrims accounts, while Siyar al-Ghanam might better relect the more ancient sources that mentioned caves, a tower and a monastery. In any event, Khirbat Siyar al-Ghanam has long been the more accessible and more visited of the two sites just detailed, and serves as the focus of our study below – it is our “Shepherds’ Field” for the balance of this paper. It bears mentioning at least that the YMCA of Beit Sahur, east of the town 50 centre and on the north side of the road, is where many Protestants have come to commemorate the Shepherds’ Fields. he focal point here is a grove of pines which, though lacking any ancient remains, boasts a cave and a view toward both Jerusalem and the desert. 3.2 Historical and documentary survey Current Palestinian law states that permission must be obtained from the Palestinian Department of Antiquities (within the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities) in order to carry out investigations or excavations at any known archaeological site. Normally this permission is given only to scientiic institutions or individual scholars, on the condition that they publish the results within two years of completing the excavations and that any cultural materials remain in the country. Granting of a permit is further conditioned upon the objective of the proposed research and by the investigator’s scientiic background; usually some prior positive relationship with the Department is also necessary to obtain a permit. In fact, there are not clear rules in place regarding these issues. hus, there is a need to update the guidelines that govern this permitting process, which should not depend on personal judgments or “connections” but rather actively encourage qualiied local scholars to carry out research and investigations. It would be useful to involve local academic institutions in discussing and designing new guidelines that could broaden the decision-making process. Further, cooperation between foreign institutions and local institutions should be developed for purposes of capacity building. he fact is, the PA Department of Antiquities on its own possesses very limited scientiic and management capacity for the proper monitoring and oversight of research carried out at archaeological sites. Site investigation is basic as a starting point for any successful planning. his requires a higher quality of staf, plus specialists like archaeologists and trained tourist guides, who could be able to use the historical and documentary research for the beneit of the site. When seeking to develop infrastructure, multidisciplinary research based on site investigation is necessary in order to cover all relevant aspects of the project. Site investigation, again, is crucial for planning site infrastructure – footpaths, fencing, bathroom facilities, rest areas, etc. – while minimising damage to the place’s archaeological and historical value as well as to the larger environment and landscape. he irst modern exploration of the Shepherd’s Field site in Siyar al-Ghanam was carried out by Carlo Guarmani, working on behalf of the maritime company Messageries Imperials de la France. Guarmani was told that in the area there were ruins of a deir (Arabic, “monastery”), thus he bought the property and started to expose the remains. He described his experience in a letter to a Monsignor Mislim, published in a book Mislim later wrote (Mgr. Mislim, Les Saints Lieux, t.3, Paris 1876, nota A. p. 688), and also in a report published in Beirut in 1859 (Il Migdal Ader ed il Santuario dell’apparizione degliAngeli ai Pastori ritrovati e descritti, Imprimerie Catholique.) Guarmani’s researches were limited to the eastern area of the monastery. He wrote that he found three tombs in the grottos in the centre of the area. he Franciscan Fathers bought the rest of the land incrementally, in 1902, 1903 and 1906. In 1934 the Franciscans cleaned the area previously excavated by Guarmani, inding remains of two mosaic loors, one to the north of the large cistern and another to the south of the church. his latter mosaic loor had fallen from above, evidence that 51 the monastery had a second loor. he Franciscan fathers also transformed the grotto of the oil-press into a cave-chapel, rebuilding the loor with ancient stone tesserae. On the advice of Fr. Bagatti, the then young Franciscan archaeologist Virgilio Corbo focused his initial ield of research, in 1951-2, on this site and other Byzantine monasteries of the Judean Desert. his was the subject of the thesis he presented to the Pontiical Institute of Oriental Studies in Rome, entitled “he excavations at Khirbet Siyar el-Ghanam (Shepherd’s Field) and neighbouring monasteries”, and subsequently published in the Collection Maior of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum in 1955. Corbo’s excavations in the area unearthed the remains of a rural settlement dating to the irst century A.D. and a Byzantine monastery (church, courtyards, cisterns, bakery, and mosaic loors) which lourished between the 4th and 8th centuries A.D. More speciically, the excavations revealed the existence of two historical phases of the monastery, one at the end of the 4th or beginning of the 5th century and the other from the 6th century. Belonging to the irst phase are the foundations of the church and those of several walls. hen in the 6th century the church was demolished and rebuilt in the same place but with the apse displaced slightly towards the east. Of this second, later monastery there exist remains of the apse and walls of several rooms. Among the rooms of the second monastery, a few were identiied as being used for particular purposes: a porter’s lodge, a bakery with a large basalt millstone, a refectory, oilpresses, a cave-cellar and a stable (Fig. 52 20). A system of water channels and several cisterns were also brought to light. Furthermore, the remains of a watchtower were found, now incorporated into the Franciscan hospice. he monastery was in use up until the 8th century and then was abandoned. Fig. 20: Remains of an oil press. Source: the authors, 2012. For more than 60 years now, no other major archaeological excavations have been carried out on the site, and little research has been conducted on it. Recently, however, the Museum of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum (SBF) in Jerusalem began reviewing the cultural materials residing in their collection which came from the 20th century excavations. New historical research and documentation about the Shepherds’ Field site could enhance pilgrim/tourist visits focusing on the site itself, as well as visits connected with Beit Sahur community activities such as festivals and cultural events. An on-site museum presenting some of the artefacts discovered in the excavations could be a signiicant aspect of the development of the site. he holdings and organization of such a museum would be based on professional historical research and documentation (and could draw on the work being done currently by the SBF, since both would be under the umbrella of the Franciscan order). Carrying out a program of updated historical research, plus the efective presentation and promotion of the site so as to attract more visitors, suggest two related needs: irst, a campaign of fundraising and, especially, a coordinated efort involving several entities, such as: the PA Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, the Municipality of Beit Sahur, the Custody of the Holy Land, and NGOs dealing with cultural heritage. 3.3 Restoration and conservation activities Palestinian law does not establish standards for the quality of conservation project design or for maintenance programs and their implementation. Underestimating the importance of conservation had led to conlicts in its management, mainly among the Department of Antiquities, the legal owners of sites, and Palestinian NGOs related to cultural heritage. he lack of clear regulation – or even of a clear vision of the importance conservation holds for cultural heritage development – only increases the conlict. A simple agreement is not enough, rather a new understanding should be established and the law is a necessary place to start. It is important to involve local entities and institutions – such as universities, experts within various government ministries, the private sector, local governments, and foreign institutions – in order to establish a team specialized in conservation and to create guidelines setting standards for this ield. he present Franciscan sanctuary at the Shepherds’ Field site, Siyar el-Ghanam, is known formally by its Latin name “SS. Angelorum ad Pastores”, meaning (approximately) “[Where] the Holy Angels [came] to the Shepherds”. he chapel was designed by Italian architect Antonio Barluzzi in 1953-4 and stands on a rocky prominence overlooking the ancient ruins (Fig. 21) . It has a decagonal shape and ive apses whose sloping, angular exteriors evoke the structure of a tent, as might have been used by the shepherds in antiquity. he light that penetrates the concrete and glass dome, illuminating the interior, calls to mind the divine light that shone upon the shepherds. Fig. 21: Shepherds’ Field sanctuary. Source: the authors, 2012 53 he bronze high-relief of an angel over the door was designed by sculptor Duilio Cambellotti, who also created the cast bronze doors, the four bronze statues supporting the main altar in the centre of the chapel, and candlesticks and crosses. Architect U. Noni rendered the fresco murals in three of the apses, depicting the angel’s announcement to the shepherds, the shepherds paying homage to Jesus, and the shepherds celebrating the birth of Jesus. Sculptor A. Minghetti created the ten stucco angels around the interior of the lower part of the dome. he Shepherd’s Field includes caves used as dwellings during the Roman era, a Byzantine monastery, a guard tower and inally the church built in 1954 by architect Barluzzi in the immediate vicinity of the cave. he new church creates a visual element that can be seen from the opposite side of the valley and symbolically identiies the place as a sacred area. Over time, and particularly over the last twenty years, the site has undergone signiicant changes: the building of various structures, to the detriment of the monastery ruins and the open spaces interspersed among them; the church of Barluzzi; enhancements within the grottos; and the planting of a small forested area stretching toward the site entrance to the west. he caves, as well as other locations within the monastery ruins, have been cleaned up and turned into small chapels. he need to set aside spaces for large groups of pilgrims/tourists to gather has gradually invaded the archaeological remains in the form of metal structures and systems of ixed benches, or the installation of other furniture often covering entire rooms. his approach not only is causing physical damage to the remains, but the very nature of the site has become less clear to visitors and the understanding of the area is being distorted (Fig. 21). Fig. 22: Metal structures in the site. Source: the authors, 2012. 54 In 2006 a group of undergraduates in architecture, guided by Professors Arch. A. Petruccioli, G.C. Infranca, G. Uva, and G. Ortolani (all of the Faculty of Architecture, Politecnico of Bari, Italy), carried out a study of the landscape and an architectural evaluation of the entire area around the sanctuary. he planned project was focused generally on rehabilitating the architecture and landscape of the site, with the intention of better promoting both its religious and historical qualities. heir project had the following speciic objectives: 1. To strengthen the system of ancient terraces that deines the area, and design new ways to demonstrate their original use. In terms of landscape, this was the most important envisioned intervention. To relate the various structures and spaces belonging to the sacred area – the cavechapels, the ancient monastery, the tower and the church – both to each other and to two new elements: a museum designed to showcase and interpret some of the archaeological inds and a park area which would upgrade the site’s entry area from the street; 2. Relocation of the outdoor group seating areas for prayer, masses, etc.; 3. To rehabilitate and protect the archaeological area, which is currently in a state of serious neglect, impacted especially by the presence of metal roof structures that deine the abovementioned group assembly areas; 4. To evaluate and redeine issues of vehicular traic and parking, especially for tour buses, for which the site currently lacks dedicated unloading/parking areas. Until now, the project described above has remained on the level of theory; and none of its proposals have been realized (Fig. 23). Fig. 23: Politecnico of Bari project. 55 From the very beginning, the conservation of the archaeological remains found at the Shepherd’s Field site has been mostly neglected. he archaeological excavations themselves included a thorough survey and proper publication and interpretation of the data, but there were no conservation activities. Also, the 2006 plan for conservation was never carried out, perhaps in part because the person who was in charge of it, Fr. Michele Piccirillo, passed away just after the plan preparation. In any event, from the time of the excavations up until the present, the Shepherds’ Field site has sufered systematically from gradual deterioration caused by both natural and human factors. At the moment, there are no restoration projects, either underway or planned, at the Shepherd’s Field. If the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land should decide to undertake conservation activities, they would have to ask for permission from the PA Department of Antiquities. Conversely, if the Department of Antiquities wanted to carry out conservation eforts, they would need the permission of the owner (the Custody). here is no annual budget for funding even routine maintenance work at the site, nor is there anyone on-site specialised in carrying out a program of maintenance. hus, any work that is done is on an as-needed basis, in essence only if there is an emergency. When the need for maintenance arises, the site caretaker informs the Custody of the Holy Land and waits until they ind someone to 56 do the work, which of course takes some time. he Custody must ind a company or individual to do the needed maintenance work especially for that site’s facilities and infrastructure, however the issue of archaeological conservation is not considered. his all suggests that some means is needed to facilitate and control the quality of such work. Perhaps the Custody should create a team to follow up on all maintenance work carried out within the archaeological site. he Shepherds’ Field site shows great potential for development, of which conservation eforts are a key element, therefore careful study and interpretation of its socio-economic and historical context is essential to meeting the objectives of the project. here is a need to form a local professional team to participate, in cooperation with the regular Shepherds’ Field personnel, in the proposed project of conservation for this site. he site owners (the Custody) would have to actively cooperate with other organizations and programs which are working locally on issues of cultural heritage protection and conservation, in order to exchange ideas and experiences. Preserving and interpreting the site will serve to attract more visitors long-term, of course. In addition, however, carrying out such conservation activities always generates curiosity among local visitors, who want to see what is going on. Indeed, this can be embraced and promoted as a positive value. To this end, for example, the conservation areas could be made viewable by the public, and interpreted to them, as the work is on-going. his would be an opportunity to let the local community get closer to an archaeological site (without interfering or endangering themselves), as a way of creating a higher level of public awareness of the place and the cultural heritage it represents. Care must be taken, of course, as to the low of visitors during the execution of conservation activities, and some areas may have to be closed to the public on occasion. 3.4 Development policies Since the establishment of the Palestinian Authority in the 1990s, no real interest has been shown in including the value of this site’s history and environment in any larger planning process. In fact, in the agenda of the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities there exists no action plan for cultural heritage sites generally, either for Beit Sahur or in the rest of Palestine. in site development. he Beit Sahur municipality has already considered the nearby archaeological sites in their development program, as important resources for local development policies. his way of thinking has led them to intervene and to take part in discussions concerning the development of archaeological sites, and to participate in formulating policies to develop them. Current antiquities laws extend protection only to the excavated remains lying within the physical boundaries of designated sites. here is no law to protect the surrounding environment and its relationship to the larger landscape. From this perspective, the law currently in force presents many challenges. In particular, before any construction is planned near a sensitive site, a study should be done on the potential impact the project might have on the surrounding environment. here currently exists within the Palestinian Authority signiicant confusion regarding the duties and responsibilities of the various decisionmakers in charge of antiquities and related issues. A lack of specialists assigned to the planning sectors dealing with cultural heritage leads to poor interagency coordination when dealing with planning and carrying out infrastructure projects. Indeed, many institutions actually regard issues of cultural heritage as an obstacle standing in the way of development. here is no public transportation from the centre of the city of Beit Sahur, or from Bethlehem, to the archaeological site. he lands around the site have never been subjected to the kind of planning processes required to develop the potential of the site. Speciically, the Beit Sahur Municipality has thus far not prepared a detailed plan for the area, one that takes into consideration the present and future needs of the site, such as parking areas for tourist buses, a visitors centre, handicraft shops, restaurants, or other tourist services. Despite all this, we notice that local government is showing increasing interest At the Shepherds’ Field there is a building dedicated to the needs of the present 57 Franciscan community living on-site. It was constructed and furnished at the beginning of the 20th century and it is in good condition, functioning as living and worship space for the friars and as storage areas for archaeological objects, garden tools and other equipment. At present, there is no plan for any new construction within the site. Connections for electricity serve the monastery, the grotto, the new church, and certain areas of the archaeological site (but not the entire site); the lack of electricity connection to parts of the site creates diiculties when maintenance work or quick interventions are needed. here is a telephone line and Internet connection in the monastery for private use. extension of the opening hours of the site. Moreover, such infrastructure projects will in the long run enhance the level of services to visitors generally. Some general ideas for site development might include creating a designated tourist trail which would connect the archaeological site with the surrounding environment and other cultural resources, and developing services inside the site, such as a cofee shop, a museum, footpaths and interpretive signs (Fig. 24). here are public restrooms at the entrance of the site, for both men and women; they are not handicapped-accessible, however. he existing infrastructure at the Shepherds’ Field needs to be evaluated in terms of adequacy and possible upgrade, however there are no existing plans or studies relating to the site’s infrastructure needs. Decisions to enhance the quality of infrastructure depend solely upon the resources and initiative of the Custody of the Holy Land. To enhance the infrastructure would require a working plan encompassing several phases so that a budget could be allocated for it. Improving the present infrastructure will have an impact on the days/hours of operation for visitors, allowing the 58 Fig. 24: Present site interpretation. Source: the authors, 2012. 3.5 Safety and site protection here is no special design for visitor safety within the Shepherds’ Field site, thus certain places are potentially dangerous. Besides the archaeological remains themselves being left without adequate protection, there are no signs informing people about possible hazardous areas within the excavations. herefore, visitor safety should be one of the top priorities in any future planning for the Shepherds’ Field site (Fig. 25). Fig. 25: Hazardous area. Source: the authors, 2012. In the Palestinian Authority at the present time, visitor safety within cultural sites is not considered a priority, nevertheless improving the level of safety of this site is crucial, both for the tourist and for the site itself. Deterioration of the Shepherd’s Field site has reached a critical point, but the entities responsible for this issue – the Custody of the Holy Land, the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, and the Municipality of Beit Sahur – have not taken action in this area. Visitors must be made aware of safety and security factors through written materials, such as the site brochure. here must be work on this subject not only by the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, but also by specialists in the private sector that have experience in this ield. Guides and travel agencies are trained in safety and security and know how to deal with their visitors inside archaeological or tourist areas sites. especially since visitors to the site are often old people and the disabled, and the archaeological site itself is a danger. A study must be done regarding site safety issues and any hazards removed or minimised as soon as possible. Some of this might be achieved through proper routing of visitor traic through the site, by means of designated paths, boardwalks, railings and barriers, viewing platforms, or other installations designed to manage visitor access and movement. Where required, signs of warning must be put in place, plus a sign displayed near the entrance might tell visitors how to encounter the site with their safety in mind. Elderly people especially should be warned of possible dangers and how to make use of any special features designed to facilitate their access (ramps, lifts, etc.). 3.6 Interpretation and Presentation of the site At present, the archaeological area of the Shepherds’ Field is not readily understandable to visitors due to a lack of installations for site presentation and interpretation (Fig. 26). here are no explanatory signs whatsoever in the entire archaeological area. Quick and simple solutions must be sought, since enhanced presentation provides opportunities for wider promotion of the site and increased numbers of visitors. he presentation should address the needs of diferent kinds of visitors, and the work must be done by professionals, through a comprehensive project. Special care must be given to visitor safety within the Shepherds’ Field site, 59 improvements in this area to enhance the visitors’ experience. It is hoped that in the future the Custody of the Holy Land will work on upgrading the infrastructure in ways that will positively impact all onsite activities in a permanent way, and will implement these changes in a way compatible with the site. Fig. 26: Site presentation. Source: the authors, 2012. Brochures about the site and the region, including information on other nearby archaeological sites and monuments , are essential. Ofering for sale copies of the published studies done about the site in the past could be useful. Marketing the site through local products could encourage local handicrafts. Establishing varied itineraries within the site (e.g., religious, historical/ archaeological, nature/environmental) could help increase the number of visitors. Tourist guides, in addition to guide books and brochures, are useful for explaining the site to visitors and could be an attraction. 3.7 Visitor services At the moment there are no particular special services dedicated to visitors to the Shepherd’s Field site. he site needs 60 here is no provision in current Palestinian law dealing with improving services to the public (additional services, museum, exhibition, etc.) and until now, nothing has been implemented in this respect by the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities. Within the PA, any policies or guidelines regarding the level of visitor services ofered at tourism sites are very weak, or non-existent. here is a lack of cooperation among the various government entities as to who should supply services. hese oicials do not even consider the sites as resources for regional development or as an opportunity to apply additional human resources to local sites in order to attract more visitors and provide appropriate services. Historical research and documentation about the Shepherds’ Field, properly presented, could be used to enhance various activities such as festivals and other events held in the town. For instance, such local activities could be designed to involve in their programs archaeologists, architects and historians to talk about the cultural heritage of the site. Such simple steps, when coupled with media coverage, would carry great potential for raising public interest in, and engagement with, the place. In organizing special activities within the site, special care would have to be taken for visitor safety, since these events would likely involve larger numbers of people, raising the chances of accidents happening. herefore before organizing any activity – a concert at the ancient church site, for example – careful planning would be needed, including consultation with persons or institutions with special expertise in public safety, as well as cooperation with relevant governmental or non-governmental agencies. he site deserves at least a small interpretive centre and a bookstore, both to assist visitors on-site and also to help disseminate information about the site to a wider audience (Fig. 27). Of course, additional services will require more and better qualiied staf. hese workers must also be trained, both for speciic tasks and also to help manage the site and respond to visitors’ needs generally; these broader duties will vary, depending on both the number and types of people coming to the site and the activities that take place. 3.8 Number and types of visitors here is no reliable data about the numbers and types of visitors coming to the Shepherds’ Field site, or to Beit Sahur in general. he governor’s oice estimates that the number of tourist arrivals in Bethlehem in 2011 reached almost 1.5 million annually, mostly from Europe. Fig. 27: In the tower there is a small museum. Source: the authors, 2012. 61 Assuming that approximately 20% of the Catholic visitors to Bethlehem visit the Shepherds’ Field yields a daily average of about 350 tourists coming to the site. he demographics are quite uniform: they are mostly pilgrims from Catholic countries, especially Europe, the majority of whom are elderly (Fig. 28). 3.9 Entrance fee policy and opening hours he site is open to all visitors free of charge. he general policy of the Franciscan Custody is to not charge tourists and pilgrims when visiting holy sites. he opening hours listed on a sign at the entrance of the site are (Fig. 28): Mon. - Sat.: 8.00 a.m. – 5.30 p.m. daily, year-round Sunday: 8.00 – 11.30 a.m. / 2.00 p.m. – 5.30 p.m. Fig. 28: Pilgrims in the site. Source: the authors, 2012. Attracting local visitors like school and university students and staf, and simply the local citizenry, is a worthy goal. As for incoming tourism, the Shepherds’ Field should seek to attract groups and individuals of many diferent backgrounds and religious perspectives as well as those whose interest is of a more scientiic or secular nature: archaeological, historical, architectural, environmental, etc. he site possesses great potential for development and for increasing the number of visitors. Both the historical and the spiritual value of the Shepherds’ Field could be featured in a wide range of publicity for the purpose of attracting visitors. 62 On the web site of the Custody of the Holy Land they are shown as: 8.00 – 11.30 a.m. / 2.30 p.m. – 5.00 p.m, without distinction between normal and feast days. he web site of the “Christian Information Centre” of the Custody of the Holy Land shows: Mon. - Sat. : 8.00 a.m. – 5.00 p.m. daily, year-round Sunday : 8.00 – 12.00 a.m. / 2.00 p.m. – 5.00 p.m. Fig. 29: Opening hours sign. Source: the authors, 2012. Obviously, this information should be corrected and always be kept updated; further, it needs to be published in all the site’s promotional material and on web sites related to tourism. here should be a lexible policy of working hours and days in order to serve diferent categories of people, especially with regard to the local community and special programs or events. he Custody of the Holy Land should consider the possibility of keeping the site open into the early evening hours, especially during the summer months (summer time). his will help the visitors because the area is hot during the summer and the sunset hours can be the most pleasant time to visit the site. 3.10 Dissemination and promotional activities Since 1967 and the Israeli occupation, promotional and dissemination tools have not been developed locally, since the low of visitors to the Shepherds’ Field has depended largely upon tour packages organized by Israeli tourist or pilgrim agencies. At the present time, promotional materials are not eiciently developed, and little or no attention is given to possible promotional modes or to an overall strategy. his results in part from confusion of duties and responsibilities among diferent relevant entities. Little importance is given to historical and documentary research which might be made accessible and used to market the site and attract tourists. At the moment little has been done to produce more appropriate informational materials. his might be caused by a lack of specialists and by a lack of cooperation among the owner of the site (the Custody of the Holy Land) and other institutions that work in the area of tourism promotion (PA Ministry of Tourism, PA Ministry of Culture, Beit Sahur Municipality, Foreign donors, tourist agencies and the private sector). he Shepherds’ Field’s potential for promotion and development argues for a strong advertising strategy, especially campaigns to raise awareness of its historical and spiritual value. Publications such as books, articles, tourist brochures and maps will be fundamental for focusing attention on the Shepherd’s Field’s cultural heritage value, for both local people and foreign visitors. Promotional modes should include a better use of the Internet, which is not yet employed efectively on behalf of the Shepherds’ Field site. A strong campaign for promotion would ideally involve coordination between the owner (the Custody), the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, the Municipality of Beit Sahur, and NGO’s dealing with cultural heritage. As part of this process, however, the capacity of the site and its ability to actually accommodate increased numbers of visitors should be evaluated carefully, keeping in mind the site’s limited, ixed dimensions and the current state of its infrastructure, which is not really well developed. 63 3.11 Human resources here is a close relationship between funding and human resources. he available funds determine in part the number of the staf and their level of qualiication: that is, when more funds are allocated, organizations are able to employ not only more but more professional, better-qualiied staf. Moreover, staf who are unqualiied or otherwise unsuitable will detract from the visitors’ experience of any site. So, there must be an adequate number of qualiied persons, well-trained to deal with the many diferent categories of visitors. Staf should also be prepared to address the special needs of the elderly and disabled people. he staf members currently working at the Shepherds’ Field site consists of: one person working as guard/caretaker for the site during the day and two people responsible for cleaning the bathrooms and other facilities (full time) (Fig. 29). here is also the overseer of the monastery, who is a Franciscan brother. At times there are one or two other Franciscans staying in the monastery. Once a year, or when necessary, an archaeologist from the Custody of the Holy Land visits the site. Fig. 30: Workers in the site. Source: the authors, 2012. 64 he staf in charge of the Shepherds’ Field has no clear guidelines as to their duties, other than their physical presence on the site. None of them has received basic management training or archaeological education that would better prepare them for handling a site like the Shepherds’ Field. he staing level “works” for what they are doing right now, but the staing situation is clearly inadequate for the kinds of improvement projects and increased level of visits anticipated by this study. Suggested changes in this area include: increased numbers of personnel; more highly qualiied people attached to the site; more eicient management of the site; and the inclusion of researchers and restorers. Maintenance activities are carried out only when there is an urgent need. For small repair jobs, funds are provided directly by the monastery. For more involved maintenance projects, however, the Franciscan overseer of the monastery informs the Franciscan Custody in Jerusalem and he then has to wait until they secure a contractor to do the needed maintenance work, which can take considerable time. Usually the Custody asks an external consultant to prepare a proposal for the work, but without taking into consideration that whatever is done must be appropriate for historic structures. To create more efective management for the Shepherds’ Field site, the Custody of the Holy Land should establish a multidisciplinary scientiic committee through which archaeologists, architects, anthropologists, historians and others, could work together. his scientiic committee could help oversee the site, organizing periodic meetings or whenever necessary. 3.12 Financial issues and budget Shepherds’ Field sufers from a lack of funding resources or even an annual budget. No allocations exist for funding additional research, preservation and development projects, promotional activities, and increased operating expenses – the kinds of input being proposed to upgrade the site and improve its image and enhance its appeal to visitors. An annual budget for the site is vital, it would seem – even to keeping the place open to visitors “as-is”. In the process, there must be a plan for the management of fund-raising, whether from government sources, foreign donors or elsewhere. All the current expenses of the site, including staf salaries, are met by the Custody of the Holy Land. he Custody does not receive any Palestinian public funds toward management and protection of the site. here are no specialists or experts studying the situation and designing a budget in accordance with the site’s demonstrated needs. Adequate funding is an essential element for hiring experienced people and undertaking the proposed historical exploration and maintenance planning for the site. 65 4. Legal Context of Shepherds’ Field 4.1 Legal Framework In 1994, with the establishment of the Palestinian National Authority, responsibility for Palestine’s cultural heritage resources was supposed to come under Palestinian control. However, due to the de facto suspension of the Oslo Accords, the number of archaeological sites under the direct control of the PA today is still very limited. he ongoing political conlict, and the related worsening of the general socio-economic situation, have both had a negative impact on Palestinian cultural heritage. Moreover, the protection and enhancement of Palestinian cultural heritage resources has never been a priority for Palestinian political institutions. yet binding laws which hark back to much earlier times and are unable to foster cooperation between presentday Palestinian institutions. Indeed, the legislation presently in force concerning cultural and natural heritage in the Palestinian territories is not only out-dated but quite fragmented: the 1929 British Mandate Law No. 51 on Antiquities (51/1929) is directly applicable in the Gaza Strip only; the Jordanian Law of 1966 (based closely on the 1929 British law) applies today to the West Bank; and the Israeli antiquities laws of 1978 have been imposed since 1967 within Israelioccupied (and unilaterally annexed) East Jerusalem. he Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip was signed in Washington on September 28, 1995. Annex III, Protocol Concerning Civil Afairs, in Appendix 1, Article 2, relates to archaeology, as follows: “Powers and responsibilities in the sphere of archaeology in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip will be transferred from the military government and its Civil Administration to the Palestinian side. his sphere includes, inter alia, the protection and preservation of archaeological sites, management, supervision, licensing and all other archaeological activities”. In Palestine, therefore, all legal issues regarding cultural heritage essentially fall under the antiquated Law51/1929 which is limited only to “antiquities”. Furthermore, in itsarticle2.2 the law speciies the eighteenth century as the terminus antequem for any “object” to be classiied as an “antiquity”. hus it excludes from its protection regime entire classes of later cultural heritage resources, such as audio-visual materials and other forms of intangible heritage, and any built structure dating from the nineteenth or twentieth century. he task of the Palestinian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities has been made harder by the existence of inadequate 66 Clearly, Law 51/1929 was conceived in a very diferent historical, political and social environment compared to today, and it is easy to ind in the text of the law further weaknesses. In particular, one provision encourages the “privatization” of both archaeological research and the long-term management of the architectural heritage of Palestine. Under Law 51/1929, responsibility for archaeological research, in either public or private areas, is entrusted to the Mandatory Department of Antiquities. Pursuant to Article7, however, they may delegate this work to any person willing to inancially support the research in a way that ensures a satisfactory result and equipped with appropriate scientiic expertise. he same article stipulates that there should be no discrimination relating to the researchers’ nationality or religion. he law, however, does not provide guidance on the speciic responsibilities of researchers and gives great discretion to the Director of the Department of Antiquities, who could issue licenses on the basis of personal favouritism or prejudice. Under the law, the researchers are granted possession of all objects found during their archaeological excavations, except those which, in the opinion of the Director of the Department of Antiquities, are indispensable for the scientiic completeness of the Archaeological Museum of Palestine, or which represent a unique testimony to the country’s historical and artistic heritage. Article 17 of Law 51/1929 establishes a sort of inventory of the monuments and sites within historic Palestine and requires the Director of the Department of Antiquities to keep this documentation up to date and to ensure that these places are safeguarded. Article 18 further stipulates that, within or adjacent to any monument or historic site, the following activities can be conducted only with special authorization: - Digging wells; - Carrying out construction work or excavation, extraction of materials or agricultural plantations; - he demolition or removal of architectural elements of a monument; or - Conservation work or building. he Director, pursuant to Article 21, has the power to watch, study and/or protect private cultural property, by means of his staf, and the owner of any monument or historic site is required to contribute toward the cost of any conservation work. Such expenses can also be underwritten by companies or institutions interested in obtaining a concession on the management of the monument or site. From this brief review of the legislation governing cultural heritage in Palestine, it is clear that the provisions of Law 51/1929, beyond being too permissive, are not always implemented in accordance with the intent of the law itself. his fact has contributed to a gradual undermining of Palestinian cultural heritage resources. It is a situation which the current public authorities, for whatever reason, have not addressed by putting in place a new legal framework better suited to the demands of present-day Palestine. he major deicit of the 1966 Jordanian Law on antiquities is the deinition: “Antiquities is any movable or immovable 67 remains or any part of it that was constructed, or formulated, or decorated, or inscribed or built in any form or any addition by a human being before 1700 AD. Antiquities also include human or animal remains prior to the year 600 AD. It also includes any structure built after 1700 AD, which is declared by the Director of the Department of Antiquities to be ancient antiquities”. his clearly excludes any archaeological sites, historic buildings (unless specially designated) and artefacts (movable objects) which postdate 1700 AD, as well as religious buildings and natural sites. Neither architecture (groups of buildings, monuments) nor movable objects are deined or included as separate categories under these laws. As a result, many historic sites which have never been specially declared as “antiquities” are not protected by any law. Moreover, the Ministry of Local Government, which is responsible for urban planning, has not equipped itself with any appropriate legal tool for managing and protecting the historic cores of Palestinian villages and towns. he Palestinian Basic Law of 2003 contains only a general and limited reference to the commitment of institutions towards Palestinian cultural heritage. Since there is not yet an approved Palestinian constitution, the protection of cultural and natural heritage remains, until today, without any solid constitutional basis. A comprehensive bill in this area was developed by the Law Department of Birzeit University, however, this law has not yet reached the Palestinian legislative Council. 68 4.2 Ownership and the “Status Quo” he religious ownership and rights over Christian holy places has evolved over a long period of time. he present state of afairs has been shaped in some measure by the fact that for some 13 centuries (except for limited periods, especially the Crusades), the country was under the dominion of various non-Christian dynasties and empires, rulers from whom the Christian communities obtained concessions by diplomatic pressure, monetary considerations or other means. hroughout the centuries, tradition has accorded special signiicance to certain shrines, sites and religious buildings in Palestine, and these have accordingly been held in particular veneration by one or more of the three great monotheistic faiths. he greater number of these sites, generally known as “Holy Places”, are especially revered by Christians, nevertheless Palestine is equally a “Holy Land” to both Islam and Judaism by virtue of their own shrines and sacred sites and their spiritual signiicance. Disputes have occurred over the centuries (and still do) concerning certain of the Holy Places, related especially to questions of ownership and the right of use – when and where various parties may hold religious services (or carry out any kind of alteration or maintenance) within a shared space. hese disputes arose especially between the Latin and Orthodox Christian communities, as a result of which the Ottoman government decreed in 1757 a modus vivendi applying to certain Holy Places, a set of understandings which subsequently became known as the Status Quo. he Ottoman Sultans tended to favour the Orthodox Christians in Palestine, who were their own subjects, at the expense of the Latin Christians, who were the subjects of European Powers – countries with whom the Sultans were frequently at war, in fact. hus it was that the arrangement of 1757 deprived the Latin Church of possession of a number of Holy Places which had formerly belonged to it, especially speciic areas within the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Bethlehem’s Nativity Church. hereafter, the French government, on behalf of the Catholic powers, made several attempts to correct the balance in favour of the Latin Church. In the main, however, these were unsuccessful, and in 1852 the Sultan Abdul Majid reairmed the Status Quo of 1757. In 1853, a further undertaking to maintain its provisions was made by the signatory powers of the Treaty of Paris at the conclusion of the Crimean War. Near the end of the First World War, Palestine passed from Ottoman control and came under the protection of Great Britain. It was felt that this was an opportune juncture at which to reexamine the whole question of the conlicting claims regarding the Holy Places. hus, alongside Article 13 of the Mandate for Palestine, which made the Mandatory Power (Britain) responsible for preserving existing rights in the Holy Places, Article 14 provided for the formation of “a special commission … to study, deine and determine the rights and claims in connexion with the Holy Places”. his Commission was in fact never formed, and as a consequence throughout the duration of the British Mandate the Status Quo – promulgated in 1757 and reairmed in 1852 – was maintained with respect to the rights and claims of the various communities. he one thing the British managed to do was to codify – to try to put down in writing – this rather complex and arcane set of understandings. Since the end of the British Mandate over Palestine in 1948, no other international arrangement has ever been concluded concerning the Holy Places. Further, the General Assembly of the United Nations, by its reference to the protection of the Holy Places has endorsed the validity of the Status Quo. In Paragraph 7 of the Resolution on Palestine adopted by the General Assembly on 11 December 1948, the Assembly resolves: “hat the Holy Places - including Nazareth - religious buildings and sites in Palestine should be protected and free access to them assured, in accordance with existing rights and historical practice; that arrangements to this end should be under efective United Nations supervision; that the United Nations Conciliation Commission, in presenting to the fourth regular session of the General Assembly its detailed proposal for a permanent international regime for the territory of Jerusalem, should include recommendations concerning the Holy Places in that territory; that with regard to the Holy Places in the rest of Palestine the Commission should call upon the political authorities of the areas concerned to give appropriate formal guarantees as to the protection of the Holy Places and access to 69 them; and that these undertakings should be presented to the General Assembly for approval”. hose familiar with the modern history of this country will recognise immediately that the “efective United Nations supervision” and the “permanent international regime for the territory of Jerusalem” [i.e., Corpus Separatum] never came to pass, as the UN’s envisioned role was overwhelmed by realities on the ground. In any event, the post-1948 ruling authorities, be they Jordanian, Israeli or Palestinian, have always sought to uphold – and enforce when necessary – the Status Quo. While the Status Quo applies in a general way to the two “Shepherds’ Fields” sites, Latin and Greek (they are not speciically mentioned), the possession and control of these non-contiguous properties has never really been in dispute: the Latin Church claims exclusive jurisdiction over the part of the area known as Khirbet Siyar al-Ghanam and the Greek Orthodox rite regards the nearby but totally separate Kanisat al-Rawat as a Holy Place under its guardianship. 