Chrysanthemums, often called mums or chrysanths, are perennial flowering plants of the genus Chrysanthemum in the family Asteraceae which are native to Asia and northeastern Europe. About 30 species have been described. Florists sometimes abbreviate the spelling to “xants”.

Etymology

The name “chrysanthemum” is derived from the Greek words, chrysos (gold) and anthemon (flower).^[1]

Taxonomy

The genus once included more species, but was split several decades ago into several genera, putting the economically important florist’s chrysanthemum in the genus Dendranthema. The naming of the genera has been contentious, but a ruling of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature in 1999 changed the defining species of the genus to Chrysanthemum indicum, restoring the florist’s chrysanthemum to the genusChrysanthemum.

The other species previously included in the narrow view of the genus Chrysanthemum are now transferred to the genus Glebionis. The other genera separate from Chrysanthemum include Argyranthemum, Leucanthemopsis, Leucanthemum, Rhodanthemum, and Tanacetum.

Chrysanthemum species are herbaceous perennial plants growing to 50–150 cm tall, with deeply lobed leaves with large flower heads that are generally white, yellow or pink in the wild. They are the preferred diet of larvae of certain lepidopterans.

History

Chrysanthemums were first cultivated in China as a flowering herb as far back as the 15th century BC.^[2]The plant is renowned as one of the Four Gentlemen in Chinese and East Asian art. The plant is particularly significant during the Double Ninth Festival. The flower may have been brought to Japan in the eighth century AD^{[citation needed]}, and the Emperor adopted the flower as his official seal. The “Festival of Happiness” in Japan celebrates the flower.

The flower was brought to Europe in the 17th century^{[citation needed]}. Linnaeus named it from the Greekword χρυσός chrysous, “golden” (the colour of the original flowers), and ἄνθεμον -anthemon, meaning flower.

Economic uses

[edit]Ornamental uses

Modern cultivated chrysanthemums are much more showy than their wild relatives. The flowers occur in various forms, and can be daisy-like, decorative, pompons or buttons. This genus contains manyhybrids and thousands of cultivars developed for horticultural purposes. In addition to the traditional yellow, other color are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid isChrysanthemum × morifolium (syn. C. × grandiflorum), derived primarily from C. indicum, but also involving other species.

Over 140 varieties of chrysanthemum have gained the Royal Horticultural Society‘s Award of Garden Merit.

Chrysanthemums are divided into two basic groups, garden hardy and exhibition. Garden hardy mums are new perennials capable of being wintered over in the ground in most northern latitudes. Exhibition varieties are not usually as sturdy. Garden hardies are defined by their ability to produce an abundance of small blooms with little if any mechanical assistance (i.e., staking) and withstanding wind and rain. Exhibition varieties, though, require staking, overwintering in a relatively dry, cool environment, and sometimes the addition of night lights.

The exhibition varieties can be used to create many amazing plant forms, such as large disbudded blooms, spray forms, and many artistically trained forms, such as thousand-bloom, standard (trees), fans, hanging baskets, topiary, bonsai, and cascades.

Chrysanthemum blooms are divided into 13 different bloom forms by the US National Chrysanthemum Society, Inc., which is in keeping with the international classification system. The bloom forms are defined by the way in which the ray and disk florets are arranged.

Chrysanthemum blooms are composed of many individual flowers (florets), each one capable of producing a seed. The disk florets are in the center of the bloom head, and the ray florets are on the perimeter. The ray florets are considered imperfect flowers, as they only possess the female productive organs, while the disk florets are considered perfect flowers, as they possess both male and female reproductive organs.

Irregular incurves are the giants of the chrysanthemum world. Quite often disbudded to create a single giant bloom (ogiku), the disk florets are completely concealed, while the ray florets curve inwardly to conceal the disk and also hang down to create a ‘skirt’. Regular incurves are similar to the irregular incurves, only usually with smaller blooms and nearly perfect globular form. The disk florets are completely concealed. They used to be called ‘Chinese’. Intermediate incurve blooms are between the irregular and regular incurves in both size and form. They usually have broader florets and a more loosely composed bloom. Again, the disk florets are completely concealed.