70 5. Selected References • Abbot Daniel he Pilgrimage of the Russian Abbot Daniel in the Holy Land,1106-1107 AD. • Al-Houdalieh S. (2006).Demolishing Palestinian Archaeological Heritage: Safa Village as a Model. In: Near Eastern Archaeology, vol. 69, no. 2. Pp: 102-112. • Al-Houdalieh S. (2009). Political crisis and Palestine’s Cultural Heritage: A Case Study from the Khirbet el-Lauz Site in Area C. In: Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 34, No. 3: 338-350. • Applied Research Institute-Jerusalem (ARIJ) (2006). Policy Tools towards Sustainable Land Use and Urban. Environmental Management Under a Transitional Political Context: Bethlehem, Beit Jala and Beit Sahour Municipalities, Palestine. • Applied Research Institute-Jerusalem (ARIJ) (2007). Geopolitical Status of Bethlehem Governorate, Bethlehem,. • Applied Research Institute-Jerusalem (ARIJ) (2010). Beit Sahour City Proile, Bethlehem. • Arculfus (1895) he Pilgrimage of Arculfus in the Holy Land about the year 680, VI. trans. James Rose McPherson. London: Palestine Pilgrims’ Text Society. • Baldi D. (1955) Enchiridion locorum sanctorum: documenta S.[i.e. Sancti] Evangelii loca respicientia, 2 ristampa, Franciscan Printing Press Beit-Sahour Municipality Data. • Bethlehem Chamber of commerce and Industry (2004). A special study of Bethlehem Handicrafts Industry (Olive Wood And Mother of Pearl), Bethlehem. • Bethlehem Chamber of commerce and Industry (without date). Industries in the province of Bethlehem. • Corbo V. (1955) Gliscavi di Kh. Siyar el-Ghanam (Campo dei Pastori) e i Monasteri dei dintorni, Jerusalem • Corbo, V. (1987). ‘’Dove era il “Poimnion” o Campo dei Pastori?’’, Liber Annuus 37: 311-332. • Epiphanius the Monk Enarratio Syriae, PG 120, 263 71 72 • Fayrouz Kh. (2008). Bethlehem Area Conservation and Management Plan: Research on the Economy of Bethlehem Area ( Bethlehem, Beit Jala, and Beit Sahour). • Fayrouz, Kh. (2008). Bethlehem Area Conservation and Management Plan, Research on handicraft Industries in Bethlehem District (Bethlehem, Beit Jala, and Beit Sahour). • GIS unit – ARIJ, 2008. • Huetteroth W-D and Abdulfattah K. (1977). Historical Geography of Palestine, Transjordan and Southern Syria in the 16th Century. Erlanger Geographische Arbeiten. Sonderband 5. Erlangen, Germany. • Institute for Palestine Economic Policy Research (Mas) (2006). crafts sector industry unregulated in the Palestinian territories: reality and prospects. • Itinerarium Egeriae (1986) ItinerariumEgeriae (Peregrinatio Aetheriae), ed. R. Fischer, Oberdorf. • Jakaman H. (2000). Jawlah i Tareekh al-Ard al-Mukadasah min Aqdam el-Osoorhata al-Yawm.Jerusalem: Beit el-Makdis. Ministry of tourism an Antiquates Data 2011. • Mislim (1876). Les Saints Lieux, t.3, Paris. • Palestinian Minister of Agriculture (MOA) (2011). Bethlehem, Palestine, Directorate of Agriculture data. • Palestinian National Authority (Bethlehem Governorate) (2011). Study of Economic Opportunities in Bethlehem Governorate. • Tzaferis, V. (1975). ‘’he Archaeological Excavations at Shepherds’ Field’’, Liber Annuus 25: 5-52. • Tzaferis, V. (1993) ‘’he Early Christian Holy Site at Shepherds’ Field’’: 204-206 in Ancient Churches Revealed. Edited by Tsafrir, Yoram. Jerusalem. 6. Appendix 6.1 List of Stakeholders Stakeholders are individuals or groups with a direct or indirect interest in carrying out a certain project within a given time period at a particular place, and in the anticipated results of the project’s implementation. he stakeholders can be classiied into two categories: primary and secondary. Furthermore, these stakeholders can be divided according to three geographical levels: national, regional and local. Generally, the stakeholders in any cultural heritage project might include professionals from various disciplines, such as: archaeology; history; philosophy; anthropology; sociology; architecture; heritage management and conservation; and religious, cultural and tourism studies. Since the interests of the stakeholders are wide-ranging, signiicant conlicts can arise during the implementation phases of the project. hus, to insure positive results for a given project, the steering committee should carefully select the stakeholders, and the list of these stakeholders should be updated continuously. We are listing here the stakeholders that we identiied and chose for the implementation of this project in Beit Sahur, focussing on the “Shepherds’ Field”. his site was purchased by the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land in 1909. Several excavation campaigns have been carried out on this site, revealing the remains of a relatively large farming settlement dating back to the 1st century AD and also a Byzantine monastery, which lourished between the 4th and the 8th centuries. he list of the stakeholders related to our project is divided into three main sections: national, regional and local. I. NATIONAL LEVEL he national level includes 14 stakeholders (some with multiple sub-entities),which are: 1.1 Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities he Palestinians regarded the establishment of this Ministry as a distinguished event in terms of society’s responsibility to safeguard and promote their collective national legacy. Especially, it made possible the exploration of the long, rich history of their territories, drawing particularly on primary source material and freed from the inluence of a strictly biblical ideology or paradigm. he total number of employees of the Ministry is 318 persons, of which 207 are located in the West Bank and the rest in the Gaza Strip. he Ministry is responsible for establishing and enforcing the policies and 73 laws relating to archaeology and cultural heritage; for overseeing the proper survey and registration of sites and seeing to their ongoing maintenance, cleanliness, and protection; and for carrying out actions to raise awareness of archaeological and heritage sites. At the time of its establishment, the Ministry consisted of two main bodies: the Department of Antiquities and the Department of Tourism. 1.1.1 Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage (DACH) he establishment of the DACH in 1994 marks the beginning of local ieldwork of archaeology. he perspective on which the Department bases its eforts – in research, education, preservation, and legislation – is basically that of contemporary, internationally accepted standards. It embraces a modern, humanistic understanding which inds connections between Palestinian cultural history and broader human culture. Archaeology in Palestine is thus seen as a scientiic enterprise within larger context of international scientiic endeavour. he total number of employees in this department is 123, working within seven functional units: Excavations and Surveys; Inspections and Licensing; National Register; Conservation and Restoration; Management of Archaeological Sites; Museums; and Laboratories. he employees of DACH have carried out a variety of activities over the years, such as: conducting dozens of planned, scientiic excavations and hundreds of short-term salvage excavations, the monitoring of cultural heritage resources, rehabilitating a number of archaeological sites and 74 features, and carrying out several public awareness campaigns. 1.1.2 Department of Tourism he total number of the employees of this department is 92, and its structural plan consists of three units: Licensing the Tourism Professions; Tourism Marketing and Information; and Tourism Services. he employees of this department have carried out over the last 17 years several activities to promote tourism in the Palestinian National Territories, most notably the Bethlehem 2000 project. 1.2 Ministry of Culture: his ministry has the mission of promoting and developing the Palestinian people’s cultural identity, both within the Palestinian National Territories and in the various diasporas. Its main aims are: to safeguard and promote the Palestinian culture, both tangible and intangible; to create opportunities for national and international cultural dialogues and exchange; and to help organize and carry out cultural activities. he potential role of this Ministry is to provide a basis for the protection, development, and promotion of the country’s cultural legacy, and engaging in coordination mechanisms between the relevant national institutions. 1.3 Ministry of Awqaf and Religious Afairs: his Ministry is responsible for furthering religious teachings and creating opportunities for religious dialogue. It is also responsible for the administration of all holy features and sites and the maintenance of religious constructions within the Palestinian National Territories, including Jerusalem. Furthermore, the Ministry encourages investment in Waqf (religious endowment) properties for their development, in order to attract tourism. his Ministry consists of two bodies: the Islamic Waqf, and the Christian Waqf. 1.3.1 Islamic Waqf his body is responsible for all Islamic afairs including the preservation, protecting and conservation of the religious features and spaces. It consists of several departments, including a Conservation Unit which has carried out a large number of conservation and rehabilitation projects throughout the Palestinian Territories. his unit in particular would be of great importance to our project. 1.3.2 he Christian Waqf Palestinian Christian society consists of several church entities, including: the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land, the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate, the Latin Patriarchate, the Syrian Patriarchate, and the Coptic Patriarchate. Each of these communities is responsible for its own people and legacy, and all of them have carried out several sustainable projects to protect and enhance their tangible heritage properties. 1.4 Ministry of Planning and Administrative Development (MoPAD) his Ministry carries the mission of guiding and coordinating governmental, political and socio-economic policies, programs, scenarios and priorities, as well as enhancing international cooperation for achieving these goals. he main aims of this Ministry are: to create strategies to achieve the best utilization of the capacities, potentials and competencies of Palestinian citizens, those living both in the PNT and in the Diaspora; to improve Palestinian society’s standard of living; and to enhance the role of tourism in the national economy. he MoPAD established a specialised technical team of Ministry staf, to work in partnership with other experts selected by the National Team. his joint team has developed and drafted a Culture Sector Strategic Plan, as part of the Palestinian National Plan for 2011-2013. he plan is inclusive and involves analysis of the various stakeholders, including artistic and cultural institutions (both governmental and nongovernmental), as well as a situation analysis of the cultural sector in Palestine and in the Diaspora. he strategic objectives of the plan are: to promote pluralistic and open cultural awareness within the Palestinian communities; to promote cultural exchanges with Arab and other foreign countries; to protect and renovate cultural heritage resources; to encourage and support traditional handicrafts; and to generally stimulate creativity. A total budget of US$ 71 million has been allocated for the sector for the three-year time frame. 1.5 Ministry of Local Government his Ministry carries the mission of providing all inancial assistance to municipalities and local councils to build and develop their institutional capacities 75 and to support them in their provision of the infrastructure needed for sustainable development and better services for their communities. It aims at carrying out actions that enhance the municipalities’ abilities to provide better services and to develop their residential areas. It also aims to protect and rehabilitate Palestine’s tangible legacy, to be used as an efective tool for improving the national economy. In its strategic framework for 20102014, the Ministry of Local Government does not speciically address the role and capacities of the Local Government Units in relation to the ield of cultural heritage management. he Ministry’s strategic objectives include: to increase the level of decentralization, to enhance the institutionalization of community participation, and to strengthen partnership between the public and private sectors. It also will develop policies and tools for local and regional planning and master plans, and for enhancing community participation in the planning processes. Among the programs funded by international donors, the Palestinian Municipalities Support Program (PMSP) is a long-term joint initiative of the Ministry and the Italian government. he program mainly focuses on development of the institutional capacity of Palestinian Local Government Units in various ields, one of the most important being the management of cultural resources. 1.6 Ministry of Publi Works and Housing he Ministry focuses its interest on development issues and the reconstruction 76 of infrastructure. It tries also to address the problem of unemployment. It supports Palestinian contractors and industrial factories through its system of tenders and contracts toward the implementation of its projects. It improves the national infrastructures through the realization of the country roads and implements construction projects in the ields of education and health. 1.7 Ministry of Environmental Afairs he Palestinian Environmental Authority (PEnA) was established on December 10th, 1996; In August 1998 it was reorganized as the Ministry of Environmental Afairs (MEnA). he environmental situation in Palestine has been rapidly deteriorating in recent years, due generally to a pattern of negligence and ill-advised practices. his has created environmental hazards with many detrimental results. MEnA is playing an important role as the planning, coordinating and executive body for improving environmental standards and attitudes in the Palestinian Territories. Being the central authoritative body responsible for all environmental issues, MEnA has been working to address the major environmental impacts, including natural resource depletion and environmental pollution, as part of an approach towards sustainable development. MEnA aims at developing human resources, and promoting environmental awareness programs and activities, all with the goal of the sound use and protection of environmental resources. 1.8 Ministry of Youth and Sport he Ministry is responsible for activities related to youth and sport; it controls all aspects of sports and sport planning at the national level. It issues permits for youth clubs and establishes sport facilities. Also, it organises courses for trainers, for both males and females. he Ministry does its work through various departments, among which are a capacity building department, Women’s Department, Campus Department, Volunteer Department, and departments for Local Communities and Youth Centres, Sports Clubs, Youth Exchange, Youth Culture and Arts, and a “Kids” Department. through developing school curricula to include efective learning experiences regarding the cultural and archaeological heritage, including visits to archaeological sites. 1.10 Ministry of Information he Ministry is responsible for many aspects of “the media” in Palestine: TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, journalists, etc. It issues permits for various kinds of private media outlets and activities (e.g. satellite, cinema, publication, advertising) and also oversees permits for journalists. In 2004 it published rules for the regulation of satellite TV channels and radio stations. 1.9 Ministry of Education and Higher Education 1.11 Academic institutions he Ministry is entrusted with overseeing and developing education in Palestine on all levels, from public school education to universities and other institutions of higher learning. he ministry strives to provide educational opportunities to all those who are of school age, and to improve the quality of education and keep it up-to-date with current standards. his also entails the development and empowerment of human resources – the people engaged as educators – so that they can turn out highly qualiied citizens who are able to assume their responsibilities within society. One of the goals of engaging the Ministry in this particular project is to increase awareness among school students – as leaders of the future – of the importance and value of cultural heritage resources as a common patrimony. his can be accomplished In the Palestinian National Territories there are now more than 20 universities and colleges. Of these, ive ofer undergraduate and/or graduate education in archaeology: Al-Quds University, Bir zeit University, An-Najah National University, Hebron University and the Islamic University of Gaza. Only two of the Palestinian universities ofer Tourism programs: An-Najah National University and Bethlehem University. Most of these institutions do, however, ofer programs in other ields broadly relevant to our project: architecture, sociology, anthropology, history, political science, economics, geography and geology. he involvement of some of these institutions will be of great importance for enhancing the mechanisms of cooperation with the local academic bodies, and thus for the sustainability of the project. 77 1.12 NGOs related to Cultural Heritage In Palestine, there are a few active national NGOs related to tangible cultural heritage resources. hese are: 1.12.1 Welfare Association he WA was founded in Geneva in 1983 by a group of Palestinians, and in 1994 it established a new main centre in Jerusalem. hen, due to the severe challenges presented by the construction of the Apartheid wall around Jerusalem, in 2006 the Association opened a branch of its main centre in Ramallah. he ive main aims of the WA are: to promote sustainable development among the Palestinian people, both in Palestine and in Lebanon; to contribute toward the preservation of the Palestinian cultural heritage; to preserve the living culture of today’s Palestinian people; to restore and rehabilitate the most distinguished historic features and sites within the Palestinian Territories, especially in the Old City of Jerusalem; and to promote education and the acquisition of technical skills among the Palestinians. 1.12.2 Riwaq Centre for Architectural Conservation he Riwaq Centre was established in 1991 by Dr. Suad el-A’mri, who later joined forces with Dr. Nazmi el-Jua’beh; it has its headquarters in the Ramallah - el-Birah twin cities. he three main objectives of Riwaq are: to raise public awareness among the local people of the importance and value of their cultural heritage for Palestinian identity; to 78 protect, preserve and rehabilitate a large number of traditional buildings, those identiied as having the greatest historic and aesthetic value; and to conduct research projects for the documentation of these traditional buildings. 1.12.3 Mosaic Centre he MCJ was established in Jericho in 2002 as an outgrowth of the extensive Hisham’s Palace conservation project. he three main objectives of this centre are: to train a number of Palestinian youth in modern mosaic production; to conserve, restore and rehabilitate ancient mosaic pavements within their original cultural environment; and to raise awareness among the Palestinians of the historic and aesthetic value of mosaic art as a distinguished, tangible component of their cultural heritage. After its establishment, MCJ quickly initiated a three-year training project for a group of students in mosaic production, conservation, preservation and rehabilitation. 1.12.4 Palestinian Association for Cultural Exchange PACE was established in 1997 in Ramallah with the mission of safeguarding and promoting the local cultural heritage, through: conservation and restoration projects, education and awareness, research and publication, documentation of oral history, and encouraging traditional handicrafts. 1.12.5 Palestine Wildlife Society he PWS was established in 1999 in Beit Sahur with the mission of safeguarding and promoting the richness and diversity of Palestine’s wildlife, raising this awareness among all segments of the Palestinian society, and working for the protection of Palestine’s natural environment against hazards, including threats to the food and water supplies and the soil and from noise pollution. Over the years, this association has carried out a large number of awareness campaigns, with its main target groups being schoolteachers and students, women, farmers and investors. 1.13 Media Prior to the signing of the Oslo Accords, the Israeli authorities denied any Palestinian living outside Jerusalem the right to publish a newspaper or to operate a radio or television station. Since then, Palestinian national and independent newspapers and radio and television outlets have all been launched. he Palestinian press includes four daily newspapers, which are: Al-Quds, al-Hayat al-Jadidah, Felestin and al-Ayyam. Furthermore, there are a large number of weekly and biweekly supplements which are largely considered independent. here are also several national press agencies serving the news media, such as WAFA-Palestinian Info and News Agency, Ma’an News Agency, Ramattan, Shehab, and Jerusalem Media &Communication Center. In the Palestinian National Territories, there are more than 60 TV stations and 100 private local radio outlets. Cultural heritage and tourism have been a focal point of several of these media organizations, and most of them have succeeded in helping promote a national awareness of the natural and cultural heritage of Palestine. 1.14 Tourist Police his unit was recently created as a special section within the Palestinian Civil Police. he main aims of this unit are: to provide security and safety for tourists who are visiting the country; to raise awareness among Palestinians about the value and importance of their country’s legacy; to investigate any crimes involving damage to national heritage resources; and to ensure the application of all laws relating to tourism. It has local stations and personnel in all provinces of the PNT. 1.15 Tourists and general public hese are the international and local people who visit and utilize the sites. he internationals are mostly Christian pilgrims and are guided in large groups. hey have limited time to visit the historical and archaeological sites, and cannot choose freely their itineraries. 2. REGIONAL LEVEL he regional level includes 9 main stakeholders, which are: 2.1 Bethlehem Governorate his entity was founded in 1995 and consists of several departments, such as: public relations, managerial and inancial department, planning and development, etc. One of the governorate’s functions is to sponsor certain events and activities in the Bethlehem area, like special-emphasis “Days” for women, children and the disabled. 79 2.2 Regional oices of the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities he Department of Antiquities – Bethlehem: Like the Department of Antiquities oices in other Palestinian provinces, this unit carries out several departmental functions on the regional level, such as: (1) licensing and inspections; (2) salvage excavations connected with infrastructure work; (3) museum administration; (4) ieldwork in the preservation of heritage and archaeological sites and features; and inally, (5) cooperative ventures with other institutions regarding the protection of heritage and archaeological resources. 2.3 Regional oices of the Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Afairs he oice of Awqaf and Islamic Afairs in Bethlehem is responsible for, among other things, the protection and management of the Muslim and Christian religious sites and features throughout the Bethlehem province. he involvement of this oice will facilitate the implementation of this project on a private religious property. 2.4 Regional Chamber of Commerce & Industry/ Bethlehem he Chamber has the mission of organizing the commercial and industrial interests of the private sector; helping establish and develop member businesses; representing and defending the interests of the members; and helping them ind a suitable commercial environment to meet their immediate and future needs in their ield of enterprise. It does its work through 80 three entities: the Business Development Centre; the Centre for Trade Promotion; and the Committee of Business Women. he Chamber’s two centres are focussed on providing solutions to the challenges and obstacles facing local businesses and on establishing cooperative relations with regional and international institutions, to encourage investment of all kinds in Bethlehem. 2.5 Regional oice of the Ministry of Culture his oice was established in the year 1995. he main job of this oice is to provide supervision over the cultural institutions and to sponsor various cultural activities, through its Financial and Logistic Fund. For example, it sponsors the annual Cultural Festival in Bethlehem. 2.6 Regional oice of the Ministry of Education his oice consists of 17 departments, including: Student Activities, Planning, Public Relations, and General Education. his oice encourages schoolteachers to carry out ield trips to archaeological and historical sites in order to raise students’ awareness of the scientiic and cultural value of these places. Indeed, the school curricula contain well-written chapters on the legacy and history of the land of Palestine. 2.7 Tourist Police, regional oice his oice is responsible for monitoring more than 77 important archaeological sites and features, such as: he Church of the Nativity, Solomon’s Pools, Shepherds’ Fields, the Milk Grotto church, Mar Saba monastery, Mar Nicolas and the Old Souk market. Moreover, this oice’s duties encompass, in at least a general way, 27 hotels and guest houses, 18 travel agencies, 40 souvenir shops, 15 restaurants and parks, many tourist buses and taxi drivers, and more than 200 tour guides and licensed vendors. his oice also has responsibilities related to the security of Bethlehem’s central tourist bus station and facilitating the entry and exit of visitors and buses to and from this facility. 2.8 Media In Bethlehem, there are nine broadcasting outlets, consisting of ive television stations and four radio stations. All of these media stations, taken together, cover a wide range of stories and events, airing programmes in ields such as children’s issues, politics, the arts, the environment, the economy, education, society, health, and culture. 2.9 Arab Women’s Union he Arab Women’s Union is a non-proit charitable organization which holds membership in the Union of Charitable Societies (Jerusalem). It was established in Bethlehem in 1947. It’s main programs and services have been: (1) Child Nutrition Project by which the AWU formerly provided a daily meal for kindergarten children in Bethlehem schools (it was discontinued due to lack of funds). (2) Traditional Palestinian cuisine project. (3) Operation of labor staf numbers of employees. (4) Old traditional house (the museum) which engages at least 100 women workers in producing traditional Palestinian embroidery. (5) Bethlehem Historical Museum. 2.10 Cultural Heritage NGOs In Bethlehem there are several cultural heritage NGOs, including: 2.10.1 Artas Folklore Center (AFC) his organization was established in 1993 to serve the cultural and educational needs of the people of Artas (a picturesque village and valley south of Bethlehem) and to assist in preserving their rich Palestinian heritage in its natural setting. his center has carried out several projects, including: preservation and renovation of some of the traditional local buildings, establishing the irst Palestinian ethnographic museum, and conducting regular activities for the children of Artas. Of special note is a year-long project designed to prepare Artas’s leadership for the 21st century, dealing with issues such as democracy, civil society, development of managerial skills, women rights, and identifying and confronting social problems. 2.10.2 International Center of Bethlehem/ Dar Annadwa (ICB) he Centre was established in 1995 and is based in the heart of Bethlehem. he programs of the Centre serve the entire community, from “the womb to the tomb”, with an emphasis on children, youth and women. At the heart of the ICB’s mission is the idea of equipping the local community to assume a 81 proactive role in shaping their own future. hrough empowering the local community, developing human resources, cultivating artistic talents, and facilitating intercultural encounters, the ICB actively promotes the building of Palestinian civil society. he philosophy of the ICB is contextual in its approach, with a cross-cultural perspective. It seeks to be interdisciplinary and dynamic, to insure that the services provided are in harmony with society’s true and ever changing needs. 2.10.3 Palestinian Heritage Center (PHC) his entity was established in Bethlehem in 1991, with the mission of protecting the Palestinian heritage, in both its tangible and intangible expressions. he center has sponsored several exhibitions in various countries around the world, in addition to lectures and seminars on the topic of Palestinian heritage and, in particular, traditional Palestinian costumes. he center also stages elaborate fashion shows of traditional costumes in both local and international venues. he center facilities include recreations of a traditional living room and a furnished Bedouin tent, a reference library, exhibition spaces for traditional items, and a gift shop. 2.10.4 Palestinian Group for the Revival of Popular Heritage he objectives of this group are to disseminate creative arts and culture to various sectors of Palestinian society, to preserve and maintain the cultural heritage, to thereby protect the Palestinian national identity, and to upgrade the level of creative expression, in both form and 82 content. hese goals are advanced through exchange experiences, sponsoring talent and skills, and enhancing communitybased organizations. Its vision is to achieve a free Palestinian society composed of a diverse social and cultural fabric and capable of creative human and cultural interaction. 2.10.5 Turathuna - Centre for Palestinian Heritage (B.Uni.) his entity was established in 1990 as a gift from the Irish government to the Palestinian people, in the spirit of the Bethlehem 2000 project. he center aims to contribute to a positive Palestinian identity through familiarity with, and pride in, the national heritage. 2.10.6 he Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation CCHP was established in Bethlehem in 2001 as an ofshoot of the Bethlehem 2000 project. he two main objectives of the Centre are to enhance awareness of the value and importance of cultural heritage among the inhabitants of the area, and to rehabilitate the most valuable historic buildings throughout the Bethlehem district. Currently, the Centre includes three units: Rehabilitation, Public Awareness and Community Development, and Research and Training. CCHP has already successfully implemented more than 20 rehabilitation projects involving traditional residential structures in Bethlehem, Beit Jala and Beit Sahur. Furthermore, it has conducted several awareness campaigns with the goal of promoting a sense of shared responsibility for preserving the cultural heritage in the district. he funding sources of this centre consist of several governmental and non-governmental institutions, such as: Sida, the German Development Bank, the Consulate General of France in Jerusalem, the British Consulate General, the Ford Foundation, and the French, Italian, Australian, and Portuguese governments. Since its establishment, this center has been privileged to lead the way in cultural heritage preservation, targeting the towns and villages of the Bethlehem Governorate. he attempt is to link the past with the present, recognizing that today’s tangible and visible elements of heritage are manifestations of the larger low of Palestinian culture and history – and the living validation of our identity. 3 LOCAL LEVEL he local level includes 11 main stakeholders, which are: 3.1 Beit Sahur Municipality he city of Beit Sahur lies to the east of Bethlehem. he area is full of historical and biblical sites of signiicance. Ruins from Roman, Byzantine, Islamic and Crusader times can be found throughout the area. he city is especially famous as a Christian pilgrimage destination since it is reputed to be close to the place where, according to the New Testament (Luke 2), an angel announced the birth of Jesus to the shepherds. he current municipal administration has been in oice since 2005, led by Mayor Hani Al-Hayek and consisting of 13 council members. he municipal employees are comprised of 29 administrative staf and 45 health and maintenance workers. According to its organizational chart, the Municipality carries out its work through ive departments: Administration, Health and Environment, Accounting, Engineering, and Project Development & Public Relations. he Municipality’s internal strategic plan was re-evaluated and updated in late 2010 and early 2011, when the municipal administration placed special emphasis on the revitalization of the historic city of Beit Sahur. 3.2 Custody of the Holy Land he Franciscan Province of the Holy Land was established in 1217 and reconstituted in the 14th century as the “Custody”. It included all the lands bordering the south eastern Mediterranean basin, from Egypt to Greece, which are linked with the life of Jesus and his early disciples. Today some 400 friars and sisters are present in these countries. he Franciscans serve the principal Christian shrines, including seven within the Governorate of Bethlehem. Among these is the Shepherds’ Field in Beit Sahur, a Christian pilgrimage site since the 4th century. Additionally, the Custody are responsible for the Catholic parish of Bethlehem and for two schools. he archaeological and conservation work of the Custody is carried out through the scientiic and scholarly activity of its Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, with other speciic projects carried out by its support arm, the NGO Association pro Terra Sancta. he Shepherds’ Field site was purchased by the Custody in 1909, after which extensive archaeological excavations were carried out; the modern chapel was built in 1953-54. he excavations revealed 83 the remains of a farming settlement dating back to the 1st century AD and a Byzantine monastery which lourished between the 4th and the 8th centuries. 3.3 Souvenir shops Beit Sahur residents have developed a reputation for high-quality artisan craftsmanship, mainly using the traditional media of mother-of-pearl, olive wood, and embroidery. Palestinian artisans have been producing such ine works for many centuries and are recognized throughout the world as expert craftsmen. he tradition of handcrafting items has been passed down through many generations, and many of the techniques employed today are the same ones used for centuries. he vast majority of the items produced are bought by pilgrims and tourists visiting the area, and this formerly provided a vital and steady source of income for the local handicraft industry. However, the current political situation in Palestine has severely damaged the trade in handicrafts. In Beit Sahur there are four large souvenir shops stocking the work of local craftsmen, along with over 130 family-based workshops. All of these are currently experiencing relatively low production and sales compared to past levels. 3.4 Holy Land Handicraft Cooperative Beit Sahur his cooperative, founded in 1981, represents the olive-wood and mother-ofpearl artisans of the Bethlehem area. As an IFTA member, they sell their products primarily through Fair Trade channels to 84 customers in Europe, Canada, the USA and Australia. hey aim particularly to preserve the olive-wood craftsmanship of our area for the beneit of future generations of Palestinians. It is a tradition that developed out of the local availability of the raw material (not to mention the wood’s inherent appeal) and the demand from pilgrims for the icons, statues and other religious objects crafted from it. Mother-of-pearl workmanship, though its raw material is obviously not of local origin, was also introduced here centuries ago, by Franciscan monks who came to the area in the 14th century. 3.5 he Handicraft Cooperative Association in Bethlehem (Beit Sahur) his association was established in 2010 and is made up of twenty female members, each experienced in a speciic area of handicraft. he idea emanated from the desire and determination of the founders to multiply their individual eforts and capacities through a collective, cooperative framework. By this means they can employ their own individual skills, enhance their participation in the market, improve their products, and improve their ability to compete, all resulting in improving their social and economic situation. From its establishment, the association has grown in its reach and impact along with the variety of handicrafts these women engage in, including embroidery, manufacture of olive-oil soap, olive-wood, ceramics, silver jewellery, handmade chocolate, and fashion design, among others. heir products are characterized by quality and innovation, appealing alike to local consumers, to tourists and pilgrims, and to external markets seeking a special connection to Palestinian life and heritage. 3.6 Arab Women’s Union of Beit-Sahur his group was founded in 1956 and has the goal of enhancing women’s role in improving their own quality of life, through training and educational campaigns. his union consists of three branches: (1) Nursery; (2) Guesthouses; and (3) the Al-Basma Center. he alBasma center is considered the most important program of the AWU, since it trains local women to develop marketable skills, speciically in the production of several diferent kinds of traditional handicrafts. 3.7 Tourist industry in Beit Sahur Tourism – along with all its related enterprises, including travel agencies, guides and tours, hotels, restaurants and handicrafts – has long played a crucial role in the economy. he town boasts a variety of restaurants, cafes and hotels to meet the needs of its citizens and tourists alike, and following the Oslo agreements of the early 1990s there was great hope that tourism would become a major part of the ledgling Palestinian economy. Indeed, much was invested in development projects geared to tourism at that time. After 2000, however, the political instability of the area left jobless many of those who formerly depended on tourism for their livelihood: guides, restaurateurs, hoteliers, artists and craftspeople, taxi drivers, travel agents and the like. And, since many local businesses are family-run, any downturn in tourism can leave entire families without work. One recent enhancement to local tourism promotion is the Beit Sahur Tourism Web Directory which features an interactive map of the city showing banquet halls, churches, pilgrim and tourist sites, hotels, markets, money changers, car rental agencies, restaurants, souvenir and gift shops, transportation resources and travel agencies. 3.8 Hotels In Beit Sahur there are six hotels, namely: La Fontana De Maria (50 rooms), Shepherds’ House Hotel (110 rooms), hree Kings Hotel, Golden Park Resort, Murad Tourist Hotel and Resort (20 rooms), and the Sahara Hotel. In addition, there are a few guest-house and hostel facilities: Elias Awad Hostel, the Greek Catholic Guesthouse, and the ElBeit Guesthouse (Arab Women’s Union Hostel). 3.9 Restaurants & cofee shops he town’s several restaurants and cofee shops ofer a variety of services, including Western and Middle Eastern cuisine, bar and nargileh (traditional water pipe), and large spaces for special events such as parties, weddings, etc. he Citadel and Dar al-Balad restaurants are located in renovated buildings in the historic core of the city. he popular Tent Restaurant (Shepherds’ Valley Village) features a traditional Arab setting adorned with 85 hand-woven carpets and art. he Golden Park Resort boasts a restaurant along with a swimming pool and children’s playground. 3.10 Tour guides and tour operators In Beit Sahur there are several commercial tour operators/agencies, including: Sunbird Travel & Tours, Four Seasons Tourism, Kukali Travel, Angels Tours and Magi Tours. Another player in this sector one known for its decidedly nontraditional set of oferings, the Alternative Tourism Group. his a Palestinian NGO specialises in tours and pilgrimages which include critical examination of the history, culture and politics of the Holy Land. Established in 1995, ATG operates according to the tenets of Fair Trade and Justice tourism, that is, tourism that holds as its central goals the creation of economic opportunities for the local community, positive cultural exchange between visitors and locals, the protection of the environment, and experiences of political and historical education. ATG also works to encourage all tourism operators to abandon the excesses of exploitative mass tourism, and to adopt practices that positively afect the host population in Palestine. 86 6.2 STAKEHOLDER ANALISYS TABLE 87 88 89 6.3 Swot Analysis of the Stakeholders Strengths Strategic location, easy access and proximity to other attractions in Bethlehem and Jerusalem. he area is has been an important element of Christian pilgrimage for centuries. he world-famous annual Christmas ceremonies. A wide variety of desirable handcrafted products for tourists and pilgrims. Distinguished vernacular architecture. Distinctive natural, cultural and ecological resources. A large number of tour operators and guides are available. Strong spirit of cooperation among the locals people. Pleasant and friendly local populace. Steady growth in the number of international tourist to the Holy Land. A wide range of tourist accommodations. Availability of open public spaces. he majority of Bethlehem and Beit Sahur residents are reasonably luent in English and major European languages. Opportunities Beit Sahur can grow as a gateway or bridge connecting the diferent provinces of the PNT with each other, for both Palestinians and visitors. Beit Sahur, together with Bethlehem, can develop a distinguished environment for Holy Land pilgrimage for religious visitors. Beit Sahur can be developed as a center for traditional local handicrafts, for pilgrims and all visitors. Preservation of the natural and cultural landscapes. Increased local economic development. Raising the institutional capacity. 