In the reflex form, the disk florets are concealed and the ray florets reflex outwards to create a mop-like appearance. The decorative form is similar to reflex blooms without the mop-like appearance. The disk florets are completely concealed, and the ray florets usually do not radiate at more than a 90° angle to the stem.

The pompon form of blooms are fully double, of small size, and almost completely globular in form. Single and semidouble blooms have completely exposed disk florets, with between one and seven rows of ray florets, usually radiating at not more than a 90° angle to the stem.

In anemone blooms, the disk florets are prominently featured, quite often raised and overshadowing the ray florets. The spoon form disk florets are visible and the long, tubular ray florets are spatulate. in the quill form, the disk florets are completely concealed, and the ray florets are tube-like.

The disk florets in the spider form are completely concealed, and the ray florets are tube-like with hooked or barbed ends, hanging loosely around the stem. In the brush and thistle variety, the disk florets may be visible. The ray florets are often tube-like, and project all around the flower head, or project parallel to the stem.

Exotic blooms defy classification, as they possess the attributes of more than one of the other 12 bloom types.

Chrysanthemum leaves resemble those of its close cousin, the mugwort weed — so much so, mugwort is sometimes called wild chrysanthemum — making them not always the first choice for professional gardeners.

[edit]Culinary uses

Yellow or white chrysanthemum flowers of the species C. morifolium are boiled to make a sweet drink in some parts of Asia. The resulting beverage is known simply as “chrysanthemum tea” (菊花茶, pinyin: júhuā chá, in Chinese). In Korea, a rice wine flavored with chrysanthemum flowers is called gukhwaju (국화주).

Chrysanthemum leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in Chinese cuisine. Other uses include using the petals of chrysanthemum to mix with a thick snake meat soup (蛇羹) to enhance the aroma.

Small chrysanthemums are used in Japan as a sashimi garnish.

[edit]Insecticidal uses

Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum [or Tanacetum] cinerariaefolium) is economically important as a natural source of insecticide. The flowers are pulverized, and the active components called pyrethrins, contained in the seed cases, are extracted and sold in the form of an oleoresin. This is applied as a suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of allinsects, and inhibit female mosquitoes from biting. When not present in amounts fatal to insects, they still appear to have an insect repellent effect. They are harmful to fish, but are far less toxic to mammals and birds than many synthetic insecticides, except in consumer airborne backyard applications. They are not persistent, being biodegradable and also decompose easily on exposure to light. They are considered to be amongst the safest insecticides for use around food.^{[citation needed]} (Pyrethroids are synthetic insecticides based on natural pyrethrum, e.g.,permethrin.)

[edit]Environmental uses

Chrysanthemum plants have been shown to reduce indoor air pollution by the NASA Clean Air Study.^[3]

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  Dried chrysanthemum flowers

 

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  A red chrysanthemum

 

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  Chrysanthemum coronarium in the Tel Avivbotanical garden

 

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  An irregular incurve chrysanthemum, or 大菊ogiku in Japanese, meaning “big chrysanthemum”: The size of this flower is around 20 cm (about 8 inches).

 

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  Cultivated chrysanthemums can be yellow, white, or even bright red, such as these.

 

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• Chrysanthemum morifolium.JPG

  Chrysanthemum morifolium – an example of spoon-shaped bloom

 

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  Lavender chrysanthemum grown in Ottawa, Canada