90 Weaknesses Perception in Western countries that PNA is an unsafe destination due to the political conlict. Lack of well-qualiied human resources in cultural heritage protection and conservation. Under-use of the natural and cultural heritage resources in tourism. Inadequate traic management in Beit Sahur. Poor management of the archaeological and historic sites and features in Beit Sahur. Lack of comprehensive, informative printed resources that would allow for self-guided touring through the town. Lack of a comprehensive, strategic protection and conservation plan. Lack of entertaining evening activities and events. Lack of cooperation among institutions at the national level, and between the public and private sectors. hreats Political conlict in the Middle East. Israeli practices limiting and discouraging tourism in the PNT. Unplanned growth. he present tourists are “out of control”. he economic crisis in the PNT and a scarcity of public resources in Beit Sahur and its surroundings. he world economic crisis and limited inancial support available to Palestine. Case Study of Umm Qaies Jordan Ziad Al-Saad, Abdel Hakiem AlHusban, Abdullah Al Jarrah, Fandi Al Waked, Mohammad Jaradat, Mohammad Bataineh, Mohammad Rababha 1. Introduction he study document about the archeological site of Umm Qaies will ofer a collective vision and provide a decision making tool that would guide conservation, development and tourism promotion of the site. It is valuedriven and through a participatory and interdisciplinary process will balance conservation needs and tourism development demands. Being a collective vision to the management of cultural and natural sites, the management plan provides an anchor to accommodate how diferent stakeholders relate to the site and to its management. An efective Management Plan should be capable not only of guiding policy makers and planners involved with the site but should also engage with the fullest variety of stakeholders in order to secure a long term and sustainable future for the Site. While internationally recognized for its signiicance, the Site also needs to be treasured at the local level as emblematic of civic pride. his locates the site between both global (external) and local (internal) stakeholders. he former would include tourists, visiting researchers and students, while the latter would include the neighboring local communities and relevant landowners in addition to local authorities and agencies responsible for its management. hus in drawing up the Management Plan for the site the following 3 broad principles should be adhered to: 1. he Plan allows each stakeholder group to engage constructively with the site while recognizing the overall need to protect, enhance and inform. he Plan will require the backing of all stakeholders. 2. he Plan takes an integrative approach to the management of the site recognizing that its value lies in the relationships between the built environment, the natural environment, and local cultural practices. 3. he site represents over 3,000 years of change and is still evolving. he Plan should seek to sensitively manage the change process not drive it. 93 2. he function of the selected site region 2.1 Site location and environmental setting the lake of Tiberia (also called the sea of Galilee), and the Golan heights. 2.1.1 Site location he old city of Gadara is located in the western part of modern Umm Qaies with and area of 1600m from east to west and about 450m width from the north to the south, the Hellenistic-Roman acropoly is buried under the Ottoman village which referes back to the 19th century A.D, that currently represents the higher part of the site in the south eastern part of the site. Byzantine archaeological remains are located in the area of the Byzantine church and the terrace. he archaeological site of Umm Qaies (Gadara), (Greek:  Gádara) is located northwest Jordan, it is about 100km to the north of Amman, and 24km from Irbid city, it is in an immediate vicinity of the borders to Israel and Syria. 94 Fig 1 Map of Jordan showing the location of city of Irbid Fig 2 Map showing the location of city of Irbid Perching majestically on a long promontory (378 m above sea level), it has a stunning view overlooking the Yarmouk river, the Jordan Rift valley, he site Coordinates on the Geographical Information system GPS are: Latitude: 32° 39’ 52” N, Longitude: 35° 41’ 35” E. More information about the site could be found in the Middle Eastern Geographic Information System of Antiquities (Mega-J) (www.megajordan.org) by searching the assigned site number # 2654., and in the Jordanian Antiquities Database Information Systems (JADIS) under the number 2122001. 2.1.2 Governorate area layout Umm Qaies is in Jordan’s Irbid Governorate and belongs to the BaniKinanah District which is one of the nine districts that constitute the Irbid Governorate of Jordan. It has a population of over 100,000. Its administrative center is in Sama al-Rousan. here are ive municipal councils in the department, and many educational, and service institutions. he department is served by the Yarmouk Hospital. Fig 3 Map showing the location of Gadara 2.1.3 Extensive landscape transformation 2.1.3.1 Introduction Transjordan was seen as the land bridge (a strategic link) to Arabia, by which the Ottomans hoped to reinforce their presence in the Arab provinces of Hijaz. And, in the aftermath of the British occupation of Egypt in 1882, and part of the eforts to extend direct rule to Bilad al Sham at large, the Sublime Porte made a high priority of reinforcing its presence in southern Syria to check further European ambitions in its Arab provinces. A government center needed to be created in the south-eastern districts of the province of Syria. Police and gendarmes had to be posted to provide security. Villages needed to be created, and settlers encouraged extending the area under cultivation. Rogan explicates, “he Ottomans never succeeded in ruling a territory without irst changing realities on the ground”. he process began in the northernmost district of Ajloun. he frontier became divided into administrative units. he Ottoman government undertook several initiatives to extend its authority over Ajloun district. he primary concern was to assure security of agricultural production and the collection of tax revenues In 1864, the Vilayet Law provided a standard framework of provincial administration to be applied. In the northern district, little was spent on establishing government buildings for the fact that this area belongs to the Hauranregion; there was less need for a major administrative apparatus given the “proximity of the regional center.” Other than the southern districts, which were suiciently isolated from each other and from major government centers, and necessitated a higher degree of investment in construction. Under Ottoman rule during the second half of the nineteenth century the acropolis 95 of Gadara was resettled by villagers arriving from such nearby settlements as Sama al Rousan andMalka. he layout of the new village, which took the name of Umm Qaies, followed the original plan of the Greco-Roman city but was built according to a Jordanian/vernacular style During the second half of the 20th century the settlement expanded along the main road connecting Irbid to Himmeh, which passed nearby. he name Umm Qaies (originally Mkies, which means “frontier station,” or “sac for measurements,” in Arabic) relected the signiicant role of the settlement played in the 19th century and early 20th century as an Ottoman border post and center for collecting taxes, in the form of agricultural products, from Hauran Valley. Today, the village provides archeologists, anthropologists and conservationists with an extremely rich heritage site, incorporating both the ruins of the GrecoRoman city and one of a very few genuine and well preserved Ottoman villages in the region. A key historical condition afecting the development of the village in the early 19th century was the desire of the rulers of the Ottoman Empire to promote agriculture in Bilad al Sham to compensate for a drop in agricultural production from Balkans, which was at the time subject to political unrest. he ottoman government also aimed to achieve an increased level of state control in the region, A Land Code was initiated in 1858 to further these ends. It made it mandatory to register all lands under cultivation, and it speciied 96 that any land left unattended for more than 3 years was subject to coniscation by the government. In Umm Qaies, the efect of this code was substantial leading to a gradual stratiication of the village community into two groups: landowners (mellakin), who had settled irst in the village and who could therefore register most nearby lands; and sharecroppers (fellahin), who worked these lands for the landowners, and who on rare occasions were able to register land of their own. One of the most prominent Mellakinin Umm Qaies was Falah al Rousan who later became the Ottoman District Magistrate. He occupied the most signiicant house in the village, Beit al Rousan, located at the apex of the old acropolis where it had a commanding view of the rest of the town. Generally speaking, there was also a strong connection in the village between cadastral patterns and power relations, on the one hand, and architectural patterns and village morphology on the other. Mellakin families resided at the highest level of the village building beautiful courtyard style houses with elaborate detailing and vaulted roof systems. Fellahin settled in small scattered houses in the lower parts of the village. A third groups, landowning families, who had arrived later in the growth of the village, settled between these two groups in an intermediate location By the turn of the century, following these general development patterns, the region of Bilad al Sham had achieved signiicant architectural prosperity, and had succeeded in attracting the political and economic interest of both Britain and France. his led to the improvement of infrastructure and trade networks linking Umm Qaies to such major cities in the region as Damascus, Irbid, and Tiberias. 2.1.3.2 Understanding Settlement Evolution & Spatial Organization “he Land Code of 1858 and LandUse System” It is very important when trying to understand the architecture and building structures at the Village during the Ottoman and British Mandate periods to take into consideration the history of the settlement, the evolution of its spatial organization and the socio-economic and cultural transformations that took place. Otherwise, the study of the buildings, architecture, and settlement would be simply a study of frozen objects taken out of historic and cultural context. Without such a comprehensive approach, the study of the architecture and the settlement patterns contributes little to the interpretation of the relationship between material and social life. One of the most analytical and profound research attempts to analyze such relationships was done by the Jordanian anthropologist SeteneyShami, this section of this report is based on both, her previous research in addition to extensive ieldwork and interviews conducted by the heritage specialist for the project over a period of 15 years at Umm Qaies. he Ottoman tax registers from the 16th century show a shriving village at Umm Qaies where a settled peasantry produced a surplus that was taxed by the Ottomans. he main factor that intervened in the late 19th century, and forced the inhabitants of the area to change to a more permanent form of settlement was political: mainly, the attempts of the Ottoman government to increase grain production in the area through the establishment of permanent agricultural settlement. he Ottoman Land Code of 1858 stipulated that private land ownership, continuous cultivation of land and the restriction of the size of village herds would be conditions for obtaining the right to cultivate land. Families such as the Rousans, Omaris, and Melkawis from neighboring villages like Melka, Hartha, and Sama al Rousan started to lock to Umm Qaies. According to Shami (1992), those who were able to aford the registration fees and other taxes and those who had connections in the Ottoman administration registered lands that they had previously cultivated only sporadically. hose who could not register land became sharecroppers and laborers 2.1.3.3 Trade Networks Another major mile stone development during the 19th century in transjordan was the gradual incorporation of the region of Bilad al Sham into the world market, which had the efect of both expanding the trade potential of small villages and determining the kinds of crops that villagers grew. he late 19th century saw several periods of good prices for grains, and this allowed even modest peasantlandowners such as of Umm Qaies to make a proit. Several of them began to establish regular trade connections and networks with merchants and middlemen in cities such as Damascus, and the ports 97 of Palestine such as Acre and Haifa. One particular area of Damascus called Jazmatieh in the historic Maydan area was famous for grain storage stones for grains and other agricultural produce coming from the Huaran Valley and from the hill tops such as of Umm Qaies 2.1.4 Urban landscape 2.1.4.1 Migration and Resettlement In 1967, the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, and based on recommendations from the German Protestant Institute in Amman, proposed plans to excavate large new sections of the Ancient City of Gadara. To further this plan, even though archaeological excavations had to that point been carried out without signiicant obstruction from the local community, the Department issued a special legal order (under marshal law: amerdifa’a) appropriating and coniscating the houses and lands of the villagers. he inhabitants were since then forbidden from making any changes to their houses. he change in policy with regard to Umm Qaies relected the government’s desire to demolish it entirely to facilitate the archeological excavations. As such it relected a decision to privilege the heritage of one period (Classical Roman and Byzantine) at the expense of the continuity of another (the Ottoman-derived culture of the 19th and early 20th centuries). Eventually, these government plans to demolish Umm Qaies completely were abolished under pressure from Jordanian and German architects and anthropologist (e.g., Yarmouk University represented by people like SeteneyShami and Birgit Mershen, he German Protestant 98 Institute: Heinz Gaube and homas Weber, and also a group of professors and students from the University of Jordan: Dr. TalebRafai, Rami Daher, ZakiAslan, DeemaQasem, Wael al Nazer). But the displacement of the Villagers was carried out nonetheless. hus, in 1976, the inhabitants were forced to sell their houses and agricultural land to the Government, and in the ten years that followed, they were relocated to a nearby housing project. Following the relocation, most of the houses were left vacant, which caused them to deteriorate severely. Coniscations eventually amounted to about 460 donums of agricultural land, for which the level of compensation was unfair. For example, a typical holding consisting of a courtyard house with 5 to 7 rooms and approximately 5 additional donums of agricultural land, was bought by the government for 12000 JD. When the villagers objected, the Government ofered to sell them new housing units built by the Jordanian Housing Cooperation for about 10000 – 19000 JD, depending on their size. Another special ministerial order was issued (order number 1406 of 1982). Of course, the Association of Housing and Urban Development charged exaggerated costs for these housing units, and were also still asking for higher rates and even higher interest rates for the loans. he housing project to which the villagers were moved was built outside the old Jordanian-Ottoman village along the highway to Irbid. Its site was a piece of land that was previously unit for housing development because of its 35- 40% slope. After their eviction, villagers were not allowed to build new houses of their own; instead, they were forced to inhabit dwelling units whose plans were borrowed from design prototypes that did not it their life style. For example, most villagers kept domestic animals, grew crops, and had water wells in their courtyards. In their old dwellings, they had also enjoyed proximity to their agricultural land. In the new housing units, such culturally imbedded practices became impossible. Villagers make frequent trips to their former residences in the Old Village and there remembered sadly how their digniied and glorious past had been violated. In addition, now that the main source of their former living had been taken away; most villagers were forced to look for low paying jobs in nearby urban centers such as Irbid. Faced with these conditions, it was no long before the villagers started to experience a sense of alienation from their old Village. In fact, hostile feelings soon emerged between the villagers and their Old Settlement which many began to view as a curse. he spatial organization of Umm Qaies as a whole, and the houses that the peasants built, were directly related to those changes in the economy. he physical structures that are still to be seen in Umm Qaies represent the stages of settlement starting with the turn of the century. By this period agricultural production had began to enable some peasants to invest in elaborate buildings (such as the houses of the Rousan (most elaborate courtyard Hosh Building), Melkawi, and the Hosban), while others remained in simpler houses. he spatial organization, therefore, relects the growing stratiication of the community and the resulting increase in complexity in its social structure. Fig 4 Courtyard house (Biet al-Husban) 99 Fig (2): Courtyard house (Biet al-Husban) Before land registration, when the lands around Umm Qaies were farmed sporadically or seasonal, travelers’ accounts indicate that the peasants lived in caves, in the Roman vaults, and in makeshift huts and temporary dwellings. he two main sections of the Ottoman Village can still be distinguished in present-day Umm Qaies. First, there was the area with the large dwellingscomplexes where the major landowning families lived and which was called the Hara al-Foqa or “upper quarter”. Secondly, there was the Hara al Tahta, the “Lower Quarter” where the poorer and peasants laborers, herders, and craftsmen lived. In the lower quarter (Hara al Tahta), there are a large numbers of smaller houses which belonged to the fellahin, the “cultivaros” as the local terminology designates them. Since the area of the village contains a mix of old houses and new concrete construction, it is not possible to estimate the actual number of fellahin houses at any given period. It is clear, however, that each landowning family must have employed a substantial number of poorer and peasants laborers. hese would have been seasonal workers, herders, and sharecroppers. he dwellings of the fellahin relect all these conditions. hey are smaller and appear to have rarely included walled courtyards. Most were scattered and stood alone in the open or with only rudimentary enclosures. he diferences 100 in the dwellings of the mellakin and the fellahin are directly related to the place of their inhabitants in the system of production he Upper Quarter itself can be further divided as the subsequent maps will show; there are three major sub divisions: 1. here is a central cluster of 8 large dwelling-complexes, some of them subdivided into smaller units at the very top of the hill. hese were the houses of the major landowners, the mellakin, and they are clustered together forming a closed circle. Families within this cluster include Rousan mainly, but also Hosban, Omari and Malkawi. 2. In the same area but separated from the main cluster are houses of smaller landowners who obtained land in the village somewhat later. hese complexes appear to have originally been quite large and were built in the same courtyard style as those of the larger landowners. However the location of walls and dividers within them show that a great deal of subdivision occurred within the households that occupied them, and that this led to the division of space into quite smaller units. 3. On the periphery of the area of large dwelling-complexes are the houses of those families that split of from the households living in these complexes. hese houses are smaller and wellpreserved, and some where built as late as the mid-1940s. hey were also built in the courtyard style. hese buildings, courtyard houses (Ahwash) and the diference in settlement patterns documents an important turning point in the history of the region in general and that of Jordan in particular. herefore, the signiicance of the Ottoman village takes on newer dimensions as it is related with signiicant socio-economic and cultural events and transformations in northern Jordan and the region at large. 2.2 Administrative and planning authorities in the site 4. Upgrade the quality of tourism services to match international standards. 5. Develop tourism awareness of the Kingdom’s culture, heritage, civilizations, and archaeological resources within the framework of sustainable tourism development in harmony with local communities and nongovernmental organizations. 6. Strengthen the institutional structure of the tourism sector through upgrading legislations, laws, by-laws, instructions and human resources’ development. Institutional Framework 2.2.1 Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities he site is under the legal auspices of the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities he Ministry’s Functions: 1. Develop an advanced tourism industry capable of utilizing its comparative and competitive advantages through highly developed infrastructure facilities and superstructure services. 2. Develop archaeological and tourism sites and resources to enhance the tourism and prolong tourists length of stay to achieve higher tourism revenues and create new job opportunities. 7. Establish and implement marketing and promotion campaigns in international and regional markets, strengthen international cooperation and promote domestic tourism. 2.2.2 Department of Antiquities According to the Antiquities Law No. 32, of 2004, the Department of Antiquities is responsible for handling and protecting of all sites that have historical and cultural values. he Department is responsible to manage the existing discovered historical sites and to prevent the destruction of non-discovered sites during the excavation and implementation of new projects. 2.3 Population 3. Expand the role of the Private Sector in tourism investment and attraction of additional capital within a framework of mutual cooperation between the public and the private sectors. Umm Qaies belongs to Irbid governorate which is the second largest governorate in population that reached 1,112,300 in the year 2011, whereas the in Amman the number was 2.449,600. 101 In term of population density Irbid is the highest over all Jordan’s governorates with 707.7 p/km2. Also Irbid constitutes a percentage of 17.8% of the total population of Jordan, which comes after Amman which is 38,7%. Table 1: Estimated population by Jordanian governorate, sex and pop density (P/Km2), 2011 102 Table 2: population density by governorate for the year 2011 A comprehensive qualitative survey was conducted in the village to come up with information about demography, levels of education, and the relationships between Umm Qaies and other surroundings villages. he qualitative methods depended on identifying key informants in the village representing diferent clans (a total of 35) who themselves surveyed the village house by house and interviewed all families. Furthermore, focus group discussions and meetings where held with diferent social groups including the youth and the elderly of the village. he irst table is the censes data for Mkies from the age of 0 up to 86 and above with male and female counts. he second table represents censes data from the Municipality of Khalid Bin al Waleed of which Umm Qaies is part of. All in all, and within the Municipality of Khalid Bin al Waleed, the percentage of males is 0.502 and females is 0.498. he population of the Municipality of Khalid Bin al Waleed makes approximately 23% of the BaniKinana Region in the North. he following demographic tables summarize some of the data collected. 103 Age 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Male Female Sum 43 49 92 47 49 96 46 48 94 52 47 101 51 52 103 48 49 97 49 47 96 48 48 96 56 51 107 52 51 103 53 106 53 53 49 92 49 52 101 50 53 103 48 51 99 53 51 104 49 48 97 50 51 101 54 47 101 47 45 97 50 46 96 49 45 94 44 38 82 44 38 82 43 38 81 37 35 72 30 35 65 32 31 63 29 31 60 Age 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 Male 25 29 27 24 25 25 24 23 20 17 21 21 16 20 14 14 15 13 15 13 10 13 10 10 10 10 11 12 9 Female 28 31 27 31 29 29 27 23 24 24 25 24 20 20 18 17 19 15 12 15 13 17 11 11 11 11 12 12 8 Sum 53 60 54 55 54 54 51 46 44 41 46 45 36 40 32 31 34 18 17 18 23 30 21 21 21 21 13 24 17 Age Male Female Sum 58 7 10 17 59 9 10 19 60 13 16 29 61 9 6 15 62 9 9 18 63 8 7 15 64 8 10 18 65 10 10 20 66 7 6 13 67 6 5 11 68 6 4 10 69 6 5 11 70 7 9 16 71 3 2 5 72 4 4 8 73 4 2 6 74 5 3 8 75 5 5 10 76 3 2 5 77 2 1 3 78 2 1 3 79 2 1 3 80 4 4 8 81 1 1 2 82 1 1 2 83 1 1 2 84 1 1 2 85 1 1 2 86& 3 3 6 above Total 2003 2034 4037 Table 3: Censes data for Umm Qaies from the age of 0 up to 86 and above with male and female counts 104 Area Male (No.) 3427 2003 Female (No.) 3190 2034 Malka Umm Qaies Al-Mansourah Al-Himmeh (alMkheibeh al-Fouka) Al-Mkheibeh al-Tahta Total Sum 6617 4037 Sum Male Female (%) (%) (%) 36 % 52 % 48 % 22.1 % 49.6 % 50.4 % 1658 784 1712 934 3370 1718 18.5 % 9.4 % 49 % 46 % 51 % 54 % 1292 9164 1228 9098 2520 18262 14 % 100 % 51 % 49 % Table 4:Censes data from the Municipality of Khalid Bin al Waleed of which Umm Qaies is part of 2.3.1 Social Groupings he village morphology relects a special form of housing social units and households which correspond with the economic system with its diferent components and also with the political system as well. he size of the houses and their locations and also their spatial organizations relect all a certain form of social groupings which prevailed in the Village. It is important to make clear that the form of social groupings in terms of social units had progressed in a way to match the economic and peasantry needs. One can say that an understanding of the peasantry economic structure and also the architectural and spatial structures of the Village in addition to the social groupings cannot be understood in isolation but in a totality of these three interrelated systems. he existence of raw rooms formed around a courtyard and also a wall continuing the circulation of the courtyard (hosh) like in Bieut al Rousan or Hosban relects the existence of three forms of kinship units. First, there were the nuclear family composed by the father, mother and children. Another form of social groupings stems from interaction between these nuclear families amongst themselves through economic, social, and emotional relations. his type of social grouping extends beyond the nuclear family but still is much less complicated than the clan. It could be considered a form of an extended family (a number of nuclear families sharing the space of a courtyard (hosh). It is obvious that the one courtyard can provide a shared kitchen, oven, and madafa. Furthermore, there are certain economic activities dealing with production, distribution, and consumption that took place in these houses and courtyards. he way the house and courtyards were formed facilitated the reproduction of the socio-economic structure of a certain Village culture. he house provided a certain kind of warm existence to the nuclear family proving a certain level of privacy to be able to produce and raise children (biological production of society). he common 105 courtyard spaces such as the hosh, madafa, oven, kitchen, storage, and other spaces such as the animals din facilitated the reproduction of the economic system for the group. Decisions related to plowing and the type of produce to plant in addition to the times and schedule for going to the ield and distribution of work were all carried out in the spacious house. he way the house and its diferent spaces were organized facilitated the processes of reproduction of economic systems. herefore, it is important to look at the house as a consumed unit where the spatial organization within played an important role in facilitating the processes of consumption. In other words, it is important to look at the houses, like the Rousan for example, as a pace that facilitates a certain form of production and consumption. Another form of social groupings in the village is the clan. It extends beyond the nuclear and the extended family. he clan therefore, represented the amalgamation of diferent nuclear and extended families. he Rousan clan, for example, consisted of several houses such as the house of Falah (now Museum), and the house of Abdullah al Lai, and another for the family of Mahmoud and so on. he notion of the clan did satisfy certain needs and became very visible in certain contexts such as protection. he oral stories draw a certain picture regarding the relationships between the residents of the village. In general, these depended on “face to face” relationships that were personal, daily, and concrete. he special organization of the Village 106 of course facilitated such a face to face encounters and relationships. Some stated that “the neighbors and residents of the Village used to sit in the alleys during the day, for example, there were seating near the house of Falah al Rousan at the entrance where the elderly of the village used to sit and smoke or play “minqala”. he youth used to sit together and one would bring a newspaper and would read to the group.” It should be understood that in such a village community like the one at Umm Qaies, kinship ties play a very important role and the enticer of a lot of economic, social, political, and emotional relationships. Furthermore, this kinship structure in the village represented at a certain point in time a economic system in its role in sketching the production, distribution, and consumption processes and also represented a political reality as kinship was the main force behind alliances and areas of dispute and argument within the village. here are a lot of stories about the system of al “Ona” which means the ability to inish a major work inside the village (e.g., building of a house, or maintaining it) by the coming together of the diferent village inhabitants. 2.4 Educational status he educational level at Umm Qaies village considered to be one of the best in comparison with neighbour villages which comprise what is known as Khalid bin-Alwalid municipality that Umm Qaies lies under its administration. he high educational level is actually connected with an importance fact that the village school (currently a rest place) is one of the oldest schools in Jordan. Information denotes that the school was built at the period of the Trans Jordan Emirate during the 20th of the 20 century, which considered one of the oldest schools at the kingdom alongside with Al-Salt school. While people of other villages under the administration of Khalid bin AlWalid municipality are working at many diferent jobs including cultivation, crafts and small industries, there is a clear tendency through Umm Qaies residents towards the academic education both university and college level. he fact that the village depends on residence from neighbour villages for carrying out some professions and crafts and for acquiring goods, shows the high interest of people of other neighbour villages to commence these kinds of work if compared to the abstention of Umm Qaies people. Historically the education has been tied with the ownership of land and leadership. Families which own more lands in comparison with other families has directed their sons to the education which in turns enhanced it is political situation and increase it is inluence in the village. Later on there was a clear trend amongst other families which belongs to those clans who own less lands to send their sons for continuing their education in a clear attempt to improve their social and political situation in the village. he government has played a vital role in education of Umm Qaies village residences, either by building primary and secondary schools, or through providing university level scholarships funded by the military ….. or the ministry if higher education. he Gender efect on the education choices between the village residents is obvious, whilst females tends to choose the theoretical education which could mostly lead to jobs like teaching in the ministry of education, on the other hand males of the village don’t hesitate in choosing education tracks that lead to other types of work that go beyond the ield of teaching. Recently, a new trend can be noted, which builds on a convincing that working at the government has become more and more diicult, plus it doesn’t provide enough income for the intended level of life, so it is notable that some youths at the village despite their determination to acquire an academic certiicate “as a weapon in front of the upheavals … and as a mean for increasing the social situation” directed toward creating their small private businesses away from government wings. 2.5 Labour force and employment here is a clear tendency amongst those who are willing to continue their education to choose specialization that qualify them to get jobs at the government related sector that include mostly a bureaucratic work, which is the most preferable work. In the past the only destination for who want to continue his education from Umm 107 Qaies village was Palestine, then later on to Syria and Iraq, but the establishment of Yarmouk University in 1975 and Jordan University of Science and Technology has revolutionary changed this. Families encouraged sending their sons to Yarmouk University, also the establishment of those two university was of great beneit for females teaching, families which was hesitate to send their daughters to Amman or outside Jordan for education, founded no problem to send them to those two universities as long as they will return back to their houses at the evening. he fact that Umm Qaies has become a major tourism attraction has a great relection on the growing interest between village residents in learning English language, also tourist visit to the village from all over the world, has encouraged people in village to travel to Western Europe and United States. 2.6 Land use he land use at the village of Umm Qaies can be divided into three main parts, the irst use is for farming and growing trees basically olive trees, the second use is for residential purposes, mostly the when the father leave a land its divided into his family members, who build their own houses at the inherited land, so as a result the land that used to be for farming is becoming more for houses and residential purposes. 108 he third part is for building shops and small industries such as plumbing, blacksmithing, carpentries, car maintenance. 2.7 Territorial natural and cultural resources Territorial Resources at Umm Qaies are divided into two categories which are Archaeological Resources and Cultural Resources. 2.7.1 Archaeological Resources at Umm Qaies he old city of Gadara is very rich of archaeological resources and features including the following: Archaeological resources at Umm Qaies list 1heaters 2Vaulted shops 3Nymphaeum 4Roman Baths Complex 5Tombs (Underground Mausoleum (he Hypogaeum)) 6he Western Gate\Gate of Tiberias 7he Byzantine church Terrace 8Roman Road System 9Roman Forum Area 10Living Quarters 11City wall 12Roman water system 13Museum of Umm Qaies 14Beit al – Malkawi 15Beital- Omari 16Umm Qaies Rest-house (old village school) Fig 5 Map of Gadara showing diferent features heaters: here are two main theaters in Gadara, he Western heatre: is the wellpreserved and most graceful feature of Gadara, which was constructed in the 2nd century AD with black basalt stone, has 24 row and can hold up to 3000 persons, has a white marble statue of Taykie the Godessa of fertility and beauty, contrasting the theater benches along with the discovery of the western theater the German Danish teams that have excavated in Gadara during the past 20 years their discoveries include the whitemarble-Goddessa status that’s contrasting vividly with the black basalt stones of the theater this theatre dates back to the irst and the second centuries AD. You can enjoy a particularly spectacular view around sunset from the upper rows of the seats. Fig 6 Gadara Western heater 109 he Northern heater : At the eastern end of the Decumanus Maximus are the remains of the so-called North heater, which is the largest one still visible in the hillside next to the museum. Built in the 1st century AD, it was designed to line up approximately with the axis of a temple (to Zeus) erected between 150 and 100 BC, that is, before the conquest by the Hasmoneans. he stone seats are gone, having been recycled and used in houses of the Ottoman Village. Fig 7 Statue of Taykie found at Gadara western theater Fig 8 Ruins of Gadara Northern heater 110 Vaulted Shops: he terrace is supported by vaulted structures, used as shops during the Roman times. hese shops were slightly lower than the level of the Terrace. he road was paved and a Roman sidewalk existed in this area. Fig 9 Ruins of Gadara Northern heater Fig 11 Vaulted Shops Fig 10 Map showing the location of Northern heater Fig 12 Vaulted Shops 111 Nymphaeum: he world Nymphaeum is derived from the sacred water pools dedicated to the nymphs (water goddess), who lived near water sources. he Nympheaum, a fountain with basins and niches, usually decorated with marble statuettes were erected among the irst structures of Romanization at Gadara, Gerasa, Philadelphia of the Decapolis Petra as well as at major cities in the east and west like Olympia Ephesus, and Tipase. he main two types of nymphaea are wellattested at Umm-Qaies, and both were built of basalt masonary, and covered with marble tiles. he irst one is the rectangular nymphaeum which protrudes with its two wings towards the street pavement, the exterior walls of this nymphaeum comprise rounded niches facing towards the Decumanus Maximus street, the east, and the west, whereas the northern half of Fig 13 Gadara Nympheaum 112 the building is occupied by a big barrelvaulted cistern. In 1996 an inscription was discovered at the western side of the nymphaeum mentions that it had been built with good fortunate by the builder AuriliusPhantosGaanos. he second exposed type of the public fountains at Umm-Qaies region is the long basing nymphaeum, it lies in the opposite site of the main street where the cardo intersects with the Decumus Maximus street. his structure was built on a hillside and line with repeated semi -circular niches for statues rising behind the long basin and colonnaded with two green colossal columns among the long row of the niches. Friezes with vegetal decorations and legendary face were adorned the two story complex. his sacred monument is believed to have been dedicated to the ancient water goddesses. he main two purposes of the nyphaea are to provide with drinking water, and for religious washings prior to ceremonies in the Greco - Roman temples. Roman Baths Complex: Ruins of a Bath Complex, dating from the 4th century, can be seen by merging left into a small dirt road some 100 meters from the intersection of the Colonnaded Streets. You can also access its lower parts from a dirt road across from the West heatre. Just as typical Roman baths, it had hot, warm, and cold rooms, as well as a room for disrobing. It apparently went out of use in the early 7th century. Herakleides is a Gadarenenobelman, whose name appeard into a Greek inscription within a wreath on. a mosaic loor, the mosaic inscription states that the bathing guests are welcomed by Herakleides, the grantor of the bath’s buliding. he Roman baths of Herakleides recur to the third century AD. Fig 14 hermae (public baths) hey were covered by four squares of mosaic loors containing geometric decorations. he (30× 50m) Byzantine thermae complex was erected south of the Decumanus Maximus in the fourth entry AD, and continue in use until the early seventh century AD. One entering the large Byzanting public baths (thermae) from the Deumanus Maximus street, passed irstly the apodyterium (changing room), and then proceeded to the frigidarium (cold bath), tepidarium (the warm bath), and inally caldarium( the hot bath) at the south end of the complex. During the Umayyad period (661 - 750 AD) the building of the public baths reused as a smaller domestic installations. he baths were destroyed by the powerful earthquake of the mid eight century AD. Fig 16 hermae (public baths) Fig 15 Baths of Herkleides 113 Tombs (he Roman Underground Mausoleum (he Hypogaeum)): A proximately 500 meters from the Roman Baths there is a well-preserved underground Roman Mausoleum [West Mausoleum]. Behind the black basalt stone cistern [underground water reservoir], steps lead to the entrance hall, which is the porch of the mausoleum itself. A ive-aisled Basilica Church was recently excavated above the mausoleum. here is also a rock carved tombs scattered around the outskirts of Gadara, such as the tombs of Germani, Modestus and Chaireas. period the sumptuous Roman mausoleum was associated with the miracle of Gadara described in the Bible (Matt. 8:28) where Jesus, on His way from Lake Genezareth in Gadarene, met two possessed men, who obviously dwelled in the tombs on the outskirts of the city. Jesus healed them of their aliction by driving out their devils into a herd of swine, which thereupon plunged into the waters. It is possible that during the Byzantine Fig 18 Roman Underground Mausoleum Fig 17 Roman Underground Mausoleum 114 Fig 19 Roman Underground Mausoleum he Western Gate\Gate of Tiberias Some 800 meters from the point where the two main colonnaded streets intersect, or 200 meters from the Mausoleum, there is the remains of the Western City Gate, consisting only of the foundations. he gate was lanked by circular towers, which straddled the Decumanus. Another 400 meters from the Western Gate there are the remains of a Triple Arched Gateway, which marked the extension of the city’s boundary in the latter half of the 2nd century. Monumental Gate: Hippodrome: Tiberias Gate was built in the early irst century AD, most of its basalt blocks re- used during the Byzantine period to build the entrance hall of the underground mausoleum. he gate was composed of two circular towers astride the thoroughfare out of the city wall to the west with a barrel- vault spanned the Decumanus Maximus between the two towers. he socle of the circular tower is visible, but the opposite tower on the other side of the street is covered by an Islamic tombs return to the end of the eighteenth century. traces of the foundation of this invisible tower have been found by Dr. homas Weber during the 1989 excavations season. he Roman Hippodrome of Gadara or the so called also stadium lies outside the western city gate parallel to south of the east - west road, it was built for sporting games, chariot races and agonistic festivals in the honour of the Greco - Roman gods. he eastern end of the hippodrome has a semi- circular shape for chariots turning, while a straight wall comprises entrances to the hippodrome formed the western side. he northern side of the hippodrome contains seats for the spectators. he monumental Gate was built with a distance of 365 meters west of the western city wall at the north - west end of the hippodrome. the gate had a large barrel - vaulted central passageway with two smaller barrel - vaulted lateral passages, each end of the gate is lanked by a horse shoe- shaped towers. Prof. Dr. Adolf Hofmann dated this gate by his stylistic analysis to its decoration and architectural elements to the beginning of the third century AD (Late severian period), and called it the extra mural gate. Fig 20 he Western Gate\Gate of Tiberias he Byzantine Church Terrace Next to the West heatre is the paved and colonnaded Terrace. Some of the structures that remain on the terrace include the colonnaded atrium, which served as the courtyard for the church, a large colonnaded octagon pertaining to the Centralized Church and an apse, remnants of a three-aisled Basilica located between the Centralized Church and the West Roman heatre. To the west, the Terrace is supported by vaulted structures. 115 Fig 21 he Byzantine Church Terrace Fig 22 he Byzantine Church Terrace Fig 23 he Byzantine Church Terrace 116 he Roman Roads System Colonnaded Main Street (Documanus): stretching from east to west for 1.7km it is one of two main streets that intersect in ancient Gadara. he paving is all original and dates from around 2,200 years ago. he columns are nearly 400 years newer -- from the 2nd century AD -- and were stood up after being uncovered by archeologists. Elsewhere along the road, archeologists left many of the columns laying down where they had been put during the Byzantine period when the graceful Roman colonnade was converted into a fortiied wall. If you look closely at the paving stones, you can see the ruts left by thousands of ancient carts and chariots. Fig 26 Colonnaded Main Street (Documanus) Fig 24 Colonnaded Main Street (Documanus) Fig 25 Colonnaded Main Street (Documanus) 117 Market Street in Ancient Gadara (Cardo): hese ancient storefronts are built into the foundations of the large 2nd century AD terrace constructed on the west side of the acropolis and later used as a site for Byzantine churches and an Umayyad mosque. Like most of ancient Gadara (modern Umm Qaies), these shops were built of very solid and heavy black basalt. Living Quarters A classical Acropolis lies to the east of the West heatre. Today it is covered by Bait Melkawi and the remains of the Ottoman village, built from stones taken largely from ancient buildings. One of the more substantial buildings was restored and converted into a museum, while another was rebuilt as a rest-house. he Ottoman period houses at UmmQaies region include the houses of the landowners on the top of the GraecoRoman Acropolis, and cultivators towards the foot of the Acropolis. he most important among these houses are Beit al-Rousan and Beit Al- Malkawi. Fig 27 Market Street (Cardo) Roman Forum Area his large paved area was Gadara’s primary forum, or gathering place, and would have been lined with temples and markets. Fig 28 Roman Forum Area 118 Fig 29 Ottoman Village living Quarters Fig 30 Ottoman Village living Quarters Fig 31 Ottoman Village living Quarters Fig 32 Ottoman Village living Quarters City wall he city wall is not very well preserved but may be traced without diiculty, on the Eastern side it was carried so as just to include a high swell of ground on which many of the principal public buildings seem to have been collected together. he Hellenistic city wall of Gadara was built after the conquest of Gadara by Antiochus the third in the early 2nd century A.D, Its eastern parts used the remains of the Hellenistic walls. Enclosing the ancient Acropolis hill, on which the Ottoman Umm- Qaies houses were built, the city wall includes a narrowshaped towers, they have been exposed by removing the olive groves planted on the southern slope of the Acropolis. In the early 1st century B.C, the city wall was destroyed by the forces of Alexander Jannaeus the leader of the Hasmonaeans, and stayed demolished until the later 1st AD. he new parking area has been constructed in front of the southern city wall, someday this area was covered with olives groves planted by the owners of Beit al- Malkawi. 