  Rose

  A rose is a woody perennial of the genus Rosa, within the family Rosaceae. There are over 100 species. They form a group of erect shrubs, and climbing or trailing plants, with stems that are often armed with sharp prickles. Flowers are large and showy, in colours ranging from white through yellows and reds. Most species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, and northwest Africa. Species, cultivars andhybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and fragrance. Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach 7 meters in height. Different species hybridize easily, and this has been used in the development of the wide range of garden roses.[1] The name rose comes from French, itself from Latin rosa, which was perhaps borrowed from Oscan, from Greek ρόδον rhodon (Aeolic βρόδον wrodon), related to Old Persian wrd-, Avestan varəda, Sogdian ward, Parthian wâr, Armenian vard.[2][3] Botany Cross-section through a developing rose hip Exterior view of rose buds Rose leaflets The leaves are borne alternately on the stem. In most species they are 5 to 15 centimetres (2.0 to 5.9 in) long, pinnate, with (3–) 5–9 (–13) leaflets and basal stipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few small prickles on the underside of the stem. Most roses are deciduous but a few (particularly from South east Asia) are evergreen or nearly so. The hybrid garden rose “Amber Flush” The flowers of most species have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea, which usually has only four. Each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals (or in the case of some Rosa sericea, four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. There are multiple superior ovaries that develop into achenes.[4] Roses are insect-pollinated in nature. The aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip. Many of the domestic cultivars do not produce hips, as the flowers are so tightly petalled that they do not provide access for pollination. The hips of most species are red, but a few (e.g. Rosa pimpinellifolia) have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer fleshy layer, the hypanthium, which contains 5–160 “seeds” (technically dry single-seeded fruits called achenes) embedded in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species, especially the Dog Rose (Rosa canina) and Rugosa Rose (Rosa rugosa), are very rich in vitamin C, among the richest sources of any plant. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings. Some birds, particularly finches, also eat the seeds. Rose thorns are actually prickles – outgrowths of the epidermis. While the sharp objects along a rose stem are commonly called “thorns”, they are technically prickles — outgrowths of the epidermis (the outer layer of tissue of the stem). (True thorns, as produced by e.g. Citrus or Pyracantha, are modified stems, which always originate at a node and which have nodes and internodes along the length of the thorn itself.) Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such as Rosa rugosa and Rosa pimpinellifolia have densely packed straight prickles, probably an adaptation to reduce browsing by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to trap wind-blown sand and so reduce erosion and protect their roots (both of these species grow naturally on coastal sand dunes). Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer. A few species of roses have only vestigial prickles that have no points. Species Further information: List of Rosa species The genus Rosa is subdivided into four subgenera: Hulthemia (formerly Simplicifoliae, meaning “with single leaves”) containing one or two species from southwest Asia, R. persica and Rosa berberifolia which are the only roses without compound leaves or stipules. Hesperrhodos (from the Greek for “western rose”) contains Rosa minutifolia and Rosa stellata, from North America. Platyrhodon (from the Greek for “flaky rose”, referring to flaky bark) with one species from east Asia, Rosa roxburghii. Rosa (the type subgenus) containing all the other roses. This subgenus is subdivided into 11 sections. Banksianae – white and yellow flowered roses from China. Bracteatae – three species, two from China and one from India. Caninae – pink and white flowered species from Asia, Europe and North Africa. Carolinae – white, pink, and bright pink flowered species all from North America. Chinensis – white, pink, yellow, red and mixed-color roses from China and Burma. Gallicanae – pink to crimson and striped flowered roses from western Asia and Europe. Gymnocarpae – one species in western North America (Rosa gymnocarpa), others in east Asia. Laevigatae – a single white flowered species from China Pimpinellifoliae – white, pink, bright yellow, mauve and striped roses from Asia and Europe. Rosa (syn. sect. Cinnamomeae) – white, pink, lilac, mulberry and red roses from everywhere but North Africa. Synstylae – white, pink, and crimson flowered roses from all areas. Rose-picking in the Rose Valley near the town of Kazanlak, 1870s, engraving by F. Kanitz Uses