119 Fig 33 City Wall he Roman water system Gadara as a Decapolis city was provided by water through genius Roman water system that was designed to tab spring water to the Decapolis cities in the ancient provenance of Syria through a network of underground channels. With about 170 km Gadara aqueduct exceeded more than nine times the length of Bologna channel which is only 19 km and previously known as the longest water aqueduct in ancient archaeology. Fig 34 City Wall 120 he aqueduct was built, executed as two parallel systems called the lower and the upper tunnels - also supplied some other towns in between its supposed source in the Dille swamp-area in present Syria and its inal destination Gadara. QanatFiraun, “Canal of the Pharaohs,” is what the locals call the weathered old pipeline. he aqueduct ended in Gadara, a city with a population of approximately 50,000. According to the Bible. Fig 35 Roman Water Aqueduct Entrance and inside view Fig 36 Roman Water Aqueduct Entrance and inside view he 170 km long pipeline was constructed in the Qanattechnology, that is as a series of well-like vertical shafts, which were connected underground from opposite sides by gently sloping tunnels. he longest section featured a length of 94 km. Partly following the course of an older Hellenistic aqueduct, excavation work arguably started after a visit of emperor Hadrian in 129-130 AD. he Gadara Aqueduct was never quite inished, and was put in service only in sections. It was discovered and explored as late as 2004 by Mathias Döring, a hydromechanics professor in Darmstadt, Germany. Roman taped water to Umm-Qaies from Aintrab - 13 kilometres east of UmmQaies-by the aqueduct, two tunnels were part of the aqueduct run under the Acropolis with a depth of 15meters, they were carved in the soft chalky limestone, the main tunnel called Qnawat al- Firaon, it is ca. 400metres long due to its carved and bent course, 2, 50 meters high, and about (0,85-1,50) meter wide. he function of the tunnels is to distribute the water among the private and public buildings like the public baths, the luxurious nymphaea, and to supply the inhabitants of Umm-Qaies (ancient Gadara) with fresh water. 121 Fig 37 Representation showing digging progress of the Aqueduct Museum of Umm Qaies he Museum was originally the house of the Ottoman governor’s sheikh Faleh al- Rousan, who was a wealthy member of the Rousan’s family. Sheikh Faleh alRousan whose trade linked the markets of Damascus and Haifa. He was named Agha (basha) by the Ottoman sultan Abd - al Hameed the second, who granted him a medal at before the late of the 19-century. he construction of this house turns back to the end of the nineteenth century during late Ottoman period. his two store house was built of limestone on the summit of the Acropolis with a dome on the top of the second loor. In 1990 Department of Antiquities Expropriated the building and conducted renovation work in collaboration between the 122 Department of Antiquities and Germany Protestant Institute. Where it became a site museum for the archaeological city of Umm Qaies. he museum equips the ground loor of the building, which consists of several rooms and a courtyard. various objects are on display such as pottery, bronze coins dates back to Roman, Byzantine and Islamic period . It also consists deferent statues one of them for a girl ,and marble statue of the God Satur ,statues of the god Artemis, Zeus, young Athlete , Tyche, mosaics and twisted snake situated in the inner courtyard, while in the outside arena, grinding grain tools ,inscriptions, altars, columns and capitals of basalt distributed in the garden as an open museum. Fig 38 Entrance and Courtyard of Museum of Umm Qaies Fig 40 Diferent objects at Museum of Umm Qaies Fig 39 Entrance and Courtyard of Museum of Umm Qaies 123 Fig 41 Objects at Museum of Umm Qaies Fig 43 Objects at Museum of Umm Qaies Beit al – Malkawi Fig 42 Objects at Museum of Umm Qaies 124 his house was built of basalt stones, and composed of a sprawling courtyard, a square summer reception room above the northeast part of the building, and a row of seven cross- vaulted rooms along the eastern side of the house. he south side of Beit al-Malkawi stands on the second century BC City wall commanding the parking area. he scenic views of wadi el- Arab (the Arab’s valley), and the low forested hills are obviously and amazingly visible to the south of the house. Beit alMalkawi has been built by a landowner called Mohammed Suleiman Malkawi, and now serves as a center for the German Protestant institute teams, yearly excavating at Umm- Qaies. Beit al - Omari serves as a center for tourism police after renovation work that has been done in 1995. he House was originally built in 1922 by Suleiman al Omari and was severely bombed in 1967. hen, the House was renovated after the war by using modern materials and techniques which had an adverse efect on its overall authenticity. Fig 44 Beit al – Malkawi Fig 47 Beit al - Omari Umm Qaies Rest-house (old village school) Fig 45 Beit al – Malkawi In 1991, the former village school was adapted into a rest house and Italian Restaurant (after relocating the school to the new housing project). he Rest-house ofers a relaxing retreat overlooking Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee). You may enjoy a view from indoors or outdoors, on the large open terrace. here was a good proposal for renovating the rest house, into a large modern resort like inspired from the success of Tibet Zaman in Petra, but it was rejected by locals. Fig 46 Beit al – Malkawi 125 Fig 48 Umm Qaies Rest-house (old village school) 2.7.2 Cultural Resources Gadara was well known as cultural and philosophical center of the Decapolis cities, and a key location for spreading and teaching the Hellenistic culture and philosophy in the east. he city of Gadara known from Greek and Latin literary sources to have had a reputation for artistic accomplishments as well as something akin to leisure resorts attracting writers, artists, philosophers and poets, the likes of Satirist Menippos (second half of the 3rd century B.C.), the epigrammist, Meleagros (ca.110-40 BC), and the rhetorician, heodoros (AD1437). Gadara was also the resort of choice for Romans vacationing in the nearby HimmetGader Springs. Meleagros 126 compared Gadara with Athens, which testiies to the city’s status as a creative center of Hellenism in the ancient Near East. “Athens of the East” Gadara became a center of Hellenistic learning and philosophy, city of philosophers. It produced three prominent Cynics. A Cynic was a nonconformist who called people back to the basics: a life of virtue in harmony with nature, free from the distracting pursuit of wealth, power or fame. “”For what shall it proit a man, though he win the whole world, if he lose his own soul?” (Matthew 16:26). A Cynic typically lived outdoors (their enemies called them dogs), caring neither about his apparel nor about what tomorrow might bring. It is noteworthy that we ind this doctrine in Hellenistic and Roman times high up on the southeast side of the lake, while a similar teaching came from the mouth of Jesus high up on the northwest side (Matthew 6: 24-31): was in the air, after all, and here was a nearby city that embodied it. his is not to say that Cynicism was the dominant component of Jesus’ teaching, but it may have played a part. Gadara produced number of Cynics, Rhetoricians and Mathematician. Cynics Menippus :Gadara’s irst Cynic was Menippus, a satirist from the 3rd century BC. Menippus of Gadara, was a Cynic and satirist. His works, which are all lost, were an important inluence on Varro and Lucian. he Menippean satire genre is named after him. Although nothing of his work has survived, he had great inluence. Meleager :Another Gadarene cynic, from the 1st century B.C., was Meleager, who called his home town “the Athens of the East.” Much inluenced by Menippus, he composed this epigram for his tombstone: Tread softly, Stranger, over the sacred dead Here lies in well-earned sleep the aged Fig 49 Gadara’s irst Cynic Menippus Jesus could easily have visited Gadara from Nazareth while a young man, becoming acquainted with its Cynics. Burton L. Mack and John Dominic Crossan of the controversial Jesus Seminar have drawn this connection. he spirit of Hellenism Meleager, Son of Eucrates, who composed poems about sweet-teared Eros combining his Muse with delightful grace. he Holy Land of Gadara and Tyre with her divine boys made a man of him. Lovely Cos of the Meropian people received him in old-age If you are a Syrian, I say to you ‘Salam!’, if a Phoenician -- ‘Naidios!’ and if Greek -- ‘Chaire!’ and you return me the same. (Greek Anthology vii. 419) 127 Rhetoricians Gadara also produced a rhetorician named heodorus. Like Philodemus before him, he left his home town for Rome, where he taught a young aristocrat named Tiberius, who would be emperor during Jesus’ mission. heodorus perceived the youth’s moody disposition, dubbing him mud kneaded with blood. Fig 50 Gadara’s Cynic Menippus Oenamaus :In the 2nd century AD, Gadara spawned a third important Cynic, Oenamaus known principally for the long extracts of a work attacking oracles, which have been preserved among the writings of Eusebius of Caesarea. Oenamaus, who satirized the priests of Apollo for hoodwinking the people. God, he held, gives no more thought to us humans than He does to a beetle. “And do you suppose that, for the beetle, there is a harsh Beetle. God, and that after the beetle has grown old on his dung heap, the Beetle God takes him up on high to an afterlife in dung-heap land?” 128 Mathematician Another of Gadara progeny was a mathematician named Philo, who devoted himself to the study of pi. One way to wander among the ruins of Gadara is to contemplate the fact that here lived a man who had thoughts like the following: “What is the relation between the diameter of a circle and its circumference? If I triple the length of the diameter, I almost get the circumference. he latter is longer, said Archimedes, by a quantity that is less than 1/7 of the diameter but greater than 10/71 parts of it. Surely we can get closer than that!”. 2.7.3 he natural landscape Umm Qaies is situated 110 km north of Amman on a broad promontory 378 meters above sea level with a magniicent view over the Yarmouk River, the Golan Heights, and Lake Tiberias. In ancient times, Gadara was strategically situated, laced by a number of key trading routes connecting Syria and Palestine. It was blessed with fertile soil and abundant rainwater Fig 51 Natural Landscape around Gadara 2.7.4 he cultural landscape Gadara is widely known as Greco-Roman city of Decapolis that Gadara lourished in the late irst and particularly in the second century A.D. But, it seems that the human occupied the site before this period attested that several potsherds were found in the North West area of the site, and dated to the 13th and 14thcentury B.C. Gadara is a remarkable example of the cultural landscape and cultural heritage. Where human settlement and land use for more than 4000 years, this city contain manifestations of cultural, natural and geological many associated with scene beautifully and distinctive. 2.7.5 Archaeological sites in the surrounding area he main archaeological sites in the surrounding area are other Decapolis cities including Capitolias (BeitRas)and Abila or Raphana(Quailbeh) to the East and Pella to the South West. Gadara represents a center for the surrounding Decapolis cities in the area of Greater Syria that was part of the Roman Empire. 129 2.8 Infrastructures he site is well serviced with roods, water supply, electricity, sanitation and waste disposal runs by the local municipality of Umm Qaies. 2.8.1 Electricity and telecommunication services Fig 52 Capitolias heater (BeitRas) heater he site is connected to the national electricity grid, power outage is very rare. Landline phones, faxes and ADSL internet connection are available at the site which is connected to these services through cable. Also the site is covered with mobile phones coverage from all the working mobile companies in Jordan. 3G internet services are available at the site either through phones or by using special 3G dongles. Fig 53 General view of Abila Archaeological remains 2.8.2 Transportation services he site is reachable through the public transportation network that is being used by modern Umm Qaies village residents, with buses operating from the early morning till evening. Taxi service is also available inside the village and to the site. 2.8.3 Water supply he site is connected to the domestic water system which comes through what called the municipality water, provided on weekly basis from Water Authority Jordan (WAJ). Fig 54 Map showing archaeological sites around Gadara 130 In case of water shortage especially in the hot summer time, when the nation’s water resources are under severe stress, water can be supplied by tanks that abstract water from local springs. Municipality water are of good quality, and usually it is being used for diferent purposes like washing cleaning and it is also valid for drinking. 2.8.4 Sanitation he site is connected to the municipality sanitation system. 2.8.5 Solid waste removal he site is services by the municipality disposal system. 131 3 - History and analysis of the functions of the site 3.1 A Reconstruction of Umm Qaies Socio-Historical Context he Site of the Upper Quarter (hara al fouqa) at Umm Qaies ofers the interested researcher the chance to study the relationship between materialistic and non-materialistic elements relevant in the formation of a certain particular culture in a particular location. Furthermore, once can also mention another signiicance present in this Old Site which is the possibility to research and study the socioeconomic history of the Village which is now vacant of its residents through not only the archives and historic documents, but also through oral traditions and history for the residents and information. All make possible the reconstruction of Umm Qaies socio-historical context for the Village. Reconstruction of socio-historical context means the gathering of all information and factors through which one can weave overall causal relationships and narratives and forming and reconstructing a total image or picture about the cultural narratives which prevailed in the Village with their multiple economic, social, political, administrative, and ideological realities. his is a reality that no longer exists and represents now a history just waiting to be constructed for its overall relevance and contributions to the understanding of the Village and also to make it accessible to the general public. 132 his conirms with the assumption that the materialistic aspects of the Village cultural production represented in its architecture does form an integral part with the non-materialistic aspects of the Village culture. hey both are interrelated and afect each other cultural and sociohistorical reality of the Village through the studying of its architecture. his can be made possible through the analytical analysis of the discursive practices produced by some of the Village residents who had lived part of their lifes in the Upper Quarter. It can be assumed that the discursive practices produced by these residents are in part an integral outcome of their lives there in the Old Village, and in part a production of oral traditions which had lived on through generations. herefore, the documents, oral history, narratives, biographies, and land records in addition to the diferent stories, poetry, and songs all form the main components for the system of discursive practices. he historical period that is needed or can be constructed will be determined by the ability of oral traditions and oral memories of the residents which can go back to about 150 years in time. herefore, one is talking about the era stretching between the middle of the 19th century and the time when the Village was evacuated from its residents in 1986-8. It is very important to notice the element of diferentiation represented by the big gap between the history of the Village which extends thousands of years back on one hand; and the oral history of the residents which covered a very short period in comparison. his can be explained by stating that the history of the Village does not represent a continuous stretch of history as much as it does represent a discontinued reality. Here, then, it becomes important to start understanding these concepts of discontinuity rather than continuity. Diferent proves, including the oral tradition, airms that the Village had witnessed period of habitation interrupted by periods of interruptions of human settlements. While the Oral memory of the residents extends back for not more than two centuries, it is worth it to mention that Ottoman Salnamat (year books) talks about the presence of a human settlement in the Village during the 15th and the 16th centuries. hese historic archives talk about an earlier name for the region (Mkies), which is a name that had stayed itched in people memories ever since while the “elite” and Jordanian diferent systems of production (e.g., tourism, media) uses the name Umm Qaies. his change is surely attributed to the processes of Arabization (ta’reeb) which afects local culture in Jordan. cultural and socio-historical reality of the Village through the studying of its architecture. his can be made possible through the analytical analysis of the discursive practices produced by some of the Village residents who had lived part of their lifes in the Upper Quarter. It can be assumed that the discursive practices produced by these residents are in part an integral outcome of their lives there in the Old Village, and in part a production of oral traditions which had lived on through generations. herefore, the documents, oral history, narratives, biographies, and land records in addition to the diferent stories, poetry, and songs all form the main components for the system of discursive practices. he historical period that is needed or can be constructed will be determined by the ability of oral traditions and oral memories of the residents which can go back to about 150 years in time. herefore, one is talking about the era stretching between the middle of the 19th century and the time when the Village was evacuated from its residents in 1986-8. It is very important to notice the element of diferentiation represented by the big gap between the history of the Village which extends thousands of years back on one hand; and the oral history of the residents which covered a very short period in comparison. his can be explained by stating that the history of the Village does not represent a continuous stretch of history as much as it does represent a discontinued reality. Here, then, it becomes important to start understanding these concepts of discontinuity rather than continuity. Diferent proves, including the oral tradition, airms that the Village had witnessed period of habitation interrupted by periods of interruptions of human settlements. 133 While the Oral memory of the residents extends back for not more than two centuries, it is worth it to mention that Ottoman Salnamat (year books) talks about the presence of a human settlement in the Village during the 15th and the 16th centuries. hese historic archives talk about an earlier name for the region (Mkies), which is a name that had stayed itched in people memories ever since while the “elite” and Jordanian diferent systems of production (e.g., tourism, media) uses the name Umm Qaies. his change is surely attributed to the processes of Arabization (ta’reeb) which afects local culture in Jordan. he older name of the Village (Mkies) was present in three other Ottoman administrative records (tabudifters) and that books for registering land. he name appeared in tabudifter number 430 which dates back to the times of Sultan Suleiman the Magniicent in 1523, and in tabudifternumber 401 from 1534, and inally in tabudifter number 99 dating to 1597. he irst record documents the presence of ive dwelling units, the second documents the existence of 10 dwelling unites, and inally the third talks about 21 dwelling units in addition to 15 individual bachelors. A simple analysis of the families owning houses indicates based also on their location that the Rousans followed by the Hosbans and then the Malkawis, the Omaris, the Na’washis, the Shana’ats, and the Swaitis are the families that irst settled the area. Each family which had resided in the Village represents an extension to 134 larger families who historically had been present in the region in places other than Umm Qaies. For example, the Rousans came formSama al Rousan, the Hosbans are a branch of Bani Hassan who came from Mafraq, the Omaris came with the Village of Dair Yousef, the Masriscame originally from Egypt, and the Malkawis came from nearby Malka. his means that the current residents do not represent a continuity with the distant past and that the village had known therefore periods of continuity and other periods of discontinuity when it comes to human habitation. It is important to mention here that elements of a certain culture integrate within itself to form a system of elements that afects each other. So, the culture of a certain group of people is nothing but the sum of elements of the economic, political, social, religious, and knowledge, and ideological systems. All interacts among themselves during longer periods of time to formulate at the end the basis for individual behavior patterns or a map of behavioral patterns that guides the people of a certain culture in diferent walks of life. his integration of the diferent elements of culture is referred to as the “cultural wholeness.” It means that one cannot isolate and study one particular cultural element without reference to other elements. Each element works and functions within the web of relations with the rest of the cultural elements. It is very important to understand that this process of reconstruction attempts to depend not so much on the authority of the researcher or ethnographer in the building of the narrative about the studies community; but rather it attempts to make the residents of the village as narrative producers about their own history, and therefore, about their Village. herefore, the authority that produces the narrative or text is presented and represented in the residents of the Village themselves rather than in the anthropologist. herefore, the reconstruction of socio-historical context of the Village depends primarily on the production of the local imaginary of the Villagers and their diferent discursive practices about the Village as they are imagined in the past. 3.2 Political Organization he spatial organization of the Village relects the political organization which prevailed during the period under study. he previous elements illustrates the nature of the power network prevailing. By power network, one means the power relationship with the diferent strategies and tactics that were generated from them to achieve certain desired objectives. hese power networks, strategies and tactics emerge due to the existence of socioeconomic and even physical diferences between the diferent social doers. When there exists a diference in age or wealth or even linguistic competence or kinship relations, power networks emerge. Power networks mean the ability of a certain social doer to form or reform or even entice a certain desired behavior of another social doer. Power here becomes a practice rather then an appropriation or ability to own. he Site of Umm Qaies relects a certain network of power. he diferences in the periods of arriving to the Village, acquiring of land and water wells, and in the numbers of a certain clan or alliances with other clans and the number of males within a certain clan, and sometimes the relationships with the Ottoman center (and Jordanian at a later stage), all provided fertile land for the formation of diferent socio-economic and thus therefore power relations permitting certain power practices. It is very important to emphasize here that when the Village spatially and architecturally relects a certain network of power where the architecture of the Village together with the location of houses and their sizes become a relection to the power network prevailing, then, the Village should be considered as the space that facilitated the production and reproduction of the power network in the Village. In other words, he Village is a product of the power network, but at the same time, it produces the same power network. 3.3 he site in ancient texts he Decapolis is mentioned a couple of times in the gospels in reference to Jesus’ activities. First a man he heals goes there to report on Jesus’ ability, and later Jesus himself travels to the region to perform more healings: 135 And when he was come into the ship, he that had been possessed with the devil prayed him that he might be with him. Howbeit Jesus sufered him not, but saith unto him, Go home to thy friends, and tell them how great things the Lord hath done for thee, and hath had compassion on thee. And he departed, and began to publish in Decapolis how great things Jesus had done for him: and all men did marvel. (Mark 18-20) And again, departing from the coasts of Tyre and Sidon, he came unto the sea of Galilee, through the midst of the coasts of Decapolis. And they bring unto him one that was deaf, and had an impediment in his speech; and they beseech him to put his hand upon him. And he took him aside from the multitude, and put his ingers into his ears, and he spit, and touched his tongue; And looking up to heaven, he sighed, and saith unto him, Ephphatha, that is, Be opened. (Mark 7:31-34). 3.4 Historical and documentary survey he name Gadara derives from a Semitic term meaning “fortiication”, and it is likely that a pre-Hellenistic stronghold secured this stretch of the land route between southern Syria and the north Palestine coastal ports. he change in the name Gadar/Gadara to Umm Qeis in the Middle Ages(from mkes, early Arabic “frontier station”) probably relects the settlement’s ancient role as a border post. Gadara irst appears in historical record shortly after the conquest of the region by the forces of Alexander the Great in 333 BC. Alexander’s successors in Egypt, the Ptolemies, refounded Gadara as a military 136 colony along the Yarmouk Valley frontier with their perennial rivals the Seleucids, Alexander’s successors who were based in Antioch, north Syria. he Roman general Pompey conquered the region of south Syria in 63BC. and liberated Gadara and other Hellenistic towns in north Jordan from the grip of the Hasmonaeans. Josephus mentions that due to the damage the city sufered from the siege, Pompey rebuilt it to please Demetrius the Gadarene, one of his favorite freedmen and quite a notable personality in the annals of the late Roman Republic. It was rumored in Rome that Demetrius the Gadarene initiated and inanced the monumental theatre that was built in Pompey’s honor on the Campus Martius in Rome in 61-54 BC. After 63 BC, an autonomous Gadara minted its own coins and adopted a new calendar based on the Pompeian era. he security which came with the PaxRomana (Roman peace) reinvigorated international trade and boosted the commercial and tax income which the Decapolis cities derived from it. With regional stability completely assured as of the late 1st Century AD, Gadara and the Decapolis entered into their Golden Age of municipal expansion, architectural splendor, economic growth and artistic and cultural vitality. 3.5 Restoration and conservation activities Conservation and Restoration work at the site are divided into four main parts: 1.Rehabilitation and reuse of some houses like Beit al Rosan which is now being used as site museum, Beit al-Omari, and Beit al-Malkawi. After evacuation of the villagers in 1976, German and Jordanian archaeologists and architects started to call for the conservation of the old Ottoman courtyard houses. But although isolated and fragmented conservation projects started to appear, they lacked a cohesive approach or philosophy. here were attempts to restore and adapt the village’s courtyard houses and community structures as the following: Beit Malkawi: In September 1987 the restoration of Beit Malkawi was completed. his house was adapted to serve as a headquarters for archaeological teams (mainly German and Jordanian), and as a storage site for archaeological inds. Beit Rousan : Another signiicant house, Beit Rousan, was adapted into an archaeological museum. his project tragically resulted in the demolition of authentic village walls to create larger internal courtyards, however. former village school : In 1991 the former village school was adapted into a rest-house and Italian restaurant (after relocating the school to the new housing project as a way to pressure the villagers to move). he project was primarily intended to serve tourists and upper-middle-class visitors from Amman. he adaptation, resulted in the unnecessary demolition of the north wing of the former U-shaped structure — consisting of two rooms, one from the turn of the century and another from the mid twentieth century — and its replacement with a terrace and two cross-vaulted structures. Previously, three periods of vernacular architecture had coexisted harmoniously in the school. But the new structures are confused with the old ones, creating diiculty for any future reading of the history of the place. he new function for the building, as an Italian restaurant, was also strongly rejected by the local community, which considered such a use to be unsuitable for one of the village’s previously most signiicant structures. In 1994 the same investment company that had adapted the school proposed to the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities that the whole former Ottoman-era settlement be turned into a ive-star tourist resort, with all associated amenities, including restaurants, bars, hotel rooms, and swimming pools (another Zaman indiscretion), but the project was rejected by the local community. Fig 55 Rehabilitation and reuse of Ottoman Houses Fig 56 Rehabilitation and reuse of Ottoman Houses 137 2. Re-erecting of some rows at the western theater which have been done by a German architect. Re-erecting some columns at the colonnaded street and basilica terrace. Fig 59 consolidation and strengthen of columns Fig 60 consolidation and strengthen of columns Fig 57 Re-erecting of Western theater Fig 58 Re-erecting of Byzantine church columns 138 3. Conservation intervention by consolidation of walls and adding cement layer over the roof to prevent water accumulation and leakage. Fig 61 Regular maintenance measures (controlling plants growth) 4. Regular maintenance of the whole site which includes cleaning of garbage and controlling plants growth, and disposal of the excavations debris. Fig 62 Regular maintenance measures (controlling plants growth) 3.6 Development policies In 1967, the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, and based on recommendations from the German Protestant Institute in Amman, proposed plans to excavate large new sections of the Ancient City of Gadara. To further this plan, even though archaeological excavations had to that point been carried out without signiicant obstruction from the local community, the Department issued a special legal order appropriating and coniscating the houses and lands of the villagers. he inhabitants were since then forbidden from making any changes to their houses. he change in policy with regard to Umm Qaies relected the government’s desire to demolish it entirely to facilitate the archeological excavations. As such it relected a decision to privilege the heritage of one period (Classical Roman and Byzantine) at the expense of the continuity of another (the Ottomanderived culture of the 19th and early 20th centuries). Eventually, these government plans to demolish Umm Qaies completely were abolished under pressure from Jordanian and German architects and anthropologist. But the displacement of the Villagers was carried out nonetheless. hus, in 1976, the inhabitants were forced to sell their houses and agricultural land to the Government, and in the ten years that followed, they were relocated to a nearby housing project. Following the relocation, most of the houses were left vacant, which caused them to deteriorate severely. Coniscations eventually amounted to about 460 donums of agricultural land, for which the level of compensation was unfair. For example, a typical holding consisting of a courtyard house with 5 to 7 rooms and approximately 5 additional donums of agricultural land, was bought by the government for 12000 JD. When the villagers objected, the Government ofered to sell them new housing units built by the Jordanian Housing Cooperation for about 10000 – 19000 JD, depending on their size. he housing project to which the villagers were moved was built outside the old Jordanian-Ottoman village along the highway to Irbid. Its site was a piece of land that was previously unit for 139 housing development because of its 3540% slope. After their eviction, villagers were not allowed to build new houses of their own; instead, they were forced to inhabit dwelling units whose plans were borrowed from design prototypes that did not it their life style. For example, most villagers kept domestic animals, grew crops, and had water wells in their courtyards. In their old dwellings, they had also enjoyed proximity to their agricultural land. In the new housing units, such culturally imbedded practices became impossible. In 1994, the Ministry of Tourism was approached by an investor and on behalf of Zara Tourism Investments, to buy (or rent) the Village for implementing a “tourism village” project in the form of a 5 star Tourist Resort, with all associated amenities including restaurants, bars, hotel rooms, and swimming pool, based on the success of “TaybetZaman” in the South of Jordan. he Ministry granted the company initial acceptance for this scheme, although legal proceedings were not inalized. One reason had been the legal problems resulting from the change in land use from “archaeological site” to “tourist resort.” he Project was received with a lot of rejection and opposition, not only from the local community, but also from archaeologists, anthropologists, architects and activists from Jordan and abroad. he local community rejected the Project simply because they felt they were excluded from the development process. he activists, architects, anthropologists and archaeologists felt that the site deserved 140 a much more balanced relationship between tourism investments, heritage conservation and management, and local community participation and involvement. Local NGOs such as the Friends of Archaeology Chapter of Umm Qaies, also expressed rejection of the Project on similar grounds and was very active in voicing the opinion of the people of Umm Qaies to the Center in Amman. Even tourists who visited the site more than once expressed dismay at such “insensitive” and “outdated” plans as they expressed their rejection to the Project. 3.7 Safety and site protection he protected land containing the site is well fenced, the oicial entrances are provided with either guards of metallic gates that control people movement to the site, and prevent any violation to the site. here is tow oicial places to enter the site, one for tourists which leads to the designated tourist trail through the site, and the other is for the working staf of the site and tourist police and for the entrance of diferent service vehicles. he site is well guarded 24 hours 7 days a week through guards. Also the site is under direct monitoring and surveillance by the tourist police oicers through video camera system contains many cameras installed at strategic locations at the site and podcasting a live view to the tourist police oice during the oicial working ours from 8:00 am to 3:00 pm. Fig 63 controlling site entrances Fig 64 controlling site entrances Fig 66 he site under continuous surveillance of Tourist Police 3.8 Interpretation and presentation of the site Fig 65 he site under continuous surveillance of Tourist Police he site has been irstly identiied by the German Orientalist and explorer Ulrich Seetzen In 1806 A.D. Later on, the site was surveyed more thoroughly by G. Schumacher, another German traveler in Bilad al Sham, who wrote that it was uninhibited at the time. 141 he site is well researched over 36 years. here has been an extensive research of the site which produced a lot of information about all the archaeological features at the site, therefore the state of knowledge about the site in terms of cultural evolution is good. However much research should be done as many of the features of the site are still need to be uncovered and unstudied, more than 85% of the site is still underground. Archeological research and excavations resulted in a coherent story about the site. his story is presented in the interpretation panels and in the Museum, Visitor center and at speciic locations to explain certain features of the site. A Japanese team of archaeologists from Kokushikan University under the direction of Dr. Ken MATSUMOTO, are excavating at the site since many years, there extensive work has resulted in discovering new impressive features including ancient water wells and water system.he recently discovered features will be soon added to the touristic trail of the site and will contribute in completing the story of the site and enriching our understanding. Interpretation and presentation of the site is not satisfactory and can be enhanced in diferent ways, there is a room for more work in this ield. Visitors trail should be delineated and deined properly. Routes to the features on the sides of the main colonnaded street should be cleaned and leveled. Also there are many academic papers and university theses about the archaeological features of the site. 142 3.9 Visitor access and facilities 3.9.1 Visitors access he main entrance for the site is through the main road at the end of Umm Qaiesvillage, that leads to a wide parking lot. he parking lot has been recently renovated and organized to increase its carrying capacity of both tourists and vehicles, it has provided with information signs that gives brief information about the site and archaeological features. Also there are benches all around the parking so the visitor can sit and enjoy the wonderful overlooking view. he loor has been tiled with a traditional rectangular tiling which is in some way compatible with the historical context of the site. Fig 67 Tourist’s Entrance and Parking Lot Fig 68 Tourist’s Entrance and Parking Lot 3.9.2 Visitor’s facilities Visitor’s facilities at Umm Qaies site include the following: Visitor Center One of the traditional houses has been utilized as visitor center, one they presented some of the daily life of the village, some modern structure was integrated with the traditional house to be utilized as the main reception area. however the visitor center has not been opened yet and still under preparation. Fig 71 Under construction visitor center Car Parking A huge surface parking to the Southern part of the Village, the parking solved the problem of parking for tourist buses and mini buses and also cars it can hold approximately up to 25 cars or almost 10 large buses. here is another open hall designed for visitors collection and movement before or after visiting the site, and can be used for many activities. Fig 69 Under construction visitor center Fig 72 Car Parking Fig 70 Under construction visitor center Fig 73 Car Parking 143 Shops and Kiosks Inside the parking there is small size shops and kiosks to sell water and beverages, hot and cold drinks, also brochures and information lealets about the site. Lealets, Books and Maps Information lealets are available at the shops alongside with picture albums and cards. Fig 74 Shops and Kiosks at the Parking lot Fig 77 Selling site lealets and maps Fig 75 Shops and Kiosks at the Parking lot Toilets Toilets service is available with sings indicating the entrance, and they are open during the site opening hours from 8 am to 5 pm. Fig 76 Site Water closet (W.C) 144 Signs, Maps and Information points. A variety of signs of English and Arabic language are available all around the parking and on the sides of the way to the tickets oice, providing general information about the site, also there is a large map of the whole site providing the names and numbers of all the features in English language ixed on the tickets oice wall. Fig 78 Information signs and maps tickets oice Fig 82 Signs and information plates for the main monuments Fig 79 Information signs and maps tickets oice Fig 80 Information signs and maps tickets oice Fig 83 Signs and information plates for the main monuments Fig 81 Information signs and maps tickets oice Trail side signs and Information panels Most of the features along and of the visitors trail have been provided with trilingual (Arabic, English and German) numbered signs for the name of the feature. Fig 84 Signs and information plates for the main monuments 145 Tickets oice Entrance tickets can be bought from the tickets oice upon arriving the site, during the oicial working hours, no need for advanced booking. Fig 85 Tickets oice at Gadara 3.9.3 Undergoing Houses Rehabilitation Project In addition to the already exits facilities, work is undergoing for rehabilitation and renovation of some old Ottoman houses near the current museum. he work is going well and is in the inal stages, almost 80% of the work has inished and some of the houses and courtyards are ready but waiting for the whole work to be completed in order to be opened in an oicial ceremony. Fig 86 Tickets oice at Gadara Fig 88 undergoing project rehabilitation of Ottoman houses Tourist police station Fixed tourist police oice is available in the site to tackle any problems that could face visitors. Fig 87 Tourists police oice at the Parking lot 146 Fig 89 undergoing project rehabilitation of Ottoman houses 3.9.4 Adoption of new standardized signage system Also there is a project by the USAID for installing modern bilingual signage system for all the site features, the singes are under preparation and will be installed soon. Fig 90 undergoing project rehabilitation of Ottoman houses he signs will be the same as those installed in Petra, which meets the acceptable standards of design and implementation, and proved to be durable and informative. he information on the singes, is in English and Arabic, with a drawn plan of the feature, map of the area and a timeline of the site in all signs, and printed on hard smooth surface glazed ceramic plates, enclosed by a metallic frame and stand. Fig 91 undergoing project rehabilitation of Ottoman houses Fig 93 Sample of new signs will be installed at the site soon Fig 92 undergoing project rehabilitation of Ottoman houses 3.10 Number and type of visitors Number of visitors: Visitor numbers to Umm Qaies (between 2000 and 2004) have been extracted from statistics published by the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities which shows visits to all of Jordan’s archaeological sites. he following table shows these in relation to the visitor igures for Jerash and Petra. 147 Site 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Umm Qaies Jerash Petra 160,869 299,750 481,198 72,270 167,650 231,203 110,086 104,240 158,837 53,440 105,734 160,658 211,913 166,195 310,271 Types of visitors: Local and regional visitors including family visits and school trips. Specialists archaeologists Organized tours from all over the world. 3.11 Entrance fee policy and opening hours Entrance fees for non-Jordanians are 3 JD, and its free for Jordanians and Araba courtiers citizens. Opening hours in Summer (April - May) are (8:00 am – 5:30 pm), and in winter November-April are from (8:00 am – 4 pm), and during the holy month of Ramadan from (8:00 am – 3:30 pm). 3.12 Dissemination and promotional activities here is no proper promotion for Umm Qaies site.Some brochures produced by the Jordan Tourism Board about Umm Qaiesare available in Amman but not a promotional literature which is dominated by the established sites and routes around Petra, Wadi Rum and the Dead Sea. As previously mentioned this brochure is also available on site, but on request. 148 % change 2003/2004 296.54% 57.18% 93.13% he site is listed on the Jordan tourism map as one of the archaeological and tourism attraction sites. here is no tourist oice in Irbid and no opportunity to learn of the site from the major city in the North. Outside of Jordan, the majority of guidebooks on Jordan produced in English (most with translations in the major European languages) have sections and photographs on Umm Qaies and most portray a positive and intriguing view of the site. Web searches for information on Umm Qaies illustrate the importance of tour operators as intermediaries in Jordan’s tourism. However, it also illustrates the extent to which the site forms only a small element of domestic tour operator’s itineraries. 3.13 Human resources Site is being run by the Department of Antiquities of Jordan (DOA), staf of the site includes professional, technical and maintenance. Staf is divided into the following: Archaeological inspector, one museum curator, three museum staf, one typist, one oice manager, one guard, two messengers and two drivers, and a number of workers. All of these people are employed by the Department on a permanent basis. Others are employed on temporary and daily contracts as needed. here is a real lack in conservation restoration specialist at the site. Ministry of Tourism is responsible of promotion and management of tourism services at the site, including selling tickets, ticket selling oice include three ticket sellers. 149 4. Legal Context of the site 4.1 Legal Framework Umm Qaies is on the national registered list of archeological sites. herefore the site is legally protected by the Antiquities Law no. 21 for the year 1988. he law includes provisions for the protection and conservation of archaeological sites as a major responsibility of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan. he traditional village is reistered as architectural heritage and therefore is protected by the Law For the Protection of Urban and Architectural Heritage. 150 4.2 Ownership he site is owned by the state and is registered as a public property. 5. Local economic system of the site 5.1 Economic System One can talk about an organic relationship between the location of the Old Village (or what is known at the Upper Quarter: hara al fouqa) in the language of the local residents and between the economic system that prevailed when the Village was built and formed. he overall form of the village, distribution of the houses and their diferent sizes and details, the internal details for their houses and their courtyards (ahwash), in addition to the traditional materials used and the technical know-how developed by the residents through the act of building or later on maintenance; all is linked and can be interrelated to the economic system which prevailed in the village and its surroundings in the past. One can easily read the economic and social history of the village through what it ofers in terms of the Village’s old architectural and spatial features. Climatic, geopolitical, and demographic characteristics. he location of the Village closer to the Jordanian Valley (shafaghoriah) grants is a moderate climate during the summer and winter and a substantial amount of rain every year. Furthermore, the natural topography of the Village grants it a useful diversity in terms of activities related to agriculture and peasantry (fellahi) and grazing of animals. On one hand, there is a mountainous area covered with a “good” layer of red fertile soil good for the planting of trees (e.g., diferent types of conifers). In addition, there are valleys useful for diferent agricultural activities in the range of about 18 thousands donums. herefore, while the mountainous areas provide a chance for the formation of grazing lands for the animals; the valleys provides a variety in agricultural production in the form of wheat, barley, lintel, chickpeas, and diferent types of vegetables and fruits such as watermelon, aukra, zukini, tomatoes, and cucumbers. In addition, there are a lot of wild plants that are used by the local community in their own food and also in the food of their animals. hese include khubaizeh (geranium), atliy, humaid, louf, zatar (oregano), jwaizeh, shomar, and iter (mushrooms). One can argue that the geographic location helped in the formation of suitable climatic conditions and acceptable percentages of rainfall which facilitated the emergence of a thick green plant cover, and thus a thriving animal life. he best description for the economic system in the Upper Quarter as also relected in the architectural formation is the term peasant economy. his description is airmed through phrases found inside the oral traditions as narrated 151 by the Villagers. he main characteristics of this peasant economy are: 1. It is an economy that goes beyond a simple primitive economy which aims to simply insure basic needs (subsistence economy) but at the same time it is not a full agricultural economy that thrives to produce the maximum market surplus possible. he economy of Umm Qaies,as described by oral narratives, was an economy that did not thrive to produce maximum surplus aiming to make it to the world markets; but the produce was directed to addressing the daily needs of food and drink, but also thus, provide enough for the possibility of reproduction with possibilities of export if surplus produce is available. 2. It is an economy that thrives to satisfy the social rather than the economic desires with people. his is manifested by the general indiference among the local community to transform the diferent produce of the ground into commodities. So, instead of concentrating on what is called cash crop system, the concentration was on the produce which helped in the social production of family and of Village as a whole. his was evident from people’s frequent talk about the land owners (mellakin) in the Upper Quarter and how they owned a lot of land and domestic animals, but at the same time, how they were not selling the milk and dairy products but were merely interested to distribute the surplus to family, neighbors, and the poor. Some local residents go as far saying that the selling of dairy products brought shame to be doer. 152 3. It is an economy that depends makes available the work force needed for the diferent peasant activities by depending on a combination of local work force and domestic animals (mules, horses and cows). herefore, complicated technology is not really utilized here. Oral traditions and narrations always explained about the huge numbers of animals what were owned by the local community of the Village because mainly, these domestic animals were needed to work the land. Oral stories refer to when the Ottoman Government in 1876 distributed land to the residents in diferent percentages. Stories also refer that peasantry work was irst collective where the whole residents shared the labor and the produce. But in 1936 the lands were subdivided during the time of the Emirates of East Jordan and land was distributed and divided into two main sections: one for the local residents for peasant and agricultural activities and the other is for woodlands agriculture Still, some of the agricultural produce (mainly grains) used to ind its way to some local markets in Palestine at an earlier stage, and later on in Irbid. he reason for that was the acquiring of certain goods that were not available in the village such as sugar, cloths, furniture, and plowing tools. Water usually plays an important factor in any peasant community. he Villagers had developed diferent means of acquiring water. While the main water source (called the “Ain” in the Southern Part of the Village) a major water source during the Summer; water wells (mainly the ones called “Roman”) formed a very signiicant source of water in collecting water during the winter season for usage during the dryer seasons and for regular use in terms of drinking, personal hygiene, and the keeping of domestic animals. he Villagers diferent stories talk about a speciic system of owning these old wells. hese wells were the property of the individuals who discover them for the irst time, regardless of the ownership of the land where that particular well is located. herefore, it was very common that a certain person would own a well, but not necessary the land around it, and this person was allowed to make best use of the well and its water. Oral history also talks about the relationship between the Old settlement and its economy on one hand and the economy of nearby locations and even faraway centers. he notion that the grandfathers of the Villagers had actually moved to settle in Umm Qaies at the beginning of the 19th century refers to transformations that took place in the region in terms of economic, social, and regional contexts where Umm Qaies (Mkies) became or started to occupy an important position within this system. It was clear that the location of Umm Qaies (Mkies) as a connection in between the villages of north Jordan on one hand and Palestinian villages and even coastal cities on the other, in addition to the people’s needs to exchange goods and services from the surroundings have created a integrative economic/social system and formation at the scale of northern Jordan and Palestine. Umm Qaies had beneited from this formation and started to play an important role due to its location within the region. he oral narratives conirms these assumptions, the locals talk about the trading of their grain produce with some Palestinian towns such as Haifa for some manufactured commodities or crafts. Also, they talk about residents from the Village traveling into Palestine to work for wages or to get medical treatment or to seek entertainment. Furthermore, the huge size of agricultural land at Umm Qaies (Mkies) had forced the village to have ties with nearby villages in search of labor force. Many land workers (plowers) and sharecroppers came from near by villages such as Mukhaiba Villagers also used to seek professional help from some Palestinian towns. Stories talk about the using the help of some Jews who then were residing in Safad to build the irst big house at Umm Qaies (he House of Falah al Rousan) or what is known now as the Rousan House Museum. 5.2 Division of Labor: Division of labor means the manner in which a certain community organizes the work force available to it through its organization, investment, and distribution to inish the various production and reproduction procedures needed. At Umm Qaies, this division was simple 153 and was relected by the architectural and spatial organization in the Upper Quarter where natural factors in addition to age and sex played a very important role in that division whether in the ield or at the house and courtyard (hosh). he oral stories talk about the work of the women in the house on the preparation of food and cleaning of cloths and loors and under animals. In addition the women milked the cows and made and also went to the ield together with the mean to plow the lands. Stories tell how the women used to make most of the needed maintenance labor for the houses annually after the rainy season. his is what was called in local terms as “tate’en.” he form and organization of the houses and structures in the Upper Quarter illustrates that there used to be spaces for women socio-economic activities, and others for men’s activities only, and a third category of space where men and women could be work together on certain socioeconomic activities. A Review of Local Capabilities It is very important for the project to understand the local capabilities of the community at Mkies in terms of levels of education but also in terms of other activities and triads that the community is famous for. An extensive qualitative survey was conducted as mentioned before. he survey forms that were illed out after each of the meetings are in the appendixes. Meanwhile, here are some observations: 154 1. Based on key informants belonging and residing at Umm Qaies, a total qualitative survey for levels of education for the whole population of Umm Qaies was conducted. Detailed data was documented from each house in the village in terms of number of sons and daughters with university or other degrees taking into consideration writing down their names and their educational level and specialization. 2. A detailed table on Excel was prepared (refer to appendixes) regarding all the relevant information about educational levels. Such statistics and table provides the chance to study the directions of education present in the village and also the efect of Gender on the level of education and its quality. Furthermore, the statistics will provide detailed information about human resources in the village which will be useful when considering human resources and development at Mkies. 3. he level of education in the Village is the best in comparison with neighboring villages. And most deinitely, it is much better that the other villages forming the Municipality of Khalid Bin al Waleed. 4 .One of the main historic reasons for the high quality of educational levels at Mkies is that the old village school (currently the Rest House) is one of the oldest schools in Jordan. It was built during the time of the East Emirate of Jordan in the 1920s; therefore, Mkies School together with the Salt and Kerak high schools might be considered the oldest schools in the kingdom. 5 .While most citizens in the near by villages within the Municipality of Khalid bin al Waleed (such as Mansoura, MukheibehFouqa and MukheibehTahta) are engaged in agriculture and vocational professions, there is a clear tendency for the people of Mkies to move into higher and intermediate education. 6 .here is a tendency to do some sort of self-criticism at Mkies where they criticize themselves of not being practical enough (like the people of Mansoura for example who are ready to work the land and be engaged in several other jobs). hey also critique the dependency of Mkies residents on the other villages in terms of dairy and other produce products. 7 .Education had always been linked with landownership and leadership in the village. herefore, families who owned more land than others directed their sons and daughters to higher education and so on, thus reinforcing its political positioning within the village. At a later stage, other families with less land ownership had also directed sons to higher education in an attempt to improve their social and political status. 8 .It was not a coincidence that the principle for the only boys school in the village, and also this person sister is the principle of the only girls school in the village and for a long period of time. hese two individuals are the son and daughter of the village “mukhtar” (Salem al Misleh al Omari) who served as mukhtar for more than 10 years and was one of the most inluential land owners in the village. 9 .he State had played an important role in the education of the community in the village through the establishment of both the elementary and secondary schools. Furthermore, the State facilitated the possibilities of the people of Mkies being granted scholarship from the Ministry of Education or Armed Forces to continue their higher education. x. Gender deinitely had an impact on the topics chosen for higher education. Females had chosen more theoretical topics that would enable them to work as teachers in schools and what have you. Males on the other hand do not hesitate to choose other topics that are more practical in nature. xi. here is a historic tendency to choose specializations that would eventually enable individuals to take on positions within the government or in any other bureaucratic position. xii. his historic tendency is changing, other trends are emerging. More youth are convinced that working in Government is not easily obtained; besides it does not guarantee a good living since salaries are considered low in general. It has been noticed more recently that the youth in the village, although still insist on obtaining a university education; are moving away from bureaucratic and governmental jobs to the free market and towards more practical jobs that are more project oriented, private and away from the patronage of the State. xiii. Village residents used to send their sons to Palestine, and then to Syria 155 for higher education. But since the establishment of Yarmouk University and Jordan University of Science & Technology, this trend had changed dramatically; families are now sending their sons and daughters to these two schools. Also, families are more encouraged to send their daughters to Yarmouk and JUST provided they come back home each night. xiv. he tourist position of Mkies, and the inlux of tourist to the Site had its impact on educational levels. A lot of residents are now moving to learning English, archaeology, cultural resources management, and other related ield. Residents are also encouraged to travel abroad to the US and Western Europe. xx. Some of the local crafts that are popular amongst the village youth and elderly include: 1. Embroidery 2. Manufacturing of Tabun Ovens 3. Herbal Medicine production (Yehia al Omari) keeps a record based on his mother’s experience who practices traditional medicine for tens of years in the old village). 4. here are a total of four musical bands (diferent types) in the village and in near by villages. 5.3 General Observations he following are additional general observations from the diferent focus group meetings with the Village Youth: In the past, the youth of the village used to dream about going abroad 156 for new horizons and new opportunities either in the Gulf or to the States and Europe. More now, are more inclined to stay in the village, and to ind work either in Mkies or in near by villages. he Youth in the village share a strong conviction that there are a lot of investment opportunities to fulill their dreams and aspirations in the Village. hey talk about tourist, agricultural, environmental, and other potential. here is a struggle between the direction and aspirations of the youth who are more likely inclined towards unconventional jobs in tourism and agricultural swaying away from jobs within the government, and the orderly’s position who directs their sons to take on positions in the government and concentrate on fringe beneits such as social security and health insurance. he Youth in the village talk with admiration, enthusiasm, and optimism about the economic opportunities available in the Old Village from major tourist developments and investments to very smaller projects such as making necklaces out of local yellow lowers and selling them to the tourists. agriculture and animal husbandry rather than jobs in tourism. Yet, tourism is also important for many as well. he following are several projects that were proposed by the Youth: o Move the Parking lot to the Village to have the local community more engaged with tourists. o Create a seasonal vegetable market in the Village taking into consideration that there are 3 seasons of production in the village per year. o Create a modern olive press, and make use of it for the production of side out products such as soap, coal, and other products. o Create tourist and walking trails. 5.6.2 Mother-of-pearl 5.4 Agriculture and food 5.6.3 Embroidery he area surrounding the site has fertile soil and suicient rainfall to support rain fed agriculture. Wheat, barley, and other ield crops such as tobacco, lentils, barley, and chick-peas are cultivated; olive trees are covering most of the land and a high quality olive oil is produced in the area . Because of periodic drought and limited area, the rain-fed uplands did not support suicient output of cereal crops to meet domestic demand. Fashionable in this area until the late nineteenth century was a short-sleeved open coat (durra’a) made from locally woven cotton fabric indigo blue, red and brown colors with very little embroidery. Such coats were beautifully decorated with patches of red, yellow and green tafeta or satin fabric in rectangular or triangular shapes, with very little embroidery. 5.5 Industrial activities here are very limited industrial activities in this rural farming area. Most of the industry is centered on olive oil processing, traditional Soap industry and handicraft industry. 5.6 Handicraft activities Handicraft activities in the area center on the production of pottery and ceramic products, rugs, and olive woodwork, which is native to area. here is also small scale production of replica sculptures and igurines. Although nacre can be found at the site and its vicinity, it is not utilized for jewelry and souvenir industry. Towards the late part of the century, this coat was replaced with the qumbaz, a long coat with long tight sleeves with openings on the side. Veils and scarves were made of silk or cotton fabric in black or maroon colors with fringes and tassels on both sides. A headband (asbeh) was usually made of muslin, black silk with silver brocade square of material, folded diagonally and tied round the forehead. Unfortunately, thisrich tradition of embroidery is in the dyeing phase with very limited production on individual basis. 5.6.4 Mosaic 5.6.1 Olive wood handicrafts Although olive trees are abundant in the area, there is a lack of Olive Wood Processing Industry to produce olive wood based handicrafts. Mosaic making does not exist at the site or in the surrounding area, 157 5.6.5 Wax Handicrafts based on wax do not exist at the site. 5.7 Accommodations he village has one hotel “Umm Qaies Hotel” located at the main street, about 150 m from the site, with is a nice view at the top of the hotel to Golan Heights of Syriaand the Sea of Galilee (lake Tiberias) a breathtaking view of three countries. Fig 95 Umm Qaies Hotel he hotel has 18 rooms come with a ceiling fan and a private bathroom. he apartments also include a separate living room with a satellite TV and a fully equipped kitchenette with a stove. he hotel has a lobby with large sofas and a TV. It also ofers shared laundry facilities. he 24-hour staf can arrange a shuttle to Al Himma and the Dead Sea. Traditional Jordanian cuisine is served at the hotel. Guests can enjoy a cup of freshly brewed cofee or relax with a sheesha at the café. Prices started from 15 JOD per room. Fig 96 Umm Qaies Hotel 5.8 he site is served by a 4* restaurant which is housed in a refurbished traditional house. A number of restaurants which serve traditional food are operated by the locals. In addition a number of Kiosks that serve snacks and drinks are available. 5.9 Fig 94 Umm Qaies Hotel 158 Catering and restaurants Leisure time industry Organized leisure time industry does not exist at the site. However, the beautiful landscape in the area entices some tourists for hiking and camping. he famous natural hot springs very near to the site ofer the potential for therapeutic and wellness tourism. 5.10 Trade and commerce he best description for the economic system in the area is the term peasant economy. he main characteristics of this peasant economy are: 1. It is an economy that goes beyond a simple primitive economy which aims to simply insure basic needs (subsistence economy) but at the same time it is not a full agricultural economy that thrives to produce the maximum market surplus possible. 3. It is an economy that depends makes available the work force needed for the diferent peasant activities by depending on a combination of local work force and domestic animals (mules, horses and cows). herefore, complicated technology is not really utilized here. 5.11 Information and communication Umm Qaies is covered with land and cell phone service. he site is served highspeed broadband wireless Internet services via satellite 2. It is an economy that thrives to satisfy the social rather than the economic desires with people. his is manifested by the general indiference among the local community to transform the diferent produce of the ground into commodities. So, instead of concentrating on what is called cash crop system, the concentration was on the produce which helped in the social production of family and of Village as a whole. 159 6. Selected References 160 • Alhusban A., Al-ShormanA., (2010) he Social, Political and Economic Functions of Courtyard Houses in Umm Qais, Northern Jordan,Springer Science+Business Media,Int J HistorArchaeol (2011) 15:1–9 DOI 10.1007/s10761-010-0126-6. • BowsherJ., (1997) An Early Nineteenth Century Account of Jerash and the Decapolis: the Records of William John Bankes, LEVANT XXIX 1997. • Bienert(2004), he waters systems in Gadar and other Decapolis cities of Northern Jordan. • Browning I., (1982) Jerash and he Decapolis, Chatto&Windus, London. • Daher R.(1999). Gentriication and the Politics of Power, Capital and Culture in an Emerging Jordanian Heritage Industry • Döring M. WASSER FÜR GADARA– 94 KM LANGER ANTIKER TUNNEL IM NORDEN JORDANIENS ENTDECKT • Freeman P., (1996) he Annexation of Arabia and Imperial Grand Strategy. In D.L. Kennedy (ed.), he Roman Army in the East, 91–118. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 18. Ann Arbor: Journal of Roman Archaeology. • Kennedy D., Bewley R., (2004), Ancient Jordan From the Air, he Council for British Research in the Levant, London. • Matthias Schulz, Rome’s Tremendous Tunnelhe Ancient World’s Longest Underground Aqueduct • Schumacher G., (2010) Northern ‘Ajl-n, ‘within the Decapolis’, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. • TelfahJ. Umm Qais A Brief History : Excavation, Restoration, and Management. • VriesB.,BikaiP., (1993) Archaeology in Jordan, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 97, No. 3 (Jul., 1993), pp. 457-520. • Newsletter of the German Protestant Institute of Archaeology in Amman, Vol.3 No.2 December 1993. • http://www.lickr.com/photos/apaame/(Aerial Photographic Archive for Archaeology in the Middle East) accessed [accessed 12 December 2012] Case Study of Phintias and Vito Soldano - Italy Annalisa Amico, Francesco Catalano, Pietro Cocchiara , Valentina Consoli, Laura Danile, Antonella Siragusa 1. he function of the selected site areas 1.1 Vito Soldano he archaeological site called “Vito Soldano” is located in the Province of Agrigento, a 40-hectare area of great archaeological, natural and ethnoanthropological importance nested in what was once the Castroilippo Canicattì dirt road and Highway 122 that connected Canicattì to the SS 640. Vito Soldano, a very interesting Roman Byzantine archaeological site in Sicily, is one of the eight stations on a stop route that in Roman times connected Agrigento to Catania through Caltanissetta and Enna. After 50 years, it was again opened to visitors on the 9th September 2011. hanks to an agreement that was signed between the Regional Department of Culture, the Superintendent of Agrigento and the Archeoclub Canicattì, concerning the maintenance and management of the site, Vito Soldano will stand in the spot light of a new era of cultural and promotional activities. his kind of agreement is both a pilot and repeatable one, useful for raising awareness and spreading the concept of “cultural heritage protection” among the citizens. Furthermore, by making a – wrongly considered – minor site accessible to tourists, the agreement is aimed at making it a driving force for the economic and cultural growth of Canicattì, thereby strengthening the attraction of the region. he result of the synergy between the Regional Department of Culture, Superintendence of Agrigento and Archeoclub Canicattì will be the development of an area of great archaeological interest in Roman archaeology in Sicily. 1.2 Finziade Mount Sant’Angelo is located due west of the mouth of the Salso River, the ancient Himera South, which for many years in ancient times was one of the most important routes of inland penetration and marked the border between the eastern and the western regions of the 163 island. Archaeological research has revealed an important settlement from the Hellenistic Period in which Finziade, founded in 282 B.C. by of the tyrant of Agrigento Finzia, was recognised. 1.3 Administrative and planning authorities at the sites Several administrative authorities deal with the identiied sites of Vito Soldano and Finziade, each one with diferent responsibilities. First of all, the Superintendence of Cultural Heritage of Agrigento has the speciic task of protecting and controlling the identiied areas. he Public Administration is teamed up locally with the Finziade Association in Licata and the Archeoclub Association in Canicattì, both of which are involved in local archaeology. 1.3.1 he Sovraintendenza dei Beni Culturali 1 The preservation and valorisation policies of the archaeological sites in Italy are the speciic duties of the Ministry of Cultural Heritage, which is responsible for the conservation and management of the public or private cultural heritage and the natural landscape, according to Italian law. In order to fulil this mandate and to enhance the usability of the cultural sites, the Ministry can be supported by the speciic Regional Institutions for conservation aims and, in particular, by the Regional Superintendences of Cultural and Environmental Heritage. he Sicilian Region has nine superintendences, corresponding to the nine provinces of its territorial and administrative 164 organisation, and which depend on the “Regional Department of Cultural Heritage and Sicilian Identity.” Because of its autonomous Statute, the Sicilian Region is in charge of the management and preservation of the cultural sites, historical monuments, and natural landscapes in Sicily, exclusively thanks to the activity of the nine Superintendences of the Provinces. Each superintendence is directed by a superintendent and is organised by intermediate structures having diferent tasks in conservation, fruition and management of the cultural heritage, as well as promoting the knowledge and valorisation of the historical and archaeological locations through excavation and restoration, research activity, and scientiic publications. he Superintendence of Agrigento carries out its duties throughout the Province of Agrigento, including many archaeological sites and museums, architectural monuments, cultural sites and natural landscapes, supported by several diferent oices. he Oice for Archaeological Heritage is composed of a director, archaeologists, architects, art historians, restorers and many other professionals who contribute their speciic areas of expertise to valorise the cultural resources and enhance the management of the historical-archaeological sites. hey are responsible for monitoring the archaeological risk in the territory and eventually ordering protective restrictions for the area, according to the law, overseeing all works undertaken within an archaeological area and directing every scientiic activity, such as surveys, excavations or restorations carried out at the site. hey must approve the publishing of research results and use of iconographical documentation within the jurisdiction of the superintendence’s policy or copyright. Finally, they also ensure public access to sites and museums, decide on opening hours, maintenance, safety and reception of visitors, and they are responsible for planning their activities based on available budget. To reach all these objectives, the superintendence collaborates with local, public or private institutions such as municipal authorities, universities or cultural associations, by developing a common strategy to promote cultural initiatives in the region and making sure that the sites and museums are actually enjoyable for the public. hese collaborations aim to involve local institutions and citizens in the management and preservation of the cultural resources as a “common heritage,” supporting the central authority to enhance the actual fruition of cultural places within the province. In the case of Vito Soldano, the Superintendence of Agrigento signed an agreement with the “Archeo Club,” a local archaeological group in Canicattì that supervises the site and takes part in the excavations. At Finziade, in fact, the “Finziade” cultural association leads guided tours through the archaeological sites inside the Municipality of Licata, whereas the most recent excavations on the site were carried out by the superintendence with the scientiic collaboration of the University of Messina. 2 he province of Agrigento 2.1 Physical territory Agrigento is a province within the special administrative region of Sicily. It covers an area of 3,042 km² and has a total population of 454,370 (2009), with 43 municipalities in the province. It borders the Province of Trapani to the west, the Province of Palermo to the north, and the Province of Caltanissetta to the east, while in the south it overlooks the Strait of Sicily. In 1929, during the Fascist era, the capital city of Girgenti changed its name to Agrigento. Fig. 1 Province of Agrigento http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provincia_di_Agrigento Agrigento, also due to the extent of its archaeological indings, is a symbol par excellence of Greek colonisation in Italy. In addition, its Valley of the Temples is one of Sicily’s major tourist attractions. he province, located in the centralsouthern part of Sicily, is sharply divided into the coast with its sandy beaches, 165 and the hinterland, consisting mainly of hilly reliefs, once plentiful sulphur and round dry knobs. To the north, in fact, it meets the Sicani Mountains; the east and west are bordered by the Salso and Belice Rivers, while the coast lies to the south. he plain, however, lies mainly in the territory of the town of Licata, formerly described as the Champs Geloi for Rhodium-Cretans. Between Sambuca di Sicilia and Caltabellotta Licata, there is an enclave in the Province of Palermo, San Biagio, a suburb of Bisacquino. he climate in the northern inland is diferent from the rest of the province and is more severe. Agrigento is one of the hottest provinces of Sicily, although less exposed to the extreme conditions afecting other areas of the island during the most intense summer heat waves. Temperatures along the coast and the coastal plain hardly fall below 7-8° C in winter, while in summer the average remains relatively high (average daily around 26-27° C in July and August). Even during major heat waves, the climate in the Province of Agrigento is characterised by high humidity but without peaks of extreme heat. Frequently, the weather is foggy and misty, as it is indeed throughout the entire south-western side of the island. Agrigento, like other Sicilian provinces, includes some smaller islands of the Archipelago of Pelagie, which administratively belong to the Province of Agrigento, although they are geographically linked to Africa and to its climatic characteristics. In the archipelago are the islands of Lampedusa, Linosa (and the small, uninhabited island of 166 Lampione), including the towns of Lampedusa and Linosa. Among the other small islands of the province are Rocca San Nicola, which belongs to the town of Licata, the rocks of Stone Patella, in the Municipality of Palma di Montechiaro, and the rocks Guicciarda, which belong to the Municipality of Realmonte. 2.2 Economy he Province of Agrigento, with a nominal GDP per capita amounting to €15,548 in 2010, proved to be one of the poorest provinces of Italy. Its economy is mainly based on agriculture and tourism. he Agrigento wine industry is one of ancient traditions, dating from the earliest Greek colonisation of the area. he province boasts the second largest wine output in Sicily; among its wines are Inzolia, Marsala and Spumante. All these unique products are a driving force behind the rather depressed economy. Agrigento is also a discrete centre of maritime trade through Porto Empedocle, which was once a thriving port for the disposal of the Pasquasia and Enna sulphur mines, and smaller deposits. 2.2.1 Agriculture Although not well valued, agriculture and crops in the Province of Agrigento are among the most dynamic production in Sicily. Among the products grown here under the protection of the project Slow Food Presidia2 and Slow Food Arca del Gusto3 are the almonds of Agrigento, from which originated the peasant tradition of the “Feast of the Almond Blossom, “and the white peach of Bivona; here we also ind the oranges of Ribera, Washington navel quality, now known under the brand name Riberella PDO. he province’s agriculture sufers a lot in the summer because of the scarcity of water in Sicily, and drought is therefore the main enemy of Agrigento’s agriculture. In Agrigento there are about a thousand wines –red, white, rosé and sparkling – all well known for their particular tastes. Many wines are DOC 4 as well, even if all are not famous at the national level. here are Five-Star labels, such as “Planeta,” which in this province has two large cellars, the most popular in Memphis; other relevant cellars are located in Campobello di Licata. A wonderful white table grape has been grown in the town of Canicattì. Other excellent products are the fruits and vegetables grown in greenhouses in the Licata plain. he revenues generated in this territory area source of income for thousands of farmers and markets that sell these products to the large supermarkets of the north. Furthermore, there are agricultural product processing plants for the domestic market. Fig. 2 Ribera oranges http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arancia_di_Ribera http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesca_di_Bivona Fig. 3 Bivona peaches http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arancia_di_Ribera http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesca_di_Bivona 2.2.2 Handicrafts In the Province of Agrigento, the town of Sciacca is well known for its ceramics; in fact, after Caltagirone, Sciacca is the second town in Sicily that is famous for its beautiful pottery and the façades of its monuments. he expert artisan ceramists have learnt, over time, to combine the high quality of the primary material with an unbelievable mastery in the creation of the products. Nowadays, about thirty artisans’ workshops produce plates, vases, amphorae, statues, tiles and various other art objects that are exhibited in the shops in the town’s centre. he ancient ovens, recently discovered, suggest that the art of ceramics in Sciacca had begun in the fourteenth century or before. his activity was continued and expanded in subsequent centuries and particularly in the sixteenth, when, by order of the local nobles, coloured tiles were used to embellish many monuments. he numerous furnaces of the town also show that its ceramics dominated the markets of western Sicily and were also exported. 167 2.2.3 Industry he energy sector is growing, thanks to the development of “clean energy.” Due to the sunny climate of the province and the winds of the hills, in recent years it has been possible to install several wind turbines and many photovoltaic systems in the hills of the hinterland. Nevertheless, the energy production in the province is not yet a main source of income, but according to the province’s projects, things will change in the future. hanks also to the presence of various companies specialising in construction techniques, important wind farms are being built and some of these will be among the largest and most productive in Europe. In Porto Empedocle in particular, the construction of a large solar power plant is foreseen. One of the largest photovoltaic plants in Europe will be developed in Agrigento; in fact, the city and the IESS Company (Solar Energy Plants Sicily) signed a memorandum of understanding for the construction of a solar power plant with an installed capacity of 40 MW and a production capacity of 55 million kWh/year, the implementation of which will enable a reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of about 35,000 tons a year. 2.2.4 Tourism Without a doubt, tourism and archaeology in the Province of Agrigento merge into one; in fact, the main tourist attraction is the Valley of the Temples, an archaeological site dating back to the Magna Grecia, located near Agrigento, which was included in the UNESCO 168 list of World Heritage Sites in 1997. It is considered a tourist resort as well as the most important source of tourism for the city of Agrigento and a major one for Sicily. It is also one of the major national monuments. he main temple is the Temple of Concordia, comparable in splendour to those in Greece. his temple, as the Temple of Juno, was built on a massive base designed to overcome the uneven rocky terrain; its conservation status is considered one of the most relevant sacred buildings from the classical Greek Period (440-430 BC). At the heart of the Valley of the Temples in the area west of the Church of St. Nicholas (now the National Museum), are the remnants of ekklesiastérion and the so-called “Oratory of Phalaris.” he construction of the museum has revealed a very interesting historical complex of a public character. In the north, no longer visible because it is hidden by the construction of the museum, was a sanctuary of Demeter and Kore (ifth-fourth centuries BC), probably connected with public activities carried out just to its south. he Valley of the Temples is not the only historical tourist attraction; other important cultural centres of the Province of Agrigento are the historical centres of many towns such as Licata, with its ancient buildings, Art Nouveau villas, churches, and typical villages such as the “marine” ancient commercial centre, and the historical centre of Canicattì with its churches and palaces, or the cathedrals of the provincial towns, such as the Duomo of Sciacca. Another source of tourism are the castles; in medieval times, many inland fortresses, walls, castles and fortiied palaces were built. Since most were constructed between 1000 and 900 BC, many are now almost totally destroyed and only some traces and documents relating to these ancient fortresses remain. However, today some of the castles – some ruined by time but others well-kept and impressive – can still be visited. Among them, the most prominent is the Castle of Palma di Montechiaro, built in 1353 AD, which is relevant for its strategic position of great importance in the history of the ight against pirates from the Mediterranean. he Castle of Bivona, also built around 1300 AD, was declared a national monument. he Castle of Favara, built around 1270 AD and recently restored, is used as a representative oice of the town and as a location for exhibitions and conferences, also at the national level. he Castel Sant’Angelo di Licata, which during the Second World War was bombed by the Allies in 1943, was later restored and is now used as a museum. Among the places related to seaside tourism are Eraclea Minoa, with its pearly white sandy beaches and pine forests close to the sea; some areas in Licata, from the beach of San Nicola Rock to the Mollarella Bay; the sea stacks under Mount Sant’Angelo; the sandy beaches of the coast to the east of Licata; or the borders of the Castle of Falconara. he island of Lampedusa is another popular tourist destination. Among the other beaches, it is worth mentioning Capo San Marco in Sciacca, the ine sands of San Giorgio and Lido Sovareto, Porto Empedocles and the Lido Azzurro, Porto Palo and Lido Fiore in Meni, which were awarded the Blue Flag for their pure and uncontaminated water, and Seccagrande and Borgo Bonsignore in Ribera. Among the other very popular tourist destinations are Montallegro in Bovo Marina, Siculiana Marina and the Reserve of Torre Salsa (Siculiana), Realmonte, Capo Rossello and Scala dei Turchi, Kaos and St. Leo. 2.3 Labour force and employment From 2012 until the beginning of 2013, more than 84,000 jobs were lost in Sicily, with the unemployment rate at 21.6 %. Last year in the same period, the unemployment rate was 19.4%, which means that it increased by 2.2% in 12 months. Today the unemployment rate in Sicily is higher than the average in the southern regions (19.8%), more than twice the average of the central regions (10.8%) and nearly triple that of Northern Italy (8.1 %).At the same time, the employment rate has decreased from 41.9 to 39%, while the number of job seekers has increased from 342,000 to 368,000 (by 26,000). he Province of Agrigento has the worst situation in Sicily and is the “most unemployed” province in Italy. he unemployment rate is particularly high among people under 35, with 35.8% of youths in search of a job (28.1 % in Sicily, and 15.9% in Italy). Among the jobs lost are not only those in the public sector, but jobs in the agriculture and building sectors as well (-10%). 169 ll this considered, one of most realistic possibilities for the development of Agrigento is to take the opportunities coming from the tourism sector which, although the province ofers a large and precious archaeological and environmental landscape, is still in its infancy; in fact, the hotel and restaurant sectors comprise only 8% of the total provincial GPD. An interesting perspective could be the creation of an integrated tourist district, centred on the Valley of the Temples, in accordance with the strategic plan of the Municipality of Agrigento; this district should also include also some small archaeological sites, and could allow the creation of a system capable of providing a range of quality products/services for tourists. 2.4 Infrastructures and transportation in the province 2.4.1 Roads he Province of Agrigento is traversed by these highways: • Highway 115: Trapani - Siracusa • Highway 118: Bolognetta (Pa) Agrigento • Highway 122: Agrigento Caltanissetta • Highway 123: Licata - Canicattì • Highway 188: Marsala - Lercara Friddi (Pa) • Highway 188B: Sciacca - P.la Misilbesi (Ag) • Highway 189: Agrigento Crossroad of Manganaro (Lercara Friddi - Pa) • Highway 190: Canicattì - Gela Bivio 170 • Highway 386: Chiusa Sclafani Montallegro • Highway 640: Agrigento - Caltanissetta hese roads are insuicient, in particular, the 127-kilometer road that links Agrigento with Palermo, which is comprised of two expressways – the SS 121 “Catanese” and the 189 “Della Valle dei Platani,” which are old and dangerous. It should be able to be driven in about an hour, but due to its poor quality and maintenance, more than two hours are necessary. his is a serious deiciency for a province that aims to be, and in fact is, a very important tourist destination. he most important roads are • he SS 115, which passes through Agrigento and connects the entire Mediterranean coast from Trapani to Syracuse, at the eastern end of Sicily. • he SS 624, which is the direct connection from the province to the capital; it begins at Sciacca and arrives at the Ring of Palermo (Viale della Regione Siciliana) in about two hours when driving at moderate speed. Most of the route is on long, high viaducts, nestled into the hills. 