Roses are best known as ornamental plants grown for their flowers in the garden and sometimes indoors. They have been also used for commercial perfumery and commercial cut flower crops. Some are used as landscape plants, for hedging and for other utilitarian purposes such as game cover and slope stabilization. They also have minor medicinal uses. Ornamental plants Main article: Garden roses The majority of ornamental roses are hybrids that were bred for their flowers. A few, mostly species roses are grown for attractive or scented foliage (such asRosa glauca and Rosa rubiginosa), ornamental thorns (such as Rosa sericea) or for their showy fruit (such as Rosa moyesii). Hybrid Tea cultivar ‘Mrs. Herbert Stevens’ Ornamental roses have been cultivated for millennia, with the earliest known cultivation known to date from at least 500 BC in Mediterranean countries, Persia, and China.[5] Many thousands of rose hybrids and cultivars have been bred and selected for garden use as flowering plants. Most are double-flowered with many or all of the stamens having mutated into additional petals. In the early 19th century the Empress Josephine of France patronized the development of rose breeding at her gardens at Malmaison. As long ago as 1840 a collection numbering over one thousand different cultivars, varieties and species was possible when a rosarium was planted by Loddiges nursery for Abney Park Cemetery, an early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in England. A few species and hybrids are grown for non-floral ornamental use. Among these are those grown for prominent hips, such as the flagon shaped hips of Rosa moyesii. Sometimes even the thorns can be treated as an attraction or curiosity, such as with Rosa sericea.Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is an annual plant native to the Americas. It possesses a large inflorescence (flowering head). The sunflower is named after its huge, fiery blooms, whose shape and image are often used to depict the sun. It has a rough, hairy stem, broad, coarsely toothed, rough leaves and circular heads of flowers. The heads consist of many individual flowers which mature into seeds, often in the hundreds, on a receptacle base. From the Americas, sunflower seeds were brought to Europe in the 16th century, where, along with sunflower oil, they became a widespread cooking ingredient. Leaves of the sunflower can be used as cattle feed, while the stems contain a fibre which may be used in paperproduction. Description Head displaying florets in spirals of 34 and 55 around the outside What is usually called the “flower” on a mature sunflower is actually a “flower head” (also known as a “composite flower”) of numerous florets (small flowers) crowded together. The outer petal-bearing florets are the sterile florets and can be yellow, red, orange, or other colors. The florets inside the circular head are called disc florets, which mature into seeds. The flower petals within the sunflower’s cluster are usually in a a spiral pattern. Generally, each floret is oriented toward the next by approximately the golden angle, 137.5°, producing a pattern of interconnecting spirals, where the number of left spirals and the number of right spirals are successiveFibonacci numbers. Typically, there are 34 spirals in one direction and 55 in the other; on a very large sunflower there could be 89 in one direction and 144 in the other.[1][2][3] This pattern produces the most efficient packing of seeds within the flower head.[4][5][6] Sunflowers commonly grow to heights between 1.5 and 3.5 m (5–12 ft). The tallest sunflower confirmed by Guinness World Records is 8.0 m (2009, Germany); surpassing the previous record of 7.8 m (1986, Netherlands). In 16th century Europe the record was 7.3 m (24 ft, Spain).[7] Most cultivars are variants of H. annuus, but four other species (all perennials) are also domesticated. This includes H. tuberosus, the Jerusalem Artichoke, which produces edible tubers. [edit]Heliotropism misconception Flowerheads facing East, away from the Sun. Late afternoon, Sun is in the West. A common misconception is that sunflower heads track the Sun across the sky.[8] This old and chronic misconception was debunked already in 1597 by the English botanist John Gerard, who grew sunflowers in his famous herbal garden: “[some] have reported it to turn with the Sun, the which I could never observe, although I have endeavored to find out the truth of it.”