2.4.2 Railways he Palermo-Agrigento railway line passes through the Province of Agrigento, coming from the north to Porto Empedocles, and the Agrigento Caltanissetta Xirbi line, which connects Racalmuto and Canicattì. Canicattì is also the end of the line to Gela and Syracuse; it also passes through Licata. he main station of the province is the Agrigento Central, from where the famous Freccia del Sud train to the Milan Central Station begins. he Licata Station, once a very popular interchange, has lost its importance and sees less traic. All lines are single-track and largely nonelectriied. he biggest gaps are clearly visible in the inner province and along the coast, where there are important beach resorts, archaeological sites and ports and no railways. 2.4.3 Ports Sciacca boasts the busiest port in the province, with the unloading of over 5,000 tons of ish every year. Its leet consists of about 200 boats and is the second largest in Sicily (after that of Mazara del Vallo (in the Province of Trapani). Including the structures on the ground, this provides employment for nearly 2,000 people, with an annual turnover of over €30,000,000. he types of ishing are the trawl, coastal and long lines ishing. Among the most important ports is also that at Licata. Its origins are ancient; from the Greek until the Roman and Norman periods, Licata was the commercial centre of the Mediterranean and, until the beginning of the last century, its trade focused mainly on the sulphur produced in the Licatese hinterland, which boasted the largest reservoir of sulphur in Europe. Today Licata Port, linked to the railway, is one of the irst intermodal ports in Sicily, and shipbuilding is a pride of the local economy. he Port of Porto Empedocle is used for the ferries that sail to Lampedusa and Linosa. 2.4.4 Airports he only airport is that at Lampedusa, which is located politically, but not geographically, within the province. he airport serves only the archipelago of Pelagie Islands and is situated just a few hundred meters from the town of Lampedusa, with a single runway of 1800 meters. Future projects involve the construction of a large airport to serve the city of Agrigento. Currently, the closest airports in Sicily (excluding that of Lampedusa), are that at Trapani-Birgi, and the largest one is that of PalermoPunta Raisi. 2.5 Communications and media here are many provincial channels in Agrigento, including the TeleAcras video journal. Following is a list of radios stations that broadcast in the province: • Radio Torre Ribera,FM 101.3 (based in Ribera) • Radio Santo Stefano, FM 94.6 (based in Santo Stefano Quisquina) • Radio In, FM 97.5 e 88.3 (based in Favara) • Radio Favara, 101 FM 88.9 e 101 (based inFavara) • Radio Fly Network, FM 104.0 (based in Licata) • Radio Azzurra FM, 106.0 (based in Ravanusa) • Radio Studio 5 FM, 104.7 (based in Sciacca) Giornale di Sicilia and La Sicilia each have a section devoted to the Province of Agrigento. he Catholic weekly news 171 magazine of Agrigento, L’Amico del Popolo (he Friend of the People), adhering to the Italian Federation of Catholic Press, was founded 57 years ago. here are also several municipal weekly magazines. 2.7 Cultural resources of the Province Local TV stations • Tele Acras (based in Agrigento) • TRS98 (Tele Radio Studio 98) • Sicilia TV (based inFavara) • RMK Tele Monte Kronio (based inSciacca) • TRS Tele Radio Sciacca (based inSciacca) • TVA Tele Video Agrigento (based in Agrigento) • Agrigento TV (based in Agrigento) • TV Alfa Licata (based in Licata) • Licata Nuova TV (basedin Licata) • TV Europa (based in Canicattì) In addition to the archaeological area of Agrigento, there are several monuments and cultural sites of great importance in the province, from the archaeological remains of Ancient Greece to the birthplace of some famous people, politicians and Italian writers. 2.6 Healthcare Health Company of the Province of Agrigento Organisation Established by Regional Law N° 5 of 14/4/2009, the organisation of the Province of Agrigento Health Agency of the Province of Agrigento became operational on the 1st September 2009. Regulated by a company act of private law, the organisation and operation of the company is aimed at ensuring the provision of essential and appropriate services, the development of quality systems, maximum accessibility for citizens, the delivery of equity performance, institutional connection with the local authorities, and liaising with other health organisations and charities as well as the optimisation and integration of resources. 172 2.7.1 Monuments and sites of interest in the Province 2.7.2 Famous people from Province: Luigi Pirandello the Luigi Pirandello was born in 1867 into an upper-class family in Kaos, a poor suburb of Girgenti (Agrigento). His father, Stefano, was from a wealthy family involved in the sulphur industry, and his mother, Caterina Ricci Gramitto, was also from a well-to-do background, descending from a family of the bourgeois professional class of Agrigento. Both families –the Pirandellos and the Ricci Gramittos –were iercely anti-Bourbon and actively participated in the struggle for uniication and democracy but, after the uniication, were disappointed with the new reality that betrayed the idealism of the Risorgimento. After receiving his elementary school education at home, Pirandello enrolled in a technical school and then switched to the study of the humanities, something that had always attracted him. In fact, by age 12 he had already written his irst tragedy, “Barbarian.” In 1880, the Pirandello family moved to Palermo, where in 1886 Luigi began his university studies, later going to Rome and Bonn, where he continued his studies in Romance philology. During that time he fell in love with his cousin Lina, whose family demanded that Luigi abandon his studies and devote himself to the sulphur business so that he could immediately marry her. In 1886, during a vacation from school, Luigi went to visit the sulphur mines in Porto Empedocle and began working with his father. his experience was essential for him and would provide the basis for such stories as Il Fumo and Ciàula Scopre la Luna, as well as some of the descriptions and background in the novel he Old and the Young. he marriage, which seemed imminent, was postponed. He graduated in 1891, with a thesis on spoken Agrigento (Foni and Phonetic Evolution of the Dialect of Girgenti), in which he described the dialect of his city and the entire province, divided into diferent language areas. his type of studies (Romance philology) was probably a big help in his writing, given the rare purity of the Italian language that he used. In 1892 Pirandello moved to Rome, where he could live on the monthly checks sent by his father. here he met Luigi Capuana, who helped him ind his way in the literary world and opened the doors of the intellectual salons where he met journalists, writers, artists and critics. In 1894, in Girgenti, Pirandello married Maria Antonietta Portulano, daughter of a wealthy partner of his father. In 1904 a lood and a landslide in the sulphur mines in Aragona owned by the father, in which he had invested part of Maria Antonietta’s dowry, and from which Pirandello and his family drew considerable support, reduced them to poverty. his increased Antoinetta’s mental distress. She was increasingly prone to hysterics, also caused by jealousy, and Pirandello was forced to leave the house. Only several years later, in 1919, desperate, Pirandello agreed to have Antoinette admitted to a psychiatric hospital. His wife’s illness led the writer to estensively study the new theories of psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud, about the mind’s mechanisms, and to analyse social behaviour in relation to mental illness. In1909 he began to write for the Corriere della Sera. His irst big success was from the novel Il Fu Mattia Pascal, written at night while watching his wife, whose legs were paralyzed. he book was published in 1904 and was immediately translated into several languages.While the novel was not a critical success, it sold very well. After 1915, Pirandello concentrated on the theatre and by 1921 he had written16 dramas. For his support of fascism, Pirandello was publicly attacked by a number of intellectuals and Italian politicians. Pirandello, while not agreeing with Mussolini and many Gerarchi5 temperamentally, never denied his support of fascism, and was motivated by a deep distrust of Social Democratic regimes, which since the early twentieth century were becoming liberal democracies. After the war, Pirandello was feverishly immersed in work that was primarily 173 devoted to the theatre. In 1925 he founded the “Society of the Art heatre,” with two great interpreters of Pirandello: Marta Abba and Ruggero Ruggeri. With this company he began to travel the world, and his plays were presented on Broadway. In 1929 he was awarded the title “Academician of Italy.” Within a decade he came to be the world’s bestknown playwright, as evidenced by the Nobel Prize for Literature that he received in 1934. In 1935, in the name of his patriotic ideals, Pirandello participated in the collection of ‘”Gold for the Fatherland,” giving away the Nobel Prize Medal he had received the year before. World War II was a rough experience for Pirandello; his son Stephen was in fact imprisoned by the Austrians, and, once released, returned to Italy, sufering from a serious injury. A big fan of cinematography, he became ill with pneumonia in Cinecittà while assisting in the shooting of a ilm based on his Il fu Mattia Pascal. He had already sufered two heart attacks, and his body gave out. Pirandello died in 1936, leaving behind a new uninished play, I giganti della montagna (he mountain giants). 2.7.3 Famous people of the Province: Leonardo Sciascia Leonardo Sciascia was born on January 8, 1921, in Racalmuto, a town of rich sulphur and salt mines in the Province of Agrigento. he eldest of three brothers, his father was an accountant who worked for a mine. His reading included American novelists, such Italian writers as Ungaretti 174 and Montale, the French symbolism poets, and philosophers such as Spinoza. he war that broke out in Spain in 1936 was another decisive experience in Sciascia’s development, devoting one of his most beautiful stories, Antimony, to the sufering of the unemployed Sicilian sent by Mussolini to die for Franco. Employed in the storage of grain at the agricultural consortium of Racalmuto, Sciascia touched upon the tragic poverty of farmers, and salt and sulphur miners. After leaving the Faculty of Education in Messina, he married the teacher Maria Andronico. hen he began to publish poems, diary pages and political and literary articles in newspapers of the province, but his subsistence came from his teaching in elementary schools in Racalmuto. He published his irst book, Fables of the Dictatorship, a piece of prose in the form of Aesop’s fables, two years before the release of its unique collection of poems, Sicily, His Heart, and the anthology he Flower of Roman Poetry, with a foreword by Pasolini. In 1961 he published he Day of the Owl, a crime novel that is, even today, his most famous and best-selling book and the irst to be translated abroad; it is a novel in which for the irst time the maia is shown at the time of transition from dominating the countryside to dominating the cities. hat same year Sciascia wrote essays of literary criticism in Pirandello and Sicily, and he then published he Council of Egypt, an unusual historical novel inspired by real events in late eighteenth century Palermo. In 1965 he wrote his irst play, he Honourable, a text that had no luck on the scene but that, re-read today, has a strong prophetic emphasis on the events of the Italian Tangentopoli. He also published Religious Festivals in Sicily, a very argumentative essay on the religious beliefs of the Sicilians, with photographs by Ferdinand Scianna. A year later he published another successful detective novel, To Each His Own, another story of a maia “now urban and totally politicized.” Sciascia moved to Palermo, where he created around him a large coterie of writers and artists who brought about interesting cultural experiences, irst of all the Sellerio publishing house. For Sellerio, Sciascia was editorial director, but in fact never by name, of the Civilization Improve and Memory collections. He published the anthology Storytellers of Sicily, written in collaboration with Salvatore Guglielmino, and translated the dialogue Vigil in Benincarlò by Manuel Azaña, a text that Sciascia deems “the highest, noblest and solitary expression of the anguish of doing politics that every politician should feel.” In 1970 he retired and published the collection of essays he Crazy Rope, dedicated to Sicilian writers and artists, in which the concept of “sicilitudine” is described as the Sicilian human condition, perpetually undermined by insecurity. But his narrative view of the world was changing, no longer exclusively linked to the problems of Sicily, becoming more and more universal, controversial, “second degree” and characterised by ethical relection (the growing inluence of Montaigne). In 1971 Sciascia published Equal Danger, a relentless and bitter apology in novel and parody form that aroused ierce controversy with critics close to the Communist Party who were angered by his basic thesis that in the tangle, the “context” of criminal powers that govern the state are so powerful that even the main opposition party consciously decided that the reason of state coincides with “the reason of the party.” hat same year Sciascia wrote Acts Relating to the Death of Raymond Roussel, a very important small book, and he Death Inquisitor. After the release of Todo Modo, a relentless novel-pamphlet on Italian Christian Democrats (politicians, inancial experts, industrialists), packed with artistic and literary references; despite frequent disagreements with critics of communism, Sciascia agreed to stand as an independent on the lists of the Communist Party in the Palermo municipal elections. Elected, he soon resigned, disgusted by the politics of the “historic compromise” between PCI and DC. hat year he published he Disappearance of Majorana, an investigation dedicated to the mysterious end of the brilliant physicist Ettore Majorana; the book was an opportunity to develop controversial relections on the historical responsibilities of science, leading to a heated argument with the physicist Edoardo Amaldi. In 1979 he published three books, seemingly diferent but actually very similar to the polemic that runs between their pages: Black on Black, a kind of public diary, consisting of fragments that 175 are often almost epigrammatic; Sicily as a Metaphor, a long, autobiographical interview coordinated by the French journalist Marcelle Padovani; and On Behalf of the Inidels, a brief historical survey of the persecution that the church hierarchy carried out against Monsignor Ficarra, a Sicilian bishop who opposed the political use of the pastoral mission. In 1979 Sciascia accepted proposal to run in the general election for the Radical Party. After the murder of the prefect of the Palermo Maia, General Dalla Chiesa, the writer, refusing to unconditionally praise its action, was accused by Nando Dalla Chiesa, son of the general, of “playing into the hands of the maia.” A similar occurrence was repeated in 1987, when Sciascia wrote an article accusing the famous magistrate, Paolo Borsellino, nominated public prosecutors in Marsala, for having been preferred to an older magistrate just because of his anti-maia experience. Describing the anti-maia activity as an instrument of power, Sciascia probably wanted to warn against some corrupted politician or magistrate that could use the ight against the maia for his personal beneit, but he made a mistake by indicating Paolo Borsellino as an example; after this, Sciascia was hit by a storm of accusations, all designed to emphasise the “objective” complicity with the Maia. he problem of justice became central in Sciascia’s relections, thanks to the attention that followed the international activities of Amnesty International. He published Open House, a charming book that opposed the death penalty and was inspired by the story of the magistrate 176 Salvatore Petrone. Sciascia, alicted with a rare form of cancer, died on the 20th November 1989. 2.7.4 Traditions celebrations and religious Traditional Catholic religious celebrations are deeply rooted in the towns of the province; in fact, Sicily has many religious festivals, all with great participation and faith. he best-known festivals include: • he Feast of Calogero di Sicilia, which takes place in the heart of the city of Agrigento from the 6th to 13th July. • Another festival linked to the worship of Saint Calogero is the one that takes place in Naro between the 15th and 25th June and that reaches its peak on the 18th . • Sant’Angelo Martyr, patron saint of the city of Licata, is celebrated on the day of the anniversary of his death, the 5th May (1225).he feast includes a prolonged fair that opens a couple of days before and ends on the 6th May. • he Feast of Santa Rosalia in Bivona, which has been taking place since 1624, with the procession of the Holy Fercolo along the streets of the town. • he Feast of Santa Rosalia in Santo Stefano Quisquina is celebrated on the irst Sunday of June. From Saturday until Wednesday there are religious ceremonies, exhibitions and musical performances. • he Feast of Jesus of Nazareth takes place at the Municipality of San Giovanni Gemini, celebrating the discovery of a statue of Christ in the countryside surrounding the village. • he Feast of St. Joseph Favara: he statues of the saint are carried in a procession through the streets of the charming village, with bands performing along the streets. • he Feast of St. Joseph in Sant’Anna, a suburb of Caltabellotta: On the 19th March, elderly inhabitants of the town are honored in the preparation of the “Glories of St. Joseph.” he altars are set up by families that, having received grace from the Saint, prepare and ofer various dishes, including artistic breads, fried foods and desserts, to be ofered to the “saints,” generally needy children who were invited to lunch. Today the tradition is maintained with great fervour and love. It is an occasion for celebration and conviviality for the people of the area, who have great devotion to St. Joseph. • “Easter” in Aragon is characterised by a charming “Meet the Giants” or the Virgin Mary and the Risen Christ and the gigantic statues of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul. Aragona’s Easter Pot, or Taganu D’Aragona is a typical Easter treat, a timpano from the Sicilian town of Aragona, which families have been preparing on Good Saturday since at least the 1600s, baking it at home or in the village bakery, and carrying through until the outing on Easter Monday, when it was often the only dish served. • he “Feast of the Holy Cross” or “Tataratà Festival,” is a great celebration that takes place on the fourth Sunday of May in Casteltermini, in honour of a great cross found in the seventeenth century, but that dates back to the irst century, according to some researchers. • he “Feast of Our Lady of the Audience “in Sambuca di Sicilia is celebrated every third Sunday of May. On Sunday night there is a procession with the statue, carried by members of the Brotherhood, who are dressed in special clothes embroidered in silk and gold. • “Feast of SS. Cruciix Rifesi” in Burgio takes place on the second Sunday of August; the simulacrum, one of the most ancient images of Christ, is carried in procession to the shrine, which is 8 km from the village. • he “Feast of San Giuseppe” in Ribera: In March, the inhabitants of the city collect ofers of food to be used in the church during the days that precede the festivities. On the day of the feast, procession proceeds along the city, behind the Straula, a structure sustaining the sacred image of the saint surrounded by bread and laurel wreaths, that built on top of a Sicilian cart. • “Easter” in San Biagio Platani: Along the main street of the town are the statues of the Virgin Mary and Jesus, together with cheerful and colourful decorations and many arches made by reeds and other similar plants. • he “Almond Blossom Festival” in Agrigento is a popular tradition that takes place every year in the irst week of February to celebrate the advent of the spring with the lowering of the almond tree, bringing together popular music and dance groups from all over the world. he festival began in 1934 in Naro, a town in the Province of Agrigento near the capital; its goal was to advertise the local products of Sicily in the framework of the advent of spring and almond lowers. In 1937 the festival moved permanently to Agrigento and took the oicial name of the Almond Blossom Festival. he event has begun to be enriched with the participation of local and foreign folk groups. In 1941 it was suspended due to the outbreak of the Second World War, 177 and then was reborn in 1948. In1966 the festival was devastated by the tragic landslide that occurred in Agrigento. Over the years, the festival has maintained its cultural message of peace among all peoples of the earth. he highlight of the festival, in fact, is always the lighting of the torch of friendship in front of the Temple of Concord, following a very impressive walk at sunset in the Valley of the Temples. he following Sunday there is big parade with all the folk groups, Sicilian carts, and marching bands from the city to the Valley of the Temples, with a inal show at the Temple of Concord and the awarding of the “Golden Temple Prize.” he cuisine of the Province of Agrigento on the other hand, is also represented by its excellent seafood. Poached shad, for example, is a very nutritious and delicate dish in which seafood is wrapped in puf pastry and roasted in the oven, or the pasta with sardines and peas (Agrigento is the only province to add peas to this typical Sicilian dish). In general, the most complete dish of the province is represented by the Sicilian Caponata. Among the “poor” dishes, prepared by the farmers during times of famine or war, is the fried bread that is sometimes also cooked with eggs. Another “poor” dish famous in Agrigento is made with the entrails of animals: casings of veal, fat and pork. In the capital, the typical dish is pasta with broad beans and ricotta. 2.7.5 Cuisine he cuisine of the Province of Agrigento is based on the products that the Mediterranean region has to ofer. Cassata from Sicily is one of the most famous gastronomic products. hese cakes are made especially during the feasts. he almond, the main product symbol of the province, is often used in many sweets for its delicate and intense aroma, such as in the Cucchiateddi sweets prepared in Memphis, where the almond is mixed with the aroma of lemons from Sicily. Another typical sweet, well-known even outside the provincial boundaries thanks to a festival organized during Holy Week, is the Passover Lamb of Favara, traditionally prepared with almond paste, stufed with pistachios, and inally covered with a coating of sugar. Cassatas, which vary from municipality to municipality, and cannoli, are the classic desserts. 178 2.8 he historic core of the Province: Canicatti’ and Licata 2.8.1 Canicattì Canicattì, with about 34,000 inhabitants, is located in the Province of Agrigento on the border with Caltanissetta. Lying in the upper valley of the Naro River, a natural basin surrounded by low fertile hills, it is a large agricultural centre that stands out because of the production of almonds, olives, and the renowned table grapes called “Italia” that are exhibited during the annual Italia Grape Festival in October. Wooden handicrafts are also of great importance. he archaeological remains found in the city and in the nearby areas show that a built-up area already existed in preRoman times. Its name, of Arabic origin, derives from the term Ayn-at-tin, which means “the source of mud” and apparently testiies to the Arabian presence in this area in past eras. he medieval suburb was founded during the fourteenth century by the Palmeri family from Naro. Among its rulers were the De Crescenzi family, in the mid-1400s, and the Bonannos, who for some 300 years greatly contributed to its growth. he arrival of several religious orders was recorded during the latter’s rule. Under Prince Giacomo I Bonanno, the city expanded its boundaries. he touristic tour of the town comprises stops at the Bonanno Castle, the Teatro Sociale, the Villa Municipale, and the Torre-Orologio (clock-tower); religious buildings, such as the Chiesa Madre – dedicated to San Pancrazio and home to precious pieces of art, such as a marble statue representing the Ecce Homo and a painting of the Holy Family with S. Anna and S. Gioacchino – and the Church of the Holy Spirit from the 1600s, with an imposing look and divided into three naves. Less important churches are dedicated to San Diego, San Giuseppe and the Purgatory, all dating from the 1700s, and San Francesco and the Madonna della Rocca, dating from the 1800s. In the city’s surroundings stands the Villa Ferriato, built by Baron Francesco Lombardo in the 1800s. he city’s economy, which was boosted after the uniication of Italy, was based primarily on agriculture (especially grapes), and the trade and services sectors during the twentieth century. For its agricultural prosperity, Canicattì was listed in 1987 among the one hundred municipalities of Little ItalyGrande. For centuries the city has been the most important town along the route between Agrigento and Caltanissetta and from there to Catania and Palermo. At the end of the 1960s, the cultivation of the grapes “Italia” assumed a key role in the local economy, and in the 1970s almost all citizens of Canicattì had vineyards. hen, because of the excessive number of vineyards (many of them planted in unsuitable soil) and following the disorganised management of the territory, the “Grape Italy“ industry declined due to competition from Puglia and Mazzarrone. In 2004, the Municipal Council of Canicattì was dissolved because of maia iniltration and until 2006 was led by a special committee appointed by the government, which has restored the rule of law and the eiciency of the administrative machinery. 2.8.2 Licata he city of Licata, with a population of 39,000, stands between the Salso River – Sicily’s second largest river – and Mount Licata, in the Agrigento Province. It was settled as far back as the Palaeolithic Age, as relics discovered across the territory and research by scholars have shown. Under the Romans, Licata became increasingly important thanks to its coast and commercial harbour. A number of cave-churches and worship places prove the Byzantine presence in the area. Two castles, namely the Castel San 179 Giacomo and the Castel Nuovo – both no longer in existence – were erected during the Middle Ages. A remarkable growth was recorded from the sixteenth century onwards. Licata ofers numerous attractions for tourists. he Town Hall has a large room where relics from the Greek Age are displayed. Trinity and the Saints by Filippo Paladino. Another religious complex that goes back to the 1700s, contains the Chiesa e Convento del Carmine. he church, refurbished at the end of the eighteenth century, preserves ten medallions illustrating events from the Old and New Testaments. he particularly noteworthy Town Museum is divided into two sections, the archaeological and the Hellenistic Era sections. he former displays many interesting relics such as vases and lithic tools from the Copper Age. he latter has a collection of relics from the 7th -6th centuries BC, archaic artefacts from a shrine in the Casalicchio District, and other indings from the necropolis of Portella di Corso. A third, minor section is devoted to the Middle Ages; it includes ive marble statues depicting the four Cardinal Virtues and the Virgin with Child. he Chiesa di San Francesco, also with an adjacent convent, dates from the sixteenth century. It has a single nave and contains a ine organ from the eighteenth century. Among the city’s noble buildings are the Serrovira and Caro-Dominici Palaces from the 1600s and the Frangipane and Bosio Palaces from the 1700s. he Licata shoreline, with its beautiful sand beaches, is also very attractive. In Licata there are many interesting religious buildings. he Mother Church, built in the ifteenth century, is dedicated to Santa Maria La Nova. It has three naves and houses the beautiful Chapel of the Cruciix, with golden and wood carved decorations, a wooden cruciix, and a remarkable altarpiece from the 1600s. As revealed by a survey by the Ministry of Education, University and Research on university education since 1999, in 2010 there were 2,129 graduates in the Province of Agrigento (2,051 in 2009 and 2,307 in 2008). According to the criteria of the International Classiication of Courses in various disciplines, the graduates in 2010 were as follows: • Marine and Agricultural Sciences: 53 • Architecture: 118 • Arts: 70 • Economy and Administration: 174 Also from the 1600s, the Chiesa di San Domenico, with its adjacent convent, contains ine paintings, among which are the S. Antonio Abate and the Holy 180 Among the less important religious buildings are the Church of the Charity with its adjacent Monastery of Saint Benedict and, from the 1600s, the Church of the Angel and the Church of Santa Maria La Vetere, which includes a Benedictine convent that was requisitioned by the municipal board and converted into a hospital. Later abandoned, it is today in very poor condition. 2.9 Educational status • Science Education: 201 • Engineering: 171 • Computer Science: 7 • Environmental Protection: 10 • Medicine:374 • Languages and Literature: 191 • Journalism: 46 • Law: 228 • Life Sciences: 126 • Plant and Industrial Processes: 18 • Mathematics and Statistics: 6 • Human Services: 22 • Physics: 15 • Security Services: 1 • Social and Behavioural Sciences: 251 • Social Services: 39 • Transportation: 1 • Veterinary Medicine: 7 he analysis of the data shows that graduates in the Province ofAgrigento in 2010 were11.4%of the graduates in all of Sicily, with an increase of 9.8% compared with data from 2009. his increase has slowed down the brain drain from the Province of Agrigento to other provinces in Sicily. his igure also shows the important role played by the University of Agrigento and the appreciation of the local community. 2.10 Sports he province’s main football teams are the Akragas Football Club and the Licata Football Club 1931, which went through a period of great success in the 1980s. Regarding basketball, the most representative women’s team is Ribera Basketball, which from 2003 until2009 played for six consecutive seasons in the championship series A1 in the FIBA European Cup. Regarding men’s basketball teams, the most well known is currently the Fortitudo Agrigento, which plays in the Series A amateurs. Since 1990, the Favara Fabaria Rally has taken place. Beginning in 2006, the Fabaria Rally was combined with the Asphalt Rally Trophy (TRA), making it the second-largest rally in Sicily, after the Targa Florio. Sports facility structures are not well known; however, the largest one is the Stadio Luigi Riccardo Gurrera Sciacca with 18,000 seats, whereas the Esseneto Stadium of Agrigentohas10,000 seats. It is the largest sports facility in Agrigento. here are a few municipal sports installations for other sports, but the number of spectators rarely exceeds the capacity of 4,000 seats. Sports are not highly developed in the Province of Agrigento, probably because there are few sports clubs and teams are not yet competitive at national levels, but rather limited to regional championships. However, the most populous cities have their own teams that are recognized by sports leagues. 181 3 Local economic system of the site Introduction he Finziade and Vito Soldano archaeological sites are located in an area characterised by an economic system in which industry is almost non-existent, and the agriculture and service sectors play a dominant role. he economic system of the two archaeological sites coincides with that of the two towns, Licata and Canicattì, but it is also characterised by elements common to the whole Province of Agrigento. On the other hand, Licata and Canicattì are far from each other (about 30 km), while Licata is 40 km from Agrigento and from Canicattì about 30 km. In the following sections, the economies of Canicattì and Licata are described separately, but it should always be kept in mind that despite the diferences, there are many common elements and the economic systems of the two areas are quite unique. 3.1 Licata 3.1.1 Agriculture and food Licata has an area of 178.91 square kilometres and is bordered by the Strait of Sicily to the south, to the west by Palma de Lichtenberg, to the north by the territory of Ravanusa, Campobello di Licata and Naro, and to the east by Butera. he land is mainly hilly, but there are also large, 182 lat areas, of which the most conspicuous for its size and economic interest is the “Piana Romano, “stretching for more than 7,000 hectares, which serves as the immediate hinterland of the town. hree types of traditional crops characterise the agriculture of Licata: arable dry (the whole plain and the hills that surround it); the orchard (a hard shell, namely almond); and the uncultivated pasture production that occupies the most inaccessible areas. here is no shortage of cultivation of vines, olives, carob, citrus, fruit trees (peach, apricot, plum, apple and pears). For several years, the greenhouse agriculture has also been highly developed; it produces vegetables of all kinds, delicious cherry tomatoes and local cantaloupe melons that are exported. he climate is typical of the southern coast of Sicily, which is characterized by low annual rainfall that is concentrated in the autumn and winter months, rare in the spring, and almost non-existent during the summer. Winters are mild and rarely lead to temperatures below 5° C. Summer brings a lot of heat and sultriness and often high humidity, especially at night. he entire area is exposed to winds from the south and west. he gastronomical tradition in Licata is the same as that in the rest of the Province of Agrigento. 3.1.2 Typical local foods Meat Kid goat is the main kind of meat produced in the province; there are two types of it: one that is fed with milk, more tender and whose meat is clearer, and one that is fed with grass, whose meat has a more intense colour. he cuts of kid goat most commonly used in the kitchen are the leg meat, tender and suitable for roasts; the loin, cut into chops; and the neck, which is good for stews. Pasta and cereals he Province of Agrigento does not produce any particular quality of pasta, made with special lours, but the characteristics of this food are the seasonings; famous dishes in the Agrigento area are pasta with ricotta cheese and beans and pasta with sardines sciacchitana. Vegetables and conserves Among the vegetables used throughout this province are aubergines. After being salted for 24 hours, they are seasoned with vinegar, lavoured and preserved in cans. he aromas that accompany these conserves are oregano, garlic, parsley, pepper, fennel seeds, basil, and bay leaves. here is a great demand for these products, and they are bought by wholesalers who label and market the products in the various specialized food stores. Seafood and conserves Sicily is an island and, as such, ish is one of the strong points in all its provinces. he king is undoubtedly tuna, to be eaten fresh, or cipollata (tùnnu cà cipuddata), a Sicilian dish of tuna with onion that is famous around the world. Herbs and spices hroughout the Province of Agrigento, herbs grow in abundance and enrich every kitchen; basil, parsley, mint, bay leaves, oregano, rosemary, sage, wild onions, fennel seeds and fennel, jasmine, pine nuts, and raisins are just a few examples. Almonds, hazelnuts and pistachios are also often used in the preparation of sweets and drinks as well as for lavouring rice and pasta. Oil Extra virgin olive oil is one of the main stays of the Mediterranean diet, thanks to the fact that it comes from the fruit rather than the seed; as a result, it has a very high organoleptic and nutritional quality. It is characterised by a high concentration of vitamins that are absorbed if the oil is consumed raw. Infusions and liqueurs A prime example is chocolate liqueur. In particular, the Province of Agrigento has revived an ancient recipe of chocolate, which comes from the Aztec peoples, who made it famous all over the world, thanks to a unique step: spicing it with cinnamon. Honey Honey in the Province of Agrigento is obtained from many lowers that make a light coloured, physically full-bodied and smooth honey with a delicate aroma and a rich and very sweet lavour. his honey is very often used in the making of cakes and ice cream. 183 A typical cultivation of the province: the almond At the beginning of the last century, the rugged hills that distinguish this corner of Sicily were terraced with dry stone walls and covered with vast plantations of almonds; within a short time, Agrigento became the leading producer of almonds in the world, with over 700 species cultivated. he peak came during the 1960s, with almonds planted on tens of thousands of hectares of land. his deeprooted farming tradition gave birth to the Almond Blossom Festival of Agrigento that each year celebrates the spectacular blossoming of the almond lowers. he Almond he almond, the main product and symbol of the province, is the seed of Prunus amygdalus, a plant originating in western Asia and the hot countries of the Mediterranean basin. As with all oleaginous seeds, the almond has a high calorie content and contains a signiicant amount of protein, vitamins, iron, calcium and magnesium. Traditionally, nothing of this precious plant must be wasted: the wood from pruning the trees was used to ire up the ovens for baking bread; the husk was used to make a type of soap called “scibina;” and the shell was used to fuel the brasiers for heating houses. Today its main use is in the sweets industry and it can be said that each Sicilian town creates its own sweets and desserts based on almonds: marzipan – or “pasta reale” as it is also known –is its main ingredient, prepared in fantastical shapes that can sometimes be genuine works of art. hirst-quenching drinks, such as barley water and almond milk, are made from the almond; the latter, which 184 is particularly high in energy, is used in the preparation of a typical Sicilian delicacy called, “the granite.” he Ribera orange he only PDO orange in the world, the Ribera belongs to a group of blonde navel oranges, and the prevalent cultivation in the area is the “Washington navel.” Its peculiar characteristics are its peel with a pale orange colour, its uniformly orange and tender pulp, its abundant juice, and the absence of seeds –all qualities that make it particularly appreciated. he cultivation of the PDO variety originated in Ribera (in the western area of the province) but today extends across the territories of 14 of the province’s municipalities. Cantaloupe melons In Licata and in the territories of the neighbouring municipalities along the coast, this excellent variety of melon is cultivated; its April harvest opens the season for the summer fruits. It is characterised by the colour of its pulp – perfumed and sweet –salmon or orange in colour, and, more rarely, light green. he municipal administrations are currently active in requesting PDO and IGP recognition for this typical local product. Fig. 4 Cantaloupe Melons http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melone_di_ Cantalupo 3.2 Canicattì 3.2.1 Agriculture and food Favoured by its strategic position, towards the end of the nineteenth century the city was the seat of business and industry; agriculture there seemed advanced and there was also a strong mining sector, with the mining of rock salt and sulphur (the territory is contiguous to the plateau rich in sulphur that stretches to the west of the town). In the 1970s,the economy of Canicattì picked up a lot of momentum thanks to the explosion of the phenomenon of intensive cultivation of the white “Italia” table grapes. In those years, the wealth that came from agriculture was sudden and great, making the city among the most dynamic Italian centres during the economic “boom” of the eighties, just like the city in the northcentre of the country. he inlux of money brought with it lourisehing businesses and, to a lesser extent, industry. It also brought about a small increase in the population (from 28,094 inhabitants in 1971 to 32,344 in 1991), due to the internal migration and seasonal immigration for the grape harvest. In recent years, however, the monoculture of table grapes has shown its weak spot, strongly blaming the seasonal crisis and the continuing reduction of wholesale prices and many vineyards were then eliminated. Peaches were planted on some of these lands. he peach trees extend over approximately 2,000 ha, and begin to spread the cultivation of wine grapes and apricots. his is seen especially with the Nero d’Avola, an excellent wine, and there seems to be some optimism in the industry that is reinforced for table grapes, since the creation of the Protected Geographical Indication (IGP),6 the quality of which can make market prices signiicantly higher than those without European certiication. Despite the diiculties in the agricultural sector, which appeared to be serious after 2001, agriculture remains, so far, the main economic pursuit of the town, employing about 28% of the population. 3.2.2 he “Italia” Grapes in Canicattì he agriculture of Canicattì conceals priceless treasures; in fact, its agricultural areas are always particularly valued for their fertility, which attracted Arab settlers during the Middle Ages, who, as in the rest of Sicily, imported fruits and vegetables, eggplant peaches, citrus fruits (oranges and lemons), and apricots, changing both our food culture and the face of the countryside, along with the existing crops of wheat, almond, and olive trees. Currently, the agricultural landscape of Canicattì is largely dominated by wine and its noble fruit – grapes – existing in our lands from time immemorial, but only since the 1970s has it become an important sector of the economy of Canicattì, when moving from the traditional varieties to the more proitable Grape Italy, a hybrid of Muscat of Hamburg and Bicane white. he Grape Italy boom occurred in the twenty years between 1970 and 1990, assuming the dimensions of a true monoculture. 185 186 he grapewine arrived in the Mediterranean as early as 600 BC. he Phoenicians made it known in France, the Romans in Germany. here are many varieties of grapes: yellow, greenish, pink, red, purple, and black, but more simply it is used to classify them as “table grapes” and “must grapes;”the former has a thin skin, few seeds and irm lesh, and the latter is more pulpy. he most valuable and recognized type of grapes from Agrigento is the “Uva Italia from Canicatti,” created by a distinguished geneticist, Alberto Pirovano, who crossed two varieties of grapes, Bicane and Muscat of Hamburg. he grapes obtained from this cross are handsome, large, and very durable. Today, Italy table grapes are produced in vineyards located in suitable areas on suitable land, in the area of Canicattì, the ideal environment to enhance their features; clusters weighing 0.8-1kg, medium to large berries, crisp and golden brown, Muscat aroma, and a pleasant fragrance, are the excellent properties that have made the product appreciated all over the world. Italy table grapes are tasty and balanced, and their nutrient composition makes them suitable for any type of food. hey are one of the most sugary fruits, containing about 8% fructose and 8% glucose. Grapes contain a high percentage of water (80%), and they can therefore have a diuretic and purifying efect. “Italia” table grapes in the territory of Canicattì began to be cultivated in the early 1970s, when farmers in the area, and later entrepreneurs and professionals not directly related to agriculture, believed and invested in this culture. Within a few years Italia grapes replaced other crops such as cereals, legumes, and almonds, allowing for the rapid economic growth of the agricultural sector and all related activities. Italy Grapes Canicatti are the only table grapes that received the Protected Geographical Indication. PGI imposes certain features with a fundamental rigid discipline. he size of the cluster must be a minimum of 350-400 grams, and the average weight of each grape must be 3 grams for small-berry varieties and 5 for large-berry ones. Also, a limit on production is foreseen per hectare: 350 tons for overhead trellis vineyards. Currently, Italy grapes in the zone of Canicattì, considered a reference center for twenty municipalities in the Provinces of Agrigento and Caltanissetta, including Campobello di Licata, Delia, Favara, Licata, Naro, Palma di Montechiaro, and Ravanusa and Riesi, grow on about 11,250 hectares, including 9,000 in the area of Agrigento and 2,250 in the area of Caltanissetta. he overhead trellis vineyards are planted with 1,100 plants per hectare; late harvest vineyards are covered with plastic to prevent the grapes from getting wet from the rain. here are three methods of cultivation: the “conventional,” widely used technique that allows obtaining uniform clusters by eliminating unsuitable ones already in June; the “biological system,” which gives a less perfect result from the aesthetic point of view; and the “bagging “of bunches, a technique halfway between the conventional and organic. he harvest begins in the third week of August in the coastal areas and continues until September (December in cooler areas, such as Canicattì and Delia). he Table Grapes of Canicattì are preserved in cold conditions and cold storage at a temperatureof between 0° and -1° C, with 85-90% humidity for a maximum of 90 days. 3.2.3 he peach in Canicattì In recent years, other traditional crops of Canicattì, such as plums and apricots, have also been improved. early and tardive varieties that allows for diversifying the production and marketing, to cover a longer period of time than in the past. he Canicattì region is ideal for the peach, due to the favourable conditions of the microclimate, for a cultivation with low requirements for cold, which is constantly increasing. Finally, the agricultural economic vocation of the area is conirmed by the great development of agro-based companies, such as oil producers, wineries, and dairies. Agriculture is the most important economic benchmark for Canicattì, providing quality products, not always well promoted. A rapidly expanding sector is peach cultivation, which made Canicattì the reference point of a new ishery district, straddling the Provinces of Agrigento and Caltanissetta, including some towns like Delia, Riesi, etc.; among the types of peach are the Diamond Ray (yellow lesh nectarine), the Emeraude (white lesh nectarine), the Hermione (white peach), the Romea (yellow percoca), and the Lolita (yellow peach) . But the “queen” of Sicilian peaches (and thus also of the territory of Canicattì) is the Tardive of Enna, a traditional variety in form and colour, with yellow lesh and consistently excellent lavour and aroma; properly preserved in bags, this peach ripens very late– until the end of October– in bags that protect the fruit from pests and weather. he most important feature of the Canicattinese peach is the presence of 187 4 History and analysis of the functions of the sites 4.1 Introduction to the sites Within the Province of Agrigento, southeast of the Platani River (ancient Halycos), the sites of Licata and Vito Soldano are nestled in a territory rich in art and history that has been inhabited since prehistoric times. he natural landscape, marked by gentle hills and fertile valleys crossed by streams, such as the Salso River (ancient Himera), favoured the settlement of various civilisations and the establishment of important cities that were developed over several centuries leading up until today. From this point of view, the sites selected within the Agrigento district represent two diferent ways of settling the territory during Antiquity. Phintias was the latest Greek colony, founded in Sicily in 282 BC, at the end of a long and tried tradition begun in the eighth century BC by Greek colonists. On the archaeological side, Phintias represents the typical city of the Hellenistic Period built on terraces sloping from the hilltop toward the sea with a “scenographical” layout. he exceptional state of conservation of some of the houses, with rich furniture for daily life and domestic worshiping, tanks for water, and painted decorations and niches on the internal walls, allows visitors to get a real idea of the lifestyle of Phintias’s inhabitants. After having discovered the residential quarters, current research aims 188 to individuate the public spaces and the main buildings of the city, quoted by the Greek historian Diodoro Siculo in his Bibliotheca Historica (XXII, 2). Moreover, the presence of the “Badia” Archaeological Museum, although temporarily closed, in the centre of modern Licata, secures a direct link between the site of Ancient Phintias and the present city, rich in monuments and attractions. Especially during the summer months, the city bustles with tourists thanks to its beautiful beaches, turquoise sea and maritime activities, which could be increased by piquing the visitor’s cultural interest in history and archaeology. Vito Soldano indeed exempliies the spreading of rural villages with agricultural and productive aims that arose along the main roads during the Roman Imperial Age and Late Antiquity, as shown by the third century Itinerarium Antoninii document and the mid-fourth century Tabula Peutingeriana map. he site is indicative of the characteristics of the settlements during the Late Roman Period that were recreated in Sicily also in Late Antiquity within the latifundium system. It was aimed at exploiting the natural resources of the nearby territory and storing products such as wheat, olive oil and wine. Present investigations have mainly explored the thermal building of the site, whose apse was probably reused as a church in the Byzantine Period, as the local place name “Ecclesiastra” seems to indicate. Future excavations by the superintendence will be aimed at discovering other rooms used for bathing, and possibly obtaining further information about life in the whole village in Roman times, of which only two perpendicular streets have until now been investigated. Furthermore, Vito Soldano’s location, within an historically agricultural environment, cannot only promote the enjoyment of the single archaeological place, but above all enhance the value of the whole district inside the Province of Agrigento by sponsoring an ideal itinerary among the sites investigated so far. Within this valorisation project, which could really represent a priceless resource and a great income for the district of modern Canicattì, the future opening of the small Antiquarium housed in the recently restored Masseria Lombardo may well fulil the tourists’ requirements for cultural services. Fig. 5 General view of Monte Sant’Angelo at Licata http://www.comune.licata.ag.it/immaginiown/ image/Acropoli%20monte%20Sant’Angelo.jpg Fig. 6 General view of the apse at Vito Soldano http://www.comune.canicatti.ag.it/lex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/193 4.2 Archaeological sites and museums in the surrounding areas he district of the Province of Agrigento, to the southeast of the Platani River, represents an important cultural heritage that includes a huge variety of archaeological sites from various ages and civilisations, from the Neolithic until the Byzantine periods. As well as the main archaeological sites, this district includes several cities ofering a big choice of cultural resources, from various museums to artistic monuments and historical places. Most of the archaeological sites and museums situated in the southeastern part of the Province of Agrigento have been studied and managed by various universities and by the Superintendence of Agrigento, which made available most of the documentation about them. Put under guardianship by the same Superintendence, many of these sites and museums are now open for sightseeing. After scanty documentation on the Neolithic Period, such as wooden huts 189 and cave tombs in Piano Vento (Palma di Montechiaro), occupation of the area during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages is indicated by the remains of circular huts and graves carved in rocks from the Castelluccio and hapsos cultures, like those at Madre Chiesa and Monte Petrulla (Licata). At Monte Grande (Palma di Montechiaro), a large sanctuary and workshops for sulphur melting have been excavated, showing that since the Prehistoric Period, the chief activity of supplying and hot working sulphur was continued during the Roman Period. A large settlement on the coastline at Cannatello (Naro), which was equipped with circular huts within an enclosure and has revealed Mycenaean pottery, has been interpreted as a trade outpost for commercial routes in the Mediterranean Sea during the Bronze Age. During the Iron Age, the area was settled by an indigenous people named Sican, who occupied elevated land, created cities and necropolis, and used the typical Sant’Angelo Muxaroceramics. Quite exceptional are the tholos tombs that contained rich furniture with golden objects, and the complex of tombs cut in the rock found at Sant’Angelo Muxaro, which could be identiied with the famous city of Kamikos built by the legendary architect Daedalus for the Sican King Kokalos, as known from literary sources. Remains of a Sican village, later transformed into a Greek city, have been investigated by the University of Messina on a gentle slope at Monte Saraceno di Ravanusa, 25 km north of Licata along Highway 626. Originally settled by Sicans (eighth-seventh centuries BC) and then transformed under the inluence of Fig. 7 Location of the main archaeological sites within the Agrigento Province, SE of the Platani River (Google Earth 2013) 190 the Greek culture (sixth-ifth centuries BC), the city was inally abandoned in the third century BC. Spread over three terraces, the site shows the remains of three Sican huts beneath the urban plan of Greek tradition, including streets, houses, sacred areas, walls and necropolisoutside the city. he Salvatore Lauricella Archaeological Museum, established by the municipality in collaboration with the Superintendence of Agrigento and with the scientiic support of the University of Messina, shows materials from Greek and Sican cultures found at the excavations at Monte Saraceno. he artefacts are displayed along an educational itinerary exposition. he collection in particular includes architectural decorations and votive objects in terracotta from the main buildings, Greek vessels from the city, and funerary furniture from the necropolis. he archaeological site lies close to the modern city of Ravanusa. Originally conquered by the Norman Count Ruggero, who fought against the Arabs, the fee of Ravanusa became a barony under Andrea Crescendo in 1472. he present city was founded by the Duke of Montalbano, Giacomo Bonanno, with “licentia populandi” in 1621. In the city centre, the seventeenth-century main church, dedicated to San Giacomo, shows a portal made by Gagini’s school. he city’s economy was once linked to the exploitation of the sulphur mines of Trabia-Tallarita in the nearby area, thanks to the railway station that was used for transportation. Documents and photographs of the mine’s activities have been collected in the Sulphur Mine Museum in Caltanissetta (Museo delle Solfare TrabiaTallarita: http://www.mstt.it/index.php). Fig. 8 Monte Petrulla (Licata): Prehistoric necropolis General view of the site (Luoghi della Tutela 2007) Fig. 9 Monte Saraceno di Ravanusa: General view of the site (Luoghi della Tutela 2007) Beginning in the eighth and seventh centuries BC, Greek colonists coming from various parts of Greece reached the central-southern coast of Sicily and founded powerful colonies that lourished during the classical era and survived in part until the Roman conquest. First of all, Gelas (Province of Caltanissetta), with its well-known acropolis that was sacred to Athena, followed by Agrigento, one of Sicily’s premier attractions for its UNESCO World Heritage-listed site, and inally Eraclea Minoa, provided a characteristic theatre realised into the white, soft, sandy rock that is today protected by a plastic roof. Within this historical and geographical frame, the 191 Greek city of Phintias was founded in 282 BC by the tyrant of Agrigento, and lourished during the Hellenistic and Roman periods until its destruction in the second century BC. he main city of Agrigento (formerly Girgenti, Greek Akragas, Latin Agrigentum) is located west of Licata along the southern coast of Sicily. he city was founded in 581 BC by Greek colonists who came from Gela; it is on a plateau overlooking the Drago (ancient Hypsas) and San Biagio (ancient Akragas) Rivers. Under the tyrannies of Phalaris and heron in the sixth century BC, and under the democracy in the ifth century BC, the colony became a signiicant centre for the arts and architecture, politically powerful and rich in economy and agriculture. Completely destroyed by the Carthaginians in 406 BC, the city was re-established by the Greek General Timoleon in 338 and inally conquered by the Romans in 210 BC. Under Roman rule, its agricultural wealth and the exploitation of the nearby sulphur mines ensured modest prosperity, while in Late Antiquity its inhabitants moved into the hilltop town of Girgenti for safety reasons. Occupied by the Saracens in 828 AD, the city was captured in 1087 by the Norman Count Roger I, who established a Latin bishopric. After a period of political and demographical decline from the ifteenth until the seventeenth centuries, the city experienced new economic growth followed by the urban reorganisation of the town centre in the eighteenth century. Nowadays, chaotic urbanisation and illegal construction, however, have 192 resulted in irreparable damage to the historical and artistic heritage. he most famous remains of Greek Akragas are included in the “Archaeological and Landscape Park of the Valley of the Temples.” his is an extraordinary monumental complex containing the magniicent seven Doric temples and the old city walls with eight gates, located along the ridge on the plateau of the ancient site. It also includes the famous Garden of Kolymbethra, designed by the Greek architect Feace in the ifth century BC and now entrusted to the supervision of the FAI (Italian Environment Foundation), and, inally, the houses and public buildings of the Greco-Roman city developed in the middle area. Inside the park, moreover, the Palaeochristian itinerary leads visitors through sacred places and tombs called arcosoli from the Byzantine Period. Despite its location– virtually in the shadow of the modern city– the Valley of the Temples is surrounded by olive groves and almond orchards that give it an altogether natural ambience. More than 200 varieties of almond are preserved in the Museum of the Almond Tree within the park, founded in 1997 with the main aim of conservation, study and valorisation of biodiversity. he Almond Blossom Festival, held every year in February, is a spectacular event full of folklore. he principal aim of the festival is the promotion of Sicily’s typical products and culinary art, within the natural framework of the almond blossoming, involving local and foreign groups and international events. he Pietro Grifo Regional Archaeological Museum houses a large collection of well-explained artefacts such as sculptures, vessels, terracotta igurines and architectural elements, organized according to scientiic and educational criteria. Built in 1960 and partially occupying the restored structures of the thirteenth-century Church of San Nicola in the area of the Greek city’s public agora, it shows materials from the sanctuaries, necropolis, city quarters of ancient Akragas and from other excavated sites around the province. Moreover, Agrigento shows important buildings of the Medieval and Baroque periods, including the Cathedral of San Gerlando, founded at the end of the eleventh century; the thirteenth-century Monastery of Santo Spirito with its annex, housing the Ethnoanthropological Museum; the thirteenthcentury Church of Santa Maria dei Greci, overlying the remains of a Doric temple; the thirteenth-century Cistercian Church of San Nicola, with an impressive Gothic doorway; and a few palazzos. In the city centre are also the eighteenth-century Luigi Pirandello Civic heatre, whose interior was designed by G.B. Basile, and the Civic Museum, showing important art crafts, such as medieval sculptures and modern paintings. Close to Agrigento, in the tiny hamlet of Kaos, the birthplace of Luigi Pirandello (1867-1937) has been transformed to ahouse-museum collecting photographs, personal objects and playbills of the Sicilian author. he museum is linked to the library that houses a multimedia centre for documentation about the Nobel Prize-winning playwright, including manuscripts, unpublished works and plays. hey are part of the Literary Park, promoting a sentimental journey through the Agrigento Provinceintended to revive the atmosphere and landscape of Pirandello’s experience. Fig. 10 Agrigento: Kolymbethra Garden (http:// eng.fondoambiente.it/beni/giardino-dellakolymbetra-fai-properties.asp) Eraclea Minoa is located 75 km west of Licata along Highway 115, at the mouth of the Platani River, close to the White Cape. Founded by Greek citizens from Selinunte with the name of Minoa, on a previous settlement from Mycenaean times, the city was renamed Eraclea by new colonists from Sparta at the end of the sixth century BC. he colony was initially contended between the powerful Agrigento and Selinunte during the ifth century BC and later between Syracuse and Carthage. From 210 BC it was a Roman municipality, visited in 70 BC by Cicero, who collected documents for his famous speech against Verre, the Roman governor of Sicily. After it was abandoned, the site was re-occupied from the fourth to seventh centuries AD. Excavations on the white hill overhanging the sea have brought to light part of the ancient city with at least three subsequent layers from the sixth century BC up until 193 the Hellenistic-Roman Period, including the houses, the famous theatre, the fortiication wall that provided gates and towers, and the necropolis outside the city. examples of such rural settlements have been recognized – at Canale and Cignana (Naro), on the site of the previous Roman villa, and at Colmitella (Racalmuto), which will be further described. he small Antiquarium inside the archaeological site shows material coming from Eraclea from Prehistoric to Byzantium times, in particular terracotta oferings and black-igured vases from the Archaic and Classical Ages, as well as funerary objects from the necropolis. After Sicily became a province of the Roman Empire, besides developing residential quarters inside the cities, like in the Hellenistic-Roman Quarter of Agrigento, a new housing habitat arose with the construction of suburban villas. A rare example of a maritime villa, equipped with a private bath and dating from the end of the irst century BC, is preserved in Durrueli (Realmonte), where several rooms decorated with mosaic loors are arranged around a peristylecourt. Examples of residential complexes in a rural context during the Roman period, often provided with thermal buildings, have been individuated at Cignana (Naro), Saraceno (Favara) and Rafadali. In Roman and Byzantine times, several rural villages with a mainly agricultural vocation (in Latin: massa), designed for production and storing activities, were also spread around the whole region and along the main roads linking the cities, designed for delivery and commercial aims (in Latin: statio or mansio), as evidenced by the Itinerarium Antoninii document and the Tabula Peutingeriana map. Besides the site of Vito Soldano, other 194 Fig. 11 Durrueli (Realmonte): Roman villa along the sea (Luoghi della Tutela 2007) Fig. 12 Tabula Peutingeriana map (http:// it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavola_Peutingeriana) In the Early Christian Age, in the area of Agrigento, many funerary complexes of diferent typologies linked to the nearby Byzantine villages, were built, such as those in Cignana and Canale (Naro). In these localities, several hypogeal structures, excavated entirely belowground (catacumba), have been explored; they revealed a central corridor or a court lanked with burial niches carefully covered in various ways. Some objects clearly referred to the Christian cult, such as the terracotta lamps decorated with the ish and the lamb symbols, which come from the Canale hypogea. he most impressive hypogeal complex of the province in Paleochristian times has been individuated in the famous Fragipane Cave, located in Agrigento near the Greek city walls: a long, partially open-air gallery (sub divo necropolis), arranged with several burial niches (arcosoli) and rectangular graves (formae), at the entrance to a large catacomb that crosses over two circular tanks carved into the rock in Greek Period style. Other Christian necropolis are known from diferent places in the territory, such as a group of arcosolium tombs, dug into the rock on the mountain’s face in Rocca Stefano (Municipality of Favara). Many funerary hypogeal structures of the Palaeochristian Age have also been identiied on the eastern slope of Monte Sant’Angelo in Licata, while a large Christian cemetery has also been investigated in Vito Soldano, as we will see further on. Basilica with apse, annexed to the nearby necropolis, that was brought to light in Eraclea Minoa, and the little martyrion found in Agrigento. he spreading of the Christian religion in the area is proven by the irst worship buildings, such as the three-aisled During the Middle Ages, several fortiied sites (castra), rose on the hilltops along the main rivers to control the territory Fig. 13 Cignana (Naro): Plan of the hypogeal complex (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) Fig. 14 Rocca Stefano (Favara): arcosolium tombs () 195 and exploit the agricultural resources. he Byzantine fortress called Platano has been individuated on the top of Monte della Giudecca (Cattolica Eraclea), situated west of the Platani River that guards the hinterland. Structures belonging to another fortiied castle, known as castrum Missarum, have been explored on Monte Castello (Sant’Angelo), in the innermost part of the territory crossed by the Platani River. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, impressive castles, featuring the typical architectural style called “Chiaramontano,” from the family’s name of noble and powerful feudatories, were built in similar positions and with similar aims, such as the castle around which the medieval town of Naro developed until modern times. he modern city of Naro also maintains a fascinating dome from the Norman Period, built in the same Chiaramontano style, later modiied in the seventeenth century and recently restored for the public’s enjoyment. Also in Favara is an imposing, quadrangular castle, that of the Chiaramonte family, which was built at the end of the eighth century and today stands on the main square of the city centre. Truly amazing for its location on the steep clif over the sea, inally, is the Chiaramonte Castle of Palma di Montechiaro, which subsequently became the property of the family of the famous nobleman Tomasi di Lampedusa; the castle was recently restored and can be visited on request. Moreover, the historical centre of the present city of Palma di Montechiaro ofers important monuments from 196 eighteenth century architecture, such as the Mother Church, the Benedictine Monastery, and the Duke’s Palace. he city also takes part in the “Literary Park of Tomasi di Lampedusa “cultural project, involving the cities of Palermo and Santa Margherita Belice, which aims to evoke the atmosphere of the famous Gattopardo world. Fig. 15 Monte della Giudecca (Cattolica Eraclea): General view of the fortiied site (Luoghi della tutela 2007), Fig. 16 Palma di Montechiaro: the Castle http:// www.comune.palmadimontechiaro.ag.it/lex/cm/ pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/364. 4.3 Phintias Archaeological Area of Monte Sant’Angelo and Castel Sant’Angelo. Locality: Monte Sant’Angelo. Municipality: Licata. Province: Agrigento. Coordinates on the Geographical Information System GPS: Latitude 37° 06’ 00” N, Longitude 13° 55’ 54”E. On IGM Tables (series 25v): 271 II NE (Licata). It was one of the most important military and commercial harbours of southern Sicily during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, together with Agrigento and Eraclea Minoa. 4.3.1 he site in ancient texts here are also two signiicant Greek inscriptions oicially referring to the citizens of Phintias as “the people of Gela,” meaning the ancient name of the original inhabitants of the Greek colony, who moved to the new city after its destruction. he former, dating to 242 BC, comes from the Sanctuary of Asclepius in the Greek island of Kos and shows a famous decree of “hospitality,” whereas the latter (IG XIV,256), dating to the irst century BC, was found in Licata in 1660 and relates to a public decree in honour of an oicial named Eraclide, belonging to the typical Hellenistic magistracy of gymnasiarchia. We know from a passage of the Bibliotheca Historica (XXII,2), by the irst-century BC Greek historian, Diodorus Siculo, a native of Sicily, that the city of Phintias was founded by the Agrigento Tyrant Phintia in 282 BC. Diodorus writes that the tyrant destroyed the walls and the houses of the ancient Greek colony of Gela and moved the citizens to the new city built close to the sea, which was equipped with a fortiication wall, a large agora and temples for divinities. Again Diodorus (XXIV,1) quotes Phintias, referring to the naval battle between Romans and Carthaginians held in the sea in front of the city in 249 BC, during the First Punic War. Also the Greek historian Polybius (Historiae I,53) records the same battle, without speciically mentioning Phintias, however. About 70 BC, the city is mentioned in the famous speech “Against Verre” (III, 192) by the Roman Cicero, speaking about the cityports built on the southern coast of Sicily, from which the wheat that was gathered in the hinterland could be sent to Rome by sea. Cicero’s note is very interesting for historical studies about Phintias, because it shows the importance of its harbour for the corn trade under Roman rule, partially explaining the chief income of its lourishing, at least during those years. here are only a few scattered references to Phintias in the ensuing Roman Imperial Age, probably indicating a progressive decline of the city during the irst centuries AD. he irst century AD Roman writer Pliny, in his Naturalis Historia (III, 91), writes about the “citizens of Phintias” among the Sicilian communities paying a monetary tribute to Rome, while the city is also mentioned by the second century AD geographer Tolomeus. Finally, the name of Plintis recurs in the famous II-III AD Itinerarium Antonini document (95,5), referring to a way station (statio) established along the coastal route linking Agrigento to Syracuse. 197 4.3.2 Historical and documentary survey he District of Licata ofers visitors a wide range of opportunities to increase their knowledge about the ancient world while enjoying a pleasant relationship with the surrounding landscape. Most of the archaeological sites are plunged into a natural environment that allows visitors to understand the ancient way of inhabiting the territory and imagining the original living environment. he amazing view of Mollarella Bay, the little harbour and the inland landscape around the modern city of Licata that one can enjoy from the hilltop and from the Castle on Monte Sant’Angelo, clearly illustrates this. Fig. 18 Map of the main archaeological sites within the Municipality of Licata (Luoghi della Tutela 2007): Greendots: Prehistoric sites; Yellowdots: Greek sites Fig. 17 Licata, Monte Sant’Angelo: General view of the site with the Medieval Castle above the excavated city of Phintias (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) 198 he archaeological area of Monte Sant’Angelo and Castel Sant’Angelo represents the most signiicant ancient site within the Municipality of Licata (No. 7 on the map). Other archaeological evidence from the territory indicates the settlement of small groups of people since prehistoric times, favoured by the landscape’s features marked by fertile valleys and crossed by the Salso River (ancient Himera). Northwest of Licata, in Madre Chiesa, are the remains of circular huts furnished with stone benches inside an enclosure, associated with typical vessels belonging to the Castelluccio and hapsos civilisations, which document the placing of a structured village during the Early and Middle Bronze Aged (No. 1 on the map). Dating to the same time, the impressive necropolis in Monte Petrulla is featured by graves carved in the rock on the face of the mountain (No. 5 on the map). In contrast to the neighbouring areas, the district of Licata didn’t show marks of the systematic occupation of land by local people such as the Sicani during the Early Iron Age. Beginning in the sixth century BC, after the founding of the Greek cities of Gela and Agrigento by colonists from Rhodes and Crete, the irst groups of Greek people began to occupy the area, settling in small sites set up with housing areas, a necropolis, sanctuaries and fortiication walls scattered all over the wide territory. Probably under the rule of the tyrant Falaride, the powerful Agrigento expanded its inluence on the territory eastward, close to the boundary marked by the Salso River (ancient Himera) with the neighbouring Gela, controlling the sites between Licata and Palma di Montechiaro. he Greek historian Diodoro Siculo (XIX, 108) writes about the strategic establishment of such fortiied sites by the Agrigentine tyrant along the river on the natural boundary with the territory of Gela, calling one of them Eknomos, probably located on Monte Poliscia (No. 10 on the map), and the other Phalarion. At this site, the famous battle between the Syracusans (led by the tyrant Agatokles) and the Carthaginians took place in 310 BC. he most indicative evidence of such a Greek presence in the area during Ancient and Classic times comes from the remains of a necropolis and a sanctuary dedicated to Demeter and Kore that were found near the Mollarella Bay (No. 10 on the map) and from another cult area of Chthonic divinities discovered at Casalicchio, where the typical terracotta statuettes of the two goddesses have been found. he remains of a fortiication wall have been individuated on Monte Sole (No. 9 on the map). he situation completely changes in the Hellenistic Period, after the death of Syracuse’s great tyrant, Agatokles. Several local tyrants fought to obtain power and create their own small empire on Sicily; among them, the tyrant of Agrigento, Phintia, after having destroyed the ancient colony of Gela in 282 BC, deported the citizens to the newly founded city named “Phintias,” located on Monte Sant’Angelo (No. 7 on the map). he city of Phintias developed during the Roman Period, 199 probably acting as an intermediate station along the coastal route from Agrigento to Syracuse and as a chief harbour on the southern coast of Sicily for supplying Rome with wheat via the sea. However, in subsequent centuries, the site at Monte Sant’Angelo was gradually abandoned and the town became narrower around the harbour. Other small villages with production goals, in fact, spread through the district on the coastal plains or on the inner hilltops to exploit the environmental resources, starting a typical scheme of scattered rural settlements that featured Sicily in Late Antiquity within the latifundium system. In Roman times and Late Antiquity, indeed several hypogeal structures with various functions probably linked to the city’s needs, were realized through Licata’s territory. Really impressive is the complex called “Grangela” that supplied water to the city, and was carved into the eastern slope of Monte Sant’Angelo and formed by a well and a gallery system for carrying water. An imposing silo with a circular plan, created for storing wheat according to the Roman customs, has been explored in Via Marconi; it probably contained the public wheat coming from the hinterland and destined for Rome. On the eastern slope of Monte Sole, a strange hypogeal monument, featuring a rectangular design and a lat roof supported by carved columns, has been dug into the rock and recently re-used as a water tank. At the same site, named “Stagnone Pontillo” (No. 8 on the map), prehistoric tombs and rectangular graves from the Greek Period have been carved into the rock. Finally, 200 some rocky churches with preserved frescos inside have been individuated both on Monte Sole (San Cataldo Cave and Fresco Cave) and Monte Sant’Angelo (San Calogero Church), where many funerary hypogeal structures were also built in Palaeochristian times, documenting the continuity in the district during the Byzantine Period. he medieval town lourished on the coastal plain around the harbour, subsequently expanding beyond themedieval city wall during the Modern Age. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Aragonese Castle was built on the hilltop of Monte Sant’Angelo; it was recently restored by the Superintendence of Agrigento and is today part of the main archaeological area. Fig. 19 Licata, Monte Sant’Angelo: Grangela hypogeum (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) Fig. 21 Licata, Stagnone Pontillo: Hypogeal monument (http://www.consorziodeitempli.ag.it/ siti-archeologici-di-licata.html) Fig. 20 Licata, Monte Sant’Angelo: Grangela hypogeum (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) Fig. 22 Monte Sant’Angelo: Rocky Church of San Calogero (http://www.consorziodeitempli.ag.it/ siti-archeologici-di-licata.html) Fig. 23 Licata: Silo in Via Marconi (Archive of the Superintendence dell’Agrigento) 201 4.3.3 Restoration and conservation activities he city of Phintias was irst identiied in 1887 by the German archaeologist Giulio Schübring near the modern town of Licata, along the southern coast of Sicily. he site was then investigated during the 1980s by the Superintendence of Agrigento, exploring the area near the castle with remains of houses partially carved into the rock that dated from the Hellenistic Period. In the area called Via Santa Maria, part of the ancient city was also excavated in 1988-1989. In 1994 and 1998, further excavations carried out on the southern slope of the mountain brought to light an important house from the Hellenistic Period that revealed an exceptional treasure containing silver coins and gold jewellery. Finally, the excavations undertaken between 2003 and 2005 by the University of Messina, funded by the Regione Sicilia and the European Community (2000-2006 Sicily P.O.R. Projects), revealed part of the regular town plan of the ancient city with houses and streets within the orthogonal grid. As part of the same European project, restoration was carried out on the recently discovered structures, aiming at enhancing the public’s enjoyment of the entire siteand improving the cultural oferings promoted by the Province of Agrigento. On that occasion, some of the houses’ walls were rebuilt for conservation reasons, using stones and red bricks, while pavements and other ruined parts were consolidated by adding layers of cement. Conservation interventions nowadays allow visitors to get a clear idea of the original arrangement of the ancient city. he excavation area was also covered by a plastic roof supported by a metallic structure. he simultaneous restoration of the imposing Medieval Castle on the hilltop contributed to enhancing the value of the architectural heritage of the city within the upgrading of the amazing landscape. he present management of the site provides grass maintenance. Fig. 24 Phintias: Details of the structures after restoration (the authors,2013) 202 bottom of the hill below the Aragonese Castle. he area of the Stagnone Pontillo, belonging to the municipality, is also guarded during visiting hours. 4.3.6 Interpretation and presentation of the site Fig. 25 Phintias: Details of the structures after restoration (the authors,2013) 4.3.4 Development policies Excavation and conservation works carried out on the site by the Superintendence of Agrigento, including renovation of the Badia Archaeological Museum in Licata, have been funded by the Regione Sicilia and European Community (2000-2006 P.O.R. Projects). Further work, such as planning, continuing excavations, and consolidating structures, will follow on the base of the didactic and scientiic convention with the University of Messina that promotes internships and apprenticeships. Improving public enjoyment of the whole area also includes making the Aragonese Castle usable, thanks to museum exhibitions. After completing the new arrangement, the opening of the Badia Archaeological Museum in Licata is expected before the end of 2013. 4.3.5 Safety and site protection he area of Monte Sant’Angelo is well fenced into prevent any desecration of the area and is guarded during visiting hours. here is an oicial entrance from the Phintias is the last Greek colony founded in Sicily, in 282 BC by the Tyrant of Agrigento, Phintia. he ancient city is situated on the slope and the top of Monte Sant’Angelo, dominating the mouth of the Salso River (ancient Himera River). Here the excavations revealed part of the regular urban layout of the Hellenistic city, with houses and streets arranged orthogonally. he irst studies showed houses partly cut into the rock to the east of the Aragonese Castle, while small quadrangular niches, probably used for votive oferings, lie to the north. With further excavations in Santa Maria Street, part of the settlement was identiied, particularly two parallel roads 3 m wide (stenopoi, or secondary roads), laying out a 28 m. -wide block with two houses divided by a passage (ambitus) 60 cm wide; the rooms revealed cocciopesto pavements and painted walls. Finally, recent investigations showed an area of 2,000 m² on the southern side of Monte Sant’Angelo, where the regular urban pattern was also respected despite the steep slope. In particular, two 6-meter-wide streets, intersecting at right angles, have been individuated–the main road, east west oriented (called plateia A), and the north-south street (street 1), descending towards the sea. he streets 203 were probably a block of 28-29 m. wide, containing two or three houses divided by a narrow alley (ambitus). Seven houses have been partially excavated within the blocks; two houses (4 and 7) have been identiied above the plateia A, whereas ive other houses lie beneath the same street, three of them (houses 1-3) on the western side and the remaining two on the eastern side (houses 5-6) of the north-south road. he houses had a square plan of about 190 m² (ca. 13,50 x 14.50 m) and were carved into the rock on diferent levels, with external walls made of square stones. Narrow passages (ambitus) divided the houses (except for houses 2 and 3) and allowed the low of water. Fig. 27 Licata, Monte Sant’Angelo: General view of the site after excavations (http://www. regione.sicilia.it/beniculturali/dirbenicult/info/ pubblicazioni/FinziadeME/Finziade.html) Houses 1-3, reachable from street N° 1, were probably adjacent to an open area on the western side. he best preserved Fig. 28 Phintias: Photos of houses #2 and 4 (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) Fig. 26 plan of the excavated city of Phintias (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) Fig. 29 Phintias: Photos of houses #2 and 4 (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) 204 houses (1 and 2) had a similar plan, arranged with many rooms placed around a courtyard, equipped with a cistern for channelling water from the house’s roof. hree rooms, with plastered and painted walls and pebbled pavements, were located on the northern side: the banquet room (andron), equipped with three niches probably containing the convivial couches (klinai), were situated close to the street, whereas the room furnished with an altar for worshiping at home was placed in the middle, followed by the bedroom with the bathroom inside; utility rooms, such as the kitchen, the storehouse and other small rooms, were situated on the western and southern sides. he andron in house 3 testiies to a renovation shown by the overlapping of two subsequent pavements–the former made of pebbles and lime, like those in houses 1 and 2– and the latter, made of red cocciopesto and white marble tiles (opus signinum). From houses 1 and 2 there remain a few architectural decorations, such as a stucco moulding and four little female igurines, which are now preserved in the museum. Furthermore, the northern rooms of house 1 probably had a second loor: inside the destruction layer that collapsed over the andron, an exceptional hoard made of silver coins and golden jewellery was found; it was probably given as payment to a mercenary soldier and later hidden inside the wall during the Second Punic War (213-210 BC). Finally, only three rooms of house 3, placed on the northern side, are still preserved. House 5, also reachable from street No. 1, shows a large andron on the northwestern Fig. 30 Phintias, the altar in house 1 (http://www.inziade.it/index.php?option=com_ content&view=category&layout=blog&id=34&I temid=2) Fig. 31 he stucco igurines in house 1 (http:// www.regione.sicilia.it/beniculturali/dirbenicult/ info/pubblicazioni/FinziadeME/Finziade.html) section, followed by the worship room and the bedroom with a small bathroom that overlooked the courtyard. he entrance to house 6, not well preserved, was probably placed on another, hypothetical, northsouth street running along the eastern side. he area of houses 1-7 was abandoned around the middle of the irst century BC, as indicated by the archaeological layers that suggest the destruction and the ensuing pillaging that occurred at the site. Scanty remains of a previous settlement, arranged with a diferent orientation according to the slope gradient, have 205 been found beneath the plateia A and the pavement of house 4, and to the west of houses 1-2. he structures seem to be related to an older road, identiied under the level of the new plateia A. According to the most ancient pottery found in the related layers, the irst building phase of the settlement on Monte Sant’Angelo could be dated between the middle of the fourth and the beginning of the third centuries. he destruction layers allow dating the ending of the earlier phase at the end of the third century BC, to when the hoards hidden in house 1 can also be dated and the organisation of the second urban layout probably began, after the Second Punic War. 4.3.7 Visitor access and facilities he city of Licata is located 45 km west of Agrigento along Highway 115 toward Siracusa. he Badia Archaeological Museum is located in Sant’Angelo Square inside the historical centre of modern Licata, but at the moment is closed for renovations. he Monte Sant’Angelo archaeological area is located on its hilltop just above the modern city centre of Licata. Visitors can reach the site by car through a narrow, steep road leading to a parking area, from which they have to walk up to the fenced-in area, following a pathway paved with stone blocks. he pathway also leads to the Aragonese Castle, where toilets are available during visiting hours. here are explanation panels in Italian that provide general information about the site and details on the excavated houses, including maps and photos of the ancient settlement. Near the main entrance at the bottom of the area, two buildings that were recently restored and temporarily closed will be used as the Visitors’ Centre. Fig. 32 Licata: Location of the Monte Sant’Angelo Archaeological Area and the Badia Archaeological Museum (Google Earth 2013) 206 Fig. 33 Monte Sant’Angelo: Pathway to the castle (http://www.panoramio.com/photo_explo rer#view=photo&position=2056&with_photo_ id=31632589&order=date_desc&user=75946) Fig. 35 Badia Archaeological Museum at Licata: Golden jewellery from the hoard in house 1 http:// www.regione.sicilia.it/beniculturali/dirbenicult/ info/pubblicazioni/FinziadeME/Finziade.html Fig. 34 explanation panelsat the site (the authors, 2013) Fig. 36 Monte Sant’Angelo: he landscape around the site (the authors, 2013) 207 4.3.7.1 he Museum he Badia Regional Archaeological Museum is housed in the building of the Cistercian Convent of Santa Maria del Soccorso, better known as Badia, in the city centre of modern Licata. he convent was built in the sixteenth century and subsequently expanded with the construction of the cloister in the seventeenth century, and the new wing, facing Piazza Sant’Angelo, in the eighteenth. Legally seized, it later became the seat of both the public school and the museum, which was irst created as a small antiquarium annexed to the municipal library, thanks to the Superintendence of Agrigento’s collaboration with the Municipality of Licata and the local archaeological association. In 1971 it became the Civic Museum and in 1995 the Badia Archaeological Museum that now occupies the ground loor and the cloister. he museum shows the history and the features of the settlements established in the territory of Licata and in the lower valley of the Himera River from the Prehistoric to the Byzantine Periods. he main collection contains material from the archaeological excavations undertaken by the Superintendence of Agrigento during the last few decades as well as objects of medieval and modern art, such as paintings belonging to the municipality. In particular, the museum displays excellent indings from the Classical and Hellenistic Periods, such as vases, terracotta statuettes and mosaics related to the Greek city of Phintias on Monte Sant’Angelo, as well as Corinthian 208 wares and votive clay igurines from the necropolis of Mollarella and the Chthonian Sanctuary of Casalicchio. From the Bronze Age, the Museum displays vessels belonging to the hapsos civilisation found at the Madre Chiesasite as well as artefacts from other Prehistoric sites. he exhibition follows both a topographical and chronological order supported by information panels. A small section of the cloister is dedicated to medieval art, containing in particular ive marble statues of the fourteenthifteenth centuries, representing the Four Cardinal Virtues from the Annunziata Convent and the Madonna del Soccorso by Domenico Gagini. 4.3.8 Number and types of visitors he main categories represented are local and regional visitors in general, especially from schools with educational programs, cultural associations, or visitors with special interests in archaeology; during the spring and summer, foreign tourists in Licata for the swimming season also visit the site. Oicial statistics on the number of visitors to the site are not currently available, however. 4.3.9 Entrance fee policy and opening hours he visiting hours of the Monte Sant’Angelo archaeological area and Castel Sant’Angelo are every day from 9:00 until one hour before sunset, except on holidays. On Sundays they are open only from 9:00-13:00. Entrance is free. he Stagnone Pontillo Archaeological Area’s visiting hours are every day from 9:00 until one hour before sunset, except on holidays. On Sundays it is open only from 9:00-13:00. Entrance is free. he Badia Archaeological Museum’s address is Via Dante 22, Licata. he Museum, located in the old city centre of Licata near Piazza Sant’Angelo, is temporarily closed for restoration. 