[7] The uniform alignment of sunflower heads in a field might give some people the false impression that they are tracking the sun, but the heads are actually pointing in a fixed direction (East) all day long. However, the uniform alignment does result from heliotropism in an earlier development stage, the bud stage, before the appearance of flower heads (anthesis)[9]. The budsare heliotropic until the end of the bud stage, and finally face East. That is why blooming (and faded) flowers of the sunflower are living compasses (however not too exact): West is behind, North to the left, and South to the right. This is true for open space only [10]. Their heliotropic motion is a circadian rhythm, synchronized by the sun, which continues if the sun disappears on cloudy days. If a sunflower plant in the bud stage is rotated 180°, the bud will be turning away from the sun for a few days, as resynchronization by the sun takes time [11]. The heliotropic motion of the bud is performed by the pulvinus, a flexible segment just below the bud, due to reversible changes in turgor pressure (no growth). History The evidence thus far is that the sunflower was first domesticated in what is now the southeastern US, roughly 5000 years ago.,[12] and possibly introduced into Mexico at an early date, as other crops such as maize were exchanged. The earliest known examples of a fully domesticated sunflower have been found in Tennessee, and date to around 2300 BC[citation needed]. Many indigenous American peoples used the sunflower as the symbol of their solar deity, including the Aztecs and the Otomi of Mexico and the Incas in South America. In 1510 early Spanish explorers encountered the sunflower in the Americas and carried its seeds back to Europe.[13] Of the four plants known to have been domesticated in what is now the continental United States [14] to have become an important agricultural commodity, sunflower is currently the most economically important. During the 18th century, the use of sunflower oil became very popular in Russia, particularly with members of the Russian Orthodox Church, because sunflower oil was one of the few oils that was allowed during Lent, according to some fasting traditions. [edit]Cultivation and uses This section includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help toimprove this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2009) [show]Left frame  [hide]Right frame  [show]Parallel view () [show]Cross-eye view () Raw sunflower seeds, intended for planting. Worldwide sunflower output To grow best, sunflowers need full sun. They grow best in fertile, moist, well-drained soil with heavy mulch. In commercial planting, seeds are planted 45 cm (1.5 ft) apart and 2.5 cm (1 in) deep. Sunflower “whole seed” (fruit) are sold as a snack food, raw or after roasting in ovens, with or without salt and/or seasonings added. Sunflowers can be processed into a peanut butter alternative, sunflower butter. In Germany, it is mixed with rye flour to make Sonnenblumenkernbrot (literally: sunflower whole seed bread), which is quite popular in German-speaking Europe. It is also sold as food for birds and can be used directly in cooking and salads. American Indians had multiple uses for sunflowers in the past, such as in bread, medical ointments, dyes and body paints.[citation needed] Sunflower oil, extracted from the seeds, is used for cooking, as a carrier oil and to produce margarine and biodiesel, as it is cheaper than olive oil. A range of sunflower varieties exist with differing fatty acid compositions; some ‘high oleic’ types contain a higher level of monounsaturated fats in their oil than even olive oil. Detail of disk florets The cake remaining after the seeds have been processed for oil is used as a livestock feed. Some recently developed cultivars have drooping heads. These cultivars are less attractive to gardeners growing the flowers as ornamental plants, but appeal to farmers, because they reduce bird damage and losses from some plant diseases. Sunflowers also produce latex, and are the subject of experiments to improve their suitability as an alternative crop for producing hypoallergenic rubber. Traditionally, several Native American groups planted sunflowers on the north edges of their gardens as a “fourth sister” to the better known three sisters combination of corn, beans, andsquash[15]. Annual species are often planted for their allelopathic properties [16]. Results showed that higher water uptake and hull rate was obtained from large seeds. Small seeds germinated and grew more rapidly compared to large seeds of the same cultivars under NaCl stress. NaCl caused lower root and shoot length but higher mean germination time and dry matter. Therefore, viability after accelerated ageing was lower in small seeds than large seeds. Emergence percentage did not change by seed size, but cotyledon length was shorter in small seeds. It was concluded that although large seeds produced vigorous germination and seedling growth yet small seeds could also be used for successful sunflower production in salt affected areas. However, for commercial farmers growing commodity crops, the sunflower, like any other unwanted plant, is often considered a weed. Especially in the midwestern US, wild (perennial) species are often found in corn and soybean fields and can have a negative impact on yields. Sunflowers can be used in phytoremediation to extract toxic ingredients from soil, such as lead, arsenic and uranium. They were used to remove caesium-137 and strontium-90 from a nearby pond after the Chernobyl disaster,[17] and a similar campaign was mounted in response to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.[18][19]