4.3.10 Dissemination of information and promotional activities Recent excavations of ancient Phintias on Monte Sant’Angelo have been advertised in various ways, through the activities of public institutions as well as private or local entities. Scientiic investigations undertaken by the University of Messina in collaboration with the Superintendence of Agrigento, led by Prof. G.F. La Torre, have been regularly published by the same institutions, contributing to the knowledge and dissemination of the archaeological data brought to light in the Greek city. he main publications are: A. DE MIRO, “I risultati condotti a Licata negli ultimi anni,” in Licata tra Gela e Finziade, Atti del seminario di studi per la valorizzazione storica ed archeologica di Licata e del suo territorio, Licata 2004, Ragusa 2005; G.F. LA TORRE, “I recenti scavi sul Monte S. Angelo di Licata,” in Licata tra Gela e Finziade, Atti del seminario di studi per la valorizzazione storica ed archeologica di Licata e del suo territorio, Licata 2004, Ragusa 2005. G.F. LA TORRE, “Urbanistica e architettura ellenistica a Tindari, Eraclea Minoa e Finziade: nuovi dati e prospettive di ricerca,” in M. Osanna, M. Torelli, Sicilia ellenistica, consuetudo Italica. Alle origini dell’’architettura ellenistica d’Occidente, Spoleto 2004, Roma 2006. G.F. LA TORRE, Finziade. L’ultima fondazione greca di Sicilia. Guida agli scavi di Monte Sant’Angelo di Licata, Area Soprintendenza Beni Culturali ed Ambientali, Servizio per i Beni Archeologici, Agrigento. Also available online: http://www.regione.sicilia. it/beniculturali/dirbenicult/info/ pubblicazioni/FinziadeME/Finziade.html V. CAMINNECI (ed.), I Luoghi della Tutela. Ricerca archeologica e fruizione nel territorio agrigentino, Palermo2007. G.F. LA TORRE, “I sistemi di decorazione parietale nella Sicilia ellenistica: il caso diFinziade,” in Bollettino di Archeologia online, Roma 2010: http://151.12.58.75/ archeologia/bao_document/articoli/2_ LA_TORRE.pdf Recently, the well-known magazine Archeologia Viva published a paper written by professors from Messina University together with leading personalities of the Superintendence of Agrigento. Concerning the excavations and the history of the ancient site of Phintias in general, the paper also focused on the famous treasure made of golden jewellery and silver coins found in the Hellenistic house: M. Caltabiano, A. De Miro, G.F. La Torre, G. Salamone, “L’antica Finziade: un Tesoro ritrovato a Licata,” in Archeologia 209 Viva n. 157-2013, Gennaio-Febbraio. h t t p : / / w w w. a r c h e o l o g i a v i v a . i t / index.php/article/1918/L’ANTICAFINZIADE:-UN-TESORORITROVATO-A-LICATA.html th For the 45 anniversary of the opening of the Pietro Grifo Regional Archaeological Museum in Agrigento, an exhibition titled “he Gold from Phintias” was organized by the Superintendence of Agrigento together with the Department of Antiquities of Messina University in June 2012. he exhibition showed for the irst time the extraordinary golden jewellery found in 1998 in the Hellenistic house excavated at Monte Sant’Angelo, promoting large-scale information on the archaeological heritage of the territory of Agrigento. Activities promoting the ancient site of Phintias have been recorded on the local level as well. he Finziade Archaeological Group in Licata, in collaboration with the municipal Pro Loco, has been leading guided tours for many years to the archaeological sites and historic monuments of the old city, showing the cultural beauty of the town. he Association has also promoted the publication of an archaeological and artistic guide for tourists, available also in English, about the cultural heritage of Licata. Furthermore, the Finziade Archaeological Group participated in the annual national “XV Mediterranean Award for Archaeological Tourism” held in Paestum (Campania) on 15-18 November, 2012, promoting cultural tourism in Licata on a national scale and especially spreading knowledge about the 210 archaeological heritage of ancient Phintias to a larger public. (You can follow the updating of the group’s activities at http:// www.inziade.it/.) Moreover, the president of the archaeology group has taken part in the “Vinum Project,” promoted by the University of Siena, on the study of viticulture and wine production in the ancient world. Analysing remains of old millstones and tanks cut into the rock located on the Licata Mountain, he has shown the importance of wine production developed in this area between Gela and Agrigento during the Hellenistic Period, such as supported by literary sources. His study’s results were recently published in a book by the University of Siena: F. Amato, “Prospettive di ricerca sulla produzione vitivinicola antica a Licata (Agrigento)” in A. Ciacci, P. Rendini, A. Ziferero (eds.), Archeologia della vite e del vino in Toscana e nel Lazio. Dalle tecniche dell’indagine archeologica alle prospettive della biologia molecolare, Quaderni del Dipartimento di Archeologia e Storia delle Arti Sezione Archeologia – Università di Siena, Firenze 2012. 4.3.11 Human resources he archaeological areas and the museum are managed by the Superintendence of Agrigento, Regione Sicilia, which is also responsible for conservation, enjoyment and promotion of the site. he staf comprises an archaeological inspector and ive guards employed by the Superintendence of Agrigento, Regione Sicilia. Excavation and conservation have been carried out also with the scientiic support of the University of Messina’s academic team. 4.4 Vito Soldano Archaeological Area of Vito Soldano, Locality: Vito Soldano, SS. 122, Municipality: Canicatti, Province: Agrigento. Coordinates on the Geographical Information System GPS: Latitude 37° 21’22” N, Longitude 13° 47’ 55” E. On IGM Tablets (series 25v): 267 II SO (Racalmuto). 4.4.1 he site in ancient texts A Greek settlement had already existed on the site of Vito Soldano, which would have been growing in the Roman and Byzantine periods as conirmed by archaeological excavations. Because no ancient texts or literary sources mention the site, we aren’t able to say what the original name of the ancient settlement was. At the time of the Arab conquest, however, it seems that the ancient city was renamed “Vito Soldano.” For some scholars, this name is related to an important Muslim dignitary, while according to others, it derives from the place-name “Beyt Soltan,” meaning “House of the Sultan.” Events relating to the site of Vito Soldano have long been debated among historians and archaeologists. Several scholars, such as J. Levesque de Burigny, Vito Pugliese and Diego Corbo, recognized Vito Soldano as the ancient Mozio, a Greek fortress mentioned by the historian of antiquity, Diodoro Siculo, whereas according to Biagio Pace, Vito Soldano would have simply been a RomanByzantine village. Moreover, Adolfo Holm, Filippo Cluverio and Giuseppe Picone argued that Mozio was probably in the area near Agrigento, although its identiication with Vito Soldano couldn’t be proven. Another author, Sandro Policastro, instead individuated in Vito Soldano the site of the ancient “Kakyron,” a town that was founded by the Greeks in the third century BC, later occupied by the Romans and Byzantines, and inally destroyed by the Arabs. At any rate, we know that the ancient settlement was strategically placed along the inland road that connected Agrigento to Catania during the Roman Period. In this way, Vito Soldano has been linked to one of the Roman stationes mentioned in the third century AD document, Itinerarium Antonini, and located along the chief road linking Agrigento to Catania under Roman rule. Some scholars, such as Filippo Cluverio and Vito Amico in particular, proposed its identiication with the statio named “Corconiana,” 13 miles from Agrigento. During the Late Roman Period, several rural villages with a mainly agricultural vocation (in Latin: massa), designed for production and storage activities, were spread around the region and along the chief routes between the cities, destined to delivery and commercial aims (in Latin: statio or mansio), as proved also by the mid-fourth century AD Tabula Peutingeriana map. Furthermore, contemporary writers have collected a number of ancient, mysterious legends referring to the site and to the common belief that it was the location of a fabulous treasure hidden underground. 211 Fig. 37 Location of the Corconiana statio on the road from Agrigento to Catania in Roman times (Uggeri 2004). Similar legends are probably linked to the proverbial fruitfulness of the area, rich in water, located close to the Naro source, which favoured the development of agricultural activity in Antiquity as well as in modern times. Among these studies are: P. Candiano, Uno sguardo al mondo di ieri, Canicattì 1966; E. Cacciato, Crisi di coscienza e pensieri di Pinco Pallino, Firenze 1960; F. di Renda (Agostino La Lomia), “A Vito Soldano– La trovatura del “Su Vicio Messina’”, in Corriere di Sicilia, Catania, 28 febbraio 1956; G. Gangitano, La “Terra” di Canicattì – Note storiche, Curiosità, Tradizioni, Palermo 1939; A. Tropia, Vitusullanu, in La Siciliana, Siracusa 1930; L. Natoli, “Il Gran Turco e madonna Altruda,” in Giornale di Sicilia, Palermo 1927; F. Nicotra, Dizionario illustrato dei Comuni siciliani, s.v. Canicattì, Palermo 1908; G. 212 Pitrè, “La fera di Vitusullanu,” in Studi di leggende popolari in Sicilia and Nuova raccolta di leggende siciliane, Torino 1904; M. Di Martino, “Vitusullanu nella storia e nelle credenze popolari canicattinesi,” in G. Pitrè, S. Salomone Marino (eds.), Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari, Palermo 1890. 4.4.2 Historical and documentation survey During the Roman and Byzantine periods, other examples of such rural settlements have been identiied by investigations in the Province of Agrigento, such as the vast site explored in Saraceno (Favara), showing continuous life from the second until the eighth centuries AD. Similar settlements, which often had thermal buildings, had to be equipped with production equipment and decorated with mosaic loors, like in Cignana (Naro), where the discovery of a black and white mosaic loor with a sea subject indicates building in the second century AD. In Colmitella (Racalmuto), recent excavations have brought to light a site from the Early Middle Ages furnished with pits dug into the rock for storing terracotta jars (dolia) that contained wheat and corn. Another large settlement with continuous life from the Bronze Age until the Byzantine Era has been individuated Fig. 38 Saraceno (Favara): Rural villa from Imperial times (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) near Rafadali, from which a sculptured marble sarcophagus with a representation of the Kore’s rape comes, dating to the third century AD, similar to another one now preserved in the medieval Castle of Racalmuto. Finally, within the Naro district, two important settlements, one in Cignana and the other in Canale, have revealed several hypogeal structures, entirely excavated under ground (catacumba), probably linked to the nearby Byzantine villages; these provide material clearly relating to the Christian cult similar to that from the Christian cemetery built in Vito Soldano during the third phase .7 he Vito Soldano site was irst investigated in 1956 by the Superintendence of Agrigento, collaborating with Maria Rosaria La Lomia, a local archaeologist, on a gently sloping area where the remains of an apse (named Ecclesiastra), probably Fig. 39 Cignana (Naro): Mosaic loor with a sea subject (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) 213 Fig. 40 Canale (Naro): Plan of the hypogeal gallery (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) Fig. 41 Canale (Naro): terracotta lamp with the ish symbol impression (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) 214 reused as a church in Christian times, were discovered. Excavations brought to light a thermal building dating to the Late RomanPeriod and consisting of several rooms, such as the apsidal room or tepidarium (Room A), the calidarium (Room B), the hypocaustum (Room C) and the praefurnium (Room D). Other secondary rooms relating to the Roman Period were also excavated in the area. Moreover, investigations explored a large, Early Christian cemetery, which makes probable the presence of a nearby settlement. Recent excavations undertaken by the Superintendence of Agrigento (in1999 and 2003-2004), funded by the Regione Sicilia and European Community, have revealed, on the east side of the building, a rectangular room or frigidarium (L) when entering the natatio, and, on the north side, other secondary rooms (M, N, G, F), including the apodyterium (E). A stone block with a Latin inscription, later reused in a building, comes from the excavations. he thermal building was probably built during the Age of Constantine and then abandoned in the mid-ifth century AD. Remains of an older complex (balneum) are still preserved. During the Byzantine Period, a workshop that contained kilns was installed in the former baths. Vito Soldano was inally abandoned in the eighth century AD. 4.4.4 Development policies Excavation and conservation works at the site, carried out by the Superintendence of Agrigento, including restoration of the old Masseria Lombardo building to house the museum, have been funded 4.4.3 Restoration and conservation activities he area had been seriously damaged over time and used as a fence for keeping animals from going astray. Pillaging and spoliation activities determined the reusing of ancient wall block stones for constructing new buildings in the nearby area. he site was later coniscated and is now open to the public. he irst restoration work on the structures after excavation provided the consolidation of the wall, using red bricks. Restoration and conservation work recently undertaken by the Superintendence of Agrigento, Regione Sicilia, and funded by the European Community (P.O.R. Projects), allowed the valorisation and public enjoyment of the site. A plastic roof supported by a metal structure has been constructed to protect the natatio area. he nearby ancient Masseria (manor farm) Lombardo building has also been restored for housing a small museum and a visitors’ center. Fig. 42 Vito Soldano: Present structure covering the natatio (the Authors, 2013) Fig. 43 Vito Soldano: Details of the restoration using red bricks (the Authors, 2013) by the Regione Sicilia and European Community (P.O.R. Projects). Further planning foresees the continuation of excavations in the bath area and the consolidation of the structures, which will also improve the public’s enjoyment of the entire area and of the Antiquarium that is going to be opened inside the Masseria Lombardo. 215 4.4.5 Safety and site protection he site is fenced in to prevent any desecration of the area, and the main entrance is guarded with a metallic gate. he site is guarded only during visiting hours –from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. diferent building phases that document life continuity from the irst century BC until the eighth century AD. We know of the remains of a private bath (Phase I), the main thermal building bordered by two perpendicular streets (Phase II), the workshop, and the Christian cemetery (Phase III). 4.4.6 Interpretation and presentation of the site he Roman site of Vito Soldano is located on a gently sloping area of about 40 hectares. Excavations carried out by the Superintendence of Agrigento in the area of the Roman bath have brought to light a settlement distinguished at least by three PHASE I he most ancient structures discovered at the site, dating to Roman times, were probably a private bath (balneum), featured by a system of interconnecting pools, quadrangular and semi-circular in shape. In the eastern part of the building, the remains of two overlapping loors Fig. 44 Map of the structures from Phase I (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) 216 functions, whereas the northern ones, without any hydraulic installation, were probably used for other related activities, such as massages, gymnastics, dance, music, and reading. Excavations revealed only the southeastern part of the building, which is delimitated by two orthogonally intersected streets. he main entrance to the building should be located on the northern side. In this area we can assume the presence of a large open space with a portico, corresponding to a gym or a garden (xystus), while the changing room (apodyterium) was probably located in the space marked E1. he passage L led to the thermal rooms. Fig. 45 Structures from Phase I, from the east (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) are still preserved; the former consists of a black-and-white mosaic, while the latter is in a herringbone brick pattern. he walls were probably coated with painted plaster, as the fragments found in the destruction’s layers have shown. he inding of a few fragments of Italian terra sigillata pottery in archaeological layers indicates the building time of the irst bath to have been between the second half of the irst century BC and the irst century AD. PHASE II Between the late third and early fourth centuries AD, a public thermal building was constructed on the remains of the previous period. he functional organisation of the rooms, in two distinct areas, should be noted: he southern rooms were clearly related to the thermal he positioning of the rooms was established in a sequence according to the water’s temperature: the irst warm Room B (tepidarium) was followed by the sauna within Room D (laconicum), directly heated by an oven (praefurnium). At the end of the path was Room A, for hot baths (calidarium), which was provided by two tubs (solia). Both of them were placed near the two ovens, but the irst pool is rectangular in shape while the second is semi-circular. he rectangular Room L has been identiied with the frigidarium, whereas the swimming pool for cold baths (natatio) was situated on the northern side of this room. In the western part of the building were the service rooms – in particular, Room Q was equipped with the praefurnia for the calidarium and the laconicum, while Room F1 was used for the disposal of the ashes that accumulated inside the ovens. he external walls of the rooms were built with opus caementicium or bricks, and the loors were arranged with cocciopesto or mosaics or opus spicatum (Room L), 217 not preserved. Two streets orthogonally intersected and some rooms that overlooked the streets, belonging to the coeval Roman town, have been identiied to the north and the east of the baths. Fig. 47 View of the thermal building during Phase II, from the north (Luoghi della Tutela 2007) Fig. 46 View of the thermal building during Phase II, from the south (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) 218 Fig. 48 Map of the structures belonging to Phase II (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento Fig. 49 Phase II: he natatio and Street 1 from the north (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) Fig. 50 Phase II: he natatio and Street 1 from the north (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) Fig. 51 Map of the workshop area (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) 219 he east-west road had cobblestone paving, while the north-south road, descending to the north, was covered by limestone blocks. Materials found during the excavation allowed us to establish that the thermal building was built in the time of Constantine (end of the thirdbeginning of the fourth centuries AD) and then abandoned in the irst half of the ifth century AD. PHASE III During the Byzantine Period (sixth century AD), a workshop installed on the former baths had six kilns, rectangular or ovoid in shape. he kilns were covered by bricks connected by a layer of raw clay that had been cast later on. he same kind of material was used for the cooking hob and the supporting structures. he inding of tile fragments in Kiln 5 seems to indicate that it was used for baking tiles. Probably Kiln 6, similar in shape, also served the same purpose, while the other ones, diferent in shape, were possibly used for Fig. 52 Kiln 5 inside the frigidarium, from the north (Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento) 220 casting vases. In this phase, Rooms F1 and F2 were used for activities linked to pottery production. In the same period, a large Early Christian cemetery was spread around the site. Relevant materials come from this area, such as a clay disc with a worshipper in front of a tomb, a copper ring with the Christian signs “X M Γ ” inscribed, a lamp, and diverse coins. Vito Soldano was inally abandoned in the eighth century AD. 4.4.7 Visitor access and facilities he archaeological area of Vito Soldano is located 6 km west of Canicatti, along Highway 122, which connects Agrigento to Caltanissetta. Signs on the main road indicate the entrance to the archaeological site. Visitors who come by car can use a small parking lot that is also accessible for minibuses. he Visitors’ Center, housed in the recently restored Masseria Lombardo building, hasn’t been opened Fig. 53 Location of the site from the road Fig. 54 Vito Soldano: Location of the site along Highway 122 from Canicattì to Agrigento (Google Earth 2013). Fig. 56 he information panel (the authors, 2013) Fig. 55View from the access (the authors, 2013) Fig. 57 he pathway to Masseria Lombardo, housing the visitors’ centre and the museum (the authors 2013) 221 yet and is under construction. Toilets are not available at the moment because the work has not yet been completed. archaeology. Oicial statistics about the number of visitors to the site are not yet available. here is an information panel at the archaeological area’s entrance, providing general information about the site; it includes a map and photos of the structures. It is only in Italian, however. Other signs are being prepared and will be installed at the site as soon as possible. 4.4.9 Entrance fee policy and opening hours 4.4.7.1 4.4.10 Information and promotional activities he Museum Masseria Lombardo Antiquarium; Address: Vito Soldano; Municipality: Canicatti; Province: Agrigento. he Antiquarium is still under construction and will be housed in the building of Masseria Lombardo, recently restored by the Superintendence of Agrigento. he small museum will illustrate the history and the features of the human settlements established on the site from the Roman to the Byzantine periods. he main collection contains indings from the archaeological excavations by the Superintendence of Agrigento at the site. Near the art crafts, the exhibition will have information panels with photos. he Masseria Lombardo will also serve as a cultural center, where scientiic conferences, exhibitions and workshops can be held. 4.4.8 Number and types of visitors he main categories are local and regional visitors in general, especially schools with educational programs, archaeology clubs, or visitors with special interests in 222 Visiting hours: he site is open from Monday to Saturday from 9 a.m. until 1p.m., except on holidays; it is closed on Sundays. here is no entry fee. A few brochures, produced by the Superintendence of Agrigento, are available upon request, but there is no promotional literature per se. Scientiic papers on archaeological investigations in Vito Soldano have been published by the University and the Superintendence of Agrigento, while other information on the history of the site has been also promoted by local historians. he main publications are: • R.M. La Lomia, “Ricerche archeologiche nel territorio di Canicattì,” in Kokalos VII, 1961. • E. De Miro, G. Fiorentini, “Attività della Soprintendenza alle Antichità della Siciliacentro-meridionale negli anni 1968-1972,” in Kokalos XVIIIXIX, 1972-1973, pp. 228-247. • R.M. Bonacasa Carra, Agrigento paleocristiana. Zona archeologica e Antiquarium, Palermo 1987. • G. Uggeri, La viabilità della Sicilia in età romana (Journal of Ancient Topography. Supplemento II), Galatina 2004. • M.S. Rizzo, “Vito Soldano,” in V. Caminneci (ed.), I Luoghi della Tutela. Ricerca archeologica e fruizione nel territorio agrigentino, Palermo 2007. • http://www.isspe.it/rassegnasiciliana/231-il-sito-archeologico-di-vitosoldano-a-canicatti-tra-realta-e-leggenda. html • h t t p : / / w w w. s l i d e s h a re . n e t / peppeippolito/pag-06-10-soldano • http://agrigento.blogsicilia. it/apre-le-por te-al-pubblico-vitosoldano-area-archeologica-dellanticaroma/60033/ composed of an archaeology inspector and three guards, employed by the Superintendence of Agrigento, Regione Sicilia. Since 2011 the Archeo Club of Canicatti has participated in the management of the site. Information on activities promoting the ancient site of Vito Soldano have also been recorded on a local level. he Archeo Club of Canicatti, in cooperation with the Superintendence of Agrigento, has been leading guided tours for schools and visitors that promote cultural tourism in Canicatti. Recent excavations, carried out last summer by the Canicatti Archeo Club, have been advertised on YouTube with a video that also contains an interview with Superintendence Oicials: h t t p : / / w w w. y o u t u b e . c o m / watch?v=qb4QZM3HYas. he site is marked on some tourist maps as a minor archaeological area but is not included in the main touristic itineraries of Western Sicily, and it is not easy to learn about it from abroad. 4.4.11 Human resources he archaeological sites are managed by the Superintendence of Agrigento, Regione Sicilia, which is also responsible for conservation, enjoyment and promotion of the site. he staf is 223 5. Industry here is no major industry. A number of small, family-run businesses are currently active: bricks, besoms, crushers, olive oil, and ish canning. he wine industry is very important. 5.1 Rock salt industry An important role in the economy of Agrigento is played by the halite rock salt mines of Realmonte and Racalmuto, which reach 100 metres in depth. Wine industry In the past, there was a sulphur and salt mining industry; this was no longer proitable and the industry has almost disappeared. In the early 1990s, the viticulture of Canicattì changed, open to new challenges and integrating the production of grapes with other cultivations of more recent origin. here are now many diferent types of table grapes: white (Conegliano, Matilda, Down Seedless, Diamond), black (Pasiga, Perlon, Red Globe) and must (Nero d’Avola, Chardonnay), which favour the production of ine wines. he wine industry of Canicattì has a certain tradition, as attested to in John Guastella’s essay, “Viticulture in Canicattì“ written in 1916. In a very signiicant step, Guastella writes: “Pressing, racking, decanting and other cellar operations, in general, are done with antiquated systems, but there is a cellar where, under the direction of those techniques, it exerts a rational wine industry”. As this passage shows, the wine industry has long been rooted in the territory, but has only recently been further expanded, resulting in levels of excellence in some cases. 224 5.2 Realmonte overlooks the southern coast of Sicily, about four kilometres from Agrigento. he deposit that is located 2.5 kilometres from the town of Realmonte is managed by the “Italkali” company. It consists of a wide strip of salty land that developed from Porto Empedocle to Siculiana. In the Realmonte seam there are estimated reserves of 70,000,000 tons of rock salt and signiicant quantities of potash. he mine is capable of producing 500,000 tons of salt per year for industrial use and as antifreeze. he deposit of Racalmuto is located between the Provinces of Agrigento and Caltanissetta. he mine is accessible through tunnels and ramps and is 100 feet deep. It produces rock salt food for direct consumption, for zootechnics, and also industrial salt mainly for tanning. 5.3 Fishing Licata’s economy is based on its good resources, as well as on agriculture, and from the ishing of its large and modern leet that employs approximately 2,000 people. he ish commonly caught include mullet, sole, cod, squid, various species of shrimp, lounder, sea bass, sea bream, octopus and plenty of oily ish (mackerel, sardines, anchovies). More than 130 tons of especially valuable ish are routed daily from this modern ish market to the various markets of central and northern Italy. Recently some sea bass and sea bream aquaculture breeding and production systems have been created to supply the major food chains. 5.4 Crafts and ceramics production Crafts– woodworking, wrought iron, embroidery, the production of ishing nets, construction of carts, the packaging of sweets, the production of nougat and ceramic production – are among the most important artisanal handicraft. Among the other typical craft products of the Province of Agrigento are the objects carved in cork, a material that boasts an ancient tradition in this area. Another local tradition is the production of the “ciaramedde,” a local type of bag pipe that now only a very few craftsmen are able to produce. crafts irms, mainly in sectors such as those of wrought iron, leather and aluminium. he craftsmanship is done in diferent ways in diferent areas; one of the most renowned crafts is that of the ceramics in Sciacca, a city that boasts one of the most important ceramic productions in Italy. he traditions of the ceramics date back to the beginning of 300 AD – if not before –as shown by the numerous ancient furnaces that have recently been discovered. he art of ceramics is not limited to the production of plates, vases, amphorae, statues, tiles and artistic objects that so beautifully adorn the numerous shops in the historic centre of the town; examples can also be found in the façades of civic monuments, which since the sixteenth century have been decorated with ornate tiles and coloured mosaics. Over subsequent centuries, local crafts came to dominate the markets of Western Sicily and were also exported all over the Mediterranean. he crafts workshops that for centuries distinguished the territory of Agrigento were transformed over time into small 225 6. Accomodation, Catering and Restaurant he territory of Licata and Canicattì, and in general the portion of land between Agrigento and the two archaeological sites, Vito Soldano and Finziade, ofers the possibility of staying in a bed-and-breakfast, hotels, and other similar facilities, ofering a wide range of solutions, from spa-luxury housing solutions to more modest ones. Licata and Canicattì ofer excellent restaurants to satisfy the most discerning palates. Below is a list of some of the hotels and restaurants in Canicattì and Licata. Hotels in Canicattì • Hotel Belvedere in Canicattì, via Resistenza, 20, Canicatti • Hotel Corte dei Monaci, C.da Cannarozzo, Canicattì Restaurants in Canicattì • Ristorante Pizzeria Papillon, Via La Carrubba, 20, Canicattì • Ristorante Zaliclò, Via della Vittoria, 170, Canicattì • Ristorante Moulin Rouge, Via della Vittoria, 168, Canicattì A beautiful hotel in the Canicattì area is the Hotel Falconara Charming House & Resort Strada, Statale, 115, Km 243, 93011 Butera (CL) 226 Hotels in Licata • Hotel Santangelo, Cannavecchia, Licata C. da Along the shoreline of Licata, we have: • Serenusa Village, SS 115, Km 240, Licata Restaurants in Licata • Ristorante La Madia, Corso Filippo Re Capriata, 22, Licata • Ristorante Villa Giuliana, Via Oreto Grata snc I, Licata Hotel in Agrigento and surroundings Near Agrigento there are several hotels and prestigious restaurants; among them are: • Hotel Villa Athena –an oasis of luxury in the heart of the Valley of the Temples Close to the beach in Agrigento are several hotels, including: • Hotel Baia di Ulisse Wellness & Spa, Via Alessandra Giuliana Alaimo, 2, San Leone, Agrigento • Dioscury Bay Palace Hotel 7. Notes 1. Sovraintendenza ai beni culturali ed ambientali is a regional board of the ministry of cultural heritage and environmental conservation. 2. “Presìdi Slow Food” is a project aimed at the protection of biodiversity, territories and knowledge of traditional productions. hese values are expressed by encouraging producers to adopt clean, sustainable production practices and develop an ethical (fair) approach to the market. It is also a brand registered by Slow Food Italy that created a graphic logo and a set of regulations: only producers who have signed the production rules are authorized to use the new logo. 3. he “Ark of Taste” project is aimed at collecting in the whole wide world smallscale quality productions that belong to the cultures, history and traditions of the entire planet. It was created to point out the existence of these products, draw attention to the risk of their extinction within a few generations, and invite everyone to take action to help protect them. In some cases this might be by buying and consuming them, in some by telling their story and supporting their producers, and in others, such as the case of endangered wild species, this might mean eating less or none of them in order to preserve them and favor their reproduction. to speciic rules designed to preserve the traditional wine-making practices of the individual regions. 5. Gerarca (plural: gerarchi; Italian for “member of a hierarchy”) was a term used during the Fascist rule in Italy to refer to a member of the National Fascist Party (PNF). 6. he IGP, Protected Geographical Indication, identiies a product originating from a speciic region whose quality, reputation, recipe and characteristics can be traced backt o its geographical origin, and of which at least one production and/or processing phase must take place in the designated zone of production. his European Community recognition represents a guarantee for consumers. he IGP branding represents a safeguard for the producers themselves with respect to possible imitations and unfair competition. 7. he three phases are described in par. 4.12. In the settlement in Vito Soldano it is possible to distinguish at least three diferent building phases that document life continuity from the irst century BC until the eighth century AD. We know of remains of a private bath (Phase I), the main thermal building lined by two perpendicular streets (Phase II), and the workshop and the Christian cemetery (Phase III). 4. DOC (Vino a Denominazione di Origine Controllata) are wines produced in speciic well-deined regions, according 227 8. Selected References • Agrigento, a cura della Camera di Commercio di Agrigento, De Agostini libri s.p.a, Novara 2012. • Report sull’andamento dell’economia provinciale, a Cura della Camera di Commercio di Palermo, Agrigento 26 Maggio 2012. • http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canicatt%C3%AC • http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licata • Archive of the Superintendence of Agrigento: permission of the Soprintendenza BB.CC.AA Agrigento. Copyright of the Soprintendenza BB.CC.AA Agrigento. • V. Caminneci (ed.), I Luoghi della Tutela. Ricerca archeologica e fruizione nel territorio agrigentino, Palermo 2007. • S. Rizzo et alii, Il villaggio di Colmitella, Racalmuto AG: primi dati dallo scavo archeologico di un insediamento rurale di età altomedievale e medievale, VI Convegno di Archeologia Medievale, Firenze 2012. • G.F. La Torre, Finziade. L’ultima fondazione greca di Sicilia. Guida agli scavi di Monte Sant’Angelo di Licata, Area Soprintendenza Beni Culturali ed Ambientali, Servizio per i Beni Archeologici, Agrigento: • http://www.regione.sicilia.it/beniculturali/dirbenicult/info/pubblicazioni/FinziadeME/ Finziade.html • G.F. La Torre, I sistemi di decorazione parietale nella Sicilia ellenistica: il caso di Finziade, in Bollettino di Archeologia on line, Roma 2010: • http://151.12.58.75/archeologia/bao_document/articoli/2_LA_TORRE.pdf • http://www.regione.sicilia.it/beniculturali/dirbenicult/database/page_musei/pagina_ musei.asp?IdProvincia=1 • http://www.parcodeitempli.net/ • http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/831 • http://eng.fondoambiente.it/beni/giardino-della-kolymbetra-fai-properties.asp • http://www.touringclub.com/mappa_interattiva.aspx?_url=agrigento&_ctype=2 • http://www.icastelli.it/castles_list-1-agrigento-it.php • http://www.parcopirandello.it/index.html • http://www.parcotomasi.it/it/index.asp • http://www.sagradelmandorlo.net/index.html • http://www.provincia.agrigento.it/lex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/3626 • http://www.consorziodeitempli.ag.it/siti-archeologici-di-licata.html • http://www.inziade.it/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id =34&Itemid=2 • http://www.isspe.it/rassegna-siciliana/231-il-sito-archeologico-di-vito-soldano-a-canicattitra-realta-e-leggenda.html • http://www.slideshare.net/peppeippolito/pag-06-10-soldano 228 • http://agrigento.blogsicilia.it/apre-le-porte-al-pubblico-vito-soldano-area-archeologicadell’ antica-Roma/60033/ • http://www.comune.canicatti.ag.it/lex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/193 • http://www.comune.licata.ag.it/ContentPageth.aspx?id=22&m=16 • http://www.comune.agrigento.it/ • http://www.comune.cattolicaeraclea.ag.it/public/index.asp • http://www.comune.favara.ag.it/ • http://www.comune.naro.ag.it/ • http://www.comune.palmadimontechiaro.ag.it/lex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/ IDPagina/230 • http://www.comune.ravanusa.ag.it/ • http://www.santangelomuxaro.gov.it/joomla/ 229 9. Appendix Field analysis of local stakeholders of areas of the archaeological sites of Licata-Phintias and Vito SoldanoCanicatti’ Objectives Socio-economic actors of the province of Agrigento, such as hotels, restaurants, tour operators, as well as associations and local institutions have a vested interest or involvement in the projects being explored, and they represent those who will beneit from the archaeological sites’ valorisation. hese subjects have received questionnaires composed of close-ended and open-ended questions, expressing the most important of the project’s issues, and aimed at discovering crucial locations and potentialities of the sites, and their potential beneit from the projects as well as suggestions for content useful for the best archaeological site preservation. he information gathered will allow the interactive network to be completed; it will include the best practices and possible obstacles to the valorisation of the local artistic and cultural heritage as well as economic-related activities of the territories. he involvement process of the above-mentioned stakeholders is 230 creating conditions in order to promote the project’s sustainability in the long run, since stakeholders represent those who are going to manage the Web platform. Moreover, the process of creating a feasible dialogue and cooperation with stakeholders on the valorisation and preservation of local archaeological sites is a step forward inthe project’s success. RESULTS OF THE FIELD ANALYSIS • • Questionnaires handed out stakeholders: 27 Questionnaires illed out stakeholders: 13 S T A K E H O L D E R S CONTACTED WHO FILLED OUT QUESTIONNAIRES Hotel, B&B Tour Operators Cultural Associations Tourism Consortium Archaeology Club to by 8 2 1 1 1 CLOSE-ENDED QUESTIONS INFORMATION ON THE SITE Yes 11 Have you ever heard about the archaeological site? No 1 If yes, how did Local television and Tourist guide Family and O t h e r you know of the newspapers books and relatives sources existence of the site? magazines 3 5 4 2 Have you ever been interested in visiting the archaeological sitesinyour Yes city? 9 No 2 Yes 6 No 5 Are you really interested in accumulating information and knowledge Yes aboutthe archaeological sitesinyour city? 10 No Have you been tothe archaeological site in the past? Are you interested in taking part in the project’s implementation? Yes 10 If yes, do you want to be involved or merely Tobe need to be informed about the project and its involved process? 7 No To be informed about the project and its process 2 231 Do you think that the Archeomed Projects might represent a factor afecting the economic development of the local area? Have you got some interest that might conlict with project goals? OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS: RESULTS SITE OF LICATA PHINTIAS LEVELS OF SUPPORT FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE PROJECT he valorisation of the site will contribute to tourism development in the area and will allow for the increasing inlux of tourists as well as economic advantages for local communities. he project is designed to improve tourism inlow and sell community-based local food products, but there is a need to create a network of minor/neglected sites; otherwise, all will be for naught. he network will promote activities such as organising annual events, giving discounts on entrance fees to the archaeological sites, drawing up agreements with schools, hotel and tourism facilities, establishing on-site participation of tourists and visitors by allowing them to interact with new archaeological indings. Cooperation among local hotels, tourist facilities, cultural associations and archaeological sites is a tool to realize a communitybased development that recognises in the archaeological site a resource to be preserved, conserved and well managed. 232 Yes 9 No Yes 1 No 9 To involve the local stakeholders in the diferent phases of the project activity will guarantee the sustainability of the intervention when project activities will inish. More involvement of local cultural associations is needed, since they hold documents and materials that might be combined with Archeomed Projects. INTENDED USE OF THE PROJECT RESULTS Marketing activities will reinforce the cultural product. BENEFITS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR PARTICIPATIONIN THE PROJECT hese include • More options for hotel clients, wide valorisations of the territories, and more visibility of the areas, as well as tourist facilities. Such beneits might spark tourism inlows, once the project is supported by appropriatemarketing and cultural heritage preservation. • More visibility for the site and a more eicient and efective management of an archaeology site since it has been completely abandoned. • Increased local, social and economic development. Valorisation of archaeological sites to be used for future economic beneit. he tourism port of Licata represents a valid instrument of visibility. More accessibility services at the site. • he closeness of major archaeological sites along with the magniicence of the archaeological heritage of the area, if suitably valorised, might surely increase tourism inlows. he above beneits can lead to long term tourism inlows to the area, as long as they will face the issues using the methodologies and approaches of tourism specialists and experts. Because of the increased visibility and attractivity of the sites, it will be necessary to create new infrastructures, deliver new services and widen the cultural oferings of the surrounding area also through the rediscovery of local traditions; all this will mean increased employment opportunities for local citizens. PERCEIVED EXPECTATIONS AND GOALS IN RELATION TO THE PROJECT he goals and expectations of local stakeholders do not conlict with the project’s goals, since development of the territory and its oferings may propel a tourism inlux and create a network of relationships with local companies, both public and private. But the project resources are not enough to achieve the goal of the tourism valorisation and it is necessary to involve other subjects – for example, making agreements with local municipalities and other groups interested in the development of tourism. he valorisation of an archaeological site with the Archeomed Project will represent outstanding tourism magnets for the local community in the future. POTENTIAL NEGATIVE IMPACT ON THE PROJECT here will be no potential negative impact on the project on the condition that a community- based tourism strategy is chosen. Moreover, local policies should be aimed at preventing the abandonment of the site at the end of the project and, therefore, creating a common awareness in the local social context with a view to protecting such cultural heritages. THE WAY FORWARD New emerging issues related to site protection and access that need to be addressed at the national, regional levels Visiting times and organized events at the site should be properly managed in order to enable suitable tourism inlows, as well as efective and eicient maintenance and cleaning services. Promoting the archaeological sites and organized events, through advertising and additional information can really be helpful to the project’s staf. he local mentality, which has to be more touristand visitor-oriented, has to be changed; this means that local services have to work properly, mainly in the cleaning of the site. More cooperation between local institutions and cultural associations is needed. he activation of synergies and more resources in the direction of decorum at archaeological sites and related touristic itineraries have to be 233 addressed. he Phintia site lacks a suitable perimeter fence, wooden walkways, and site itinerary,and the existing information signs are damaged. he itineraries of underground sites belonging to the local municipality are not open to the public. Many more small, buried, rocky churches and Christian catacombs need to be found. Conditions for deseasonalized tourism must be created. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS: RESULTS SITE OF VITO SOLDANO CANICATTI’ INTENDED USE OF THE PROJECT’S RESULTS he Vito Soldano site has until now been known mostly by archaeologic sector specialists. At the end of the project, the area will have major visibility for all people. Improvement of the usability of the site will also give new strength to the local identity composed of the culture, traditions and economic activities that are linked to the region. he implementation of an interactive environment makes the local competition more attractive for residents, as well as actual and potential tourists and other interested people. It will be an opportunity for new studies, increasing incomes and bettering 234 the standards of life while maintaining the preservation of the local archeo-site. BENEFITS OF AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR BEING PART OFTHE PROJECT hese will include stimulating a sense of belonging to the regionby respecting the archaeological site as well the cultural heritage, re-launching the economy in order to generate income, and creating jobs that employ new experts as well as helping the city of Canicattì to develop into an artistically legitimate city that is strategically located between Agrigento and Caltanissetta.